THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty* 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860.
NINTH twenty-five , 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 193-
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, IpJO 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANN1CA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION '
VOLUME XVII
LORD CHAMBERLAIN to MECKLENBURG
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1911
E-3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUNTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S.
Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J M ac i, ere i t; n j, ar ,)
Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia salientia,
and Fishes in the British Museum; &c.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. I" Marlowe, Christopher;
See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. I. Mary, Queen of Scots.
A. E. J. ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. f
Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Senior -i. Maxima; Minima.
Mathematical Scholar, 1892. [
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc.
Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, < Macalpine, John.
Oxford. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII. ; &c. . (.
A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.Hisx.S.
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. ) (;. f *
Author of The Cradle of New France ; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to |
the Constitutional History of Canada.
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK. f Manichaeism (in part);
See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \ Marc ion.
A. H. F. REV. ANDREW HOLLINGSWORTH FROST, M.A. f Ma(rip <;..,,
Principal of Church Missionary College. Islington, 1870-1874. \ m
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D., LITT.D. f. . ...
See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. / Mazandaran.
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. I
A. J. G.* ARTHUR TAMES GRANT, M.A. f Louis XIII., XIV. and XV. of
King s College, Cambridge. Professor of History in the University of Leeds. \ France.
A. J. H. ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903).
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, ^ute (in part)'
London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885 ;<
of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of ^J <-*** P an >-
Musical Instruments; &c.
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Maskelyne;
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Mayer, Johann Tobias.
A. M. Cl. AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). f
Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources < Magistrate.
of Roman History, 133-79 B.C. I
A. M. F. REV. ANDREW MARTIN FAIRBAIRN, M.A., D.D., LL.D. f M art j npall j ames
See the biographical article: FAIRBAIRN, A. M. \ m au> J
(Lory; Love-Bird;
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Lyre-Bird; Macaw; Magpie;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. i Mallemuck; Manakin;
; Man u code; Martin.
A. N. W. ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Fellow and Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author \ Mathematics,
of A Treatise on Universal Algebra.
A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S.
Colonel R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical Map: Projections (in part).
Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
1986
VI
A. R. L.*
A. SI.
A. Sy.
A. Wa.
A. W. H.*
A. W. Hu.
A. W. M.
A. W. R.
B.W.
C. A. M. P.
C. B. P.
C. Ch.
C.F.A.
C. F. CL
C. G. Cr.
C. H. Ha.
C. L. K.
C. M.
C.P1.
C. R. B.
D. B. Ma.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ARTHUR ROBERT LING, F.I.C. f
Editor of the Journal of the Institute of Brewing. Lecturer on Brewing and Malting J i
at the Sir John Cass Institute, London. Vice-President of the Society of Chemical ]
Industry. L
ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. r Ma j aria /
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- \ M
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. L -Massage.
ARTHUR SYMONS.
See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR.
ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.
Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly Literary
Adviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the*
Wheel; Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's
Lives of the Poets.
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900.
Mallarme, Stephane.
Lytton, 1st Baron.
Louis L, II., III. and IV.:
Roman Emperors;
Louis the German;
Louis II. and III. of France;
Louis the Child;
Magna Carta;
Maximilian L:
. _Roman Emperor.
Manning, Cardinal.
[ Man, Isle of.
Maxims, Legal.
REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A.
Rector of Bow Church, London. Formerly Librarian of the National Liberal Club.
Author of Life of Cardinal Manning ; &c.
ARTHUR WILLIAM MOORE, C.V.O., M.A. (1853-1909).
Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly Speaker of the House of Keys, and J.P. for
the Isle of Man. Author of A History of the Isle of Man; &c.
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws
of England.
BENJAMIN WILLIAMSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Natural Philosophy, and Vice-Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
Author of Differential Calculus; &c.
CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., Lnr.D.
Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's Odes and Frag-
ments, and of the Stanford Dictionary of Anglicized Words and Phrases.
CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. Alison Phillips).
Associate of Bedford College, London.
CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
President of Physical Society of London. Watt Medallist, Institute of Civil En-
gineers, 1905.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
CHARLES FREDERICK CLOSE, C.M.G.
Lieutenant-Colonel, R.E. Head of the Geographical Section, British General Staff.
Formerly British Representative on the Nyasa-Tanganyika Boundary Commission.
Author of Text-Book of Topographical Surveying ; &c. L
CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of < Manor: in England.
Landor's Works; &c.
i Maclaurin, Colin.
Magic Square (in part).
| Louis XVIII. of France;
\ Marie Antoinette.
J. Magnetism, Terrestrial.
J Machine-Gun.
Map: Projections (in part).
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., Pn.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member
of the American Historical Association.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.
I Matilda, Countess of Tuscany;
[ Lucius.
Lovell, Viscount;
Margaret of Anjou.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. r , _ .. ,.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik J ^y " 5 ' ^ ou
im Zeitalter Gregor VII.; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; &c. [ Marburg, Colloquy of.
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. is L. r
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Mayor of the Palace.
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. C
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Magellan; __
of Merton College, Oxford. University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1 Marignolli (in part).
Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L
DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. f iwahommedan Institutions-
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of I
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Religious } Manommeaan
Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I Malik Ibn Anas.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. Mn.
D. ML W.
D. S. M.*
E. A. J.
E. Bn.
E. C. B.
E. G.
E. Gr.
E. G. R.
E. H. M.
E. L. W.
E. M. T.
E. 0.*
E. Pr.
E. R. B.
E. Tn.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto,
Goldberg Variations and analyses of many other classical works.
The
\ Madrigal (in music);
[ Mass (in music).
Keeper of Magnesia; Malatia;
i888;Naucratis, 1899 1 Mamsa; Marash;
' '
Marryat, Frederick;
Mast; Mathews, Thomas.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy.
the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Nat
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at | Maronites.
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive -j Mackennal, Alexander.
Congregational Ideals', &c. \_
SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International I Lorls-Melikov.
and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of New Volumes |
(loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the
Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c.
DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.Lrrr. f
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic I .
Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Cairo, Jerusalem |
and Damascus.
Mahomet.
ALFRED JONES.
Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue !, Mace.
of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal
Plate at Windsor Castle; &c.
Author of Zur Theorie und Geschichte -j Marx.
EDUARD BERNSTEIN.
Member of the German Reichstag, 1902-1906.
des Socialismus; &c.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). f Mabillon; Maurists;
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of the Lausiac History of Palladius, { Mechitharists.
in " Cambridge TCXLS and Studies."
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
f Loti, Pierre; Lyrical Poetry;
I Macaronics;
1 Madrigal (in verse);
( Maeterlinck.
f Mantineia (in part) ;
1 Marathon (in part).
Map (in part).
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
ERNEST GEORGE RAVENSTEIN, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of Geography at Bedford College, London, 1882-1883. Formerly in
Topographical (now Intelligence) Department of the War Office. Author of The '
Russians on the Amur; A Systematic Atlas; &c. (^
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian -j Massagetae.
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
SIR EDWARD LEADER WILLIAMS (1828-1910).
Formerly Vice-President, Institute of Civil Engineers. Consulting Engineer, _. . _. . _
Manchester Ship Canal. Chief Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal during its ~] Manchester Ship Canal.
construction. Author of papers printed in Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers. [
SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lirr.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 18981909. Sandars Reader in
Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hbn. Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of
Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of
Chronicon Angliae.
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late .
Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham.
Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador, J Macido;
Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy ] Manuel de Mello
of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of Portuguese
Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c.
EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f Macedonian Empire;
Formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. Author of House of Seleucus; Jerusalem ! Lvsimachus
under the High Priests. {_
REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907). f
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in\ Loyola.
England.
Manuscript.
Lung; Lupus;
Mammary Gland: Diseases.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
E. W. B. N. EDWARD WILLIAMS BYRON NICHOLSON, M.A.
Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Principal Librarian and Superintendent -j Mandeville, Sir John,
of the London Institution, 1873-1882. Author of Keltic Researches.
F. A. P. FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D. J~ Lucian
See the biographical article: PALEY, F. A.
F. C. C. FREDERIC CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, i Manichaelsm (in part).
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. | Lothian
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. L
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP. INST.
Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Lymphatic System (in part) ;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Mammary Gland: Anatomy.
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D.
Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Fellow of Brasenose T .
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the German Imperial J Lugudunum;
Archaeological Institute. Formerly Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian 1 Mancunium.
of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, &c. I
F. J. S. FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. / T v j_ at(1
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. \**^
F. K. FERNAND KHNOPFF. J" M at i ou
See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, FERNAND E. J. M.
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. f
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Luxor;
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 Manetho.
German Archaeological Institute.
F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. f =
See the article: POLLOCK (family). \ Mame > Sir
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f .._.,._
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ ra
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Magnetite*
Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -s M
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lirr. (Dublin).
Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, yo
1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal { Marathi.
Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Lan-
guages of India ; &c.
G. Br. REV. GEORGE BRYCE, M.A., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).
President of the Royal Society of Canada. Head of Faculty of Science and Lecturer | Manitnhi (in
in Biology and Geology in Manitoba Univers^ rSm-inr.^ A,,thr ^f Mniinhn ~\ "
A Short History of the Canadian People ; &c.
G. B. S. GEORGE BARNETT SMITH.
in Biology and Geology in Manitoba University, 1891-1904. Author of Manitoba; 1
Author of William I. and the German Empire; Life of Queen Victoria ; &c. { Maemahon.
G- C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and I M/.rnllonli Ci
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at 1 C ' a
the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne.
G. G.* GEORGE GLADDEN. f
Associate Editor of Current Literature, 1904-1905. Editor of Biography, New J Martha's Vineyard.
International Encyclopaedia, 1901-1904, 1906-1907, and New International Year 1
Book, 1907-1908; &c. L
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The \ Lyndsay, Sir David.
Days of James IV. ; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J May-Fly (in part),
their Structure and Life.
G. R. P. GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., D.C.L. f Macdonald, Sir John
See the biographical article: PARKIN, GEORGE ROBERT. "^ Alexander.
f Mais t re, Joseph de;
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D, D.C.L. Malherbe,.FranQOis de;
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. \ Marguerite de Valois;
Marivaux, Pierre;
[ Marot, Clement.
I" Luqman;
G. W. T. REV GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A B.D. Mahommedan Religion;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and J Mo-Hooonc a*, t>nri\-
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Mandaeans (in part),
Maqqan;
[ MaqrizT; Mas'udi.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Formerly Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. Wollaston J Lyell Sir Charles.
Medallist, Geological Society. Author of The History of the Geological Society of
London; &c.
H. Cl. SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. f Malacca;
Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly J Malay Peninsula;
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Authors Malavs'
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language. ( Mala y states: Federated.
H. C. H. REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D.
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological I Luray Cavern;
Society of America, National Geographic Society and Societe de Speleologie (France), -j Mammoth Cave
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky;
&c. (.
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.T.
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum.
I Margaret, St; Martyrology.
H. E. S.* HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER (d. 1902). f
Formerly Editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Author of Life of James Russell Lowell; -\ Lowell, James Russell.
History of the United States ; &c.
H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ. J" M
Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux-Arts (Paris). \ lel '
H. Le. HERBERT MARTIN JAMES LOEWE, M.A.
Bueen's College, Cambridge. Curator of Oriental Literature, University Library, J Maimonides.
ambridge. Formerly Chief English Master at the Schools of the Alliance at Cairo J
and Abyassiyyeh, Egypt. Author of Kitab el Ansab of Samani; &c.
H. Lb. HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal i Mechanics: Theoretical.
Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.
H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSEY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I. j Malaria (in part).
H. M. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Lrrr.D. f Maintpnnn Mid-imp HP-
T- II- I y- II *-. f I T-. r f **. . . . f r* . r . \ 1>11I1 ICI1U11, ITlaUdillC UC,
Balhol College, Oxford. Professor of History in the University of California. {
Author of History of the French Revolution ; &c. m -
H. S.* SIR HERBERT STEPHEN, BART., M.A., LL.M.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law. Clerk of Assize for the Northern -I Lytton, 1st Earl of.
Circuit.
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A.
Author of Jdola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism; &c. 1 Lotze t* M P art >-
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. ^^ Ge flrey de;
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J * * n ' Adal
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angerins; Charlemagne. Matilda, Queen;
[ Matthew of Paris.
H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. f
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Malachi (in tart)
Oxford, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology \
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. L
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. J Mandeville, Sir John (in part);
See the biographical article : YULE, SIR HENRY. \Marignolli (in part).
L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. [ Luria;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge, J Luzzatto, Moses Hayim;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short 1 Tii7zattn Samiipl David-
History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. Ma Marano
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. '
See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR J. A. lse -
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS. r Machiavelli;
See the biographical article : SYMONDS, J. A. > Manutius
J. A. V.* JOHN AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., PH.D., F.I.C., F.L.S.
Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, &c. Author of J Manures
The Woburn Experiments ; &c.
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J M
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior ] masonr y-
Engineers.
J. C. R. C. SIR JOHN CHARLES READY COLOMB, K.C.M.G. f m
See the biographical article : COLOMB, P. H. ~i Marines.
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe.
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HisT.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. J Lull, Raimon;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy, "j Mamjassant
Member of the Council of the Hispanic Society of America. Knight Commander
of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I
J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. J" Mary I., Queen.
See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.
J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States Author of Burma-A Mandalay.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. I
J. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of ~\ Louis I. and II. Of Bavaria.
Das Rheinland unter die franzosische Herrschaft. L
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). f Lord Great Chamberlain;
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Mar, Earldom of;
Pedigree. I Marquess.
J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge - . ,
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic -j kowe, air Hudson;
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; chapters in Maret.
the Cambridge Modern History.
J. I. JULES ISAAC.
Louis XII. of France.
J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S.
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- ivrairnotn Dntiie-
bridge. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise \ d S" el - u P l
on the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; Matter.
Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c.
J. L. W. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. J" Malory, Sir Thomas;
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ Map, Walter.
J. M. Gr. JAMES MONCRIEFF GRIERSON, C.B., C.M.G., C.V.O. r
Major-General, R.A. Commanding 1st Division Aldershot Command. Director J -. HIT*
of Military Operations at Headquarters, 1904-1906. Served through South African 1 Manoeuvres, Military.
War, 1900-1901. Author of Staff Duties in the Field; &c.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Mandeville, B
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grate's History of Greece. [ Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
J. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. r
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J T /. ,
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Luc & n (in part).
Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c.
Jno. S. SIR JOHN SCOTT, K.C.M.G., D.C.L. (1841-1904).
Deputy Judge Advocate-General to the Forces, 1898-1904. Judicial Adviser to -! Martial Law.
the Khedive of Egypt, 1890-1898. Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford.
J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. r
Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J Madagascar;
gascar. Membre de l'Acad6mie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; | Mauritius.
Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c.
J. S. Bl. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. f Mary: Mother of Jesus
Assistant-editor of the <jth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of \ (in part).
the Encyclopaedia Biblica. Mazzini.
J. S. Co. JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A. r
Editor of the Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Ex-
ploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, Oxford. 1 Mahrattas (in part).
Author of India; &c.
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Marble;
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Marl.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ mam
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [ (** part).
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly . , /. A
Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in ] Mackerel (in part).
the University of Edinburgh and Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. (_
J. T. M. JOHN THEODORE MERZ, LL.D., PH.D., D.C.L.
Chairman of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Co., Ltd. Author of H L tze (in part).
History of European Thought in the XlXth Century; &c. ' L
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f Louis VI., VII., IX., X.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ and XI. of France.
J. V.* JULES VIARD. f Lore, Ambroise de;
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction, France. -I Louvet, Jean;
Author of La France sous Philippe VI de Valois ; &c. [ Marcel, 6tienne.
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). r Mark <;t (,;, *nri\-
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \
Age~ &c. ^ Jnaiinew, at; LuKe, oi.
K. G. J. KINGSLEV GARLAND JAYNE. J .
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. \ Malay Archipelago.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
K. K. KONRAD KESSLER, PH.D. f Mandaeans (in part).
Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages at the University of Greifswald. I
K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A.
Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Mary. Mother 01 Jesus
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- I (in part).
ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. [Lute (in part);
Editor of Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the-( Lyre (in part);
Orchestra. [ Mandoline.
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S.
Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. J Manganite;
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. | Marcasite.
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine.
L. V.* LuiGl VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in -j Mazzini: Bibliography.
East of Europe. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country ; &c. (.
L. W. V-Hc L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). / Lord Hien steward
Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers. {
M. A. W. MARY A. WARD (Mrs Humphry Ward). f Lvlv
See the biographical article: WARD, MARY ARNOLD. \ '
f Louis Vffl. and XVII.
M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. -j o{ France
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -j MardUK.
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. f T vcureus . cy,,,,/,,,. Lawgiver-
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. \ ^
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. I ^ysanoer.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. (Oxon.). [ Mantineia (in part);
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -j Manuel I., Comnenus;
University, 1905-1908. I Marathon (in part).
M P. MARK PATTISON, LL.D. /Macaulav
See the biographical article : PATTISON, MARK. L
N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. \
N. V. JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. r
Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist J Marsilius of Padua;
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Socie'te' de I'Histoire de j Martin I.-V.: Popes.
France, and of the Soci6t6 de 1'Ecole des Chartes. [
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Lycantnropy;
Soci&6 d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and~\ Magic.
Marriage in Australia; &c. L
0. R. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. M.lNST.C.E. r
Formerly Professor of Engineering, Victoria University, Manchester Honorary J Lubrication.
Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge.
P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. / 1 nb fte k (in */ir/1
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. \ M
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. f
See the biographical article:. KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. \ Maritime Province (in part).
P. G. PERCY GARDNER, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D. f.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ ^ ysl
P. GL PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LiTT.D. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J j^
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- J
logical Society.
Xll
P. G. T.
P. VI.
R. A.*
R. B. McK.
R. C. J.
R. G.
R. H. C.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. J. M.
R. K. D.
R. L.*
R. M'L.
R. M. D.
R. N. B.
R. P.
R. P. S.
R. Po.
R. S. C.
R.T.
R.We.
S. A. C.
PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.
PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL.
ROBERT ANCHEL.
Archivist to the Department de 1'Eure.
RONALD BRUNLEES MCKERROW, M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of The Works of Thomas Nashe ; &c.
SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE.
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.LITT.
Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford, 1905-1907. Fellow of the British
Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1906.'
Hibbert Lecturer at Oxford, 1898; Jowett Lecturer, 1898-1899. Author of
Critical History of a Future Life ; &c.
r
-! Maxwell, James Clerk.
j Manor (in part).
Louis XVI.; Marat.
Marprelate Controversy.
Lysias (in part).
/Lucan (in part);
I Max Miiller.
Manasses, Prayer of.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church,! Oxford. Barrister-at-law.
Gazette, London.
Formerly Editor of the St James's
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular
Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; China;
Europe and the Far East; &c.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer
of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c.
ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. f
Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. \
RICHARD MOUNTFORD DEELEY, M.lNST.C.E., M.I.MECH.E., F.G.S.
Late Locomotive Superintendent, Midland Railway. Joint-author of Lubrication
and Lubricants.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15131900; The First Romanovs,
1613 to 172$ ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.
Lundy, Robert;
Macdonnell, Sorley Boy;
McNeile, Hugh;
Manchester, Earls and Dukes of;
March, Earls of;
Margaret, Queen of Scotland;
Masham, Abigail.
Manchuria.
Loris; Macaque;
Machaerodus;
Mammalia (in part);
Mammoth (in part); Manati;
Mandrill; Marmot;
Marsupialia; Mastodon.
May-Fly (in part).
REINHOLD PAULI.
See the biographical article: PAULI, REINHOLD.
R
j Lubricants.
Louis I. and II. of Hungary;
Malachowski;
Margaret, Queen; Martinuzzi;
Matthias I., Hunyadi;
Matvyeev;
Mazepa-Koledinsky.
Lubeck (in part).
Manor-House.
Lorraine;
Louis IV. and V. of France.
PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I. B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Biblioth&que
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. m
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville ] marn
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. \ Marsi.
SIR RICHARD TEMPLE.
See the biographical article: TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD.
RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (Princeton). f Mathpr increase-
Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of The Elegies of\ ' ~
Maximianus; &c. [Mather, Richard.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. [
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and I "*
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-} Manasseh.
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
li
| Mahrattas (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
.s.
Ige-
and Member of Council of the Royal Society.
S. Bl. SHEITORD BIDWELL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (1848-1009). f
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Physical Society 1 Magnetism.
S. C. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. / Marcantonio
\
See the biographical article : COLVIN, SIDNEY.
ON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc.
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON.
S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. /Mar-
\ m
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church,
Oxford; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topography of the
Lucania; Lucca;
Lucena; Lucretilis, Mons;
Lucus Feroniae; Luna;
Magna Graecia; Manduria;
Manfredonia;
Roman Campagna; &c.
Marches, The; Marino;
Marzabotto.
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. f
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of I
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of ] Mare Clausum.
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I
T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D. I" Marcellus.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. \
f. G. Br. THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. I"
Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of 'Essentials of -< Lymph and Lymph Formation.
Experimental Physiology. [_
T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. r
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet.
T. M. L. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. f
Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to J Luther, Martin;
the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of 1 Lutherans.
History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther ; &c.
T. R. R. S. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. [
Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow of Worcester College, Oxford, -j Malacostraca.
Zoological Secretary of Linnaean Society, 1903-1907. Author of A History of
Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae; &c.
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges,) Marlowe, Christopher (in part) ;
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 1 Marston, Philip Bourke.
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. L
T. W. R. D. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. Professor of Lumbini;
Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President^ Mahavamsa;
of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian Maitreva
of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c.
V. H. S. REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D. r rnena | c*.
Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of Ely. Formerly warn, uosp i 01 ai,
Fellow, Dean, Tutor and Lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of The -j Matthew, Gospel of St;
Jewish and the Christian Messiahs; &c. [ Luke, Gospel of St.
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. . rant Tou/n
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I LUC OD ' l Wn '
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature ~]
and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. Lugano, Lake of;
[ Maggiore, Lago.
W. A. G. WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. f M 1 it t
His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay State of I mala y oiaies.
Kelantan. Adviser to his Siamese Majesty's Minister for Lands and Agriculture. H Non-Federated.
Author of Kelantan, a Handbook ; &c. [_ Malay States: Siamese.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Louis Philippe;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, < Mahmud II. ;
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. I Mass: Church.
W. D. L. WILLIAM DRAPER LEWIS, LL.B., PH.D.
Dean of the Law School, University of Pennsylvania. Lecturer on Economics, J Marshall John
Haverford College, Pennsylvania, 1890-1896. Editor of Great American Lawyers ;&c. [
W. E. A. A. WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. r
Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary J Manchester
Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the]
bardic name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. L
W. E. D. WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M..E. f
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Mechanics: Applied
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University J . .\
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balanc-
ing of Engines ; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism ; &c.
W. E. G. P. WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. / Marbles.
Author of The Transvaal and the Boers. \
XIV
W. F.*
W. Ho.
W. H. F.
W. J. M. R.
W. L. C.*
W. L. F.
W. L. G.
W. M. R
W. M. Ra.
W. P. C.
W. R. S.
W. Wn.
W. W. F.*
W. Y. S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
REV. WILLIAM FAIRWEATHER, M.A., D.D. f
Minister of Dunnikier United Free Church, Kirkcaldy, N.B. Author of Maccabees -{
(Cambridge Bible for Schools) ; The Background of the Gospels; &c. I
WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A.
Clare College, Cambridge.
Financial Editor of The Times, London.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article : FLOWER, SIR W. H.
WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE, LL.D.
See the biographical article: RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN.
WILLIAM LEE CORBIN, A.M.
Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York.
Author of Documentary -j
WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D.
Professor of History in Louisiana State University.
History of Reconstruction ; &c.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in
Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council,
(" Colonial " series); Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration).
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL.
WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY, D.C.L.
See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM P.OBERTSON.
WILLIAM WATSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Assistant Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Vice-President
of the Physical Society.
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. r
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; 1
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &c. {_
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
Maccabees;
Maccabees, Books of.
Market.
Mammalia (in part);
Mammoth (in part);
Mandrill (in part);
Marten.
Mechanics: Applied (in part).
Mather, Cotton.
Lynch Law;
McGillivray, Alexander.
Mackenzie, William Lyon:
Manitoba (in part).
Luini; Mantegna;
Martini; Masaccio;
Masolino da Panicale.
Lycaonia.
Marlborough, 1st Duke of.
Malachi (in part);
Mecca.
Magnet ograph;
Magnetometer.
Mars: Mythology;
Mauretania.
f Martial;
{ Lucilius (in part);
{ Lucretius.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Lord Chamberlain.
Madison, James.
Manganese.
Marseilles.
Lotteries.
Madras.
Manila.
Marshal.
Louisiana.
Madrid.
Manipur.
Marston Moor.
Lourdes.
Mafia.
Manna.
Maryland.
Loyalists.
Magnesium.
Maori.
Massachusetts.
Luchu Archipelago.
Magnolia.
Maple.
Match.
Ltttzen.
Maine, U.S.A.
March.
Mayo.
Lyons.
Maize.
Marengo.
Mayor.
Macabre.
Malplaquet.
Marionettes.
Measles.
McKinley, William.
Malta.
Marriage.
Mecklenburg.
Madeira.
Mandamus.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVII
LORD CHAMBERLAIN, in England, an important officer of
the king's household, to be distinguished from the lord
great chamberlain (q.v.). He is the second dignitary of
the court, and is always a member of the government of
the day (before 1782 the office carried cabinet rank), a peer
and a privy councillor. He carries a white staff, and wears a
golden or jewelled key, typical of the key of the palace, which
is supposed to be in his charge, as the ensigns of his office. He
is responsible for the necessary arrangements connected with
state ceremonies, such as coronations and royal marriages,
christenings and funerals; he examines the claims of those who
desire to be presented at court; all invitations are sent out in
his name by command of the sovereign, and at drawing-rooms
and levees he stands next to the sovereign and announces the
persons who are approaching the throne. It is also part of his
duty to conduct the sovereign to and from his carriage. 1 The
bedchamber, privy chamber and presence chamber, the ward-
robe, the housekeeper's room, the guardroom and the chapels
royal are in the lord chamberlain's department. He is regarded
as chief officer of the royal household, and he has charge of a large
number of appointments, such as those of the royal physicians,
tradesmen and private attendants of the sovereign. All theatres
in the cities of London and Westminster (except patent theatres),
in certain of the London boroughs and in the towns of Windsor
and Brighton, are licensed by him and he is also licenser of plays
(see THEATRE: Law; and REVELS, MASTER OF THE). His
salary is 2000 a year.
The vice-chamberlain of the household is the lord chamberlain's
assistant and deputy. He also is one of the ministry, a white-staff
officer and the bearer of a key ; and he is generally a peer or the son
of a peer as well as a privy councillor. He receives 700 a year.
Next to the vice-chamberlain comes the groom of the stole, an office
only in use during the reign of a king. He has the charge of the
vestment called the stole worn by the sovereign on state occasions.
'The lord chamberlain of the household at one time discharged
some important political functions, which are described by Sir
Harris Nicolas (Proceedings of the Privy Council, vol. vi., Preface,
p. xxiii).
'The office of master of the ceremonies was created by James I.
The master of the ceremonies wears a medal attached to a gold chain
round his neck, on one side being an emblem of peace with the motto
Beati pacific!," and on the other an emblem of war with the motto
" Dieu et mon droit " (see Finetti Philoxensis, by Sir John Finett,
master of the ceremonies to James I. and Charles I., 1656; and
D'Isracli's Curiosities of Literature, loth ed., p. 242 seq.).
1 See May, Parliamentary Practice, pp. 236, 244.
In the lord chamberlain's department also are the master, assistant
master, marshal of the ceremonies and deputy-marshal of the
ceremonies, officers whose special function it is to enforce the ob-
servance of the etiquette of the court. The reception of foreign
potentates and ambassadors is under their particular care, and they
assist in the ordering of all entertainments and festivities at the
palace. 2 The gentleman usher of the black rod the black rod which
he carries being the ensign of his office is the principal usher of the
court and kingdom. He is one of the original functionaries of the
order of the Garter, and is in constant attendance on the House of
Lords, from whom, either personally or by his deputy, the yeoman
usher of the black rod, it is part of his duty to carry messages and
summonses to the House of Commons. There are six lords and six
grooms " in waiting " who attend on the sovereign throughout the
year and whose terms of attendance are of a fortnight's or three
weeks' duration at a time. Usually " extra " lords and grooms in
waiting are nominated by the sovereign, who, however, are unpaid
and have no regular duties. Among the serjeants-at-arms there are
two to whom special duties are assigned: the one attending the
speaker in the House of Commons, and the other attending the lord
chancellor in the House of Lords, carrying their maces and execut-
ing their orders.* The comptroller and examiner of accounts, the
paymaster of the household, the licenser of plays, the dean and
subdean of the chapels royal, the clerk and deputy clerks of the
closet, the groom of the robes, the pages of the backstairs, of the
chamber and of the presence, the poet laureate, the royal physi-
cians and surgeons, chaplains, painters and sculptors, librarians and
musicians, [&c., are all under the superintendence of the lord
chamberlain of the household.*
The queen consort's household is also in the department of the
lord chamberlain of the household. It comprises a lord chamberlain,
a vice-chamberlain and treasurer, equerry and the various ladies of
the royal household, a groom and a clerk of the robes. The ladies
of the household are the mistress of the robes, the ladies of the
bedchamber, the bedchamber women and the maids of honour,
The mistress of the robes in some measure occupies the position of
the groom of the stole.' She is the only lady of the court who comes
into office and goes out with the administration. She is always a
duchess, and attends the queen consort at all state ceremonies and
entertainments, but is never in permanent residence at the palace.'
The ladies of the bedchamber share the personal attendance on
4 The offices of master of the great wardrobe and master of the
jewel house in the lord chamberlain's department were abolished in
1782.
6 In the reign of Queen Anne, Sarah duchess of Marlborough from
1704, and Elizabeth duchess of Somerset from 1710, held the com-
bined offices of mistress of the robes and groom of the stole.
8 Since the great " bedchamber question " of 1839 the settled
practice has been for all the ladies of the court except the mistress
of the robes to receive and continue in their appointments inde-
pendently of the political connexions of their husbands, fathers and
brothers (see Gladstone's Gleanings of Past Years, i. 40; and
Torrens's Memoirs of Lord Melbourne, ii. 304).
xvn. i
2 LORD CHIEF JUSTICE LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN
the queen consort throughout the year. Of these there are eight
always peeresses, and each is in waiting for a fortnight or three
weeks at a time. But the women of the bedchamber, of whom there
are also eight, appear only at court ceremonies and entertainments
according to a roster annually issued under the authority of the lord
chamberlain of the queen consort. They are usually the daughters
of peers or the wives of the sons of peers, and formerly, like the
mistress of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber, habitually
assisted the queen at her daily toilette. But this has long ceased to
be done by any of them. The eight maids of honour have the
same terms of waiting as the ladies of the bedchamber. They are
commonly if not always the daughters or granddaughters of peers
and when they have no superior title and precedence by birth are
called honourable " and placed next after the daughters of barons
LORD CHIEF JUSTICE, in England, the presiding judge of
the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice, and in
the absence of the lord chancellor, president of the High Court.
He traces his descent from the justiciar of the Norman kings.
This officer appears first as the lieutenant or deputy of the king,
exercising all the functions of the regal office in the absence of
the sovereign. "In this capacity William Fitz-Osbern, the
steward of Normandy, and Odo of Bayeux, acted during the
Conqueror's visit to the continent in 1067; they were left,
according to William of Poitiers, the former to govern the north
of England, the latter to hold rule in Kent, vice sua; Florence
of Worcester describes them as "custodes Angliae," and Ordericus
Vitalis gives to their office the name of " praefectura." It would
seem most probable that William Fitz-Osbern at least was left
in his character of steward, and that the Norman seneschalship
was thus the origin of the English justiciarship " (Stubbs's
Constitutional History, i. 346). The same authority observes
that William of Warenne and Richard Clare (Bienfaite), who
were left in charge of England in 1074, are named by a writer
in the next generation " praecipui Angliae justitiarii "; but
he considers the name to have not yet been definitely attached
to any particular office, and that there is no evidence to show that
officers appointed to this trust exercised any functions at all
when the king was at home, or in his absence exercised supreme
judicial authority to the exclusion of other high officers of the
court. The office became permanent in the reign of William
Rufus, and in the hands of Ranulf Flambard it became co-
extensive with the supreme powers of government. But it was
not till the reign of Henry II. that the chief officer of the crown
acquired the exclusive right to the title of capitalis or totius
Angliae juslitiarius. Stubbs considers that the English form
of the office is to be accounted for by the king's desire to prevent
the administration falling into the hands of an hereditary noble.
The early justiciars were clerics, in whom the possession of power
could not become hereditary. The justiciar continued to be the
chief officer of state, next to the king, until the fall of Hubert
de Burgh (in the reign of King John), described by Stubbs as
the last of the great justiciars. Henceforward, according to
Stubbs, the office may be said to have survived only in the judicial
functions, which were merely part of the official character of the
chief justiciar. He was at the head of the curia regis, which was
separating itself into the three historical courts of common law
about the time when the justiciarship was falling from the supreme
place. The chancellor took the place of the justiciar in council,
the treasurer in the exchequer, while the two offshoots from the
curia regis, the common pleas and the exchequer, received chiefs
of their own. The king's bench represented the original stock of
the curia regis, and its chief justice the great justiciar. The
justiciar may, therefore, be said to have become from a political
a purely judicial officer. A similar development awaited his
successful rival the chancellor. Before the Judicature Act the
king's bench and the common pleas were each presided over by a
lord chief justice, and the lord chief justice of the king's bench
was nominal head of all the three courts, and held the title of
lord chief justice of England. The titles of lord chief justice of
the common pleas and lord chief baron were abolished by the
Judicature Act 1873, and all the common law divisions of the
High Court united into the king's bench division, the president
of which is the lord chief justice of England.
The lord chief justice is, next to the lord chancellor, the highest
judicial dignitary in the kingdom. He is an ex-officio judge of the
court of appeal. He holds office during good behaviour, and can only
be removed by the crown (by whom he is appointed) after a joint
address of both houses of parliament. He is now the only judicial
functionary privileged to wear the collar of SS. There has been much
discussion as to the origin and history of this collar; 1 it was a badge
or insignia attached to certain offices entitling the holders to wear it
only so long as they held those offices. The collar of SS. was worn
by the chiefs of the three courts previous to their amalgamation in
1873, and that now worn by the lord chief justice of England was
provided by Sir A. Cockburn in 1859 and entailed by him on all
holders of the office. The salary is 8000 a year.
In the United States the supreme court consists of a chief justice
and eight associate justices, any six of whom make a quorum. The
salary of the chief justice is $13,000 and that of the associates
$12,500. The chief justice takes rank next after the president and
he administers the oath on the inauguration of a new president and
vice-president. The principal or presidingjudge in most of thestate
judicatures also takes the title of chief justice.
LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN, in England, a functionary
who must be carefully distinguished from the lord chamberlain;
he is one of the great officers of state, whose office dates frorr
Norman times; and the only one who still holds it under a
creation of that period. As his name implies, he was specially
connected by his duties with the king's chamber (camera curie);
but this phrase was also used to denote the king's privy purse,
and the chamberlain may be considered as originally the financial
officer of the household. But as he was always a great baron,
deputies performed his financial work, and his functions became,
as they are now, mainly ceremonial, though the emblem of his
office is still a key. The office had been held by Robert Malet,
son of a leading companion of the Conqueror, but he was forfeited
by Henry I., who, in 1133, gave the great chamberlainship to
Aubrey de Vere and his heirs. Aubrey's son was created earl of
Oxford, and the earls held the office, with some intermission,
till 1526, when the then earl left female heirs. His heir-male
succeeded to the earldom, but the crown, as is now established,
denied his right to the office, which was thenceforth held under
grants for life till Queen Mary and Elizabeth admitted in error
the right of the earls on the strength of their own allegation.
So matters continued till 1626, when an earl died and again
left an heir-male and an heir-female. After an historic contest
the office was adjudged to the former, Lord Willoughby d'Eresby.
No further question arose till 1779, when his heirs were two sisters.
In 1781 the House of Lords decided that it belonged to them
jointly, and that they could appoint a deputy, which they did.
Under a family arrangement the heirs of the two sisters respec-
tively appointed deputies in alternate reigns till the death of
Queen Victoria, when Lord Ancaster, the heir of the elder, who
was then in possession, claimed that he, as such, had sole right
to the office. Lord Cholmondeley and Lord Carrington as co-
heirs of the younger sister, opposed his claim, and the crown
also claimed for itself on the ground of the action taken by the
king in 1526. After a long and historic contest, the House of
Lords (1902) declined to re-open the question, and merely
re-affirmed the decision of 1781, and the office, therefore, is now
vested jointly in the three peers named and their heirs.
The lord great chamberlain has charge of the palace of
Westminster, especially of the House of Lords, in which he has
an office; and when the sovereign opens parliament in person
he is responsible for the arrangements. At the opening or closing
of the session of parliament by the sovereign in person he dis-
poses of the sword of state to be carried by any peer he may select,
and walks himself in the procession on the right of the sword of
state, a little before it and next to the sovereign. He issues the
tickets of admission on the same occasions. He assists at the
introduction of all peers into the House of Lords on their creation,
and at the homage of all bishops after their consecration. At
coronations he emerges into special importance; he still asserts
before the court of claims his archaic right to bring the king his
" shirt, stockings and drawers " and to dress him on coronation
day and to receive his ancient fees, which include the king's
bed and " night robe." He also claims in error to serve the king
1 Notes and Queries, series I, vol. ii.; series 4, vols. ii. ix. x. ; series
6, vols. ii. iii.; Planche, Dictionary of Costume, p. 126; Foss, Lives
of the Judges, vol. vii.; Dugdale, Orig. Jud. fol. 102.
LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR LORD HIGH STEWARD
with water before and after the banquet, which was the function
of the " ewry," a distinct office held by the earls of Oxford
At the actual coronation ceremony he takes an active part in
investing the king with the royal insignia.
See J. H. Round, " The Lord Great Chamberlain " (Monthly
Review, June 1002) and " Notes on the Lord Great Chamberlain
Case " (Ancestor, No. IV.). (J. H. R.)
LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR, one of the great officers of state
of the United Kingdom, and in England the highest judicia
functionary. The history of the office and of the growth o
the importance of the lord chancellor will be found under
CHANCELLOR. The lord chancellor is in official rank the
highest civil subject in the land outside the royal family
and takes precedence immediately after the archbishop 01
Canterbury. His functions have sometimes been exercised by
a lord keeper of the great seal (see LORD KEEPER), the only real
difference between the two offices being in the appointment oi
the keeper by mere delivery of the seal, while a lord chancellor
receives letters patent along with it. He is by office a privy
councillor, and it has long been the practice to make him a peer
and also a cabinet minister. He is by prescription Speaker
or prolocutor of the House of Lords, and as such he sits upon
the woolsack, which is not strictly within the House. Unlike
the Speaker of the House of Commons, the lord chancellor takes
part in debates, speaking from his place in the House. He votes
from the woolsack instead of going into the division lobby.
The only function which he discharges as Speaker practically
is putting the question; if two debaters rise together, he has
no power to call upon one, nor can he rule upon points of order.
Those taking part in debates address, not the lord chancellor,
but the whole House, as " My Lords." The lord chancellor
always belongs to a political party and is affected by its fluctua-
tions. This has often been denounced as destructive of the
independence and calm deliberativeness essential to the purity
and efficiency of the bench. In defence, however, of the
ministerial connexion of the chancellor, it has been said that,
while the other judges should be permanent, the head of the
law should stand or fall with the ministry, as the best means of
securing his effective responsibility to parliament for the
proper use of his extensive powers. The transference of the
judicial business of the chancery court to the High Court
of Justice removed many of the objections to the fluctuating
character of the office. As a great officer of state, the lord
chancellor acts for both England and Scotland, and in some
respects for the United Kingdom, including Ireland (where,
however, an Irish lord chancellor is at the head of the legal
system). By Article XXIV. of the Act of Union (1705)
one great seal was appointed to be kept for all public acts,
and in this department the lord chancellor's authority extends
to the whole of Britain, and thus the commissions of the
peace for Scotland as well as England issue from him. 1 As
an administrative officer, as a judge and as head of the
law, he acts merely for England. His English ministerial
functions are thus briefly described by Blackstone: "He be-
came keeper of the king's conscience, visitor, in right of the
king, of all hospitals and colleges of the king's foundation,
and patron of all the king's livings under the value of twenty
marks per annum in the king's books. He is the general guardian
of all infants, idiots and lunatics, and has the general super-
intendence of all charitable uses in the kingdom." But these
duties and jurisdiction by modern statutes have been distributed
for the most part among other offices or committed to the
judges of the High Court (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES; INFANT;
INSANITY). Under the Judicature Act 1873 the lord chancellor
is a member of the court of appeal, and, when he sits, its president,
and he is also a judge of the High Court of Justice. He is named
as president of the chancery division of the latter court. His
judicial patronage is very extensive, and he is by usage the
adviser of the crown in the appointment of judges 2 of the
1 The great seal, which exists in duplicate for Irish use, is the great
seal of the United Kingdom.
Except the lord chief justice, who is appointed on the nomination
of the prime minister.
High Court. He presides over the hearing of appeals in the
House of Lords. His proper title is " Lord High Chancellor
of Great Britain and Ireland." His salary is 10,000 per annum,
and he is entitled to a pension of 5000 per annum.
AUTHORITIES. Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor
(1651), attributed to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere; Blackstone's
Commentaries; Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors; and D. M
Kerly, Historical Sketch of the Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court of
Chancery (1890).
LORD HIGH CONSTABLE, in England, the seventh of the
great officers of state. His office is now called out of abeyance
for coronations alone. The constable was originally the com-
mander of the royal armies and the master of the horse. He
was also, in conjunction with the earl marshal, president of
the court of chivalry or court of honour. In feudal times martial
law was administered in the court of the lord high constable.
The constableship was granted as a grand serjeanty with the
earldom of Hereford by the empress Maud to Milo of Gloucester,
and was carried by his heiress to the Bohuns, earls of Hereford
and Essex. Through a coheiress of the Bohuns it descended to
the Staffords, dukes of Buckingham; and on the attainder
of Edward Stafford, third duke of Buckingham, in the reign of
Henry VIII. it became merged in the crown. The Lacys and
Verduns were hereditary constables of Ireland from the izth to
the i4th century; and the Hays, earls of Erroll, have been
hereditary constables of Scotland from early in the I4th century.
LORD HIGH STEWARD. The Lord High Steward of England,
who must not be confused with the Lord Steward, ranks as the
first of the great officers of state. Appointments to this office
are now made only for special occasions, such as the coronation
of a sovereign or the trial of a peer by his peers. The history
of the office is noteworthy. The household of the Norman and
Angevin kings of England included certain persons of secondary
rank, styled dapifers, seneschals or stewards (the prototypes of
the lord steward), who were entrusted with domestic and state
duties; the former duties were those of purveyors and sewers to
the king, the latter were undefined. At coronations, however,
and great festivals it became the custom in England and else-
where to appoint magnates of the first rank to discharge for the
occasion the domestic functions of the ordinary officials. In
accordance with this custom Henry II. appointed both Robert II.,
earl of Leicester, and Hugh Bigod, earl of Norfolk, to be his
honorary hereditary stewards; and at the Christmas festival
of 1 1 86 the successors in title of these two earls, with William,
;arl of Arundel, who held the similar honorary office of hereditary
butler, are described as serving the king at the royal banqueting
table. Subsequently the earls of Leicester bought out the rights
of the earls of Norfolk for ten knights' fees.
The last of these earls of Leicester to inherit the hereditary
stewardship was Simon V. de Montfort; how he served as steward
at the coronation of Eleanor, queen of Henry III., is described
n the Exchequer Red Book. The office of steward in France,
then recently suppressed, had for some time been the highest
office of state in that kingdom, and Simon de Montfort appears
to have considered that his hereditary stewardship entitled him
.o high official position in England; and after his victory at
^ewes he repeatedly figures as steward of England in official
documents under the great seal. After Simon's death at Eves-
lam his forfeited estates were conferred on his son Edmund
of Lancaster, who also obtained a grant of the stewardship,
)ut only for life. Edmund was succeeded by Thomas, earl of
^ancaster, who received a fresh grant of the stewardship to
u'mself and the heirs of his body from Edward II.; and this
earl it was who, during the weak administration of the last-
mentioned king, first put forward in a celebrated tract the claim
of the steward to be the second personage in the realm and
upreme judge in parliament, a claim which finds some slight
ecognition in the preamble to the statute passed against the
Despencers in the first year of Edward IH.
Earl Thomas was executed for treason, and though his
attainder was reversed he left no issue, and was succeeded in
he earldom by his brother Henry. The subsequent earls and
dukes of Lancaster were all recognized as stewards of England,
LORD HIGH TREASURER
the office apparently being treated as annexed to the earldom, or
honor, of Leicester. John of Gaunt, indeed, at a time when it
was possible that he would never obtain the Leicester moiety of
the Lancastrian estates, seems to have made an ingenious but
quite unfounded claim to the office as annexed to the honor of
Hinckley. Strictly speaking, none of the Lancasters after
Thomas had any clear title either by grant or otherwise; such
title as they had merged in the crown when Henry IV. usurped
the throne. Meanwhile the stewardship had increased in im-
portance. On the accession of Edward III., Henry, earl of
Lancaster, as president of the council, had superintended the
coronation of the infant king; John of Gaunt did the same
for the infant Richard II.; and, as part of the duties involved,
sat in the White Hall of Westminster to hear and determine the
claims to perform coronation services. The claims were made by
petition, and included amongst others: the claim of Thomas of
Woodstock to act as constable, the rival claims of John Dymock
and Baldwin de Frevile to act as champion, and the claim of
the barons of the Cinque Ports to carry a canopy over the king.
Minutes of these proceedings, in which the duke is stated to
have sat " as steward of England," were enrolled by his order.
This is the origin of what is now called the Court of Claims.
The precedent of Richard II. has been followed on all subsequent
occasions, except that in modern times it has been the practice
to appoint commissioners instead of a steward to superintend
this court. In 1397 John of Gaunt created a notable precedent
in support of the steward's claim to be supreme judge in parlia-
ment by presiding at the trial of the earl of Arundel and others.
When Henry IV. came to the throne he appointed his young
son Thomas, afterwards duke of Clarence, to the office of steward.
Clarence held the office until his death. He himself never acted
as judge in parliament; but in 1415 he was appointed to preside
at the judgment of peers delivered in Southampton against
Richard, earl of Cambridge, and Lord Scrope of Masham, who
had been previously tried by commissioners of oyer and terminer.
No permanent steward was ever again created; but a steward
was always appointed for coronations to perform the various
ceremonial services associated with the office, and, until the Court
of Claims was entrusted to commissioners, to preside over that
court. Also, in the isth century, it gradually became the custom
to appoint a steward pro hac vice to preside at the trial, or at the
proceedings upon the attainder of a peer in parliament; and
later, to preside over a court, called the court of the lord high
steward, for the trial of peers when parliament was not sitting.
To assist in establishing the latter court a precedent of 1400
appears to have been deliberately forged. This precedent is
reported in the printed V 'ear-Book of 1400, first published in
1553; it describes the trial of " the earl of H " for participation
in the rebellion of that year, and gives details of procedure.
John Holand, earl of Huntingdon, is undoubtedly the earl
indicated, but the evidence is conclusive that he was murdered
in Essex without any trial. The court of the lord high steward
seems to have been first definitely instituted in 1499 for the trial
of Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick; only two years earlier
Lord Audley had been condemned by the court of chivalry, a
very different and unpopular tribunal. The Warwick trial was
most carefully schemed: the procedure, fundamentally dis-
similar to that adopted in 1415, follows exactly the forged
precedent; but the constitution of the court was plainly derived
from the Southampton case. The record of the trial was con-
signed to a new repository (commonly but wrongly called the
Baga de Secretis), which thenceforth became the regular place
of custody for important state trials. Latterly, and possibly
from its inception, this repository consisted of a closet with
three locks, of which the keys were entrusted, one to the chief
justice of England, another to the attorney-general and the third
to the master of the crown office, or coroner. Notwithstanding
the irregular origin of the steward's court, for which Henry VII.
must be held responsible, the validity of its jurisdiction cannot
be questioned. The Warwick proceedings were confirmed by
act of parliament, and ever since this court has been fully
recognized as part of the English constitution.
For about a century and a half prior to the reign of James I.
the criminal jurisdiction of parliament remained in abeyance,
and bills of attainder were the vogue. The practice of appoint-
ing a steward on these occasions to execute judgment upon a
peer was kept up till 1477, when George, duke of Clarence, was
attainted, and then dropped. Under the Stuarts the criminal
jurisdiction of parliament was again resorted to, and when the
proceedings against a peer were founded on indictment the
appointment of a steward followed as a matter of settled practice.
The proper procedure in cases of impeachment had, on the
contrary, never been defined. On the impeachment of Strafford
the lords themselves appointed Arundel to be high steward.
In Danby's case a commission under the great seal issued in the
common form adopted for the court of the steward; this was
recalled, and the rule agreed to by a joint committee of both
houses that a steward for trials of peers upon impeachments
was unnecessary. But, as such an appointment was obviously
convenient, the lords petitioned for a steward; and a fresh
commission was accordingly issued in an amended form, which
recited the petition, and omitted words implying that the appoint-
ment was necessary. This precedent has been treated as settling
the practice of parliament with regard to impeachments.
Of the proceedings against peers founded upon indictment
very few trials antecedent to the revolution took place in parlia-
ment. The preference given to the steward's court was largely
due to the practice, founded upon the Southampton case, of
summoning only a few peers selected by the steward, a practice
which made it easy for the king to secure a conviction. This
arrangement has been partially abrogated by the Treason Act
of William III., which in cases of treason and misprision of
treason requires that all peers of parliament shall be summoned
twenty days at least before every such trial. The steward's
court also differed in certain other particulars from the high
court of parliament. For example, it was ruled by Lord Chan-
cellor Jeffreys, as steward at the trial of Lord Delamere, that,
in trials of peers which take place during the recess of parliament
in the steward's court, the steward is the judge of the court,
the court is held before him, his warrant convenes the prisoner
to the bar, his, summons convenes the peers for the trial, and he
is to determine by his sole authority all questions of law that arise
in the course of the trial, but that he is to give no vote upon the
issue of guilty or not guilty; during a session of parliament, on
the contrary, all the peers are both triers and judges, and the
steward is only as chairman of the court and gives his vote
together with the other lords. Lord Delamere was tried in 1685
in the steward's court; since then all trials of peers have taken
place before the lords Jn parliament. The most recent trial was
that of Earl Russell in 1901, when Lord Chancellor Halsbury
was made lord high steward. The steward is addressed as " his
grace," he has a rod of office, and the commission appointing
him is dissolved according to custom by breaking this rod.
A court of claims sat and a steward was appointed for the
coronation of Edward VII.; and during the procession in West-
minster Abbey the duke of Marlborough, as steward, carried
" St Edward's crown" in front of the bearer of the Bible (the
bishop of London), who immediately preceded the king; this
function of the steward is of modern origin. The steward's
ancient and particular services at coronations are practically
obsolete; the full ceremonies, procession from Westminster
Hall and banquet in which he figured prominently, were aban-
doned on the accession of William IV.
For the early history of the steward see L. W. Vernon-Harcourt,
His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers (1907) ; for the later history
of the office see Sir E. Coke, Institutes (1797) ; Cobbett and Howelf,
State Trials (1809, seq.); S. M. Phillipps, State Trials (1826); John
Hatsell, Precedents, vol. 4 (1818); and Sir M. Foster, Crown Law
(1809). See also the various works on Coronations for the steward's
services on these occasions. (L. W. V.-H.)
LORD HIGH TREASURER, in England, once the third great
officer of state. The office was of Norman origin and dated
from 1216. The duty of the treasurer originally was to act as
keeper of the royal treasure at Winchester, while as officer of
the exchequer he sat at Westminster to receive the accounts
LORD HOWE LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL
of the sheriffs, and appoint officers to collect the revenue. The
treasurer was subordinate to both the justiciar and the chancellor,
but the removal of the chancery from the exchequer in the
reign of Richard I., and the abolition of the office of justiciars
in the reign of Henry III., increased his importance. Indeed,
from the middle of the reign of Henry III. he became one of
the chief officers of the crown. He took an important part
in the equitable jurisdiction of the exchequer, and was now
styled not merely king's treasurer or treasurer of the exchequer,
but lord high treasurer and treasurer of the exchequer. The
first office was conferred by delivery of a white staff, the second
by patent. Near the end of the i6th century he had developed
into an official so occupied with the general policy of the country
as to be prevented from supervising personally the details of
the department, and Lord Burleigh employed a secretary for
this purpose. On the death of Lord Salisbury in 1612 the office
was put in commission; it was filled from time to time until
1714, when the duke of Shrewsbury resigned it; since that time
it has always been in commission (see TREASURY) . The Scottish
treasury was merged with the English by the Act of Union,
but the office of lord high treasurer for Ireland was continued
until 1816.
LORD HOWE, an island of the southern Pacific Ocean, lying
about 31 36' S., 159 5' E., 520 m. E.N.E. of Sydney. Pop.
120. It was discovered in 1778 by Lieutenant Ball (whose
name is commemorated in the adjacent islet of Ball's Pyramid),
and is a dependency of New South Wales. It measures about
5^ m. by i m., and is well wooded and hilly (reaching a height
of 2840 ft. at the southern end), being of volcanic formation,
while there are coral reefs on the western shore. It has a pleasant
climate. The name Lord Howe is given also to an islet of the
Santa Cruz group, and to two islands, also known under other
names Mopiha, of the Society group, and Ongtong Java of
the Solomon Islands.
LORD JUSTICE CLERK, in Scotland, a judge next in rank
to the lord justice-general. He presides in the second division
of the court of session, and in the absence of the lord justice-
general, presides in the court of justiciary. The justice clerk
was originally not a judge at all, but simply clerk and legal
assessor of the justice court. In course of time he was raised
from the clerk's table to the bench, and by custom presided
over the court in the absence of the justice-general. Up to
1672 his position was somewhat anomalous, as it was doubtful
whether he was a clerk or a judge, but an act of that year, which
suppressed the office of justice-depute, confirmed his position
as a judge, forming him, with the justice-general and five of
the lords of session into the court of justiciary. The lord justice
clerk is also one of the officers of state for Scotland, and one of
the commissioners for keeping the Scottish Regalia. His salary
is 4800 a year.
LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, the highest judge in Scotland,
head of the court of justiciary, called also the lord president,
and as such head of the court of session and representative of
the sovereign. The office of justice-general was for a consider-
able time a sinecure post held by one of the Scottish nobility,
but by the Court of Session Act 1830, it was enacted that, at
the termination of the existing interest, the office should be united
with that of lord president of the court of session, who then
became presiding judge of the court of justiciary. The salary
is 5000 a year.
LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL, in England, formerly
a great officer of state. The Great Seal of England, which is
affixed on all solemn occasions to documents expressing the
pleasure of the sovereign, was first adopted by Edward the
Confessor (see SEALS), and entrusted to a chancellor for keeping.
The office of chancellor from the time of Becket onwards varied
much in importance; the holder being an ecclesiastic, he was
not only engaged in the business of his diocese, but sometimes
was away from England. Consequently, it became not unusual
to place the personal custody of the great seal in the hands of
a vice-chancellor or keeper; this, too, was the practice followed
during a temporary vacancy in the chancellorship. This office
gradually developed into a permanent appointment, and the
lord keeper acquired the right of discharging all the duties
connected with the great seal. He was usually, though not
necessarily, a peer, and held office during the king's pleasure,
he was appointed merely by delivery of the seal, and not, like
the chancellor, by patent. His status was definitely fixed (in the
case of lord keeper Sir Nicholas Bacon) by an act of Elizabeth,
which declared him entitled to " like place, pre-eminence,
jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all other customs, com-
modities, and advantages " as the lord chancellor. In sub-
sequent reigns the lord keeper was generally raised to the
chancellorship, and retained the custody of the seal. The last
lord keeper was Sir Robert Henley (afterwards Lord Northington),
who was made chancellor on the accession of George III.
LORD MAYOR'S DAY, in England, the oth of November,
the date of the inauguration of the lord mayor of London
(see Vol. XVI., p. 966), marked by a pageant known as the
Lord Mayor's Show. The first of these pageants was held in
1215. The idea originated in the stipulation made in a charter
then granted by John that the citizen chosen to be mayor
should be presented to the king or his justice for approval.
The crowd of citizens who accompanied the mayor on horse-
back to Westminster developed into a yearly pageant, which
each season became more elaborate. Until the isth century
the mayor either rode or walked to Westminster, but in 1453
Sir John Norman appears to have set a fashion of going
by water. From 1639 to 1655 the show disappeared owing to
Puritan opposition. With the Restoration the city pageant
was revived, but interregnums occurred during the years of
the plague and fire, and in 1683 when a quarrel broke out
between Charles and the city, ending in the temporary abro-
gation of the charter. In 1711 an untoward accident befell
the show, the mayor Sir Gilbert Heathcote (the original of
Addison's Sir Andrew Freeport) being thrown by his horse.
The next year a coach was, in consequence, provided for the
chief magistrate. In 1757 this was superseded by a gilded and
elaborately decorated equipage costing 10,065 which was used
till 1896, when a replica of it was built to replace it.
LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, in England, one of the
great officers of state, and a member of the ministry. It was
only in 1679 that the office of lord president became permanent.
Previously either the lord chancellor, the lord keeper of the
seal, or some particular court official took formal direction of
the Privy Council. In the reign of Charles I. a special lord
president of the council was appointed, but in the following
reign the office was left unfilled. The office was of considerable
importance when the powers of the Privy Council, exercised
through various committees, were of greater extent than at the
present time. For example, a committee of the lords of the
council was formerly responsible for the work now dealt with by
the secretary of state for foreign affairs; so also with that now
discharged by the Board of Trade. The lord president up to
1855 when a new post of vice-president of the council was
created was responsible for the education department. He
was also responsible for the duties of the council in regard to
public health, now transferred to the Local Government Board,
and for duties in regard to agriculture, now transferred to the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. The duties of the office now
consist of presiding on the not very frequent occasions when the
Privy Council meets, and of the drawing up of minutes of council
upon subjects which do not belong to any other department of
state. The office is very frequently held in conjunction with
other ministerial offices, for example, in Gladstone's fourth
ministry the secretary of state for India was also lord president
of the council, and in the conservative ministry of 1903 the
holder of the office was also president of the Board of Education.
The lord president is appointed by a declaration made in council
by the sovereign. He is invariably a member of the House of
Lords, and he is also included in the cabinet.
LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL, in England, the ordinary
judges of the court of appeal, the appellate division of the High
Court of Justice. Their style was provided for by the Supreme
LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY LORELEI
Court of Judicature Act 1877. The number was fixed at five
by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, s. 3. Their
salary is 5000 a. year (see APPEAL).
LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY, in England, certain
persons (limited to four), who, having held high judicial office
or practised at the bar for not less than fifteen years, sit as
members of the House of Lords to adjudicate in cases before
that House in its legal capacity, and also to aid the judicial
committee of the Privy Council in hearing appeals. Of the four
lords of appeal in ordinary one is usually appointed from the
Irish bench or bar and one from Scotland. Their salary is
6000 a year. They hold office on the same conditions as other
judges. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, under which they
are appointed, lords of appeal in ordinary are, by virtue of and
according to the date of their appointment, entitled during
life to rank as barons and during the time that they continue in
office are entitled to a writ of summons to attend, and to sit and
vote in the House of Lords. They are life peers only. The
patent of a lord of appeal in ordinary differs from that of a baron
in that he is not " created " but " nominated and appointed
to be a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary by the style of Baron."
LORD STEWARD, in England, an important official of the
king's household. He is always a member of the government,
a peer and a privy councillor. Up to 1782, the office was one of
considerable political importance and carried cabinet rank.
The lord steward receives his appointment from the sovereign
in person, and bears a white staff as the emblem and warrant of
his authority. He is the first dignitary of the court. In the
Statutes of Eltham he is called " the lord great master," but in
the Household Book of Queen Elizabeth " the lord steward,"
as before and since. In an act of Henry VIII. (1539) " for
placing of the lords," he is described as " the grand master or
lord steward of the king's most honourable household." He
presides at the Board of Green Cloth. 1 In his department are
the treasurer and comptroller of the household, who rank next
to him. These officials are usually peers or the sons of peers and
privy councillors. They sit at the Board of Green Cloth, carry
white staves, and belong to the ministry. But the duties which
in theory belong to the lord steward, treasurer and comptroller
of the household are in practice performed by the master of the
household, who is a permanent officer and resides in the palace.
He is a white-staff officer and a member of the Board of Green
Cloth but not of the ministry, and among other things he pre-
sides at the daily dinners of the suite in waiting on the sovereign.
In his case history repeats itself. He is not named in the Black
Book of Edward IV. or in the Statutes of Henry VIII., and
is entered as " master of the household and clerk of the green
cloth " in the Household Book of Queen Elizabeth. But he has
superseded the lord steward of the household, as the lord steward
of the household at one time superseded the lord high steward
of England.
In the lord steward's department are the officials of the Board
of Green Cloth, the coroner (" coroner of the verge "),and pay-
master of the household, and the officers of the almonry (see
ALMONER). Other offices in the department were those of the
cofferer of the household, the treasurer of the chamber, and the
paymaster of pensions, but these, with six clerks of the Board of
Green Cloth, were abolished in 1782. The lord steward had
formerly three courts besides the Board of Green Cloth under
him. First, the lord steward's court, superseded (1541) by
second the Marshalsea court, a court of record having jurisdic-
tion, both civil and criminal within the verge (the area within a
radius of 12 m. from where the sovereign is resident), and
originally held for the purpose of administering justice between
the domestic servants of the sovereign, " that they might not
be drawn into other courts and their service lost." Its criminal
*A committee of the king's household, consisting of the lord
steward and his subordinates, charged with the duty of examining
and passing all the accounts of the Household. The board had also
power to punish all offenders within the verge or jurisdiction of the
palace, which extended in every direction for 200 yds. from the gates
of the court yard. The name is derived from the green-covered table
at which the transactions of the board were originally conducted.
jurisdiction had long fallen into disuse and its civil jurisdiction
was abolished in 1849. Third, the palace court, created by letters
patent in 1612 and renewed in 1665 with jurisdiction over all
personal matters arising between parties within 12 m. of White-
hall (the jurisdiction of the Marshalsea court, the City of London,
and Westminster Hall being excepted). It differed from the
Marshalsea court in that it had no jurisdiction over the sovereign's
household nor were its suitors necessarily of the household.
The privilege of practising before the palace court was limited
to four counsel. It was abolished in 1849. The lord steward or
his deputies formerly administered the oaths to the members
of the House of Commons. In certain cases (messages from the
sovereign under the sign-manual) " the lords with white staves"
are the proper persons to bear communications between the
sovereign and the houses of parliament.
AUTHORITIES. Statutes of Eltham; Household Book of Queen
Elizabeth; Coke, Institutes; Reeves, History of the Law of England;
Stephen, Commentaries on the Laws of England; Hatsell, Precedents
of Proceedings in the House of Commons; May, Parliamentary
Practice.
LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446), baron of Ivry in Nor-
mandy and a French commander, was born at the chateau of
Lore (Orne, arrondissement of Domfront). His first exploit in
arms was at the battle of Agincourt in 1415; he followed the
party of the Armagnacs and attached himself to the dauphin
Charles. He waged continual warfare against the English in
Maine until the advent of Joan of Arc. He fought at Jargeau,
at Meung-sur-Loire and at Patay (1429). Using his fortress
of Saint Ceneri as a base of operations during the next few years,
he seized upon Matthew Gough near Vivoin in 143 1 , and made an
incursion as far as the walls of Caen, whence he brought away
three thousand prisoners. Taken captive himself in 1433, he
was exchanged for Talbot. In 1435 he and Dunois defeated
the English near Meulan, and in 1436 he helped the constable
Arthur, earl of Richmond (de Richmond), to expel them from
Paris. He was appointed provost of Paris in February 1437,
and in 1438 he was made " judge and general reformer of the
malefactors of the kingdom." He was present in 1439 at the
taking of Meaux, in 1441 at that of Pontoise, and he died on the
24th of May 1446.
See the Nouvelle Biographie Generate, vol. xxxi., and the Revue
Historique du Maine, vols. iii. and vi. (]. V.*)
LORE, properly instruction, teaching, knowledge. The O. Eng.
l&r, as the Dutch leer and Ger. Lehre, represents the Old Teutonic
root, meaning to impart or receive knowledge, seen in " to
learn," " learning." In the Gentleman's Magazine for June
1830 it was suggested that " lore " should be used as a termination
instead of the Greek derivative -ology in the names of the various
sciences. This was never done, but the word, both as termination
and alone, is frequently applied to the many traditional beliefs,
stories, &c., connected with the body of knowledge concerning
some special subject; e.g. legendary lore, bird-lore, &c. The
most familiar use is in " folk-lore " (<?..).
LORELEI (from Old High Ger. Lur, connected with modern
Ger. lauern, " to lurk," " be on the watch for," and equivalent
to elf, and lai, " a rock "). The Lorelei is a rock in the Rhine
near St Goar, which gives a remarkable echo, which may partly
account for the legend. The tale appears in many forms, but is
best known through Heinrich Heine's poem, beginning Ich
weiss nicht was soil es bedeuten. In the commonest form of the
story the Lorelei is a maiden who threw herself into the Rhine
in despair over a faithless lover, and became a siren whose voice
lured fishermen to destruction. The 13th-century minnesinger,
known as Der Marner, says that the Nibelungen treasure was
hidden beneath the rock. The tale is obviously closely con-
nected with the myth of Holda, queen of the elves. On the Main
she sits combing her locks on the Hullenstein, and the man
who sees her loses sight or reason, while he who listens is con-
demned to wander with her for ever. The legend, which Clemens
Brentano claimed as his own invention when he wrote his poem
" Zu Bacharach am Rheine " in his novel of Godwi (1802), bears
all the marks of popular mythology. In the igth century it
formed material for a great number of songs, dramatic sketches,
LORETO
operas and even tragedies, which are enumerated by Dr Hermann
Seeliger in his Loreleysage in Dichtung und Musik (Leipzig-
Reudnitz, 1898). The favourite poem with composers was
Heine's, set to music by some twenty-five musicians, the settings
by Friedrich Silcher (from an old folk-song) and by Liszt being
the most famous.
LORETO, an episcopal see and pilgrimage resort of the Marches,
Italy, in the province of Ancona, 15 m. by rail S.S.E. of that
town. Pop. (1901) 1178 (town), 8033 (commune). It lies
upon the right bank of the Musone, at some distance from the
railway station, on a hill-side commanding splendid views from
the Apennines to the Adriatic, 341 ft. above sea-level. The town
itself consists of little more than one long narrow street, lined
with shops for the sale of rosaries, medals, crucifixes and similar
objects, the manufacture of which is the sole industry of the place.
The number of pilgrims is said to amount to 50,000 annually,
the chief festival being held on the 8th of September, the
Nativity of the Virgin. The principal buildings, occupying the
four sides of the piazza, are the college of the Jesuits, the Palazzo
Apostolico, now Reale (designed by Bramante), which contains
a picture gallery with works of Lorenzo Lotto, Vouet and
Caracci and a collection of majolica, and the cathedral church
of the Holy House (Chiesa della Casa Santa), a Late Gothic
structure continued by Giuliano da Maiano, Giuliano da Sangallo
and Bramante. The handsome facade of the church was erected
under Sixtus V.,who fortified Loretoand gave it the privileges
of a town (1586); his colossal statue stands in the middle of the
flight of steps in front. Over the principal doorway is a life-size
bronze statue of the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo;
the three superb bronze doors executed at the latter end of the
i6th century and under Paul V. (1605-1621) are also by Lom-
bardo, his sons and his pupils, among them Tiburzio Vergelli,
who also made the fine bronze font in the interior. The doors
and hanging lamps of the Santa Casa are by the same artists.
The richly decorated campanile, by Vanvitelli, is of great height;
the principal bell, presented by Leo X. in 1516, weighs n tons.
The interior of the church has mosaics by Domenichino and Guido
Reni and other works of art. In the sacristies on each side of
the right transept are frescoes, on the right by Melozzo da Forli,
on the left by Luca Signorelli. In both are fine intarsias.
But the chief object of interest is the Holy House itself. It
is a plain stone building, 28 ft. by 12$ and 13 J ft. in height;
it has a door on the north side and a window on the west;
and a niche contains a small black image of the Virgin and Child,
in Lebanon cedar, and richly adorned with jewels. St Luke is
alleged to have been the sculptor; its workmanship suggests
the latter half of the isth century. Around the Santa Casa is a
lofty marble screen, designed by Bramante, and executed under
Popes Leo X., Clement VII. and Paul III., by Andrea Sansovino,
Girolamo Lombardo, Bandinelli, Guglielmo della Porta and
others. The four sides represent the Annunciation, the Nativity,
the Arrival of the Santa Casa at Loreto and the Nativity of the
Virgin respectively. The treasury contains a large variety of
rich and curious votive offerings. The architectural design is
finer than the details of the sculpture. The choir apse is decorated
with modern German frescoes, which are somewhat out of place.
The legend of the Holy House seems to have sprung up (how
is not exactly known) at the close of the crusading period.
It is briefly referred to in the Italia Illustrata of Flavius
Blondus, secretary to Popes Eugenius IV., Nicholas V.,
Calixtus III. and Pius II. (ob. 1464); it is to be read in all its
fullness in the " Redemptoris mundi Matris Ecclesiae Lauretana
historia," by a certain Teremannus, contained in the Opera Omnia
(1576) of Baptista Mantuanus. According to this narrative the
house at Nazareth in which Mary had been born and brought up,
had received the annunciation, and had lived during the childhood
of Jesus and after His ascension, was converted into a church
by the apostles. In 336 the empress Helena made a pilgrimage
to Nazareth and caused a basilica to be erected over it, in which
worship continued until the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
Threatened with destruction by the Turks, it was carried by
angels through the air and deposited (1291) in the first instance
on a hill at Tersatto in Dalmatia, where an appearance of the
Virgin and numerous miraculous cures attested its sanctity,
which was confirmed by investigations made at Nazareth by
messengers from the governor of Dalmatia. In 1294 the angels
carried it across the Adriatic to a wood near Recanati ; from this
wood (lauretum), or from the name of its proprietrix (Laureta),
the chapel derived the name which it still retains (" sacellum
gloriosae Virginis in Laureto "). From this spot it was after-
wards (1295) removed to the present hill, one other slight
adjustment being required to fix it in its actual site. Bulls in
favour of the shrine at Loreto were issued by Pope Sixtus IV.
in 1491 and by Julius II. in 1507, the last alluding to the trans-
lation of the house with some caution (" ut pie creditur et fama
est "). The recognition of the sanctuary by subsequent pontiffs
has already been alluded to. In the end of the I7th century
Innocent XII. appointed a " missa cum officio proprio" for the
feast of the Translation of the Holy House, and the feast is
still enjoined in the Spanish Breviary as a " greater double "
(December 10).
See also U. Chevalier, Notre-Dame de Lorelte (Paris, 1906).
LORETO, an inland department of Peru, lying E. of the
Andean Cordilleras and forming the N.E. part of the republic.
Extensive territories, nominally parts of this department, are in
dispute between Peru and the neighbouring republics of Brazil,
Colombia and Ecuador (see PERU), and the northern and eastern
boundaries of the territory are therefore not definitely determined.
Loreto is bounded W. by the departments of Amazonas and San
Martin (the latter a new department, with an area of 30,744 sq. m. ,
taken from Loreto, lying between the central and eastern
Cordilleras and extending from the 6th to the gth parallels,
approximately), and S. by Hu&nuco and Cuzco. The area of the
department, including the territories claimed by Peru, is estimated
at 257,798 sq. m. The population is estimated (1906) at 120,000.
The aboriginal population is not numerous, as the thick, humid
forests are inhabited only where lakes and streams make open
spaces for sunlight and ventilation. With the exception of the
eastern Andean slopes and a little-known range of low mountains
on the Brazilian frontier, called the Andes Conomamas, the suiface
is that of a thickly wooded plain sloping gently towards the
Maranon, or Upper Amazon, which crosses it from W. to E.
There are open plains between the Ucayali and Huallaga, known
as the Pampas del Sacramento, but otherwise there are no
extensive breaks in the forest. The elevation of the plain near
the base of the Andes is 526 ft. on the Ucayali, 558 on the
Huallaga, and 453 at Barranca, on the Maranon, a few miles
below the Pongo de Manseriche. The eastward slope of the
plain is about 250 ft. in the 620 m. (direct) between this point
and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier; this not only shows
the remarkably level character of the Amazon valley of which it
forms a part, but also the sluggish character of its drainage.
From the S. the principal rivers traversing Loreto are the Ucayali
and Huallaga, the former entering from Cuzco across its southern
boundary and skirting the eastern base of the Andes for about
four degrees of latitude before it turns away to the N.E. to join the
Maranon, and the latter breaking through the Eastern Cordillera
between the 6th and 7th parallels and entering the Maranon
143 m. below Yurimaguas, where navigation begins. The lower
Ucayali, which has a very tortuous course, is said to have 868 m.
of navigable channel at high water and 620 m. at low water.
North of the Maranon several large rivers pass through Peruvian
territory between the Santiago and Napo (see ECUADOR) , nearly
all having navigable channels. On the level plains are a number
of lakes, some are formed by the annual floods and are temporary
in character. Among the permanent lakes are the Gran Cocama,
of the Pampas del Sacramento, the Caballococha a widening
of the Amazon itself about 60 m. N.W. of Tabatinga and
Rimachuma, on the north side of the Maranon, near the lower
Pastaza.
The natural resources of this extensive region are incalculable,
but their development has been well nigh impossible through
lack of transport facilities. They include the characteristic
woods of the Amazon valley, rubber, nuts, cinchona or Peruvian
8
LORIENT LORIS-MELIKOV
bark, medicinal products, fish, fruits and fibres. The cultivated
products include cocoa, coffee, tobacco and fruits. Straw hats and
hammocks are manufactured to some extent. The natural outlet
of this region is the Amazon river, but this involves 2500 m. of
river navigation from Iquitos before the ocean is reached.
Communication with the Pacific coast cities and ports of Peru
implies the crossing of three high, snow-covered ranges of the
Andes by extremely difficult trails and passes. A rough mountain
road has been constructed from Oroya to Puerto Bermudez, at
the head of navigation on the Pachitea, and is maintained by the
government pending the construction of a railway, but the
distance is 210 m. and it takes nine days for a mule train to make
the journey. At Puerto Bermudez a river steamer connects with
Iquitos, making the distance of 930 m. in seven days. From
Lima to Iquitos by this route, therefore, involves 17 days travel
over a distance of 1268 m. The most feasible route from the
department to the Pacific coast is that which connects Puerto
Limon, on the Maranon, with the Pacific port of Payta, a distance
of 410 m., it being possible to cross the Andes on this route at the
low elevation of 6600 ft. The climate of Loreto is hot and humid,
except on the higher slopes of the Andes. The year is divided
into a wet and a dry season, the first from May to October, and the
average annual rainfall is estimated at 70 in. though it varies
widely between distant points. The capital and only town of
importance in the department is Iquitos.
LORIENT, a maritime town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Morbihan, on the right
bank of the Scorff at its confluence with the Blavet, 34 m. W. by
N. of Vannes by rail. Pop. (1906) 40,848. The town is modern
and regularly built. Its chief objects of interest are the church
of St Louis (1709) and a statue by A. Mercie of Victor Masse, the
composer, born at Lorient in 1822. It is one of the five maritime
prefectures in France and the first port for naval construction in
the country. The naval port to the east of the town is formed by
the channel of the Scorff, on the right bank of which the chief
naval establishments are situated. These include magazines,
foundries, forges, fitting-shops, rope-works and other workshops
on the most extensive scale, as well as a graving dock, a covered
slip and other slips. A floating bridge connects the right bank
with the peninsula of Caudan formed by the union of the Scorff
and Blavet. Here are the shipbuilding yards covering some
38 acres, and comprising nine slips for large vessels and two others
for smaller vessels, besides forges and workshops for iron ship-
building. The commercial port to the south of the town consists
of an outer tidal port protected by a jetty and of an inner dock,
both lined by fine quays planted with trees. It separates the
older part of the town, which is hemmed in by fortifications from
a newer quarter. In 1905, 121 vessels of 28,785 tons entered
with cargo and 145 vessels of 38,207 tons cleared. The chief
export is pit-timber, the chief import is coal. Fishing is actively
carried on. Lorient is the seat of a sub-prefect, of commercial
and maritime tribunals and of a tribunal of first instance, and has
a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycee,
schools of navigation, and naval artillery. Private industry is
also engaged in iron-working and engine making. The trade in
fresh fish, sardines, oysters (which are reared near Lorient) and
tinned vegetables is important and the manufacture of basket-
work, tin-boxes and passementerie, and the preparation of
preserved sardines and vegetables are carried on. The road-
stead, formed by the estuary of the Blavet, is accessible to vessels
of the largest size; the entrance, 3 or 4 m. south from Lorient,
which is defended by numerous forts, is marked on the east by the
peninsula of Gavres (an artillery practising ground) and the
fortified town of Port Louis; on the west are the fort of Lpqueltas
and, higher up, the battery of Kernevel. In the middle of the
channel is the granite rock of St Michel, occupied by a powder
magazine. Opposite it, on the right bank of the Blavet, is the
mouth of the river Ter, with fish and oyster breeding establish-
ments from which 10 millions of oysters are annually obtained.
The roadstead is provided with six lighthouses. Above Lorient
on the Scorff, here spanned by a suspension bridge, is Kerentrech,
a pretty village surrounded by numerous country houses.
Lorient took the place of Port Louis as the port of the Blavet.
The latter stands on the site of an ancient hamlet which was
fortified during the wars of the League and handed over by
Philip Emmanuel, duke of Morcceur, to the Spaniards. After the
treaty of Vervins it was restored to France, and it received its
name of Port Louis under Richelieu. Some Breton merchants
trading with the Indies had established themselves first at Port
Louis, but in 1628 they built their warehouses on the other bank.
The Compagnie des Indes Orientales, created in 1664, took
possession of these, giving them the name of 1'Orient. In 1745
the Compagnie des Indes, then at the acme of its prosperity,
owned thirty-five ships of the largest class and many others of
considerable size. Its decadence dates from the English conquest
of India, and in 1770 its property was ceded to the state. In 1782
the town was purchased by Louis XVI. from its owners, the
Rohan-Guemene family. In 1746 the English under Admiral
Richard Lestock made an unsuccessful attack on Lorient.
LORINER, or LORIMER (from O. Fr. loremier or lorenier, a
maker of lorains, bridles, from Lat. lorum, thong, bridle; the
proper form is with the n; a similar change is found in Latimer
for Latiner, the title of an old official of the royal household, the
king's interpreter), one who makes bits and spurs and the metal
mountings for saddles and bridles; the term is also applied to a
worker in wrought iron and to a maker of small iron ware. The
word is now rarely used except as the name of one of the London
livery companies (see LIVERY COMPANY).
LORIS, a name of uncertain origin applied to the Indo-Malay
representatives of the lemurs, which, together with the African
pottos, constitute the section Nycticebinae of the family Nyctice-
bidae (see PRIMATES). From their extremely slow movements
and lethargic habits in the daytime these weird little creatures
are commonly called sloths by Anglo-Indians. Their soft fur,
huge staring eyes, rudimentary tails and imperfectly developed
index-fingers render lorises easy of recognition. The smallest
is the slender loris (Loris gracilis) of the forests of Madras and
Ceylon, a creature smaller than a squirrel. It is of such exceeding
strangeness and beauty that it might have been thought it
would be protected by the natives; but they hold it alive before
a fire till its beautiful eyes burst in order to afford a supposed
remedy for ophthalmia! The mainland and Cingalese animals
form distinct races. Both in this species and the slow loris
there is a pair of rudimentary abdominal teats in addition to
the normal pectoral pair. The slow loris (Nycticebus lardigradus)
is a heavier built and larger animal, ranging from eastern Bengal
to Cochin China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java and Sumatra.
There are several races, mostly grey in colour, but the Sumatran
N. t. hilleri is reddish. (R. L.*)
LORIS-MELIKOV, MICHAEL TARIELOVICH, COUNT (1825?-
88), Russian statesman, son of an Armenian merchant, was
born at Tiflis in 1825 or 1826, and educated in St Petersburg,
first in the Lazarev School of Oriental Languages, and afterwards
in the Guards' Cadet Institute. He joined a hussar regiment,
and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent to the Caucasus,
where he remained for more than twenty years, and made for
tiimself during troublous times the reputation of a distinguished
cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity,
though a keen soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warlike
and turbulent population committed to his charge for the
transition from military to normal civil administration, and in
this work his favourite instrument was the schoolmaster. In
he Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he commanded a separate
corps d'armee on the Turkish frontier in Asia Minor. After
:aking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Mukhtar
Pasha at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at
Aladja Dagh, took Kars by storm, and laid siege to Erzerum.
For these servic.es he received the title of Count. In the following
year he was appointed temporary governor-general of the region
of the Lower Volga, to combat an outbreak of the plague. The
measures he adopted proved so effectual that he was transferred
to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the Nihilists and
Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had
succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov. His
LORIUM LORRAINE
success in this struggle led to his being appointed chief of the
Supreme Executive Commission which had been created in
St Petersburg to deal with the revolutionary agitation in general.
Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed a decided preference for
the employment of ordinary legal methods rather than excep-
tional extra-legal measures, and an attempt on his own life soon
after he assumed office did not shake his convictions. In his
opinion the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by
removing the causes of popular discontent, and for this purpose
he recommended to the emperor a large scheme of administrative
and economic reforms. Alexander II., who was beginning to
lose faith in the efficacy of the simple method of police repression
hitherto employed, lent a willing ear to the suggestion; and
when the Supreme Commission was dissolved in August 1880,
he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of the Interior with
exceptional powers. The proposed scheme of reforms was at
once taken in hand, but it was never carried out. On the very
day in March 1881 that the emperor signed a ukaz creating
several commissions, composed of officials and eminent private
individuals, who should prepare reforms in various branches of
the administration, he was assassinated by Nihilist conspirators;
and his successor, Alexander III., at once adopted a strongly
reactionary policy. Count Loris-Melikov immediately resigned,
and lived in retirement until his death, which took place at Nice
on the zznd of December 1888. (D. M. W.)
LORIUM, an ancient village of Etruria, Italy, on the Via
Aurelia, 1 2 m. W. of Rome. Antoninus Pius, who was educated
here, afterwards built a palace, in which he died. It was also
a favourite haunt of Marcus Aurelius. Remains of ancient
buildings exist in the neighbourhood of the road on each side
(near the modern Castel di Guido) and remains of tombs, inscrip-
tions, &c., were excavated in 1823-1824. Two or three miles
farther west was probably the post-station of Bebiana, where
inscriptions show that some sailors of the fleet were stationed
no doubt a detachment of those at Centumcellae, which was
reached by this road.
LORRACH, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, in the
valley of the Wiese, 6 m. by rail N.E. of Basel. Pop. (1905)
10,794. It is the seat of considerable industry, its manufactures
including calico, shawls, cloth, silk, chocolate, cotton, ribbons,
hardware and furniture, and has a trade in wine, fruit and
timber. There is a fine view from the neighbouring Schutzenhaus,
1085 ft. high. In the neighbourhood also is the castle of Rotteln,
formerly the residence of the counts of Hachberg and of the
margraves of Baden; this was destroyed by the French in 1678,
but was rebuilt in 1867. Lorrach received market rights in
1403, but did not obtain municipal privileges until 1682.
See Hochstetter, Die Stadt Lorrach (Lorrach, 1882).
LORRAINE, one of the former provinces of France. The
name has designated different districts in different periods.
Lotharingia, or Lothringen, i.e. regnum Lotharii, is derived
from the Lotharingi or Lotharienses (O.G. Lotheringen, Fr.
Loherains, Lorrains), a term applied originally to the Prankish
subjects of Lothair, but restricted at the end of the 9th century
to those who dwelt north of the southern Vosges.
Lorraine in Medieval Times. The original kingdom of Lorraine
was the northern part of the territories allotted by the treaty
of Verdun (August 843) to the emperor Lothair I., and in 855
formed the inheritance of his second son, King Lothair. This
kingdom of Lorraine was situated between the realms of the
East and the West Franks, and originally extended along the
North Sea between the mouths of the Rhine and the Ems,
including the whole or part of Frisia and the cities on the right
bank of the Rhine. From Bonn the frontier followed the Rhine
as far as its confluence with the Aar, which then became the
boundary, receding from the left bank in the neighbourhood
of Bingen so as to leave the cities of Worms and Spires to
Germany, and embracing the duchy of Alsace. After crossing
the Jura, the frontier joined the Sa6ne a little south of its con-
fluence with the Doubs, and followed the Sa6ne for some distance,
and finally the valleys of the Meuse and the Scheldt. Thus the
kingdom roughly comprised the region watered by the Moselle
and the Meuse, together with the dioceses of Cologne, Trier,
Metz, Toul, Verdun, Liege and Cambrai, Basel, Strassburg
and Besancon, and corresponded to what is now Holland and
Belgium, parts of Rhenish Prussia, of Switzerland, and of the old
province of Franche-Comt6, and to the district known later as
Upper Lorraine, or simply Lorraine. Though apparently of
an absolutely artificial character, this kingdom corresponded
essentially to the ancient Francia, the cradle of the Carolingian
house, and long retained a certain unity. It was to the in-
habitants of this region that the name of Lotharienses or Lotharingi
was primitively applied, although the word Lotharingia, as the
designation of the country, only appears in the middle of the
xoth century.
The reign of King Lothair (?..), which was continually
disturbed by quarrels with his uncles, Charles the Bald and
Louis the German, and by the difficulties caused by the divorce
of his queen Teutberga, whom he had forsaken for a concubine
called Waldrada, ended on the 8th of August 869. His inherit-
ance was disputed by his uncles, and was divided by the treaty
of Meersen (8th of August 870), by which Charles the Bald
received part of the province of Besancon and some land between
the Moselle and the Meuse. Then for a time the emperor Charles
the Fat united under his authority the whole of the kingdom
of Lorraine with the rest of the Carolingian empire. After the
deposition of Charles in 888 Rudolph, king of Burgundy, got
himself recognized in Lorraine. He was unable to maintain
himself there, and succeeded in detaching definitively no more
than the province of Besancon. Lorraine remained in the
power of the emperor Arnulf, who in 895 constituted it a distinct
kingdom in favour of his son Zwentibold. Zwentibold quickly
became embroiled with the nobles and the bishops, and especially
with Bishop Radbod of Trier. Among the lay lords the most
important was Regnier (incorrectly called Long-neck), count of
Hesbaye and Hainault, who is styled duke by the Lotharingian
chronicler Reginon, though he does not appear ever to have
borne the title. In 898 Zwentibold stripped Regnier of his
fiefs, whereupon the latter appealed to the king of France,
Charles the Simple, whose intervention, however, had no enduring
effect. After the death of Arnulf in 899, the Lotharingians
appealed to his successor, Louis the Child, to replace Zwentibold,
who, on the I3th of August ooo, was killed in battle. In spite
of the dissensions which immediately arose between him and the '
Lotharingian lords, Louis retained the kingdom till his death.
The Lotharingians, however, refused to recognize the new
German king, Conrad I., and testified their attachment to the
Carolingian house by electing as sovereign the king of the West
Franks, Charles the Simple. Charles was at first supported
by Giselbert, son and successor of Regnier, but was abandoned
by his ally, who in 919 appealed to the German king, Henry I.
The struggle ended in the treaty of Bonn (921), by which appar-
ently the rights of Charles over Lorraine were recognized. The
revolt of the Prankish lords in 922 and the captivity of Charles
finally settled the question. After an unsuccessful attack by
Rudolph or Raoul, king of France, Henry became master of
Lorraine in 925, thanks to the support of Giselbert, whom he
rewarded with the hand of his daughter Gerberga and the title
of duke of Lorraine. Giselbert at first remained faithful to
Henry's son, Otto the Great, but in 938 he appears to have
joined the revolt directed against Otto by Eberhard, duke of
Franconia. In 939, in concert with Eberhard and Otto's
brother, Henry of Saxony, he declared open war against Otto
and appealed to Louis d'Outremer, who penetrated into Lorraine
and Alsace, but was soon called back to France by the revolt
of the count of Vermandois. In the same year Giselbert and
Eberhard were defeated and killed near Andernach, and Otto
at once made himself recognized in the whole of Lorraine, securing
it by a treaty with Louis d'Outremer, who married Giselbert's
widow Gerberga, and entrusting the government of it to Count
Otto, son of Ricuin, until Giselbert's son Henry should have
attained his majority.
After the deaths of the young Henry and Count Otto in 944,
Otto the Great gave Lorraine to Conrad the Red, duke of
IO
LORRAINE
Franconia, the husband of his daughter Liutgard, a choice which
was not completely satisfactory to the Lotharingians. In
953 Conrad, in concert with Liudulf, the son of the German
king, revolted against Otto, but was abandoned by his supporters.
Otto stripped Conrad of his duchy, and in 954 gave the govern-
ment of it to his own brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne.
Bruno had to contend against the efforts of the last Carolingians
of France to make good their claims on Lorraine, as well as
against the spirit of independence exhibited by the Lotharingian
nobles; and his attempts to raze certain castles built by brigand
lords and to compel them to respect their oath of fidelity
resulted in serious sedition. To obviate these difficulties Bruno
divided the ducal authority, assigning Lower Lorraine to a certain
Duke Godfrey, who was styled dux Ripuariorum, and Upper
Lorraine to Frederick (d. 959), count of Bar, a member of the
house of Ardenne and son-in-law of Hugh the Great, with the
title of dux Mosellanorum; and it is probable that the partition
of the ancient kingdom of Lorraine into two new duchies was
confirmed by Otto after Bruno's death in 965. In 977 the
emperor Otto II. gave the government of Lower Lorraine to
Charles I., a younger son of Louis d'Outremer, on condition
that that prince should acknowledge himself his vassal and
should oppose any attempt of his brother Lothair on Lorraine.
The consequent expedition of the king of France in 978 against
Aix-la-Chapelle had no enduring result, and Charles retained
his duchy till his death about 992. He left two sons, Otto,
who succeeded him and died without issue, and Henry, who
is sometimes regarded as the ancestor of the landgraves of
Thuringia. The duchy of Lower Lorraine, sometimes called
Lothier (Lotharium) , was then given to Godfrey (d. 1023), son of
Count Godfrey of Verdun, and for some time the history of
Lorraine is the history of the attempts made by the dukes of
Lothier to seize Upper Lorraine. Gothelon (d. 1043) , son of Duke
Godfrey, obtained Lorraine at the death of Frederick II., duke of
Upper Lorraine, in 1027, and victoriously repulsed the incursions
of Odo (Eudes) of Blois, count of Champagne, who was defeated
and killed in a battle near Bar (1037). At Gothelon's death in
1043, his son Godfrey the Bearded received from the emperor
only Lower Lorraine, his brother Gothelon II. obtaining Upper
Lorraine. Godfrey attempted to seize the upper duchy, but was
defeated and imprisoned in 1045. On the death of Gothelon
in 1046, Godfrey endeavoured to take Upper Lorraine from
Albert of Alsace, to whom it had been granted by the emperor
Henry III. The attempt, however, also failed; and Godfrey
was for some time deprived of his own duchy of Lower Lorraine
in favour of Frederick of Luxemburg. Godfrey took part in the
struggles of Pope Leo IX. against the Normans in Italy, and in
1053 married Beatrice, daughter of Duke Frederick of Upper
Lorraine and widow of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany. On the
death of Frederick of Luxemburg in 1065 the emperor Henry IV.
restored the duchy of Lower Lorraine to Godfrey, who retained
it till his death in 1069, when he was succeeded by his son Godfrey
the Hunchback (d. 1076), after whose death Henry IV. gave the
duchy to Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the first crusade, son
of Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Ida, sister of Godfrey the
Hunchback. On the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in noo
Lower Lorraine was given to Henry, count of Limburg. The
new duke supported the emperor Henry IV. in his struggles
with his sons, and in consequence was deposed by the emperor
Henry V., who gave the duchy in 1 106 to Godfrey, count of
Louvain, a descendant of the Lotharingian dukes of the beginning
of the loth century. This Godfrey was the first hereditary duke
of Brabant, as the dukes of Lower Lorraine came to be called.
Upper Lorraine. The duchy of Upper Lorraine, or Lorraine
MoseUana, to which the name of Lorraine was restricted from
the nth century, consisted of a tract of undulating country
watered by the upper course of the Meuse and Moselle, and
bounded N. by the Ardennes, S. by the table-land of Langres,
E. by the Vosges and W. by Champagne. Its principal fiefs
were the countship of Bar which Otto the Great gave in 951
to Count Frederick of Ardenne, and which passed in 1093 to the
lords of Montbeliard; the countship of Chiny, formed at the end
of the loth century, of which, since the I3th, Montmedy was
the capital; the lordship of Commercy, whose rulers bore the
special title of damoiseau, and which passed in the i3th century
to the house of Saarebrucken; and, finally the three important
ecclesiastical lordships of the bishops of Metz, Toul and Verdun.
Theodoric, or Thierri (d. 1026), son of Frederick, count of Bar
and first duke of Upper Lorraine, was involved in a war with the
emperor Henry II., a war principally remarkable for the siege
of Metz (1007). After having been the object of numerous
attempts on the part of the dukes of Lower Lorraine, Upper
Lorraine was given by the emperor Henry III. to Albert of Alsace,
and passed in 1048 to Albert's brother Gerard, who died by
poison in 1069, and who was the ancestor of the hereditary
house of Lorraine. Until the isth century the representatives
of the hereditary house were Theodoric II., called the Valiant
(1069-1115), Simon (1115-1139), Matthew(i 139-1 176), Simon II.
(i 176-1205), Ferri I. (1205-1206), Ferri II. (1206-1213), Theobald
(Thibaut) I. (1213-1220), Matthew II. (1220-1251), Ferri III.
(1251-1304), Theobald II. (1304-1312), Ferri IV., called the
Struggler (1312-1328), Rudolph, or Raoul (1328-1346), John
(1346-1391) and Charles II. or I., called the Bold (1391-1431).
The 1 2th century and the first part of the I3th were occupied
with wars against the counts of Bar and Champagne. Theobald
I. intervened in Champagne to support Erard of Brienne against
the young count Theobald IV. The regent of Champagne,
Blanche of Navarre, succeeded in forming against the duke of
Lorraine a coalition consisting of the count of Bar and the
emperor Frederick II., who had become embroiled with Theobald
over the question of Rosheim in Alsace. Attacked by the
emperor, the duke of Lorraine was forced at the treaty of Amance
(1218) to acknowledge himself the vassal of the count of Cham-
pagne, and to support the count in his struggles against his
ancient ally the count of Bar. The long government of Ferri III.
was mainly occupied with wars against the feudal lords and the
bishop of Metz, which resulted in giving an impulse to the
municipal movement through Ferri's attempt to use the move-
ment as a weapon against the nobles. The majority of the
municipal charters of Lorraine were derived from the charter
of Beaumont in Argonne, which was at first extended to the
Barrois and was granted by Ferri, in spite of the hostility of
his barons, to La Neuveville in 1257, to Frouard in 1263 and to
Luneville in 1265. In the church lands the bishops of Toul and
Metz granted liberties from the end of the i2th century to the
communes in their lordship, but not the Beaumont charter,
which, however, obtained in the diocese of Verdun in the I4th
and isth centuries.
By the will of Duke Charles the Bold, Lorraine was to pass
to his daughter Isabella, who married Rene of Anjou, duke of
Bar, in 1420. But Anthony of Vaudemont, Charles's nephew
and heir male, disputed this succession with Rene, who obtained
from the king of France an army commanded by Arnault
Guilhem de Barbazan. Ren6, however, was defeated and taken
prisoner at the battle of Bulgneville, where Barbazan was
killed (2nd of July 1431). The negotiations between Rene's
wife and Anthony had no result, in spite of the intervention
of the council of Basel and the emperor Sigismund, and it was
not until 1436 that Rene obtained his liberty by paying a
ransom of 200,000 crowns, and was enabled to dispute with
Alfonso of Aragon the kingdom of Naples, which he had inherited
in the previous year. In 1444 Charles VII. of France and the
dauphin Louis went to Lorraine, accompanied by envoys from
Henry VI. of England, and procured a treaty (confirmed at
Chalons in 1445), by which Yolande, Rene's eldest daughter,
married Anthony's son, Ferri of Vaudemont, and Rene's second
daughter Margaret became the wife of Henry VI. of England.
After his return to Lorraine in 1442, Rene was seldom in the
duchy. Like his successor John, duke of Calabria, who died
in 1470, he was continually occupied with expeditions in Italy
or in Spain. John's son and successor, Nicholas (d. 1473), who
supported the duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, against
the king of France, died without children, and his heir was
Ren6, son of Frederick of Vaudemont. The duke of Burgundy,
LORRAINE
ii
however, disputed this inheritance, and carried off the young
Rene and his mother, but on the intervention of Louis XI. had
to set them at liberty. Ren6 helped the Swiss during their
wars with Charles the Bold, who invaded Lorraine and was
killed under the walls of Nancy (1477). Rene's last years
were mainly spent in expeditions in Provence and Italy. He
died in 1508, leaving by his second wife three sons Anthony,
called the Good, who succeeded him; Claude, count (and
afterwards duke) of Guise, the ancestor of the house of Guise;
and John (d. 1 5 50) , known as the cardinal of Lorraine. Anthony,
who was declared of age at his father's death by the estates
of Lorraine, although his mother had tried to seize the power
as regent, had been brought up from the age of twelve at the
French court, where he became the friend of Louis XII., whom
he accompanied on his Italian expeditions. In 1525 he had to
defend Lorraine against the revolted Alsatian peasants known
as rustauds (boors), whom he defeated at Lupstein and Scher-
weiler; and he succeeded in maintaining a neutral position in
the struggle between Francis I. of France and the emperor
Charles V. He died on the I4th of June 1 544, and was succeeded
by his son Francis I., who died of apoplexy (August 1545) at
the very moment when he was negotiating peace between the
king of France and the emperor.
Lorraine in Modern Times. Francis's son Charles III. or II.,
called the Great, succeeded under the tutelage of his mother
and Nicholas of Vaudemont, bishop of Metz. Henry II. of
France took this opportunity to invade Lorraine, and in 1552
seized the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun. In the
same year the emperor laid siege to Metz, but was forced to
retreat with heavy loss before the energetic resistance of Duke
Francis of Guise. On leaving Lorraine, Henry II. took Charles
to France, brought him up at the court and married him to his
daughter Claude. After the accession of Francis II., the young
duke returned to Lorraine, and, while his cousins the Guises
endeavoured to make good the claims of the house of Lorraine
to the crown of France by virtue of its descent from the Carolin-
gians through Charles, the son of Louis d'Outremer, he devoted
himself mainly to improving the administration of his duchy.
He reconstituted his domain by revoking the alienations irregu-
larly granted by his predecessors, instructed his chambre des
comptes to institute inquiries on this subject, and endeavoured to
ameliorate the condition of industry and commerce by re-
organizing the working of the mines and saltworks, unifying
weights and measures and promulgating edicts against vagabonds.
His duchy suffered considerably from the passage of German
bands on their way to help the Protestants in France, and also
from disturbances caused by the progress of Calvinism,
especially in the neighbourhood of the three bishoprics. To
combat Calvinism Charles had recourse to the Jesuits, whom
he established at Pont-a-Mousson, and to whom he gave over
the university he had founded in that town in 1572. To this
foundation he soon added chairs of medicine and law, the first
professor of civil law being the mattre des requites, the Scotsman
William Barclay, and the next Gregory of Toulouse, a pupil
of the jurist Cujas. Charles died on the i4th of May 1608, and
was succeeded by his eldest son Henry II., called the Good,
who rid Lorraine of the German bands and died in 1624 without
issue.
Henry was succeeded by his brother Francis II., who abdicated
on the 26th of November 1624 in favour of his son Charles IV.
or III. At the beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. Charles
embroiled himself with France by harbouring French malcontents.
Louis entered Lorraine, and by the treaty of Vic (3ist of
December 1631) bound over Charles to desist from supporting
the enemies of France, and compelled him to cede the fortress
of Marsal. Charles's breach of this treaty led to a renewal of
hostilities, and the French troops occupied St Mihiel, Bar-le-duc,
Pont-a-Mousson and Nancy, which the duke was forced to cede
for four years (1633). In 1632, by the treaty of Liverdun, he
had already had to abandon the fortresses of Stenay and Clermont
in Argonne. On the igth of January 1634 he abdicated in
favour of his younger brother Francis Nicholas, cardinal of
Lorraine, and withdrew to Germany, the parlement of Paris
declaring him guilty of rebellion and confiscating his estates.
After vain attempts to regain his estates with the help of the
emperor, he decided to negotiate with France; and the treaty
of St Germain (29th of March 1641) re-established him in his
duchy on condition that he should cede Nancy, Stenay and
other fortresses until the general peace. This treaty he soon
broke, joining the Imperialists in the Low Countries and defeating
the French at Tuttlingen (December 1643). He was restored,
however, to his estates in 1644, and took part in the wars of the
Fronde. He was arrested at Brussels in 1654, imprisoned at
Toledo and did not recover his liberty until the peace of the
Pyrenees in 1659. On the 28th of February 1661 the duchies
of Lorraine and Bar were restored to him by the treaty of
Vincennes, on condition that he should demolish the fortifications
of Nancy and cede Clermont, Saarburg and Pfalzburg. In
1662 Hugues de Lionne negotiated with him the treaty of
Montmartre, by which Charles sold the succession to the duchy
to Louis XIV. for a life-rent; but the Lorrainers, perhaps
with the secret assent of their prince, refused to ratify the treaty.
Charles, too, was accused of intriguing with the Dutch, and was
expelled from his estates, Marshal de Crequi occupying Lorraine.
He withdrew to Germany, and in 1673 took an active part in
the coalition of Spain, the Empire and Holland against France.
After an unsuccessful invasion of Franche-Comte he took his
revenge by defeating Cre'qui at Conzer Briicke (nth of August
1675) and forcing him to capitulate at Trier. On the i8th of
September 1675 died this adventurous prince, who, as Voltaire
said, passed his life in losing his estates. His brother Francis,
in favour of whom he had abdicated, was a cardinal at the age of
nineteen and subsequently bishop of Toul, although he had
never taken orders. He obtained a dispensation to marry his
cousin, Claude of Lorraine, and died in 1670. He had one son,
Charles, who in 1675 took the title of duke of Lorraine and was
recognized by all the powers except France. After an unsuccess-
ful attempt to seize Lorraine in 1676, Charles vainly solicited
the throne of Poland, took an active part in the wars in Hungary,
and married Eleanor of Austria, sister of the emperor Leopold I.,
in 1678. At the treaty of Nijmwegen France proposed to restore
his estates on condition that he should abandon a part of them ;
but Charles refused, and passed the rest of his life in Austria,
where he took part in the wars against the Turks, whom he
defeated at Mohacz (1687). He died in 1690.
Leopold, Charles's son and -successor, was restored to his
estates by the treaty of Ryswick (1697), but had to dismantle
all the fortresses in Lorraine and to disband his army with the
exception of his guard. Under his rule Lorraine flourished.
While diminishing the taxes, he succeeded in augmenting
his revenues by wise economy. The population increased
enormously during his reign that of Nancy, for instance,
almost trebling itself between the years 1699 and 1 735. Leopold
welcomed French immigrants, and devoted himself to the
development of commerce and industry, particularly to the
manufacture of stuffs and lace, glass and paper. He was respon-
sible, too, for the compilation of a body of law which was known
as the " Code Leopold." Some time after his death, which
occurred on the 27th of March 1729, his heir Francis III. was
betrothed to Maria Theresa of Austria, the daughter and heiress
of the emperor Charles VI. France, however, could not admit
the possibility of a union of Lorraine with the Empire; and in
r 73S> at the preliminaries of Vienna, Louis XV. negotiated an
arrangement by which Francis received the duchy of Tuscany,
which was vacant by the death of the last Medici, in exchange
for Lorraine, and Stanislaus Leszczynski, the dethroned king of
Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV., obtained Lorraine, which
after his death would pass to his daughter in other words,
to France. These arrangements were confirmed by the treaty
of Vienna (i8th of November 1738). In 1736, by a secret agree-
ment, Stanislaus had abandoned the financial administration
of his estates to Louis XV. for a yearly subsidy. The intendant,
Chaumont de la Galaiziere, was instructed to apply the French
system of taxation in Lorraine; and in spite of the severity of
LORTZING LOS ANGELES
the administration Lorraine preserved a grateful memory of
the good king Stanislaus, who held his brilliant little court at
Luneville, and founded an academy and several libraries and
hospitals. At his death in February 1766 the two duchies of
Lorraine and Bar became definitively incorporated in the
kingdom of France. The treaties of 1735 and 1736, however,
guaranteed their legislation, the privileges enjoyed by the three
orders, and their common law and customs tariffs, which they
retained until the French Revolution. Lorraine and Barrois
formed a large government corresponding, together with the
little government of the three bishoprics, to the intendance of
Lorraine and the generality of Metz. For legal purposes, Metz
had been the seat of a parlement since 1633, and the parlement
of Nancy was created in 1776. There was, too, a chambre des
comptes at Metz, and another at Bar-le-duc. (For the later
history see ALSACE-LORRAINE.)
See Dom. A. Calmet, Histoire ecclesiastique et civile de Lorraine
(2nd ed., Nancy, i_747-?757); A. Bigot, Histoire de Lorraine (1879-
1880); E. Huhn, Geschichte Lothringens (Berlin, 1877); R. Parisot,
Le Royaume de Lorraine sous les Carolingiens (Paris, 1899); Comte
D'Haussonville, Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France
(2nd ed., Paris, 1860); E. Bonvalot, Histoire du droit et des insti-
tutions de la Lorraine et des Trois-Eveches (Paris, 1895); and E.
Duvernoy , Les Etats Generaux des duches de Lorraine et de Barjusqu'a
la majorite de Charles III. (Paris, 1904) (R. Po.)
LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT (1801-1851), German composer,
was born at Berlin on the 23rd of October 1801. Both his
parents were actors, and when he was nineteen the son began
to play youthful lover at the theatres of Dusseldorf and Aachen,
sometimes also singing in small tenor or baritone parts. His
first opera Alt Pascha von Jannina appeared in 1824, but his
fame as a musician rests chiefly upon the two operas Der Wild-
schiitz (1842) and Czar und Zimmermann (1837). The latter,
although now regarded as one of the masterpieces of German
comic opera, was received with little enthusiasm by the public
of Leipzig.* Subsequent performance in Berlin, however, provoked
such a tempest of applause that the opera was soon placed on
all the stages of Germany. It was translated into English,
French, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Bohemian, Hungarian and
Russian. Der Wildschillz was based on a comedy of Kotzebue,
and was a satire on the unintelligent and exaggerated admiration
for the highest beauty in art expressed by the bourgeois gentil-
homme. Of his other operas it is only necessary to note Der
Pole und sein Kind, produced shortly after the Polish insurrection
of 1831, and Undine (1845). Lortzing died at Berlin on the
zist of January 1851.
LORY, CHARLES (1823-1889), French geologist, was born
at Nantes on the 3Oth of July 1823. He graduated D. es Sc.
in 1847; in 1852 he was appointed to the chair of geology at
the University of Grenoble, and in 1881 to that of the Ecole
Normale Suptrieure in Paris. He was distinguished for his
researches on the geology of the French Alps, being engaged on
the geological survey of the departments of Isere, Dr6me and
the Hautes Alpes, of which he prepared the maps and explanatory
memoirs. He dealt with some of the disturbances in the Savoy
Alps, describing the fan-like structures, and confirming the views
of J. A. Favre with regard to the overthrows, reversals and
duplication of the strata. His contributions to geological
literature include also descriptions of the fossils and strati-
graphical divisions of the Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks
of the Jura. He died at Grenoble on the 3rd of May 1889.
LORY (a word of Malayan origin signifying parrot, in general
use with but slight variation of form in many European languages),
the name of certain birds of the order Psitiaci, mostly from the
Moluccas and New Guinea, remarkable for their bright scarlet
or crimson colouring, though also, and perhaps subsequently,
applied to some others in which the plumage is chiefly green.
The lories have been referred to a considerable number of genera,
of which Lorius (the Domicella of some authors), Eos and
Chalcopsittacus may be here particularized, while under the name
of " lorikeets " may be comprehended such genera as Tricho-
glossus, Charmosyna, Loriculus and Coriphilus. By most
systematists some of these forms have been placed far apart,
even in different families of Psittaci, but A. H. Garrod has
shown (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874, pp. 586-598, and 1876, p. 692)
the many common characters they possess, which thus goes
some way to justify the relationship implied by their popular
designation. A full account of these birds is given in the first
part of Count T. Salvador! 's Ormtologia della Papuasia e delle
Molucche (Turin 1880), whilst a later classification appeared in
Salvadori's section of the British Museum Catalogue of Birds,
xx., 1891.
Though the name lory has often been used for the species
of Eclectus, and some other genera related thereto, modern
writers would restrict its application to the birds of the genera
Lorius, Eos, Chalcopsittacus and their near allies, which are
often placed in a subfamily, Loriinae, belonging to the so-called
family of Trichoglossidae or " brush-tongued " parrots. Garrod
in his investigations on the anatomy of Psittaci was led not to
attach much importance to the structure indicated by the
epithet " brush-tongued " stating (Proc. Zool. Society, 1874,
p. 597) that it " is only an excessive development of the papillae
which are always found on the lingual surface." The birds
of this group are very characteristic of the New Guinea subregion, 1
in which occur, according to Count Salvador!, ten species of
Lorius, eight of Eos and four of Chalcopsittacus; but none
seem here to require any further notice, 2 though among them,
and particularly in the genus Eos, are included some of the
most richly-coloured birds in the whole world; nor does it
appear that more need be said of the lorikeets.
The family is the subject of an excellent monograph by St George
Mivart (London, 1896). (A. N.)
LOS ANDES, a former state of Venezuela under the redivision
of 1 88 1, which covered the extreme western part of the republic
N. of Zamora and S. of Zulia. In the redivision of 1904 Los
Andes was cut up into three states Merida Tachira and
Trujillo.
LOS ANGELES, a city and the county-seat of Los Angeles
county, in southern California, U.S.A., along the small Los
Angeles river, in the foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains;
a narrow strip, 18 m. long, joins the main part of the city to
its water front on the ocean, San Pedro Bay. Pop. (1880)
11,183, (1890) 50,395, (1900) 102,479, of whom 19,964 were
foreign-born; 3 the growth in population since 1900 has been
very rapid and in 1910 it was 319,198. The city had in
1910 an area of 85-1 sq. m., of which nyjre than one-half has been
added since 1890. Los Angeles is served by the Southern
Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the San Pedro, Los
Angeles & Salt Lake railways; by steamers to San Francisco;
and by five systems of urban and suburban electric railways,
which have 300 m. of track within the city and 700 m. within a
radius of 30 m. beyond its limits. Inclined railways ascend
Third Street Hill and Court Street Hill, in the heart of the city;
and a system of subways extends from the centre of the city
to its western limits. The harbour, San Pedro Bay, originally
open and naturally poor, has been greatly improved by the
Federal government; a breakwater 9250 ft. long was begun in
1898 and the bar has been deepened, and further improvements
of the inner harbour at Wilmington (which is nearly landlocked
by a long narrow island lying nearly east and west across its
mouth) were begun in 1907. Important municipal docks have
been built by the city.
The situation of the city between the mountains and the
sea is attractive. The site of the business district is level, and
its plan regular; the suburbs are laid out on hills. Although
not specifically a health resort, Los Angeles enjoys a high
1 They extend, however, to Fiji, Tahiti and Fanning Island.
1 Unless it be Oreopsittacus arfaki, of New Guinea, remarkable as
the only parrot known as yet to have fourteen instead of twelve
rectrices.
1 In addition to the large foreign-born population (4023 Germans,
3017 English, 2683 English Canadians, 1885 Chinese, 1720 Irish and
smaller numbers of French, Mexicans, Swedes, Italians, Scots,
Swiss, Austrians, Danes, French Canadians, Russians, Norwegians,
Welsh and Japanese) 26,105 of the native white inhabitants were of
Foreign parentage (i.e. had one or both parents not native born), so
that only 54,121 white persons were of native parentage. German,
French and Italian weekly papers are published in Los Angeles.
LOS ANGELES
reputation for its climate. From July 1877 to 1908 (inclusive)
the mean of the minima for January, the coldest month of the
year, was 44-16 F.; the mean of the minima for August, the
warmest month, was 60- 1 F.; and the difference of the mean
temperature of the coldest and the warmest month was about
1 8 F.; while on five days only in this period (and on no day in
the years 1904-1908) did the official thermometer fall below
32 F. There are various pleasure resorts in the mountains,
and among seaside resorts are Santa Monica, Ocean Park, Venice,
Playadel Rey, Hermosa, Redondo, Terminal Island, Long Beach,
Alamitos Bay, Huntington Beach, Newport, Balboa and Corona
del Mar. There are excellent roads throughout the country.
Los Angeles has beautiful shade trees and a wealth of semi-tropic
vegetation. Its residential portions are characterized by
detached homes set in ample and beautiful grounds. Towering
eucalyptus, graceful pepper trees, tropic palms, rubber trees,
giant bananas, yuccas and a wonderful growth of roses, heliotrope,
calla lilies in hedges, orange trees, jasmine, giant geraniums
and other flowers beautify the city throughout the year. There
are 22 parks, with about 3800 acres within or on the borders
of the city limits; among the parks are Griffith (3015 acres),
Elysian (532 acres), 'Eastlake (57 acres), Westlake (35 acres)
and Echo (38 acres). The old Spanish-Moorish mission architec-
ture has considerably influenced building styles. Among the
important buildings are the Federal Building, the County Court
House, the City Hall, a County Hall of Records, the Public
Library with about 1 10,000 volumes in 1908, the large Auditorium
and office buildings and the Woman's Club. The exhibit in
the Chamber of Commerce Building illustrates the resources
of southern California. Here also are the Coronel Collection,
given in 1901 by Dona Mariana, the widow of Don Antonio
Coronel, and containing relics of the Spanish and Mexican
r6gime in California; and the Palmer Collection of Indian
antiquities. In Los Angeles also are the collections of the
Southwest Society (1904; for southern California, Arizona and
New Mexico) of the Archaeological Institute of America. On
the outskirts of the city, near Eastlake Park, is the Indian
Crafts Exhibition, which contains rare collections of aboriginal
handiwork, and where Indians may be seen making baskets,
pottery and blankets. Of interest to visitors is that part of the
city called Sonora Town.with its adobe houses, Mexican quarters,
old Plaza and the Church of Our Lady, Queen of the Angels
(first erected in 1822; rebuilt in 1861), which contains interesting
paintings by early Indian converts. Near Sonora Town is the
district known as Chinatown. The principal educational
institutions are the University of Southern California (Methodist
Episcopal, 1880), the Maclay College of Theology and a
preparatory school; Occidental College (Presbyterian, 1887),
St Vincent's College (Roman Catholic, founded 1865; chartered
1869) and the Los Angeles State Normal School (1882).
The economic interests of Los Angeles centre in the culture of
fruits. The surrounding country is very fertile when irrigated,
producing oranges, lemons, figs and other semi-tropical fruits.
Thousands of artesian wells have been bored, the region between
Los Angeles, Santa Clara and San Bernardino being one of the most
important artesian well regions of the world. The city, which then
got its water supply from the Los Angeles river bed, in 1907 author-
ized the issue of $23,000,000 worth of 4 % bonds for the construction
of an aqueduct 209 m. long, bringing water to the city from the
Owens river, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. It was estimated
that the project would furnish water for one million people, beside
supplying power for lighting, manufacturing and transportation
purposes. All the water in excess of the city's actual needs may be
employed for irrigation. Work on the aqueduct was begun in 1908,
and it was to be completed in five years. From 1900 to 1905
the value of the factory products increased from $15,133,696 to
$34,814,475 or 130%, and the capital employed in manufactures
from $10,045,095 to $28,181,418 or 180-5%. The leading manu-
facturing industries in 1905, with the product-value of each in this
year, were slaughtering and meat-packing ($4,040,162), foundry
and machine shop work ($3,146,914), flour and grist milling
($2,798,740), lumber manufacturing and planing ($2,519,081),
printing and publishing (newspapers and periodicals, $2,097,339;
and book and job printing, $1,278,841), car construction and repair-
ing ($1,549,836) in 1910 there were railway shops here of the
Southern Pacific, Pacific Electric, Los Angeles Street, Salt Lake and
Santa Fe railways and the manufacture of confectionery ($953,915),
furniture ($879,910) and malt liquors ($789,393). The canning and
preserving of fruits and vegetables are important industries. There
is a large wholesale trade with southern California, with Arizona and
with the gold-fields of Nevada, with which Los Angeles is connected
by railway. Los Angeles is a port of entry, but its foreign commerce
is relatively unimportant. The value of its imports increased from
$721,705 in 1905 to $1,654,549 in 1907; in 1008 the value was
$ I . I 93.55 2 - The city's exports were valued at $45,000 in 1907 and
at $306,439 in 1908. The coastwise trade is in lumber (about
700,000,000 ft. annually), shipped from northern California, Oregon
and 'Washington, and in crude oil and general merchandise. There
are rich oil-fields N. and W. of the city and wells throughout the city;
petroleum is largely employed as fuel in factories. The central
field, the Second Street Park field in the city, was developed between
1892 and 1895 and wells were drilled farther E. until in 1896 the
eastern field was tapped with wells at Adobe and College streets;
the wells within the city are gradually being abandoned. The
western field and the western part of the central field were first
worked in 1899-1900. The Salt Lake field, controlled by the Salt
Lake Oil Company, near Rancho de Brea, W.S.W. of the city, first
became important in 1902 and in 1907 it was the most valuable field
in California, S. of Santa-Barbara county, and the value of its product
was $1,749,980. In 1905 the value of petroleum refined in Los
Angeles was $461,281.
Land has not for many years been cheap (i.e. absolutely) in the
southern Californian fruit country, and immigration has been, gener-
ally, of the comparatively well-to-do. This fact has greatly affected
the character and development of the city. The assessed valuation
of property increased more than threefold from 1900 to 1910, being
$276,801,517 in the latter year, when the bonded city debt was
$17,259,312-50. Since 1896 there has been a strong independent
movement in politics, marked by the organization of a League for
Better City Government (1896) and a Municipal League (1900),
and by the organization of postal primaries to secure the co-operation
of electors pledged to independent voting. Since 1904 the public
school system has been administered by a non-partisan Board of
Education chosen from the city at large, and not by wards as there-
tofore.
Los Angeles, like all other Californian cities, has the privilege
of making and amending its own charter, subject to the approval
of the state legislature. In 1902 thirteen amendments were
adopted, including provisions for the initiative, the referendum
and the recall. The last of these provides that 25% of
the voters choosing a municipal officer may, by signing a
petition for his recall, force a new election during his term of
office and thereby remove him if another candidate receives a
greater number of votes. This provision, introducing an
entirely new principle into the American governmental system,
came into effect in January 1903, and was employed in the
following year when a previously elected councilman who was
" recalled " by petition and was unsuccessful in the 1904 election
brought suit to hold his office, and on a mere technicality the
Supreme Court of the state declared the recall election invalid.
In 1909 there was a recall election at which a mayor was removed
and another chosen in his place.
The Pueblo de Nuestra Sefiora la Reina de los Angeles was
founded in 1781. The Franciscan mission of San Gabriel still
a famous landmark had been established ten years earlier a
few miles eastward. Beginning about 1827, Los Angeles, being
the largest pueblo of the territory, became a rival of Monterey
for the honour of being the capital of California, was the seat of
conspiracies to overthrow the Mexican authority, and the
stronghold of the South California party in the bickerings and
struggles that lasted down to the American occupation. In
1835 it was made a city by the Mexican Congress, and declared
the capital, but the last provision was not enforced and was
soon recalled. In 1836-1838 it was the headquarters of C. A.
Carrillo, a legally-named but never de facto governor of California,
whose jurisdiction was never recognized in the north; and in
1845-1847 it was the actual capital. The city was rent by
factional quarrels when war broke out between Mexico and the
United States, but the appearance of United States troops under
Commodore Robert F. Stockton and General John C. FrSmont
before Los Angeles caused both factions to unite against a
common foe. The defenders of Los Angeles fled at the approach
of the troops, and on the I3th of August 1846 the American flag
was raised over the city. A garrison of fifty men, left in control,
was compelled in October to withdraw on account of a revolt
of the inhabitants, and Los Angeles was not retaken until
LOS ISLANDS LOST PROPERTY
General Philip Kearny and Commodore Stockton entered the
city on the i8th of January 1847. This was the only important
overt resistance to the establishment of the new regime in
California. The city was chartered in 1850. It continued to
grow steadily thereafter until it attained railway connexion
with the Central Pacific and San Francisco in 1876, and with
the East by the Santa F6 system in 1885. The completion of
the latter line precipitated one of the most extraordinary of
American railway wars and land booms, which resulted in giving
southern California a great stimulus. The growth of the city
since 1890 has been even more remarkable. In 1909 the township
of Wilmington (pop. in 1900, 2983), including the city of San
Pedro (pop. in 1900, 1787), Colegrove, a suburb W.N.W. of the
city, Cahuenga (pop. in 1900, 1586), a township N.W. of the
former city limits, and a part of Los Feliz were annexed to the
city.
LOS ISLANDS (!SLAS DE LOS IDOLOS), a group of islands
off the coast of French Guinea, West Africa, lying south of
Sangarea Bay, between 9 25' and 9 31' N. and 13 46' and
13 51' W., and about 80 m. N.N.W. of Freetown, Sierra Leone.
There are five principal islands: Tamara, Factory, Crawford,
White (or Ruma) and Coral. The two largest islands are Tamara
and Factory, Tamara, some 8 m. long by i to 2 m. broad, being
the largest. These two islands lie parallel to each other, Tamara
to the west; they form a sort of basin, in the centre of which
js the islet of Crawford. The two other islands are to the south.
The archipelago is of volcanic formation, Tamara and Factory
islands forming part of a ruined crater, with Crawford Island
as the cone. The highest point is a knoll, some 450 ft. above
sea-level, in Tamara. All the islands are richly clothed with
palm trees and flowering underwood. Tamara has a good
harbour, and contains the principal settlement. The inhabitants,
about 1500, are immigrants of the Baga tribe of Senegambian
negroes, whose home is the coast land between the Pongo and
Nunez rivers. These are chiefly farmers. The Church of England
has a flourishing mission, with a native pastorate. At one time
the islands were a great seat of slave-traders and pirates. The
latter are supposed to have buried large amounts of treasure in
them. In an endeavour to stop the slave trade and piracy, the
islands were garrisoned (1812-1813) by British troops, but the
unhealthiness of the climate led to their withdrawal. In 1818
Sir Charles McCarthy, governor of Sierra Leone, obtained the
cession of the islands to Great Britain from the chiefs of the
Baga country, and in 1882 France recognized them to be a
British possession. They were then the headquarters of several
Sierra Leone traders. By article 6 of the Anglo-French conven-
tion of the 8th of April 1904, the islands were ceded to France.
They were desired by France because of their geographical
position, Konakry, the capital of French Guinea, being built
on an islet but 3 m. from Factory Island, and at the mercy
of long range artillery planted thereon. The islands derive
their name from the sacred images found on them by the early
European navigators.
See A. B. Ellis, West African Islands (London, 1885), and the
works cited under FRENCH GUINEA.
LOSSIEMOUTH, a police burgh of Elginshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 3904. It embraces the villages of Lossiemouth,
Branderburgh and Stotfield, at the mouth of the Lossie, 5! m.
N.N.E. of Elgin, of which it is the port, by a branch line of the
Great North of Scotland railway. The industries are boat-
building and fishing. Lossiemouth, or the Old Town, dates
from 1700; Branderburgh, farther north, grew with the harbour
and began about 1830; Stotfield is purely modern and contiguous
to the splendid golf-course. The cliffs at Covesea, 2 m. W.,
contain caves of curious shape. Sir Robert Gordon of Gordons-
town used one as a stable in the rebellion of 1745; weapons oi
prehistoric man were found in another, and the roof of a third
is carved with ornaments and emblems of early Celtic art.
Kinneddar Castle in the parish of Drainie in which Lossiemouth
is situated was a seat of the bishops of Moray, and Old Duffus
Castle, 2\ m. S.W., was built in the reign of David II. The estate of
Gordonstown, close by, was founded by Sir Robert Gordon (1580-
1656), historian of the Sutherland family, and grandfather of the
Daronet who, because of his inventions and scientific attainments,
was known locally as " Sir Robert the Warlock " (1647-1704).
Nearly midway between Lossiemouth and Elgin stand the massive
ruins of the palace of Spynie, formerly a fortified residence of the
bishops of Moray. " Davie's Tower, 60 ft. high with walls 9 ft.
thick, was built by Bishop David Stewart about 14.70. The adjacent
loch is a favourite breeding-place for the sea-birds, which resort to
the coast of Elginshire in enormous numbers. A mile S.E. of the
lake lies Pitgaveny, one of the reputed scenes of the murder of King
Duncan by Macbeth.
LOSSING, BENSON JOHN (1813-1891), American historical
writer, was born in Beekman, New York, on the 1 2th of February
1813. After editing newspapers in Poughkeepsie he became
an engraver on wood, and removed to New York in 1839 for the
practice of his profession, to which he added that of drawing
illustrations for books and periodicals. He likewise wrote or
edited the text of numerous publications. His Pictorial Field-
Book of the Revolution (first issued in 30 parts, 1850-1852, and
then in 2 volumes) was a pioneer work of value in American
historical literature. In its preparation he travelled some
9000 m. during a period of nearly two years; made more than
a thousand sketches of extant buildings, battlefields, &c.; and
presented his material in a form serviceable to the topographer
and interesting to the general reader. Similar but less character-
istic and less valuable undertakings were a Pictorial Field-Book
of the War of 1812 (1868), and a Pictorial History of the Civil
War in the United States of America (3 vols. 1866-1869). His
other books were numerous: an Outline History of the Fine
Arts; many illustrated histories, large and small, of the United
States; popular descriptions of Mount Vernon and other
localities associated with famous names; and biographical
sketches of celebrated Americans, of which The Life and Times
of Major-General Philip Schuyler (2 vols. 1860-1873) was the
most considerable. He died at Dover Plains, New York, on
the 3rd of June 1891.
LOSSNITZ, a district in the kingdom of Saxony, extending for
about 5 m. along the right bank of the Elbe, immediately N.W.
of Dresden. Pop. (1905) 6929. A line of vine-clad hills shelters
it from the north winds, and so warm and healthy is the climate
that it has gained for the district the appellation of the " Saxon
Nice." Asparagus, peaches, apricots, strawberries, grapes and
roses are largely cultivated and find a ready market in Dresden.
LOST PROPERTY. The man who loses an article does not
lose his right thereto, and he may recover it from the holder
whoever he be, unless his claim be barred by some Statute of
Limitations or special custom, as sale in market overt. The
rights and duties of the finder are more complex. If he know
or can find out the true owner, and yet convert the article to
his own use, he is guilty of theft. But if the true owner cannot
be discovered, the finder keeps the property, his title being
superior to that of every one except the true owner. But this
is only if the find be in public or some public place. Thus
if you pick up bank notes in a shop where they have been lost
by a stranger, and hand them to the shopkeeper that he may
discover and repossess the true owner, and he fail to do so, then
you can recover them from him. The owner of private land,
however, is entitled to what is found on it. Thus a man sets
you to clear out his pond, and you discover a diamond in the
mud at the bottom. The law will compel you to hand it over
to the owner of the pond. This applies even against the tenant.
A gas company were lessees of certain premises; whilst making
excavations therein they came upon a prehistoric boat; and
they were forced to surrender it to their lessor. An aerolite
becomes the property of the owner of the land on which it falls,
and not of the person finding or digging it out. The principle
of these three last cases is that whatever becomes part of the
soil belongs to the proprietor of that soil.
Property lost at sea is regulated by different rules. Those
who recover abandoned vessels are entitled to salvage. Property
absolutely lost upon the high seas would seem to belong to the
finder. It has been claimed for the crown, and the American
courts have held, that apart from a decree the finder is only
entitled to salvage rights, the court retaining the rest, and thus
LOSTWITHIEL LOT
practically taking it for the state on the original owner not being
found. The modern English law on the subject of wreck (includ-
ing everything found on the shore of the sea or tidal river)
is contained in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. The finder
must forthwith make known his discovery to the receiver of
wreck under a penalty. He is entitled to a salvage reward, but
the property belongs to the crown or its grantee unless the true
owner claims within a year. In the United States unclaimed wreck
after a year generally becomes the property of the state. In
Scotland the right to lost property is theoretically in the crown,
but the finder would not in practice be interfered with except
under the provisions of the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act 1892.
Section 412 requires all persons finding goods to deliver them
forthwith to the police under a penalty. If the true owner is
not discovered within six months the magistrates may hand
them over to the finder. If the owner appears he must pay a
reasonable reward. Domestic animals, including swans, found
straying without an owner may be seized by the crown or lord
of the manor, and if not claimed within a year and a day they
become the property of the crown or the lord, on the observance
of certain formalities. In Scotland they were held to belong to
the crown or its donatory, usually the sheriff of a county. By
the Burgh Police Act above quoted provision is made for the
sale of lost animals and the disposal of the free proceeds for the
purposes of the act unless such be claimed. In the United
States there is diversity of law and custom. Apart from special
rule, lost animals become the property of the finder, but in
many cases the proceeds of their sale are applied to public
purposes. When property is lost by carriers, innkeepers or
railway companies, special provisions as to their respective
responsibilities apply. As to finds of money or the precious
metals, see TREASURE TROVE.
LOSTWITHIEL, a market town and municipal borough in the
Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 30% m.
W. of Plymouth by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
1379. It is pleasantly situated on the banks of the river Fowey.
The church of St Bartholomew is remarkable for a fine Early
English tower surmounted by a Decorated spire; there are also
beautiful Decorated windows and details in the body of the
church, and a richly carved octagonal font. A bridge of the
1 4th century crosses the river. The shire hall includes
remains of a building, called the Stannary prison, dating from
the i3th century. The Great Western railway has workshops
at Lostwithiel.
Lostwithiel owed its ancient liberties probably its existence
to the neighbouring castle of Restormel. The Pipe Rolls (1194-
1203) show that Robert de Cardinan, lord of Restormel, paid
ten marks yearly for having a market at Lostwithiel. By an
undated charter still preserved with the corporation's muniments
he surrendered to the burgesses all the liberties given them by
his predecessors (antecessores) when they founded the town.
These included hereditary succession to tenements, exemption
from sullage, the right to elect a reeve (praepositus) if the grantor
thought one necessary and the right to marry without the lord's
interference. By Isolda, granddaughter of Robert de Cardinan,
the town was given to Richard, king of the Romans, who in the
third year of his reign granted to the burgesses a gild merchant
sac and soc, toll, team and infangenethef, freedom from pontage,
lastage, &c., throughout Cornwall, and exemption from the
jurisdiction of the hundred and county courts, also a yearly
fair and a weekly market. Richard transferred the assizes from
Launceston to Lostwithiel. His son Edmund, earl of Cornwall,
built a great hall at Lostwithiel and decreed that the coinage
of tin should be at Lostwithiel only. In 1325 Richard's charter
was confirmed and the market ordered to be held on Thursdays.
In 1386 the assizes were transferred back to Launceston. In
1609 a charter of incorporation provided for a mayor, recorder,
six capital burgesses and seventeen assistants and courts of
record and pie powder. The boundaries of the borough were
extended in 1733. Under the reformed charter granted in 1885
the corporation consists of a mayor, four aldermen and twelve
councillors. From 1305 to 1832 two members represented
Lostwithiel in parliament. The electors after 1609 were the
twenty-five members of the corporation. Under the Reform
Act (1832) the borough became merged in the county. For the
Thursday market granted in 1326 a Friday market was sub-
stituted in 1733, and this continues to be held. The fair granted
in 1326 and the three fairs granted in 1733 have all given place
to others. The archdeacon's court, the sessions and the county
elections were long held at Lostwithiel, but all have now been
removed. For the victory gained by Charles I. over the earl of
Essex in 1644, see GREAT REBELLION.
LOT, in the Bible, the legendary ancestor of the two Palestinian
peoples, Moab and Ammon (Gen. xix. 30-38; cp. Ps. Ixxxiii. 8);
he appears to have been represented as a Horite or Edomite
(cp. the name Lotan, Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22). As the son of Haran
and grandson of Terah, he was Abraham's nephew (Gen. xi. 31),
and he accompanied his uncle in his migration from Haran to
Canaan. Near Bethel 1 Lot separated from Abraham, owing tc
disputes between their shepherds, and being offered the first
choice, chose the rich fields of the Jordan valley which were as
fertile and well irrigated as the " garden of Yahweh " (i.e. Eden,
Gen. xiii. 7 sqq.). It was in this district that the cities of Sodom
and Gomorrah were situated. He was saved from their fate
by two divine messengers who spent the night in his house, and
next morning led Lot, his wife, and his two unmarried daughters
out of the city. His wife looked back and was changed to a
pillar of salt, 2 but Lot with his two daughters escaped first to
Zoar and then to the mountains east of the Dead Sea, where the
daughters planned and executed an incest by which they became
the mothers of Moab and Ben-Ammi (i.e. Ammon; Gen. xix.).
The account of Chedorlaomer's invasion and of Lot's rescue by
Abraham belongs to an independent source (Gen. xiv.), the age
and historical value of which has been much disputed. (See
further ABRAHAM; MELCHIZEDEK.) Lot's character is made
to stand in strong\'contrast with that of Abraham, notably in the
representation of his,selfishness (xiii. 5 sqq.), and reluctance to
leave the sinful city (xix. 16 sqq.); relatively, however, he was
superior to the rest (with the crude story of his insistence upon
the inviolable rights of guests, xix. 5 sqq.; cf. Judges xix. 22 sqq.),
and is regarded in 2 Pet. ii. 7 seq. as a type of righteousness.
Lot and his daughters passed into Arabic tradition from the Jews.
The daughters are named Zahy and Ra'wa by Mas'udi ii. 139; but
other Arabian writers give other forms. Paton (Syria and Palestine,
pp. 43, 123) identifies Lot-Lotan with Kitten, one of the Egyptian
names for Palestine; its true meaning is obscure. For traces of
mythical elements in the story see VVinckler, Altorienl. Forsch. ii.
87 seq. See further, J. Skinner, Genesis, pp. 310 sqq. (S. A. C.)
LOT (Lat. Oltis) , a river of southern France flowing westward
across the central plateau, through the departments of Lozere,
Aveyron, Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Its length is about 300 m.,
the area of its basin 4444 sq. m. The river rises in the CeVennes
on the Mont du Goulet at a height of 4918 ft. about 15 m. E.
of Mende, past which it flows. Its upper course lies through
gorges between the Causse of Mende and Aubrac Mountains
on the north and the tablelands (causses) of Sauveterre, Severac
and Comtal on the south. Thence its sinuous course crosses
the plateau of Quercy and entering a wider fertile plain flows
into the Garonne at Aiguillon between Agen and Marmande.
Its largest tributary, the Truyere, rises in the Margeride moun-
tains and after a circuitous course joins it on the right at
Entraygues (department of Aveyron), its affluence more than
1 The district is thus regarded as the place where the Hebrews, on
the one side, and the Moabites and Ammonites, on the other, com-
mence their independent history. Whilst the latter settle across the
Jordan, Abraham moves down south to Hebron.
1 Tradition points to the Jebel Usdum (cp. the name Sodom) at
the S.W. end of the Dead Sea. It consists almost entirely of pure
crystallized salt with pillars and pinnacles such as might have given
rise to the story (see Driver, Genesis, p. 201 ; and cf. also Palestine
Explor. Fund, Quart. Statements, 1871, p. 16, 1885, p. 20; Conder,
Syrian Stone-lore, p. 279 seq.). Jesus cites the story of Lot and his
wife to illustrate the sudden coming of the Kingdom of God (Luke
xvii. 28-32). The history of the interpretation of the legend by the
early and medieval church down to the era of rational and scientific
investigation will be found in A. D. White, Warfare of Science with
Theology, ii. ch. xviii.
i6
LOT LOT-ET-GARONNE
doubling the volume of the river. Lower down it receives
the Dourdou de Bozouls (or du Nord) on the left and on the right
the Cele above Cahors (department of Lot), which is situated
on a peninsula skirted by one of the river's many windings.
Villeneuve-sur-Lot (department of Lot-et-Garonne) is the
only town of any importance between this point and its mouth.
The Lot is canalized between Bouquies, above which there is no
navigation, and the Garonne (160 m.).
LOT, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790
from the district of Quercy, part of the old province of Guyenne.
It is bounded N. by Correze, W. by Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne,
S. by Tarn-et-Garonne, and E. by Aveyron and Cantal. Area
2017 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 216,611. The department extends
over the western portion of the Massif Central of France; it
slopes towards the south-west, and has a maximum altitude
of 2560 ft. on the borders of Cantal with a minimum of 213 ft.
at the point where the river Lot quits the department. The Lot,
which traverses it from east to west, is navigable for the whole
distance (106 m.) with the help of locks; its principal tributary
within the department is the Cele (on the right). In the north
of the department the Dordogne has a course of 37 m.; among
its tributaries are the Cere, which has its rise in Cantal, and the
Ouysse, a river of no great length, but remarkable for the
abundance of its waters. The streams in the south of Lot all
flow into the Tarn. The eastern and western portions of the
department are covered by ranges of hills; the north, the centre,
and part of the south are occupied by a belt of limestone plateaus
or causses, that to the north of the Dordogne is called the Causse
de Martel; between the Dordogne and the Lot is the Causse
de Gramat or de Rocamadour; south of the Lot is the Causse
de Cahors. The causses are for the most part bare and arid
owing to the rapid disappearance of the rain in clefts and chasms
in the limestone, which are known as igues. These are most
numerous in the Causse de Gramat and are sometimes of great
beauty; the best known is the Gouffre de Padirac, 7 m. N.E.
of Rocamadour. The altitude of the causses (from 700 to 1300 ft.,
much lower than that of the similar plateaus in Lozere, Herault
and Aveyron) permits the cultivation of the vine; they also
yield a small quantity of cereals and potatoes and some wood.
The deep intervening valleys are full of verdure, being well
watered by abundant springs. The climate is on the whole that
of the Girondine region; the valleys are warm, and the rainfall
is somewhat above the average for France. The difference of
temperature between the higher parts of the department belong-
ing to the central plateau and the sheltered valleys of the
south-west is considerable. Wheat, maize, oats and rye are the
chief cereals. Wine is the principal product, the most valued
being that of Cahors grown in the valley of the Lot, which is,
in general, the most productive portion of the department.
It is used partly for blending with other wines and partly for
local consumption. The north-east cantons produce large
quantities of chestnuts; walnuts, apples and plums are common,
and the department also grows potatoes and tobacco and
supplies truffles. Sheep are the most abundant kind of live
stock; but pigs, horned cattle, horses, asses, mules and goats
are also reared, as well as poultry and bees. Iron and coal are
mined, and there are important zinc deposits (Planioles). Lime-
stone is quarried. There are oil-works and numerous mills, and
wool spinning and carding as well as cloth making, tanning,
currying, brewing and the making of agricultural implements
are carried on to some extent. The three arrondissements are
those of Cahors, the capital, Figeac and Gourdon; there are
29 cantons and 329 communes.
Lot belongs to the I7th military district, and to the acadlmie
of Toulouse, and falls within the circumscription of the court
of appeal at Agen, and the province of the archbishop of Albi.
It is served by the Orleans railway. Cahors, Figeac and Roca-
madour are the principal places. Of the interesting churches
and chateaux of the department, may be mentioned the fine
feudal fortress at Castelnau occupying a commanding natural
position, with an audience hall of the i2th century, and the
Romanesque abbey-church at Souillac with fine sculpturing
on the principal entrance. The plateau of Puy dTssolu, near
Vayrac, is believed by most authorities to be the site of the
ancient Uxcellodunum, the scene of the last stand of the- Gauls
against Julius Caesar in 51 B.C. Lot has many dolmens, the
finest being that of Pierre Martine, near Livernon (arr. of
Figeac).
LOT-ET-GARONNE, a department of south-western France,
formed in 1790 of Agenais and Bazadais, two districts of the
old province of Guienne, and of Condomois, Lomagne, Brullois
and pays d'Albret, formerly portions of Gascony. It is bounded
W. by Gironde, N. by Dordogne, E. by Lot and Tarn-et-Garonne,
S. by Gers and S.W. by Landes. Area 2079 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
274,610. The Garonne, which traverses the department from
S.E. to N.W., divides it into two unequal parts. That to the
north is a country of hills and deep ravines, and the slope is
from east to west, while in the region to the south, which is a
continuation of the plateau of Lannemezan and' Armagnac, the
slope is directly from south to north. A small portion in the
south-west belongs to the sterile region of the Landes (<?..);
the broad valleys of the Garonne and of its affluent the Lot are
proverbial for their fertility. The wildest part is towards the
north-east on the borders of Dordogne, where a region of causses
(limestone plateaus) and forests begins; the highest point
(896 ft.) is also found here. The Garonne, where it quits the
department, is only some 20 ft. above the sea-level; it is navig-
able throughout, with the help of its lateral canal, as also are the
Lot and Baise with the help of locks. The Drot, a right affluent
of the Garonne in the north of the department, is also navigable
in the lower part of its course. The climate is that of the
Girondine region mild and fine the mean temperature of
Agen being 56-6 Fahr., or 5 above that of Paris; the annual
rainfall, which, in the plain of Agen, varies from 20 to 24 in., is
nearly the least in France. Agriculturally the department is
one of the richest. Of cereals wheat is the chief, maize and oats
coming next. Potatoes, vines and tobacco are important
sources of wealth. The best wines are those of Clairac and
Buzet. Vegetable and fruit-growing are prosperous. Plum-trees
(pruniers d'ente) are much cultivated in the valleys of the Garonne
and Lot, and the apricots of Nicole and Tonneins are well known.
The chief trees are the pine and the oak; the cork-oak flourishes
in the Landes, and poplars and willows are abundant on the
borders of the Garonne. Horned cattle, chiefly of the Garonne
breed, are the principal live stock. Poultry and pigs are also
reared profitably. There are deposits of iron in the department.
The forges, blast furnaces and foundries of Fumel are important;
and agricultural implements and other machines are manu-
factured. The making of lime and cement, of tiles, bricks and
pottery, of confectionery and dried plums (pruneaux d'Agen)
and other delicacies, and brewing and distilling, occupy many
of the inhabitants. At Tonneins (pop. 4691 in 1906) there is a
national tobacco manufactory. Cork cutting, of which the
centre is M6zin, hat and candle making, wool spinning, weaving
of woollen and cotton stuffs, tanning, paper-making, oil-making,
dyeing and flour and saw-milling are other prominent industries.
The peasants still speak the Gascon patois. The arrondissements
are 4 Agen, Marmande, Nerac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot and
there are 35 cantons and 326 communes.
Agen, -the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of the court
of appeal for the department of Lot-et-Garonne. The depart-
ment belongs to the region of the XVII. army corps, the acadlmie
of Bordeaux, and the province of the archbishop of Bordeaux.
Lot-et-Garonne is served by the lines of the Southern and the
Orleans railways, its rivers afford about 160 m. of navigable
waterway, and the lateral canal of the Garonne traverses it for
54 m. Agen, Marmande, N6rac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot, the
principal places, are treated under separate headings. The
department possesses Roman remains at Mas d'Agenais and at
Aiguillon. The churches of Layrac, Monsempron, Mas d'Agenais,
Moirax, Mezin and Vianne are of interest, as also are the fortifica-
tions of Vianne of the I3th century, and the chateaux of
Xaintrailles, Bonaguil, Gavaudun and of the industrial town
of Casteljaloux.
LOTHAIR I. LOTHAIR II.
LOTHAIR I. (795-855), Roman emperor, was the eldest son
of the emperor Louis I., and his wife Irmengarde. Little is
known of his early life, which was probably passed at the court
of his grandfather Charlemagne, until 815 when he became
ruler of Bavaria. When Louis in 8 1 7 divided the Empire between
his sons, Lothair was crowned joint emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle
and given a certain superiority over his brothers. In 821 he
married Irmengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugo, count of Tours;
in 822 undertook the government of Italy; and, on the 5th of
April 823, was crowned emperor by Pope Paschal I. at Rome.
In November 824 he promulgated a statute concerning the
relations of pope and emperor which reserved the supreme
power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards issued various
ordinances for the good government of Italy. On his return to
his father's court his step-mother Judith won his consent to her
plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which
was carried out in 829. Lothair, however, soon changed his
attitude, and spent the succeeding decade in constant strife
over the division of the Empire with his father. He was alter-
netely master of the Empire, and banished and confined to Italy;
at one time taking up arms in alliance with his brothers and
at another fighting against them; whilst the bounds of his
appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced. When
Louis was dying in 840, he sent the imperial insignia to Lothair,
who, disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole
of the Empire. Negotiations with his brother Louis and his
half-brother Charles, both of whom armed to resist this claim,
were followed by an alliance of the younger brothers against
Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at Fontenoy on the 25th
of June 841, when, in spite of his personal gallantry, Lothair
was defeated and fled to Aix. With fresh troops he entered
upon a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too
strong for him, and taking with him such treasure as he could
collect, he abandoned to them his capital. Efforts to make
peace were begun, and in June 842 the brothers met on an
island in the Saone, and agreed to an arrangement which
developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the treaty of
Verdun signed in August 843. By this Lothair received Italy
and the imperial title, together with a stretch of land between
the North and Mediterranean Seas lying along the valleys of
the Rhine and the Rhone. He soon abandoned Italy to his
eldest son, Louis, and remained in his new kingdom, engaged
in alternate quarrels and reconciliations with his brothers, and
in futile efforts to defend his lands from the attacks of the
Normans and the Saracens. In 855 he became seriously ill,
and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided his
lands between his three sons, and on the 23rd of September
entered the monastery of Priim, where he died six days later.
He was buried at Priim, where his remains were found in 1860.
Lothair was entirely untrustworthy and quite unable to maintain
either the unity or the dignity of the empire of Charlemagne.
See " Annales Fuldenses "; Nithard, " Historiarum Libri," both
in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande i. and ii.
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Muhlbacher, Die Regesten des
Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881); E. Dummler,
Geschickte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-1888) ; B. Simson,
Jahrbucher des deutschen Retches unter Luduiig dent Frommen (Leipzig,
1874-1876).
LOTHAIR II. or III. (c. 1070-1137), surnamed the "Saxon,"
Roman emperor, son of Gebhard, count of Supplinburg, belonged
to a family possessing extensive lands around Helmstadt in
Saxony, to which he succeeded on his father's death in 1075.
Gebhard had been a leading opponent of the emperor Henry IV.
in Saxony, and his son, taking the same attitude, assisted
Egbert II., margrave of Meissen, in the rising of 1088. The
position and influence of Lothair in Saxony, already considerable,
was increased when in noo he married Richenza, daughter of
Henry, count of Nordheim, who became an heiress on her father's
death in 1101, and inherited other estates when her brother
Otto died childless in 1116. Having assisted the German king,
Henry V., against his father in 1104, Lothair was appointed
duke of Saxony by Henry, when Duke Magnus, the last of the
Billungs, died in 1106. His first care was to establish his
authority over some districts east of the Elbe; and quickly
making himself independent of the king, he stood forth as the
representative of the Saxon race. This attitude brought him
into collision with Henry V., to whom, however, he was forced
to submit after an unsuccessful rising in 1112. A second rising
was caused when, on the death of Ulrich II., count of Weimar
and Orlamiinde, without issue in 1112, Henry seized these
counties as vacant fiefs of the empire, while Lothair supported
the claim of Siegfried, count of Ballenstadt, whose mother was
a relative of Ulrich. The rebels were defeated, and Siegfried
was killed at Warnstadt in 1113, but his son secured possession
of the disputed counties. After the defeat by Lothair of Henry's
forces at Welfesholz on the nth of February 1115, events called
Henry to Italy; and Lothair appears to have been undisturbed
in Saxony until 1123, when the death of Henry II., margrave of
Meissen and Lusatia raised a dispute as to the right of appoint-
ment to the vacant margraviates. A struggle ensued, in which
victory remained with the duke. The Saxony policy of Lothair
during these years had been to make himself independent, and
to extend his authority; to this end he allied himself with the
papal party, and easily revived the traditional hostility of the
Saxons to the Franconian emperors.
When Henry V. died in 1125, Lothair, after a protracted
election, was chosen German king at Mainz on the 3Oth of August
1125. His. election was largely owing to the efforts of Adalbert,
archbishop of Mainz, and the papal party, who disliked the
candidature of Henry's nephew and heir, Frederick II. of
Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia. The new king was crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the I3th of September 1125. Before suffering
a severe reverse, brought about by his interference in the internal
affairs of Bohemia, Lothair requested Frederick of Hohenstaufen
to restore to the crown the estates bequeathed to him by the
emperor Henry V. Frederick refused, and was placed under the
ban. Lothair, unable to capture Nuremberg, gained the support
of Henry the Proud, the new duke of Bavaria, by giving him his
daughter, Gertrude, in marriage, and that of Conrad, count of
Zahringen, by granting him the administration of the kingdom
of Burgundy, or Aries. As a counterstroke, however, Conrad
of Hohenstaufen, the brother of Frederick, was chosen German
king in December 1127, and was quickly recognized in northern
Italy. But Lothair gained the upper hand in Germany, and by
the end of 1129 the Hohenstaufen strongholds, Nuremberg and
Spires, were in his possession. This struggle was accompanied
by disturbances in Lorraine, Saxony and Thuringia, but order
was soon restored after the resistance of the Hohenstaufen
had been beaten down. In 1131 the king led an expedition
into Denmark, where one of his vassals had been murdered
by Magnus, son of the Danish king, Niels, and where general
confusion reigned; but no resistance was offered, and Niels
promised to pay tribute to Lothair.
The king's attention at the time was called to Italy where
two popes, Innocent II. and Anacletus II., were clamouring
for his support. At first Lothair, fully occupied with the affairs
of Germany, remained heedless and neutral; but in March
1131 he was visited at Li6ge by Innocent, to whom he promised
his assistance. Crossing the Alps with a small army in September
1 132, he reached Rome in March 1 133, accompanied by Innocent.
As St Peter's was held by Anacletus, Lothair's coronation as
emperor took place on the 4th of June 1133 in the church of
the Lateran. He then received as papal fiefs the vast estates
of Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, thus securing for his
daughter and her Welf husband lands which might otherwise
have passed to the Hohenstaufen. His efforts to continue the
investiture controversy were not very serious. He returned to
Germany, where he restored order in Bavaria, and made an
expedition against some rebels in the regions of the lower Rhine.
Resuming the struggle against the Hohenstaufen, Lothair
soon obtained the submission of the brothers, who retained their
lands, and a general peace was sworn at Bamberg. The emperor's
authority was now generally recognized, and the annalists speak
highly of the peace and order of his later years. In 1 135, Eric II.,
king of Denmark, acknowledged himself a vassal of Lothair;
1 8 LOTHAIR LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
Boleslaus III., prince of the Poles, promised tribute and received
Pomerania and Rugen as German fiefs; while the eastern
emperor, John Comnenus, implored Lothair's aid against
Roger II. of Sicily.
The emperor seconded the efforts of his vassals, Albert the
Bear, margrave of the Saxon north mark, and Conrad I., margrave
of Meissen and Lusatia, to extend the authority of the Germans
in the districts east of the Elbe, and assisted Norbert, archbishop
of Magdeburg, and Albert I., archbishop of Bremen, to spread
Christianity. In August 1 136, attended by a large army, Lothair
set out upon his second Italian journey. The Lombard cities
were either terrified into submission or taken by storm; Roger II.
was driven from Apulia; and the imperial power enforced
over the whole of southern Italy. A mutiny among the German
soldiers and a breach with Innocent concerning the overlordship
of Apulia compelled the emperor to retrace his steps. An
arrangement was made with regard to Apulia, after which
Lothair, returning to Germany, died at Breitenwang, a village
in the Tirol, on the 3rd or 4th of December 1137. His body was
carried to Saxony and buried in the monastery which he had
founded at Konigslutter. Lothair was a strong and capable
ruler, who has been described as the " imitator and heir of the
first Otto." Contemporaries praise his justice and his virtue,
and his reign was regarded, especially by Saxons and churchmen,
as a golden age for Germany.
The main authorities for the life and reign of Lothair are: " yita
Norberti archiepiscopi Magdeburgensis " ; Otto von Freising,
" Chronicon Annalista Saxo " and " Narratio de electione Lotharii "
all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande vi.,
xii. and xx. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The best modern
works are: L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichtc, pt. viii. (Leipzig, 1887-
1888); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit,
Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877), Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); Ph. Jaffe,
Geschichle des Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar (Berlin, 1843); W.
Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinburg (Leipzig, 1879); O. von Heine-
mann, Lothar der Sachse und Konrad III. (Halle, 1869); and Ch.
Volkmar, " Das Verhaltniss Lothars III. zur Investiturfrage," in
the Forschungen zur Deutschen Geschichte, Band xxvi. (Gottingen,
1862-1886).
LOTHAIR (941-986), king of France, son of Louis IV., suc-
ceeded his father in 954, and was at first under the guardianship
of Hugh the Great, duke of the Franks, and then under that of
his maternal uncle Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. The beginning
of his reign was occupied with wars against the vassals, particu-
larly against the duke of Normandy. Lothair then seems to
have conceived the design of recovering Lorraine. He attempted
to precipitate matters by a sudden attack, and in the spring
of 978 nearly captured the emperor Otto II. at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Otto took his revenge in the autumn by invading France. He
penetrated as far as Paris, devastating the country through
which he passed, but failed to take the town, and was forced
to retreat with heavy loss. Peace was concluded in 980 at
Margut-sur-Chiers, and in 983 Lothair was even chosen guardian
to the young Otto III. Towards 980, however, Lothair quarrelled
with Hugh the Great's son, Hugh Capet, who, at the instigation
of Adalberon, archbishop of Reims, became reconciled with
Otto III. Lothair died on the 2nd of March 986. By his wife
Emma, daughter of Lothair, king of Italy, he left a son who
succeeded him as Louis V.
See F. Lot, Les Dernier s Carolingiens (Paris, 1891); and the
Recueti des actes de Lothair e et de Louis V., edited by L. Halphen and
F. Lot (1908).
LOTHAIR (825-869), king of the district called after him
Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was the second son of the emperor
Lothair I. On his father's death in 855, he received for his
kingdom a district lying west of the Rhine, between the North
Sea and the Jura mountains, which was called Regnum Lotharii
and early m the loth century became known as Lotharingia
or Lorraine. On the death of his brother Charles in 863 he added
some lands south of the Jura to this inheritance, but, except
for a few feeble expeditions against the Danish pirates, he seems
to have done b'ttle for its government or its defence. The
reign was chiefly occupied by efforts on the part of Lothair
to obtain a divorce from his wife Teutberga, a sister of Hucbert,
abbot of St Maurice (d. 864) ; and his relations with his uncles,
Charles the Bald and Louis the German, were influenced by his
desire to obtain their support to this plan. Although quarrels
and reconciliations between the three kings followed each other
in quick succession, in general it may be said that Louis favoured
the divorce, and Charles opposed it, while neither lost sight of the
fact that Lothair was without male issue. Lothair, whose desire '
for the divorce was prompted by his affection for a certain
Waldrada, put away Teutberga; but Hucbert took up arms
on her behalf, and after she had submitted successfully to the
ordeal of water, Lothair was compelled to restore her in 858.
Still pursuing his purpose, he won the support of his brother,
the emperor Louis II., by a cession of lands, and obtained the
consent of the local clergy to the divorce and to his marriage
with Waldrada, which was celebrated in 862. A synod of
Prankish bishops met at Metz in 863 and confirmed this decision,
but Teutberga fled to the court of Charles the Bald, and Pope
Nicholas I. declared against the decision of the synod. An
attack on Rome by the emperor was without result, and in
865 Lothair, convinced that Louis and Charles at their recent
meeting had discussed the partition of his kingdom, and
threatened with excommunication, again took back his wife.
Teutberga, however, either from inclination or compulsion,
now expressed her desire for a divorce, and Lothair went to
Italy to obtain the assent of the new pope Adrian II. Placing
a favourable interpretation upon the words of the pope, he had
set out on the return journey, when he was seized with fever
and died at Piacenza on the 8th of August 869. He left, by
Waldrada, a son Hugo who was declared illegitimate, and his
kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis
the German.
See Hincmar, " Opusculum de divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergae
reginae," in Cursus completus patrologiae, tome cxxv., edited by
J. P. Migne (Paris, 1857-1879); M. Sdralek, Hinkmars von Rheims
Kanonistisches Gutachten tiber die Ehescheidung des Kdnigs Lothar II.
(Freiburg, 1881); E. Diimmler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches
(Leipzig, 1887-1888); and E. Miihlbacher, Die Regenten des Kaiser-
reichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881).
LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. MARK KERR,
ist earl of Lothian (d. 1609), was the eldest son of Mark Kerr
(d. 1584), abbot, and then commendator, of Newbattle, or
Newbottle, and was a member of the famous border family of
Ker of Cessford. The earls and dukes of Roxburghe, who are
also descended from the Kers of Cessford, have adopted the
spelling Ker, while the earls and marquesses of Lothian have
taken the form Kerr. Like his father, the abbot of Newbattle,
Mark Kerr was an extraordinary lord of session under the
Scottish king James VI.; he became Lord Newbattle in 1587
and was created earl of Lothian in 1606. He was master of
inquests from 1577 to 1606, and he died on the 8th of April
1609, having had, as report says, thirty-one children by his wife,
Margaret (d. 1617), daughter of John Maxwell, 4th Lord Herries.
His son Robert, the 2nd earl, died without sons in July 1624.
He had, in 1621, obtained a charter from the king enabling his
daughter Anne to succeed to his estates provided that she
married a member of the family of Ker. Consequently in 1631
she married William Ker, son of Robert, ist earl of Ancrum
(1578-1654), a member of the family of Ker of Ferniehurst,
whose father, William Ker, had been killed in 1590 by Robert
Ker, afterwards ist earl of Roxburghe. Robert was in attend-
ance upon Charles I. both before and after he came to the
throne, and was created earl of Ancrum in 1633. He was a
writer and a man of culture, and among his friends were the poet
Donne and Drummond of Hawthornden. His elder son William
was created earl of Lothian in 1631, the year of his marriage with
Anne Kerr, and Sir William Kerr of Blackhope, a brother of the
2nd earl, who had taken the title of earl of Lothian in 1624, was
forbidden to use it (see Correspondence of Sir Robert Ker, earl of
Ancrum, and his son William, third earl of Lothian, 1875).
WILLIAM KER (c. 1605-1675), who thus became 3rd earl of
Lothian, signed the Scottish national covenant in 1638 and
marched with the Scots into England in 1640, being present when
the English were routed at Newburn, after which he became
governor of Newcastle-on-Tyne. During the Civil War he was
LOTHIAN LOTI
prominent rather as a politician than as a soldier; he became
a Scottish secretary of state in 1649, and was one of the com-
missioners who visited Charles II. at Breda in 1650. He died
at Newbattle Abbey, near Edinburgh, in October 1675. William's
eldest son Robert, the 4th earl (1636-1703), supported the Revolu-
tion of 1688 and served William III. in several capacities; he
became 3rd earl of Ancrum on the death of his uncle Charles
in 1690, and was created marquess of Lothian in 1701. His
eldest son William, the and marquess (c. 1662-1722), who had
been a Scottish peer as Lord Jedburgh since 1692, was a supporter
of the union with England. His son William, the 3rd marquess
(c. 1690-1 767), was the father of William Henry, the 4th marquess,
who was wounded at Fontenoy and was present at Culloden.
He was a member of parliament for some years and had reached
the rank of general in the army when he died at Bath on the 1 2th
of April 1775. His grandson William, the 6th marquess (1763-
1824), married Henrietta (1762-1805), daughter and heiress of
John Hobart, 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire, thus bringing
Blickling Hall and the Norfolk estates of the Hobarts into the
Kerr family. In 1821 he was created a peer of the United
Kingdom as Baron Ker and he died on the 27th of April 1824.
In 1900 Robert Schomberg Kerr (b. 1874) succeeded his father,
Schomberg Henry, the gth marquess (1833-1900), as zoth
marquess of Lothian.
LOTHIAN. This name was formerly applied to a considerably
larger extent of country than the three counties of Linlithgow,
Edinburgh and Haddington. Roxburghshire and Berwickshire
at all events were included in it, probably also the upper part of
Tweeddale (at least Selkirk). It would thus embrace the
eastern part of the Lowlands from the Forth to the Cheviots,
i.e. all the English part of Scotland in the nth century. This
region formed from the 7th century onward part of the kingdoms
of Bernicia and Northumbria, though we have no definite informa-
tion as to the date or events by which it came into English
hands. In Roman times, according to Ptolemy, it was occupied
by a people called Otadini, whose name is thought to have been
preserved in Manaw Gododin, the home of the British king
Cunedda before he migrated to North Wales. There is no reason
to doubt that the district remained in Welsh hands until towards
the close of the 6th century; for in the Historia Brittonum the
Bernician king Theodoric, whose traditional date is 572-579, is
said to have been engaged in war with four Welsh kings. One
of these was Rhydderch Hen who, as we know from Adamnan,
reigned at Dumbarton, while another named Urien is said to
have besieged Theodoric in Lindisfarne. If this statement is
to be believed it is hardly likely that the English had by this
time obtained a firm footing beyond the Tweed. At all events
there can be little doubt that the whole region was conquered
within the next fifty years. Most probably the greater part of
it was conquered by the Northumbrian king iEthelfrith, who,
according to Bede, ravaged the territory of the Britons more
often than any other English king, in some places reducing the
natives to dependence, in others exterminating them and
replacing them by English settlers.
In the time of Oswic the English element became predominant
in northern Britain. His supremacy was acknowledged both
by the Welsh in the western Lowlands and by the Scots in
Argyllshire. On the death of the Pictish king Talorgan, the son
of his brother Eanfrith, he seems to have obtained the sovereignty
over a considerable part of that nation also. Early in Ecgfrith's
reign an attempt at revolt on the part of the Picts proved un-
successful. We hear at this time also of the establishment of an
English bishopric at Abercorn, which, however, only lasted for
a few years. By the disastrous overthrow of Ecgfrith in 685
the Picts, Scots and some of the Britons also recovered their
independence. Yet we find a succession of English bishops at
Whithorn from 730 to the 9th century, from which it may be
inferred that the south-west coast had already by this time
become English. The Northumbrian dominions were again
enlarged by Eadberht, who in 750 is said to have annexed Kyle,
the central part of Ayrshire, with other districts. In conjunction
with (Engus mac Fergus, king of the Picts, he also reduced the
whole of the Britons to submission in 756. But this subjugation
was not lasting, and the British kingdom, though now reduced
to the basin of the Clyde, whence its inhabitants are known as
Strathclyde Britons, continued to exist for nearly three centuries.
After Eadberht 's time we hear little of events in the northern part
of Northumbria, and there is some reason for suspecting that
English influence in the south-west began to decline before
long, as our list of bishops of Whithorn ceases early in the gth
century; the evidence on this point, however, is not so decisive
as is commonly stated. About 844 an important revolution
took place among the Picts. The throne was acquired by
Kenneth mac Alpin, a prince of Scottish family, who soon became
formidable to the Northumbrians. He is said to have invaded
" Saxonia " six times, and to have burnt Dunbar and Melrose.
After the disastrous battle at York in 867 the Northumbrians
were weakened by the loss of the southern part of their territories,
and between 883 and 889 the whole country as far as Lindisfarne
was ravaged by the Scots. In 919, however, we find their leader
Aldred calling in Constantine II., king of the Scots, to help them.
A few years later together with Constantine and the Britons they
acknowledged the supremacy of Edward the Elder. After his
death, however, both the Scots and the Britons were for a time
in alliance with the Norwegians from Ireland, and consequently
/Ethelstan is said to have ravaged a large portion of the Scottish
king's territories in 934. Brunanburh, where .(Ethelstan defeated
the confederates in 937, is believed by many to have been in
Dumfriesshire, but we have no information as to the effects
of the battle on the northern populations. By this time, how-
ever, the influence of the Scottish kingdom certainly seems to
have increased in the south, and in 945 the English king Edmund
gave Cumberland, i.e. apparently the British kingdom of Strath-
clyde, to Malcolm I., king of the Scots, in consideration of his
alliance with him. Malcolm's successor Indulph (954-962)
succeeded in capturing Edinburgh, which thenceforth remained
in possession of the Scots. His successors made repeated attempts
to extend their territory southwards, and certain late chroniclers
state that Kenneth II. in 971-975 obtained a grant of the whole
of Lothian from Edgar. Whatever truth this story may contain,
the cession of the province was finally effected by Malcolm II.
by force of arms. At his first attempt in 1006 he seems to have
suffered a great defeat from Uhtred, the son of earl Waltheof.
Twelve years later, however, he succeeded in conjunction with
Eugenius, king of Strathclyde, in annihilating the Northumbrian
army at Carham on the Tweed, and Eadulf Cudel, the brother
and successor of Uhtred, ceded all his territory to the north of
that river as the price of peace. Henceforth in spite of an in-
vasion by Aldred, the son of Uhtred, during the reign of Duncan,
Lothian remained permanently in possession of the Scottish
kings. In the reign of Malcolm III. and his son, the English
element appears to have acquired considerable influence in the
kingdom. Some three years before he obtained his father's
throne Malcolm had by the help of earl Siward secured the
government of Cumbria (Strathclyde) with which Lothian
was probably united. Then in 1068 he received a large number
of exiles from England, amongst them the ^Etheling Eadgar,
whose sister Margaret he married. Four other sons in succession
occupied the throne, and in the time of the youngest, David,
who held most of the south of Scotland as an earldom from
1107-1124 and the whole kingdom from 1124-1153, the court
seems already to have been composed chiefly of English and
Normans.
AUTHORITIES. Bede, Historia Ecclesiastic^ (ed. C. Plummer,
Oxford, 1896); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer,
Oxford, 1899) ; Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series, ed. T. Arnold,
1882); W. F. Skene, Chronicle of Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867),
and Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh. 1876-1880); and I. Rhys, Celtic
Britain (London). (F. G. M. B.)
LOTI, PIERRE [the pen-name of Louis MARIE JULIEN
VIAUD] (1850- ), French author, was born at Rochefort on
the 1 4th of January 1850. The Viauds are an old Protestant
family, and Pierre Loti consistently adhered, at least nominally,
to the faith of his fathers. Of the picturesque and touching
incidents of his childhood he has given a very vivid account
20
LOTSCHEN PASS LOTTERIES
in Le Roman d'un enfant (1890). His education began in Roche-
fort, but at the age of seventeen, being destined for the navy,
he entered the naval school, Le Borda, and gradually rose in his
profession, attaining the rank of captain in 1906. In January
1910 he was placed on the reserve list. His pseudonym is said
to be due to his extreme shyness and reserve in early life, which
made his comrades call him after le Loti, an Indian flower which
loves to blush unseen. He was never given to books or study
(when he was received at the French Academy, he had the courage
to say, " Loti ne sait pas lire "), and it was not until 1876 that
he was persuaded to write down and publish some curious
experiences at Constantinople, in Aziyade, a book which, like
so many of Loti's, seems half a romance, half an autobiography.
He proceeded to the South Seas, and on leaving Tahiti published
the Polynesian idyl, originally called Rarahu (1880), which
was reprinted as Le Manage de Loti, and which first introduced
to the wider public an author of remarkable originality and
charm. Le Roman d'un spahi, a record of the melancholy
adventures of a soldier in Senegambia, belongs to 1881. In 1882
Loti issued a collection of short studies under the general title
of Fleurs d' ennui. In 1883 he achieved the widest celebrity,
for not only did he publish Man jrere Yves, a novel describing
the life of a French bluejacket in all parts of the world perhaps
his most characteristic production but he was involved in a
public discussion in a manner which did him great credit. While
taking part as a naval officer in the Tongking War, Loti had
exposed in the Figaro a series of scandals which followed on the
capture of Hue (1883), and was suspended from the service
for more than a year. He continued for some time nearly silent,
but in 1886 he published a novel of life among the Breton fisher-
folk, called Pecheur d'islande, the most popular of all his writings.
In 1887 he brought out a volume of extraordinary merit, which
has not received the attention it deserves; this is Propos d'exil,
a series of short studies of exotic places, in his peculiar semi-
autobiographic style. The fantastic novel of Japanese manners,
Madame Chrysantheme, belongs to the same year. Passing over
one or two slighter productions, we come in 1890 to Au Maroc, the
record of a journey to Fez in company with a French embassy. A
collection of strangely confidential and sentimental reminiscences,
called Le Livre de la pitii et de la mart, belongs to 1891. Loti
was on board his ship at the port of Algiers when news was
brought to him of his election, on the aist of May 1891, to the
French Academy. In 1892 he published Fantdme d' orient,
another dreamy study of life in Constantinople, a sort of con-
tinuation of Aziyade. He described a visit to the Holy Land,
somewhat too copiously, in three volumes (1895-1896), and
wrote a novel, Ramuntcho (1897), a story of manners in the
Basque province, which is equal to his best writings. In 1900
he visited British India, with the view of describing what he saw;
the result appeared in 1903 L'Inde (sans les Anglais). At his
best Pierre Loti was unquestionably the finest descriptive writer
of the day. In the delicate exactitude with which he reproduced
the impression given to his own alert nerves by unfamiliar forms,
colours, sounds and perfumes, he was without a rival. But he
was not satisfied with this exterior charm ; he desired to blend
with it a moral sensibility of the extremest refinement, at once
sensual and ethereal. Many of his best books are long sobs
of remorseful memory, so personal, so intimate, that an English
reader is amazed to find such depth of feeling compatible with
the power of minutely and publicly recording what is felt.
In spite of the beauty and melody and fragrance of Loti's books
his mannerisms are apt to pall upon the reader, and his later books
of pure description were rather empty. His greatest successes
were gained in the species of confession, half-way between fact
and fiction, which he essayed in his earlier books. When all his
limitations, however, have been rehearsed, Pierre Loti remains,
in the mechanism of style and cadence, one of the most original
and most perfect French writers of the second half of the igth
century. ' Among his later works were : La Troisieme jeunesse de
Mme Prune (1905); Les Desenchanlees (1906, Eng. trans, by
C. Bell); La Mart de Philae (1908); Judith Renaudin (Theatre
Antoine, 1904), a five-act historical play based on an earlier
book; and, in collaboration with Emile Vedel, a translation of
King Lear, also produced at the Theatre Antoine in 1904. (E.G.)
LOTSCHEN PASS, or LOTSCHBERG, an easy glacier pass
(8842 ft.) leading from Kandersteg in the Bernese Oberland to
the Lotschen valley in the Valais. It is a very old pass, first
mentioned distinctly in 1352, but probably crossed previously
by the Valaisans who colonized various parts of the Bernese
Oberland. In 1384 and again in 1419 battles were fought on
it between the Bernese and the Valaisans, while in 1698 a mule
path (of which traces still exist) was constructed on the Bernese
slope, though not continued beyond owing to the fear of the
Valaisans that the Bernese would come over and alter their
religion. In 1906 the piercing of a tunnel (83 m. long) beneath
this pass was begun, starting a little above Kandersteg and
ending at Goppenstein near the mouth of the Lotschen valley.
Subsidies were granted by both the confederation and the canton
of Bern. This pass is to be carefully distinguished from the
Lotschenliicke (10,512 ft.), another easy glacier pass which leads
from the head of the Lotschen valley to the Great Aletsch
glacier. (W. A. B. C.)
LOTTERIES. The word lottery 1 has no very definite significa-
tion. It may be applied to any process of determining prizes by
lot, whether the object be amusement or gambling or public
profit. In the Roman Saturnalia and in the banquets of aristo-
cratic Romans the object was amusement; the guests received
apophoreta. The same plan was followed on a magnificent scale
by some of the emperors. Nero gave such prizes as a house or
a slave. Heliogabalus introduced an element of absurdity-
one ticket for a golden vase, another for six flies. This custom
descended to the festivals given by the feudal and merchant
princes of Europe, especially of Italy; and it formed a prominent
feature of the splendid court hospitality of Louis XIV. In
the Italian republics of the i6th century the lottery principle was
applied to encourage the sale of merchandise. The lotto of
Florence and the seminario of Genoa are well known, and Venice
established a monopoly and drew a considerable revenue for
the state. The first letters patent for a lottery in France were
granted in 1539 by Francis I., and in 1656 the Italian, Lorenzo
Tonti (the originator of " Tontines ") opened another for the
building of a stone bridge between the Louvre and the Faubourg
St Germain. The institution became very popular in France,
and gradually assumed an important place in the government
finance. The parlements frequently protested against it, but it
had the support of Mazarin, and L. Phelypeaux, comte de
Pontchartrain, by this means raised the expenses of the Spanish
Succession War. Necker, in his Administration des finances,
estimates the public charge for lotteries at 4,000,000 livres per
annum. There were also lotteries for the benefit of religious com-
munities and charitable purposes. Two of the largest were the
Loteries de Piete and Des Enfans Trouvls. These and also the
great Loterie de I'Ecole militaire were practically merged in the
Loterie Royale by the decree of 1776, suppressing all private
lotteries in France. The financial basis of these larger lotteries
was to take -^fths for expenses and benefit, and return ^ths
to the public who subscribed. The calculation of chances had
become a familiar science. It is explained in detail by Caminade
de Castres in Enc. mith. finances, ii. s.v. " Loterie." The
names of the winning numbers in the first drawing were (i)
extrait, (2) ambe, (3) terne, (4) quaterne, (5) quine. After this
there were four drawings called primes gratuites. The extrait
gave fifteen times the price of the ticket; the quine gave one
1 The word " lottery " is directly derived from Ital. lotteria, cf.
Fr. loterie, formed from lotto, lot, game of chance. " Lot " is in
origin a Teutonic word, adopted into Romanic languages. In O. Eng.
it appears as hlot, cf . Dutch lot, Ger. Loos, Dan. lod, &c. The meaning
of the Teutonic root Ueut from which these words have derived is
unknown. Primarily " lot " meant the object, such as a disk or
counter of wood, a pebble, bean or the like, which was drawn or
cast to decide by chance, under divine guidance, various matters,
such as disputes, divisions of property, selection of officers and
frequently as a method of divination in ancient times. From this
original sense the meaning develops into that which falls to a person
by lot, chance or fate, then to any portion of land, &c., allotted to
a person, and hence, quite generally, of a quantity of anything.
LOTTERIES
21
million times the price. These are said to be much more favour-
able terms than were given in Vienna, Frankfort and other
leading European cities at the end of the i8th century. The
Loterie Royale was ultimately suppressed in 1836. Under the law
of the zgth of May 1844 lotteries may be held for the assistance
of charity and the fine arts. In 1878 twelve million lottery
tickets of one franc each were sold in Paris to pay for prizes to
exhibitors in the great Exhibition and expenses of working-men
visitors. The first prize was worth 5000; the second, 4000,
and the third and fourth 2000 each. The Soci6te du Credit
Foncier, and many of the large towns, are permitted to contract
loans, the periodical repayments of which are determined by
lot. This practice, which is prohibited in Germany and England,
resembles the older system of giving higher and lower rates of
interest for money according to lot. Lotteries were suppressed
in Belgium in 1830, Sweden in 1841 and Switzerland in 1865,
but they still figure in the state budgets of Austria-Hungary,
Prussia and other German States, Holland, Spain, Italy and
Denmark. In addition to lottery loans, ordinary lotteries
(occasion lotteries) are numerous in various countries of the con-
tinent of Europe. They are of various magnitude and are
organized for a variety of purposes, such as charity, art, agricul-
ture, church-building, &c. It is becoming the tendency, however,
to discourage private and indiscriminate lotteries, and even state
lotteries which contribute to the revenue. In Austria-Hungary
and Germany, for instance, every year sees fewer places where
tickets can be taken for them receive licenses. In 1904 a
proposal for combining a working-class savings bank with a
national lottery was seriously considered by the Prussian
ministry. The scheme, which owes its conception to August
Scherl, editor of the Berlin Lokalanzeiger, is an endeavour to
utilize the love of gambling for the purpose of promoting thrift
among the working-classes. It was proposed to make weekly
collections from subscribers, in fixed amounts, ranging from
sixpence to four shillings. The interest on the money deposited
would not go to the depositors but would be set aside to form
the prizes. Three hundred thousand tickets, divisible into
halves, quarters and eighths, according to the sum deposited
weekly, would form a series of 12,500 prizes, of a total value
of 27,000. At the same time, the subscriber, while having his
ordinary lottery chances of these prizes, still has to his credit
intact the amount which he has subscribed week by week.
In England the earliest lotteries sanctioned by government
were for such purposes as the repair of harbours in 1569, and the
Virginia Company in 161 2. In the lottery of 1 569, 40,000 chances
were sold at ten shillings each, the prizes being " plate, and certain
sorts of merchandises." In 1698 lotteries, with the exception
of the Royal Oak lottery for the benefit of the Royal Fishing
Company, were prohibited as common nuisances, by which
children, servants and other unwary persons had been ruined.
This prohibition was in the i8th century gradually extended
to illegal insurances on marriages and other events, and to a great
many games with dice, such as faro, basset, hazard, except
backgammon and games played in the royal palace. In spite of
these prohibitions, the government from 1709 down to 1824
annually raised considerable sums in lotteries authorized by
act of parliament. The prizes were in the form of terminable or
perpetual annuities. The 10 tickets were sold at a premium
of say 40% to contractors who resold them in retail (sometimes in
one-sixteenth parts) by " morocco men," or men with red leather
books who travelled through the country. As the drawing ex-
tended over forty days, a very pernicious system arose of insuring
the fate of tickets during the drawing for a small premium of
4d. or 6d. This was partly cured by the Little Go Act of 1802,
directed against the itinerant wheels which plied between the
state lotteries, and partly by Perceval's Act in 1806, which
confined the drawing of each lottery to one day. From 1793 to
1824 the government made an average yearly profit of 346,765.
Cope, one of the largest contractors, is said to have spent 36,000
in advertisements in a single year. The English lotteries were
used to raise loans for general purposes, but latterly they were
confined to particular objects, such as the improvement of
London, the disposal of a museum, the purchase of a picture
gallery, &c. Through the efforts of Lord Lyttleton and others
a strong public opinion was formed against them, and in 1826
they were finally prohibited. An energetic proposal to revive
the system was made before the select committee on metropolitan
improvements in 1830, but it was not listened to. By a unique
blunder in legislation, authority was given to hold a lottery
under an act of 1831 which provided a scheme for the improve-
ment of the city of Glasgow. These " Glasgow lotteries "
were suppressed by an act of 1834. Art Unions were legalized
by the Art Unions Act 1846. The last lottery prominently
before the public in England was that of Dethier's twelfth-cake
lottery, which was suppressed on the 2 7th of December 1860.
As defined at the beginning of this article, the word lottery has a
meaning wide enough to include missing-word competitions,
distributions by tradesmen of prize coupons, sweepstakes, &c.
See Report of Joint Select Committee on Lotteries, ffc. (1908).
The statute law in Scotland is the same as in England. At
common law in Scotland it is probable that all lotteries and raffles,
for whatever purpose held, may be indicted as nuisances. The
art unions are supposed to be protected by a special statute.
United States. The American Congress of 1776 instituted a
national lottery. Most states at that time legalized lotteries
for public objects, and before 1820 the Virginia legislature
passed seventy acts authorizing lotteries for various public
purposes, such as schools, roads, &c. about 85% of the
subscriptions being returned in prizes. At an early period (1795)
the city of Washington was empowered to set up lotteries
as a mode of raising money for public purposes; and this
authorization from the Maryland legislature was approved by
an act of the Federal Congress in 1812. In 1833 they were
prohibited in New York and Massachusetts and gradually in the
other states, until they survived only in Louisiana. In that
state, the Louisiana State Lottery, a company chartered in
1868, had a monopoly for which it paid $40,000 to the state
treasury. Its last charter was granted in 1879 for a period of
twenty-five years, and a renewal was refused in 1800. In 1800
Congress forbade the use of the mails for promoting any lottery
enterprise by a statute so stringent that it was held to make it a
penal offence to employ them to further the sale of Austrian
government bonds, issued under a scheme for drawing some
by lot for payment at a premium (see Horner v. United States,
147 United States Reports, 449). This had the effect of com-
pelling the Louisiana State Lottery to move its quarters to
Honduras, in which place it still exists, selling its bonds to a
considerable extent in the Southern States.
Since lotteries have become illegal there have been a great number
of Judicial decisions defining a lottery. In general, where skill or
judgment is to be exercised there is no lottery, the essential element
of which is chance or lot. There are numerous statutes against
lotteries, the reason being given that they " tend to promote a
gambling spirit," and that it is the duty of the state to " protect
the morals and advance the welfare of the people." In New York
the Constitution of 1846 forbade lotteries, and by 324 of the
Penal Code a lottery is declared " unlawful and a public nuisance."
" Contriving " and advertising lotteries is also penal. The following
have been held illegal lotteries: In New York, a concert, the tickets
for which entitled the holder to a prize to be drawn by lot ; in Indiana,
offering a gold watch to the purchaser of goods who guesses the
number of beans in a bottle; in Texas, selling " prize candy " boxes;
and operating a nickel-in-the-slot machine so also in Louisiana;
jn Massachusetts, the " policy " or " envelope game," or a " raffle ";
in Kentucky (1905), prize coupon packages, the coupons having to
spell a certain word ( U.S. v. Jefferson, 134 Fed. R. 299) ; in Kansas
(1907) it was held, by the Supreme Court that the gift of a hat-pin
to each purchaser was not illegal as a " gift enterprise," there being
no chance or lot. In Oklahoma (1907) it was held that the making
of contracts for the payment of money, the certainty in value of
return being dependent on chance, was a lottery (Fidelity Fund Co.
v. Vaughan, 90 Pac. Rep. 34). The chief features of a lottery are
" procuring through lot or chance, by the investment of a sum of
money or something of value, some greater amount of money or thing
of greater value. When such are the chief features of any scheme
whatever it may be christened, or however it may be guarded or
concealed by cunningly devised conditions or screens, it is under
the law a lottery " (U.S. v. Wallace, 58, Fed. Rep. 942). In 1894
and 1897 Congress forbade the importation of lottery tickets or
In 1899, setting up or
advertisements into the United States.
22
LOTTI LOTUS
promoting lotteries in Alaska was prohibited by Congress, and in
1900 it forbade any lottery or sale of lottery tickets in Hawaii. In
Porto Rico lotteries, raffles and gift-enterprises are forbidden (Pena
Code, 1902, 291).
AUTHORITIES. Critique hist. pol. mor. econ. et comm. sur les
loteries anc. et mod. spirituettes et temporelles des etats et des eglises
(3 vols., Amsterdam, 1697), by the Bolognese historian Gregorio
Leti; T. Dessaulx, De la passion du jeu depuis les anciens temps
jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1779); Endemann, Beitrage zur Geschichte
der Lottrie und zur heutigen Lotterie (Bonn, 1882); Larson, Lottrie
und Volkswirthschaft (Berlin, 1894); J. Ashton, History of English
Lotteries (1893); Annual Report of the American Historical Associa-
tion (1892); Journal of the American Social Science Association
xxxvi. 17.
LOTTI, ANTONIO (1667 ?-i 740), Italian musical composer,
was the son of Matteo Lotti, Kapellmeister to the court of
Hanover. He was born, however, at Venice and as a pupil of
Legrenzi. He entered the Doge's chapel as a boy, and in 1689
was engaged as an alto singer, succeeding later to the posts of
deputy organist (1690), second organist (1692), first organist
(1704), and, finally, in 1736 Maestro di Cappella at St Mark's
church. He was also a composer of operas, and having attracted
the interest of the crown prince of Saxony during his visit to
Venice in 1712, he was invited to Dresden, where he went in
1717. After producing three operas there he was obliged to
return to his duties at Venice in 1719. He died on the sth of
January 1740. Like many other Venetian composers he wrote
operas for Vienna, and enjoyed a considerable reputation outside
Italy. A volume of madrigals published in 1705 contains the
famous In una siepe ombrosa, passed off by Bononcini as his own
in London. Another is quoted by Martini in his Saggio di
Contrappunto. Among his pupils were Alberti, Bassani, Galuppi,
Gasparini and Marcello. Burney justly praises his church music,
which is severe in style, but none the less modern in its grace and
pathos. A fine setting of the Dies Irae is in the Imperial Library
at Vienna, and some of his masses have been printed in the
collections of Proske and Luck.
LOTTO, LORENZO (c. 1480-1556), Italian painter, is variously
stated to have been born at Bergamo, Venice and Treviso,
between 1475 and 1480, but a document published by Dr Bampo
proves that he was born in Venice, and it is to be gathered from
his will that 1480 was probably the year of his birth. Over-
shadowed by the genius of his three great contemporaries, Titian,
Giorgione and Palma, he had been comparatively neglected by
art historians until Mr Bernhard Berenson devoted to him an
" essay in constructive art criticism," which not only restores
to him his rightful position among the great masters of the
Renaissance, but also throws clear light upon the vexed question
of his artistic descent. Earlier authorities have made Lotto a
pupil of Giovanni Bellini (Morelli), of Previtali (Crowe and
Cavalcaselle), of Leonardo da Vinci (Lomazzo), whilst others
discovered in his work the influences of Cima, Carpaccio, Durer,
Palma and Francia. Mr Berenson has, however, proved that he
was the pupil of Alvise Vivarini, whose religious severity and
asceticism remained paramount in his work, even late in his life,
when he was attracted by the rich glow of Giorgione's and
Titian's colour. What distinguishes Lotto from his more famous
contemporaries is his psychological insight into character and
his personal vision his unconventionally, which is sufficient
to account for the comparative neglect suffered by him when his
art is placed beside the more typical art of Titian and Giorgione,
the supreme expression of the character of the period.
That Lotto, who was one of the most productive painters of his
time, could work for thirty years without succumbing to the
mighty influence of Titian's sumptuous colour, is explained
by the fact that during these years he was away from Venice,
as is abundantly proved by documents and by the evidence of
signed and dated works. The first of these documents, dated
I 53. proves him to have lived at Treviso at this period. His
earliest authentic pictures, Sir Martin Conway's " Danae "
(about 1498) and the " St Jerome " of the Louvre (a similar
subject is at the Madrid Gallery ascribed to Titian), as indeed
all the works executed before 1509, have unmistakable Vivarin-
esque traits in the treatment of the drapery and landscape, and
cool grey tonality. To this group belong the Madonnas at
Bridgewater House, Villa Borghese, Naples, and Sta Cristina
near Treviso, the Recanati altarpiece, the " Assumption of the
Virgin " at Asolo, and the portrait of a young man at Hampton
Court. We find him at Rome between 1 508 and 1 5 1 2, at the time
Raphael was painting in the Stanza della Signatura. A document
in the Corsini library mentions that Lotto received 100 ducats as
an advance payment for fresco-work in the upper floor of the
Vatican, but there is no evidence that this work was ever executed.
In the next dated works, the "Entombment " at Jesi (1512),
and the " Transfiguration," " St James," and " St Vincent " at
Recanati, Lotto has abandoned the dryness and cool colour of
his earlier style, and adopted a fluid method and a blonde, joyful
colouring. In 1513 we find him at Bergamo, where he had
entered into a contract to paint for 500 gold ducats an altarpiece
for S. Stefano. The picture was only completed in 1516, and is
now at S. Bartolommeo. From the next years, spent mostly at
Bergamo, with intervals in Venice and Jesi in the Marches, date
the Dresden " Madonna," " Christ taking leave of his Mother "
at the Berlin Gallery, the " Bride and Bridegroom " at Madrid,
the National Gallery " Family Group " and portrait of the
Protonothary Giuliano, several portraits in Berlin, Milan and
Vienna, numerous altarpieces in and near Bergamo, the strangely
misnamed " Triumph of Chastity " at the Rospigliosi Palace in
Rome, and the portrait of Andrea Odoni at Hampton Court.
In 1526 or 1527 Lotto returned to Venice, where Titian ruled
supreme in the world of art; and it was only natural that the
example of the great master should have fired him to emulation,
though his experiments in this direction were confined to an
attempt at rivalling the master's rich and ruddy colour-schemes.
Even in the Carmine altarpiece, the " St Nicholas of Bari,"
which is his nearest approach to Titian, he retained his individual-
ized, as opposed to Titian's generalized, expression of emotion.
But it was only a passing phase, and he soon returned to the
cooler schemes of his earlier work. Among his chief pictures
executed in Venice between 1529 and 1540 are the " Christ and
the Adulteress," now at the Louvre, the " Visitation " at the
Jesi Library, the " Crucifixion " at Monte S. Giusto, the Madonna
at the Uffizi, the " Madonna and Saints " at Cingoli, and some
portraits at the Berlin and Vienna museums, the Villa Borghese
and Doria Palace in Rome, and at Dorchester House. He is
again to be found at Treviso from 1 542-1 545, at Ancona in 1 550, the
year in which he entirely lost his voice; and in 1552 he " devoted
his person and all his property to the Holy Virgin of Loreto " and
took up his abode with the monks of that shrine. He died
in 1556. A codex in his own handwriting, discovered in the
archives of Loreto, not only includes a complete statement of
his accounts from about 1539 to his death, but has a most
interesting entry from whkh we gather that in 1540 Lotto
completed the portraits of Martin Luther and his wife. These
portraits could not have been painted from life; they were
presumably executed from some contemporary engraving.
See Lorenzo Lotto, by Bernard Berenson (London, 1901).
LOTTO (Ital. for " lot "), a gambling game usually called Keno
in America, played by any number of persons upon large boards
or cards, each of which is divided into three horizontal rows of
nine spaces, four spaces in each row being left blank and the other
five marked with numbers up to 90. Each card is designated by
a general number. The cards usually lie on the gambling-table,
and a player may buy from the bank as many as he cares to use,
each card being registered or pegged on an exposed table as soon
as bought. Ninety small ivory markers, generally balls flattened
on one side, numbered from i to 90, are placed in a bag and shaken
out one by one, or, more usually, in a so-called keno-goose, a kind
of urn with a spout through which the balls are allowed to roll by
means of a spring. When a number falls out, the banker, or
keno-roller, calls it out distinctly, and each player upon whose
card that number occurs places a mark over it. This is repeated
until one player has all the numbers in one row of his card
covered, upon which he calls out " Keno ! " and wins all the
money staked excepting a percentage to the bank.
LOTUS, a popular name applied to several plants. The lotus
ruits of the Greeks belonged to Zizyphus Lotus, a bush native
LOTUS-EATERS LOTZE
in south Europe with fruits as large as sloes, containing a mealy
substance which can be used for making bread and also a fer-
mented drink. In ancient times the fruits were an important
article of food among the poor; whence " lotophagi " or lotus-
eaters. Zizyphus is a member of the natural order Rhamnaceae
to which belongs the British buckthorn. The Egyptian lotus
was a water-lily, Nymphaea Lotus; as also is the sacred lotus of
the Hindus, Nelumbium speciosum. The lotus tree, known to
the Romans as the Libyan lotus, and planted by them for shade,
was probably Celtis australis, the nettle-tree (?..), a southern
European tree, a native of the elm family, with fruits like small
cherries, which are first red and then black. Lotus of botanists
is a genus of the pea-family (Leguminosae) , containing a large
number of species of herbs and undershrubs widely distributed
in the temperate regions of the old world. It is represented in
Britain by L. corniculatus, bird's foot trefoil, a low-growing herb,
common in pastures and waste places, with clusters of small
bright yellow pea-like flowers, which are often streaked with
crimson; the popular name is derived from the pods which when
ripe spread like the toes of a bird's foot.
LOTUS-EATERS (Gr. Auro&ayoi) , a Libyan tribe known
to the Greeks as early as the time of Homer. Herodotus (iv.
177) describes their country as in the Libyan district bordering
on the Syrtes, and says that a caravan route led from it to Egypt.
Victor Berard identifies it with the modern Jerba. When
Odysseus reached the country of the Lotophagi, many of his
sailors after eating the lotus lost all wish to return home. Both
Greeks and Romans used the expression " to eat the lotus "
to denote forgetfulness (cf. Tennyson's poem " The Lotus-
Eaters ").
There has been considerable discussion as to the identification of
the Homeric lotus. Some have held that it is a prickly shrub,
Zizyphus Lotus, which bears a sweet-tasting fruit, and still grows
in the old home of the Lotophagi. It is eaten by the natives, who
also make a kind of wine from the juice. P. Champault (Pheniciens
el Grecs en Italie d'aprks I'0dyss6e,p. 400, note 2), however, maintains
that the lotus was a date; Victor BeVard (Les Pheniciens et I'Odyssee,
1902-1903, ii. 102) is doubtful, but contends that it was certainly a
tree-fruit. If either of these be correct, then the lotus of Od. iv.
603-^04 is quite a different plant, a kind of clover. Now Strabo
(xvii. 8290) calls the lotus rbav nvA. nal #fw. Putting these two
references together with Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi i. 4. 4, R. M.
Henry suggests that the Homeric lotus was really the ir6a of Strabo,
i.e. a kind of clover (Classical Review, December 1906, p. 435).
LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN (1817-1881), German philoso-
pher, was born in Bautzen on the 2ist of May 1817, the son of a
physician. He received his education in the gymnasium of
Zittau under teachers who inspired him with an enduring love
of the classical authors, as we see from his translation of the
Antigone of Sophocles into Latin verse, published when he had
reached middle life. He went to the university of Leipzig
as a student of philosophy and natural sciences, but entered
officially as a student of medicine. He was then only seventeen.
It appears that thus early Lotze's studies were governed by two
distinct interests. The first was scientific, based upon mathe-
matical and physical studies under the guidance of E. H. Weber,
W. Volckmann and G. T. Fechner. The other was his aesthetical
and artistic interest, which was developed under the care of C.
H. Weisse. To the former he owes his appreciation of exact
investigation and a complete knowledge of the aims of science,
to the latter an equal admiration for the great circle of ideas
which had been diffused by the teaching of Fichte, Schelling
and Hegel. Each of these influences, which early in life must
have been familiar to him, tempered and modified the other.
The true method of science which he possessed forced him to
condemn as useless the entire form which Schelling's and Hegel's
expositions had adopted, especially the dialectic method of the
latter, whilst his love of art and beauty, and his appreciation of
moral purposes, revealed to him the existence of a trans-
phenomenal world of values into which no exact science could
penetrate. It is evident how this initial position at once defined
to him the tasks which philosophy had to perform. First there
were the natural sciences, themselves only just emerging from
a confused conception of their true method; especially those
which studied the borderland of physical and mental phenomena,
the medical sciences; and pre-eminently that science which
has since become so popular, the science of biology.
Lotze's first essay was his dissertation De fulurae biologiac
principibus philosophicis, with which he gained (1838) the degree
of doctor of medicine, after having only four months previously
got the degree of doctor of philosophy. Then, secondly, there
arose the question whether the methods of exact science sufficed
to explain the connexion of phenomena, or whether for the ex-
planation of this the thinking mind was forced to resort to some
hypothesis not immediately verifiable by observation, but
dictated by higher aspirations and interests. And, if to satisfy
these we were forced to maintain the existence of a world of
moral standards, it was, thirdly, necessary to form some opinion
as to the relation of these moral standards of value to the forms
and facts of phenomenal existence. These different tasks,
which philosophy had to fulfil, mark pretty accurately the
aims of Lotze's writings, and the order in which they were
published. He laid the foundation of his philosophical system
very early in his Melaphysik (Leipzig, 1841) and his Logik
(1843), short books published while he was still a junior lecturer
at Leipzig, from which university he migrated to Gottingen,
succeeding Herbart in the chair of philosophy. But it was
only during the last decade of his life that he ventured, with
much hesitation, to present his ideas in a systematic and final
form. The two books mentioned remained unnoticed by the
reading public, and Lotze first became known to a larger circle
through a series of works which aimed at establishing in the
study of the physical and mental phenomena of the human
organism in its normal and diseased states the same general
principles which had been adopted in the investigation of in-
organic phenomena. These works were his Allgemeine Pathologic
und Therapie als mechanische Naturwissenscfiaflen (Leipzig,
1842, 2nd ed., 1848), the articles " Lebenskraft " (1843) and
" Seele und Seelenleben " (1846) in Rud. Wagner's Handworter-
buch der Physiologic, his Allgemeine Physiologic des Korper-
lichen Lebens (Leipzig, 1851), and his Medizinische Psychologic
oder Physiologic der Seele (Leipzig, 1852).
When Lotze published these works, medical science was still
much under the influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature.
The mechanical laws, to which external things were subject,
were conceived as being valid only in the inorganic world;
in the organic and mental worlds these mechanical laws were
conceived as being disturbed or overridden by other powers,
such as the influence of final causes, the existence of types,
the work of vital and mental forces. This confusion Lotze,
who had been trained in the school of mathematical reasoning,
tried to dispel. The laws which govern particles of matter in
the inorganic world govern them likewise if they are joined into
an organism. A phenomenon a, if followed by b in the one case,
is followed by the same ft also in the other case. Final causes,
vital and mental forces, the soul itself can, if they act at .all,
only act through the inexorable mechanism of natural laws.
As we therefore have only to do with the study of existing
complexes of material and spiritual phenomena, the changes
in these must be explained in science by the rule of mechanical
laws, such as obtain everywhere in the world, and only by such.
One of the results of these investigations was to extend the
meaning of the word mechanism, and comprise under it all laws
which obtain in the phenomenal world, not excepting the
phenomena of life and mind. Mechanism was the unalterable
connexion of every phenomenon a with other phenomena ft,
c, d, either as following or preceding it; mechanism was the
inexorable form into which the events of this world are cast,
and by which they are connected. The object of those writings
was to establish the all-pervading rule of mechanism. But
the mechanical view of nature is not identical with the material-
istic. In the last of the above-mentioned works the question
is discussed at great length how we have to consider mind, and
the relation between mind and body; the answer is we have
to consider mind as an immaterial principle, its action, however,
on the body and vice versa as purely mechanical, indicated
LOTZE
by the fixed laws of a psycho-physical mechanism. These
doctrines of Lotze though pronounced with the distinct and
reiterated reserve that they did not contain a solution of the
philosophical question regarding the nature, origin, or deeper
meaning of this all-pervading mechanism, neither an explanation
how the action of external things on each other takes place
nor yet of the relation of mind and body, that they were merely
a preliminary formula of practical scientific value, itself requiring
a deeper interpretation these doctrines were nevertheless
by many considered to be the last word of the philosopher who,
denouncing the reveries of Schelling or the idealistic theories
of Hegel, established the science of life and mind on the same
basis as that of material things. Published as they were during
the years when the modern school of German materialism was
at its height, 1 these works of Lotze were counted among the
opposition literature which destroyed the phantom of Hegelian
wisdom and vindicated the independent and self-sufficing
position of empirical philosophy. Even philosophers of the
eminence of I. H. Fichte (the younger) did not escape this mis-
interpretation of Lotze's true meaning, though they had his
Metaphysik and Logik to refer to, though he promised in his
Allgemeine Physiologic (1851) to enter in a subsequent work
upon the " bounding province between aesthetics and physi-
ology," and though in his Medizinische Psychologic he had
distinctly stated that his position was neither the idealism of
Hegel nor the realism of Herbart, nor materialism, but that
it was the conviction that the essence of everything is the part
it plays in the realization of some idea which is in itself valuable,
that the sense of an all-pervading mechanism is to be sought
in this, that it denotes the ways and means by which the highest
idea, which we may call the idea of the good, has voluntarily
chosen to realize itself.
The misinterpretations which he had suffered induced Lotze
to publish a small pamphlet of a polemical character (Slreil-
schriften, Leipzig, 1857), in which he corrected two mistakes.
The opposition which he had made to Hegel's formalism had
induced some to associate him with the materialistic school,
others to count him among the followers of Herbart. Lotze
publicly and formally denied that he belonged to the school of
Herbart, though he admitted that historically the same doctrine
which might be considered the forerunner of Herbart's teachings
might lead to his own views, viz. the monadology of Leibnitz.
When Lotze wrote these explanations, he had already given
to the world the first volume of his great work, Mikrokosmus
(vol. i. 1856, vol. ii. 1858, vol. iii. 1864; 3rd ed., 1876-1880).
In many passages of his works on pathology, physiology, and
psychology Lotze had distinctly stated that the method of
research which he advocated there did not give an explanation
of the phenomena of life and mind, but only the means of
observing and connecting them together; that the meaning
of all phenomena, and the reason of their peculiar connexions,
was a philosophical problem which required to be attacked from
a different point of view; and that the significance especially
which lay in the phenomena of life and mind would only unfold
itself if by an exhaustive survey of the entire life of man, in-
dividually, socially, and historically, we gain the necessary
data for deciding what meaning attaches to the existence of
this microcosm, or small world of human life, in the macrocosm
of the universe. This review, which extends, in three volumes,
over the wide field of anthropology, beginning with the human
frame, the soul, and their union in life, advancing to man,
his mind, and the course of the world, and concluding with
history, progress, and the connexion of things, ends with the
same idea which was expressed in Lotze's earliest work, his
Metaphysik. The view peculiar to him is reached in the end as
the crowning conception towards which all separate channels
of thought have tended, and in the light of which the life of man
in nature and mind, in the individual and in society, had been
surveyed. This view can be briefly stated as follows: Every-
where in the wide realm of observation we find three distinct
'See Vogt, Physiologische Briefe (1845-1847); Moleschott, Der
Kreislauf des Lebens (1852) ; Biichner, Kraft and Staff (1855).
regions, the region of facts, the region of laws and the region
of standards of value. These three regions are separate only in
our thoughts, not in reality. To comprehend the real position
we are forced to the conviction that the world of facts is the
field in which, and that laws are the means by which, those higher
standards of moral and aesthetical value are being realized;
and such a union can again only become intelligible through
the idea of a personal Deity, who in the creation and preservation
of a world has voluntarily chosen certain forms and laws, through
the natural operation of which the ends of His work are gained.
Whilst Lotze had thus in his published works closed the circle
of his thought, beginning with a conception metaphysically
gained, proceeding to an exhaustive contemplation of things
in the light it afforded, and ending with the stronger conviction
of its truth which observation, experience, and life could afford,
he had all the time been lecturing on the various branches of
philosophy according to the scheme of academical instruction
transmitted from his predecessors. Nor can it be considered
anything but a gain that he was thus induced to expound his
views with regard to those topics, and in connexion with those
problems, which were the traditional forms of philosophical
utterance. His lectures ranged over a wide field: he delivered
annually lectures on psychology and on logic (the latter including
a survey of the entirety of philosophical research under the
title Encydopadie der Philosophic), then at longer intervals
lectures on metaphysics, philosophy of nature, philosophy of
art, philosophy of religion, rarely on history of philosophy and
ethics. In these lectures he expounded his peculiar views in
a stricter form, and during the last decade of his life he embodied
the substance of those courses in his System der Philosophic,
of which only two volumes have appeared (vol. i. Logik, ist ed.,
Leipzig, 1874, 2nd ed., 1880; vol. ii. Metaphysik, 1879). The
third and concluding volume, which was to treat in a more
condensed form the principal problems of practical philosophy,
of philosophy of art and religion, never appeared. A small
pamphlet on psychology, containing the last form in which he
had begun to treat the subject in his lectures (abruptly terminated
through his death on the ist of July 1881) during the summer
session of 1881, has been published by his son. Appended to
this volume is a complete list of Lotze's writings, compiled by
Professor Rehnisch of Gottingen.
To understand this series of Lotze's writings, it is necessary to
begin with his definition of philosophy. This is given after his
exposition of logic has established two points, viz. the existence in
our mind of certain laws and forms according to which we connect
the material supplied to us by our senses, and, secondly, the fact that
logical thought cannot be usefully employed without the assump-
tion of a further set of connexions, not logically necessary, but
assumed to exist between the data of experience and observation.
These connexions of a real not formal character are handed to us
by the separate sciences and by the usage and culture of everyday
life. Language has crystallized them into certain definite notions
and expressions, without which we cannot proceed a single step,
but which we have accepted without knowing their exact meaning,
much less their origin. In consequence the special sciences and the
wisdom of common life entangle themselves easily and frequently
in contradictions. A problem of a purely formal character thus
presents itself, viz. this to try to bring unity and harmony into
the scattered thoughts of our general culture, to trace them to their
primary assumptions and follow them into their ultimate conse-
quences, to connect them all together, to remodel, curtail or amplify
them, so as to remove their apparent contradictions, and to combine
them in the unity of an harmonious view of things, and especially
to investigate those conceptions which form the initial assumptions
of the several sciences, and to fix the limits of their applicability.
This is the formal definition of philosophy. Whether an harmonious
conception thus gained will represent more than an agreement
among our thoughts, whether it will represent the real connexion of
things and thus possess objective not merely subjective value, cannot
be decided at the outset. It is also unwarranted to start with the
expectation that everything in the world should be explained by one
principle^ and it is a needless restriction of our means to expect unity
of method. Nor are we able to start our philosophical investigations
by an inquiry into the nature of human thought and its capacity to
attain an objective knowledge, as in this case we would be actually
using that instrument the usefulness of which we were trying to
determine. The main proof of the objective value of the view we
may gain will rather lie in the degree in which it succeeds in assigning
to every element of culture its due position, or in which it is able to-
LOTZE
appreciate and combine different and apparently opposite tendencies
and interests, in the sort of justice with which it weighs our manifold
desires and aspirations, balancing them in due proportions, refusing
to sacrifice to a one-sided principle any truth or conviction which ex-
perience has proven to be useful and necessary. The investigations
will then naturally divide themselves into three parts, the first of
which de?ls with those to our mind inevitable forms in which we
are obliged to think about things, if we think at all (metaphysics),
the second being devoted to the great region of facts, trying to
apply the results of metaphysics to these, specially the two great
regions of external and mental phenomena (cosmology and psy-
chology), the third dealing with those standards of value from
which we pronounce our aesthetical or ethical approval or dis-
approval. In each department we shall have to aim first of all at
views clear and consistent within themselves, but, secondly, we shall
in the end wish to form some general idea or to risk an opinion how
laws, facts and standards of value may be combined in one compre-
hensive view. Considerations of this latter kind will naturally
present themselves in the two great departments of cosmology and
psychology, or they may be delegated to an independent research
under the name of religious philosophy. We have already mentioned
the final conception in which Lotze's speculation culminates, that of
a personal Deity, Himself the essence of all that merits existence for
its own sake, who in the creation and government of a world has
voluntarily chosen certain laws and forms through which His ends
are to be realized. We may add that according to this view nothing
is real but the living spirit of God and the world of living spirits
which He has created ; the things of this world have only reality in
so far as they are the appearance of spiritual substance, which
underlies everything. It is natural that Lotze, having this great
and final conception always before him, works under its influence
from the very beginning of his speculations, permitting us, as
we progress, to gain every now ana then a glimpse of that inter-
pretation of things which _to him contains the solution of our
difficulties.
The key to Lotze's theoretical philosophy lies in his metaphysics,
to the exposition of which important subject the first and last of
his larger publications have been devoted. To understand Lotze's
philosophy, a careful and repeated perusal of these works is abso-
lutely necessary. The object of his metaphysics is so to remodel
the current notions regarding the existence of things and their
connexions with which the usage of language supplies us as to
make them consistent and thinkable. The further assumption,
that the modified notions thus gained have an objective meaning,
and that they somehow correspond to the real order of the existing
world which of course they can never actually describe, depends
upon a general confidence which we must have in our reasoning
powers, and in the significance of a world in which we ourselves
with all the necessary courses of our thoughts have a due place
assigned. The principle therefore of these investigations is opposed
to two attempts frequently repeated in the history of philosophy,
viz.: (l) the attempt to establish general laws or forms, which the
development of things must have obeyed, or which a Creator must
have followed in the creation of a world (Hegel) ; and (2) the attempt
to trace the genesis of our notions and decide as to their meaning and
value (modern theories of knowledge). Neither of these attempts is
practicable. The world of many things surrounds us; our notions,
by which we manage correctly or incorrectly to describe it, are also
ready made. What remains to be done is, not to explain how such a
world manages to be what it is, nor how we came to form these
notions, but merely this to expel from the circle and totality of our
conceptions those abstract notions which are inconsistent and jarring,
or to remode| and define them so that they may constitute a consistent
and harmonious view. In this endeavour Lotze discards as useless
and untenable many favourite conceptions of the school, many crude
notions of everyday life. The course of things and their connexion
is only thinkable by the assumption of a plurality of existences, the
reality of which (as distinguished from our knowledge of them) can
be conceived only as a multitude of relations. This quality of
standing in relation to other things is that which gives to a thing its
reality. And the nature of this reality again can neither be con-
sistently represented as a fixed and hard substance nor as an un-
alterable something, but only as a fixed order of recurrence of
continually changing events or impressions. But, further, every
attempt to think clearly what those relations are, what we really
mean, if we talk of a fixed order of events, forces upon us the necessity
of thinking also that the different things which stand in relations or
the different phases which follow each other cannot be merely
externally strung together or moved about by some indefinable
external power, in the form of some predestination or inexorable fate.
The things themselves which exist and their changing phases must
stand in some internal connexion; they themselves must be active
or passive, capable of doing or suffering. This would lead to the view
of Leibnitz, that the world consists of monads, self-sufficient beings,
leading an inner life. But this idea involves the further conception
of Leibnitz, that of a pre-established harmony, by which the Creator
has taken care to arrange the life of each monad, so that it agrees
with that of all others. This conception, according to Lotze, is
neither necessary nor thoroughly intelligible. Why not interpret at
once and render intelligible the common conception originating
in natural science, viz. that of a system of laws which governs the
many things? But, in attempting to make this conception quite
clear and thinkable, we are forced to represent the connexion of
things as a universal substance, the essence of which we conceive as
a system of laws which underlies everything and in its own self
connects everything, but imperceptible, and known to us merely
through the impressions it produces on us, which we call things.
A final reflection then teaches us that the nature of this universal
and all-pervading substance can only be imagined by us as some-
thing analogous to our own mental life, where alone we experience
the unity of a substance (which we call self) preserved in the multi-
tude of its (mental) states. It also becomes clear that only where
such mental life really appears need we assign an independent
existence, but that the purposes of everyday life as well as those of
science are equally served if we deprive the material things outside
of us of an independence, and assign to them merely a connected
existence through the universal substance by the action of which
alone they can appear to us.
The universal substance, which we may call the absolute, is at
this stage of our investigations not endowed with the attributes
of a personal Deity, and it will remain to be seen by further analysis
in how far we are able without contradiction to identify it
with the object of religious veneration, in how far that which to
metaphysics is merely a postulate can be gradually brought nearer
to us and become a living power. Much in this direction is said
by Lotze in various passages of his writings; anything complete,
however, on the subject is wanting. Nor would it seem as if it
could be the intention of the author to do much more than point
out the lines on which the further treatment of the subject should
advance. The actual result of his personal inquiries, the great idea
which lies at the foundation of his philosophy, we know. It may
be safely stated that Lotze would allow much latitude to individual
convictions, as indeed it is evident that the empty notion of an
absolute can only become living and significant to us in the same
decree as experience and thought have taught us to realize the
seriousness of life, the significance of creation, the value of the
beautiful and the good, and the supreme worth of personal holiness.
To endow the universal substance with moral attributes, to maintain
that it is more than the metaphysical ground of everything, to say
it is the perfect realization of the holy, the beautiful and the good,
can only have a meaning for him who feels within himself what
real not imaginary values are clothed in those expressions.
We have still to mention that aesthetics formed a principal and
favourite study of Lotze's, and that he has treated this subject also
in the light of the leading ideas of his philosophy. See his essays
Ueber den Begriff der Schonheil (Gottingen, 1845) and Ueber Bedin-
gungen der Kunstschonheit, ibid. (1847); and especially his Geschichte
der Aesthetik in Deutschland (Munich, 1868).
Lotze's historical position is of much interest. Though he dis-
claims being a follower of Herbart, his formal definition of philosophy
and his conception of the object of metaphysics are similar to those
of Herbart, who defines philosophy as an attempt to remodel the
notions given by experience. In this endeavour he forms with Her-
bart an opposition to the philosophies of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel,
which aimed at objective and absolute knowledge, and also to the
criticism of Kant, which aimed at determining the validity of all
human knowledge. But this formal agreement includes material
differences, and the spirit which breathes in Lotze's writings is more
akin to the objects and aspirations of the idealistic school than to the
cold formalism of Herbart. What, however, with the idealists was
an object of thought alone, the absolute, is to Lotze only inadequately
definable in rigorous philosophical language; the aspirations bf the
human heart, the contents of our feelings and desires, the aims of art
and the tenets of religious faith must be grasped in order to fill the
empty idea of the absolute with meaning. These manifestations of
the divine spirit again cannot be traced and understood by reducing
(as Hegel did) the growth of the human mind in the individual, in
society and in history to the monotonous rhythm of a speculative
schematism; the essence and worth which is in them reveals itself
only to the student of detail, for reality is larger and wider than
philosophy; the problem, " how the one can be many," is only solved
for us in the numberless examples in life and experience which
surround us, for which we must retain a lifelong interest and which
constitute the true field of all useful human work. This conviction
of the emptiness of terms and abstract notions, and of the fulness
of individual life, has enabled Lotze to combine in his writings the
two courses into which German philosophical thought had been
moving since the death of its great founder, Leibnitz. We may
define these courses by the terms esoteric and exoteric the former
the philosophy of the school, cultivated principally at the universities,
trying to systematize everything and reduce all our knowledge to an
intelligible principle, losing in this attempt the deeper meaning of
Leibnitz's philosophy; the latter the unsystematized philosophy of
general culture which we find in the work of the great writers of the
classical period, Lessing, Winkelmann, Goethe, Schiller and Herder,
all of whom expressed in some degree their indebtedness to Leibnitz.
Lotze can be said to have brought philosophy out of the lecture-
room into the market-place of life. By understanding and combining
what was great and valuable in those divided and scattered en-
deavours, he became the true successor of Leibnitz.
LOUBET LOUDON
The age in which Lotze lived and wrote in Germany was not one
peculiarly fitted to appreciate the position he took up. Frequently
misunderstood, yet rarely criticized, he was nevertheless greatly
admired, listened to by devoted hearers and read by an increasing
circle. But this circle never attained to the unity of a philosophical
school. The real meaning of Lotze's teaching is reached only by
patient study, and those who in a larger or narrower sense call them-
selves his followers will probably feel themselves indebted to him
more for the general direction he has given to their thoughts, for the
tone he has imparted to their inner life, for the seriousness with which
he has taught them to consider even small affairs and practical duties,
and for the indestructible confidence with which his philosophy
permits them to disregard the materialism of science, the scepticism
of shallow culture, the disquieting results of philosophical and
historical criticism.
See E. Pfleiderer, Lotze's philosophische Weltanschauung nach ihren
Grundzugen (Berlin, 1882; 2nd ed., 1884); E. von Hartmann,
Lotze's Philosophic (Leipzig, 1888); O. Caspari, H. Lotze in seiner
Stellung zu der durch Kant begrundeten neuesten Geschichte der Phil-
osophic (Breslau, 1883; 2nd ed., 1894); R. Falckenberg, Hermann
Lotze (Stuttgart, 1901); Henry Jones, A Critical Account of the
Philosophy of Lotze (Glasgow, 1895)7 Paul Lange, Die Lehre vom
Instincte bei Lotze und Darwin (Berlin, 1896); A. Lichtenstein, Lotze
and Wundt (Bern, 1900). (J- T. M.; H. ST.)
LOUBET, SMILE FRANCOIS (1838- ), 7th president of
the French republic, was born on the 3oth of December 1838,
the son of a peasant proprietor at Marsanne (Dr6me), who was
more than once mayor of Marsanne. He was admitted to the
Parisian bar in 1862, and took his doctorate-in-law next year.
He was still a student when he witnessed the sweeping triumph
of the Republican party in Paris at the general election in 1863.
He settled down to the exercise of his profession in Montelimar,
where he married in 1869 Marie Louis Picard. He also inherited
a small estate at Grignan. At the crisis of 1870 he became
mayor of Montelimar, and thenceforward was a steady supporter
of Gambetta's policy. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in
1876 by Montelimar he was one of the famous 363 who in June
1877 passed the vote of want of confidence in the ministry of
the due de Broglie. In the general election of October he was
re-elected, local enthusiasm for him being increased by the fact
that the government had driven him from the mayoralty.
In the Chamber he occupied himself especially with education,
fighting the clerical system established by the Loi Falloux, and
working for the establishment of free, obligatory and secular
primary instruction. In 1880 he became president of the depart-
mental council in Dr6me. His support of the second Jules
Ferry ministry and his zeal for the colonial expansion of France
gave him considerable weight in the moderate Republican party.
He had entered the Senate in 1885, and he became minister of
public works in the Tirard ministry (December 1887 to March
1888). In 1892 President Sadi Carnot, who was his personal
friend, asked iim to form a cabinet. Loubet held the portfolio
of the interior with the premiership, and had to deal with the
anarchist crimes of that year and with the great strike of
Carmaux, in which he acted as arbitrator, giving a decision
regarded in many quarters as too favourable to the strikers.
He was defeated in November on the question of the Panama
scandals, but he retained the ministry of the interior in the next
cabinet under Alexandra Ribot, though he resigned on its re-
construction in January. His reputation as an orator of great
force and lucidity of exposition and as a safe and honest states-
man procured for him in 1896 the presidency of the Senate, and
in February 1899 he was chosen president of the republic in
succession to Felix Faure by 483 votes as against 279 recorded
by Jules Meline, his only serious competitor. He was marked
out for fierce opposition and bitter insult as the representative
of that section of the Republican party which sought the revision
of the Dreyfus case. On the day of President Faure's funeral
Paul Deroulede met the troops under General Roget on their
return to barracks, and demanded that the general should march
on the filysee. Roget sensibly took his troops back to barracks.
At the Auteuil steeplechase in June the president was struck
on the head with a cane by an anti-Dreyfusard. In that month
President Loubet summoned Waldeck-Rousseau to form a
cabinet, and at the same time entreated Republicans of all
shades of opinion to rally to the defence of the state. By the
efforts of Loubet and Waldeck-Rousseau the Dreyfus affair was
settled, when Loubet, acting on the advice of General Galh'ffet,
minister of war, remitted the ten years' imprisonment to which
Dreyfus was condemned at Rennes. Loubet 's presidency saw
an acute stage of the clerical question, which was attacked
by Waldeck-Rousseau and in still more drastic fashion by the
Combes ministry. The French ambassador was recalled from
the Vatican in April 1905, and in July the separation of church
and state was voted in the Chamber of Deputies. Feeling had
run high between France and England over the mutual
criticisms passed on the conduct of the South African War and
the Dreyfus case respectively. These differences were composed
by the Anglo-French entente, and in 1904 a convention between
the two countries secured the recognition of French claims in
Morocco in exchange for non-interference with the English
occupation of Egypt. President Loubet was a typical example
of the peasant-proprietor class, and had none of the aristocratic,
not to say monarchical, proclivities of President Faure. He
inaugurated the Paris Exhibition of 1900, received the tsar
Nicholas II. in September 1901 and paid a visit to Russia in
1902. He also exchanged visits with King Edward VII.,
with the king of Italy and the king of Spain. The king of Spain's
visit in 1905 was the occasion of an attempt on his life, a bomb
being thrown under his carriage as he was proceeding with his
guest to the opera. His presidency came to an end in January
1906, when he retired into private life.
LOUDON, ERNST GIDEON, FREIHERR VON (1717-1790),
Austrian soldier, was born at Tootzen in Livonia, on the 2nd of
February 1717. His family, of Scottish origin, 1 had been settled
in that country since before 1400. His father was a lieutenant-
colonel, retired on a meagre pension from the Swedish service,
and the boy was sent in 1732 into the Russian army as a cadet.
He took part in Field Marshal Miinnich's siege of Danzig in
1734, in the march of a Russian corps to the Rhine in 1735 and
in the Turkish war 1738-1739. Dissatisfied with his prospects
he resigned in 1741 and sought military employment elsewhere.
He applied first to Frederick the Great, who declined his services.
At Vienna he had better fortune, being made a captain in Trenck's
free corps. He took part in its forays and marches, though not
in its atrocities, until wounded and taken prisoner in Alsace.
He was shortly released by the advance of the main Austrian
army. His next active service, still under Trenck, was in the
Silesian mountains in 1745, in which campaign he greatly dis-
tinguished himself as a leader of light troops. He was present
also at Soor. He retired shortly afterwards, owing to his distaste
for the lawless habits of his comrades in the irregulars, and after
long waiting in poverty for a regular commission he was at last
made a captain in one of the frontier regiments, spending the
next ten years in half-military, half-administrative work in the
Carlstadt district. At Bunich, where he was stationed, he built
a church and planted an oak forest now called by his name.
He had reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel when the outbreak
of the Seven Years' War called him again into the field. From
this point began his fame as a soldier. Soon promoted colonel,
he distinguished himself repeatedly and was in 1757 made a
General-feldwacht-meister (major-general of cavalry) and a
knight of the newly founded order of Maria Theresa. In the
campaign of 1758 came his first opportunity for fighting an
action as a commander-in-chief, and he used it so well that
Frederick the Great was obliged to give up the siege of Olmiitz
and retire into Bohemia (action of Dom-stadtl, 3oth of June).
He was rewarded with the grade of lieutenant-field-marshal
and having again shown himself an active and daring com-
mander in the campaign of Hochkirch, he was created a Freiherr
in the Austrian nobility by Maria Theresa and in the peerage
of the Holy Roman Empire by her husband the emperor Francis.
Maria Theresa gave him, further, the grand cross of the order
she had founded and an estate near Kuttenberg in Bohemia.
He was placed in command of the Austrian contingent sent to
1 His name is phonetically spelt Laudon or Laudohn by Germans,
and the latter form was that adopted by himself and his family.
In 1759, however, he reverted to the original Scottish form.
LOUDOUN, EARL OF LOUDUN
27
join the Russians on the Oder. At Kunersdorf he turned defeat
into a brilliant victory, and was promoted Feldzeugmeister
and made commander-in-chief in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia.
In 1760 he destroyed a whole corps of Frederick's army under
Fouqu6 at Landshut and stormed the important fortress of
Glatz. In 1 760 he sustained a reverse at Frederick's hands in the
battle of Liegnitz (Aug. isth, 1760), which action led to bitter
controversy with Daun and Lacy, the commanders of the main
army, who, Loudon claimed, had left his corps unsupported.
In 1761 he operated, as usual, in Silesia, but he found his Russian
allies as timid as they had been after Kunersdorf, and all attempts
against Frederick's entrenched camp of Bunzelwitz (see SEVEN
YEARS' WAR) failed. He brilliantly seized his one fleeting
opportunity, however, and stormed Schweidnitz on the night of
Sept. 30/October ist, 1761. His tireless activity continued to the
end of the war, in conspicuous contrast with the temporizing
strategy of Daun and Lacy. The student of the later campaigns
of the Seven Years' War will probably admit that there was
need of more aggressiveness than Daun displayed, and of more
caution than suited Loudon's genius. But neither recognized
this, and the last three years of the war are marked by an ever-
increasing friction between the " Fabius " and the " Marcellus,"
as they were called, of the Austrian army.
After the peace, therefore, when Daun became the virtual
commander-in-chief of the army, Loudon fell into the back-
ground. Offers were made, by Frederick the Great amongst
others, to induce Loudon to transfer his services elsewhere.
Loudon did not entertain these proposals, although negotiations
went on for some years, and on Lacy succeeding Daun as president
of the council of war Loudon was made inspector-general of
infantry. Dissensions, however, continued between Loudon
and Lacy, and on the accession of Joseph II., who was intimate
with his rival, Loudon retired to his estate near Kuttenberg.
Maria Theresa and Kaunitz caused him, however, to be made
commander-in-chief in Bohemia and Moravia in 1769. This
post he held for three years, and at the end of this time, con-
templating retirement from the service, he settled again on his
estate. Maria Theresa once more persuaded him to remain in
the army, and, as his estate had diminished in value owing to
agrarian troubles in Bohemia, she repurchased it from him
(1776) on generous terms. Loudon then settled at Hadersdorf
near Vienna, and shortly afterwards was made a field-marshal.
Of this Carlyle (Frederick the Great) records that when Frederick
the Great met Loudon in 1776 he deliberately addressed him
in the emperor's presence as " Herr Feldmarschall." But the
hint was not taken until February 1778.
In 1778 came the War of the Bavarian Succession. Joseph
and Lacy were now reconciled to Loudon, and Loudon and Lacy
commanded the two armies in the field. On this occasion,
however, Loudon seems to have in a measure fallen below his
reputation, while Lacy, who was opposed to Frederick's own
army, earned new laurels. For two years after this Loudon
lived quietly at Hadersdorf, and then the reverses of other
generals in the Turkish War called him for the last time into the
field. Though old and broken in health, he was commander-in-
chief in fact as well as in name, and he won a last brilliant success
by capturing Belgrade in three weeks, 1789. He died within the
year, on the I4th of July at Neu-Titschein in Moravia, still
on duty. His last appointment was that of commander-in-chief
of the armed forces of Austria, which had been created for him
by the new emperor Leopold. Loudon was buried in the grounds
of Hadersdorf. Eight years before his death the emperor
Joseph had caused a marble bust of this great soldier to be
placed in the chamber of the council of war.
His son JOHANN LUDWIG ALEXIUS, Freiherr von Loudon
(1762-1822) fought in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
with credit, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-field-marshal.
See memoir by v. Arneth in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie, s.v.
" Laudon," and life by G. B. Malleson.
LOUDOUN, JOHN CAMPBELL, IST EARL OF (1398-1663),
Scottish politician, eldest son of Sir James Campbell of Lawers,
became Baron Loudoun in right of his wife Margaret, grand-
daughter of Hugh Campbell, ist Baron Loudoun (d. 1622). He
was created earl on the i2th of May 1633, but in consequence
of his opposition to Charles I.'s church policy in Scotland the
patent was stopped in Chancery. In 1637 he was one of the
supplicants against the introduction of the English liturgy;
and with John Leslie, 6th earl of Rothes, he took a leading part
in the promulgation of the Covenant and in the General Assembly
which met at Glasgow in the autumn of 1638. He served under
General Leslie, and was one of the Scottish commissioners at the
Pacification of Berwick in June 1639. In November of that year
and again in 1640 the Scottish estates sent Loudoun with Charles
Seton, 2nd earl of Dunfermline, to London on an embassy to
Charles I. Loudoun intrigued with the French ambassador and
with Thomas Savile, afterwards earl of Sussex, but without much
success. He was in London when John Stewart, earl of Traquair,
placed in Charles's hands a letter signed by Loudoun and six
others and addressed to Louis XIII. In spite of his protest that
the letter was never sent, and that it would in any case be covered
by the amnesty granted at Berwick, he was sent to the Tower.
He was released in June, and two months later he re-entered
England with the Scottish invading army, and was one of the
commissioners at Ripon in October. In the following August
(1641) Charles opened parliament at Edinburgh in person, and
in pursuance of a policy of conciliation towards the leaders of the
Covenant Loudoun was made lord chancellor of Scotland, and
his title of earl of Loudoun was allowed. He also became first
commissioner of the treasury. In 1642 he was sent by the Scottish
council to York to offer to mediate in the dispute between
Charles and the parliament, and later on to Oxford, but in the
second of these instances Charles refused to accept his authority.
He was constantly employed in subsequent negotiations, and in
1647 was sent to Charles at Carisbrooke Castle, but the " Engage-
ment " to assist the king there made displeased the extreme
Covenanters, and Loudoun was obliged to retract his support of
it. He was now entirely on the side of the duke of Argyll and
the preachers. He assisted in the capacity of lord chancellor
at Charles II.'s coronation at Scone, and was present at Dunbar.
He joined in the royalist rising of 1653, but eventually sur-
rendered to General Monk. His estates were forfeited by
Cromwell, and a sum of money settled on the countess and her
heirs. At the Restoration he was removed from the chancellor-
ship, but a pension of 1000 granted him by Charles I. in 1643
was still allowed him. In 1662 he was heavily fined. He died
in Edinburgh on the isth of March 1663.
The earl's elder son, James (d. 1684), and earl of Loudoun, passed
his life out of Great Britain, and when he died at Leiden was suc-
ceeded by his son Hugh (d. 1731). The 3rd earl held various high
positions in England and Scotland, being chosen one of the repre-
sentative peers for Scotland at the union of the parliaments in 1707.
He rendered good service to the government during the rising of
1715, especially at the battle of Sheriff muir, and was succeeded
as 4th earl by his son John (1705-1782), who fought against the
Jacobites in 1745, was commander-in-chief of the British force in
America in 1756 and died unmarried. The title then passed to
James Mure Campbell (d. 1786), a grandson of the 2nd earl, and was
afterwards borne Dy the marquesses of Hastings, descendants of the
5th earl's daughter and heiress, Flora (1780-1840). Again revert-
ing to a female on the death of Henry, 4th marquess of Hastings,
in 1868, it came afterwards to Charles (b. 1855), a nephew of this
marquess, who became nth earl of Loudoun.
LOUDUN, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Vienne, on an eminence overlooking
a fertile plain, 45 m. by rail S.W.of Tours. Pop. (1906) 3931.
It was formerly surrounded by walls, of which a single gateway
and two towers remain. Of the old castle of the counts of Anjou
which was destroyed under Richelieu, the site now forming a
public promenade, a fine rectangular donjon of the 1 2th century
is preserved; at its base traces of Roman constructions have
been found, with fragments of porphyry pavement, mosaics and
mural paintings. The Carmelite convent was the scene of the
trial of Urban Grandier, who was burnt alive for witchcraft in
1634; the old Romanesque church of Sainte Croix, of which he
was cure, is now used as a market. The church of St Pierre-du-
MarchS, Gothic in style with a Renaissance portal, has a lofty
stone spire. There are several curious old houses in the town.
28
LOUGHBOROUGH LOUIS I.
Theophraste Renaudot (d. 1653), founder of the Gazette de France,
was born at Loudun, where there is a statue of him. The manu-
facture of lace and upholstery trimming and of farm implements
is carried on, and there is a considerable trade in agricultural
products, wine, &c. Loudun (La.ud.unum in ancient times) was
a town of importance during the religious wars and gave its
name in 1616 to a treaty favourable to the Protestants.
LOUGHBOROUGH, a market town and municipal borough in
the Loughborough (Mid) parliamentary division of Leicestershire,
England, near the river Soar and on the Loughborough canal.
Pop. (1901) 21,508. It is no m. N.N.W. of London by the
Midland railway, and is served by the Great Central and a
branch of the London and North- Western railways. The neigh-
bourhood is a rich agricultural district, and to the S.W. lies
the hilly tract known as Charnwood Forest. The church of All
Saints stands on rising ground, and is a conspicuous object for
many miles round; it is of Decorated work, and the tower is
Perpendicular. The other churches are modern. Public build-
ings include the town hall and exchange, town offices, county
hall and free library. The grammar school, founded in 1495
under the charity of Thomas Burton, occupies modern buildings
in pleasant grounds. There is also a girls' grammar school partly
dependent on the same foundation. The principal industry is
hosiery making; there are also engineering, iron and dye works
and bell foundries. The great bell for St Paul's- cathedral,
London, was cast here in 1881. Loughborough was incorporated
in 1888. Area, 3045 acres.
The manor of Loughborough (Lucleburne, Lucteburg, Lughte-
burgh) was granted by William the Conqueror to Hugh Lupus,
from whom it passed to the Despensers. In 1226-1227 when it
belonged to Hugh Despenser he obtained various privileges for
himself and his men and tenants there, among which were
quittance from suits at the county and hundred courts, of sheriffs'
aids and of view of frankpledge, and also a market every Thursday
and a fair on the vigil, day and morrow of St Peter ad vincula.
The market rights were purchased by the town in 1880 from the
trustees of Thomas Cradock, late lord of the manor. Edward II.
visited the manor several times when it belonged to his favourite,
Hugh Despenser the elder. Among the subsequent lords were
Henry de Beaumont and Alice his wife, Sir Edward Hastings,
created Baron Hastings of Loughborough in 1558, Colonel Henry
Hastings, created baron in 1645, and the earls of Huntingdon.
Alexander Wedderburn was created Baron Loughborough in
1780 when he became chief justice of the common pleas. During
the igth century most of the manorial rights were purchased by
the local board. Loughborough was at first governed by a bailiff,
afterwards by a local board, and was finally incorporated in 1888
under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. It has never been
represented in parliament. Lace-making was formerly the chief
industry, but machines for making lace set up in the town by John
Heathcote were destroyed by the Luddites in 1816, and the
manufacture lost its importance. Bell-founding was introduced
in 1840. John Cleveland, the Royalist poet, was born at
Loughborough in 1613, John Howe the painter in 1630 and
Richard Pulteney the botanist in 1730.
See Victoria County History, Leicestershire; W. G. D. Fletcher,
Chapters in the History of Loughborough (1883) ; Sir Thomas Pochin,
" Historical Description of Loughborough " (1770) (vol. viii. of
Bibliotheca topographica Britannica).
LOUGHREA, a market town of Co. Galway, Ireland,
pleasantly situated on the N. shore of Lough Rea, 116 m. W. from
Dublin by a branch from Attymon Junction on the Midland
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2815. There are slight
remains of an Early English Carmelite friary dating c. 1300, which
escaped the Dissolution. Loughrea is the seat of the Roman
Catholic bishop of Clonfert, and has a cathedral built in 1900-
1905. A part of the castle of Richard de Burgh, the founder of
the friary, still survives, and there are traces of the town fortifica-
tions. In the neighbourhood are a cromlech and two ruined
towers, and crannogs, or ancient stockaded islands, have been
discovered in the lough. Apart from the surroundings of the
lough, the neighbouring country is peculiarly desolate.
LOUGHTON, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary
division of Essex, England, 113 m. N.N.E. of Liverpool Street
station, London, by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901),
4730. This is one of the villages which has become the centre of
a residential district, and is frequented by holiday-makers from
London, owing to its proximity to the pleasant woodland scenery
of Epping Forest. It lies on the eastern outskirts of the Forest,
near the river Roding. There are several modern churches.
The lordship of the manor was granted to Waltham Abbey.
In the vicinity are large earthworks, probably of British origin,
known as Loughton Camp.
LOUHANS, a town of east-central France in the old province
of Franche-Comte, now capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Saone-et-Loire, 34 m. N.N.E. of Macon by road.
Pop. ( 1 906) ,3216. Its church has a fine to wer of the 1 5th century,
of which the balustrade is carved so as to form the first words
of the Ave Maria. There are also a hospital of the i7th century
with a collection of ancient earthenware, a town-hall of the i8th
century and remains of ramparts of the i6th and i7th century.
The town is the central market of the agricultural plain of Bresse;
chickens form the chief article of commerce. There is also a
large felt-hat manufactory.
LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Prankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig,
Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence in
the Strassburg oath of 842 O. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Lays
and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and through the Angevin
kings Hungarian Ldjos; cf. Ger. Ludwig or Ludewig, from
O. H. Ger. Hluduwlc, Hludwig, Ludhuwig, M. H. Ger. Ludewic;
Ital. Lodovico), a masculine proper name, meaning " Fame-fight "
or " Famous in fight," from old Frankish Mud, Mod (0. H. Ger.
ftlud, Mod), " fame," and wich (O. H. Ger. wtc., wig, A.S. wig)
" war," " battle " (cf. Gr. KXwoyuaxoj). The name has been
borne by numerous European sovereigns and others, of whom
some are noticed below in the following order: (i) Roman
emperors and Frankish and German kings, (2) kings of Bavaria,
(3) kings of France, (4) kings of Hungary, (5) kings of Naples,
(6) Louis of Nassau. (Louis Philippe, king of the French, is dealt
with separately.)
LOUIS I. (778-840), surnamed the " Pious," Roman emperor,
third son of the emperor Charlemagne and his wife Hildegarde,
was born at Chasseneuil in central France, and crowned king of
Aquitaine in 781. He received a good education; but as his
tastes were ecclesiastical rather than military, the government
of his kingdom was mainly conducted by his counsellors. Louis,
however, gained sound experience in warfare in the defence of
Aquitaine, shared in campaigns against the Saxons and the Avars,
and led an army to Italy in 792. In 794 or 795 he married
Irmengarde, daughter of Ingram, count of Haspen. After the
deaths of his two elder brothers, Louis, at his father's command,
crowned himself co-emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle on the nth of
September 813, and was formally associated in the government
of the Empire, of which he became sole ruler, in the following
January. He earned the surname of " Pious " by banishing
his sisters and others of immoral life from court; by attempting
to reform and purify monastic life; and by showing great
liberality to the church. In October 816 he was crowned
emperor at Reims by Pope Stephen IV.; and at Aix in July
817, he arranged for a division of his Empire among his sons.
This was followed by a revolt of his nephew, Bernard, king of
Italy; but the rising was easily suppressed, and Bernard was
mutilated and killed. The emperor soon began to repent of
this cruelty, and when his remorse had been accentuated by the
death of his wife in 818, he pardoned the followers of Bernard
and restored their estates, and in 822 did public penance at
Attigny. In 819 he married Judith, daughter of Welf I., count
of Bavaria, who in 823 bore him a son Charles, afterwards
called the Bald. Judith made unceasing efforts to secure a
kingdom for her child; and with the support of her eldest
step-son Lothair, a district was carved out for Charles in 829.
Discontent at this arrangement increased to the point of rebellion,
which broke out the following year, provoked by Judith's in-
trigues with Bernard, count of Barcelona, whom she had installed
LOUIS II. LOUIS III.
as her favourite at court. Lothair and his brother Pippin joined
the rebels, and after Judith had been sent into a convent and
Bernard had fled to Spain, an assembly was held at Compiegne,
when Louis was practically deposed and Lothair became the
real ruler of the Empire. Sympathy was, however, soon aroused
for the emperor, who was treated as a prisoner, and a second
assembly was held at Nimwegen in October 830 when, with
the concurrence of his sons Pippin and Louis, he was restored to
power and Judith returned to court.
Further trouble between Pippin and his father led to the
nominal transfer of Aquitaine from Pippin to his brother
Charles in 831. The emperor's plans for a division of his
dominions then led to a revolt of his three sons. Louis met them
in June 833 near Kolmar, but owing possibly to the influence
of Pope Gregory IV., who took part in the negotiations, he found
himself deserted by his supporters, and the treachery and
falsehood which marked the proceedings gave to the place the
name of Lugenfeld, or the " field of lies." Judith, charged
with infidelity, was again banished; Louis was sent into the
monastery of St Medard at Soissons; and the government of
the Empire was assumed by his sons. The emperor was forced
to confess his sins, and declare himself unworthy of the throne,
but Lothair did not succeed in his efforts to make his father
a monk. Sympathy was again felt for Louis, and when the
younger Louis had failed to induce Lothair to treat the emperor
in a more becoming fashion, he and Pippin took up arms on
behalf of their father. The result was that in March 834 Louis
was restored to power at St Denis; Judith once more returned
to his side and the kingdoms of Louis and Pippin were increased.
The struggle with Lothair continued until the autumn, when
he submitted to the emperor and was confined to Italy. To
make the restoration more complete, a great assembly at Dieden-
hofen declared the deposition of Louis to have been contrary
to law, and a few days later he was publicly restored in the
cathedral of Metz. In December 838 Pippin died, and a new
arrangement was made by which the Empire, except Bavaria,
the kingdom of Louis, was divided between Lothair, now
reconciled to his father, and Charles. The emperor was returning
from suppressing a revolt on the part of his son Louis, provoked
by this disposition, when he died on the 2oth of June 840 on an
island in the Rhine near Ingelheim. He was buried in the church
of St Arnulf at Metz. Louis was a man of strong frame, who
loved the chase, and did not shrink from the hardships of war.
He was, however, easily influenced and was unequal to the govern-
ment of the Empire bequeathed to him by his father. No
sustained effort was made to ward off the inroads of the Danes
and others, who were constantly attacking the borders of the
Empire. Louis, who is also called Le Dtbonnaire, counts as
Louis I., king of France.
See Annales Fuldenlt*; Annales Bertiniani; Thegan, Vita
Hludowici; the Vita Hiudowici attributed to Astronomus; Er-
moldus Nigellus, In honorem Hludowici imperatoris; Nithard,
Hisloriarum libri, all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scrip-
lores, Bande i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.) ; E. Muhl-
bacher, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Inns-
bruck, 1881); and Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern (Stutt-
gart, 1886) ; B. Simson, Jahrbucher des frankischen Reichs unter
Ludwig dem Frommen (Leipzig, 1874-1876); and E. Dummler,
Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Keiches (Leipzig, 1887-1888).
(A. W. H.*)
LOUIS II. (825-875), Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor
Lothair I., was designated king of Italy in 839, and taking up
his residence in that country was crowned king at Rome by Pope
Sergius II. on the isth of June 844. He at once preferred a
claim to the rights of an emperor in the city, which was decisively
rejected; but in 850 he was crowned joint emperor at Rome
by Pope Leo IV., and soon afterwards married his cousin, Engel-
berga, a daughter of King Louis the German, and undertook the
independent government of Italy. He took the field against
the Saracens; quashed some accusations against Pope Leo;
held a diet at Pavia; and on the death of his father in September
855 became sole emperor. The division of Lothair's dominions,
by which he obtained no territory outside Italy, aroused his
discontent, and in 857 he allied himself with Louis the German
against his brother Lothair, king of Lorraine, and King Charles
the Bald. But after Louis had secured the election of Nicholas
I. as pope in 858, he became reconciled with his brother, and
received some lands south of the Jura in return for assistance
given to Lothair in his efforts to obtain a divorce from his wife,
Teutberga. In 863, on the death of his brother Charles, Louis
received the kingdom of Provence, and in 864 came into collision
with Pope Nicholas I. over his brother's divorce. The arch-
bishops, who had been deposed by Nicholas for proclaiming this
marriage invalid, obtained the support of the emperor, who
reached Rome with an army in February 864; but, having
been seized with fever, he made peace with the pope and left
the city. In his efforts to restore order in Italy, Louis met
with considerable success both against the turbulent princes
of the peninsula and against the Saracens who were ravaging
southern Italy. In 866 he routed these invaders, but could not
follow up his successes owing to the want of a fleet. So in
869 he made an alliance with the eastern emperor, Basil I.,
who sent him some ships to assist in the capture of Bari, the
headquarters of the Saracens, which succumbed in 871. Mean-
while his brother Lothair had died in 869, and owing to his
detention in southern Italy he was unable to prevent the partition
of Lorraine between Louis the German and Charles the Bald.
Some jealousy between Louis and Basil followed the victory
at Bari, and in reply to an insult from the eastern emperor
Louis attempted to justify his right to the title " emperor of
the Romans." He had withdrawn into Benevento to prepare
for a further campaign, when he was treacherously attacked
in his palace, robbed and imprisoned by Adelchis, prince of
Benevento, in August 871. The landing of fresh bands of
Saracens compelled Adelchis to release his prisoner a month
later, and Louis was forced to swear he would take no revenge
for this injury, nor ever enter Benevento with an army. Return-
ing to Rome, he was released from his oath, and was crowned a
second time as emperor by Pope Adrian II. on the i8th of May
872. He won further successes against the Saracens, who were
driven from Capua, but the attempts of the emperor to punish
Adelchis were not very successful. Returning to northern Italy,
he died, somewhere in the province of Brescia, on the I2th of
August 875, and was buried in the church of St Ambrose at Milan,
having named as his successor in Italy his cousin Carloman,
son of Louis the German. Louis was an excellent ruler, of
whom it was said " in his time there was great peace, because
every one could enjoy his own possessions."
See Annales Bertiniani, Chronica S. Benedicti Casinensis, both in
the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande i. and iii.
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fpL); E. Muhlbacher, Die Regesten des
Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881); Th. Sickel,
Acta regum et imperatorum Karolinorum, digesta el enarrata (Vienna,
1867-1868); and E. Dummler, Geschichte des oslfrdnkischen Retches
(Leipzig, 1887-1888). (A. W. H.*)
LOUIS III. (c. 880-928), surnamed the " Blind," Roman
emperor, was a son of Boso, king of Provence or Lower Burgundy,
and Irmengarde, daughter of the emperor Louis II. The
emperor Charles the Fat took Louis under his protection on the
death of Boso in 887; but Provence was in a state of wild
disorder, and it was not until 890, when Irmengarde had secured
the support of the Bavarian king Arnulf and of Pope Stephen V.,
that Louis was recognized as king. In 900, after the death of
the emperor Arnulf, he went to Italy to obtain the imperial
crown. He was chosen king of the Lombards at Pavia, and
crowned emperor at Rome in February 901 by Pope Benedict IV.
He gained a temporary authority in northern Italy, but was
soon compelled by his rival Berengar, margrave of Friuli, to
leave the country and to swear he would never return. In
spite of his oath he went again to Italy in 904, where he secured
the submission of Lombardy; but on the 2ist of July 905 he
was surprised at Verona by Berengar, who deprived him of his
sight and sent him back to Provence, where he passed his days
in enforced inactivity until his death in September 928. He
married Adelaide, possibly a daughter of Rudolph I., king of
Upper Burgundy. His eldest son, Charles Constantine, succeeded
to no more than the county of Vienne.
LOUIS IV.
See Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, Bande ix. and x
(Gottingen, 1862-1886); E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen
Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-1888); and Gesta Berengarii imperatori
(Halle, 1871); and F. de Gingins-la-Sarra. Memoires pour servir i
I'histoire de Provence et de Bourgogne Jurane (Zurich, 1851).
(A. W. H.*)
LOUIS IV., or V. (c. 1287-1347), surnamed the Bavarian
Roman emperor and duke of Upper Bavaria, was the seconc
son of Louis II., duke of Upper Bavaria and count palatine o:
the Rhine, and Matilda, daughter of the German king Rudolph
I. Having lost his father in 1294 he inherited, jointly with
his elder brother Rudolph, Upper Bavaria and the Palatinate
but passed his time mainly at the court of the Habsburgs in
Vienna, while his early experiences of warfare were gained in
the campaigns of his uncle, the German king Albert I. He was
soon at variance with his brother over their joint possessions
Albert taking the part of Louis in this quarrel, Rudolph promised
in 1301 to admit his brother to a share in the government oi
Bavaria and the Palatinate. When Albert was murdered in
May 1308, Louis became a candidate for the German throne
but his claim was not strongly supported. The new king,
Henry VII., was very friendly with Rudolph, and as the promise
of 1301 had not been carried out, Louis demanded a partition
of their lands. Upper Bavaria was accordingly divided in 1310,
and Louis received the north-western part of the duchy; but
Rudolph refused to surrender any part of the Palatinate. In
1310, on the death of Stephen I., duke of Lower Bavaria, Louis
undertook the guardianship of his two young sons. This led
to a war between the brothers, which lasted till June 1313, when
peace was made at Munich. Many of the nobles in Lower Bavaria,
however, angered at Louis, called in the aid of Frederick I.
(the Fair), duke of Austria; but he was defeated at Gammelsdorf
on the gth of November 1313, a victory which not only led to
peace, but conferred considerable renown on Louis.
In August 1313 the German throne had again become vacant,
and Louis was chosen at Frankfort on the 2oth of October 1314
by a majority of the electors, and his coronation followed at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of November. A minority of princes
had, however, supported Frederick of Austria; and a war
followed between the rivals, during which Louis was supported
by the cities and the districts of the middle and lower Rhine.
His embarrassments were complicated by a renewal of the
dispute with his brother; but when this had been disposed of
in 1317 by Rudolph's renunciation of his claims on upper Bavaria
and the Palatinate in consideration of a yearly subsidy, Louis
was able to give undivided attention to the war with Frederick,
and obtained several fresh allies. On the 28th of September
1322 a battle was fought at Mvihldorf, which ended in a complete
victory for Louis, owing mainly to the timely aid of Frederick IV.
of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremburg. Frederick of Austria
was taken prisoner, but the struggle was continued by his brother
Leopold until the latter's death in 1326. Attempts to enable
the two kings to rule Germany jointly failed, and about 1326
Frederick returned to Austria, leaving Louis in undisputed posses-
sion of the country. Before this conclusion, however, a new
enemy had taken the field. Supported by Philip V. of France
in his desire to free Italy entirely from German influence, Pope
John XXII. refused to recognize either Frederick or Louis, and
asserted his own right to administer the empire during a vacancy.
After the battle of Muhldorf Louis sent Berthold of Neifen,
count of Marstetten, into Italy with an army, which soon com-
pelled the papal troops to raise the siege at Milan. The pope
threatened Louis with excommunication unless he resigned his
kingdom within three months. The king thereupon appealed
to a general council, and was placed under the papal ban on
the 23rd of March 1324, a sentence which he answered by pub-
lishing his charges against the pope. In the contest Louis was
helped by the Minorites, who were upholding against John
the principal of clerical poverty, and by the writings of Marsilius
of Padua (who dedicated to Louis his Defensor pacis), William of
Occam, John of Jandun and others. Taking the offensive,
Louis met his Ghibelline supporters at Trent and reached Italy
in March 1327; and in May he received the Lombard crown
at Milan. Although the pope renewed his fulminations Louis
compelled Pisa to surrender, and was hailed with great re-
joicing in Rome. On the i7th of January 1328 he was crowned
emperor in St Peter's by Sciarra Colonna, a Roman noble; and
he answered the continued attacks of Pope John by pronouncing
his deposition, and proclaiming Peter of Corvara pope as Nicholas
V. He then undertook an expedition against John's ally, Robert,
king of Naples, but, disunion among his troops and scarcity
of money and provisions, drove him again to Rome, where,
finding that his exactions had diminished his popularity, he left
the city, and after passing six months at Pisa, returned to
Germany in January 1330. The struggle with the pope was
renewed in Germany, and when a formidable league had been
formed against Louis, his thoughts turned to a reconciliation.
He was prepared to assent to very humiliating terms, and even
agreed to abdicate; but the negotiations, which were prolonged
by further demands on the part of the pope, were interrupted
by his death in December 1334. John's successor, Benedict
XII., seemed more anxious to come to an arrangement, but was
prevented from doing so by the influence of Philip VI. of France.
Overtures for peace were made to Philip, but without success;
and in July 1337 Louis concluded an alliance with Edward
III., king of England, and made active preparations for war.
During these years his attention was also occupied by a quarrel
with John, king of Bohemia, over the possession of Tirol, by a
campaign in Lower Bavaria, and a futile expedition against
Nicholas I., bishop of Constance. But although his position
was shaken by the indifferent success which attended these
campaigns, it was improved when the electors meeting at Rense
in July 1338 banded themselves together to defend their elective
rights, and when the diet at Frankfort confirmed a decree which
declared that the German king did not need the papal appro-
bation to make his election valid.
Louis devoted considerable thought and time to extending
the possessions of the Wittelsbach family, to which he belonged.
Tirol had for some time been a subject of contention between
the emperor and other princes. The heiress of this county,
Margaret Maultasch, had married John Henry, margrave of
Moravia, son of King John of Bohemia. Having quarrelled
with her husband, Margaret fled to the protection of Louis, who
seized the opportunity to declare her marriage void and to unite
ber in 1342 with his son Louis. The emperor also increased his
possessions by his own marriage. In 1322 his first wife, Beatrice,
daughter of Henry III., count of Glogau, had died after thirteen
years of married life, and Louis then married Margaret, daughter
of William III., count of Holland. When her brother, count
William IV., died childless in 1345, the emperor obtained posses-
sion of Holland, Zealand and Friesland. In 1341 he recovered
a portion of the Palatinate, and soon deserted Edward of England
and came to terms with Philip of France*. The acquisition of the
territories, and especially of Tirol, had provided Louis with many
enemies, prominent among whom were John of Bohemia and his
amily, that of Luxemburg. John, therefore, entered into an
alliance with Pope Clement VI. The course of the war which
ensued in Germany was such as to compel the emperor to submit
to humiliating terms, though he stopped short of accepting the
election of Charles, margrave of Moravia (afterwards the emperor
Charles IV.) as German king in July 1346. Charles consequently
attacked Tirol; but Louis, who appeared to have considerable
chances of success, died suddenly at a bear-hunt near Munich
on the nth of October 1347. He was buried in the Frauenkirche
at Munich, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1622
>y Maximilian I., elector of Bavaria, and where a second was
unveiled in 1905. He had seven sons, three of whom were sub-
equently electors of Brandenburg, and ten daughters.
Various estimates have been formed of the character of Louis.
As a soldier he possessed skill as well as bravery, but he lacked
>erseverance and decision in his political relations. At one
ime haughtily defying the pope, at another abjectly craving his
jardon, he seems a very inglorious figure; and the fact that he
emained almost undisturbed in the possession of Germany
n spite of the utmost efforts of the popes, is due rather to the
LOUIS THE GERMAN LOUIS I.
political and intellectual tendencies of the time than to his own
good qualities. Nevertheless he ruled Bavaria with consider-
able success. He befriended the towns, encouraged trade and
commerce and gave a new system of laws to the duchy. German
took the place of Latin in the imperial charters, and although
not a scholar, the emperor was a patron of learning. Louis was
a man of graceful appearance, with ruddy countenance and
prominent nose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Many of the authorities for the life and reign of
Louis are found in the Forties rcrum Germanicarum, Bande i. and iv.,
edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868). Among these is the
Vila Ludovici IV., by an unknown author. A number of important
documents are found in the Regesta imperii 1314-1347, edited by
J. F. Bohmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1865); Acta imperii selecta,
edited by J. F. Bohmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); Urkunden
zur Geschichte des Romerzuges Konigs Ludwigs des Bayern, edited
by I. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1865); Urkundliche Beitrage zur Geschichte
Kaisers Ludwigs IV., edited by C. Hofler (Munich, 1839); Valikan-
ische Urkunden zur Geschichte Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern, Bande v.
and yi. (Stuttgart, 1877-1888); Vatikanische Akten zur Deutschen
Geschichte in der Zeit Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern, edited by S.
Riezler (Innsbruck, 1891). In the Forschungen zur Deutschen
Geschichte (Gottingen, 1862-1886), Band xx., is found Urkunden
zur Bairischen und Deutschen Geschichte 1256-1343, edited by S.
Riezler; and in Band xiii. is C. Hautle's Beitrage zum Itinerar
Kaiser Ludwigs.
The following may also be consulted: C. Gewoldus, Defensio
Ludovici IV. contra A. Bzovium (Ingolstadt, 1618); J. G. Herwartus,
Ludovicus IV. imperator defensus (Mainz, 1618); N. Burgundus,
Historia Bavarica sive Ludovicus IV. imperator (Ingolstadt, 1636).
The best modern authorities are F. von Weech, Kaiser Ludwig der
Bayer und Konig Johann von Bohmen (Munich, 1860); S. Riezler,
Die literarischen Widersacher der Pdpste zur Zeit Ludwigs des
Bayern (Leipzig, 187^); C. Muhling, Die Geschichte der Doppelwahl
des Jahres 1314 (Munich, 1882) ; R. Dobner, Die Auseinandersetzung
zwischen Ludwig IV. dem Bayern und Friedrich dem Schonen von
Oesterreich (Gottingen, 1875); W. Altmann, Der Rdmerzug
Ludwigs des Bayern (Berlin, 1886); A. Chroust, Beitrage zur
Geschichte Ludwigs des Bayern und seiner Zeit (Gotha, 1877);
K. Miiller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mil der romischen Curie
(Tubingen, 1870-1880); W. Preger, Der Kirchenpolitische Kampf
unter Ludwig dem Bayern (Munich, 1877) ; Sievers, Die politischen
Beziehungen Kaiser Ludwigs des Bayern zu Frankreich (Berlin,
1896); Steinberger, Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer (Munich, 1901); and
Uedine, Ludwig der Bayer und die niederrheinischen Stadte (Fader-
born, 1904). (A. W. H.*)
LOUIS (804-876) surnamed the " German," king of the
East Franks, was the third son of the emperor Louis I. and his
wife Irmengarde. His early years were partly spent at the
court of his grandfather Charlemagne, whose special affection
he is said to have won. When the emperor Louis divided his
dominions between his sons in 817, Louis received Bavaria and
the neighbouring lands, but did not undertake the government
until 825, when he became involved in war with the Slavonic
tribes on his eastern frontier. In 827 he married Emma, daughter
of Welf I., count of Bavaria, and sister of his stepmother Judith;
and he soon began to interfere in the quarrels arising from
Judith's efforts to secure a kingdom for her own son Charles,
and the consequent struggles of Louis and his brothers with the
emperor Louis I. (<?..). When the elder Louis died in 840 and
his eldest son Lothair claimed the whole Empire, Louis in alliance
with his half-brother, king Charles the Bald, defeated Lothair
at Fontenoy on the 2Sth of June 841. In June 842 the three
brothers met on an island in the Saone to negotiate a peace, and
each appointed forty representatives to arrange the boundaries
of their respective kingdoms. This developed into the treaty
of Verdun concluded in August 843, by which Louis received the
bulk of the lands of the Carolingian empire lying east of the Rhine,
together with a district around Spires, Worms and Mainz, on
the left bank of the river. His territories included Bavaria,
where he made Regensburg the centre of his government,
Thuringia, Franconia and Saxony. He may truly be called the
founder of the German kingdom, though his attempts to main-
tain the unity of the Empire proved futile. Having in 842
crushed a rising in Saxony, he compelled the Abotrites to own
his authority, and undertook campaigns against the Bohemians,
the Moravians and other tribes, but was not very successful
in freeing his shores from the ravages of Danish pirates. At his
instance synods and assemblies were held where laws were
decreed for the better government of church and state. In 853
and the following years Louis made more than one attempt
to secure the throne of Aquitaine, which the people of that
country offered him in their disgust with the cruel misrule of
Charles the Bald. But though he met with sufficient success
to encourage him to issue a charter in 858, dated " the first
year of the reign in West Francia," treachery and desertion
in his army, and the loyalty to Charles of the Aquitanian
bishops brought about the failure of the enterprise, which
Louis renounced by a treaty signed at Coblenz on the 7th of
June 860.
In 855 the emperor Lothair died, and was succeeded in Italy by
his eldest son Louis II., and in the northern part of his kingdom
by his second son, Lothair. The comparative weakness of these
kingdoms, together with the disorder caused by the matrimonial
troubles of Lothair, afforded a suitable opening for the intrigues
of Louis and Charles the Bald, whose interest was increased by
the fact that both their nephews were without male issue.
Louis supported Lothair in his efforts to divorce his wife
Teutberga, for which he received a promise of Alsace, while Charles
opposed the divorce. But in 865 Louis and Charles meeting
near Toul, renewed the peace of Coblenz, and doubtless discussed
the possibility of dividing Lothair's kingdom. In 868 at Metz
they agreed definitely to a partition; but when Lothair died in
869, Louis was lying seriously ill, and his armies were engaged
with the Moravians. Charles the Bald accordingly seized the
whole kingdom; but Louis, having recovered, compelled him
by a threat of war to agree to the treaty of Mersen, which divided
it between the claimants. The later years of Louis were troubled
by risings on the part of his sons, the eldest of whom, Carloman,
revolted in 861 and again two years later; an example that
was followed by the second son Louis, who in a further rising
was joined by his brother Charles. A report that the emperor
Louis II. was dead led to peace between father and sons. The
emperor, however, was not dead, but a prisoner; and as he was
not only the nephew, but also the son-in-law of Louis, that
monarch hoped to secure both the imperial dfgnity and the Italian
kingdom for his son Carloman. Meeting his daughter Engelberga,
the wife of Louis II., at Trent in 872, Louis made an alliance with
her against Charles the Bald, and in 874 visited Italy doubtless
on the same errand. The emperor, having named Carloman
as his successor, died in August 875, but Charles the Bald
reached Italy before his rival, and by persuading Carloman,
when he did cross the Alps, to return, secured the imperial crown.
Louis was preparing for war when he died on the 28th of
September 876 at Frankfort, and was buried at Lorsch, leaving
three sons and three daughters. Louis was in war and peace
alike, the most competent of the descendants of Charlemagne.
He obtained for his kingdom a certain degree of security in face
of the attacks of Normans, Hungarians, Moravians and others.
He lived in close alliance with the Church, to which he was
very generous, and entered eagerly into schemes for the con-
version of his heathen neighbours.
See Annales Fuldenses; Annales Bertiniani; Nithard, Histori-
arum Libri, all in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores,
Bande i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); E. Dummler,
Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Reiches (Leipzig, 1887-1888); Th.
Sickel, Die Urkunden Ludwigs des Deutschen (Vienna, 1861-1862);
E. Muhlbacher, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern
(Innsbruck, 1881) ; and A. Krohn, Ludwig der Deutsche (Saarbrucken,
1872). (A. W. H.*)
LOUIS I., king of Bavaria (1786-1868), son of the then prince,
afterwards duke and elector, Max Joseph of Zweibriicken and his
wife Princess Augusta of Hesse-Darmstadt ( -i 796), was born
at Strassburg on the 25th of August 1786. He received a careful
education at home, afterwards (in 1803) going to the Bavarian
national university of Landshut and to Gottingen. As a young
man he was drawn into the Romantic movement then at its
height; but both the classics and contemporary classical poetry
took hold upon his receptive mind (he visited Goethe in 1827).
He had himself strong artistic tendencies, though his numerous
poems show but little proof of this, and as a patron of the
arts he proved himself as great as any who had ever occupied a
LOUIS I.
German throne, and more than a mere dilettante. His first visit
to Italy, in 1804, had an important influence upon this side of
his development.
But even in Italy the crown prince (his father had become
elector in 1799 and king of Bavaria in 1805) did not forget his
nationality. He soon made himself leader of the small anti-
French party in Bavaria. Napoleon sought in vain to win him
over, and Louis fell more and more out of favour with him.
Napoleon was even reported to have said: " Qui m'empeche
de laisser fusilier ce prince? " Their relations continued to be
strained, although in the campaigns of 1807 and 1809, in which
Bavaria was among the allies of France, Louis won his laurels
in the field.
The crown prince was also averse from a Napoleonic marriage,
and preferred to marry (October 12, 1810) the Princess Therese
of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1792-1854). Three daughters and
four sons were born of this marriage, one of whom succeeded
him as Maximilian II., while another, Luitpold, became prince
regent of Bavaria on the death of Louis II.
During the time that he was crown prince Louis resided chiefly
at Innsbruck or Salzburg as governor of the circle of the Inn and
Salzach. In 1815 he attended the Congress of Vienna, where he
was especially occupied in endeavouring to obtain the restoration
of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany; and later in the year he
was with the allies in Paris, using his influence to secure the
return of the art treasures carried off by the French.
After 1815 also the crown prince maintained his anti-French
attitude, and it was mainly his influence that in 1817 secured the
fall of Montgelas, the minister with French sympathies. Opposed
to absolutism, Louis took great interest in the work of organizing
the Bavarian constitution (1818) and defended it against Metter-
nich and the Carlsbad Decrees (1819); he was also one of the
most zealous of the ardent Philhellenes in Germany at the time.
He succeeded to the crown of Bavaria on the I2th of October
1825, and at once embarked upon a moderate constitutional
policy, in which he found himself in general agreement with the
parliament. Although he displayed a loyal attachment to the
Catholic Church, especially owing to his artistic sympathies,
he none the less opposed all its more exaggerated pretensions,
especially as represented by the Jesuits, whom he condemned
as un-German. In the year of his accession he abolished an old
edict concerning the censorship. He also furthered in many ways
the internal administration of the state, and especially that of
the finances. His personal tastes, apart from his activities as a
Maecenas, being economical, he endeavoured also to limit public
expenditure, in a way which was not always a benefit to the
country. Bavaria's power of self-defence especially was
weakened by his economies and by his lack of interest in the
military aspect of things.
He was a warm friend of learning, and in 1826 transferred the
university of Landshut to Munich, where he placed it under his
special protection. Prominent scholars were summoned to it,
mostly belonging to the Romantic School, such as Goerres,
Schubert and Schelling, though others were not discouraged.
In the course of his visits to Italy he formed friendships with
famous artists such as Thorwaldsen and Cornelius. He was
especially anxious to obtain works of art, mainly sculpture,
for the famous Munich collections which he started, and in this
he had the advantage of the assistance of the painter Martin
Wagner. He also set on foot movements for excavation and the
collection of works of art in Greece, with excellent results.
Under the influence of the July revolution of 1830, however,
he also began to be drawn into the current of reaction; and
though he still declared himself openly against absolutism, and
never took up such a hostile attitude towards constitutional ideas
as his brother-in-law King Frederick William IV., he allowed
the reactionary system of surveillance which commended itself
to the German Confederation after 1830 to be introduced into
Bavaria (see BAVARIA: History). He continued, on the other
hand, to do much for the economic development of the country.
As a follower of the ideas' of Friedrich List, he furthered
the foundation of the Zollverein in the year 1833 and the
making of canals. Railways he looked upon as a " necessary
evil."
In external politics peace was maintained on the whole after
1825. Temporary diplomatic complications arose between
Bavaria and Baden in connexion with Louis's favourite project
of winning back the part then belonging to Baden of the old
Palatinate, the land of his birth, which was always very dear to
him.
Of European importance was his enthusiasm for the liberation
of Greece from the rule of Turkey. Not only did he erect the
Propylaen at Munich in her honour, but he also helped her in the
most generous way both with money and diplomatic, resources.
And after his second son Otto had become king of Greece in 1832,
Greek affairs became from time to time the central point of his
foreign policy. In 1835 he made a visit to Greece, partly political,
partly inspired by his old interest in art. But his son proved
unequal to his task, and in 1862 was forced to abdicate (see
OTHO, king of Greece). For this unfortunate issue Louis was
not without blame; for from the very first, owing to an
exaggerated idealism and love of antiquity, he had totally
misunderstood the national character of the Greeks and the
problems involved in the attempts to govern them by bureaucratic
methods.
In Bavaria, too, his government became more and more con-
servative, especially after Karl Abel became the head of the
ministry in 1837. The king had not yet, it is true, altogether
committed himself to the clerical ultras, and on the occasion of
the dispute about the bishops in Prussia in the same year had
taken up a wise attitude of compromise. But in Bavaria itself
the strict Catholic party influenced affairs more and more
decisively. For a while, indeed, this opposition did not impair
the king's popularity, due to his amiable character, his extra-
ordinary services in beautifying his capital of Munich, and to his
benevolence (it has been reckoned that he personally received
about 10,000 letters asking for help every year, and that the
money he devoted to charity amounted to about a fifth of his
income). The year 1846, however, brought a change which had
sad consequences. This was due to the king's relations with the
Spanish dancer Lola Montez, who appeared in Munich in October
1846, and soon succeeded by her beauty and wit in fascinating
the king, who was always susceptible to feminine charms. The
political importance of this lay in the fact that the royal mistress
began to use her great influence against the clerical policy of the
Abel ministry. So when the king was preparing the way for
ennobling her, in order to introduce her into court circles, which
were unwilling to receive her, the ministry protested in the
famous memorandum of the nth of February 1847 against the
king's demand for her naturalization as a Bavarian, the necessary
preliminary to her ennoblement. The position was still further
embittered by the fact that, owing to an indiscretion, the
memorandum became known to the public. Thereupon the king,
irritated and outraged, replaced Abel's Clerical ministry by a
more accommodating Liberal one under Zu Rhein under which
Lola Montez without more difficulty became Countess Landsberg.
Meanwhile, the criticism and opposition of the people, and
especially of the students, was turned against the new leader of
the court of Munich. On top of this came the revolutionary
movement of 1848. The king's position became more and more
difficult, and under the pressure of popular opposition he was
forced to banish the countess. But neither this nor the king's
liberal proclamation of the 6th of March succeeded in esta-
blishing peace, and in the capital especially the situation became
increasingly threatening. All this made such a deep impression
on the king, that on the 2oth of March 1848 he abdicated in
favour of his son Maximilian.
He now retired entirely into private life, and continued
to play the Maecenas magnificently, frequently staying at his
villa in Rome, the Villa Malta, and enjoying extraordinary
vigour of mind and body up to the end of his days. His popu-
larity, which had been shaken by the Montez affair, he soon
recovered, especially among artists. To him Munich owes her
finest art collections and most remarkable buildings. The
LOUIS II.
33
monarch's artistic sense led him not only to adorn his house
with a number of works of antique art, but also to study German
medieval art, which he did to good effect. To him Munich owes
the acquisition of the famous Rhenish collection of the Boissere
brothers. The king also worked with great zeal for the care
of monuments, and the cathedrals of Spires and Cologne en-
joyed his special care. He was also an unfailing supporter of
contemporary painting, in so far as it responded to his romantic
tendencies, and he gave a fresh impulse to the arts of working
in metal and glass. As visible signs of his permanent services
to art Munich possesses the Walhalla, the Glyptothek, the two
Pinakotheken, the Odeon, the University, and many other
magnificent buildings both sacred and profane. The r61e which
the Bavarian capital now plays as the leading art centre of Ger-
many would have been an impossibility without the splendid
munificence of Louis I.
He died on the 28th of February 1868 at Nice, and on the
9th of March was buried in Munich, amid demonstrations of
great popular feeling.
The chief part of Louis's records is contained in seven sealed
chests in the archives of his family, and by the provisions of
his will these were not to be opened till the year 1918. These
records contain an extraordinarily large and valuable mass of
historical material, including, as one item, 246 volumes of the
king's diary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of the numerous pamphlets, especially of the
years 1846-1848, we need only mention here: P. Erdmann, Lola
Montez und die Jesuiten (1847); Geheimbericht iiber Bayern (1847),
published by Fowmicr in Deutsche Revue, vol. 27. See also
F. v. Ritter, Beitrdge zur Regierungsgeschichte Konig Ludwies I.
(1825-1826) (2 vols., 1853-1855); Sepp, Ludwig I. Augustus, Konig
von Bayern und das Zeitalter der Wtedergeburt der Kunste (1869;
2nd ed., 1903); Ottokar Lorenz, Drei Bucher Geschichte (1876; 2nd
ed., 1879); K. Th. v. Heigel, Ludwig I. (1872; 2nd ed., 1888);
" Ludwig I. und Martin Wagner," Neue historische Vortrage (1883);
"Ludwig I.," Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1884); "Ludwig I.
als Freund der Geschichte " and " Kronprinz Ludwig in den Feld-
ziigen von 1807 und 1809," in Historische Vortrage und Studien
(1887); Die Verlegung der Universitat nach Miinchen, Rektoratsrede
(1887); " Ludwig I. und die Munchener Hochschule," Quellen und
Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Bayerns, n.s. (1890); "Ludwig I. als
Erzieher seines Volkes," ib.\ Reidelbach, Ludwig I. und seine
Kunstschopfungen (1887; 2nd ed., 1888); L. Trose, Ludwig I. in
seinen Briefen an seinen Sohn, den Konig Otto von Griechenland
(1891); L. v. Kobell, Unter den vier ersten Konigen Bayerns (1894);
A. Fournier, " Aus den Tagen der Lola Montez," Neue Deutsche
Rundschau (1901); M. Doebere', "Ludwig I. und die deutsche
Frage," Festgabe fur Heigel (1903); E. Fiichs, Lola Montez in der
Karrikatiire (1904) ; L. Brunner, Nurnberg 1848-1840 (1907).
(J. HN.)
LOUIS II., king of Bavaria (1845-1886), son of his predecessor
Maximilian II. and his wife Maria, daughter of Prince William
of Prussia, was born at Nymphenburg on the 25th of August
1845. Together with his brother Otto, three years younger
than himself, Louis received, in accordance with the wishes
of his learned father, a simple and serious education modelled
on that of the German Gymnasien, of which the classical languages
are the chief feature. Of modern languages the crown prince
learnt only French, of which he remained fond all his life. The
practical value of the prince's training was small. It was not
till he was eighteen years old that he received his first pocket-
money, and at that age he had no ideas about money and its
value. Military instruction, physical exercises and sport, in
spite of the crown prince's strong physique, received little
attention. Thus Louis did not come enough into contact with
young men of his own age, and consequently soon developed
a taste for solitude, which was found at an early age to be com-
bined with the romantic tendencies and musical and theatrical
tastes traditional in his family.
Louis succeeded to the throne on the loth of March 1864,
at the age of eighteen. The early years of his reign were marked
by a series of most serious political defeats for Bavaria. In the
Schleswig-Holstein question, though he was opposed to Prussia
and a friend of Duke Frederick VIII. of Augustenburg, he did
not command the material forces necessary effectively to resist
the powerful policy of Bismarck. Again, in the war of 1866,
Louis and his minister von der Pfordten took the side of Austria,
XVII. 2
and at the conclusion of peace (August 22) Bavaria had, in
addition to the surrender of certain small portions of her territory,
to agree to the foundation of the North German Confederation
under the leadership of Prussia. The king's Bavarian patriotism,
one of the few steadfast ideas underlying his policy, was deeply
wounded by these occurrences, but he was face to face with the
inevitable, and on the loth of August wrote a letter of reconcilia-
tion to King William of Prussia. The defeat of Bavaria in 1866
showed clearly the necessity for a reform of the army. Under
the new Liberal ministry of Hohenlohe (December 29, 1866-
February 13, 1870) and under Prauckh as minister of war, a
series of reforms were carried through which prepared for the
victories of 1870. As regards his ecclesiastical policy, though
Lou' 5 remained personally true to the Catholic Church, he strove
for a greater independence of the Vatican. He maintained
friendly relations with Ignaz von Dollinger, the leader of the
more liberal Catholics who opposed the definition of papal
infallibility, but without extending his protection to the anti-
Roman movement of the Old Catholics. In spite of this the
Old Bavarian opposition was so aroused by the Liberalism
of the Hohenlohe ministry that at the beginning of 1870 Louis
had to form a more Conservative cabinet under Count Bray-
Steinburg. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War he
at once took the side of Prussia, and gave orders for mobilization.
In 1871 it was he who offered the imperial crown to the king
of Prussia; but this was not done on his own initiative. Bis-
marck not only determined the king of Bavaria to take the
decisive step which put an end to a serious diplomatic crisis,
but actually drafted the letter to King William which Louis
copied and despatched without changing a word. Louis placed
very few difficulties in the way of the new German Empire under
the leadership of Prussia, though his Bavarian particularism
remained unchanged.
Though up till the beginning of the year 1880 he did not
cease to give some attention to state affairs, the king's interests
lay in quite other spheres. His personal idiosyncrasies had,
in fact, developed meanwhile in a most unhappy direction. His
enthusiasm for all that is beautiful soon led him into dangerous
bypaths. It found its most innocent expression in the earliest
years of his reign when he formed an intimate friendship with
Richard Wagner, whom from May 1864 to December 1865
he had constantly in his company. Louis was entirely possessed
by the soaring ideas of the master, and was energetic in their
realization. He not only established Wagner's material position
at the moment by paying 18,000 gulden of debts for him and
granting him a yearly income of 4000 gulden (afterwards in-
creased to 8000), but he also proceeded to realize the ambitious
artistic plans of the master. A series of brilliant model per-
formances of the Wagnerian music-dramas was instituted in
Munich under the personal patronage of the king, and when
the further plan of erecting a great festival theatre in Munich
for the performance of Wagner's " music of the future " broke
down in the face of the passive resistance of the local circles
interested, the royal enthusiast conceived the idea of building
at Bayreuth, according to Wagner's new principles, a theatre
worthy of the music-dramas. For a time Louis was entirely
under Wagner's influence, the fantastic tendencies of whose
art cast a spell over him, and there is extant a series of emotional
letters of the king to Wagner. Wagner, on the whole, used his
influence in artistic and not in political affairs. 1 In spite of this
the opposition to him became permanent. Public opinion
in Bavaria for the most part turned against him. He was
attacked for his foreign origin, his extravagance, his intrigues,
his artistic Utopias, and last but by no means least, for his
unwholesome influence over the king. Louis in the end was
compelled to give him up. But the relations between king
and artist were by no means at an end. In face of the war
which was imminent in 1866, and in the midst of the preparation
for war, the king hastened in May to Triebschen, near Lucerne,
1 It was on Wagner's advice that the king appointed Hohenlohe
prime minister in 1866. See Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst, Prince
Chlodwig zu, under HOHENLOHE. [Eo.J
34
LOUIS II. LOUIS IV.
in order to see Wagner again. 1 In 1868 they were seen together
in public for the last time at the festival performances in Munich.
In 1876 Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen was performed for the
first time at Bayreuth in the presence of the king. Later, in
1 88 1, the king formed a similar friendship with Joseph Kainz
the actor, but it soon came to an end. In January 1867 the
young king became betrothed to Duchess Sophie of Bavaria
(afterwards Duchesse d'Alencon), daughter of Duke Max and
sister of the empress of Austria; but the betrothal was dissolved
in October of the same year.
Though even in his later years he remained interested in lofty
and intellectual pursuits, as may be gathered, apart from his
enthusiasm for art and nature, from his wide reading in history,
serious poetry and philosophy, yet in his private life there became
increasingly marked the signs of moral and mental weakness
which gradually gained the mastery over his once pure and noble
nature. A prominent feature was his blind craving for solitude.
He cut himself off from society, and avoided all intercourse
with his family, even with his devotedly affectionate mother.
With his ministers he came to communicate in writing only.
At the end he was surrounded only by inferior favourites and
servants. His life was now spent almost entirely in his castles
far from the capital, which irked him more and more, or in short
and hasty journeys, in which he always travelled incognito.
Even the theatre he could now only enjoy alone. He arranged
private performances in his castles or in Munich at fabulous
cost, and appointed an official poet to his household. Later
his avoidance of society developed into a dread of it, accom-
panied by a fear of assassination and delusions that he was
being followed.
Side by side with this pathological development his inborn
self-consciousness increased apace, turning more and more to
megalomania, and impelling the weak-willed monarch to those
extraordinary displays of magnificence which can still be admired
to-day in the castles built or altered by him, such as Berg on
the Starnberger See, Linderhof, Herrenchiemsee, Hohensch-
wangau, Neuschwanstein, &c., which are among the most splendid
buildings in Germany. It is characteristic of the extravagance
of the king's ideas that he adopted as his model the style of
Louis XIV. and fell into the habit of imitating the Roi Soldi.
He no longer stayed for any length of time in one castle. Often
he scoured the country in wild nocturnal rides, and madness gained
upon him apace. His mania for buying things and making
presents was comparatively harmless, but more serious matters
were the wild extravagance which in 1880 involved him in
financial ruin, his fits of destructive rage, and the tendency
to the most cruel forms of abnormal vice. None the less, at
the time when the king's mental weakness was increasing, his
character still retained lovable traits his simple sense of beauty,
his kindliness, and his highly developed understanding of art
and artistic crafts. Louis's love of beauty also brought material
profit to Bavaria.
But the financial and political dangers which arose from the
king's way of life were so great that interference became
necessary. On the 8th of June 1886 medical opinion declared
him to be affected with chronic and incurable madness and he
was pronounced incapable of governing. On the toth of June
his uncle, Prince Luitpold, assumed the regency, and after
violent resistance the late king was placed under the charge
of a mental specialist. On the i3th of June 1886 he met with
his death by drowning in the Starnberger See, together with
his doctor von Gudden, who had unwisely gone for a walk
alone with his patient, whose physical strength was enormous.
The details of his death will never be fully known, as the only
possible eye-witness died with him. An examination of the brain
revealed a condition of incurable insanity, and the faculty
submitted a report giving the terrible details of his malady.
Louis's brother Otto, who succeeded him as king of Bavaria,
was also incurably insane.
_ l Hohenlohe (Denkwiirdigkeiten) comments on the lact that the
king did not even take the trouble to review the troops proceeding
to the war. [En.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY. K. v. Heigel, Ludwig II. (1893); Luise v.
Kobell, Unter den vier ersten Konigen Bayerns (1894); C. Buier,
Ludwig II. (1897); Luise v. Kobell, " Wilhelm I. und Ludwig II."
Deutsche Revue, 22; Ludwig II. und die Kunst (1898); Ludwig II.
und Bismarck (1870, 1899); Anonym, Endlich vo'llige Klarheit iiber
den Tod des Konigs Ludwig II. . . . (1900); Freiherr v. Voldern-
dorff, " Aus meiner Hofzeit," in Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte
(1900); Francis Gerard, The Romance of Ludwig II. of Bavaria;
J. Bainville, Louis II. de Baviere (Paris, 1900) ; E. v. Possart, Die
Separatvorstellungen von Ko'nig Ludwig II. (1901); O. Bray-Stein-
burg, Denkwiirdigkeiten (1901); S. Rocke, Ludwig II. und Richard
Wagner (1903); W. Busch, Die Kdmpfe iiber Reichsverfassung und
Kaisertum (1906); Chlodwig Hohenlohe, Denkwiirdigkeiten (2 vols.,
1907) ; A. v. Ruville, Bayern und die Wiederaufrichtung des Deutschen
Reiches (1909); K. A. v. Muller, Bayern im Jahre 1866 und die
Berufung des Fiirsten Hohenlohe (1909); G. Kuntzel, Bismarck und
Bayern in der Zeit der Reichsgriindung (1910); Hesselbarth, Die
Enstehung des deutsch-franzozischen Krieges (1910); W. Strohmayer,
" Die Ahnentafel Ludwigs II. und Ottos I.," Archiv fur Rassen- und
Gesellschaftsbiologie, vol. vii. (1910). (J. HN.)
LOUIS II.* (846-879), king of France, called " le Begue " or
" the Stammerer," was a son of Charles II. the Bald, Roman
emperor and king of the West Franks, and was born on the ist
of November 846. After the death of his elder brother Charles
in 866 he became king of Aquitaine, and in October 877 he
succeeded his father as king of the West Franks, but not as
emperor. Having made extensive concessions to the nobles
both clerical and lay, he was crowned king by Hincmar, arch-
bishop of Reims, on the 8th of December following, and in
September 878 he took advantage of the presence of Pope
John VIII. at the council of Troyes to be consecrated afresh.
After a feeble and ineffectual reign of eighteen months Louis
died at Compiegne on the loth or nth of April 879. The king
is described as " un homme simple et doux, aimant la paix, la
justice et la religion." By his first wife, Ansgarde, a Burgundian
princess, he had two sons, his successors, Louis III. and Carloman;
by his second wife, Adelaide, he had a posthumous son, Charles
the Simple, who also became king of France. (A. W. H.*)
LOUIS III. (c. 863-882), king of France, was a son of Louis
II. and with his brother Carloman succeeded his father as king
in April 879. A strong party, however, cast some doubts upon
the legitimacy of the young princes, as the marriage of their
parents had not been recognized by the emperor Charles the
Bald; consequently it was proposed to offer the crown to the
East Prankish ruler Louis, a son of Louis the German. But this
plan came to nothing, and in September 879 the brothers were
crowned at Ferrieres by Ansegisus, archbishop of Sens. A few
months later they divided their kingdom, Louis receiving the
part of France north of the Loire. They acted together against
the Northmen, over whom in August 881 they gained a memorable
victory. They also turned against Boso who had been set up
as king in Burgundy and Provence. On the sth of August
882 Louis died at St Denis. He left no sons and Carloman became
sole king. (A. W. H.*)
LOUIS IV. (921-954), king of France, surnamed " d'Outremer "
(Transmarinus), was the son of Charles III. the Simple. In
consequence of the imprisonment of his father in 922, his mother
Odgiva (Eadgyfu), sister of the English king ^Ethelstan, fled
to England with the young Louis a circumstance to which
he owes his surname. On the death of the usurper Rudolph
(Raoul), Ralph of Burgundy, Hugh the Great, count of Paris,
and the other nobles between whom France was divided, chose
Louis for their king, and the lad was brought over from England
and consecrated at Laon on the igth of June 936. Although
his de facto sovereignty was confined to the town of Laon and
to some places in the north of France, Louis displayed a zeal
beyond his years in procuring the recognition of his authority
by his turbulent vassals. The beginning of his reign was marked
by a disastrous irruption of the Hungarians into Burgundy
and Aquitaine (937). In 939 Louis became involved in a struggle
with the emperor Otto the Great on the question of Lorraine,
the nobles of which district had sworn an oath of fidelity to the
king of France. When Louis married Gerberga, sister of Otto,
and widow of Giselbert, duke of Lorraine, there seemed to be a
1 The emperor Louis I. is counted as Louis I., king of France.
LOUIS V. LOUIS VI.
35
fair prospect of peace; but the war was resumed, Otto supporting
the rebel lords of the kingdom of France, and peace was not
declared until 942, at the treaty of Vise-sur-Meuse. On the death
of William Longsword, duke of Normandy, who had been
assassinated by Arnulf, count of Flanders, in December 942,
Louis endeavoured to obtain possession of the person of Richard,
the young son and heir of the late duke. After an unsuccessful
expedition into Normandy, Louis fell into the hands of his
adversaries, and was for some time kept prisoner at Rouen
(945), and subsequently handed over to Hugh the Great, who
only consented to release him on condition that he should
surrender Laon. Menaced, however, by Louis' brother-in-law,
Otto the Great, and excommunicated by the council of Ingelheim
(948), the powerful vassal was forced to make submission and
to restore Laon to his sovereign. The last years of the reign
were troubled by fresh difficulties with Hugh the Great and
also by an irruption of the Hungarians into the south of France.
Louis died on the loth of September 954, and was succeeded by
his son Lothair.
The chief authority for the reign is the chronicler FJodoard. See
also Ph. Lauer, La Regne de Louis IV d' Outre- Mer (Paris, 1900) ; and
A. Heil, Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Otto dem Grossen und
Lttdwig IV. von Frankreich (Berlin, 1904). (R. Po.)
LOUIS V. (967-987), king of France, succeeded his father
Lothair in March 986 at the age of nineteen, and finally embroiled
the Carolingian dynasty with Hugh Capet and Adalberon,
archbishop of Reims. From the absence of any important event
in his one year's reign the medieval chroniclers designated him
by the words " qui nihil fecit," i.e. " le Faineant " or " do-
nothing." Louis died in May 987, his mother Emma being
accused of having poisoned him. He had married Adelaide,
sister of Geoffrey Grisegonelle, count of Anjou, but had no issue.
His heir by blood was Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine, son of
Louis IV., but the defection of the bishops and the treason of
Adalberon (Ascelinus), bishop of Laon, assured the success of
Hugh Capet.
See F. Lot, Les Derniers Carolingiens (Paris, 1891); and the
Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V, edited by L. Halphen and
F. Lot (1908). (R. Po.)
LOUIS VI. (1081-1137), king of France, surnamed " the Fat,"
was the son of Philip I. of France and Bertha of Holland. He
was also surnamed the "Wide-awake" and " the Bruiser,"
and lost none of his energy when he earned the nickname by
which he is known in history. In 1098 Louis was made a knight,
and about the same time was associated with his father in the
government, which the growing infirmities of Philip left more and
more to his son, in spite of the opposition of Bertrada, the queen,
whose criminal union with Philip had brought the anathema of
the church. From noo to 1108 Louis by his victorious wars on
the English and brigands had secured the army on his side,
while the court supported Bertrada. Unable to make headway
against him in war she attempted to poison him, and contem-
porary chroniclers attributed to this poison the pallor of his face,
which seems to have been in remarkable contrast to his stalwart,
and later his corpulent figure. Louis' reign is one of the most
important in the history of France. He is little less than the
second founder of the Capetian dynasty. When the feeble and
incompetent Philip I. died (29th of July 1108) Louis was faced
by feudal barons as powerful as himself, and ready to rise against
him. He was forced to have himself hurriedly crowned at Orleans,
supported by a handful of vassals and some ecclesiastics. As
king he continued the policy he had followed during the previous
eight years, of securing the roads leading to Paris by putting down
feudal brigands and destroying their strongholds in the lle-de-
France. The castle of the most notorious of these, Hugues du
Puiset, was three times taken and burned by the king's men, but
Hugues was spared to go back each time to his robber life, until
he died on a crusade. In the north, Thomas de Marie, son of
Enguerrand de Coucy, carried on a career of rapine and murder
for almost thirty years before the king succeeded in taking
him prisoner (1130). Twenty-four years of continuous war
finally rooted out the robber barons who lived on the plunder of
the roads leading to Paris: the lords of Montlheri, who com-
manded the roads to Orleans, Melun and the south, those of
Montmorency near St Denis on the north (who had to restore
what they had robbed the abbey of St Denis), those of Le Puiset
toward the west, on the way to Chartres, and many others.
Parallel with this consolidation of his power in the ancestral
domains Louis met energetically the Anglo-Norman danger,
warring with Henry I. of England for twenty-five years. After
the victory of Tinchebray (1106) Louis supported the claims
of William Clito, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, against
Henry I. A ruthless war followed, in which Louis was at times
reduced to the sorest straits. In 1 1 19, at a council held at Reims
under the presidency of Pope Calixtus II., the enemies were
reconciled; but William Clito's claims were not satisfied, and
in 1123 war began again on a larger scale. Henry I. induced the
emperor Henry V. to join in the attack upon France; and, hi?
heir having been drowned in the loss of the " White Ship,"
won the count of Anjou by marrying his only daughter Matilda
to Geoffrey, the Angevin heir (1127). The invasion of Henry V.
was met by something like a national army, which gathered undei
Louis at Reims. " For a few days at least, the lord of the lle-
de-France was truly a king of France " (Luchaire). Suger
proudly gives the list of barons who appeared. Henry V. came
no farther than Metz. Royalty had won great prestige. Even
Theobald, count of Chartres, the king's greatest enemy,
the soul of feudal coalitions, came with his contingent. Shortly
afterwards (1126), Louis was able to overawe the great count
of Aquitaine, William IX., and force his vassal, the count of
Auvergne, to treat justly the bishop of Clermont. In Flanders
Louis interfered upon the assassination of Charles the Good,
He caused the barons to elect as their count in Arras the same
William Clito who claimed Normandy, and who was closely
bound to the king. For a while Louis had Flanders absolutely
at his disposal, but he had hardly left William alone (1127)
when his brutal oppression roused both towns and nobles, who
declared that Louis had no right to interfere in Flanders. The
death of William Clito, and a savage war with his own seneschal,
prevented Louis from effectually resenting this attitude; but
Thierry of Alsace, the new count, consented in 1128 to receive
from Louis the investiture of all his French fiefs, and henceforth
lived on good terms with him. In all his wars those mentioned
are but a part of them Louis fought in person. Proud of his
strength, reckless in the charge as on the march, plunging into
swollen rivers, entering blazing castles, he gained the reputa-
tion of a national hero, the protector of the poor, the church, the
peasants and the towns. The communal movement grew during
his reign, and he encouraged it on the fiefs of his vassals in order
to weaken them; but, the title " Father of the Communes " by
which he was known in history is not deserved, though he did
grant some privileges to towns on his domains. Neither was
Louis the author of the movement for the emancipation of the
serfs, as was formerly claimed. His attitude toward the move-
ment was like that of his predecessors and contemporaries,
to favour emancipation when it promised greater chance of
profit, greater scope for exploitation of the peasants; otherwise
to oppose it. He was a great benefactor to the church, aided the
new, reformed monastic congregations of Clteau, Premontrfi
and Fontevrault, and chose his two chief ministers from the
clergy. Etienne de Garlande, whom Louis raised from obscurity
to be archdeacon of Notre Dame at Paris, chancellor and seneschal
of France, was all-powerful with the king from 1108 to 1127.
His relatives monopolized the highest offices of the state. But the
queen Adelaide became his enemy; both Ivo of Chartres and
St Bernard bitterly attacked him; and the king suddenly
stripped him of all his offices and honours. Joining the re-
bellious barons, Etienne then led a bitter war against the king
for three years. When Louis had reduced him to terms he
pardoned him and restored him to the chancellorship (1132),
but not to his old power. Suger (q.v.), administrator of St
Denis, enters the scene toward the close of this reign, but his
great work belongs to the next. Louis VI. died on the ist of
August 1137, just a few days after his son, Louis the Young,
had set out for the far south-west, the Aquitaine which had been
LOUIS VII. LOUIS VIII.
won by the marriage with Eleanor. His wife was Adelaide,
or Alice, daughter of Humbert II., count of Savoy, by whom
he had seven sons and a daughter.
See A. Luchaire, Louis le Gros, annales de sa vie et son regne (1890),
and the same writer's volume, Les Premiers Capetiens, in E. Lavisse's
Histoire de France. (J. T. S.*)
LOUIS VII. (c. 1121-1180), king of France, son of Louis VI.
the Fat, was associated with his father and anointed by Innocent
II. in 1131. In 1137 he succeeded his father, and in the same
year married at Bordeaux Eleanor, heiress of William II., duke
of Aquitaine. In the first part of his reign he was vigorous and
jealous of his prerogatives, but after his crusade his religiosity
developed to such an extent as to make him utterly inefficient.
His accession was marked by no disturbances, save the risings of
the burgesses of Orleans and of Poitiers, who wished to organize
communes. But soon he came into violent conflict with Pope
Innocent II. The archbishopric of Bourges became vacant,
and the king supported as candidate the chancellor Cadurc,
against the pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon
relics that so long as he lived Pierre should never enter Bourges.
This brought the interdict upon the king's lands. At the same
time he became involved in a war with Theobald, count of
Champagne, by permitting Rodolphe (Raoul), count of Ver-
mandois and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wif e, Theobald's
niece, and to marry Petronille of Aquitaine, sister of the queen
of France. The war, which lasted two years (1142-44), was
marked by the occupation of Champagne by the royal army
and the capture of ,Vitry, where many persons perished in the
burning of the church. Geoffrey the Handsome, count of Anjou,
by his conquest of Normandy threatened the royal domains,
and Louis VII. by a clever manoeuvre threw his army on the
Norman frontier and gained Gisors, one of the keys of Normandy.
At his court which met in Bourges Louis declared on Christmas
Day 1145 his intention of going on a crusade. St Bernard assured
its popularity by his preaching at Vezelay (Easter 1146), and
Louis set out from Metz in June 1147, on the overland route
to Syria. The expedition was disastrous, and he regained
France in 1149, overcome by the humiliation of the crusade.
In the rest of his reign he showed much feebleness and poor
judgment. He committed a grave political blunder in causing
a council at Beaugency (on the 2ist of March 1152) to annul his
marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, under pretext of kinship,
but really owing to violent quarrels during the crusade. Eleanor
married Henry II. of England in the following May, and brought
him the duchy of Aquitaine. Louis VII. led a half-hearted war
against Henry for having married without the authorization of
his suzerain; but in August 1154 gave, up his rights over
Aquitaine, and contented himself with an indemnity. In 1154
Louis married Constance, daughter of the king of Castile, and
their daughter Marguerite he affianced imprudently by the treaty
of Gisors (1158) to Henry, eldest son of the king of England,
promising as dowry the Vexin and Gisors. Five weeks after the
death of Constance, on the 4th of October 1160, Louis VII.
married Adele of Champagne, and Henry II. to counterbalance
the aid this would give the king of France, had the marriage of
their infant children celebrated at once. Louis VII. gave little
sign of understanding the danger of the growing Angevin power,
though in 1159 he made an expedition in the south to aid
Raymond V., count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by
Henry II. At the same time the emperor Frederick I. in the east
was making good the imperial claims on Aries. When the schism
broke out, Louis took the part of the pope Alexander III.,
the enemy of Frederick, and after two comedy-like failures of
Frederick to meet Louis VII. at Saint Jean de Losne (on the 2gth
of August and the 22nd of September 1162), Louis definitely
gave himself up to the cause of Alexander, who lived at Sens
from 1163101165. Alexander gave the king, in return for his
loyal support, the golden rose. Louis VII. received Thomas
Becket and tried to reconcile him with King Henry II. He
supported Henry's rebellious sons, but acted slowly and feebly,
and so contributed largely to the break up of the coalition
(1173-1174). Finally in 1177 the pope intervened to bring the
two kings to terms at Vitry. By his third wife, Adele, Louis had
an heir, the future Philip Augustus, born on the 2ist of August
1165. He had him crowned at Reims in 1179, but, already
stricken with paralysis, he himself was not able to be present
at the ceremony, and died on the i8th of September 1180. His
reign from the point of view of royal territory and military
power, was a period of retrogression. Yet the royal authority
had made progress in the parts of France distant from the royal
domains. More direct and more frequent connexion was made
with distant feudatories, a result largely due to the alliance of
the clergy with the crown. Louis thus reaped the reward for
services rendered the church during the least successful portion
of his reign.
See R. Hirsch, Studien zur Geschichte Konig Ludwigs VII. von
Frankreich (1892); A. Cartellieri, Philipp II. August von Frankreich
bis zum Tode seines Vaters, 1165-1180 (1891); and A. Luchaire in
E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii. 1st part, pp. 1-81.
(J. T. S.*)
LOUIS VIII. (1187-1226), king of France, eldest son of Philip
Augustus and of Isabella of Hainaut, was born in Paris on the
5th of September 1187. Louis was short, thin, pale-faced,
with studious tastes, cold and placid temper, sober and chaste
in his life. He left the reputation of a saint, but was also a
warrior prince. In 1213 he led the campaign against Ferrand,
count of Flanders; in 1214, while Philip Augustus was winning
the victory of Bouvines, he held John of England in check, and
was victorious at La Roche-aux-Moines. In the autumn of 1215
Louis received from a group of English barons, headed by Geoffrey
de Mandeville, a request to " pluck them out of the hand of this
tyrant " (John). Some 7000 French knights were sent over to
England during the winter and two more contingents followed,
but it was only after twenty-four English hostages had arrived
in Paris that Louis himself prepared to invade England. The
expedition was forbidden by the papal legate, but Louis set out
from Calais on the 2oth and landed at Stonor on the 22nd of
May 1216. In three months he had obtained a strong foothold
in eastern England, and in the end of July he laid siege to Dover,
while part ot his army besieged Windsor with a view to securing
the safety of London. The pretexts on which he claimed the
English crown were set down in a memorandum drawn up by
French lawyers in 1215. These claims that John had forfeited
the crown by the murder of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany,
and that the English barons had the right to dispose of the vacant
throne lost their plausibility on the death of King John and the
accession of his infant son as Henry III. in October 1216. The
papal legate, Gualo, who had forbidden the enterprise, had
arrived in England at the same time as Louis. He excom-
municated the French troops and the English rebels, and Henry
III. found a valiant defender in William Marshal, earl of
Pembroke. After the " Fair of Lincoln," in which his army
was defeated, Louis was compelled to resign his pretensions,
though by a secret article of the treaty of Lambeth (September
1217) he secured a small war indemnity. Louis had assisted
Simon de Montfort in his war against the Albigeuses in 1215,
and after his return to France he again joined the crusade.
With Simon's son and successor, Amauri de Montfort, he directed
the brutal massacre which followed the capture of Marmande.
Philip II., suspicious of his son until the close of his life, took
precautions to assure his obedience, narrowly watched his
administration in Artois, which Louis held from his mother
Isabella, and, contrary to the custom of the kings of France,
did not associate his son with him by having him crowned.
Philip Augustus dying on the I4th of July 1223, Louis VIII.
was anointed at Reims on the 6th of August following. He
surrounded himself with councillors whom his father had chosen
and formed, and continued his father's policy. His reign was
taken up with two great designs: to destroy the power of the
Plantagenets, and to conquer the heretical south of France. An
expedition conquered Poitou and Saintonge (1224); in 1226 he
led the crusade against the Albigenses in the south, forced
Avignon to capitulate and received the submission of Languedoc.
While passing the Auvergne on his return to Paris, he was
stricken with dysentery, and died at Montpensier on the 8th of
LOUIS IX.
37
November 1226. His reign, short as it was, brought gains both
to the royal domains and to the power of the crown over the
feudal lords. He had married in 1200 Blanche of Castile,
daughter of Alphonso IX. of Castile and granddaughter of
Henry II. of England, who bore him twelve children; his
eldest surviving son was his successor, Louis IX.
See C. Petit-Dutaillis, tude sur la vie el le rkgne de Louis VIII.
(Paris, 1894) ; and E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome iii. (1901).
(M. BR.)
LOUIS IX. (1214-1270), king of France, known as Saint Louis,
was born on the 2$th of April 1214, and was baptized at Poissy.
His father, Louis VIII., died in 1226, leaving the first minority
since the accession of the Capetians, but his mother, Queen
Blanche of Castile, proved more than a match for the feudal
nobility. She secured her son's coronation at Reims on the
29th of November 1226; and, mainly by the aid of the papal
legate, Romano Bonaventura, bishop of Porto (d. 1243), and of
Thibaut IV., count of Champagne, was able to thwart the
rebellious plans of Pierre Mauclerc, duke of Brittany, and
Philippe Hurepel, a natural son of Philip Augustus. Mauclerc's
opposition was not finally overcome, however, until 1234.
Then in 1 236 Thibaut, who had become king of Navarre, turned
against the queen, formed an alliance with Brittany, marrying
his daughter without royal consent to Jean le Roux, Mauclerc's
son, and attempted to make a new feudal league. The final
triumph of the regent was shown when the king's army assembled'
at Vincennes. His summons met with such general and prompt
obedience as to awe Thibaut into submission without striking
a blow. Thus the reign of Louis IX. began with royal prerogatives
fully maintained; the kingdom was well under control, and
Mauclerc and Thibaut were both obliged to go on crusade.
But the influence of the strong-willed queen-mother continued
to make itself felt to the close of her life. Louis IX. did not
lack independence of character, but his confidence in his mother
had been amply justified and he always acted in her presence
like a child. This confidence he withheld from his wife, Margaret,
daughter of Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, whom he
married at Sens in May 1234. The reign was comparatively
uneventful. A rising of the nobles of the south-west, stirred
up by Isabella, widow of King John of England, and her husband,
Hugh de Lusignan, count of the Marche, upon the occasion of
the investment of Alphonse of Poitiers with the fiefs left him
by Louis VIII. as a result of the Albigensian crusade, reached
threatening dimensions in 1242, but the king's armies easily
overran Count Hugh's territories, and defeated Henry III. of
England, who had come to his aid, at Saintes. Isabella and
her husband were forced to submit, and Raymond VII., count
of Toulouse, yielded without resistance upon the advent of two
royal armies, and accepted the peace of Lorris in January 1243.
This was the last rising of the nobles in Louis's reign.
At the end of 1244, during an illness, Louis took the cross.
He had already been much distressed by the plight of John of
Brienne, emperor at Constantinople, and bought from him the
crown of thorns, parts of the true cross, the holy lance, and the
holy sponge. The Sainte Chapelle in Paris still stands as a
monument to the value of these relics to the saintly king. But
the quarrel between the papacy and the emperor Frederick II.,
in which Louis maintained a watchful neutrality only interfering
to prevent the capture of Innocent IV. at Lyons and the
difficulties of preparation, delayed the embarkation until August
1248. His defeat and capture at Mansura, in February 1250,
the next four years spent in Syria in captivity, in diplomatic
intrigues, and finally in raising the fortifications of Caesarea
and Joppa, these events belong to the history of the crusades
(q.v.). His return to France was urgently needed, as Blanche
of Castile, whom he had left as regent, had died in November
1252, and upon the removal of her strong hand feudal turbulence
had begun to show itself.
This period between his first and second crusades (1254-1269)
is the real age of Saint Louis in the history of France. He imposed
peace between warring factions of his nobility by mere moral
force, backed up by something like an awakened public
opinion. His nobles often chafed under his unrelenting justice
but never dared rebel. The most famous of his settlements
was the treaty of Paris, drawn up in May 1258 and ratified in
December 1259, by which the claims of Henry III. of England
were adjusted. Henry renounced absolutely Normandy, Anjou,
Touraine, Maine and Poitou, and received, on condition of
recognizing Louis as liege suzerain, all the fiefs and domains
of the king of France in the dioceses of Limoges, Cahors and
Perigueux, and the expectation of Saintonge south of the
Charente, and Agenais, if they should fall to the crown of France
by the death of Alphonse of Poitiers. In addition, Louis
promised to provide Henry with sufficient money to maintain
500 knights for two years. This treaty was very unpopular
in France, since the king surrendered a large part of France
that Henry had not won; but Louis was satisfied that the
absolute sovereignty over the northern provinces more than
equalled the loss in the south. Historians still disagree as to
its wisdom. Louis made a similar compromise with the king
of Aragon in the treaty of Corbeil, 1258, whereby he gave up
the claims of kings of France to Roussillon and Barcelona, which
went back to the conquest of Charlemagne. The king of Aragon
in his turn gave up his claims to part of Provence and Languedoc,
with the exception of Narbonne. Louis's position was strikingly
shown in 1264 when the English barons submitted their attempt
to bind Henry III. by the Provisions of Oxford to his arbitration.
His reply in the " Dit " or Mise of Amiens was a flat denial of
all the claims of the barons and failed to avert the civil war.
Louis was more successful in preventing feuds between his own
nobles: between the counts of Brittany and Champagne over
the succession to Navarre; the dauphin of Vienne (Guigues
VII.) and Charles of Anjou; the count of Burgundy and the
count of Chalons; Henry of Luxemburg and the duke of Lorraine
with the count of Bar. Upon the whole he maintained peace
with his neighbours, although both Germany and England were
torn with civil wars. He reluctantly consented to sanction the
conquest of Naples by his brother, Charles, duke of Anjou, and
it is possible that he yielded here in the belief that it was a step
toward another crusade.
On the 24th of March 1267, Louis called to Paris such of his
knights as were not with Charles of Anjou in Naples. No one
knew why he had called them; but when the king in full assembly
proclaimed his purpose of going on a second crusade, few ventured
to refuse the cross. Three years of preparation followed; then
on the ist of July 1270 they sailed from Aigues Mortes for Tunis,
whither the expedition seems to have been directed by the
machinations of Charles of Anjou, who, it is claimed, persuaded
his brother that the key to Egypt and to Jerusalem was that
part of Africa which was his own most dangerous neighbour.
After seventeen days' voyage to Carthage, one month of the
summer's heat and plague decimated the army, and when
Charles of Anjou arrived he found that Louis himself had died
of the plague on the 25th of August 1270.
Saint Louis stands in history as the ideal king of the middle
ages. An accomplished knight, physically strong in spite of
his ascetic practices, fearless in battle, heroic in adversity, of
imperious temperament, unyielding when sure of the justness
of his cause, energetic and firm, he was indeed " every inch a king." .
Joinville says that he was taller by a head than any of his knights.
His devotions would have worn out a less robust saint. He
fasted much, loved sermons, regularly heard two masses a day
and all the offices, dressing at midnight for matins in his chapel,
and surrounded even when he travelled by priests on horseback
chanting the hours. After his return from the first crusade,
he wore only grey woollens in winter, dark silks in summer.
He built hospitals, visited and tended the sick himself, gave
charity to over a hundred beggars daily. Yet he safeguarded
the royal dignity by bringing them in at the back door of the
palace, and by a courtly display greater than ever before in
France. His naturally cold temperament was somewhat
relieved by a sense of humour, which however did not prevent
his making presents of haircloth shirts to his friends. He had no
favourite, nor prime minister. Louis was canonized in 1 297.
LOUIS X. LOUIS XI.
As a statesman Louis IX. has left no distinct monument.
The famous " tablissements of St Louis " has been shown
in our own day to have been private compilation. It was a
coulumier drawn up before 1273, including, as well as some royal
decrees, the civil and feudal law of Anjou, Maine and the
Orleanais. Recent researches have also denied Louis the credit
of having aided the communes. He exploited them to the full.
His standpoint in this respect was distinctly feudal. He treated
his clergy as he did his barons, enforcing the supremacy of
royal justice, and strongly opposing the exactions of the pope
until the latter part of his reign, when he joined forces with him
to extort as much as possible from the clergy. At the end of
the reign most of the sees and monasteries of France were in
debt to the Lombard bankers. Finally, the reign of Saint
Louis saw the introduction of the pontifical inquisition into
France.
There are numerous portraits of St Louis, but they are unauthentic
and contradictory. In 1903 M. Salomon Reinach claimed to have
found in the heads sculptured in the angles of the arches of the chapel
at St Germain portraits of St Louis, his brothers and sisters, and
Queen Marguerite, or Blanche, made between 1235 and 1240. This
conjectured portrait somewhat resembles the modern type, which
is based upon a statue of Charles V. once in the church of the Celestins
in Paris, and which Lenoir mistakenly identified as that of Louis IX.
The king had eleven children, six sons and five daughters, among
them being his successor, Philip III., and Robert, count of Clermont,
the ancestor of Henry IV.
The best contemporary accounts of Louis IX. are the famous
Memoirs of the Sire Jean de Joinville (?..), published by N. de
Wailly for the Soc. de I' Hist, de France, under the title Histoire de
Saint Louis (Paris, 1868), and again with translation (1874) ; English
translation by J. Hutton (1868). See also William of Nangis, Gesta
Ludovici IX., edited by M. Bouquet in vol. xx. of the Recueil des
historiens des Gaules el de la France. Of modern works may be
mentioned C. V. Langlois in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii.,
with references to literature; Frederick Perry, Saint Louis, the Most
Christian King (New York, IQOI); E. J. Davis, The Invasion of
Egypt by Louis IX. of France (1898); H. A. Wallon, Saint Louis et
son temps (1875) ; A. Lecoy de la Marche, Saint Louis (Tours, 1891) ;
and E. Berger, Saint Louis et Innocent IV (Paris, 1893), and Histoire
de Blanche de Castille (1895). See also The Court of a Saint, by
Winifred F. Knox (1909). (J. T. S.*)
LOUIS X. (1289-1316), king of France and Navarre, called
le Hutin or " the Quarreller," was the son of Philip IV. and
of Jeanne of Navarre. He was born at Paris on the 4th of
October 1289, took the title king of Navarre on the death of
his mother, on the 2nd of April 1305, and succeeded Philip IV.
in France on the 29th of November 1314, being crowned at
Reims in August 1315. The origin of his surname is uncertain.
Louis X. is a somewhat indistinct figure among the kings of
France, the preponderating influence at court during his short
reign being that of his uncle, Charles of Valois. The reign
began with reaction against the policy of Philip IV. Private
vengeance was wreaked on Enguerrand de Marigny, who was
hanged, Pierre de Latilli, bishop of Chalons and chancellor,
and Raoul de Presle, advocate of the parlement, who were
imprisoned. The leagues of the lesser country gentry, formed
in 1314 before the accession of Louis, continued to demand
the ancient privileges of the nobility, tourneys, private wars
and judgment of nobles not by king's officers but by their peers
and to protest against the direct call by the king of their vassals
to the royal army. Louis X. granted them charters in which
he made apparent concessions, but used evasive formulas which
in reality ceded nothing. There was a charter to the Normans,
one to the Burgundians, one to the Languedocians (1315).
Robert de Bethune, count of Flanders, refused to do homage,
and his French fiefs were declared confiscate by a court of his
peers. In August 1315 Louis X. led an army toward Lille,
but the flooded Lys barred his passage, the ground was so soaked
with rains that the army could not advance, and it was thrown
back, without a battle, on Tournai. Need of money inspired
one famous ordinance of this reign; in 1315 the serfs of the
royal domains were invited to buy their civil liberty, an in-
vitation which did not meet with great enthusiasm, as the
freedman was merely freed for further exploitation, and Philip V.
was obliged to renew it in 1318. Louis X. died suddenly on
the sth of June 1316. His first wife was Margaret, daughter
of Robert II., duke of Burgundy; she was accused of adultery
and died a prisoner in the chateau Gaillard. By her he had one
daughter, Jeanne, wife of Philip, count of Evreux and king
of Navarre. By his second wife Clemence, daughter of Charles
Martel, titular king of Hungary, he left a posthumous son,
King John I.
See Ch. Dufayard, " La reaction feodale sous les fils de Philippe le
Bel," in Revue historique (1894) ; Paul Lehugeur, Histoire de Philippe
le Long, roi de France (Paris, 1897); and Joseph Petit, Charles de
Valois (Paris, 1900). (J. T. S.*)
LOUIS XI. (1423-1483), king of France, the son of Charles
VII. and his queen, Marie of Anjou, was born on the 3rd of July
1423, at Bourges, where his father, then nicknamed the " King
of Bourges," had taken refuge from the English. At the birth
of Louis XI. part of France was in English hands; when he
was five years old, Joan of Arc appeared; he was just six when
his father was crowned at Reims. But his boyhood was spent
apart from these stirring events, in the castle of Loches, where
his father visited him rarely. John Gerson, the foremost theo-
logian of France, wrote a manual of instructions (still extant)
for the first of his tutors, Jean Majoris, a canon of Reims. His
second tutor, Bernard of Armagnac, was noted for his piety
and humility. If, as has been claimed, Louis owed to them
any of his tendency to prefer the society of the poor, or rather
of the bourgeois, to that of the nobility, their example was his
best lesson in the craft of kingship. In June 1436, when scarcely
thirteen, he was married to Margaret (c. 1425-1445), daughter
of James I. of Scotland, a princess of about his own age, but
sickly and romantic, and in every way his opposite. Three
years after this unhappy marriage Louis entered upon his stormy
political career. Sent by his father in 1439 to direct the defence
of Languedoc against the English, and to put down the brigandage
in Poitou, he was induced by the rebellious nobles to betray
his trust and place himself at the head of the Praguerie (q.v.).
Charles VII. pardoned him this rebellion, due to his ambition
and the seductive proposal of the nobles to make him regent.
The following year he was fighting the English, and in 1443
aided his father to suppress the revolt of the count of Armagnac.
His first important command, however, was in the next year,
when he led an army of from 15,000 to 20,000 mercenaries and
brigands, the product of the Hundred Years' War, against
the Swiss of the canton of Basel. The heroism of some two
hundred Swiss, who for a while held thousands of the French
army at bay, made a great impression on the young prince.
After an ineffective siege of Basel, he made peace with the
Swiss confederation, and led his robber soldiers into Alsace to
ravage the country of the Habsburgs, who refused him the
promised winter quarters. Meanwhile his father, making a
parallel campaign in Lorraine, had assembled his first brilliant
court at Nancy, and when Louis returned it was to find the
king completely under the spell of Agnes Sorel. He at first
made overtures to members of her party, and upon their re-
jection through fear of his ambition, his deadly hatred of her and
of them involved the king. The death in 1445 of his wife
Margaret, who was a great favourite of Charles VII., made the
rupture complete. From that year until the death of the king
father and son were enemies. Louis began his rebellious career
by a futile attempt to seduce the cities of Agenais into treason,
and then he prepared a plot to seize the king and his minister
Pierre de Br6z6. Antoine de Chabannes, who was to be the
instrument of the plot, revealed it to Charles, and Louis was
mildly punished by being sent off to Dauphin6 (144?)- He
never saw his father again.
Louis set out to govern his principality as though it were
an independent state. He dismissed the governor; he determined
advantageously to himself the boundaries between his state
and the territories of the duke of Savoy and of the papacy;
and he enforced his authority over perhaps the most unruly
nobility in western Europe, both lay and ecclesiastical. The
right of private warfare was abolished; the bishops were obliged
to give up most of their temporal jurisdiction, the scope of their
courts was limited, and appeals to Rome were curtailed. On
LOUIS XI.
39
the other hand, Louis granted privileges to the towns and con-
sistently used their alliance to overthrow the nobility. He
watched the roads, built new ones, opened markets, protected
the only bankers of the country, the Jews, and reorganized the
administration so as to draw the utmost revenue possible from
the prosperity thus secured. His ambition led him into foreign
entanglements; he made a secret treaty with the duke of Savoy
which was to give him right of way to Genoa, and made arrange-
ments for a partition of the duchy of Milan. The alliance with
Savoy was sealed by the marriage of Louis with Charlotte,
daughter of Duke Lodovico, in 1452, in spite of the formal
prohibition of Charles VII. The king marched south, but
withdrew again leaving his son unsubdued. Four years later,
as Charles came to the Bourbonnais, Louis, fearing for his life,
fled to Flanders to the court of Philip the Good, duke of Bur-
gundy, leaving Dauphine to be definitely annexed to the crown
of France. The policy of the dauphin was reversed, his ten
years' work was undone. Meanwhile he was installed in the
castle of Genappe, in Brabant, where he remained until the death
of his father. For this he waited impatiently five years, keeping
himself posted by spies of every stage of the king's last illness,
and thus laying himself open to the accusation, believed in
by Charles himself, that he had hastened the end by poison, a
charge which modern historians deny.
On the isth of August 1461, Louis was anointed at Reims,
and Philip of Burgundy, as doyen of the peers of France, placed
the crown on his head. For two months Philip acted as though
the king were still his protege. But in the midst of the festivities
with which he was entertaining Paris, the duke found that Louis
ventured to refuse his candidates for office, and on the 24th of
September the new king left abruptly for Touraine. His first
act was to strike at the faithful ministers of Charles VII. Pierre
dc Brez6 and Antoine de Chabannes were captured and im-
prisoned, as well as men of sterling worth like Etienne Chevalier.
But the king's shrewdness triumphed before long over his venge-
ance, and the more serviceable of the officers of Charles VII.
were for the most part soon reinstated, Louis' advisers were
mostly men of the middle class. He had a ready purse for
men of talent, drawing them from England, Scotland, Italy,
Spain and Portugal. Such a motley throng of competent men
had never before been seen at the court of France. Their origin,
their previous crimes or virtues, their avarice or brutality,
were indifferent to him so long as they served him loyally.
Torture and imprisonment awaited them, whether of high or
low degree, if he fancied that they were betraying him. Among
the most prominent of these men in addition to Brez6, Chevalier
and Chabannes, were Tristan Lermite, Jean de Daillon, Olivier
le Dain (the barber), and after 1472, Philippe de Commines,
drawn from the service of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who
became his most intimate adviser and biographer. Surrounded
by men like these Louis fought the last great battle of French
royalty with feudalism.
Louis XI. began his reign with the same high-handed treat-
ment of the nobles which had marked his rule in Dauphind,
going so far as to forbid them to hunt without his permission. He
forced the clergy to pay long-neglected feudal dues, and intrigued
against the great houses of Anjou and Orleans in Italy. The mal-
content nobles soon began to plan revolt. Discharged officers of
Charles VII. like Jean Dunois and John II. duke of Bourbon,
stirred up hostility to the new men of the king, and Francis II.
duke of Brittany was soon embroiled with Louis over an attempt
to assert royal control over that practically independent duchy.
The dissatisfied nobility found their greatest ally in Charles the
Bold, afterwards duke of Burgundy, and in 1465 formed a
" league of public welfare " and declared war on their king.
The nominal head was the king's brother Charles, duke of Berry,
then eighteen years old, a weak character, the tool of the rebels
as he was later the dupe of the king. Every great noble in
France was in the league, except Gaston de Foix who kept the
south of France for the king, and the counts of Vend6me and
Eu. The whole country seemed on the verge of anarchy. It
was saved by the refusal of the lesser gentry to rise, and by the
alliance of the king with the citizen class, which was not led
astray by the pretences of regard for the public weal which
cloaked the designs of the leaguers. After a successful campaign
in the Bourbonnais, Louis fought an indecisive battle with the
Burgundians who had marched on Paris at Montlhery, on the
i6th of July 1465, and then stood a short siege in Paris. On the
28th of September he made a truce with Charles the Bold, and
in October the treaties of Conflans and Saint Maur-les-Fosses,
ended the war. The king yielded at all points; gave up the
" Somme towns " in Picardy, for which he had paid 200,000
gold crowns, to Philip the Good, thus bringing the Burgun-
dians close to Paris and to Normandy. Charles, the king's
brother, was given Normandy as an apanage, thus joining
the territories of the rebellious duke of Brittany with those
of Charles the Bold. The public weal was no longer talked
about, while the kingdom was plundered both by royal tax
gatherers and by unsubdued feudal lords to pay the cost of
the war.
After this failure Louis set to work to repair his mistakes. The
duke of Bourbon was won over by the gift of the government
of the centre of France, and Dunois and Chabannes by restoring
them their estates. Two months after he had granted Normandy
to Charles, he took advantage of a quarrel between the duke of
Brittany and his brother to take it again, sending the duke
of Bourbon " to aid " Charles, while Dunois and Chabannes
prepared for the struggle with Burgundy. The death of Duke
Philip, on the isth of June 1467, gave Charles the Bold a free
hand. He gained over Edward IV. of England, whose sister
Margaret he married; but while he was celebrating the wedding
Louis invaded Brittany and detached Duke Francis from
alliance with him. Normandy was completely reduced. The
king had won a great triumph. It was followed by his greatest
mistake. Eager as he always was to try diplomacy instead of
war, Louis sent a gift of 60,000 golden crowns to Charles and
secured a safe conduct from him for an interview. The interview
took place on the 9th of October 1468 at Peronne. News came on
the nth that, instigated by the king of France, the people of
Liege had massacred their bishop and the ducal governor. The
news was false, but Charles, furious at such apparent duplicity,
took Louis prisoner, only releasing him, three days later, on the
king signing a treaty which granted Flanders freedom from
interference from the parlement of Paris, and agreeing to accom-
pany Charles to the siege of his own ally, Liege. Louis made
light of the whole incident in his letters, but it marked the greatest
humiliation of his life, and he was only too glad to find a scapegoat
in Cardinal Jean Balue, who was accused of having plotted the
treason of Peronne. Balue thereupon joined Guillaume de
Harancourt, bishop of Verdun, in an intrigue to induce Charles of
France to demand Champagne and Brie in accordance with the
king's promise to Charles the Bold, instead of distant Guienne
where the king was determined to place him. The discovery of
this conspiracy placed these two high dignitaries in prison (April
1469). Balue (q.v.) spent eleven years in prison quarters, com-
fortable enough, in spite of the legend to the contrary, while
Harancourt was shut up in an iron cage until 1482. Then Louis,
inducing his brother to accept Guienne, where, surrounded by
faithful royal officers, he was harmless for the time being, under-
took to play off the Lancastrians against Edward IV. who, as
the ally of Charles the Bold, was menacing the coast of Normandy.
Warwick, the king-maker, and Queen Margaret were aided in the
expedition which in 1470 again placed Henry VI. upon the English
throne. In the autumn Louis himself took the offensive, and royal
troops overran Picardy and the Maconnais to Burgundy itself.
But the tide turned against Louis in 1471. While Edward IV.
won back England by the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury,
Charles the Bold besieged Amiens, and Louis was glad to make
a truce, availing himself of the double dealing of the constable,
the count of Saint Pol, who, trying to win an independent position
for himself in Picardy, refused his aid to Charles unless he would
definitely join the French nobility in another rising against the
king. This rising was to be aided by the invasion of France by
John II. of Aragon, Yolande, duchess of Savoy, and Edward IV.
LOUIS XL
of England, who was to be given the old Plantagenet inheritance.
The country was saved a desperate civil war by the death of the
king's brother, Charles, the nominal head of the coalition, on the
24th of May 1472. Louis' joy on receiving news of this death
knew no bounds. Charles the Bold, who had again invaded
France, failed to take Beauvais, and was obliged to make a
lasting truce. His projects were henceforth to be directed
towards Germany. Louis then forced the duke of Brittany
to make peace, and turned against John V. count of Armagnac,
whose death at the opening of March 1473 ended the power of
one of the most dangerous houses of the south. The first period
of Louis' reign was closed, and with it closed for ever the danger
of dismemberment of France. John of Aragon continued the war
in Roussillon and Cerdagne, which Louis had seized ten years
before, and a most desperate rising of the inhabitants protracted
the struggle for two years. After the capture of Perpignan on the
loth of March 1475, the wise and temperate government of
Imbert de Batarnay and Boffile de Juge slowly pacified the new
provinces. The death of Gaston IV. count of Foix in 1472
opened up the long diplomatic struggle for Navarre, which was
destined to pass to the loyal family of Albret shortly after the
death of Louis. His policy had won the line of the Pyrenees
for France.
The overthrow of Charles the Bold was the second great task
of Louis XI. This he accomplished by a policy much like that
of Pitt against Napoleon. Louis was the soul of all hostile
coalitions, especially urging on the Swiss and Sigismund of
Austria, who ruled Tirol and Alsace. Charles's ally, Edward IV.,
invaded France in June 1475, but Louis bought him off on the
2Qth of August at Picquigny where the two sovereigns met on
a bridge over the Somme, with a strong grille between them,
Edward receiving 75,000 crowns, and a promise of a pension of
50,000 crowns annually. The dauphin Charles was to marry
Edward's daughter. Bribery of the English ministers was not
spared, and in September the invaders recrossed to England.
The count of Saint Pol, who had continued to play his double
part, was surrendered by Charles to Louis, and executed, as was
also Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours. With his vassals
terrorized and subdued, Louis continued to subsidize the Swiss
and Rene II. of Lorraine in their war upon Charles. The defeat
and death of the duke of Burgundy at Nancy on the sth of
January 1477 was the crowning triumph of Louis' diplomacy.
But in his eagerness to seize the whole inheritance of his rival,
Louis drove his daughter and heiress, Mary of Burgundy, into
marriage with Maximilian of Austria (afterwards the emperor
Maximilian I.),who successfully defended Flanders after a savage
raid by Antoine de Chabannes. The battle of Guinegate on the
7th of August 1479 was indecisive, and definite peace was
not established until after the death of Mary, when by the treaty
of Arras (1482) Louis received Picardy, Artois and the Boulonnais,
as well as the duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comte. The
Austrians were left in Flanders, a menace and a danger. Louis
failed here and in Spain; this failure being an indirect cause of
that vast family compact which surrounded France later with
the empire of Charles V. His interference in Spain had made
both John II. of Aragon and Henry IV. of Castile his enemies,
and so he was unable to prevent the marriage of their heirs,
Ferdinand and Isabella. But the results of these marriages
could not be foreseen, and the unification of France proved of
more value than the possession of so wide-spread an empire.
This unification was completed (except for Brittany) and the
frontiers enlarged by the acquisition, upon the death of Rene
of Anjou in 1480, of the duchies of Anjou and Bar, and in 1481
of Maine and Provence upon the death of Charles II., count of
Maine. Of the inheritance of the house of Anjou only Lorraine
escaped the king.
Failure in Spain was compensated for in Italy. Without
waging war Louis made himself virtual arbiter of the fate of
the principalities in the north, and his court was always besieged
by ambassadors from them. After the death of Charles the
Bold, Yolande, duchess of Savoy, was .obliged to accept the
control of Louis, who was her brother. In Milan he helped to
place Lodovico il Moro in power in 1479, but he reaped less from
this supple tyrant than he had expected. Pope Sixtus IV.
the enemy of the Medici, was also the enemy of the king of
France. Louis, who at the opening of his reign had denounced
the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438, had played fast and loose with
the papacy. When Sixtus threatened Florence after the Pazzi
conspiracy, 1478, Louis aided Lorenzo dei Medici to form an
alliance with Naples, which forced the papacy to come to terms.
More than any other king of France, Louis XI. was a
" bourgeois king." The upper bourgeois, the aristocracy of
his " good cities," were his allies both against the nobles and
against the artisan class, whenever they revolted, driven to
desperation by the oppressive royal taxes which furnished the
money for his wars or diplomacy. He ruled like a modern
capitalist; placed his bribes like investments in the courts of
his enemies; and, while draining the land of enormous sums,
was pitiless toward the two productive portions of his realm,
the country population and the artisans. His heartlessness
toward the former provoked even an accomplice like Commines
to protest. The latter were kept down by numerous edicts,
tending to restrict to certain privileged families the rank of master
workman in the gilds. There was the paternalism of a Frederick
the Great in his encouragement of the silk industry, " which
all idle people ought to be made to work at," in his encourage-
ment of commerce through the newly acquired port of Marseilles
and the opening up of market placed. He even dreamed of a
great trading company " of two hundred thousand livres or
more," to monopolize the trade of the Mediterranean, and
planned to unify the various systems of weights and measures.
In 1479 he called a meeting of two burgesses from each " good
city " of his realm to consider means for preventing the influx
of foreign coin. Impatient of all restraint upon his personal rule,
he was continually in violent dispute with the parlement of
Paris, and made " justice " another name for arbitrary govern-
ment; yet he dreamed of a unification of the local customary
laws (co&tumes) of France. He was the perfect model of a tyrant.
The states-general met but once in his reign, in 1468, and then
no talk of grievances was allowed; his object was only to get
them to declare Normandy inalienable from the crown. They
were informed that the king could raise his revenue without
consulting them. Yet his budgets were enormously greater
than ever before. In 1481 the taille alone brought in 4,600,000
livres, and even at the peaceful close of his reign his whole
budget was 4,655,000 livres as against 1,800,000 livres at
the close of his father's reign.
The king who did most for French royalty would have made
a sorry figure at the court of a Louis XIV. He was ungainly,
with rickety legs. His eyes were keen and piercing, but a long
hooked nose lent grotesqueness to a face marked with cunning
rather than with dignity. Its ugliness was emphasized by the
old felt hat which he wore, its sole ornament the leaden figure
of a saint. Until the close of his life, when he tried to mislead
ambassadors as to the state of his health by gorgeous robes,
he wore the meanest clothes. Dressed in grey like a pilgrim,
and accompanied by five or six trustworthy servants, he would
set out on his interminable travels, " ambling along on a good
mule." Thus he traversed France, avoiding all ceremony,
entering towns by back streets, receiving ambassadors in way-
side huts, dining in public houses, enjoying the loose manners
and language of his associates, and incidentally learning at first
hand the condition of his people and the possibilities of using
or taxing them his needs of them rather than theirs of him.
He loved to win men, especially those of the middle class, by
affability and familiarity, employing all his arts to cajole and
seduce those whom he needed. Yet his honied words easily
turned to gall. He talked rapidly and much, sometimes for
hours at a time, and most indiscreetly. He was not an agreeable
companion, violent in his passions, nervous, restless, and in old
age extremely irascible. Utterly unscrupulous, and without a
trace of pity, he treated men like pawns, and was content only
with absolute obedience.
But this Machiavellian prince was the genuine son of St Louis.
LOUIS XII. LOUIS XIII.
His religiosity was genuine if degenerate. He lavished presents
on influential saints, built shrines, sent gifts to churches, went
on frequent pilgrimages and spent much time in prayer employ-
ing his consummate diplomacy to win celestial allies, and
rewarding them richly when their aid secured him any advantage.
St Martin of Tours received 1200 crowns after the capture of
Perpignan. He tried to bribe the saints of his enemies, as he
did their ministers. An unfaltering faith taught him the value
of religion as a branch of politics. Finally, more in the spirit
of orthodoxy, he used the same arts to make sure of heaven.
When the ring of St Zanobius and the blood of Cape Verde
turtles gave him no relief from his last illness, he showered gifts
upon his patron saints, secured for his own benefit the masses
of his clergy, and the most potent prayers in Christendom, those
of the two most effective saints of his day, Bernardin of Doulins
and Francis of Paolo.
During the last two or three years of his life Louis lived in
great isolation, " seeing no one, speaking with no one, except
such as he commanded," in the chateau of Plessis-les-Tours,
that " spider's nest " bristling with watch towers, and guarded
only by the most trusty servitors. A swarm of astrologers and
physicians preyed upon his fears and his purse. But, however
foolish in his credulity, he still made his strong hand felt both in
France and in Italy, remaining to the last " the terrible king."
His fervent prayers were interrupted by instructions for the
regency which was to follow. He died on the 3oth of August
1483, and was buried, according to his own wish, without royal
state, in the church at Clery, instead of at St Denis. He left
a son, his successor, Charles VIII., and two daughters.
See the admirable re'sume' by Charles Petit-Dutaillis in Lavisse's
Histotre de France, tome iv. pt. ii. (1902), and bibliographical indi-
cations given there. Michelet's wonderful depiction in his Histotre
de France (livres 13 to 17) has never been surpassed for graphic
word-painting, but it is inaccurate in details, and superseded in
scholarship. Of the original sources for the reign the Lettres de
Louis XI. (edited by Charavay and Vaesen, 8 vols., 18831902),
the celebrated Memoires of Philippe de Commines and the Journal
of Jean de Royl naturally come first. The great mass of literature on
the period is analysed in masterly fashion by A. Molinier, Sources
de I histoire de France (tome v. pp. 1-146), and to this exhaustive
bibliography the reader is referred for further research. See also
C. Hare, The Life of Louis XI. (London, 1907). (J. T. S.*)
LOUIS XII. (1462-1515), king of France, was grandson of
Louis of Orleans, the brother of Charles VI., and son of the
poet prince, Charles of Orleans, who, after the battle of Agin-
court, spent twenty-five years of captivity in England. Louis
was duke of Orleans until his accession to the throne, and he
was fourteen years old when Louis XI. gave him the hand of
his second daughter, Joan the Lame. In the first years of the
reign of Charles VIII., Louis made a determined stand against
the government of the Beaujeus, stirred up coalitions of the
feudal nobles against them, and was finally defeated and taken
prisoner at St Aubin du Cormier in 1488. Charles VIII. set
him at liberty in 1491. These successive checks tamed him a
little. In the Italian expedition of 1494 he commanded the
vanguard of the royal army, occupied Genoa, and remained in
the north of Italy, menacing Milan, on which he was already
dreaming of asserting his rights. The children of Charles VIII.
having died in infancy, he became heir-presumptive to the throne,
and succeeded Charles in 1499. Louis was then thirty-six years
old, but he seems to have grown old prematurely. He was
fragile, narrow-shouldered and of a sickly constitution. His
intelligence was mediocre, his character weak, and he allowed
himself to be dominated by his wife, Anne of Brittany, and
his favourite the Cardinal d'Amboise. He was a good king,
full of moderation and humanity, and bent upon maintaining
order and improving the administration of justice. He enjoyed
a genuine popularity, and in 1 506 the estates of Tours conferred
on him the surname of Pere du Peuple. His foreign policy,
which was directed wholly towards Italy, was for the most part
unskilful; to his claims on Naples he added those on Milan,
which he based on the marriage of his grandfather, Louis of
Orleans, with Valentina Visconti. He led in person several
armies into Italy, and proved as severe and pitiless towards
his enemies as he was gentle and clement towards his subjects.
Louis had no children. After his accession he had divorced
his virtuous and ill-favoured queen, Joan, and had married,
in 1499, Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII. On her
death in January 1514, in order to detach England from the
alliance against him, he married on the 9th of October 1514,
Mary Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. of England (see MARY, queen
of France). He died on the ist of January 1515.
For a bibliography of the printed sources see Henri Hauser, Les
Sources de I' histoire de France, XVI" siecle, vol. I. (Paris, 1906).
The principal secondary authorities are De Maulde, Histoire de
Louis XII. (Paris, 1889-1893); Le Roux de Lincy, Vie de la reine
Anne de Bretagne (Paris, 1860); H. Lemonnier, Les Guerres a' Italic
(Paris, 1903) in the Histoire de France by E. Lavisse. (J. I.)
LOUIS XIII. (1601-1643), king of France, was the son of
Henry IV. and of Marie de' Medici. He became king on his
father's assassination in 1610; but his mother at once seized
the full powers of regent. She determined to reverse the policy
of her husband and to bring France into alliance with Spain
and the Austrian house, upon which power Henry had been
meditating an attack at the time of his death. Two marriages
were designed to cement this alliance. Louis was to marry
Anne of Austria, daughter of the Spanish king, Philip III.,
and the Spanish prince, afterwards Philip IV., himself was to
marry the Princess Elizabeth, the king's sister. Notwith-
standing the opposition of the Protestants and nobles of France,
the queen carried through her purpose and the marriages were
concluded in 1615. The next years were full of civil war and
political intrigue, during which the queen relied upon the
Marshal d'Ancre. Louis XIII. was a backward boy, and his
education had been much neglected. We have the fullest
details of his private life, and yet his character remains some-
thing of a mystery. He was fond of field sports and seemed
to acquiesce in his mother's occupation of power and in the rule
of her favourites. But throughout his life he concealed his
purposes even from his closest friends; sometimes it seems as
if he were hardly conscious of them himself. In 1617 he was
much attached to Charles d'Albert, sieur de Luynes; and with
his help he arrested Marshal d'Ancre, and on his resistance had
him assassinated. From this time to her death the relation
between the king and his mother was one of concealed or open
hostility. The article on FRANCE must be consulted for the
intricate events of the following years.
The decisive incident for his private life as well as for his
reign was the entrance of Cardinal Richelieu, hitherto the
queen's chief adviser, into the king's council in 1624. Hence-
forth the policy of France was directed by Richelieu, who took
up in its main features the system of Protestant alliances and
opposition to the power of Austria and Spain, which had been
begun by Henry IV. and had been interrupted by the queen-
mother during the regency; while he asserted the power of the
crown against all rivals at home. This policy had remarkable
results for the king's private life. It not only brought him into
unremitting conflict with the Protestants and the nobles of
France, but also made him the enemy of his mother, of his brother
Gaston of Orleans, who made himself the champion of the cause
of the nobles, and sometimes even of his wife. It is not easy
to define his relations to Richelieu. He was convinced of his
loyalty and of his genius, and in the end always supported his
policy. But he disliked the friction with his family circle which
this policy produced. In the difficulty with which he expressed
himself and in a certain indecision of character the king was
curiously unlike his father, the frank and impetuous Henry
of Navarre, and his absolute son Louis XIV. He took a great
interest in all the externals of war. He was present, and is
said to have played an important part at the passage of Susa
in 1629, and also eagerly participated in the siege of Rochelle,
which surrendered in the same year. But for the most part
his share in the great events of the reign was a passive one. The
one all-important fact was that he supported his great minister.
There were certain occasions when it seemed as if that support
would be denied. The chief of these was what is known as the
" Day of Dupes " (1630). Then the queen-mother and the king's
LOUIS XIV.
brother passionately attacked the minister, and for a moment
it was believed that Richelieu was dismissed and that the queen-
mother and a Spanish policy had triumphed. But the sequel
only strengthened the power of the minister. He regained his
ascendancy over the king, punished his enemies and forced
Marie de' Medici and Gaston of Orleans to sue for pardon.
In 1631 Gaston fled to Lorraine and the queen-mother to
Brussels. Gaston soon returned, to plot, to fail and to sue for
pardon again and again; but Marie de'Medici ended her life
in exile.
Richelieu's position was much strengthened by these incidents,
but to the end of life he had to struggle against conspiracies
which were designed to deprive him of the king's support, and
usually Gaston of Orleans had some share in these movements.
In 1632 the duke of Montmorency's conspiracy brought its
leader to the scaffold. But the last great effort to overthrow
Richelieu was closely connected with the king. Louis XIII.
had from the beginning of his reign had favourites young men
for the most part with whom he lived freely and intimately
and spoke of public affairs lightly and unreservedly; and who
in consequence often exaggerated their influence over him.
Henri d'Effiat, marquis de Cinq-Mars, was the last of these
favourites. The king is said to have allowed him to speak
hostilely of Richelieu and even to recall the assassination of
Marshal d'Ancre. Cinq-Mars believed himself secure of the
king's favour. He entered into negotiations with Spain and
was secretly supported by Gaston of Orleans. But Richelieu
discovered his treasonous relations with Spain and by this
means defeated his plot. Louis was reconciled to his minister.
" We have lived too long together to be separated " he is
reported to have said (September 1642). Yet when Richelieu
died in December of the same year he allowed himself to speak
of him in a jealous and satirical tone. He died himself a few
months later (May 1643).
His nature was timid, lethargic and melancholy, and his court
was not marked by the scandals which had been seen under
Henry IV. Yet Mademoiselle de la Fayette and Madame
d'Hautefort and others are said to have been his mistresses.
His brother Gaston survived him, but gave unexpectedly little
trouble during the wars of the Fronde which ensued on the death
of Louis XIII.
The chief source of information on Louis XIII.'s life is to be found
in the contemporary memoirs, of which the chief are: Bassompierre,
Fontenay-Mareuil, Gaston d'Orleans, Montr^sor, Omer Talon.
Richelieu's own Memoirs are chiefly concerned with politics and
diplomacy. Of modern works those most directly bearing on the
king's personal life are R. de Beauchamp, Louis XIII. d aprbs so.
correspondance aiiec le cardinal de Richelieu; G. Hanotaux, Histoire
du cardinal de Richelieu (1893-1896); Rossignol, Louis XIII. avant
Richelieu; M. Topin, Louis XIII. et Richelieu (1876). See too
Professor R. Lodge, Richelieu; J. B. H. R. Capefigue, Richelieu,
Mazarin et la Fronde (1835-1836) ; and Dr J. H. Bridges, Richelieu,
Mazarin and Colbert (1866).
For full bibliography see G. Monod, Bibliographie de I'histoire de
France; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv. (" The Thirty Years'
War ") ; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire generate, vol. v. (" Guerres
de religion "). ' (A. J. G.*)
LOUIS XIV. (1638-1715), king of France, was born at Saint-
Germain-en-Laye on the sth of September 1638. His father,
Louis XIII., had married Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III.,
king of Spain, in 1615, but for twenty years the marriage
had remained without issue. The childlessness of the king was
a constant threat to the policy of his great minister Richelieu;
for the king's brother and heir, Gaston of Orleans, was a deter-
mined opponent of that policy. The birth of the prince who
was destined to reign as Louis XIV. was therefore hailed as a
triumph, not less important than any of those won by diplomacy
or arms. The death of his father made Louis XIV. king on the
1 4th of May 1643, but he had to wait sixteen years before he
began to rule. Power lay for some time in the hands of the
queen-mother and in those of her minister, Cardinal Mazarin,
who found it difficult to maintain the power of the throne and
the integrity of French territory during the domestic troubles
of the Fronde and the last stages of the Thirty Year's War. The
minister was hated as a foreigner, and the childhood of the king
weakened the royal authority. Twice the court had to flee from
Paris; once when there was a rumour of intended flight the
populace was admitted to see the king in his bed. The memory
of these humiliations played their part in developing later the
autocratic ideas of Louis. Mazarin, in spite of all disadvantages,
triumphed alike over his domestic and his foreign opponents.
The Fronde was at an end by 1653; the peace of Westphalia
(1648) and the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) marked the success
of the arms and of the diplomacy of France. Louis XIV.
was now twenty-one years of age and was anxious to rule as
well as to reign. The peace of the Pyrenees was a decisive
event in his personal history as well as in that of France, for
one of its most important stipulations referred to his marriage.
He had already been strongly attracted to one of the nieces of
Mazarin, but reasons of state triumphed over personal impulse ;
and it was agreed that the new friendship with Spain should
be cemented by the marriage of Louis to his cousin, the Infanta
Maria Theresa. A large dowry was stipulated for; and in
consideration of this the king promised to forgo all claims that
his wife might otherwise possess to the Spanish crown or any part
of its territories. The dowry was never paid, and the king held
himself free of his promise.
The marriage took place at once, and the king entered Paris
in triumph in 1660. Mazarin died in the next year; but so
strong was the feeling that the kings of France could only rule
through a first minister that it was generally expected that
Mazarin would soon have a successor. The king, however, at
once announced his intention of being his own first minister;
and from this resolution he never swerved. Whatever great
qualities he may have lacked he certainly possessed industry and
patience in the highest degree. He built up a thoroughly
personal system of government, and presided constantly over the
council and many of its committees. He was fond of gaiety and
of sport; but neither ever turned him away from the punctual
and laborious discharge of his royal duties. Even the greatest
of his ministers found themselves controlled by the king.
Fouquet, the finance minister, had accumulated enormous
wealth during the late disturbances, and seemed to possess power
and ambition too great for a subject. Louis XIV. found it
necessary almost to conspire against him; he was overthrown
and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. Those who had
most of the king's confidence afterwards were Colbert for home
affairs; Lionne for diplomacy; Louvois for war; but as his
reign proceeded he became more self-confident and more
intolerant of independence of judgment in his ministers.
His court was from the first one of great brilliance. In art
and in literature, the great period, which is usually called by
the king's name, had in some respects passed its zenith when he
began to reign. But France was unquestionably the first state
in Europe both in arms and arts, and within France the authority
of the king was practically undisputed. The nation, proud of
its pre-eminence and weary of civil war, saw in the king its true
representative and the guarantee of its unity and success. Louis
was singularly well fitted by his physical and intellectual gifts
for the role of Grand Monarque and he played it to perfection.
His wife Maria Theresa bore him children but there was no
community of tastes between them, and the chief influence at
court is to be found not in the queen but in the succession
of avowed mistresses. Mademoiselle de la Valliere held the
position from 1662 to 1670; she was then ousted by Madame de
Montespan, who had fiercely intrigued for it, and whose proud
and ambitious temper offered a great contrast to her rival. She
held her position from 1670 to 1679 and then gave place to the
still more famous Madame de Maintenon, who ruled, however,
not as mistress but as wife. The events that brought about this
incident form the strangest episode in the king's private life.
Madame de Maintenon was the widow of the dramatist Scarron,
and first came into relationship with the king as governess to
his illegitimate children. She was a woman of unstained life
and strongly religious temperament; and it was by this that she
gained so great an influence over the king. Through her influence
the king was reconciled to his wife, and, when Maria Theresa
LOUIS XV.
43
died in 1683, Madame de Maintenon shortly afterwards (in 1684)
became the king's wife, though this was never officially declared.
Under her influence the court lost most of its gaiety, and
religion came to exercise much control over the life and the
policy of the king.
The first years of the king's rule were marked by the great
schemes of Colbert for the financial, commercial, industrial
and naval reorganization of France, and in these schemes Louis
took a deep interest. But in 1667 began the long series of wars,
which lasted with little real intermission to the end of the reign
(see FRANCE). In the steps that led to these wars and in their
conduct the egotistic ambition and the vanity of the king played
an important part; though he never showed real military skill
and took no share in any military operations except in certain
sieges. The War of Devolution (cr the Queen's War) in 1667-68
to enforce the queen's claim to certain districts in the Spanish
Netherlands, led to the Dutch War (1672-78), and in both these
wars the supremacy of the French armies was clearly apparent.
The next decade (1678-1688) was the real turning-point in the
history of the reign, and the strength of France was seriously
diminished. The chief cause of this is to be found in the revoca-
tion of the Edict of Nantes. The -church had always opposed
this settlement and had succeeded in altering it in many points.
Now the new religious zeal and the autocratic temper of Louis
XIV. came to the support of the church. The French Huguenots
found their privileges decreased, and then, in 1685, the edict was
altogether withdrawn. The results were ruinous to France. It
was not only that she lost many thousands of her best citizens,
but this blow against Protestantism deprived her of those
Protestant alliances in Europe which had been in the past her
great diplomatic support. Then the English Revolution came
in 1688 and changed England from a wavering ally into the most
determined of the enemies of France.
The war with the Grand Alliance, of which King William III.
was the heart and soul, lasted from 1688 to 1697; and the treaty
of Ryswick, which brought it to an end, deprived France of
certain territories on her frontier. But Louis saw in the Spanish
question a chance of more than making up for this loss. The
Spanish king Charles II. was dying, and the future of the
possessions of Spain was doubtful. The astute diplomacy of
Louis succeeded in winning the inheritance for his grandson
Philip. But this involved France and Europe in an immense
war (1700) and by the peace of Utrecht (1713), though the
French prince retained the Spanish crown, France had again to
make concessions of territory.
Louis XIV. had shown wonderful tenacity of purpose during
this disastrous war, and sometimes a nobler and more national
spirit than during the years of his triumphs. But the condition
of France was terrible. She was burdened with debt; the
reforms of Colbert were ruined; and opposition to the king's
re'gime began to make itself felt. Peace brought some relief to
France, but the last years of the king's life were gloomy in the
extreme. His numerous descendants seemed at one time to
place the succession beyong all difficulty. But his eldest son,
the dauphin, died in April 1711; his eldest grandson the duke of
Burgundy in February 1712; and his great-grandson the duke
of Brittany in March 1712. The heir to the throne was now the
duke of Burgundy's son, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Louis XV.
The king died on the ist of September 1715, after the longest
recorded reign in European history. The judgment of posterity
has not repeated the flattering verdict of his contemporaries;
but he remains the model of a great king in all that concerns the
externals of kingship.
The reign of Louis XIV. is particularly rich in memoirs describing
the life of the court. The chief are Madame de Motteville's memoirs
for the period of the Fronde, and the letters of Madame de S6vign6
and the memoirs of Saint-Simon for the later period. The king's
ideas are best seen in the Memoires de Louis XIV. pour V instruction
du dauphin (edited by Dreyss, 2 yols.). His private life is revealed
in the letters of Madame de Maintenon and in those of Madame,
Duchesse d'Orldans. Of the ordinary historians of France Michelet
is fullest on the private life of the king. Mention may also be made
of Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV. ; P. Cldment, Histoire delavieetde
I' administration de Colbert; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries de lundi. Full
bibliographies of the reign will be found in G. Monod's Bibliographie
de I'histoire de France; vol. v. (" The Age of Louis XIV.") of the
Cambridge Modern History; and vol. vi. (" Louis XIV.") of the
Histoire generate of Lavisse and Rambaud. (A. J. G.*)
LOUIS XV. (1710-1774), king of France, was the great-grand-
son of Louis XIV. and the third son of Louis, duke of Burgundy,
and Marie Adelaide, princess of Savoy. The first son had died
in 1705, and in 1712 the second son, the duke of Brittany, as
well as his father and mother, was carried off by a mysterious
disease. Louis was thus unexpectedly brought into the line
of the succession, and was only five years old when Louis XIV.
died. The dead king had endeavoured by his will to control
the administration even after his death by a carefully selected
council of regency, in which the duke of Orleans should have only
the nominal presidency; but with the help of the parlement
of Paris the arrangement was at once set aside, and the duke
was declared regent with full traditional powers. The duke
had capacity, but his life was so licentious that what influence
he had upon the king was for evil. Fleury, bishop of Frejus,
was appointed his tutor, and the little king was sincerely attached
to him. The king attained his legal majority at the age of
thirteen, shortly before the death of the duke of Orleans. His
first minister was the incapable duke of Bourbon, who in 1725
procured the repudiation of the Spanish princess, to whom the
king had been betrothed, and his marriage to Maria Leszczynska,
daughter of the exiled king of Poland, then resident in Alsace.
In 1726 the duke of Bourbon was displaced by the king's tutor,
Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) Fleury, who exercised almost
absolute power, for the king took little interest in affairs of state.
His administration was successful and peaceful until the year
1734, when a disputed succession in Poland brought about the
interference of France on behalf of the queen's father. France
was unsuccessful in her immediate object, but at the peace of
Vienna (1735) secured the possession of Lorraine. Up to this
point the reign had been prosperous; but from this time on
it is a record of declining national strength, which was not
compensated by some days of military glory. Fleury's great
age (he died still in office at the age of ninety) prevented him
from really controlling the policy of France and of Europe.
In 1740 the war of the Austrian Succession broke out and
France drifted into it as an ally of Frederick of Prussia and
the enemy of England, and of Maria Theresa of Austria.
On Fleury's death in 1743 no one took his place, and the
king professed to adopt the example of Louis XIV. and to
establish a personal autocracy. But he was not strong enough
in will or intellect to give unity to the administration. The
marquis d'Argenson writes that at the council table Louis
" opened his mouth, said little and thought not at all," and
again that " under the appearance of personal monarchy it
was really anarchy that reigned." He had followed too in his
domestic life the example of his predecessors. The queen for
some time seems to have secured his affections, and she bore
him seven children. But soon we hear of the royal mistresses.
The first to acquire notoriety was the duchess of Chateauroux,
the third sister of one family who held this position. She was
at least in part the cause of the only moment of popularity
which the king enjoyed. She urged him to take part personally
in the war. France had just received a humiliating check at
Dettingen, and the invasion of the north-eastern frontier was
feared. The king went to Metz in 1744, and his presence there
did something to ward off the danger. While the nation felt
genuine gratitude for his energy and its success, he was reported
to have fallen dangerously ill. The king, of whom it was said
that the fear of hell was the only part of religion which had
any reality for him, now dismissed the duchess of Chateauroux
and promised amendment. Prayers were offered everywhere
for his recovery, and the country was swept by a delirium of
loyal enthusiasm, which conferred on him the title of Louis le
bien aimi. But his future life disappointed all these hopes.
The duchess of Chateauroux died in the same year, but her place
was taken in 1745 by Madame de Pompadour. This woman
had philanthropic impulses and some real interest in art and
44
LOUIS XVI.
letters; but her influence on public affairs was a fatal one.
She had many rivals during her lifetime and on her death in
1764 she was succeeded by Madame du Barry (q.v.). But
the mention of these three women gives no idea of the degradation
of the king's life. There has doubtless been exaggeration as
to certain details, and the story of his seraglio at the Pare aux
cerfs is largely apocryphal. But it would be difficult to mention
the name of any European king whose private life shows such
a record of vulgar vice unredeemed by higher aims of any kind.
He was not without ambition, but without sufficient tenacity
of purpose to come near to realizing it. To the last he main-
tained the pretence of personal rule, but the machinery of
government fell out of gear, and the disorder of the finances was
never remedied before the revolution of 1789.
The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the war
of the Austrian Succession, brought no gains to France in spite
of her victories at Fontenoy and Raucoux; and the king was
blamed for the diplomatic failure. The interval between this
war and the Seven Years' War (1756) saw that great reversal
of alliances which is sometimes called the " Diplomatic Revolu-
tion "; whereby France repudiated the alliance of Frederick
the Great and joined hands with her old enemy Austria. The
intrigues of Madame de Pompadour played in this change an
important though not a decisive part. It was the cause of
immense disasters to France; for after a promising beginning,
both by land and sea, France suffered reverses which lost her
both India and Canada and deprived her of the leading position
which she had so long held in Europe. Her humiliation was
declared by the peace of Paris (1763).
The article on the history of France (q.v.) shows how there
arose during the last years of Louis XV. 's reign a strong reaction
against the monarchy and its methods. Military success had
given it its strength; and its prestige was ruined by military
failure. In the parlements, provincial and Parisian; in religion
and in literature, a note of opposition is struck which was never
to die until the monarchy was overthrown. France annexed
Corsica in 1 768, but this was felt to be the work of the minister
Chauvelin, and reflected no credit on the king. He died in 1774
of smallpox. If the reign of his predecessor shows us almost
the ideal of personal monarchy we may see in that of Louis
XV. all the vices and errors exemplified which lie in wait for
absolute hereditary rule which has survived the period of its
usefulness,
For the king's life generally see the memoirs of Saint-Simon,
d'Argenson, Villars and Barbier, and for the details of his private life
E. Boutaric, Correspondance secrete de Louis XV.; Madame de
Pompadour's Correspondance published by P. Malassi; Dietric, Les
Mattresses de Louis X V. ; and Fleury, Louis X V. intimes et les petites
mattresses (1909).
For the system of secret diplomacy and organized espionage,
known as the Secret du roi, carried on under the auspices of Louis
XV., see Albert due de Broglie, Le Secret du roi. Correspondance
secrete de Louis XV. avec ses agents diplomatique! 1752-1774 (Paris,
1878) ; and for a general account of the reign, H. Carr6, La France
sous Louis XV. (Paris, 1891). For other works, general and special,
see G. Monod, Bibliographie de la France, and the bibliography in the
Histoire generate of Lavisse and Rambaud, vol. vii., and the Cambridge
Modern History, vol. vi. (A. J. G.*)
LOUIS XVI. (1754-1793), king of France, was the son of Louis,
dauphin of France, the son of Louis XV., and of Marie Joseph
of Saxony, and was born at Versailles on the 23rd of August
1754, being baptized as Louis Augustus. His father's death
in 1765 made him heir to the throne, and in 1770 he was married
to Marie Antoinette, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa.
He was just twenty years old when the death of Louis XV. on the
loth of May 1774 placed him on the throne. He began his reign
under good auspices, with Turgot, the greatest living French
statesman, in charge of the disorganized finances; but in less than
two years he had yielded to the demand of the vested interests
attacked by Turgot's reforms, and dismissed him. Turgot's
successor, Necker, however, continued the regime of reform
until 1781, and it was only with Necker's dismissal that the
period of reaction began. Marie Antoinette then obtained that
ascendancy over her husband which was partly responsible for
the extravagance of the ministry of Calonne, and brought on the
Revolution by the resulting financial embarrassment. 1 The
third part of his reign began with the meeting of the states-
general on the 4th of May 1789, which marked the opening of
the Revolution. The revolt of Paris and the taking of the Bastille
on the i4th of July were its results. The suspicion, not without
justification, of a second attempt at a coup d'etat led on the
6th of October to the " capture " of the king and royal family
at Versailles by a mob from Paris, and their transference to the
Tuileries. In spite of the growing radicalism of the clubs, however,
loyalty to the king remained surprisingly strong. When he swore
to maintain the constitution, then in progress of construction, at
the festival of the federation on the I4th of July 1790, he was at
the height of his popularity. Even his attempted flight on the
zoth of June 1791 did not entirely turn the nation against him,
although he left documents which proved his opposition to the
whole Revolution. Arrested at Varennes, and brought back to
Paris, he was maintained as a constitutional king, and took
his oath on the I3th of September 1791. But already a party
was forming in Paris which demanded his deposition. This
first became noticeable in connexion with the affair of the Champ
de Mars on the I7th of July 1791. Crushed for a time the party
gained strength through the winter of 1791-1792. The declara-
tion of war against the emperor Francis II., nephew of Marie
Antoinette, was forced upon the king by those who wished to
discredit him by failure, or to compel him to declare himself
openly an enemy to the Revolution. Their policy proved effec-
tive. The failure of the war, which intensified popular hatred
of the Austrian queen, involved the king; and the invasion of
the Tuileries on the 2oth of June 1792 was but the prelude to
the conspiracy which resulted, on the loth of August, in the
capture of the palace and the " suspension " of royalty by the
Legislative Assembly until the convocation of a national con-
vention in September. On the 2ist of September 1792 the
Convention declared royalty abolished, and in January it tried
the king for his treason against the nation, and condemned him
to death. He was executed on the 2ist of January 1793.
Louis XVI. was weak in character and mentally dull. His
courage and dignity during his trial and on the scaffold has left
him a better reputation than he deserves. His diary shows
how little he understood, or cared for, the business of a king.
Days on which he had not shot anything at the hunt were
blank days for him. The entry on the I4thof July 1789 was
" nothing "I The greater part of his time was spent hunting.
He also amused himself making locks, and a little at masonry.
Awkward and uncourtly, at heart shy, he was but a poor figure-
head for the stately court of France. At first he did not care
for Marie Antoinette, but after he came under her influence,
her thoughtless conduct compromised him, and it was largely
she who encouraged him in underhand opposition to the
Revolution while he pretended to accept it. The only point
on which he had of his own initiative shown a strong objec-
tion to revolutionary measures was in the matter of the civil
constitution of the clergy. A devoted and sincere Roman
Catholic, he refused at first to sanction a constitution for the
church in France without the pope's approval, and after he had
been compelled to allow the constitution to become law he
resolved to oppose the Revolution definitely by intrigues.
His policy was both feeble and false. He was singularly un-
fortunate even when he gave in, delaying his acquiescence until
it had the air of a surrender. It is often said that Louis XVI.
was the victim of the faults of his predecessors. He was also the
victim of his own.
Having lost his elder son in 1789 Louis left two children, Louis
Charles, usually known as Louis XVII., and Marie Th6rese
Charlotte (1778-1851), who married her cousin, Louis, duke of
Angouleme, son of Charles X., in 1799. The "orphan of the
Temple," as the princess was called, was in prison for three years,
1 The responsibility of Marie Antoinette for the policy of the king
before and during the Revolution has been the subject of much
controversy. In general it may be said that her influence on politics
has been much exaggerated. (See MARIE ANTOINETTE.) [Ed.]
LOUIS XVII.
45
during which time she remained ignorant of the fate which had
befallen her parents. She died on the igth of October 1851.
Her life by G. Lenotre has been translated into English by J. L.
May (1908).
See the articles FRENCH REVOLUTION and MARIE ANTOINETTE.
F. X. J. Droz, Histoire du regne de Louis XVI. (3 vols., Paris, 1860),
a sane and good history of the period ; and Arsene Houssaye, Louis
XVI. (Paris, 1891). See also the numerous memoirs of the time,
and the marquis de S6gur's Au couchant de la monarchic, Louis XVI.
et Turgot (1910).
For bibliographies see G. Monod, Bibl. de la France; Lavisse et
Rambaud, Hist. Univ., vols. vii. and viii.; and the Cambridge
Modern History, vol. viii. (R- A.")
LOUIS XVII. (1785-1795?), titular king of France, second son
of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, was born at Versailles
on the 27th of March 1785, was christened the same day Louis
Charles, and given the title of duke of Normandy. Louis
Charles became dauphin on the death of his elder brother on the
4th of June 1789. It is only with his incarceration in the Temple
on the I3th of August 1792, that his history, apart from that of his
parents, becomes of interest. The royal party included, beside
the king and queen, their daughter Marie Therese Charlotte
(Madame Royale), the king's sister Madame Elisabeth, the valet
Clery and others. The prisoners were lodged at first in the smaller
Tower, but were removed to the larger Tower on the 27th of
October. Louis Charles was then separated from his mother
and aunt to be put in his father's charge, except for a few hours
daily, but was restored to the women when Louis was isolated
from his family at the beginning of his trial in December.
On the 2ist of January 1793 Louis became, for the royalists,
king of France, and a week later the comte de Provence arrogated
to himself the title of regent. From that moment began new
plots for the escape of the prisoners from the Temple, the chief
of which were engineered by the Chevalier de Jarjayes, 1 the
baron de Batz, 2 and the faithful Lady Atkyns. 3 On the 3rd of
July the little dauphin was again separated from his mother,
this time to be given into the keeping of the cobbler Antoine
Simon 4 who had been named his guardian by the Committee
of General Security. The tales told by the royalist writers of the
barbarous cruelty inflicted by Simon and his wife on the child are
not proven. Marie Jeanne, in fact, took great care of the child's
person, and there is documentary evidence to prove that he had
air and food. But the Simons were obviously grotesquely unfit
guardians for a prince, and they doubtless caused much suffering
to the impressionable child, who was made on occasion to eat and
drink to excess, and learnt the language of the gutter. But the
scenes related by A. de Beauchesne of the physical martyrdom
of the child are not supported by any other testimony, though
he was at this time seen by a great number of people. On the
6th of October Pache, Chaumette, Hebert and others visited
him and secured from him admissions of infamous accusations
against his mother, with his signature to a list of her alleged
crimes since her entry in the Temple, and next day he was con-
fronted with his sister Marie Therese for the last time.
1 F. A. Regnier de Jarjayes (1745-1822). See P. Gaulot, Un
Complot sous la Terreur.
'Jean, baron de Batz (1761-1822), attempted to carry off the
dauphin in 1794. See G. Len&tre, Un Conspirateur royaliste pendant
la Terreur, le baron de Batz (1896).
Charlotte Walpole (c. 1785-1836), an English actress who married
in 1779 Sir Edward Atkyns, and spent most of her life in France.
She expended large sums in trying to secure the escape of the prisoners
of the Temple. See F. Barbey, A Friend of Marie Antoinette (Eng.
ed. 1906).
4 Antoine Simon (173671794) married Marie Jeanne Aladame,
and belonged to the section of the Cordeliers. They owed their
position to Anaxagoras Chaumette, procureur of the Commune,
and to the fact that Simon had prevented one of the attempts of the
baron de Batz. Simon was sent to the guillotine with Robespierre
in 1794, and two years later Marie Jeanne entered a hospital for in-
curables in the rue de Sevres, where she constantly affirmed the
dauphin's escape. She was secretly visited after the Restoration by
the duchess of Angoulgme. On the i6th of November 1816, she was
interrogated by the police, who frightened her into silence about the
supposed substitution of another child for the dauphin. She died in
1819. See G. Len6tre, Vieilles maisons, vieux papiers (and series,
1903).
Simon's wife now fell ill, and on the I9th of January 1794 the
Simons left the Temple, after securing a receipt for the safe trans-
fer of their prisoner, who was declared to be in good health.
A large part of the Temple records from that time onwards
were destroyed under the Restoration, so that exact knowledge
of the facts is practically impossible. Two days after the
departure of the Simons the prisoner is said by the Restoration
historians to have been put in a dark room which was barricaded
like the cage of a wild animal. The story runs that food was
passed through the bars to the child, who survived in spite of the
accumulated filth of his surroundings. Robespierre' visited
Marie Therese on the nth of May, but no one, according to the
legend, entered the dauphin's room for six months until Barras
visited the prison after the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794).
Barras's account of the visit describes the child as suffering from
extreme neglect, but conveys no idea of the alleged walling in.
It is nevertheless certain that during the first half of 1794 he was
very strictly secluded; he had no special guardian, but was under
the charge of guards changed from day to day. The child made
no complaint to Barras of his treatment, probably because he
feared to do so. He was then cleansed and re-clothed, his room
cleaned, and during the day he was visited by his new attendant,
a Creole and a compatriot of Josephine de Beauharnais, named
Jean Jacques Christophe Laurent (1770-1807), who had from
the 8th of November onwards assistance for his charge from
a man named Gomin. The child was now taken out to walk
on the roof of the Tower. From about the time of Gomin's
entrance the prisoner was inspected, not by delegates of the
Commune, but by representatives of the civil committee of the
48 sections of Paris. The rare recurrence of the same inspectors
would obviously facilitate fraud, if any such were intended.
From the end of October onwards the child maintained an
obstinate silence, explained by Laurent as a determination taken
on the day he made his deposition against his mother. On the
19th of December 1794 he was visited by three commissioners
from the Committee of General Security J. B. Harmand de la
Meuse, J. B. C. Mathieu and J. Reverchon who extracted no
word from him. On Laurent's retirement fitienne Lasnewas
appointed on the 3ist of March 1795 to be the child's guardian.
In May 1795 the prisoner was seriously ill, and a doctor, P. J.
Desault, well acquainted with the dauphin, having visited him
seven months earlier, was summoned. Desault died suddenly,
not without suspicion of poison, on the ist of June, and it was
some days before doctors Pelletan and Dumangin were called.
Then it was announced that on the 8th Louis Charles died.
Next day an autopsy was held at which it was stated that a child
apparently about ten years of age, " which the commissioners
told us was the kte Louis Capet's son," had died of a scrofulous
affection of long standing. He was buried on the loth in the
cemetery of Ste Marguerite, but no stone was erected to mark
the spot.
The weak parts of this story are the sudden and unexplained
departure of the Simons; the subsequent useless cruelty of
treating the child like a wild beast and keeping him in a dark
room practically out of sight (unless any doubt of his identity
was possible), while his sister was in comparative comfort;
the cause of death, declared to be of long standing, but in fact
developed with such rapidity; the insufficient excuse provided
for the child's muteness under Gomin's r6gime (he had answered
Barras) and the irregularities in the formalities in attending
the death and the funeral, when a simple identification of the
body by Marie Therese would have prevented any question of
resuscitated dauphins. Both Barras and Harmand de la Meuse
6 In a bulletin dated May 17-24, Paris, and enclosed by Francis
Drake (June 17, 1794) at Milan to Lord Grenville, it is stated (Hist.
MSS. Comm. Fortescue Papers at Dropmore, vol. ii. 576-577) that
Robespierre in the night of 23-24 May fetched the king (the dauphin)
from the Temple and took him to Meudon. " The fact is certain,
although only known to the Committee of Public Safety. It is said
to be ascertained that he was brought back to the Temple the night
of 24-25th, and that this was a test to assure the ease of seizing
him." This police report at least serves to show the kind of rumour
then current.
LOUIS XVII.
are said to have given leave for the brother and sister to see each
other, but the meeting was never permitted. The argument
from the sudden disappearance of persons in a position to know
something of the truth is of a less convincing character. It may
be noted that the more famous of the persons alleged by partisans
of subsequent pretenders to have been hustled out of the world
for their connexion with the secret are the empress Josephine,
the due d'Enghien and the due de Berri.
Immediately on the announcement of the dauphin's death
there arose a rumour that he had escaped. Simien-Despreaux,
one of Louis XVIII. 's own authors, stated at a later period (1814)
that Louis XVII. was living and that among the signatories of
the treaty of April i3th were some who possessed proofs of his
existence; and Eckard, one of the mainstays of the official
account, left among his unpublished papers a statement that
many members of " an assembly of our wise men " obstinately
named Louis XVII. as the prince whom their wishes demanded.
Unfortunately the removal of the child suited the plans of the
comte de Provence (now Louis XVIII. for the Emigres) as well
as it suited the revolutionary government, and no serious attempt
was made by the royal family to ascertain the truth, though
they paid none of the tributes to the memory of the dead king
which might reasonably have been expected, had they been
convinced of his death. Even his sister wore no mourning for
him until she arrived at Vienna and saw that this was ex-
pected of her. In spite of the mass of literature which has
accumulated on the subject, neither his death in the Temple
nor his escape therefrom has been definitely established,
though a very strong presumption is established in favour of
the latter.
Some forty candidates for bis honours were forthcoming
under the Restoration. The most important of these pretenders
were Karl Wilhelm Naundorff and the comte de Richemont.
Naundorff's story rested on a series of complicated intrigues.
According to him Barras determined to save the dauphin in
order to please Josephine Beauharnais, the future empress,
having conceived the idea of using the dauphin's existence
as a means of dominating the comte de Provence in the event
of a restoration. The dauphin was concealed in the fourth storey
of the Tower, a wooden figure being substituted for him. Laurent,
to protect himself from the consequences of the substitution,
replaced the wooden figure by a deaf mute, who was presently
exchanged for the scrofulous child of the death certificate.
The deaf mute was also concealed in the Temple. It was not the
dead child, but the dauphin who left the prison in the coffin,
whence he was extracted by his friends on the way to the
cemetery. Richemont's tale that the woman Simon, who was
genuinely attached to him, smuggled him out in a basket, is
simple and more credible, and does not necessarily invalidate
the story of the subsequent operations with the deaf mute and
the scrofulous patient, Laurent in that case being deceived
from the beginning, but it renders them extremely unlikely.
A third pretender, Eleazar Williams, did not affect to know
anything of his escape. He possessed, he said, no consciousness
of his early years, only emerging from idiocy at the age of thirteen,
when he was living with an Indian family in New York State.
He was a missionary to the Indians when the prince de Joinville,
son of Louis Philippe, met him, and after some conversation
asked him to sign a document abdicating his rights in favour of
Louis Philippe, in return for which he, the dauphin (alias
Eleazar Williams), was to receive the private inheritance which
was his. This Eleazar refused to do. The wildness of this tale
refutes itself.
Richemont (Henri Ethelbert Louis Victor Hebert) was in
prison in Milan for seven years and began to put forward his
claims in Paris in 1828. In 1833 he was again arrested, was
brought to trial in the following year and was condemned to
twelve years' imprisonment. He escaped after a few months and
left the country, to return in 1840. He died at Gleize on the
xoth of August 1853, the name of Louis Charles de France
being inscribed on his tomb until the government ordered its
removal.
Naundorff, or Naundorff, who had arrived from nowhere in
Berlin in 1810, with papers giving the name Karl Wilhelm
Naundorff, in order to escape the persecutions of which he
declared himself the object, settled at Spandau in 1812 as a
clockmaker, and married in 1818 Johanna Einert. In 1822 he
removed to Brandenburg, and in 1828 to Crossen, near Frankfort.
He was imprisoned from 1825 to 1828 for coining, though
apparently on insufficient evidence, and in 1833 came to push his
claims in Paris, where he was recognized as the dauphin by many
persons formerly connected with the court of Louis XVI. Ex-
pelled from France in 1836, the day after bringing a suit against
the duchess of Angouleme for the restitution of the daupnin's
private property, he lived in exile till his death at Delft on the
loth of August 1845, and his tomb was inscribed " Louis XVII.,
roi de France et de Navarre (Charles Louis, due de Normandie)."
The Dutch authorities who had inscribed on his death certificate
the name of Charles Louis de Bourbon, due de Normandie (Louis
XVII.) permitted his son to bear the name de Bourbon, and when
the family appealed in 1850-1851, and again in 1874, for the
restitution of their civil rights as heirs of Louis XVI. no less an
advocate than Jules Favre pleaded their cause. Of all the pre-
tenders Naundorff has the best case. He was certainly not the
Jew of Prussian Poland which his enemies declared him to be,
and he has to this day a circle of devoted adherents. Since he
was sincerely convinced of his own rights, it is surprising that
he put forward no claim hi 1814.
If the dauphin did escape, it seems probable that he perished
shortly afterwards or lived in a safe obscurity. The account of
the substitution in the Temple is well substantiated, even to
the names of the substitutes. The curious imbroglio deceived
royalists and republicans alike. Lady Atkyns was trying by
every possible means to get the dauphin out of his prison when
he was apparently already in safe hands, if not outside the Temple
walls. A child was in fact delivered to her agents, but he was a
deaf mute. That there was fraud, and complicated fraud, in the
guardians of the dauphin may be taken as proved by a succession
of writers from 1850 onwards, and more recently by Frederic
Barbey, who wisely attempts no ultimate solution. When the
partisans of Richemont or Naundorff come to the post-Temple
careers of their heroes, they become in most cases so uncritical
as to be unconvincing.
The official version of the dauphin's history as accepted under the
Restoration was drawn up by Simien Despreaux in his uncritical
Louis XVII. (1817), and is found, fortified by documents, in M.
Eckard's Memoires historiques sur Louis XVII. (1817) and in A. de
Beauchesne's Louis XVII., sa vie, son agonie, sa mart. Captivitt
de la famille royale au Temple (2 vpls., 1852, and many subsequent
editions), containing copies of original documents, and essential to
the study of the question, although its sentimental pictures of the
boy martyr can no longer be accepted. L. de la Sicotiere, " Les faux
Louis XVII.," in Revue des questions historiques (vol. xxxii., 1882),
deals with the pretenders Jean Marie Hervagault, Mathurin Bruneau
and the rest ; see also Dr Cabanes, Les Marts mysterieuses de I'histoire
(1901), and revised catalogue of the J. Sanford Saltus collection of
Louis XVII. books (New York, 1908). Catherine Welch, in The
Little Dauphin (1908) gives a r6sum6 of the various sides of the
question.
Madame Royale's own account of the captivity of the Temple
was first printed with additions and suppressions in 1817, and often
subsequently, the best edition being that from her autograph text
by G. Len&tre, La Fille de Louis XVI., Marie Therese Charlotte de
France, duchesse d'Angouleme, le Temple, I'echange, I'exil (1907).
There are two collections of writings on the subject : Marie Therese
de France, compiled (1852) by the marquis de Pastoret, and com-
C rising beside the memoir written by Marie Th6rese herself, articles
y M. de Montbel, Sainte-Beuve, J. Lemoine, La GueYonniere and
extracts from Joseph Weber's memoirs ; and Memoires de Marie
Therese duchesse d'Angouleme, comprising extracts from the narra-
tives of Charles Goret (Man Temoignage, 1852), of C. F. Beaulieu
(Memoire adressee a la nation, 1795), of L. G. Michaud (Opinion
d'un Francais, 1795) and of Mme de Tourzel (Memoires 1883).
Cf . A. Lanne, La Saiur de Louis X VII., and the articles on " Madame
Royale," on the " Captivit6 de la famille royale au Temple " and on
the " Mise en libertd de Madame " in M. Tourneux's BiUiographie
de I'histoire de Paris pendant la revolution franc.aise (vol. iv., 1906,
and vol. i., 1890).
Naundorff. for the case of Naundorff see his own narrative,
Abrege de I'histoire des infortunes du Dauphin (London, 1836;
Eng. trans., 1838); also Modeste Gruau de la Barre, Intrigues
LOUIS XVIII.
47
devoilees ou Louis XVII. ... (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1846-1848);
O. Friedrichs, Correspondance intime et inedite de Louis XVII.
(Naundorff) 1834-1838 (2 vols., 1904); Plaidoirie de Jules Favre
devant la cour d'appel de Paris pour Us heritiers de feu Charles-
Guillaume Naundorff (1874); H. Provins, Le Dernier roi legilime
de France (2 vols., the first of which consists of destructive criticism
of Beauchesne and his followers, 1889) ; A. Lanne, " Louis XVII. et le
secret de la Revolution," Bulletin mensuel (1893 et seq.) of the Societe
des etudes sur la question Louis XVII., also La Legitimite (Bordeaux,
Toulouse, 1883-1898). See further the article " Naundorff ' in
M. Tourneux, Bibl. de la ville de Paris pendant la Revolution, vol. iv.
(1906).
Williams. J. H. Hanson, The Lost Prince: Facts tending to
prove the Identity of Louis XVII. of France and the Rev. Eleazer
Williams (London and New York, 1854).
De Richemont. Memoires du due de Normandie,fils de Louis XVI.,
ecrits et publics par lui-meme (Paris, 1831), compiled, according to
Querard, by E. T. Bourg, called Saint Edme; Morin de Gueriviere,
Quelques souvenirs . . . (Paris, 1832); and J. Suvigny, La Restaura-
tion convaincue . . . ou preuves de I' existence du fils de Louis X VI.
(Paris, 1851).
The widespread interest taken in Louis XVII. is shown by the fact
that since 1905 a monthly periodical has appeared in Pans on this
subject, entitled Revue historique de la question Louis XVII., also by
the promised examination of the subject by the Societe d'Histoire
contemporaine. (M. BR.)
LOUIS XVIII. (Louis LE DESIRE) (1755-1824). Louis-
Stanislas-Xavier, comte de Provence, third son of the dauphin
Louis, son of Louis XV., and of Maria Josepha of Saxony, was
born at Versailles on the I7th of November 1755. His education
was supervised by the devout due de la Vauguyon, but his own
taste was for the writings of Voltaire and the encyclopaedists.
On the 1 4th of May 1771 took place his marriage with Louise-
Marie-Josephine of Savoy, by whom he had no children. His
position at court was uncomfortable, for though ambitious and
conscious of possessing greater abilities than his brother (Louis
XVI.), his scope for action was restricted; he consequently
devoted his energies largely to intrigue, especially against
Marie Antoinette, whom he hated. 1 During the long absence
of heirs to Louis XVI., " Monsieur," as heir to the throne, courted
popularity and took an active part in politics, but the birth of
a dauphin (1781) was a blow to his ambitions. 2 He opposed
the revival of the parlements, wrote a number of political
pamphlets, 3 and at the Assembly of Notables presided, like the
other princes of the blood, over a bureau, to which was given the
name of the Comite des sages; he also advocated the double
representation of the tiers. At the same time he cultivated
literature, entertaining poets and writers both at the Luxembourg
and at his chateau of Brunoy (see Dubois-Corneau, Le Comte de
Provence a Brunoy, 1909), and gaining a reputation for wit by
his verses and mots in the salon of the charming and witty
comtesse de Balbi, one of Madame's ladies, who had become
his mistress, 4 and till 1793 exerted considerable influence over
him. He did not emigrate after the taking of the Bastille, but,
possibly from motives of ambition, remained in Paris. Mirabeau
thought at one time of making him chief minister in his projected
constitutional government (see Corr. de Mirabeau et La March, ed
Bacourt, i. 434, 436, 442), but was disappointed by his caution
and timidity. The a/aire Favras (Dec. 1789) aroused great
feeling against Monsieur, who was believed by many to have
conspired with Favras, only to abandon him (see Lafayette's
Mems. and Corr. of Mirabeau). In June 1791, at the time of the
1 See Arneth and Geffroy, Corr. de Marie-Therese avec le comte de
Mercy-Argenteau, vol. i., " Mercy to Maria Theresa, June 22nd
1771," also i. 261, ii. 186, 352, 393. Marie Antoinette says (ii. 393)
" . . . a un caractere tres faible, il joint une marche souterraine, et
quelquefois tres basse."
1 See his letters to Gustavus III. of Sweden in A. Geffroy, Gustave
III et la cour de France, vol. ii. appendix.
1 Two pamphlets at least are ascribed to him: " Les Mannequins
conte ou histoire, comme Ton youdra " (against Turgot; anon.
Paris, 1776) and " Description historique d'un monstre symbolique
pris vivant sur les bords du lac Fagua, pres de Santa-Fe, par les soms
de Francisco Xaveiro de Neunris " (against Calonne; Paris, 1784^
(A. Debidour in La Grande Encyclopedic).
4 It has frequently been alleged that his relations with Mme di
Balbi, and indeed with women generally, were of a platonic nature
De Reiset (La Comtesse de Balbi, pp. 152-161) produces evidence to
disprove this assertion.
flight to Varennes, Monsieur also fled by a different route,
and, in company with the comte d'Avaray' who subsequently
replaced Mme de Balbi as his confidant, and largely influenced
lis policy during the emigration succeeded in reaching Brussels,
where he joined the comte d'Artois and proceeded to Coblenz,
which now became the headquarters of the emigration.
Here, living in royal state, he put himself at the head of
the counter-revolutionary movement, appointing ambassadors,
soliciting the aid of the European sovereigns, and especially
of Catherine II. of Russia. Out of touch with affairs in France
and surrounded by violent anti-revolutionists, headed by
Calonne and the comte d'Artois, he followed an entirely selfish
policy, flouting the National Assembly (see his reply to the
summons of the National Assembly, in Daudet, op. cit. i. 96),
Issuing uncompromising manifestoes (Sept. 1791, Aug. 1792, &c.),
and obstructing in every way the representatives of the king and
queen. 8 After Valmy he had to retire to Hamm in Westphalia,
where, on the death of Louis XVI., he proclaimed himself regent;
from here he went south, with the idea of encouraging the
royalist feeling in the south of France, and settled at Verona,
where on the death of Louis XVII. (8th of June 1795) he took
the title of Louis XVIII. At this time ended his liaison with
Mme de Balbi, and the influence of d'Avaray reached its height.
From this time onward his life is a record of constant wanderings,
negotiations and conspiracies. In April 1796 he joined Conde's
army on the German frontier, but was shortly requested to leave
the country, and accepted the hospitality of the duke of Bruns-
wick at Blanckenberg till 1797, when, this refuge being no longer
open to him, the emperor Paul I. permitted him to settle at
Mittau in Courland, where he stayed till 1801. All this time
he was in close communication with the royalists in France, but
was much embarrassed by the conflicting policy pursued by the
comte d'Artois from England, and was largely at the mercy
of corrupt and dishonest agents. 7 At Mittau was realized his
cherished plan of marrying Madame Royale, daughter of Louis
XVI., to the due d'Angouleme, elder son of the comte d'Artois.
From Mittau, too, was sent his well-known letter to Bonaparte
(1799) calling upon him to play the part of Monk, a proposal
contemptuously refused (E. Daudet, Hist, de Immigration, ii.
371, 436) , though Louis in turn declined to accept a pension from
Bonaparte, and later, in 1803, though his fortunes were at their
lowest ebb, refused to abdicate at his suggestion and accept
an indemnity.
Suddenly expelled from Mittau in 1801 by the capricious
Paul I., Louis made his way, in the depth of winter, to Warsaw,
where he stayed for three years. All this time he was trying
to convert France to the royalist cause, and had a " conseil
royal " in Paris, founded at the end of 1799 by Royer-Collard,
Montesquiou and Clermont-Gallerande, the actions of which
were much impeded by the activity of the rival committee of
the comte d'Artois (see E. Daudet, op. cit. ii., and Remade,
Bonaparte et les Bourbons, Paris, 1899), but after 1800, and still
more after the failure of the royalist conspiracy of Cadoudal,
Pichegru and Moreau, followed by the execution of the due
d'Enghien (March 1804), and the assumption by Napoleon of
the title of emperor (May 1804), the royalist cause appeared
quite hopeless. In September 1804 Louis met the comte d'Artois
at Calmar in Sweden, and they issued a protest against Napoleon's
action, but being warned that he must not return to Poland, he
gained permission from Alexander I. again to retire to Mittau.
After Tilsit, however (1807), he was again forced to depart, and
took refuge in England, where he stayed first at Gosfield in Essex,
and afterwards (1809 onwards) at Hartwell in Buckinghamshire.
Antoine-Louis-Francois de Besiade, comte, afterwards due,
d'Avaray. In spite of his loyalty and devotion, the effect of his
influence on Louis XVIII. may be gathered from a letter of J. de
Maistre to Blacas, quoted by FJ. Daudet, Hist, de I'emigration, ii._ 1 1 :
" celui cjui n'a pu dans aucun pays abprder aucun homme politique
sans 1'ahener n'est pas fait pour les affaires."
See KlinckowstrSm, Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France.
Fersen says (i. 7), " Monsieur ferait mieux seul, mais il est entiere-
ment subjugue par 1'autre " (i.e. the comte d'Artois, who was in
turn under the influence of Calonne). See Daudet, op. cit. vol. i.
7 See E. Daudet, La Conjuration de Pichegru (Paris, 1901).
LOUIS XVIII.
In 1810 his wife died, and in 1811 d'Avaray died, his place as
favourite being taken by the comte de Blacas. 1 After Napoleon's
defeats in 1813 the hopes of the royalists revived, and Louis
issued a fresh manifesto, in which he promised to recognize the
results of the Revolution. Negotiations were also opened with
Bernadotte, who seemed willing to support his cause, but was
really playing for his own hand.
In March 1814 the Allies entered Paris, and thanks to Talley-
rand's negotiations the restoration of the Bourbons was effected,
Louis XVIII. entering Paris on the 2nd of May 1814, after issuing
the declaration of St Ouen, in which he promised to grant the
nation a constitution (pctroyer une charte). He was now nearly
sixty, wearied by adversity, and a sufferer from gout and obesity.
But though clear-sighted, widely read and a good diplomatist,
his impressionable and sentimental nature made him too subject
to personal and family influences. His concessions to the
reactionary and clerical party of the emigres, headed by the
comte d'Artois and the duchesse d' Angouleme, aroused suspicions
of his loyalty to the constitution, the creation of his Maison
militaire alienated the army, and the constant presence of Blacas
made the formation of a united ministry impossible. After
the Hundred Days, during which the king was forced to flee to
Ghent, the dismissal of Blacas was made one of the conditions
of his second restoration. On the 8th of July he again entered
Paris, " in the baggage train of the allied armies," as his enemies
said, but in spite of this was received with the greatest enthusiasm 2
by a people weary of wars and looking for constitutional govern-
ment. He was forced to retain Talleyrand and Fouche in his
first ministry, but took the first opportunity of ridding himself
of them when the elections of 1815 assured him of a strong
royalist majority in the chamber (the chambre introwiable,
a name given it by Louis himself). At this time he came into
contact with the young comte (afterwards due) Decazes, prefect
of the police under Fouche, and minister of police in Richelieu's
ministry, who now became his favourite and gained his entire
confidence (see E. Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le due Decazes).
Having obtained a ministry in which he could trust, having
as members the due de Richelieu and Decazes, the king now
gave it his loyal support and did his best to shield his ministers
from the attacks of the royal family. In September 1816,
alarmed at the violence of the chambre introwiable, he was
persuaded to dissolve it. An attempt on the part of the
Ultras to regain their ascendancy over the king, by conniving
at the sudden return of Blacas from Rome to Paris,* ended in
failure.
The events and ministerial changes of Louis XVIII. 's reign
are described under the article FRANCE: History, but it may be
said here that the king's policy throughout was one of prudence
and common sense. His position was more passive than active,
and consisted in giving his support as far as possible to the
1 Pierre-Louis-Casimir, comte (afterwards due) de Blacas d'Aulps,
was as rigidly royalist as d'Avaray, but more able. E. Daudet, Hist,
de V emigration, i. 458, quotes a judgment of him by J. de Maistre:
" II est ne homme d'etat et ambassadeur."
2 See account by Decazes in E. Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le due
Decazes, pp. 48-49, and an interesting " secret and confidential "
letter of Castlereagh to Liverpool (July 8, 1815) in the unpublished
Foreign Office records: "The king sent for the duke and me this
evening to the Thuilleries. . . . We found him in a state of great
emotion and exaltation at the reception he had met with from his
subjects, which appears to have been even more animated than on his
former entrance. Indeed, during the long audience to which we were
admitted, it was almost impossible to converse, so loud were the
shouts of the people in the Thuilleries Gardens, which were full,
though it was then dark. Previous to the king's dismissing us, he
carried the duke and me to the open window. Candles were then
brought, which enabled the people to see the king with the duke
by his side. They ran from all parts of the Gardens, and formed a
solid mass of an immense extent, rending the air with acclamations.
The town is very generally illuminated, and I understand from men
who have traversed the principal streets that every demonstration
of joy was manifested by the inhabitants."
* It is as yet not proved that Blacas returned from his embassy
in response to a summons from the Ultras. But whether it was on
his _ own initiative or not, there can be no doubt as to the hopes
which they built on his arrival (see Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le due
Decazes.
ministry of the day. While Decazes was still in power, the king's
policy to a large extent followed his, and was rather liberal and
moderate, but after the assassination of the due de Berry (1820),
when he saw that Decazes could no longer carry on the govern-
ment, he sorrowfully acquiesced in his departure, showered
honours upon him, and transferred his support to Richelieu,
the head of the new ministry. In the absence of Decazes a new
favourite was found to amuse the king's old age, Madame du
Cayla (Zoe Talon, comtesse du Cayla), a protegee of the vicomte
Sosthene de la Rochefoucauld and consequently a creature of
the Ultras. As the king became more and more infirm, his power
of resistance to the intrigues of the Ultras became weaker. The
birth of a posthumous son to the due de Berry (Sept. 1820), the
death of Napoleon (5th of May 1821) and the resignation of
Richelieu left him entirely in their hands, and after Villele had
formed a ministry of a royalist character the comte d'Artois
was associated with the government, which passed more and
more out of the king's hands. He died on the i6th of September
1824, worn out in body, but still retaining flashes of his former
clear insight and scepticism. The character of Louis XVIII.
may be summed up in the words of Bonaparte, quoted by Sorel
(L'Europe et la Rev. Jr. viii. 416 footnote), " C'est Louis XVI.
avec moins de franchise et plus d'esprit. " He had all the Bourbon
characteristics, especially their love of power, combined with a
certain nobility of demeanour, and a consciousness of his dignity
as king. But his nature was cold, unsympathetic and calculating,
combined with a talent for intrigue, to which was added an
excellent memory and a ready wit. An interesting judgment
of him is contained in Queen Victoria's Letters, vol. i., in a letter
of Leopold I., king of the Belgians, to the queen before her
accession, dated the i8th of November 1836, "Poor Charles X.
is dead. . . . History will state that Louis XVIII. was a most
liberal monarch, reigning with great mildness and justice to
his end, but that his brother, from his despotic and harsh disposi-
tion, upset all the other had done and lost the throne. Louis
XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled by no principle,
very proud and false. Charles X. an honest man, a kind friend,"
&c. &c. This seems fairly just as a personal estimate, though
it does not do justice to their respective political roles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. There is no trustworthy or complete edition of
the writings and correspondence of Louis XVIII. The Memoires
de Louis XVIII. recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le due de D. . . .
(12 vols., Paris, 1832-1833) are compiled by Lamothe-Langon, a
well-known compiler of more or less apocryphal memoirs. From
the hand of Louis XVIII. are: Relation d'un voyage a Bruxelles et a
Coblentz, 1791 (Paris, 1823, with dedication to d'Avaray); and
Journal de Marie-Therese de France, duchesse d' Angouleme, corrige et
annote par Louis XVIII., ed. Imbert de St Amand (Paris, 1896).
Some of his letters are contained in collections, such as Lettres
d'Artwett; correspondence politique et privee de Louis XVIII., roi
de France (Paris, 1830; letters addressed to d'Avaray) ; Lettres et
instructions de Louis XVIII. au comte de Saint-Priest, ed. Barante
(Paris, 1845) ; Talleyrand et Louis XVIII., corr. pendant le congres de
Vienne, 1814-181;, ed. Pallain (1881 ; trans., 2 vols., 1881); see also
the corr. of Castlereagh, Metternich, J. de Maistre, the Wellington
Dispatches, &c., and such collections as Corr. diplomatique de Pozzo
di Borgo avec le comte de Nesselrode (2 vols., 1890-1897), the corre-
spondence of C. de Remusat, Villele, &c. The works of E. Daudet
are of the greatest importance, and based on original documents;
the chief are: La Terreur Blanche (Paris, 1878) ; Hist, de la restaura-
tion 1814-1830 (1882) ; Louis XVIII. et le due Decazes (1899) ; Hist,
de ^emigration, in three studies: (i.) Les Bourbons et la Russie (1886),
(ii.) Les Emigres et la seconde coalition (1886), (iii.) Coblenz, 1780-1793
(1890). Developed from these with the addition of much further
material is his Hist, de Immigration (3 vols., 1904-1907). Also based
on original documents is E. Romberg and A. Malet, Louis X VIII. et
les cent-jours a Gand (1898). See also G. Stenger, Le Retour des
Bourbons (1908) ; Cte. L. de Remade, Bonaparte et les Bourbons.
Relations secrets des agents du cte. de Provence sous le consulat (Paris,
1899). For various episodes, see Vicomte de Reiset, La Comtesse
de Balbi (Paris, 1908; contains a long bibliography, chiefly of
memoirs concerning the emigration, and is based on documents);
J. B. H. R. Capefigue, La Comtesse du Cayla (Paris, 1866) ; J. Turquan,
Les Favorites de Louis X VIII. (Paris, 1900) ; see also the chief
memoirs of the period, such as those of Talleyrand, Chateaubriand,
Guizot, due de Broglie, Villele, Vitrolles, Pasquier, the comtesse de
Boigne (ed. Nicoullaud, Paris, 1907), the Vicomte L. F. Sosthene
de la Rochefoucauld (15 vols., Paris, 1861-1864); anc < the writings
of Benjamin Constant, Chateaubriand, &c.
LOUIS I. LOUIS II.
49
General Works. See the histories of France, the Emigration, the
Restoration and especially the very full bibliographies to chapters
i., ii. and iii. of Cambridge Modern History, and Lavisseand Rambaud,
Hist, generate, vol. x. (C. B. P.)
LOUIS I. (1326-1382), called " the great," king of Hungary
and Poland, was the third son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary,
and Elizabeth, daughter of the Polish king, Ladislaus Lokietek.
In 1342 he succeeded his father as king of Hungary and was
crowned at Szekesfehervar on the 2ist of July with great en-
thusiasm. Though only sixteen he understood Latin, German
and Italian as well as his mother tongue. He owed his relatively
excellent education to the care of his mother, a woman of pro-
found political sagacity, who was his chief counsellor in diplo-
matic affairs during the greater part of his long reign. Italian
politics first occupied his attention. As a ruler of a rising
great power in search of a seaboard he was the natural adversary
of the Venetian republic, which already aimed at making the
Adriatic a purely Venetian sea and resented the proximity of
the Magyars in Dalmatia. The first trial of strength began in
I34S, when the city of Zara placed herself under the protection
of Hungary and was thereupon invested by the Venetians.
Louis fought a battle beneath the walls of Zara (July ist, 1346),
which has been immortalized by Tintoretto, but was defeated
and compelled to abandon the city to the republic. The struggle
was renewed eleven years later when Louis, having formed, with
infinite trouble, a league of all the enemies of Venice, including
the emperor, the Habsburgs, Genoa and other Italian towns,
attacked his maritime rival with such vigour that she sued for
peace, and by the treaty of Zara (February i8th, 1358) ceded
most of the Dalmatian towns and renounced the title of duke
of Dalmatia and Croatia, hitherto borne by the doge. Far
more important than the treaty itself was the consequent volun-
tary submission of the independent republic of Ragusa to the
suzerainty of the crown of St Stephen the same year, Louis,
in return for an annual tribute of 500 ducats and a fleet, under-
taking to defend Ragusa against all her enemies. Still more
glorious for Hungary was Louis's third war with Venice (1378-
1381), when he was again aided by the Genoese. At an early
stage of the contest Venice was so hardly pressed that she offered
to do homage to Hungary for all her possessions. But her
immense resources enabled her to rally her forces, and peace
was finally concluded between all the powers concerned at the
congress of Turin (1381), Venice virtually surrendering Dalmatia
to Louis and undertaking to pay him an annual tribute of 7000
ducats. The persistent hostility of Venice is partially attribut-
able to her constant fear lest Louis should inherit the crown
of Naples and thus threaten her trade and her sea-power from
two sides simultaneously. Louis's younger brother Andrew
had wedded Joanna, grand-daughter and heiress of old King
Robert of Naples, on whose death, in 1343, she reigned in her
own right, refused her consort any share in the government,
and is very strongly suspected of having secured his removal
by assassination on the night of the ipth of September 1345.
She then married Prince Louis of Taranto, and strong in the
double support of the papal court at Avignon and of the Venetian
republic (both of whom were opposed to Magyar aggrandisement
in Italy) questioned the right of Louis to the two Sicilies, which
he claimed as the next heir of his murdered brother. In 1347,
and again in 1350, Louis occupied Naples and craved per-
mission to be crowned king, but the papal see was inexorable
and he was compelled to withdraw. The matter was not decided
till 1378 when Joanna, having made the mistake of recognizing
the antipope Clement VII., was promptly deposed and ex-
communicated in favour of Prince Charles of Durazzo, who had
been brought up at the Hungarian court. Louis, always in-
exhaustible in expedients, determined to indemnify himself
in the north for his disappointments in the south. With the
Habsburgs, Hungary's natural rivals in the west, Louis generally
maintained friendly relations. From 1358 to 1368, however,
the restless ambition of Rudolph, duke of Austria, who acquired
Tirol and raised Vienna to the first rank among the cities of
Europe, caused Louis great uneasiness. But Louis always
preferred arbitration to war, and the peace congresses of Nagys-
zombat (1360) and of Pressburg (1360) summoned by him
adjusted all the outstanding differences between the centra)
European powers. Louis's diplomacy, moreover, was materially
assisted by his lifelong alliance with his uncle, the childless
Casimir the Great of Poland, who had appointed him his suc-
cessor; and on Casimir's death Louis was solemnly crowned king
of Poland at Cracow (Nov. 17, 1370). This personal union
of the two countries was more glorious than profitable. Louis
could give little attention to his unruly Polish subjects and
was never very happy among them. Immovably entrenched
behind their privileges, they rendered him only the minimum
of service; but he compelled their representatives, assembled at
Kassa, to recognize his daughter Maria and her affianced husband,
Count Sigismund of Brandenburg, as their future king and
queen by locking the gates of the city and allowing none to leave
it till they had consented to his wishes (1374). Louis is the first
European monarch who came into collision with the Turks.
He seems to have arrested their triumphant career (c. 1372),
and the fine church erected by him at Maria-Zell is a lasting
memorial of his victories. From the first he took a just view
of the Turkish peril, but the peculiar local and religious difficul-
ties of the whole situation in the Balkans prevented him from
dealing with it effectually (see HUNGARY, History). Louis died
suddenly at Nagyszombat on the loth of September 1382. He
left two daughters Maria and Jadwiga (the latter he destined
for the throne of Hungary) under the guardianship of his widow,
the daughter of the valiant ban of Bosnia, Stephen Kotromanic,
whom he married in 1353, and who was in every way worthy
of him.
See Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in Hungaria, 1281-1375 (Buda-
pest, 1887) ; Dano Gruber, The Struggle of Louis I. with the Venetians
for Dalmatia (Croat.) (Agram, 1903); Antal Por, Life of Louis the
Great (Hung.) (Budapest, 1892); and History of the Hungarian
Nation (Hung.) (vol. 3, Budapest, 1895). (R. N. B.)
LOUIS II. (1506-1526), king of Hungary and Bohemia, was
the only son of Wladislaus II., king of Hungary and Bohemia,
and the French princess Anne of Candale. Prematurely born
at Buda on the ist of July 1506, it required all the resources of
medical science to keep the sickly child alive, yet he developed
so precociously that at the age of thirteen he was well bearded
and moustached, while at eighteen his hair was silvery white.
His parts we're good and he could speak and write six languages
at a very early age, but the zeal of his guardians and tutors
to make a man of him betimes nearly ruined his feeble con-
stitution, while the riotous life led by him and his young consort,
Maria of Austria, whom he wedded on the I3th of January 1522,
speedily disqualified him for affairs, so that at last he became
an object of ridicule at his own court. He was crowned king of
Hungary on the 4th of June 1508, and king of Bohemia on the
nth of May 1509, and was declared of age when he succeeded
his father on the nth of December 1521. But during the greater
part of his reign he was the puppet of the magnates and kept
in such penury that he was often obliged to pawn his
jewels to get proper food and clothing. His guardians, Cardinal
Bakocz and Count George of Brandenburg- Anspach, shamefully
neglected him, squandered the royal revenues and distracted
the whole kingdom with their endless dissensions. Matters
grew even worse on the death of Bakdcz, when the magnates
Istvan Bathory, Jinos Zapolya and Istvan Verboczy fought
each other furiously, and used the diets as their tools. Added to
these troubles was the ever-present Turkish peril, which became
acute after the king, with insensate levity, arrested the Ottoman
envoy Berham in 1521 and refused to unite with Suleiman in a
league against the Habsburgs. Nevertheless in the last ex-
tremity Louis showed more of manhood than any of his coun-
sellors. It was he who restored something like order by interven-
ing between the magnates and the gentry at the diet of 1525.
It was he who collected in his camp at Tolna the army of 25,000
men which perished utterly on the fatal field of Mohacs on
the 29th of August 1526. He was drowned in the swollen
stream of Csele on his flight from the field, being the second
50
prince of the house of Jagiello who laid down his life for
Hungary.
See Rerum Hungaricarum libri (vol. 2, ed. Ferencz Toldy, Buda-
pest, 1867) ; and Jozsef Podhradczky, King Louis (Hung.) (Budapest,
i860). (R. N. B.)
LOUIS, the name of three kings of Naples, members of the
house of Anjou.
Lotus I., duke of Anjou and count of Maine (1339-1384), was
the second son of John II., king of France, and was born at
Vincennes on the 23rd of July 1339. Having been given the
duchy of Anjou in 1356 he led a wing of the French army at the
battle of Poitiers and was sent to England as a hostage after the
conclusion of the treaty of Bretigny in 1360, but he broke his
parole in 1363 and so brought about King John's return into
captivity. He took part in the war against England which was
renewed in 1369, uniting the rival houses of Foix and Armagnac
in the common cause, and in other ways rendering good service
to his brother, King Charles V. Anjou's entrance into the
troubled politics of Italy was one result of the papal schism
which opened in 1378. Anxious to secure the support of France,
the antipope Clement VII. persuaded the queen of Naples,
Joanna I., to name Louis as her heir, and about the same time
the death of Charles V. (September 1380) placed the duke in
the position of regent of France. Neglecting France to prosecute
his ambitions in Italy, he collected money and marched on
Naples; but although helped by Amadeus VI., count of Savoy,
he was unable to drive his rival, Charles, duke of Durazzo, from
Naples. His army was destroyed by disease and Louis himself
died at Biseglia, near Bari, on the zoth of September 1384,
leaving two sons, his successor, Louis II., and Charles, duke of
Calabria.
Louis II., duke of Anjou (1377-1417), born at Toulon on the
7th of October 1377, took up the struggle for Naples after his
father's death and was crowned king by Clement VII. in 1389.
After carrying on the contest for some years his enemies prevailed
and he was compelled to take refuge in France, where he took
part in the intestine strife which was desolating that kingdom.
A few years later he made other attempts to secure the kingdom
of Naples, which was now in the possession of Ladislas, a son of
his father's foeman, Charles of Durazzo, and he gained a victory
at Roccoserra in May 1411. Soon, however, he was again driven
back to France, and after sharing anew in the civil wars of his
country he died at Angers on the 29th of April 141.7. His wife
was Yolande, a daughter of John I., king of Aragon, and his
son was his successor, Louis III.
Louis III., duke of Anjou (1403-1434), born on the 2Sth of
September 1403, made in his turn an attempt to conquer Naples.
This was in 1420, and he had met with considerable success in his
task when he died at Cosenza on the isth of November 1434. In
1424 Louis received from King Charles VII. the duchy of Touraine.
Another titular king of Naples of this name was Louis, a son of
Philip, prince of Taranto. In 1346 he became the husband of
Joanna I., queen of Naples, and in 1352 he was crowned king.
After making an attempt to conquer Sicily he died on the 26th
of May 1362.
LOUIS (893-911), surnamed the " Child," king of the Franks,
son of the emperor Arnulf, was born at Ottingen, designated by
Arnulf as his successor in Germany in 897, and crowned on the
4th of February 900. Although he never received the imperial
crown, he is sometimes referred to as the emperor Louis IV. His
chief adviser was Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz; and during his
reign the kingdom was ravaged by Hungarians and torn with
internal strife. He appears to have passed his time in journeys
from place to place, and in 910 was the nominal leader of an
expedition against the Hungarians which was defeated near
Augsburg. Louis, who was the last of the German Carolingians,
died in August or September 911 and was buried at Regensburg.
See Regino von Prum, " Chronicon," in the Monumenta Ger-
maniae historica. Scriptores, Band i. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826);
E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-
1888) ; O. Dietrich, Beitrage zur Geschichte Arnolfs von Karnthen und
Ludwigs des Kindes (Berlin, 1890) ; and E. Miihlbacher, Die Regesten
des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1881).
(A. W. H.*)
LOUIS LOUIS, J. D.
LOUIS OF NASSAU (1538-1574), son of William, count of
Nassau, and Juliana von Stolberg, and younger brother of
William the Silent, took an active part in the revolt of the Nether-
lands against Spanish domination. He was one of the leaders
of the league of nobles who signed the document known as " the
Compromise " in 1566, and a little later was a member of the
deputation who presented the petition of grievances called " the
Request " to the regent, Margaret of Parma. It was on this
occasion that the appellation of " the Beggars " (les Gueux) was
first given to the opponents of King Philip's policy. On the
arrival of Alva at Brussels, Count Louis, with his brother
William, withdrew from the Netherlands and raised a body of
troops in defence of the patriot cause. In the spring of 1568
Louis invaded Friesland, and at Heiligerlee, on the 23rd of May,
completely defeated a Spanish force under Count Aremberg, who
was killed. Alva then advanced to meet the invaders with a
large army, and at Jemmingen (July 21), with very slight loss,
annihilated the levies of Louis, who himself escaped by swimming
from the field across an estuary of the Ems. He now joined the
army of his brother William, which had in October to beat a
hasty retreat before Alva's superior skill. Then Louis, in
company with his brothers William and Henry, made his way
across the French frontier to the camp of the Huguenot leader,
Admiral Coligny. Louis took an active part in the campaign
and fought heroically at Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1572
Louis, not deterred by previous disaster, raised a small force in
France, and, suddenly entering Hainaut, captured Mons (May 23).
Here he was besieged by Don Frederick of Toledo, Alva's natural
son, who blockaded all approach to the town. William made an
attempt to relieve his brother, but failed, and Mons had to
surrender (September 17). Louis, who was sick with fever, with-
drew to his ancestral home, Dillenburg, to recruit his health,
and then once more to devote his energies to the raising of money
and troops for another invasion of the Netherlands. In the hope
of drawing away the Spaniards from the siege of Leiden by a
diversion in the south, Louis, with his brothers John and Henry,
at the head of a force of mixed nationalities and little discipline,
crossed the frontier near Maastricht, and advanced as far as the
Mookerheide near Nijmwegen. Here he was attacked by a body
of Spanish veterans under an experienced leader, Sancho d'Avila,
and speedily routed. In the disorderly flight both Louis and his
younger brother Henry, refusing to abandon the field, lost their
lives. Their bodies were never recovered. Thus perished at the
age of thirty-six one of the most chivalrous and gifted of a gallant
band of brothers, four of whom laid down their lives in their
country's cause.
See P. J. Blok, Lodewijk von Nassau, 1538-1574 (The Hague,
1689), and the Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. chs. vi. and vii.,
and bibliography (1904); also A. J. Van der Aa, Biographisch
woordenboek der Nederlanden (22 vols., Haarlem, 1852-1878).
LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837), French
statesman and financier, was born at Toul (Meurthe) on the
I3th of November 1755. At the outbreak of the Revolution the
abbe Louis (he had early taken orders) had already some reputa-
tion as a financial expert. He was in favour of the constitutional
movement, and on the great festival of federation (July 14, 1790)
he assisted Talleyrand, then bishop of Autun, to celebrate
mass at the altar erected in the Champ de Mars. In 1792,
however, he emigrated to England, where he spent his time
studying English institutions and especially the financial system
of Pitt. Returning to France on the establishment of the
Consulate he served successively in the ministry of war, the
council of state, and in the finance department in Holland and
in Paris. Made a baron of the empire in 1809 he nevertheless
supported the Bourbon restoration and was minister of finance
in 1814-1815. Baron Louis was deputy from 1815 to 1824 and
from 1827 to 1832. He resumed the portfolio of finance in 1815,
which he held also in the Decazes ministry of 1818; he was
the first minister of finance under the government of Louis
Philippe, and held the same portfolio in 1831-1832. In 1832 he
was made a peer of France and he died on the 26th of August
1837-
LOUIS PHILIPPE I.
LOUIS PHILIPPE I., king of the French (1773-1850), was the
eldest son of Louis Philip Joseph, duke of Orleans (known
during the Revolution as Philippe Egalite) and of Louise Marie
Adelaide de Bourbon, daughter of the due de Penthievre, and
was born at the Palais Royal in Paris on the 6th of October 1773.
On his father's side he was descended from the brother of Louis
XIV., on his mother's from the count of Toulouse, "legitimated "
son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan. The legend that
he was a supposititious child, really the son of an Italian police
constable named Chiapponi, is dealt with elsewhere (see MARIA
STELLA, countess of Newborough). The god-parents of the duke
of Valois, as he was entitled till 1785, were Louis XVI. and Queen
Marie Antoinette; his governess was the famous Madame de
Genlis, to whose influence he doubtless owed many of the qualities
which later distinguished him: his wide, if superficial knowledge,
his orderliness, and perhaps his parsimony. Known since 1785
as the due de Chartres, he was sixteen at the outbreak of the
Revolution, into which like his father he threw himself with
ardour. In 1790 he joined the Jacobin Club, in which the
moderate elements still predominated, and was assiduous in
attendance at the debates of the National Assembly. He thus
became a persona grata with the party in power; he was already
a colonel of dragoons, and in 1792 he was given a command in
the army of the North. As a lieutenant-general, at the age
of eighteen, he was present at the cannonade of Valmy (Sept.
20) and played a conspicuous part in the victory of Jemappes
(Nov. 6).
The republic had meanwhile been proclaimed, and the due
de Chartres, who like his father had taken the name of Egalitl,
posed as its zealous adherent. Fortunately for him, he was too
young to be elected deputy to the Convention, and while his
father was voting for the death of Louis XVI. he was serving
under Dumouriez in Holland. He shared in the disastrous day
of Neerwinden (March 1 8, 1 793) ; was an accomplice of Dumouriez
in the plot to march on Paris and overthrow the republic, and
on the 5th of April escaped with him from the enraged soldiers
into the Austrian lines. He was destined not to return to France
for twenty years. He went first, with his sister Madame Adelaide ,
to Switzerland where he obtained a situation for a few months
as professor in the college of Reichenau under an assumed name, 1
mainly in order to escape from the fury of the emigres. The
execution of his father in November 1793 had made him duke
of Orleans, and he now became the centre of the intrigues of the
Orleanist party. In 1795 he was at Hamburg with Dumouriez,
who still hoped to make him king. With characteristic caution
Louis Philippe refused to commit himself by any overt preten-
sions, and announced his intention of going to America; but
in the hope that something might happen in France to his
advantage, he postponed his departure, travelling instead
through the Scandinavian countries as far north as Lapland.
But in 1796, the Directory having offered to release his mother
and his two brothers, who had been kept in prison since the Terror,
on condition that he went to America, he set sail for the United
States, and in October settled in Philadelphia, where in February
1797 he was joined by his brothers the due de Montpensier and
the comte de Beaujolais. Two years were spent by them in
travels in New England, the region of the Great Lakes, and of the
Mississippi; then the news of the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire
decided them to return to Europe. They returned in 1800, only
to find Napoleon Bonaparte's power firmly established. Imme-
diately on his arrival, in February 1800, the duke of Orleans,
at the suggestion of Dumouriez, sought an interview with the
comte d'Artois, through whose instrumentality he was reconciled
with the exiled king Louis XVIII., who bestowed upon his brothers
the order of the Saint Esprit. The duke, however, refused to
join the army of Conde and to fight against France, an attitude
in which he persisted throughout, while maintaining his loyalty
to the king. 2 He settled with his brothers at Twickenham, near
1 As M. Chabaud de la Tour. He was examined as to his fitness
before being appointed. Gruyer, p. 165.
1 This at least was his own claim and the Orleanist view. The
matter became a question of partisan controversy, the legitimists
asserting that he frequently offered to serve against France, but that
London, where he lived till 1807 for the most part in studious
retirement.
On the i8th of May 1807 the due de Montpensier died at
Christchurch in Hampshire, where he had been taken for change
of air, of consumption. The comte de Beaujolais was ill of the
same disease and in 1808 the duke took him to Malta, where he
died on the 29th of May. The duke now, in response to an
invitation from King Ferdinand IV., visited Palermo where,
on the 25th of November 1809 he married Princess Maria
Amelia, the king's daughter. He remained in Sicily until the
news of Napoleon's abdication recalled him to France. He was
cordially received by Louis XVIII.; his military rank was
confirmed, he was named colonel-general of hussars, and such
of the vast Orleans estates as had not been sold were restored
to him by royal ordinance. The object may have been, as
M. Debidour suggests, to compromise him with the revolutionary
parties and to bind him to the throne; but it is more probable
that it was no more than an expression of the good will which
the king had shown him ever since 1800. The immediate effect
was to make him enormously rich, his wealth being increased
by his natural aptitude for business until, after the death of his
mother in 1821, his fortune was reckoned at some 8,000,000.
Meanwhile, in the heated atmosphere of the reaction, his
sympathy with the Liberal opposition brought him again under
suspicion. His attitude in the House of Peers in the autumn
of 1815 cost him a two years' exile to Twickenham; he courted
popularity by having his children educated en bourgeois at the
public schools; and the Palais Royal became the rendezvous
of all the leaders of that middle-class opinion by which he was
ultimately to be raised to the throne.
His opportunity came with the revolution of 1830. During
the three "July days" the duke kept himself discreetly in the
background, retiring first to Neuilly, then to Raincy. Meanwhile,
Thiers issued a proclamation pointing out that a Republic would
embroil France with all Europe, while the duke of Orleans,
who was " a prince devoted to the principles of the Revolution"
and had " carried the tricolour under fire " would be a " citizen
king " such as the country desired. This view was that of the
rump of the chamber still sitting at the Palais Bourbon, and
a deputation headed by Thiers and Laffitte waited upon the
duke to invite him to place himself at the head of affairs. He
returned with them to Paris on the 3Oth, and was elected by the
deputies lieutenant-general of the realm. The next day, wrapped
in a tricolour scarf and preceded by a drummer, he went on foot
to the H6tel de Ville the headquarters of the republican party
where he was publicly embraced by Lafayette as a symbol that
the republicans acknowledged the impossibility of realizing
their own ideals and were prepared to accept a monarchy based
on the popular will. Hitherto, in letters to Charles X., he had
protested the loyalty of his intentions, 3 and the king now nomi-
nated him lieutenant-general and then, abdicating in favour of
his grandson the comte de Chambord appointed him regent.
On the 7th of August, however, the Chamber by a large majority
declared Charles X. deposed, and proclaimed Louis Philippe
"King of the French, by the grace of God and the will of the
people."
The career of Louis Philippe as King of the French is dealt
with elsewhere (see FRANCE: History). Here it must suffice
to note something of his personal attitude towards affairs and
the general effects which this produced. For the trappings
of authority he cared little. To conciliate the revolutionary
his offers were contemptuously refused. A. Debidour in the article
" Louis-Philippe " in La Grande Encydopidie supports the latter
view; but see Gruyer, La Jeunesse, and E. Daudet, Une reconcilia-
tion de famille en 1800," in the Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15,
!95. P- 3i- M. Daudet gives the account of the interview left by
the comte d'Artois, and he also makes it clear that Louis Philippe,
while protesting his loyalty to the head of his house, did not disguise
his opinion that a Restoration would only be possible if the king
accepted the essential changes made by the Revolution.
' To say that these protestations were hypocritical is to assume too
much. Personal ambition doubtless played a part; but he must
have soon realized that the French people had weaned of " legitim-
ism " and that a regency in the circumstances was impossible.
LOUISBURG LOUISE OF PRUSSIA
passion for equality he was content to veil his kingship for a
while under a middle-class disguise. He erased the royal lilies
from the panels of his carriages; and the Palais Royal, like the
White House at Washington, stood open to all and sundry who
cared to come and shake hands with the head of the state. This
pose served to keep the democrats of the capital in a good
temper, and so leave him free to consolidate the somewhat
unstable foundation of his throne and to persuade his European
fellow-sovereigns to acknowledge in him not a revolutionary
but a conservative force. But when once his position at home
and abroad had been established, it became increasingly clear
that he possessed all the Bourbon tenaciousness of personal
power. When a " party of Resistance " came into office with
Casimir-Perier in March 1831, the speech from the throne
proclaimed that " France has desired that the monarchy should
become national, it does not desire that it should be powerless ";
and the migration of the royal family to the Tuileries symbolized
the right of the king not only to reign but to rule. Republican
and Socialist agitation, culminating in a series of dangerous
risings, strengthened the position of the king as defender of
middle-class interest; and since the middle classes constituted
the pays Itgal which alone was represented in Parliament, he
came to regard his position as unassailable, especially after the
suppression of the risings under Blanqui and Barbes in 1839.
Little by little his policy, always supported by a majority in
a house of representatives elected by a corrupt and narrow
franchise, became more reactionary and purely dynastic. His
position in France seeming to be unassailable, he sought to
strengthen it in Europe by family alliances. The fact that his
daughter Louise was the consort of Leopold I., king of the
Belgians, had brought him into intimate and cordial relations
with the English court, which did much to cement the entente
cordiale with Great Britain. Broken in 1840 during the affair
of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) the entente was patched up in 1841 by
the Straits Convention and re-cemented by visits paid by
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to the Chateau d'Eu in 1843
and 1845 and of Louis Philippe to Windsor in 1844, only to be
irretrievably wrecked by the affair of the " Spanish marriages,"
a deliberate attempt to revive the traditional Bourbon policy
of French predominance in Spain. If in this matter Louis
Philippe had seemed to sacrifice the international position of
France to dynastic interests, his attempt to re-establish it by
allying himself with the reactionary monarchies against the
Liberals of Switzerland finally alienated from him the French
Liberal opinion on which his authority was based. When, in
February 1848, Paris rose against him, he found that he was
practically isolated in France.
Charles X., after abdicating, had made a dignified exit from
France, marching to the coast surrounded by the cavalry,
infantry and artillery of his Guard. Louis Philippe was less
happily situated. Escaping with the queen from the Tuileries
by a back entrance, he made his way with her in disguise to
Honfleur, where the royal couple found refuge in a gardener's
cottage. They were ultimately smuggled out of the country
by the British consul at Havre as Mr and Mrs Smith, 1 arriving
at Newhaven " unprovided with anything but the clothes they
wore." They settled at Claremont, placed at their disposal by
Queen Victoria, under the incognito of count and countess of
Neuilly. Here on the 26th of August 1850, Louis Philippe died.
The character of Louis Philippe is admirably traced by Queen
Victoria in a memorandum of May 2, 1855, in which she com-
pares him with Napoleon III. She speaks of his " vast know-
ledge upon all and every subject," and " his great activity of
mind." He was, unlike Napoleon, " thoroughly French in char-
acter, possessing all the liveliness and talkativeness of that
people." But she also speaks of the " tricks and over-reachings "
practised by him, " who in great as well as in small things took a
pleasure in being cleverer and more cunning than others, often
when there was no advantage to be gained by it, and which was,
1 There is a vivid account in Mr Featherstonhaugh to Lord Pal-
merston, Havre, March 3, 1848, in The Letters of Queen Victoria
(pop. ed., ii. 156).
unfortunately, strikingly displayed in the transactions connected
with the Spanish marriages, which led to the king's downfall,
and ruined him in the eyes of all Europe " (Letters, pop. ed.,
iii. 122).
Louis Philippe had eight children. His eldest son, the popular
Ferdinand Philippe, duke of Orleans (b. 1810), who had married
Princess Helena of Mecklenburg, was killed in a carriage accident
on the I3th of July 1842, leaving two sons, the comte de Paris
and the due de Chartres. The other children were Louise,
consort of Leopold I., king of the Belgians; Marie, who married
Prince Alexander of Wurttemberg and died in 1839; Louis
Charles, due de Nemours; Clementine, married to the duke of
Coburg-Kohary; Francois Ferdinand, prince de Joinville;
Henri Eugene, due d'Aumale (q.v.); Antoine Philippe, due de
Montpensier, who married the Infanta, younger sister of Queen
Isabella of Spain.
AUTHORITIES. F. A. Gruyer, La Jeunesse du roi Louis-Philippe,
d'apres les pourtraits et des tableaux (Paris, 1909), edition de luxe,
with beautiful reproductions of portraits, miniatures, &c. ; Marquis
de Flers, Louis-Philippe, vie anecdotique, 1773-1850 (Paris, 1891);
E. Daudet, Hist, de Immigration (3 yols., Paris, 1886^1890). Of
general works on Louis Philippe's reign may be mentioned Louis
Blanc, Hist, de Dix Ans, 1830^-1840 (5 vols., Paris, 1841-1844),
from the republican point of view; J. O. d'Haussonville, Hist, de
la pplitique exterieure de la monarchie de juillet, 1830^184.8 (2 vols.,
Paris, 1850); V. de Nouvion, Hist, de Louis-Philippe (4 vols., Paris,
1857-1861) ; F. Guizot, France under Louis Philippe, 1841-1847 (Eng.
trans., 1865); Karl Hillebrand, Geschichte Frankreichs von der
Thronbesteigung Louis Philippes, 1830-1841 (2 yols., Gotha, 1877-
1879); V. du Bled, Hist, de la monarchie de juillet (2 vols., Paris,
1887); P. Thureau-Dangin, Hist, de la monarchie de juillet (Paris,
1887, &c.); A. Malet, " La France sous la monarchie de juillet," in
Lavisse and Rambaud's Hist. Generale, vol. x. ch. x. (Paris, 1898);
G. Weill, La France sous la monarchie de juillet (Paris, 1902) ; Emile
Bourgeois, " The Orleans Monarchy," ch. xv. of vol. x., and " The
Fall of Constitutionalism in France," ch. ii. of vol. xi. of the Cambridge
Modern History (Cambridge, 1907 and 1909). Further works will
be found in the bibliographies attached by M. Bourgeois to his
chapters (vol. x. p. 844, vol. xi. p. 874; the latter including works
on the revolution of 1848 and the Second Republic). -To the list of
published correspondence and memoirs there mentioned may be
added the Chronique of the duchesse de Dino (Paris, 1909).
Louis Philippe himself published the Journal du due de Chartres,
1700-1791; Man Journal, evenements de 1815 (2 vols., 1849);
Discours, allocutions et reponses de S. M. Louis-Philippe, 1830-
1846 ; and after his death was issued his Correspondence, memoire et
discours inedits (Paris, 1863). (W. A. P.)
LOUISBURG, a town and port of entry of Cape Breton county,
Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Sydney & Louisburg railway,
39 m. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) r$88. Under the French
rtgime, Louisburg was second only to Quebec. A fortress was
erected at enormous expense, and the city was the centre of the
cod-fisheries. The fortress was, however, captured in 1 745 by the
American colonists, under Sir William Pepperrell (1696-1759),
assisted by the British fleet, and again in 1758 by a British land
and sea force under General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) and
Admiral Boscawen. The jealousy of the British settlement of
Halifax led to its almost utter destruction, and only a few case-
mates now remain. Under English rule a fishing village grew up
on the other side of the harbour, and has now become the winter
shipping port of the Dominion Coal Company. The harbour is
deep, spacious and open all the year round, though occasionally
blocked by drift ice in the spring.
LOUISE [AUGUSTE WlLHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810),
queen of Prussia, was born on the loth of March 1776 in Hanover,
where her father, Prince Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was
field-marshal of the household brigade. Her mother was a
princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1793 Louise met at Frankfort
the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards King Frederick William
III., who was so fascinated by her beauty, and by the nobleness
of her character, that he asked her to become his wife. They
were married on the 24th of December of the same year. As
queen of Prussia she commanded universal respect and affection,
and nothing in Prussian history is more pathetic than the dignity
and unflinching courage with which she bore the sufferings
inflicted on her and her family during the war between Prussia
and France. After the battle of Jena she went with t her husband
LOUISE OF SAVOY LOUISIANA
53
to Konigsberg, and when the battles of Eylau and Friedland
had placed Prussia absolutely at the mercy of France, she made
a personal appeal to Napoleon at his headquarters in Tilsit, but
without success. Early in 1808 she accompanied the king from
Memel to Konigsberg, whence, towards the end of the year, she
visited St Petersburg, returning to Berlin on the 23rd of December
1809. During the war Napoleon attempted to destroy the queen's
reputation, but the only effect of his charges in Prussia was to
make her more deeply beloved. On the igth of July 1810 she
died in her husband's arms, while visiting her father in Strelitz.
She was buried in the garden of the palace at Charlottenburg,
where a mausoleum, containing a fine recumbent statue by
Rauch, was built over her grave. In 1840 her husband was
buried by her side. The Louise Foundation (Luisenstift) for the
education of girls was established in her honour, and in 1814
Frederick William III. instituted the Order of Louise (Luisen-
orden). In 1880 a statue of Queen Louise was erected in the
Thiergarten at Berlin.
See F. Adami, Luise, Konigin von Preussen (7th ed., 1875);
E. Engel, Konigin Luise (1876) ; A. Kluckhohn, Luise, Konigin von
Preussen (1876); Mommsen and Treitschke, Konigin Luise (1876);
in English, Hudson, Life and Times of Louisa, Queen of Prussia
(1874); G. Horn, Das Buck von der Koniein Luise (Berlin, 1883);
A. Lonke, Konigin Luise von Preussen (Leipzig, 1903); H. von
Petersdorff, " Konigin Luise," Frauenleben, Bd. i. (Bielefeld, 1903,
and ed., 1904).
LOUISE OF SAVOY (1476-1531), duchess of AngoulSme,
mother of Francis I. of France, was daughter of a cadet of the
house of Savoy, Philip, count of Bresse, afterwards duke of
Savoy. Through her mother, Marguerite de Bourbon, she was
niece of Pierre de Bourbon, sire de Beaujeu, afterwards duke of
Bourbon. At the age of twelve she was married to Charles of
Valois, count of Angouleme, great-grandson of King Charles V.
The count died in 1496, leaving her the mother of two children,
Marguerite (b. 1492) and Francis (b. 1494). The accession of
Louis XII., who was childless, made Francis of Angouleme the
heir-presumptive to the throne of France. Louise brought her
children to the court, and received Amboise as her residence.
She lived henceforth in fear lest Louis should have a son; and
in consequence there was a secret rivalry between her and the
queen, Anne of Brittany. Finally, her son became king on the
ist of January 1515 by the death of Louis XII. From him
Louise received the county of Angouleme, which was erected
into a duchy, the duchy of Anjou, and the counties of Maine
and Beaufort. She was then given the title of "Madame."
From 1515 to her death, she took the chief share in the govern-
ment. The part she played has been variously judged, and is
not yet completely elucidated. It is certain that Louise had a
clear head, practical good sense and tenacity. In the critical
situation after the battle of Pavia (1525) she proved herself
equal to the emergency, maintained order in the kingdom, and
manoeuvred very skilfully to detach Henry VIII. of England
from the imperial alliance. But she appears to have been pas-
sionate, exceedingly rapacious and ever careful of her own
interest. In her malignant disputes with the constable de
Bourbon on the question of his wife's succession, she goaded
him to extreme measures, and her rapacity showed itself also
in her dealings with the surintendant des finances, J. de Beaune,
baron de Samblancay (d. 1527), who diverted the money intended
for the French soldiers in Italy into the coffers of the queen,
and suffered death in consequence. She died in 1531, and
Francis reunited to the crown her domains, which comprised
the Bourbonnais, Beaujolais, Auvergne, la Marche, Angoumois,
Maine and Anjou.
There is extant a Journal of Louise of Savoy, the authenticity of
which seems certain. It consists of brief notes generally very
exact and sometimes ironical which go as far as the year 1522.
The only trustworthy text is that published by Guichenon in his
Histoire gen&alogique de la maison de Savoie (ed.of 1778-1780, vol. iv.).
See Poesies de Francois I" et de Louise de Savoie . . ., ed. by
Champollion-Figeac (1847) ; De Maulde, Louise de Savoie et Francois
I" (1895); G. Jacqueton, La Politique exterieure de Louise de
Savoie . . . (1892); H. Hauser, " Etude critique sur le Journal de
Louise de-Savoie," in the Revue historique, vol. 86 (1904).
LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO, a chain of islands in the Pacific
Ocean, extending south-eastward from the easternmost promon-
tory of New Guinea, and included in the Australian territory of
Papua (British New Guinea). The islands number over eighty,
and are interspersed with reefs. They are rich in tropical forest
products, and gold has been discovered on the chief island,
Tagula or South-east (area 380 sq. m.) and on Misima or St
Aignan. The natives are of Papuan type, and practise can-
nibalism. The islands were probably observed 'by Torres in
1606, but were named by L. A. de Bougainville in 1768 after
Louis XV.
LOUISIANA, one of the Southern States of the United States
of America, lying on the N. coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Begin-
ning on the N., its boundary follows eastward the parallel of 33
N., separating Louisiana from Arkansas; then descends the
Mississippi river, separating it from the state of Mississippi,
southward to 31 ; passes eastward on this parallel to the Pearl
river, still with the state of Mississippi on the E. ; and descends
this river to the Gulf. On the W. the Sabine river, from the
Gulf to 32 N., and, thence to the parallel of 33, a line a little W.
of (and parallel to) the meridian of 94 W., separate Louisiana
from Texas. Including islands in the Gulf, the stretch of
latitude is approximately 4 and of longitude 5. The total area
is 48,506 sq. m., of which 3097 sq. m. are water surface (including
1060 sq. m. of landlocked coastal bays called "lakes"). The
coast line is about 1 500 m.
Physical Features. Geologically Louisiana is a very recent
creation, and belongs to the " Coastal Plain Province." Most of
the rocks or soils composing its surface were formed as submarine
deposits; the easternmost and southernmost parts are true river
deposits. These facts are the key to the state's chorography. The
average elevation of the state above the sea is only about 75 ft.,
and practically the only parts more than 400 ft. high are hills in
Sabine, Claiborne and Vernon parishes. The physiographic features
are few and very simple. The essential elements are five * : diluvial
plains, coast marshes, prairies, " bluffs " and " pine-hills " (to use
the local nomenclature). These were successive stages in the geo-
logic process which has created, and is still actively modifying, the
state. They are all seen, spread from N. to S., west of the Mississippi,
and also, save only the prairies, in the so-called " Florida parishes "
E. of the Mississippi.
These different elements in the region W. of the Mississippi are
arranged from N. to S. in the order of decreasing geologic age and
maturity. Beginning with elevations of about 400 ft. near the
Arkansas line, there is a gentle slope toward the S.E. The northern
part can best be regarded as a low plateau (once marine sediments)
sloping southward, traversed by the large diluvial valleys of the
Mississippi, Red and Ouachita rivers, and recut by smaller tributaries
into smaller plateaus and rather uniform flat-topped hills. The
" bluffs " (remnants of an eroded plain formed of alluvion deposits
over an old, mature and drowned topography) run through the
second tier of parishes W. of the Mississippi above the Red river.
Below this river prairie areas become increasingly common, con-
stituting the entire S.W. corner of the state. They are usually only
20 to 30 ft. above the sea in this district, never above 70, and are
generally treeless except for marginal timber along the sluggish,
meandering streams. One of their peculiar features the sandy
circular " mounds," 2 to 10 ft. high and 20 to 30 or even 50 ft. in
diameter, sometimes surmounted by trees in the midst of a treeless
plain and sometimes arranged in circles and on radii, and decreasing
in size with distance from the centre of the field has been variously
explained. The mounds were probably formed by some gentle
eruptive action like that exhibited in the " mud hills " along the
Mississippi below New Orleans; but no explanation is generally
accepted. The prairies shade off into the coast marshes. This
fringe of wooded swamp and sea marsh is generally 20 to 30, but in
places even 50 and 60 m. in width. Where the marsh is open and
grassy, flooded only at high tides or in rainy seasons, and the ground
firm enough to bear cattle, it is used as range. Considerable tracts
have also been diked and reclaimed for cotton, sugar and especially
for rice culture. The tidal action of the gulf is so slight and the
marshes are so low that perfect drainage cannot be obtained through
tide gates, which must therefore be supplemented by pumping
machinery when rains are heavy or landward winds long prevail.
Slight ridges along the streams and bayous which traverse it, and
occasional patches of slightly elevated prairie, relieve in a measure
the monotonous expanse. It is in and along the borders of this
coast swamp region that most of the rice and much of the sugar cane
1 A sixth, less characteristic, might be included, viz. the " pine
flats," generally wet, which are N. of Lake Pontchartrain, between
the alluvial lands and the pine hills, and, in the S.E. corner of the
state, between the hills and the prairie.
54
LOUISIANA
of the state are grown. Long bar-like " islands " (conspicuous high
land rising above the marsh and prairie) Orange, Petite Anse,
Grand Cote, Cote Blanche and Belle Isle offer very interesting
topographical and geological problems. " Trembling prairies "-
land that trembles under the tread of men or cattle-^-are common
near the coast. Most of the swamp fringe is reclaimable. The
marshes encroach most upon the parishes of St Charles, Orleans and
Plaquemines. In St Charles the cultivable strip of land along the
river is only about 3 m. wide. In Orleans the city of New Orleans
occupies nearly all the high ground and encroaches on the swamps.
In Plaquemines there is practically no cultivable land below Forts
Jackson and St Philip, and above there is only a narrow strip.
The alluvial lands include the river flood plains. The principal
rivers are the Mississippi, which flows nearly 600 m. through and
along the border of the state, the Red river, the Ouachita (or Washita),
Sabine and Pearl; all except the last are navigable at all stages of
the water. There are many " bayous," several of which are of great
importance, both for navigation and for drainage. They may be
characterized as secondary outlets of the rivers or flood distributaries.
Among them are Bayou Teche, Bayou Plaquemine, Atchafalaya
Bayou, 1 Bayou Lafourche and Bayou Boeuf. Almost all secondary
water-courses, particularly if they have sluggish currents, are known
as bayous. Some might well be called lakes, and others rivers. The
alluvial portion of the state, especially below the mouth of the Red
river, is an intricate network of these bayous, which, before their
closure by a levee system, served partially, in time of flood, to carry
off the escaping surplus of river waters. They are comparatively in-
active at all seasons; indeed, the action of the tides and back-waters
and the tangle of vegetation in the sombre swamps and forests
through which they run, often render their currents almost im-
perceptible at ordinary water. Navigable waters are said to pene-
trate all but four of the parishes of the state, their total length
approximating 3800 m.
Each of the larger streams, as well as a large proportion of the
smaller ones, is accompanied by a belt of bottom land, of greater or
less width, lyirrg low as regards the stream, and liable to overflow
at times of high water. These flood plains form collectively what
is known as the alluvial region, which extends in a broad belt down
the Mississippi, from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico,
and up the Ouachita and its branches and the Red river to and
beyond the limits of the state. Its breadth along the Mississippi
within Louisiana ranges from 10 to 50 or 60 m., and that along the
Red river and the Ouachita has an average breadth of 10 m. Through
its great flood-plain the Mississippi river winds upon the summit of
a ridge formed by its own deposits. In each direction the country
falls away in a succession of minor undulations, the summits of the
ridges being occupied by the streams and bayous. Nearly all of
this vast flood-plain lies below the level of high water in the Missis-
sippi, and, but tor the protection afforded by the levees, every con-
siderable rise of its waters would inundate vast areas of fertile and
cultivated land. The low regions of Louisiana, including the alluvial
lands and the coast swamps, comprise about 20,000 sq. m., or nearly
one-half the area of the state. The remainder consists of the uplands
of prairie and forest.
The alluvial region of the state in 1909 was mainly protected
against overflow from the Mississippi river by 754 m. of levee on the
Mississippi river within the state, and 84 m. on the Mississippi river,
Cypress and Amos Bayou in Arkansas, forming part of the general
system which extends through other states, 1000 m. up to the
highlands about the junction of the Ohio river. The state and the
national government co-operate in the construction and maintenance
of this system, but the Federal government did not give material aid
(the only exception being the grant of swamp lands m 1850) until the
exceptionally disastrous flood in 1882. For about a century and a
half before that time, levee building had been undertaken in a more
or less spasmodic and tentative way, first by riparian proprietors,
then by local combinations of public and private interests, and
finally by the state, acting through levee districts, advised by a
Board of Engineers. The Federal government, after its participation
in the work, acted through a Board of Engineers, known as the
" Mississippi River Commission." The system of 754 m. of Missis-
sippi river levees, within the state, was built almost entirely after
1866, and represents an expenditure of about $43,000,000 for
primary construction alone; of this sum,, the national government
contributed probably a third (the state expended about $24,000,000
on levees before the Civil War). Some of the levees, especially those
in swampy regions where outlet bayous are closed, are of extra-
ordinary solidity and dimensions, being 20 to 40 ft. high, or even
more, across streams or bayous formerly outlets with bases of
8 or 10 ft. to one of height. The task of maintenance consists almost
entirely in closing the gaps which occur when the banks on which
the levees are built cave into the river. Levee systems on some of
the interior or tributary rivers, aggregating some 602 m., are ex-
clusively built and maintained by the state. Louisiana also contri-
butes largely to the 84 m. of levee in Arkansas, necessary to its
security from overflow. The improvement of bayous, channels, the
'The original channel of the Red river. It has been so useful in
relieving the Mississippi of floods, that the Red river may possibly
be permanently diverted again into the bayou artificially.
construction of canals and the drainage of swamp lands also contri-
bute to the protection of the state.
The lakes are mainly in three classes. First come the coast
lagoons, many of which are merely land-locked salt-water bays,
the waters of which rise and fall with the tides. Of this class are
Pontchartrain, Borgne, Maurepas and Sabine. These are simply
parts of the sea which have escaped the filling-in process carried on
by the great river and the lesser streams. A second class, called
"ox-bow" lakes, large in numbers but small in area, includes
ordinary cut-off meanders along the Mississippi and Red rivers. A
third class, those upon the Red river and its branches, are caused
mainly by the partial stoppage of the water above Shreveport by
the "raft," a mass of drift such as frequently gathers in western
rivers, which for a distance of 45 m. almost completely closed the
channel until it was broken up by government engineers. These
lakes are much larger at flood season than at other times, and have
been much reduced in size by the cutting of a channel through the
raft. Lakes of this class are sometimes formed by the choking of
the mouth of feeble tributaries by silt deposited by the Red river
where the currents meet.
Mineral Resources. Mineral resources are few, but important.
In the Tertiary region are found small quantities of iron ore and an
indifferent brown coal. The important mineral products are salt,
sulphur, petroleum and natural gas. The deposit of rock salt on
Petite Anse Island, in the coast swamp region, has been extensively
worked since its discovery during the Civil War. The deposit is in
places loco ft. thick, and yields salt of extraordinary purity (some-
times 99 % pure). There are large deposits also on Orange Island
(in places at least 1800 ft. thick), on Week's Island, on Belle Isle
and probably beneath the intervening marshes. In 1907 Louisiana
ranked sixth among the salt-producing states of the country (after
New York, Michigan, Ohio, Kansas and California), its output being
valued at $226,892, only a few hundred dollars more than that of
Texas. Near Lake Charles, at Sulphur, are very extraordinary
sulphur deposits. The beds lie several (for the most part four to six)
hundred feet underground and are of disputed origin. Many regard
them as products of an extinct volcano; according to others they
are of vegetable origin (they are found in conjunction with gypsum).
They were discovered before 1870 by searchers after petroleum,
but their exploitation remained in the experimental stage until about
1900. The sulphur is dissolved by superheated water forced down
pipes, and the water with sulphur in solution is forced upward by
not air pressure through other pipes; the sulphur comes, 99 % pure,
to the surface of the ground, where it is cooled in immense bins,
and then broken up and loaded directly upon cars for shipment.
These mines divide with the Sicilian mines the control of the sulphur
market of the world. The value of the sulphur taken from the mines
of Louisiana in 1907 was a little more than $5,000,000. Evidences
of petroleum were discovered long ago, in the very field where in
recent years the Beaumont and Vinton wells were bored. In 1909
Jennings was the chief field in Louisiana, lesser fields being at
Welsh, Anse la Butte, Caddo and Vinton. The Jennings field, one
of the greatest in the United States, produced up to and including
1907 more than 26,000,000 barrels of high-grade oil, twelve-thir-
teenths of which came from an area of only 50 acres, one well pro-
ducing a tenth of the entire output. In 1907 the state produced
5,000,221 barrels of petroleum, valued at $4,063,033. Natural gas
is found in Caddo parish, about 20 m. N. of Shreveport. The
depth of the wells is from 840 to 2150 ft.; two wells completed in
1907 had a daily capacity estimated at 35,000,000 to 50,000,000 ft.
Shreveport, Oil City, Blanchard, Mooringsport, Bossier City and
Texarkana are supplied with natural gas by pipe lines from this field.
Kaolin is found in the state; in 1907 the total value of all clay
products was $928,579.
Climate. The climate is semi-tropical and exceptionally equable
over large areas. In the S. and S.E. the equable temperature is
largely the effect of the network of bays, bayous and lakes, and
throughout the state the climate is materially influenced by the pre-
vailing southerly winds from the Gulf of Mexico. Some daily varia-
tion in the temperature of adjoining localities is caused by a dark
soil in the one and a light soil in the other, but the differences of mean
annual temperature are almost wholly due to differences of latitude
and elevation. The mean annual temperature for a period of nineteen
years (Jan. 1888 to Dec. 1906) ranged from 70 F. at Port Eads, in
the extreme S.E., to 65 F. at Lake Providence, in the N.E. The
mean temperature of July, the hottest month, is comparatively
uniform over the state, varying only from 81 to 83; the mean for
January, the coldest month, varies from 46 in the extreme north
to 56 in the extreme south. Even in the coldest localities eight or
nine months are wholly free from frost, and in the coast parishes
frost occurs only a few days in each year. Rainfall is usually heavy
in the S.E., but it decreases toward the N.W. As much as 85-6 in.
have fallen within a year at New Orleans, but in this locality the
average for a year is about 57-6 in.; at Shreveport the average is
46 in., and for the entire state it is 55 in. Much more rain falls in
summer than in any other season, but in some parts the heaviest
rainfall is in the spring and in others in the winter. A light fall of
snow is not uncommon in the northern parishes, but in the southern
part of the state snow falls not oftener than once in three to five
years. Hailstorms are infrequent everywhere, but especially so
Longitude West 92 of Greenwich
Lower course of the
Mississippi
Scale, 1:1,140,000
English Mile*
5 "> 20
tchartrain
GULF
MEXICO
* - ,^3 Pi. Chico
^Breton
Pt. La Forttino
LOU [SIANA
Scale. 1:1,700,000
Parish Seats
Parish Boundaries
Railways
Canals ...
Emery W*Utff sc.
LOUISIANA
55
in the south. Only a fourth to a half of the days of the different
months are wholly or partly clear even in the north, and in the same
district the monthly means of relative humidity vary from 65 to 70.
Fauna. The entire state is included within the Austro-riparian
life zone; the higher portions fall within the Carolinian area and the
lower portions, including the Gulf and the Mississippi embayment
almost to the N.E. corner of the state, constitute a special semi-
tropical region. The native fauna of the state resembles in its
general features that of the other Gulf states. The feral fauna was
once rather varied. Black bears, wolves and deer are^ not yet
extinct, and more rarely a " wild cat " (lynx) or " panther " (puma)
is seen in the swamps. Of smaller mammals, raccoons, squirrels and
opossums are very common. Every bayou contains alligators;
and reptiles of various species, such as turtles, lizards, horned toads,
rattlesnakes and moccasins are abundant. Shrimps, frogs (of great
commercial importance), terrapin, clams and oysters are common.
Only in very recent years have oysters, though plentiful, become of
competitive importance in the national market; they are greatly
favoured by state protective legislation. In 1904 a state oyster
commission was created to supplant the independent control by the
parishes. An important boundary dispute with Mississippi arose
over beds lying near the state line. The state leases the beds at a
low annual rental in tracts (limited for each person, firm or corpora-
tion to loco acres), and draws from them a considerable revenue.
The avifauna is varied and abundant, comprising eagles, vultures
(protected by law), hawks, owls, pelicans, cranes, turkeys, geese,
" partridges (called quail or " Bob White " elsewhere), ducks, &c.,
besides numerous smaller species, many of which are brilliant of
plumage but harsh of voice.
Flora. Heavy rainfall, high temperature and fertile soil combine
to cover the greater part of the state, and particularly the alluvial
regions and the coast swamps, with a most luxuriant subtropical
vegetation, both arborescent and herbaceous. Louisiana is justly
celebrated for the beauty and fragrance of its flowers. The range of
temperature is not sufficient to give the variety of annual wild flowers
of more northern climates; nevertheless flowers cover the bottom
lands and uplands in great profusion. The upland flora is the more
diversified. Flowering annuals are mainly aquatic. Water lilies,
water hyacinths, which are an obstruction in many streams, and
irises in rich variety give colour to the coast wastes and sombre
bayous. Notable among the flora are roses, japonicas, hibiscus
shrubs of various species, poinsettias, tea olives, crepe myrtle,
jasmines, magnolias, camellias, oleanders, chrysanthemums, ger-
aniums and plumbagos. The value and variety of the timber are
very great. Much of the river swamp region is covered with cypress
trees festooned with Spanish moss. The most common species in
the alluvial regions and, to a less degree, in the drier portions of the
swamps and in the stream bottoms of the prairies are various oaks,
black, sweet and tupelo gum, holly, cotton-wood, poplar, magnolia
sweet bay, the tulip tree, catalpa, black walnut, pecans, hickories,
ash, beech and short-leaf pine. On drier and higher soils are the
persimmon, sassafras, red maple, elm, black haw, hawthorn, various
oaks (in all 10 species occur), hickories and splendid forests of long-
leaf and loblolly yellow pine.
Forestry. These forests are the greatest and finest of their kind
remaining in the United States. In 1898 it was estimated by Henry
Gannett (followed by the Federal census of 1900) that the timbered
area covered 28,300 sq. m. Professor C. S. Sargent estimated in
1884 that the stand of short-leaf and long-leaf pines aggregated
respectively 21,625 and 26,558 million feet. The timber product
of 1900 ($17,294,444) was almost ten times that of 1880 ($1,764,640) ;
and in 1905 the product value ($35,192,374) was more than twice
that of 1900. Nevertheless, in 1900 the cypress forests remained
practically untouched, only slight impression had been made upon
the pine areas, and the hard-wood forests, except that they had been
culled of their choicest oak, remained in their primal state (U.S.
census). Between 1900 and 1905 furniture factories and planing
mills became somewhat important. Pond pine occurs only near the
Pearl river. Curly pine is fairly abundant. The eastern pine belt is
composed of the long-leaf pine, interspersed with some loblolly. It
covers an area of about 3900 sq. m. The south-western pine belt
contains the heaviest growth of long-leaf pine timber in the world,
covering an area of about 4200 sq. m., and occasionally interspersed
with short-leaf pine. The short-leaf growth is especially heavy in
the north-western portion of the state, while the long-leaf is found
mainly in large masses N. and S. of the Red river around Alexandria
as a centre. The cypress forests of the alluvial and overflowed
lands in the S. of the state are among the largest and the most
heavily timbered known. The hard-woods are found in the river
bottoms throughout the state.
Agriculture and Soils. Agriculture is the chief industry of the
state. In 1900 26-2% of the land was in farms, and of this
area about two-fifths was improved. The size of the average
farm decreased in the two preceding decades from 171-3 to 95-4
acres. The percentage of farms operated by owners (i.e. owners,
part owners, owners and tenants, and managers) fell from 64-8
to 42-1% from 1880 to 1900, and the percentage operated by
cash tenants increased from 13-8 in 1880 to 24-9 in 1900, and by
share tenants from 21-5 in 1880 to 33-0 in 1900; the percentage
of farms operated by white farmers was 49-8 in 1900. The value
of farm property, $198,536,906 in 1900, increased 79-8% in the
preceding decade. The value of live stock in the latter year
was $28,869,506. The total value of all farm products in 1899
was $72,667,302, of which $59,276,092 was the value of the
distinctive crops cotton, sugar and rice. The state bureau of
agriculture in 1903 estimated that of the total area 14-9 millions
of acres were timber land, 5-7 millions pasture and marsh, and
5-0 millions cultivated farm land.
In the N. there are many sandy districts in the uplands, also
sandy clays; in the " second bottoms " of the streams fertile
sandy loams; abundant tertiary marls in the north-central
region; some gypsum in the cretaceous " islands "; and some
fossiliferous marls with decomposed limestones. The prairies of
south-western Louisiana have much yellow marl underlying them.
Alluvial soil and bluff, the location of which has been indicated,
are of primary agricultural importance. Reclaimed marsh-land
and fresh alluvium (the so-called " front-lands " on rivers and
bayous) are choice soil for Indian corn, sugar-cane, perique
tobacco, semi-tropical fruits and cotton. The bluff lands are
simply old alluvium now well drained and above all floods.
The prairies of the S.W. are devoted almost exclusively to rice.
On the hills yellow-leaf tobacco can be grown. Cereals and
forage plants can be successfully grown everywhere, and varied
and profitable agriculture is possible even on the " pine-barrens "
or uplands of the N.; but more intelligent and more intensive
farming is necessary than that practised by the average " piney-
woods " farmer. The alluvial section of lower Louisiana is
mostly devoted to sugar, and farther northward to Indian corn
and cotton.
Cotton is the principal crop. In 1907 Louisiana ranked eighth in
acreage of cotton (1,622,000 acres) among the states of the United
States, and in 1907-1908 the cotton crop (675,428 bales) was eighth
among the crops of the states. The average yield per acre varies
from about -45 to -75 bale according to the season. In good seasons
and exceptional localities the yield may approach a bale per acre,
as in Assumption parisli, and in the Mississippi valley at the junction
of Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas. For many years there has
been a reaction against the all-cotton farming system. In general,
the small cotton farmer was at the mercy of the commission merchant,
to whom he mortgaged his crops in advance; but this evil has
lessened, and in some districts the system of advancing is either non-
existent or very slightly developed.
In 1907-1908 all the sugar produced from cane grown in the United
States came from Louisiana (335,000 long tons) and Texas (12,000
tons) ; in the same year cane sugar from Hawaii amounted to
420,000 tons, from Porto Rico to 217,000 tons and from the Philip-
pines to 135,000 tons; and the total yield of beet sugar from the
United States was 413,954 tons. Of all the cane grown, an amount
between one-sixth and one-quarter and that the best must be
reserved for seed every other year, and this is a great handicap to
the state in competing with other cane regions and with the sugar
beet. Of the total sugar consumption of the country in 1899-1904
Louisiana produced somewhat more than a fifteenth. Since about
1880 there have been central factories, and their increase has been a
very prominent factor in the development of the industry, as it has
been in Cuba. Though very much of the region S. of the Red river
is fairly well suited to sugar-growing, it is stilltrue that sugar cannot,
over much of this area, be grown to so great advantage as other
crops. Its hold upon the delta region is, however, almost un-
challenged, especially since the rice farmers have found in the prairie
lands that excel the delta for their purposes. Sugar is grown also
in St Landry and the eastern part of Attakapas ^a name formerly
loosely applied to what are now St Mary, Iberia, Vermilion, St
Martin and Lafayette parishes. Though introduced with success
from Santo Domingo about the middle of the '8th century, the sugar
industry practically dates from 1796, when Etienne Bore first suc-
ceeded in crystallizing and clarifying the syrup. Steam motive
power was first introduced on the plantations in 1822. The average
product of the ten seasons i894-iox>4 was 299,745 tons. A state
sugar experiment station is maintained at Audubon Park in New
Orleans, its work embracing the development of seedlings, the
improvement of cane varieties, the study of fungus diseases of the
cane, the improvement of mill methods and the reconciliation of
such methods (for example, the use of sulphur as a bleaching and
clarifying agent) with the requirements of " pure food " laws.
Good work has also been done by the Audubon sugar school of the
state university, founded " for the highest scientific training in the
growing of sugar cane and in the technology of sugar manufacture."
LOUISIANA
Tobacco might be grown profitably over a large part of the state,
but in reality very little is grown. The strong, black perique of the
delta cultivated very generally in the lower alluvial region before
the Civil War, but now almost exclusively in St James parish is a
famous leaf, grown since early colonial times. Bright or yellow
plug and smoking leaf are grown on the pine uplands and pine
flats," and a small amount of cigar tobacco on the flats, prairies
and " bluffs." The total value of the tobacco crop of 35,000 ft in
1907 was only $10,000, an amount exceeded by each of the other
24 tobacco-growing states, and the crop was about one-twentieth
of i % of the product of the whole United States.
Rice farming, which had its beginning immediately after the Civil
War and first became prominent in the 'seventies, has developed
enormously since 1880. From 1879 to 1899 the product increased
twenty-five fold. Formerly the grain was raised by preference in
the river bottoms, which still yield, almost invariably, the earliest
rice of the season and perhaps the finest. The " buckshot clays " of
the backlands, which are so stiff that they can scarcely be ploughed
until flooded and softened, and are remarkably retentive of moisture,
are ideal rice soil ; but none of the alluvial lands has an underlying
hardpan, and they cannot as a rule be drained sufficiently to make
the use of heavy harvesting machinery possible. In 1880 the prairies
of the S.W. were opened to settlement by the railway. These prairies
are traversed by ridges, which facilitate irrigation, and are underlaid
by an impervious subsoil, which facilitates both effective storage
and drainage. Thus the use of machinery became possible, and this
revolutionized the entire industry. The year 1884 may be taken as
the initial date of the new period, and the grain is now harvested
exactly as is wheat in the west-central states. Previously the grain
had ordinarily been cut with sickles and harvested by hand. The
farms were also small, usually from 5 to 10 acres. They are now
very much larger. All the prairies district the centre of which is
Crowley is becoming one great rice field. Some rice also is grown
on the lowlands of the Mississippi valley, notably in Plaquemines,
Jefferson and Lafourche parishes. In the decade 1881-1890 Louis-
iana produced about half of the total yield of the country, and from
1891 to 1900 about five-sevenths. In 1904 and 1906 the Louisiana
crop, about one-half of the total yield of the country, was larger
than that of any other state; but in 1905 and in 1907 (6,192,955 Ib
and 7,378,000 Ib respectively) the Louisiana crop was second in size
to that of Texas. Carolina and Honduras rices were practically
the only varieties until after 1896. Since that time select Japanese
species, chosen for superior milling qualities, have been widely intro-
duced, as the market prejudice in favour of head rice made the large
percentage of broken rice a heavy handicap to the farmers. Hun-
dreds of varieties have been tested by the state and federal agri-
cultural experiment stations. A strong tendency to run to red rice
(hardier, but not so marketable) has been a second great difficulty to
overcome.
Irrigation is almost entirely confined to rice farms. In the prairie
region there is abundant water at depths of 100 to 400 ft. beneath
the surface, but this was little used for irrigation for the first few
years of the development of this field, when water was pumped from
the streams and canals. In 1902 nearly one-eighth of the acreage
irrigated was by systems supplied from wells. The irrigated rice
area increased 92-9% from 1899 to 1902, and the construction cost
of irrigation works ($4,747,359 in 1902; $12.25 P 61 " irrigated acre)
87-7 % in the same years. This increase was almost wholly in the
prairie parishes. Of the total irrigated area for rice of 387,580 acres
m 1902, 310,670 acres were in the parishes of Calcasieu, Acadia and
Vermilion. In the Mississippi valley water is taken from the river
by flumes in the levees or by siphons. The danger of floods and the
difficulty of drainage make the extension of the practice unprofitable,
and the opening of the prairies has made it unnecessary.
Many of the fruits of warm-temperate and semi-tropical lands,
whether native or exotic, including oranges, olives, figs, grape-fruit,
kumquats and pomegranates are cultivated. Oranges are grown
especially on the coast. There are many fine groves on the Mississippi
below New Orleans. The fig is a common door-yard tree as in other
Gulf and South Atlantic states, and is never killed down by frost.
Louisiana produced in 1899 only a fifth as great a value in sub-
tropic fruits as Arizona and Texas combined. Orchard fruits are
fairly varied, but, compared with other states, unimportant; and
the production of small fruits is comparatively small, the largest
crop being strawberries. Oranges and pears are seriously damaged
by insect and fungus pests. The total value of fruit products in
1899 was $412,933. Among nuts the native pecan is exceptionally
abundant, the product (637,470 ft in 1899) being much greater than
that of any other state save Texas.
The total value of cereal products in 1899 was $14,491,796, in-
cluding Indian corn valued at $10,327,723 and rice valued at
$4,044,489; in 1907 it was more than $27,300,000, including Indian
corn valued at $19,600,000, rice valued at $7,378,000 and oats valued
at $223,000. Indian corn is grown only for home use. Dairying
interests are not largely developed, and in Texas and the adjoining
states the " Texas fever " and " charbon " have done, great damage
to cattle. Forage crops are little grown, though soil conditions are
favourable. Cowpeas are a common fertilizer. Garden trucking
is very slightly developed, but has been successful where it has
been tried. The state maintains a crop pest commission, the
duties of which include the inspection of all nursery stock sold in
the state.
Manufactures. The state's manufacturing interests have
during the last few decades grown greatly in importance. From
1890 to 1900 the capital invested, the cost of materials used and
the value of output (in 1900 , $121,181,683) increased respectively
225-4, 147-3 an< l I0 9 6%. The value of the factory products
in 1900 was $111,397,919; in 1905 it was $186,379,592. Slightly
above one-half of the product of 1900 was from New Orleans,
and in 1905 about 45-4%. A constitutional amendment of 1902
exempted from parochial and municipal taxes between 1900 and
1 910 practically all factories and mines in the state, employing at
least five hands. Manufacturing industries are for the most
part closely related to the products of the soil, about two-thirds of
the value of all manufactures in 1900 and in 1905 being repre-
sented by sugar and molasses refining, lumber and timber
products, cotton-seed oil and cake, and rice cleaned and polished.
Rice is milled at New Orleans, Crowley, Abbeville, Gayden,
Jennings and Lake Charles. Ramie fibre and jute are available for
coarse cloth; cotton weaving is almost non-existent. The lumber
industry is centred chiefly in Calcasieu parish. Lake Charles, West-
lake, Bogalusa, Bon Ami, Carson, Fisher, Fullerton, Leesville,
Oakdale and Pickering were the leading sawmill towns of the state
in 1908. Of the rarer woods particular mention may be made of
curly pine, yielding a wood of beautiful figure and polish ; magnolia,
hard, close-grained, of fine polish and of great lasting qualities; and
cypress, light, strong, easily worked and never-rotting. The
timber cut of 1000 was officially stated as 1,214,387 M. ft. B.M.,of
which two-thirds were of yellow pine and most of the remainder of
cypress. In some localities, especially in the " Florida parishes,"
small quantities of rosin and turpentine are taken from the long-leaf
pine, but this industry was unimportant in Louisiana before 1908.
Sawdust, slabs, stumps and large quantities of logs are wasted.
Other manufactures with a product value in 1905 of between
$4,000,000 and $1,000,000 were: bags (not paper); foundry and
machine-shop products; planing-mill products; railway cars,
construction and repairs; malt liquors; men's clothing; cooperage;
food preparations; roasted and ground coffee and spice; fertilizers;
cigars and cigarettes; cotton goods; and manufactured ice.
Communications. The length of railway in the state was 1 740 m. in
1890 and 4943-55 m. at the end of 1908. By the state constitution
of 1898 and by amendments of 1902 and 1904 tax exemptions for ten
years were granted to newly-built railroads completed before 1909.
The principal roads are the Missouri Pacific (St Louis, Iron Mountain
& Southern, New Orleans & North-western and St Louis, Watkins &
Gulf), the Southern Pacific (Morgan's Louisiana & Texas Railroad &
Steamship Co. and the Louisiana Western), the Texas & Pacific, the
Kansas City Southern, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, the
Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co., the Yazoo & Mississippi
Valley, the Illinois Central, and the Louisiana & Arkansas. The
Illinois Central, the first railway giving Louisiana connexion with
the north, and of immense importance in the trade of New Orleans,
has only about 100 m. of double track in the state. The problem of
inland waterways has always been a most important one in northern,
eastern and southern Louisiana, where there are systems of improved
bayous, lakes and canals which, with the levees, make this region
something like Holland, on a greater scale. Many bayous are con-
vertible by improvement into excellent drainage and irrigation canals.
The canal system is especially well developed in the parishes of the
Mississippi delta, where, at the close of 1907, there were about 50 m.
of these waterways of decided commercial importance. They serve
the trade of Lake Pontchartrain and the Florida parishes, the
lumber, coal, fish, oyster and truck trade of New Orleans, and to
some extent are the highway of a miscellaneous coasting trade.
The most important canal is probably the new Atchafalaya Bay
canal (14 ft. deep), opened in 1907, connecting the Atchafalaya river
and Morgan City with the Gulf of Mexico. In 1907 active prelimin-
ary work was begun on the Louisiana section of a great interstate
inland waterway projected by the national government between the
Mississippi and Rio Grande rivers, almost parallel to the Gulf Coast
and running through the rice and truck-farm districts from the
Teche to the Mermenton river (92 m.). The competition of the
water lines is felt by all the railways, and the importance of water
transportation is rapidly increasing. A state railroad commission,
organized in 1899, has power to regulate railway, steamer, sleeping-
car, express, telephone and telegraph rates within the state. Foreign
commerce is almost wholly centred at New Orleans.
Population. The population of the state increased in the
ten decades from 1810 to 1910 successively by 100-4, 4'6>
63-4, 46-9, 36-7, 2-7, 29-3, 19-0, 23-S and 19-9%. In 1910 it
was 1,656,388 (36-5 per sq. m.). 1 In 1900 47-1% was of negro
The population was 76,556 in 1810; I5347 in 182; 215,739
in 1830; 352,411 in 1840; 517,762 in 1850; 708,002 in 1860; 726,915
in 1870; 939,946 in 1880; 1,118,588 in 1890; and 1,381,825 in 1900.
LOUISIANA
57
blood, as compared with 51-5 in 1890. In 1910 there were nine
cities with more than 5000 inhabitants each: New Orleans (339,
075); Shreveport (28,015); Baton Rouge (14,897), the capital;
Lake Charles (11,449); Alexandria (11,213); Monroe (10,209);
New Iberia (7449); Morgan (547?); Crowley (5099). The urban
element is larger than in any other southern state, owing to the
large population of New Orleans. The Acadians (see I History
below) to-day are settled mainly in St Mary, Acadia and Ver-
milion parishes; lesser numbers are in Avoyelles and St Landry;
and some are scattered in various other parishes. The parishes
of St Mary, Iberia, Vermilion, St Martin and Lafayette are known
as the Attakapas country from an Indian name. A colony of
Germans sent over by John Law to the Arkansas removed to the
Mississippi above New Orleans, and gave to its bank the name of
the "German Coast," by which it is still known. In recent years
there has been an immigration of Italians into Louisiana, which
seems likely to prove of great social and economic importance.
The industrial activity of the state has required more labour than
has been available. The negroes have moved more and more from
the country to the towns, where they easily secure work at good
wages. Owing to the inadequate supply of labour two important
immigration leagues of business men were formed in 1004 and 1005,
and in 1907 the state government began officially to attempt
to secure desirable foreign immigration, sending agents abroad
to foster it. Roman Catholics greatly predominate among
religious denominations, having in 1906 477,774 members out
of a total of 778,901 for all denominations; in the same year
there were 185,554 Baptists, 79,464 Methodists, 9070 Protestant
Episcopalians and 8350 Presbyterians.
Administration. Since the admission of the state to the Union
in 1812 there have been eight state constitutions (not counting
that of 1 86 1 ) admirably illustrating and not less the Territorial
government preceding them the development of American
democracy and the problems connected with the negroes.
Under the Territorial government the legislative officers were not
at first elective. The "parishes" date from 1807; they were
based on an earlier Spanish division for religious purposes
whence the names of saints in parish nomenclature. The con-
stitution of 1812 allowed the General Assembly to name the
governor from the two candidates receiving the highest number
of votes; gave the governor large powers of appointment,
even of local functionaries; and required a property qualifica-
tion for various offices, and even for voters. The constitution of
1845 made the popular suffrage final in the choice of the governor,
abolished property qualifications, and began to pare executive
powers for the benefit of the General Assembly or the people.
From it dates also the constitutional recognition of the public
schools. In 1852 even the judges of the supreme court were
placed among the officers chosen by popular vote. The con-
stitutions of 1864 and 1868 were of importance primarily as
bearing on negro status and national politics. That of 1879
showed a profound distrust of legislative action, bred of recon-
struction experiences. Nearly all special legislation was for-
bidden. The last constitution (1898, with 26 amendments 1898-
1906), unlike all others after that of 1812, was not submitted to
the people for ratification.
Under this constitution sessions of the General Assembly are bi-
ennial (meeting the second Monday in May in even-numbered years)
and are limited to sixty days. The number of senators is fixed by
the constitution at 39; the number of representatives is to be
not more than 1 16 or less than 98. Any elector is eligible for election
as a representative if he has been a citizen of the state for five years
and a resident of the district or parish from which he is elected for
two years immediately preceding the_ election; a change of residence
from the district or parish from which he was elected vacates the
seat of a representative or senator. A senator must be at least 25
years of age. Members of the legislature are elected for four years.
Revenue or appropriation bills originate in the House of Repre-
sentatives, but may be amended by the Senate. Contingent appro-
priations are forbidden, and the constitution contains a long list
of subjects on which special laws may not be passed. The chief
executive officers have four-year terms, neither the governor nor the
treasurer being eligible for immediate re-election. The governor
must be at least 30 years old and must have been a citizen of the
United States and a resident of the state for 10 years next preceding
his election. Within five days after the passage of any bill by the
General Assembly he may veto this measure, which then becomes a
law only if passed by a two-thirds vote of all members elected to
each house of the General Assembly. The lieutenant governor (and
then the secretary of state) succeeds to the office of governor if the
governor is removed, dies or leaves the state. The five judges of
the supreme court of the state are elected by the people for
a term of twelve years. The supreme court is almost with-
out exception a court of appeal with jurisdiction in cases involving
at least $2000, in cases of divorce, in suits regarding adoption,
legitimacy and custody of children and as regards the legality and
constitutionality of taxes, fines, &c. The supreme court appoints
courts of appeal to judge cases involving less than $2000. The
constitution prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets.
The suffrage clauses are of particular interest, as they accomplish
the practical disfranchisement of the negroes. The constitution
requires that a voter must (in addition to other qualifications) either
be able to show conclusively ability to read and write, or be the
owner of property within the state assessed at not less than $300,
on which, if personalty, all taxes are paid. But it excepts from
these requirements thus letting down the bars for illiterate whites
excluded with negroes by the foregoing clauses persons who were
entitled to vote in some state on or before the 1st of January 1867
(i.e. before the adoption of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amend-
ments of the United States Constitution) ; also the sons or grandsons
of such voters, not under 21 years of age, on the I2th of May 1898;
and males of foreign birth who have resided in the state for five years
next preceding the date of application for registration and who
were naturalized prior to 1898. The constitution provides that no
person less than 60 years of age shall be permitted to vote unless he
has paid an annual poll-tax of one dollar for the two years next
preceding the year in which he offers to vote. Convicts not pardoned
with an explicit restoration of suffrage privileges are disfranchised a
rare clause in the United States. Suffrage was by this constitution
first extended to women tax-payers in questions ' submitted to the
tax-payers, as such." The creation of a railroad commission was
ordered and the preparation of a code of criminal law.
The Louisiana Board of Levee Commissioners was organized in
1 865. The state board of health was the first one effectively organized
(1855) in the United States. It encountered many difficulties,
and until the definite proof of the stegomyia hypothesis of yellow-
fever inoculation made by the United States army surgeons in Cuba
in iqoo, the greatest problem seemed insoluble. Since that time
conditions of health in New Orleans have been revolutionized (in
1907 state control of maritime quarantine on the Mississippi was
supplanted by that of the national government), and smaller cities
and towns have been stimulated to take action by her example.
Sanitary institutes are held by the state board at various towns each
year for the instruction of the public. Boards of appraisers and
equalization oversee the administration of the tax system; the cost
of collection, owing to the fee system for payment of collectors,
was higher than in any other state of the Union until 1907, when the
fees were greatly reduced. The state assessment in 1901 totalled
$301,215,222 and in 1907 was $508,000,000. Schools and levees
absorb about half of all revenues, leaving half for the payment of
interest on the state debt (bonded debt on 1st of April 1908,
$11,108,300) and for expenses of government. A general primary
election law for the selection, by the voters, of candidates for state
office came into effect in 1906.
Law. Louisiana has been peculiar among the states of the
Union in the history of the development of its legal system.
In Louisiana alone (as the state is known to-day), out of all the
territory acquired from France as the Louisiana Purchase in
1803, was the civil law so established under French and Spanish
rule that it persisted under American dominion. In all the other
states formed from the Purchase, the civil law, never existent
practically, was early expressly abrogated, and the common law
of England established in its place. After O'Reilly established
his power in 1769 (see History, below), the Spanish law was
supreme. All the old codes of the Peninsula, as well as the laws
of the Indies and special royal decrees and schedules, were in
force in the colony. The United States left the task of altering
the laws to the people, as far as there was no conflict between
them and the Constitution of the United States and fundamental
American legal customs. Copies of the Spanish codes were very
rare, and some of them could not be had in the colonies. Dis-
cussions of the Roman Institute and Pandects were common in
the deliberations of the courts. Great confusion prevailed in the
first years of American dominion owing to the diversities of
languages and the grafting of such Anglo-Saxon institutions as
the jury upon the older system. A provisional code of judicial
procedure, prepared by Edward Livingston, was in effect in
1805 to 1825. The earliest digest, completed in 1808, was mainly
a compilation of Spanish laws. The project of the Code Napolton,
LOUISIANA
however the code itself not being available in Louisiana,
though promulgated in France in 1804 was used by the com-
pilers in the arrangement and substance of their work; and the
French traditions of the colony, thus illustrated, were naturally
introduced more and more into the organic commentaries and
developments that grew up around the Code Napoleon. This
evolution was little marked, so similar in large parts were the
systems of France and Spain (although in other parts, due to
the Gothic element in the Spanish, they were very different) a
similarity which explains the facility with which O'Reilly and
his successors introduced the Spanish laws after 1769. The
Louisiana code of 1808 was not, however, exhaustive; and the
courts continued to go back to the old Spanish sources whenever
the digest was inconclusive. Thus so late as 1819, when the
legislature ordered the compilation of such parts of King Alfonso's
Siete Partidas (the most common authority in the colony) as
were considered in force, this compilation filled a considerable
volume. In 1821 the legislature authorized Livingston to prepare
the " Livingston Code " of criminal law and procedure, completed
in 1824 (in French and English) and published in 1833, but never
adopted by the state. In 1825 legislative sanction was given to
the greater part of a civil code prepared by a commission (in-
cluding Livingston) appointed in 1821, and the French element
became steadily more important. In its present form the law
shows plainly the Latin and English elements. English law has
largely moulded, for example, criminal and commercial law and
the law of evidence; the development of the law of corporations,
damages, prohibitions and such extraordinary remedies as the
mandamus has been very similar to that in other states; while
in the fusion of law and equity, and the law of successions,
family relations, &c., the civil law of Spain and France has
been unaffected.
Education. Schooling was very scant before the creation of the
public schools in 1854. Very little was done for education in the
French and Spanish period, although the Spanish governors made
commendable efforts in this regard; the first American Territorial
legislature began the incorporation of feeble " colleges " and
" academies." To some of these the state gave financial aid
($1,613,898) before 1845. The public schools were flourishing at the
outbreak of the Civil War. War and reconstruction threw upon
them the new burden of the black children. The constitution of
1879 was illiberal in this respect, but a healthier public opinion soon
prevailed. The money given by the state to the public schools is
distributed among the parishes according to their school population,
and the constitution of 1898 set a generous minimum to such aid.
An annual poll-tax is also collected For the schools from every adult
male. Local taxes, besides, are imposed, and these are becoming
heavier. The parishes retain primary control of the schools. In-
stitutes, summer schools and rural libraries have been introduced.
The salaries of white teachers advanced from a monthly average of
$38.87 in 1903 to $61.84 in I 9 6 - The average attendance of en-
rolled black and white pupils is practically identical, but the enrol-
ment of whites (about 52 % in 1902) is somewhat higher and that
of the blacks about a third lower than their ratio in the population.
The school term for white children is much longer than for negroes,
and white teachers are paid much better salaries in 1906 the
average monthly salary of a negro teacher was $29.15. The total
enrolment is very low. But progress is now being made very rapidly
in the improvement of the educational system. Higher schools
include: the State University and Agricultural and Mechanical
College (1860) at Baton Rouge (q.v.) ; Tulane University of Louisiana
(1864) in New Orleans; Jefferson College (1864; Roman Catholic)
at Convent; the College of the Immaculate Conception (1847;
Roman Catholic) in New Orleans; St Charles College (1835; Roman
Catholic) at Grand Couteau; St Joseph's . College (1849; Roman
Catholic) at Baton Rouge; the following colleges for women Silli-
man Collegiate Institute (1852; Presbyterian) at Clinton, Mansfield
Female College (1854; Methodist Episcopal, South) at Mansfield,
the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for women (a part of
Tulane University) in New Orleans and the Louisiana Female
College (1856; Baptist) at Keatchie; the State Normal School of
Louisiana (1884) at Natchitoches and the New Orleans Normal and
Training School ; the South-western Louisiana Industrial Institute
at Lafayette; the Louisiana Industrial Institute at Ruston; and,
among schools for negroes, the Peabody State Normal and Industrial
School at Alexandria and New Orleans University (1873; Methodist
Episcopal), Luther College (Evangelical Lutheran), Leland Uni-
versity (1870; Baptist), Straight University (Congregational) and
Southern University (1883; aided by the state), all in New Orleans.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. The State Board of Charities
and Correction, for which the constitution of 1898 first made pro-
vision, and which was organized under an act of 1904, is composed of
six members, appointed by the governor for six years, with the
governor as ex-officio chairman. The members of the board serve
gratuitously, but elect a salaried secretary. The board has no ad-
ministrative or executive power, but makes annual inspections of
all public charitable, correctional or reformatory institutions, all
private institutions which receive aid from, or are used by municipal
or parochial authorities, and all private asylums for the insane;
and reports annually to the governor on the actual condition of the
institutions. Any suggestions as to improvements in institutions
must be approved by the majority of the governing body of that
institution before they may be put into effect. The charitable
institutions include two charity hospitals at New Orleans (1832)
and Shreveport; an Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital, a Hotel
Dieu, the Touro Infirmary and a Home for Incurables, all at New
Orleans; an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb (for whites there is
no state provision for negro deaf and dumb) and an Institute for
the Blind, both at Baton Rouge; an Insane Hospital at Jackson
and another at Pineville; and the Louisiana Retreat for the Insane
at New Orleans. At Monroe there is a State Reform School, and at
New Orleans a Coloured Industrial Home and School. There is
also a state home for disabled Confederate soldiers at New Orleans
on Bayou St John. The State Penitentiary is at Baton Rouge, and
a House of Detention at New Orleans; and there are parish prisons.
State convicts, and all places in which they are confined or employed,
are under the supervision of a Board of Control appointed by the
governor. This board may allow commutation or diminution of
sentence for good behaviour, meritorious services or exemplary
conduct. The leasing or hiring of state convicts is prohibited by
the constitution, but parish convicts may be hired or leased for farm
and factory work, work on roads and levees, and other public under-
takings. Such convicts are classified according to physical ability
and a minimum rate is fixed for their hire, for not more than ten
hours a day. Many state convicts are employed in levee con-
struction, and there are convict farms at Angola, Hope, Oakley and
Monticello.
History. The early history of Louiiiana belongs to the
romance of American history. It is possible that the mouth of
the Mississippi was discovered in 1519 by Alonso Alvarez de
Pineda, but this interpretation of his vague manuscript remains
conjectural; and that it was discovered by the expedition of
Panfilo de Narvaez cannot be established. That Hernando de
Soto entered the borders of the present state of Louisiana, and
that his burial place in the Mississippi was where that river takes
the waters of the Red, are probable enough, but incapable of
conclusive proof. Survivors of de Solo's expedition, however,
descended the Mississippi to its mouth in 1542. Spain set up no
claim to the region, and when Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle,
came down the river in 1682 from the French possessions to the
north, he took possession in the name of France, which hereby
gained her first title to the vast drainage basin of the Mississippi.
In honour of Louis XIV. the new possession was named "Louis-
iana " a name then and until 1812 applied to a much larger
area than that of the present state. La Salle attempted to settle
a colony in 1684, but missed the Mississippi's mouth and landed
in Texas, where he was murdered in 1687 by some of his followers.
In 1697, after Ryswick, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville (1662-1706)
was chosen to lead another colony, which reached the Gulf coast
early in 1699. Soon after Iberville had built Fort Maurepas
(near the present city of Biloxi, Mississippi) in 1699, a fort was
erected on the Mississippi river about 40 m. above the mouth.
This was the earliest settlement in what is now the state of
Louisiana. It was unhealthy and unprosperous. From 1712 to
1717 " Louisiana," or the French possessions of the Mississippi
valley, was held by Antoine Crozat (1655-1738) as a private
grant from the king. It proved as great a drain upon his purse
as it had proved to the crown, and he willingly parted with it to
the so-called " Western Company," afterwards incorporated with
the great Company of the Indies. The head of this company
was John Law, who, after spreading glowing accounts of the new
land, launched his famous " Mississippi scheme " (see LAW,
JOHN. The company accomplished much for the colony of
Louisiana. Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville (1680-
1768), a brother of Iberville, was sent out as governor. For
forty years he was the life of the colony. One of his first acts
was to found the city of New Orleans on its present site in 1718.
In this same year seven vessels were sent from France with stores
and immigrants; eleven followed during the next year. Five
LOUISIANA
59
hundred negroes from the Guinea coast were imported in 1719,
and many hundreds more soon followed. The Law company
eventually came to an end fatal to its creditors in France, but
its misfortunes did not check the prosperity of " Louisiana."
The company retained its grant of the colony until 1731, when it
reverted to the crown. Meantime New Orleans had become the
seat of government in 1722. In 1766 an official census showed a
total population of 5552. The years of royal rule were uneventful.
Cotton culture began in 1740, and sugar-cane was successfully
introduced from Santo Domingo by the Jesuits in 1751. Tafia
rum and a waxy, sticky sugar syrup subsequently became
important products; but not until the end of the century were
the means found to crystallize sugar and so give real prosperity
to the industry.
By a secret treaty of the 3rd of November 1762, " Louisiana "
was transferred from France to Spain. This treaty was not made
public for a year and a half, and Spain did not take fuU possession
of the colony until 1769. By a treaty between Spain and France
on the one hand and Great Britain and Portugal on the other,
signed at Paris in February 1763, all that portion lying E. of the
Mississippi river, the Iberville river, and Lakes Maurepas and
Pontchartrain was ceded to Great Britain. The international
interests thus created, and others that sprang from them, heavily
burdened the diplomacy, and even threatened the safety 'of the
United States after they were placed in possession of the eastern
bank of the Mississippi down to 31 in 1783.
The news of the cession of the colony to Spain roused strong
discontent among the colonists. Antonio de Ulloa (1716-1795),
a distinguished Spanish naval officer and scholar, came to New
Orleans in 1766 to take possession for his king. Merchants,
people, and many civil officers held toward him from the begin-
ning a hostile attitude; the military, especially, refused to pass
into the Spanish service as stipulated in the treaty; and Ulloa
was compelled to continue in an ambiguous and anomalous
position which his lack of military force probably first com-
pelled him to assume ruling the colony through the French
governor, Philippe Aubry (who loyally supported him through-
out), without publicly exhibiting his powers. The fear of
Spanish commercial laws powerfully stimulated resistance to
the transfer, and though Ulloa made commercial and monetary
concessions, they were not sufficient. When the colonists found
protests at Paris unavailing, they turned to the idea of inde-
pendence, but sought in vain the armed support of the British at
Pensacola. Nevertheless they compelled Ulloa to leave the colony
or exhibit his credentials. He took his leave in November 1768.
The open resistance by the colonists (October 1768) was a care-
fully planned revolt. There is no doubt that the men who led
the Creole opposition contemplated independence, and this
gives the incident peculiar interest. In the summer of 1769
Alejandro O'Reilly came to New Orleans with a strong military
force (3600 troops). Beginning his rule with an affability that
allayed suspicions and securing from Aubry proofs against the
popular leaders, he invited them to a reception and arrested
them while they were his guests. Five were put to death and
others were imprisoned at Havana. O'Reilly put down the
rebellion with determination and in accord with the instructions
of his king. Regarded without republican sympathies, and in
the light of 18th-century doctrines of allegiance, his acts, however
severe, in no way deserve the stigma of cruelty ordinarily put
upon them. He was liberal and enlightened in his general rule.
Among the incidents of these troubled years was the arrival
in Louisiana (after 1765) of some hundreds of French exiles from
Acadia, who made their homes in the Attakapas country. There
their descendants live to-day, still somewhat primitively, and
still in somewhat of the glamour thrown over land and people
by the Evangdine of Longfellow.
On the i8th of August 1769 Louisiana was formally transferred
to Spain. Spanish law and Spanish tongue replaced the French
officially, but the colony remained essentially French. The
Spanish rulers made efforts to govern wisely and liberally, show-
ing great complaisance, particularly in heeding the profit of the
colony, even at the expense of Spanish colonial commercial
regulations. The judicial system was much improved, a better
grade of officials became the rule, many French Creoles were
appointed to office, intermarriages of French and Spanish and
even English were encouraged by the highest officials, and in
general a liberal and conciliatory policy was followed, which
made Louisiana under Spanish rule quiet and prosperous. Ber-
nardo de Galvez (1756-1794), a brilliant young officer of twenty-
one, when he became the governor of the colony, was one of the
most liberal of the Spanish rulers and of all the most popular.
During the American War of Independence he gave valuable
aid to the United States; and when Spain finally joined in the
war against Great Britain, Galvez, in a series of energetic and
brilliant campaigns (1779-1781), captured all the important
posts in the British colony of West Florida. The chief interest
of the Spanish period lies in the advance of settlement in the
western territories of the United States, the international in-
trigues British, French and Spanish involving the future of
the valley, the demand of the United States for free navigation
on the Mississippi, and the growing consciousness of the supreme
importance of the river and New Orleans to the Union. With
the Spanish governor Estevan Miro, who succeeded Galvez
in 1785, James Wilkinson of Kentucky, arrested at New Orleans
with a flat-boat of supplies in 1787, intrigued, promising him
that Kentucky would secede from the United States and would
join the Spanish; but Wilkinson was unsuccessful in his efforts
to carry out this plan. In 1794 Spain, hard pressed by Great
Britain and France, turned to the United States, and by the
treaty of 1794 the Mississippi river was recognized by Spain as
the western boundary of the United States, separating it from
Louisiana, and free navigation of the Mississippi was granted
to citizens of the United States, to whom was granted for three
years the right " to deposit their merchandise and effects in the
port of New Orleans, and to export them from thence without
paying any other duty than a fair price for the hire of the stores."
At the expiration of the three years the Spanish governor refused
the use of New Orleans as a place of deposit, and contrary to
the treaty named no other port in its place. Spanish rule,,
however, came unexpectedly to an end by the retrocession of
Louisiana to France in 1800; and French dominion gave way
in turn in 1803 as the result of a chain of events even more
unexpected, startling, and for the United States fortunate
to the rule of the last-named country. On the 3Oth of November
1803 the representatives of the French republic received formal
possession from the Spanish governor, and on the 2oth of Decem-
ber lower Louisiana was transferred to the United States. (See
LOUISIANA PURCHASE.)
By an Act of Congress of the 25th of March 1804,* that portion
of the Louisiana Purchase S. of 33 was organized as the Territory
of Orleans, and was given a government less democratic than
might otherwise have been the case, because it was intended
to prepare gradually for self-government the French and Spanish
inhabitants of the territory, who desired immediate statehood.
The foreign slave-trade was forbidden by this organic act.
English was made the official language. The introduction of
English law, and the changes made in the judicial and legal
systems of Louisiana after 1804 have already been described.
The machinations of Aaron Burr are of interest in connexion
with Louisiana annals, and likewise the settlement and revolu-
tionizing of West Florida by Americans. In November 1811
a convention met at New Orleans and framed a constitution under
which, on the 3oth of April 1812, the Territory of Orleans became
the state of Louisiana. A few days later the portion of West
Florida between the Mississippi and Pearl rivers (the present
" Florida Parishes ") was included in its boundaries, making
them as they are to-day. In this same year the first steamboat
reached New Orleans. It descended the Ohio and Mississippi
from Pittsburg, whence there had already been a thriving river
trade to New Orleans for about thirty years. During the War
of 1812 a decisive victory was won by the American forces at
Chalmette, near New Orleans, on the 8th of January 1815. Up
* Other acts bearing on Territorial government are those of the
3ist of October 1803 and the 23rd of March 1805.
6o
LOUISIANA
to 1860 the development of the state in population, agriculture
and commerce was very rapid. Donaldsonville was the (nominal)
capital in 1825-1831, Baton Rouge in 1849-1864 and again after
1882. At other times New Orleans has been the capital, and
here too have always been various state offices which in other
states ordinarily are in the state capital.
By an ordinance of secession passed on the 26th of January
1 86 1, Louisiana joined the Confederate States. In the first year
there was very little military activity in the state, but in April
1862 Admiral D. G. Farragut, with a powerful fleet, ascended
the Mississippi past Forts Jackson and St Philip, which defended
the approach to New Orleans, and a military force under General
B. F. Butler occupied that city The navigation of the river
being secured by this success and by later operations in the
north ending in July 1863 with the capture of Vicksburg and Port
Hudson, the state was wholly at the mercy of the Union armies.
The intervening months were signalized by the capture of Baton
Rouge in May 1862 the Confederates vainly attempting to
recapture it in August. Later, in April 1864, the Confederates
under General Richard Taylor won a success against the Unionists
under General N. P. Banks at Sabine Cross Roads near Mansfield
and were themselves repulsed at Pleasant Hill, these battles
being incidental to a campaign undertaken by the Union forces
to crush opposition in western Louisiana. A large portion of the
state was occupied by them in 1862-1865. There were various
minor skirmishes in 1862 and 1863 (including the capture of the
Federal camp at Berwick Bay in June 1863).
As early as December 1862 the Union military government,
at President Lincoln's direction, had ordered elections for
Congress, and the men chosen were admitted in February 1863.
In March 1864 also a state government to supersede the military
rule was established under the president's auspices. By 1863
two parties had arisen among the loyal classes: one of radicals,
who demanded the calling of a constitutional convention and
the abolition of slavery; the other of conservatives. The former
prevailed, and by a convention that assembled in April 1864
a constitution was framed closely following that of 1852 but
repudiating the debt incurred by Louisiana as one of the Con-
federate states and abolishing slavery. Two-thirds of the
delegates were from New Orleans. The legislature was ordered
to establish free schools for the blacks, and was empowered to
give them the suffrage: neither of these provisions, however,
was carried out. The extent of the Union control is shown
by the fact that the legislature of 1864 represented half of the
area and two-thirds of the population of the state. The army
stood at the back of the new government, and by the end of
1864 Louisiana was apparently " reconstructed." But in 1864
the opposition of Congress to presidential reconstruction had
clearly developed, so that the electoral votes of Louisiana (like
those of Tennessee) for president were not counted. By the
spring of 1866 the ex-Confederates had succeeded in gaining
possession of most of the local government and most of the
state offices, although not of the governorship. The Republican
party naturally became extremely radical. The radicals wished
to have negro suffrage in order to get possession of the govern-
ment. They, therefore, wanted still another constitutional
convention. A clause in the constitution of 1864 provided for
the reconvening of the convention in certain circumstances,
but this clause referred only to necessities prior to the establish-
ment of a government, and had therefore determined. Neverthe-
less, the radicals, because it was impossible to call a convention
through the medium of the state government, took advantage
of this clause to reconvoke the old convention at New Orleans.
The day set was the 3Oth of July 1866. The ex-Confederate
party determined to prevent the gathering, but the idea of
interference by force seems to have been abandoned. A street
riot was precipitated, however, incidental to a procession of
armed negroes; the metropolitan police fired upon the assembled
convention; and altogether some 200 persons, mostly negroes,
were killed. This incident raised the crucial question of national
politics in 1866: namely, whether the states reconstructed by
the president should not again be reconstructed.
This being settled affirmatively, Louisiana was reconstructed
with vigour. A constitution of 1868 gave suffrage to the blacks,
and disfranchised all whites made ineligible to office under the
proposed Fourteenth Amendment to the national Constitution,
and also (practically) those who had by word, pen or vote
defended secession. Then the state ratified the Fourteenth
Amendment, and was declared readmitted to the Union in July
1868. Probably no other southern state suffered equally with
Louisiana from the corruption of " carpet-bag," " scalawag,"
negro legislatures. For four years (1868-1872) the government
expenses increased to ten times their normal volume, taxation
was enormously increased, and about $57,000,000 of debt was
created. But a quarrel broke out among the Republicans
(1872), the result of which was the installation of two governors
and legislatures, one supported by the Democrats and Liberal
Republicans and the other by the radical Republicans, the former
being certainly elected by the people. The rivalry of these
two state governments, clashes of arms, the recognition by the
Federal authorities of the radical Republican government
(Pinchback and Kellogg, successively governors) followed. One
historic clash in New Orleans (on the I4th of September 1874)
between the " White League " (" White Man's Party") and the
Republican police is commemorated by a monument, and the
day is regarded by Louisianans as a sort of state independence-
day. Finally, in 1876, Francis Tillon Nicholls (b. 1834), a
Democrat, was chosen governor, but the Republican candidate,
S. B. Packard, claimed the election, and with a Republican
legislature for a time occupied the State House. In the national
election of 1876 there were double returns (Republican: 75,315
for Hayes and 70,508 for Tilden; and Democratic: 83,723 for
Tilden and 77,174 for Hayes) from Louisiana, which, as was
the case with the double electoral returns from Florida, Oregon
and South Carolina, were adjudicated by the Electoral Commis-
sion in favour of the Republican electors voting for Hayes.
Civil war being threatened within the state President Hayes
sent to Louisiana a commission composed of Wayne McVeagh,
Gen..J. R. Hawley, Charles B. Lawrence, J. M. Harlan, and
John C. Brown, ex-Governor of Tennessee, which was instructed
to promote " an acknowledgment of one government within
the state." The rival legislatures united, organizing under the
Nicholls government, which the commission found was upheld
by public opinion. The president ordered the withdrawal of
Federal troops from the capitol on the 2oth of April 1877, and
the white party was thus left in control.
After 1877 the state prospered markedly in all material
respects. Of subsequent political events perhaps the most
notable, besides the practical disfranchisement of the negroes,
are those connected with the Louisiana State Lottery Company
(1868-1893). For the renewal of its privileges in 1890 the
company finally agreed to give the state $1,250,000 yearly, and
despite strenuous opposition by a powerful party the legislature
voted a renewal, but this measure was vetoed by the governor.
The United States government, however, forbade lotteries the
use of the mails, and the company withdrew its offers. The
constitution of 1898 prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery
tickets within the state. In 1891 the lynching of eleven Italians
at New Orleans gave rise to grave difficulties involving Italy,
the United States, and the state of Louisiana. Since 1900 a
white Republican Party has made some headway in Louisiana
politics, but in national and state elections the state has been
uninterruptedly and overwhelmingly Democratic since 1877.
GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA '
French Domination 1682-1762.
A. le Moyne, Sieur de Sauyolle (died in office) .
J. B. le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville
M. de Muys, appointed 1707, died en route,
Bienville continuing to serve.
Lamothe Cadillac
Sieur de Bienville, acting governor .
De I'fipinay
Sieur de Bienville . ....
1699-1701
1701-1713
1713-1716
1716-1717
1717-1718
1718-1724
1 Terms of actual service in Louisiana ; Gayarre is the authority
for the French and Spanish period.
LOUISIANA
61
Boisbriant, ad interim 1724-1726
Perier I/26-I733
Sieur de Bienville I733~I743
Marquis de Vaudreuil I743~!753
L. Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec . . . 1753-1763
D'Abbadie 1763-1765
Philippe Aubry 1765-1769
Spanish Domination 1762 (/7<5p)-i#oj.
1766-1768
. 1769-1770
. 1770-1777
. 1777-1785
. 1785-1791
30 Dec. 1791-1797
1797-1799
Antonio de Ulloa 1
Alejandro O'Reilly* ....
Luis de Unzaga
Bernardo de Galvez' ....
Estevan Miro (ad interim 1785-1786)
F. L. Hector, Baron de Carondelet .
M. Gayoso de Lemos (died in office)
Francisco Bouligny, Jos6 M. Vidal, acting mili-
tary and civil-political governors . . 1799
Sebastian de Casa Calvo de la Puerta, Marquis
de Casa Calvo 1799-1801
Juan M. de Salcedo 1801-1803
French Domination 1800-1803.*
Laussat, Colonial Prefect . . 30 Nov.-2O Dec. 1803
American Domination since 1803.
Territorial Period.
William C. C. Claiborne (appointed 1803) . 1804-1812
Statehood Period.
William C. C. Claiborne, Democratic Republican 1812-1816
Jacques Viller6, Democratic Republican . . 1816-1820
Thomas B. Robertson, Democratic Republican
(resigned) 1820-1822
Henry S. Thibodaux, Democratic Republican
(acting) 1822-1824
Henry S. Johnson, Democratic Republican . 1824-1828
Pierre Derbigny, Democratic Republican (died
in office) 1828-1829
Armand Beauvais and Jacques Dupr6 (acting) 1829-1831
Andre B. Roman, Whig 1831-1835
Edward D. White, Whig 1835-1839
Andre B. Roman, Whig 1839-1843
Alfred Mouton, Whig 1843-1846
Isaac Johnson, Democrat 1846-1850
Joseph Walker, Democrat 1850-1853
Paul O. Hubert, Democrat 1853-1856
Robert C. Wickliffe, Democrat .... 1856-1860
Thomas O. Moore, Democrat . . . . 1860-1862
George F. Shepley, Military Governor . . 1862-1864
Henry W. Allen, Confederate .... 1864-1865
Michael Hahn, Unionist and Military . . 1864-1865
James M. Wells, Democrat (acting). . . 1865-1867
Benjamin F. Flanders, Military. . . . 1867
Joshua Baker, Military 1867-1868
Henry C. Warmoth, Republican . . 1868-1873
Pinckney B. S. Pinchback, Republican (acting) 1873
John McEnery,' Democrat-Liberal Republican 1873
William P. Kellogg, Radical Republican . . 1873-1877
Stephen B. Packard, 6 Radical Republican (con-
testant) 1877
Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat . . . . 1877-1880
Louis A. Wiltz, Democrat (died in office) . 1880-1881
Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat (Lieutenant-
Governor, succeeded) 1881-1884
Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat. . . . 1884-1888
Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat . . . . 1888-1892
Murphy J. Foster, Democrat .... 1892-1900
William W. Heard, Democrat .... 1900-1904
Newton C. Blanchard, Democrat . . . 1904-1008
Jared Y. Sanders, 7 Democrat .... 1908
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Compare the bibliography under NEW ORLEANS
and consult also the following. For general description : The Geology
and Agriculture of Louisiana (Baton Rouge, Agric. Exper. Station,
pts. 1-6, 1892-1902); also publications of U.S. Geological Survey,
e.g. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, No. 101, "Underground
Waters of Southern Louisiana." For fauna and flora: publications
of U.S. Biological Survey (Department of Agriculture, Biblio-
graphies). For climate: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Climate
and Crop Service, Louisiana series (monthly). For soil and agri-
1 Did not openly assume power or supersede Aubry.
1 Captain-general charged to establish order and settle Unzaga as
governor.
* At first, till 1779, only acting governor.
4 Actual exercise of power 20 days.
5 Counted out by partisan returning-board and not recognized by
U.S. government.
Not recognized by U.S. government.
7 Elected U.S. Senator 1910; accepted, but afterward withdrew.
culture: the above state geological report and material on irrigation
in publications of the U.S. Geological Survey and in the U.S. Census
publications; also Commissioners of Agriculture of the State of
Louisiana, Annual Report (Baton Rouge, biennial until 1899);
State Agricultural Society, Proceedings (annual); Louisiana State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Bulletin of the
Agricultural Experiment Station and Biennial Report of same (Baton
Rouge); U.S. Department of Agriculture, various publications of
the divisions of botany, agrostology, pomology, forestry, farmers'
bulletins, &c. For manufactures and other industries: primarily the
publications of the national Census, 1900, and preceding decades.
For commerce and communications: Railroad Commissioners of
Louisiana, Annual Report (New Orleans, 1900 ff.); U.S. Interstate
Commerce Commission, Statistics of Railways (annual, Washington) ;
on river navigation and river improvements, especially of the
Mississippi, an enormous mass of material in the Annual Reports of
the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (consult Index to Reports of same,
1866-1900, 3 vols., Washington, 1902, and cp. article on MISSISSIPPI
RIVER) ; on river commerce see U.S. Census of 1880, vol. 4 (report
on steam navigation of the United States by T. C. Purdy), and
Census of 1800 (report on transportation by T. J. Vivian; Rivers
of the Mississippi Valley). For population: various national cen-
suses and Bulletins of the Bureau of Census, 1900, e.g. No. 8, " Negroes
in the United States " ; on the Acadians, In Acadia, The Acadians in
Song and Story (New Orleans, 1893; compiled by M. A. Johnston).
For pictures of Creole life and traits, George W. Cable, The Creoles
of Louisiana (New York, 1884), and his later writings; but Mr
Cable's views of the Creoles are very unpopular in Louisiana; for
other views of them, and for a guide to the English and Creole litera-
ture of Louisiana, consult Alcee Fortier, Louisiana Studies Litera-
ture, Customs and Dialects, History and Education (New Orleans,
1894). For administration: see reports of the various executive
officers of the state (Baton Rouge) ; the various constitutions are
printed in the report of the Secretary of State, as well as in B. Perley
Poore's Constitutions (2 vols., Washington, 1877); a special account
of the government of the territorial period may be found in D. Y.
Thomas, History of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory
of the United States (Columbia University Studies in History, Econo-
mics and Public Law, vol. xx. No. 2, 1904); for the Civil War and
Reconstruction period compare below, also American Historical
Association, Annual Report, 1892; (for courts during Civil War);
also John R. Ficklen, History and Civil Government of Louisiana
(Chicago, New York, c. 1899), a brief and popular account; on
education, in addition to the Biennial Reports of the Board of
Education, consult annual reports of the U.S. Commissioner of
Education.
For history : the standard work is that of Charles E. A. Gayarre,
coming down to the war, based on deep and scholarly research, and
greatly altered in successive editions. The style is that of the classic
school, that of Prescott and Motley, full of colour, characterization
and spirit. The editions are as follows: Romance of the History of
Louisiana (New York, 1837, 1848); Histoire de la Louisiane (2 vols.,
Nouvelle Orleans, 1846-1847); Louisiana: its Colonial History and
Romance (N.Y., 1851); Louisiana: its History as a French Colony,
Third Series of Lectures (N.Y., 1852); then, based upon the preced-
ing, History of Louisiana: The French Domination (2 vols., N.Y..
1854) and The Spanish Domination (N.Y., 1854); The American
Domination (N. Y., 1867); and third edition (4 vols., New Orleans,
1 885). More important for the recent period is Alcee Fortier, AHistory
of Louisiana (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) devoting two volumes to American
domination. The History and General Description of New France
of P. F. X. de Charlevoix (best ed. by J. G. Shea, New York, 1866,
6 vols.) is a famous old work, but now negligible. Judge F. X.
Martin's History of Louisiana (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827-1829,
later ed. by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882)
is also valuable and supplements Gayarr6. Le Page du Pratz,
author of Histoire de la Louisiane (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols.,
London, 1763), was the first historian of Louisiana. Berquin-
Duvallon, Vue de la colonie espagnole du Mississippi (Paris, 1805;
published in English under the name of John Davis, New \ork,
1806); L. N. Baudry de Lozieres, Voyage a la Louisiane (Paris,
1802) and Second Voyage a la Louisiane (Paris, 1803) may be
mentioned among the travels just preceding, and A. Stoddard,
Sketches of Louisiana (New York, 181 1), among those just following
the establishment of American dominion. The Histoire de la
Louisiane, et de la cession de colonie par la France aux Etats-Unis
(Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830) by Barbe-Marbois
has great importance in diplomatic history. The rarest and most
valuable of early memoirs and much archive material are embodied
in Benj. F. French's Historical Collections of Louisiana (5 series, N.Y.,
1846-1853) and Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida,
New Series (N.Y., 1869, 1875). Documentary materials on the
greater " Louisiana " between the Gulf of Mexico and Canada will
be found in the Jesuit Relations, edited by R. G. Thwaites (Cleveland,
1896 ff.); and on early voyages in Pierre Margry, Decouvertes et
etablissements des Francais (6 vols., Paris, 1870-1888). John G.
Shea published an edition of Louis Hennepin's Description of Louisi-
ana. . . . Translated from the Edition of 1683, &c. (New York, 1880).
On this greater "Louisiana" the student should also consult_the
works of Francis Parkman. And see publications of the Louisiana
LOUISIANA LOUISIANA PURCHASE
Historical Society (New Orleans). Of brief general histories there is
that of J. R. Ficklen above cited, another by the same author in
collaboration with Grace King (New Orleans, 1902) and another
(more valuable) by Albert Phelps (Boston, 1905), in the American
Commonwealth Series. For the Reconstruction period see biblio-
graphy under UNITED STATES.
LOUISIANA, a city of Pike county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated
below the mouth of the Salt river, on the western bank of the
Mississippi, about 90 m. N. of St. Louis. Pop. (1900) 5131, in-
cluding 1075 negroes and 161 foreign-born; (1910) 4454; there
is also a considerable suburban population. Louisiana is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago & Alton
railways, and by several lines of river steamboats. The river is
spanned here by a railway bridge. The city is laid out fairly
regularly in the river valley and on bluffs along the river, and
has attractive residential districts, commanding good views.
It has very active and varied industries, and is a trade centre
for a large grain- and fruit-producing and stock-raising region,
and has one of the largest nurseries in the United States.
Louisiana was laid out in 1818, was the county-seat from that
date until 1825, was incorporated as a town in 1845 and was
chartered as a city in 1849.
LOUISIANA PURCHASE, a large portion of the area of the
United States of America, purchased from the French Republic
in 1803. The territory to which France held explorer's title
originally included the entire valley of the Mississippi (see
LOUISIANA) ; but the " Louisiana " which was ceded by her to
Spain in 1762 (England refusing it, preferring the Floridas),
retroceded to France in iSoo, 1 and ceded by Napoleon to the
United States in violation of his pledge to Spain that he would
not alienate the province embraced only the portion W. of
the river and the island of New Orleans on the E. (and, as might
be claimed with some show of argument, West Florida to the
Perdido river).
With the settlement of the trans- Alleghany region, the freedom
of the Mississippi had become of vital importance to the western
settlements, and Spain had recognized these interests in her
treaty with the United States of 1795, by guaranteeing freedom
of navigation and the privilege of deposit at New Orleans.
The transfer of Louisiana from a weak neighbour to so powerful
and ambitious a state as France was naturally unwelcome to the
United States, and Robert R. Livingston, the American minister
in Paris, was instructed by Secretary-of-State Madison to
endeavour to prevent the consummation of the retrocession;
or, should that be irrevocable, to endeavour to buy the Floridas
(either from France, if they had passed with Louisiana, or through
her goodwill from Spain) or at least West Florida and if
possible New Orleans, so as to give the United States a secure
position on the Mississippi, and insure the safety of her commerce.
The United States was also trying to collect claims of her
merchants for spoliations by French cruisers during the late
war between France and Great Britain. In his preliminary
propositions Livingston lightly suggested to Talleyrand a cession
of Louisiana to satisfy these claims; following it with the
more serious demand that France should pledge observance of
the Spanish concession to the Mississippi trade. This pledge
Napoleon readily gave. But during these negotiations a sus-
pension by the Spanish governor of the right of deposit aroused
extreme apprehension in America and resulted in warlike votes
in Congress. Of these, and of London reports of a British
expedition against New Orleans preparing in anticipation of the
imminent rupture of the peace of Amiens, Livingston made
most capable use; and pressed for a cession of West Florida,
New Orleans and Louisiana north of the Arkansas river. But
without New Orleans Louisiana was of little present worth, and
Napoleon the collapse of whose American colonial schemes
seemed involved in his failure in Santo Domingo, who was
persuaded he could not hold Louisiana against Great Britain,
and who was already turning from projects of colonial empire
1 By the treaty of San Ildefonso, signed the 1st of October 1800.
This was never ratified by Charles IV. of Spain, but the treaty of
Madrid of the aist of March 1801, which confirmed it, was signed
by him on the isth of October 1802.
toward his later continental policy suddenly offered to Living-
ston the whole of the province. Livingston disclaimed wanting
the part below the Arkansas. In even mentioning Louisiana he
had gone outside his instructions. At this stage James Monroe
became associated with him in the negotiations. They were
quickly closed, Barbe Marbois acting for Napoleon, and by
three conventions signed on the 3<Dth of April 1803 the American
ministers, without instructions, boldly accepted for their country
a territory approximately 1,000,000 sq. m. in area about five
times the area of continental France. For this imperial domain,
perhaps the richest agricultural region of the world, the United
States paid 60,000,000 francs ($11,250,000) outright, and
assumed the claims of her citizens against France to the extent
of 20,000,000 francs ($3,750,000) additional; the interest
payments incidental to the final settlement raising the total
eventually to $27,267,622, or about four cents an acre.
Different writers have emphasized differently the various
factors in this extraordinary diplomatic episode. Unquestion-
ably the western people were ready to war for the navigation
of the Mississippi; but, that being guaranteed, it seems certain
that France might peaceably have taken and held the western
shore. The acquisition was not a triumph of American diplomacy,
but a piece of marvellous diplomatic good fortune; for the
records abundantly prove, as Madison said, that the cause of
success was a sudden policy of Napoleon, forced by European con-
tingencies. Livingston alone of the public men concerned showed
indubitably before the event a conception of the feasibility
and desirability of the acquisition of a vast territory beyond
the Mississippi. Jefferson had wished to buy the Floridas,
but alarmed by the magnitude of the cession, declared his
belief that the United States had no power to acquire Louisiana.
Though such strict construction of the constitution was a
cardinal dogma of the Democratic party, this dogma was
abandoned outright in practice, Jefferson finding " but one
opinion as to the necessity of shutting up the constitution "
(or amending it, which was not done) and seeking justification
of the means in the end. The Federalist party, heretofore
broad-constructionists, became strict-constructionists under
the temptation of factious politics, and a very notable political
struggle was thus precipitated notable among other things for
strong expressions of sectionalism. The net result was the
establishment of the doctrine of " implied powers " in interpret-
ing the constitution; a doctrine under which the Supreme
Court presently found power to acquire territory implied in the
powers to wage war and make peace, negotiate treaties, and
" dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting
the territory or other property belonging to the United States."
The exact limits of the acquisition were not definitely drawn.
The French archives show that Napoleon regarded the Rio
Grande as the W. boundary of the territory of which he was
to take possession, and the United States up to 1819 ably
maintained the same claim. She also claimed all West Florida
as part of Louisiana which, in the usage of the second half
of the i8th century, it apparently was not. When she acquired
the Floridas in 1810-1821 she abandoned the claim to Texas.
The line then adopted between the American and Spanish
possessions on the W. followed the Sabine river from the Gulf
of Mexico to the parallel of 32 N., ran thence due N. to the
Red river, followed this to the meridian of 100 W. and this
line N. to the Arkansas river, thence along this to its source,
thence N. to the parallel of 42, and along this line to the Pacific.
Such is the accepted description of the W. boundary of the
Louisiana Purchase waiving Texas thus retrospectively deter-
mined, except that that boundary ran with the crest of the Rocky
Mountains N. of its intersection with the parallel of 42. No
portion of the Purchase lay west of the mountains, although for
some years after 1870 the official maps of the United States
government erroneously included Oregon as so acquired an
error finally abandoned by 1900.
On the 2oth of December 1803, at New Orleans, the United
States took possession of the lower part of the province, and
on the gth of March 1804, at St Louis, of the upper. The entire
LOUISVILLE
region then contained possibly 80,000 residents. The treaty of
cession required the incorporation of Louisiana in the Union, and
the admission of its inhabitants, " as soon as possible, according
to the principles of the Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment
of all the rights, advantages and immunities of citizens of the
United States." By act of the 26th of March 1804 the region
below 33 N. was organized as the Territory of Orleans (see
LOUISIANA), and that above as the District of Louisiana. The
region above 33, renamed in 1805 the Territory of Louisiana,
and in 1812 the Territory of Missouri, was divided as time went
on into many Indian reservations, territories and states. Thus
were carved from the great domain of the Purchase Louisiana,
Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, North and South Dakota,
Nebraska and Oklahoma in their entirety, and much the greatest
part of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. There is
justification for the saying of Thiers that the United States
were " indebted for their birth and for their greatness " at least
for an early assurance of greatness " to the long struggle
between France and England." The acquisition of so vast a
territory proved thus of immense influence in the history of the
United States. It made it possible for them to hold a more
independent and more dignified position between France and
England during the Napoleonic wars; it established for ever
in practice the doctrine of implied powers in the interpretation
of the Federal Constitution; it gave the new republic a grand
basis for material greatness; assured its dominance in North
America; afforded the field for a magnificent experiment in
expansion, and new doctrines of colonization; fed the national
land hunger; incidentally moulded the slavery issue; and
precipitated its final solution.
It is generally agreed that after the Revolution and the Civil
War, the Louisiana Purchase is the greatest fact in American
history. In 1904 a world's fair, the Louisiana Purchase Exposi-
tion, was held at St Louis in commemoration of the cession.
After one hundred years the wilderness then acquired had
become the centre of the power and wealth of the Union. It
contained in 1903 15,000,000 inhabitants, and its taxable wealth
alone was four hundred times the fifteen millions given to
Napoleon.
AUTHORITIES. The official literature is in the American State
Papers, Foreign Relations, vol. 2, and Public Lands, vol. 2; diplo-
matic papers reprinted in House Document 431, 5?th Congress, 2nd
Session (1903); to which add the Histoire de la Louisiane et de la
cession (Paris, 1820; Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1830), by Frangois
Barbe-Marbois. This book abounds in supposed " speeches ' of
Napoleon, and " sayings " by Napoleon and Livingston that would
have been highly prophetic in 1803, though no longer so in 1829.
They have been used liberally and indiscnminatingly by the most
prominent American historians. See also T. Donaldson, The Public
Domain, House Miscellaneous Document 45, pt. 4, 47th Congress,
2nd Session. For the boundary discussions by J. Q. Adams and
Don L. de Onis, 1818-1819, American State Papers, Foreign Relations,
vol. 4; also in Onis's Official Correspondence between Don Luis de
Onis . . . and John Quincy Adams, &c. (London, 1818), or Memoria
sobre las negociaciones entre Espana y los Estados Unidos que dieron
motive al tratado de 1819 (Madrid, 1820). See also discussion and
map in U.S. Census, /poo. Bulletin 74; and the letters of Thomas
Jefferson, James Madison, Rufus King and other statesmen of the
time. By far the best general account of the diplomacy is in Henry
Adams's History of the United States, vols. I and 2 ; and of Western
conditions and American sentiment in J. B. McMaster's History of
the United States, vols. 2 and 3. Consult also Justin Winsor, Narra-
tive and Critical History, vol. 7; and various valuable periodical
articles, especially in the American Historical Review, by F. I.
Turner and others. Reference may be made to B. Hermann, The
Louisiana Purchase (Washington, 1898), and Theodore Roosevelt's
Winning of the West, vol. 4. Of the various special but popular
accounts (by J. K. Hosmer, Ripley Hitchcock, R. Blanchard, K. E.
Winship, &c.), not one is worthy of its subject, and all contain various
inaccuracies.
LOUISVILLE, the largest city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Jefferson county, on the Ohio river, no m. by
rail and 130 m. by water S.W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 161,129;
(1900) 204,731, of whom 21,427 were foreign-born (including
12,383 Germans and 4198 Irish) and 39,139 were negroes;
(1910 census) 223,928.
Louisville occupies 40 sq. m. of a plain, about 70 sq. m. in
extent, about 60 ft. above the low-water mark of the river,
and nearly enclosed by hills. The city extends for 8 m. along the
river (spanned here by three bridges), which falls 26 ft. in 2 m.,
but for 6 m. above the rapids spreads out into a beautiful sheet
of quiet water about i m. wide. The streets intersect at right '
angles, are from 60 to 120 ft. wide, and are, for the most part,
well-shaded. The wholesale district, with its great tobacco
warehouses, is largely along Main Street, which runs E. and W.
not far from the river; and the heart of the shopping district is
along Fourth Street in the dozen blocks S. of Main Street.
Adjoining the shopping district on the S. is the old residence
section; the newer residences are on "The Highlands" at the
E. end and also at the W. end. The city is served by the Balti-
more & Ohio South-Western, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the
Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Louisville,
Henderson & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Chicago, Indiana
& Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
the Southern and the Louisville & Nashville railways; by steam-
boat lines to Memphis, Cairo, Evansville, Cincinnati and Pitts-
burg; by an extensive system of inter-urban electric lines;
and by ferries to Jeffersonville and New Albany, Indiana, two
attractive residential suburbs.
Many of the business houses are old-fashioned and low.
The principal public buildings are the United States government
building, the Jefferson county court house and the city hall.
In front of the court house stands a bronze statue of Thomas
Jefferson, designed by Moses Ezekiel (b. 1844), and inside of the
court house a marble statue of Henry Clay by Joel T. Hart (1810-
1870). There are few or no large congested tenement-house
districts; most of the wage-earners own their own homes or rent
cottages. Louisville has an extensive park system, most of
which was acquired after 1889 and is on the outskirts. From
the heart of the city South Parkway, 150 ft. wide, extends S.
6 m. to the entrance to Iroquois Park (670 acres) on a wooded bill.
At the E. end of Broadway is Cherokee Park (nearly 330 acres),
near which is the beautiful Cave Hill Cemetery, containing the
grave of George Rogers Clark, the founder of the city, and the
graves of several members of the family of George Keats, the
poet's brother, who lived in Louisville for a time; and at the
W. end of Broadway, Shawnee Park (about 170 acres), with a
long sandy river beach frequented by bathers. Central Park
occupies the space of two city squares in the old fashionable
residence districts. Through the efforts of a Recreation League
organized in 1901 a few playgrounds are set apart for children.
Louisville is a noted racing centre and has some fine tracks; the
Kentucky Derby is held here annually in May.
The United States government has a marine hospital, and a
life-saving station at the rapids of the river. The state has a
school for the blind, in connexion with which is the American
Printing House for the Blind. There are state hospitals and
many other charitable institutions.
The principal educational institutions are the university of
Louisville, which has a College of Liberal Arts (1007), a law
department (1847), and a medical department (1837) with
which in 1907 were consolidated the Hospital College of Medicine
(1873), the Medical Department of Kentucky University (1898),
the Louisville Medical College (1869), and the Kentucky School
of Medicine (1850); the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
(1859); the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky,
which was formed in 1901 by the consolidation of the Theological
Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Danville (1853) and
the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1893); the
Louisville College of Pharmacy (1871), and the LouisvQle College
of Dentistry (1887), a department of Central University. There
are many musical clubs, and a spring festival for which a local
chorus furnishes the nucleus, is held annually. The Louisville
Public Library was established in 1902, and 1904 acquired the
library, the small museum (containing the Troost collection of
minerals) and the art gallery of the Polytechnic Society of Louis-
ville (1878), which for many years had maintained the only public
library in the city. The principal newspapers are the Courier
Journal (Democratic, morning), the Herald (Republican,
morning), the Evening Post (Independent Democratic), and the
LOULE LOURDES
Times (Democratic, evening). The Courier Journal is one of the
most influential newspapers in the South. Henry Watterson
became editor in 1868, when the Courier (1843), established and
owned by Walter N. Haldeman, was consolidated with the
Journal (1830), of which Watterson had become editor in 1867,
and with the Democrat (1844).
The richness of the surrounding country in agricultural produce,
timber, coal and iron, and its transport facilities have made Louis-
ville a large commercial and manufacturing centre. The leaf-
tobacco market is the largest in the world, most of the leaf-tobacco
produced in Kentucky, which in 1900 was 34-9% of the entire crop
of the United States, being handled in Louisville; the city's trade
in whisky, mules and cement * is notably large, and that in pork,
wheat, Indian corn, coal and lumber is extensive. The total value
of the manutactured products increased from $54,515,226 in 1890
to $78,746,390 in 1900 or 44-4%, and between 1900 and 1905 the
value of the factory-made product increased from $66,110,474 to
$83,204,125, an increase of 25-9%. Large quantities of fine
bourbon whisky are distilled here; in 1905 the value of the factory
product of the city was $3,878,004. The most valuable manu-
facture in the same year was smoking and chewing tobacco (especi-
ally plug tobacco) and snuff valued at $11,635,367 which product
with that of cigars and cigarettes ($1,225,347) constituted 15-5%
of the value of the factory products of the city. Other important
manufactures in 1905 were: packed meats, particularly pork;
men's clothing, especially " Kentucky jeans"; flour and grist mill
products; cotton-seed oil and cake; leather, especially sole leather;
foundry and machine shop products; steam-railway cars; cooper-
age; malt liquors; carriages and wagons, especially farm wagons;
and carriage and wagon materials; agricultural implements,
especially ploughs; and plumbers' supplies, including cast-iron gas
and water pipes. Besides, there were many other manufactures.
The city's water-supply is taken from the Ohio river a few miles
above the city limits, and purified by large filtering plants. Nearly
all the capital stock of the water-works company is owned by the
municipality.
Louisville is governed under a charter of 1893, which is in the form
of an act of the state legislature for the government of cities of the
first class (Louisville is the only city of the first class in the state).
The mayor is elected for four years, and appoints, subject to the
approval of the board of aldermen, the controller and the members
of the two principal executive boards the board of public works
and the board of public safety. The legislative power is vested in
a general council composed of 12 aldermen and 24 councilmen.
Both aldermen and councilmen serve without pay, and are elected
on a general ticket for a term of two years; not more than two
councilmen may be residents of the same ward, but there is no such
limitation in regard to aldermen. The treasurer, tax-receiver,
auditor, judge of the police court, clerk of the police court, members
of the board of school trustees (l from each legislative district)
and members of the park commission are elected by popular vote;
the assessor, by the general council. The duration of franchises
given by the city is limited to 20 years.
History. The site of the city was probably visited by La Salle
in 1669 or 1670. In July 1773, Captain Thomas Bullitt, 2 acting
under a commission from the College of William and Mary,
surveyed a tract of 2000 acres, lying opposite the Falls of the
Ohio, and laid out a town site upon this tract. Colonel William
Preston, county surveyor of Fincastle county, within which the
2ooo-acre tract lay, refused to approve Captain Bullitt's survey,
and had the lands resurveyed in the following year, nevertheless
the tract was conveyed in December 1773 by Lord Dunmore
to his friend Dr John Connolly, a native of Lancaster county,
Pennsylvania, who had served in the British army, as com-
mander of Fort Pitt (under Dunmore's appointment), was an
instigator of Indian troubles which culminated in the Battle of
Point Pleasant, and was imprisoned from 1775 until nearly the
close of the War of American Independence for attempting under
Dunmore's instructions to organize the " Loyal Foresters," who
1 Louisville cement, one of the best-known varieties of natural
cement, was first manufactured in Shipping Port, a suburb of Louis-
ville, in 1829 for the construction of the Louisville & Portland
Canal ; the name is now applied to all cement made in the Louisville
District in Kentucky and Indiana. There is a large Portland
cement factory just outside the, city.
'Captain Thomas Bullitt (1730-1778), a Virginian, commanded
a company under Washington at Great Meadows (July 4, 1754),
was in Braddock's disastrous expedition in 1755, and after the defeat
of Major James Grant in 1758 saved his disorganized army by a
cleverly planned attack upon the pursuers. He became Adjutant-
General of Virginia after the peace of 1763, and took part in the
movements which forced Lord Dunmore to leave Norfolk. Subse-
quently he served in South Carolina under Colonel Lee.
were to be sent against the rebellious colonists in the West. The
city of Louisville was laid out on the upper half of this Connolly
tract. It is possible that there was a settlement on what was
afterward called Corn Island (which has now practically dis-
appeared), at the Falls of the Ohio, as early as 1775; in May
1778, General George Rogers Clark, while proceeding, by way
of the Ohio river, against the British posts in the Illinois terri-
tory, landed on this island and built block-houses for his stores
and cabins for about twenty families of emigrants who had
come with him. These emigrants (or the greater part of them)
removed to the mainland in the winter of 1778-1779, and estab-
lished themselves in a fort built within the present limits of Louis-
ville. A town government was organized by them in April 1779,
the settlement at this time being known as " the Falls of the
Ohio." On the i4th of May 1780, the legislature of Virginia, in
response to a petition of the inhabitants, declared that Connolly
had forfeited his title, and incorporated the settlement under
the name of Louisville, in recognition of the assistance given to
the colonies in the War of Independence by Louis XVI. of France.
In 1828 Louisville was chartered as a city; in 1851 it received a
second city charter; in 1870, a third; and in 1893, a fourth.
The city's growth was greatly promoted by the introduction of
successful steam navigation on the Ohio in 1811 and still further
by the opening of the canal around the rapids (generally called
the " Falls of the Ohio "). This canal, which is 2\ m. in length
and is known as the Louisville and Portland canal, was author-
ized by the legislature in 1825 and was opened in December 1830;
between 1855 and 1872 Congress made appropriations for
enlarging it, and in 1874 it passed entirely under Federal
control. The first railway to serve the city, the Louisville
& Frankfort, was completed in 1851. The 6th of August is
locally known as " Bloody Monday "; on this day in 1855 some
members of the Know Nothing Party incited a riot that resulted
in the loss of several lives and of considerable property. In
March 1890 a tornado caused great loss in life and property in
the city. General Clark made his home in Louisville and the
vicinity after his return from the Illinois country in 1779.
Louisville was also the early home of the actress Mary Anderson;
John James Audubon lived here in 1808-1812; and 5 m. E. of
the city are the old home and the grave (with a monument) of
Zachary Taylor.
See Reuben T. Durrett, The Centenary of Louisville (Louisville,
1893), being No. 8 of the Filson Club Publications; J. S. Johnston
(ed.), Memorial History of Louisville (Chicago, 1896) ; and L. V.
Rule, " Louisville, the Gateway City to the South," in L. P. Powell's
Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900).
LOUL, a town of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro
(formerly the province of Algarve); beautifully situated in an
inland hilly district, 10 m N.N.W. of the seaport of Faro and
5 m. from Sao Joao da Venda on the Lisbon-Faro railway.
Pop. (1900) 22,478. Apart from Lisbon, Oporto and Braga,
Louie is the most populous town in the kingdom. It is sur-
rounded by walls and towers dating from the Moorish period.
The neighbouring church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade is a
favourite resort of pilgrims. Basket-making is the principal
industry; leather, porcelain and various products of the palm,
agave and esparto grass are also manufactured.
LOURDES, a town of south-western France in the department
of Hautes- Pyrenees, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 12 m. S.S.W.
of Tarbes on the main line of the Southern railway between- that
town and Pau. Pop. (1906) 7228. Lourdes is divided into an
old and a new town by the Gave de Pau, which at this point
leaves the valley of Argeles and turns abruptly to the west. The
old quarter on the right bank surrounds on three sides a scarped
rock, on which stands the fortress now used as a prison. Its large
square keep of the i4th century is the chief survival of feudal
times. Little is left of the old fortifications except a tower of
the I3th or i4th century, surmounting a gateway known as the
Tour de Garnabie. The old quarter is united with the new town
by a bridge which is continued in an esplanade leading to the
basilica, the church of the Rosary and the Grotto, with its spring
of healing water. The present fame of Lourdes is entirely
associated with this grotto, where the Virgin Mary is believed
LOURENgO MARQUES
in the Roman Catholic world to have revealed herself repeatedly
to a peasant girl named Bernadette Soubirous in 1858. A statue
of the Virgin stands on a rock projecting above the grotto, the
walls of which are covered with crutches and other votive offer-
ings; the spot, which is resorted to by multitudes of pilgrims
from all quarters of the world, is marked by a basilica built above
the grotto and consecrated in 1876. In addition the church of
the Rosary, a rich building in the Byzantine style, was erected
in front of and below the basilica from 1884 to 1889. Not far
from the grotto are several other caves, where prehistoric
remains have been found. The Hospice de Notre-Dame de
Douleurs is the chief of the many establishments provided for
the accommodation of pilgrims.
Lourdes is a fortified place of the second class; and is the seat
of the tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement of Argeles.
There are marble and slate quarries near the town. The pastures
of the neighbourhood support a breed of Aquitaine cattle, which is
most highly valued in south-western France.
The origin of Lourdes is uncertain. From the gth century
onwards it was the most important place in Bigorre, largely
owing to the fortress which is intimately connected with its
history. In 1360 it passed by the treaty of Bretigny from
French to English hands, and its governor was murdered by
Gaston Phoebus viscount of Beam, for refusing to surrender it
to the count of Anjou. Nevertheless the fortress did not fall
into the possession of the French till 1406 after a blockade of
eighteen months. Again during the wars of religion the castle
held out successfully after the town had been occupied by the
troops of the Protestant captain Gabriel, count of Montgomery.
From the reign of Louis XIV. to the beginning of the igth
century the castle was used as a state prison. Since the visions
of Bernadette Soubirous, their authentication by a commission of
enquiry appointed by the bishop of Tarbes, and the authorization
by the pope of the cult of Our Lady of Lourdes, the quarter on
the left bank of the Gave has sprung up and it is estimated that
600,000 pilgrims annually visit the town. The chief of the
pilgrimages, known as the national pilgrimage, takes place in
August.
Several religious communities have been named after Our
Lady of Lourdes. Of these one, consisting of sisters of the third
order of St Francis, called the Congregation of Our Lady of
Lourdes (founded 1877), has its headquarters in Rochester,
Minnesota. Another, the Order of Our Lady of Lourdes, was
founded in 1883 for work in the archdiocese of New Orleans.
See G. Mares, Lourdes et ses environs (Bordeaux, 1894) ; Fourcade,
L' Apparition de la grotte de Lourdes (Paris, 1862) and L' Apparition
. . . consideree au point de vue de I' art Chretien (Bordeaux, 1862);
Boissarie, Lourdes, histoire medicale (Paris, 1891); Bertrin, Hist.
critique des tenements de Lourdes (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), written
under authority of the bishop of Tarbes; H. Lasserre, Miraculous
Episodes of Lourdes (London, 1884, tr.); R. F. Clarke, Lourdes and
its Miracles (ib., 1889) and Medical Testimony to the Miracles (ib.,
1892); D. Barbe 1 , Lourdes hier, aujourd'hui, demain (Paris, 1893;
Eng. trans, by A. Meynell, London, 1894); J. R. Gasquet, The Cures
at Lourdes (London, 1895); Les Pelerinages de Lourdes. Cantiques,
insignes, costumes (Lourdes, 1897); W. Leschner, The Origin of
Lourdes (London, loop). Zola's Lourdes (Paris, 1894), a criticism
from the sceptical point of view, in the form of a realistic novel,
has called forth many replies from the Catholic side.
LOURENCO MARQUES, capital of Portuguese East Africa,
or Mozambique, on the north bank of the Espirito Santo or
English river, Delagoa Bay, and 396 m. by rail via Pretoria
from Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 9849, of whom 4691 were
Europeans and 1690 Asiatics. The town is situated close to
the mouth of the river in 25 53' S. and 32 30' E., and is built
upon a low-lying spit of sand, formerly surrounded by swamps.
The streets are regularly laid out and adorned by several fine
buildings. The principal thoroughfare, the Avenida Aguiar,
2 m. long goes from the centre of the town to Reuben Point.
The harbour is well equipped with piers, quays, landing sheds
and electric cranes, which enable large steamers to discharge
cargoes direct into the railway trucks. The depth of water at
low tide is 1 8 ft. The streets are lit by electricity and there is
an electric tramway system 7 m. in extent. At Reuben Point,
which marks the spot where the English river enters the bay,
xvu. 3
are the lighthouse, barracks and the private residences of the
wealthy citizens. At its mouth the English river is about
2 m. across. Lourenco Marques is the nearest seaport to the
Rand gold mines. The port is 8374 m. from Southampton via
Cape Town and 7565 m. via the Suez canal. It is served by
British, Portuguese and German liners, the majority of the
goods imported being shipped at Southampton, Lisbon or
Hamburg. Over 50% of the import trade of Johannesburg
is with Lourenoo Marques. Great Britain and British possessions
take some 40% of the import trade, Portugal, Germany, Norway,
Sweden and America coming next in order. Most of the imports,
being forwarded to the Transvaal, figure also as exports. The
chief articles of import are food-stuffs and liquors, iron, mineral
oils, inks and dyes, timber and live stock. These all form part
of the transit trade. There is practically no export trade by sea
save in coal, which is brought chiefly from the collieries at
Middelburg in the Transvaal. At Port Matolla, 20 m. from the
town, on the river of that name, one of the feeders of the English
river, is a flourishing timber trade. The average value of the
total trade of Lourenco Marques for the five years 1897-1899
and 1902-1903 (1900 and 1901 being years during which trade
was disorganized by the Anglo-Boer War) was over 3,500,000.
In 1905 the value of the trade of the port was 5,682,000; of
this total the transit trade was worth over 4,500,000 and the
imports for local consumption 1,042,000. The retail trade, and
trade with the natives, is almost entirely in the hands of Indians.
The chief import for local consumption is cheap wine from
Portugal, bought by the Kaffirs to the extent of over 500,000
yearly. These natives form the bulk of the Africans who work
in the Rand gold mines.
Lourenco Marques is named after a Portuguese navigator,
who with a companion (Antonio Calderia) was sent in 1544 by
the governor of Mozambique on a voyage of exploration. They
explored the lower courses of the rivers emptying their waters
into Delagoa Bay, notably the Espirito Santo. The various
forts and trading stations which the Portuguese established,
abandoned and reoccupied on the north bank of the river were
all called Lourenco Marques. The existing town dates from
about 1850, the previous settlement having been entirely de-
stroyed by the natives. In 1871 the town was described as a poor
place, with narrow streets, fairly good flat-roofed houses,
grass huts, decayed forts and rusty cannon, enclosed by a wall
6 ft. high then recently erected and protected by bastions at
intervals. The growing importance of the Transvaal led, how-
ever, to greater interest being taken in Portugal in the port.
A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876
to drain the marshy land near the settlement, to plant the blue
gum tree, and to build a hospital and a church. It was not,
however, until the end of the igth century that any marked
development took place in the town, and up to 1903 cargo had
to be discharged in tugs and lighters.
In 1873-1877 Mr Burgers, president of the Transvaal, en-
deavoured, unsuccessfully, to get a railway built from Pretoria
to Delagoa Bay. In 1878-1879 a survey was taken for a line
from Lourenco Marques to the Transvaal, and in 1883 the Lisbon
cabinet granted to Colonel Edward McMurdo, an American
citizen, a concession which took the place of others which had
lapsed for the building of a railway from Lourenco Marques
to the Transvaal frontier, the Boer government having agreed
(1883) to continue the line to Pretoria. Under this concession
Colonel McMurdo formed in London in 1887 a company the
Delagoa Bay and East African Railway Company to construct
the line. Meantime a secret agreement had been come to
between President Kruger and Portugal for the concession to
the Transvaal of a "steam tramway" parallel to the projected
railway, should the company not complete the line in the time
specified. The company, however, built the line to the frontier
shown on the Portuguese maps of 1883 within the time limit,
the railway being opened on the I4th of December 1888. The
frontier by this date had been fixed at Komati Poort, 5 m.
farther from the coast. Portugal had previously agreed to grant
the company " a reasonable extension of time " to complete
66
LOUSE LOUTH
the line if the frontier should be traced farther inland than shown
on the 1883 maps. The Lisbon government required the exten-
sion to Komati Poort to be completed in eight months (five of
which were in the rainy season), an impossible stipulation. The
railway not being finished, the Portuguese seized the line on the
25th of June 1889 and cancelled the concession. Portugal in
so doing acted, to all appearance, under pressure from the
Transvaal. Great Britain and America at once protested,
Portugal admitted the illegality of her act and consented to
refer the amount of compensation to the decision of three Swiss
jurists. This was in 1890, when Portugal paid 28,000 on
account. It was not until the 29th of March 1900 that the award
was made known. The arbitrators ordered Portugal to pay
in addition to the 28,000 a sum, including interest, of 950,000.
The damages were promptly paid. Meantime the railway had
been continued from Komati Poort and was opened for through
traffic to Pretoria on the 8th of July 1895. In 1906-1910
another railway (47 m. long) was built from Lourenfo Maiques
due west to the Swaziland frontier, being a link in a new line
to shorten the distance by rail between the Rand and the sea
by some 60 m.
See also DELAGOA BAY and the authorities there cited. The text
of the railway arbitration award was published in French at Berne
in 1900. Annual reports on the trade of Lourenco Marques are issued
by the British Foreign Office.
LOUSE (O. Eng. lAs, cf. Du. Ms, Ger. Laus, Dan. and Swed.
lus), a term applied to small wingless insects, parasitic upon
birds and mammals, and belonging strictly speaking to the order
Anoplura, often included among the Hemiptera, though the term
is frequently extended to the bird-lice constituting the sub-
order Mallophaga, formerly included among the Neuroptera.
Both agree in having nothing that can be termed a metamor-
phosis; they are active from the time of their exit from the
egg to their death, gradually increasing in size, and undergoing
several moults or changes of skin. The true lice (or Anoplura)
are found on the bodies of many Mammalia, and occasion by
their presence intolerable irritation. The number of genera
is few. Two species of Pediculus are found on the human body,
and are known ordinarily as the head-louse (P. capitis) and the
body-louse (P. vestimenti); P. capitis is found on the head,
especially of children. The eggs, laid on the hairs, and known
as " nits," hatch in about eight days, and the lice are full grown
in about a month. Such is their fecundity that it has been
asserted that one female (probably of P. vestimenti) may in
eight weeks produce five thousand descendants. Want of
cleanliness favours their multiplication in a high degree the
idea once existed, and is probably still held by the very ignorant,
that they are directly engendered from dirt. The irritation is
caused by the rostrum of the insect being inserted into the skin,
from which the blood is rapidly pumped up. A third human
louse, known as the crab-louse (Phthirius pubis) is found amongst
the hairs on other parts of the body, particularly those of the
pubic region, but probably never on the head. The louse of
monkeys is now generally considered as forming a separate
genus (Pedicinus), but the greater part of those infesting domestic
and wild quadrupeds are mostly grouped in the large genus
Haematopinus, and very rarely is the same species found on
different kinds of animals.
The bird-lice (Mallophaga) are far more numerous in species,
although the number of genera is comparatively small. With
the exception of the genus Trichodectes, the various species of
which are found on mammalia, all infest birds (as their English
names implies) (see BIRD-LOUSE). Louse-infestation is known
as phthiriasis in medical and veterinary terminology.
AUTHORITIES. The following works are the most important:
Denny, Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae (London, 1843);
Giebel, Insecta Epizoa (which contains the working-up of Nitzsch's
posthumous materials; Leipzig, 1874); van Beneden, Animal
Parasites (London, 1876); Piaget, Les Ptdiculines (Leiden, 1880);
Mgnin, Les Parasites et les maladies parasitaires (Paris, 1880);
Neumann, Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated Animals
(1892); Osborn, Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the
Lower Animals (Washington, 1891 ; U.S. Dept. Agr.) ; Enderlein,
" Lause-Studien," Zoo/. Anz. xxviii. (1904).
LOUTH, a maritime county in the province of Leinster, Ireland,
bounded N.E. by Carlingford Bay and Co. Down, E. by the
Irish Sea, S.W. by Meath, and N.W. by Monaghan and Armagh.
It is the smallest county in Ireland, its area being 202,731 acres
or about 3 1 7 sq. m. The greater part of the surface is undulating,
with occasionally lofty hills; in the north-east, on the borders
of Carlingford Lough, there is a mountain range approaching
2000 ft. in height. Many of the hills are finely wooded, and
.towards the sea the scenery, in the more elevated districts, is
strikingly picturesque. With the exception of the promontory
of Clogher Head, which rises abruptly to a height of 180 ft.,
the coast is for the most part low and sandy. The narrow and
picturesque Carlingford Lough is navigable beyond the limits
of the county, and Carlingford and Greenore are well-known
watering-places on the county Louth shore. The Bay of Dundalk
stretches to the town of that name and affords convenient shelter.
The principal rivers, the Fane, the Lagan, the Clyde and the Dee,
flow eastwards. None of these is navigable, but ,the Boyne,
which forms the southern boundary of the county, is navigable
for large vessels as far as Drogheda.
Almost all this county is occupied by an undulating lowland of
much-folded Silurian shales and fine-grained sandstones; but
Carboniferous Limestone overlies these rocks north and east of
Dundalk. Dolerite and gabbro, in turn invaded by granite, have
broken through the limestone north of Dundalk Bay, and form a
striking and mountainous promontory. There is now no doubt
that these rocks, with those on the adjacent moorland of Slieve
Gullion, belong to the early Cainozoic igneous series, and may be
compared with similar masses in the Isle of Skye. A raised beach
provides a flat terrace at Greenore. Lead ore has been worked in
the county, as in the adjacent parts of Armagh and Monaghan.
In the lower regions the soil is a very rich deep mould, admirably
adapted both for cereals and green crops. The higher mountain
regions are covered principally with heath. Agriculture generally
is in an advanced condition, and the farms are for the most part well
drained. The acreage of tillage is but little below that of pasture.
Oats, barley, flax, potatoes and turnips are all satisfactorily culti-
vated. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry represent the bulk of the
live stock. Linen manufactures are of some importance. The deep-
sea and coast fishery has its headquarters at Dundalk, and the salmon
fisheries at Dundalk (Castletown river) and Drogheda (river Boyne).
These fisheries, together with oyster beds in Carlingford Lough, are
of great value. The county is traversed from S. to N. by the Great
Northern railway, with a branch westward from Dundalk ; while the
same town is connected with the port of Greenore by a line owned
by the London & North-Western railway of England. From
Greenore the London & North-Western railway passenger steamers
run regularly to Holyhead. The town of Ardee is served by a branch
from the Great Northern line at Dromin.
The population (71,914 in 1891; 65,820 in 1901) decreases at
about an average rate, and a considerable number of the inhabitants
emigrate. Of the total population about 92 % are Roman Catholics.
The principal towns are Dundalk (pop. 13,076), Drogheda (12,760)
and Ardee (1883). The county includes six baronies and sixty-four
parishes. Assizes are held at Dundalk and quarter sessions at Ardee,
Drogheda and Dundalk. Louth was represented by two county and
ten borough members in the Irish parliament; the two present
divisions are the north and south, each returning one member. The
county is in the Protestant dioceses of Armagh and Clogher and the
Roman Catholic diocese of Armagh.
The territory which afterwards became the county Louth
was included in the principality of Uriel, Orgial or Argial, which
comprehended also the greater part of Meath, Monaghan and
Armagh. The chieftain of the district was conquered by John
de Courcy in 1183, and Louth or Uriel was among the shires
generally considered to have been created by King John, and
peopled by English settlers. Until the time of Elizabeth it
was included in the province of Ulster. County Louth is rich
in antiquarian remains. There are ancient buildings of all dates,
and spears, swords, axes of bronze, ornaments of gold, and other
relics have been discovered in quantities. Among Druidical
remains is the fine cromlech of Ballymascanlan, between Dundalk
and Greenore. Danish raths and other forts are numerous.
It is said that there were originally twenty religious houses in
the county. Of the remains of these the most interesting are at
Monasterboice and Mellifont, both near Drogheda. At the
former site are two churches, the larger dating probably from the
9th century, the smaller from the i3th; a fine round tower,
no ft. in height, but 'not 'quite perfect; and three crosses, two
of which, 27 and 15 ft. in height respectively, are adorned with
LOUTH LOUVER
67
moulding, sculptured figures and tracery, and are among the
finest in Ireland. At Mellifont are the remains of the first
Cistercian monastery founded in Ireland, in 1142, with a massive
gatehouse, an octagonal baptistery and chapter-house. Carling-
ford and Drogheda have monastic remains, and at Dromiskin is
a round tower, in part rebuilt. Ardee, an ancient town, incorpor-
ated in 1376, has a castle of the I3th century. At Dunbar a
charter of Charles II. (1679) gave the inhabitants the right to
elect a sovereign. Louth, si m. S.W. from Dundalk, is a decayed
town which gave its name to the county, and contains ruins of an
abbey to which was attached one of the most noted early schools
in Ireland.
LOUTH, a market-town and municipal borough in the E.
Lindsey or Louth parliamentary division of Lincolnshire,
England, on the river Lud, 141 J m. N. of London by the Grimsby
branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 9518.
By a canal, completed in 1763, there is water communication
with the Humber. The Perpendicular church of St James,
c6mpleted about 1515, with a spire 300 ft. in height, is one of the
finest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. Traces of a building
of the I3th century are perceptible. There are a town hall, a
corn exchange and a market-hall, an Edward VI. grammar
school, which is richly endowed, a commercial school founded
in 1676, a hospital and several almshouses. Thorpe Hall is a
picturesque building dated 1584. In the vicinity are the ruins
of a Cistercian abbey (Louth Park). The industries include
the manufacture of agricultural implements, iron-founding,
brewing, malting, and rope and brick-making. The town is
governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
2749 acres.
Louth (Lud.es, Loweth) is first mentioned in the Domesday
record as a borough held, as it had been in Saxon times, by the
bishop of Lincoln, who had a market there. The see retained
the manor until it was surrendered by Bishop Holbeach to
Henry VIII., who granted it to Edward, earl of Lincoln, but it
was recovered by the Crown before 1 562. Louth owed much of its
early prosperity to the adjacent Cistercian abbey of Louth Park,
founded in 1 139 by Alexander bishop of Lincoln. The borough
was never more than prescriptive, though burgesses were
admitted throughout the middle ages and until 1711, their sole
privilege being freedom from tolls. The medieval government
of the town was by the manor court under the presidency of the
bishop's high steward, the custom being for the reeve to be
elected by eighteen ex-reeves. The original parish church was
built about 1170. During the I3th and I4th centuries nine
religious gilds were founded in the town. Fear of confiscation of
the property of these gilds seems to have been one of the chief
local causes of the Lincolnshire Rebellion, which broke out here
in 1536. The disturbance began by the parishioners seizing
the church ornaments to prevent their surrender. The bishop's
steward, who arrived to open the manorial court for the election
of a reeve, agreed to ride to ask the king the truth about the
jewels, but this did not satisfy the people, who, while showing
respect to a royal commission, seized and burnt the papers of the
bishop's registrar. After swearing several country gentlemen to
their cause, the rebels dispersed, agreeing to meet on the following
day under arms. Edward VI. in 1551 incorporated Louth under
one warden and six assistants, who were to be managers of the
school founded by the same charter. This was confirmed in 1564
by Elizabeth, who granted the manor of Louth to the corporation
with all rights and all the lands of the suppressed gilds at an
annual fee-farm rent of 84. James I. gave the commission of
the peace to the warden and one assistant in 1605; a further
charter was obtained in 1830. Louth has never been a parlia-
mentary borough. The markets said to have been held from
ancient times and the three fairs on the third Sunday after
Easter and the feasts of St Martin and St James were confirmed
in 1551. Louth was a seat of the wool trade as early as 1297; the
modern manufactures seem to have arisen at the end of the i8th
century, when, according to the charter of 1830, there was a great
increase in the population, manufactures, trade and commerce
of the town.
See E. H. R. Tatham, Lincolnshire in Roman Times (Louth,
1902) ; Richard W. Goulding, Louth Old Corporation Record* (Louth,
1891).
LOUVAIN (Flem. Leuven), a town of Belgium hi the province
of Brabant, of which it was the capital in the I4th century
before the rise of Brussels. Pop. (1004)42,194. Local tradition
attributes the establishment of a permanent camp at this spot
to Julius Caesar, but Louvain only became important in the
nth century as a place of residence for the dukes of Brabant.
In 1356 Louvain was the scene of the famous Joyeuse Entrfe
of Wenceslas which represented the principal charter of Brabant.
At that time it had a population of at least 50,000 and was very
prosperous as the centre of the woollen trade in central Belgium.
The gild of weavers numbered 2400 members. The old walls
of Louvain were 4^ m. in circumference, and have been replaced
by boulevards, but within them there is a considerable extent of
cultivated ground. Soon after the Joyeuse Entree a serious feud
began between the citizens and the patrician class, and eventually
the duke threw in his lot with the latter. After a struggle of
over twenty years' duration the White Hoods, as the citizens
called themselves, were crushed. In 1379 they massacred
seventeen nobles in the town hah 1 , but this crinte brought down
on them the vengeance of the duke, to whom in 1383 they made
the most abject and complete surrender. With this civil strife the
importance and prosperity of Louvain declined. Many weavers
fled to Holland and England, the duke took up his residence in the
strong castle of Vilvorde, and Brussels prospered at the expense
of Louvain. What it lost in trade it partially recovered as a seat
of learning, for in 1423, Duke John IV. of Brabant founded there
a university and ever since Louvain University has enjoyed the
first place in Belgium. It has always prided itself most on its
theological teaching. In 1679 the university was established in
the old Cloth Workers' Hall, a building dating from 1317, with
long arcades and graceful pillars supporting the upper storeys.
The library contains 70,000 volumes and some 500 manuscripts.
Attached to the university are four residential colleges at which
the number of students average two thousand. In the i6th
century when the university was at the height of its fame it
counted six thousand.
The most remarkable building in Louvain is the Hotel de
Ville, one of the richest and most ornate examples of pointed
Gothic in the country. If less ornate than that of Oudenarde
it is more harmonious in its details. It was the work of Mathieu
de Layens, master mason, who worked at it from 1448 to 1463.
The building is one of three storeys each with ten pointed
windows forming the fafade facing the square. Above is a
graceful balustrade behind which is a lofty roof, and at the
angles are towers perforated for the passage of the light. The
other three sides are lavishly decorated with statuary. The
interior is not noteworthy.
Opposite the H6tel de Ville is the fine church of St Pierre,
in the form of a cross with a low tower to which the spire
has never been added. The existing edifice was built on the
site of an older church between 1425 and 1497. It contains
seven chapels, in two of which are fine pictures by Dierich Bouts
formerly attributed to Memling. Much of the iron and brass
work is by Jean Matseys. There is also an ancient tomb, being
the monument of Henry I., duke of Brabant, who died in
1235. There are four other interesting churches in Louvain,
viz. Ste Gertrude, St Quentin, St Michael and St Jacques.
In the last-named is a fine De Grayer representing St Hubert.
Some ruins on a hill exist of the old castle of the counts of
Louvain whose title was merged in the higher style of the dukes
of Brabant.
LOUVER, LOUVRE or LUFFER, in architecture, the lantern
built upon the roof of the hall in ancient times to allow the smoke
to escape when the fire was made on the pavement in the middle
of the hall. The term is also applied to the flat overlapping
slips of wood, glass, &c., with which such openings are closed,
arranged to give ventilation without the admission of rain.
Openings fitted with louvers are now utilized for the purposes of
ventilation in schools and manufactories.
68
LOUVET, J. LOUVIERS
The word has been derived from the French Vouvert, the " open"
space. This, Minsheu's guess, is now generally abandoned. The
Old French form, of which the English is an adaptation, was lover
or lovier. The medieval Latin lodium, lodarium, is suggested as the
ultimate origin. Du Cange (Clossarium, s.v. " lodia ") defines it as
lugurium, i.e. a small hut. The English form " louvre " is due to a
confusion with the name of the palace in Paris. The origin of that
name is also unknown; louverie, place of wolves, is one of the
suggestions, the palace being supposed to have originally been a
hunting-box (see PARIS).
LOUVET, JEAN (c. 1370-*:. 1440), called the president of
Provence, occupied the position of president of the Chambre des
Comptes at Aix in 1415. Towards the end of that year he
went to Paris with Louis II. of Anjou, king of Sicily, attached
himself to the dauphin Charles, and after having been chief
steward of the household to Queen Isabella he turned against her.
He was one of the principal agents of the Armagnac party, and
became the most influential adviser of Charles VII. during the
first years of his reign. But his rapacity gained him enemies,
and when the constable Arthur, earl of Richmond, attained a
preponderating influence over Charles VII. Louvet retired to
his captaincy of Avignon. He still remained a personage of
importance in his exile, and played an influential part even in
his last years.
See Vallet de Viriville in the Nouvelle Biographic generate, and G. du
FresnedeBeaucourt,.HM/0i>edeQtar/es VII. (1881-1891). (J. V.*)
LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTS (1760-1797),
French writer and politician, was born in Paris on the i2th of
June 1760, the son of a stationer. He became a bookseller's
clerk, and first attracted attention with a not very moral novel
called Les Amours du chevalier de Faublas (Paris, 1787-1789).
The character of the heroine of this book, Lodoiska, was taken
from the wife of a jeweller in the Palais Royal, with whom he
had formed a liaison. She was divorced from her husband in
1792 and married Louvet in 1793. His second novel, milie
de Varmont, was intended to prove the utility and necessity
of divorce and of the marriage of priests, questions raised by
the Revolution. Indeed all his works were directed to the ends
of the Revolution. He attempted to have one of his unpublished
plays, L'Anobli conspirateur, performed at the Theatre Francais,
and records naively that one of its managers, M. d'Orfeuil,
listened to the reading of the first three acts " with mortal
impatience," exclaiming at last: " I should need cannon in
order to put that piece on the stage." A " sort of farce " at the
expense of the army of the emigres, La Grande Revue des armies
noire et blanche, had, however, better success: it ran for twenty-
five nights.
Louvet was, however, first brought into notice as a politician
by his Paris justifie, in reply to a "truly incendiary" pamphlet
in which Mounier, after the removal of the king to Paris in
October 1789, had attacked the capital, " at that time blameless,"
and argued that the court should be established elsewhere.
This led to Louvet's election to the Jacobin Club, for which, as he
writes bitterly in his Memoirs, the qualifications were then
" a genuine civisme and some talent." A self-styled philosophe
of the true revolutionary type, he now threw himself ardently
into the campaign against " despotism " and " reaction," i.e.
against the moderate constitutional royalty advocated by
Lafayette, the Abbe Maury and other " Machiavellians." On
the asth of December 1791 he presented at the bar of the
Assembly his Petition contre les princes, which had " a prodigious
success in the senate and the empire." Elected deputy to
the Assembly for the department of Loiret, he made his first
speech in January 1792. He attached himself to the Girondists,
whose vague deism, sentimental humanitarianism and ardent
republicanism he fully shared, and from March to November
1792 he published, at Roland's expense, a bi-weekly journal-
affiche, of which the title, La Sentinelle, proclaimed its mission
to be to " enlighten the people on all the plots " at a time when,
Austria having declared war, the court was " visibly betraying
our armies." On the loth of August he became editor of the
Journal des debats, and in this capacity, as well as in the Assembly,
made himself conspicuous by his attacks on Robespierre, Marat
and the other Montagnards, whom he declares he would have
succeeded in bringing to justice in September but for the poor
support he received from the Girondist leaders. It is more
probable, however, that his ill-balanced invective contributed
to their ruin and his own; for him Robespierre was a " royalist,"
Marat " the principal agent of England," the Montagnards
Orleanists in masquerade. His courageous attitude at the
trial of Louis XVI., when he supported the " appeal to the
people," only served still further to discredit the Girondists.
He defended them, however, to the last with great courage, if
with little discretion; and after the crisis of the 3ist of May
1793 he shared the perils of the party who fled from Paris (see
GIRONDISTS). His wife, " Lodoiska," who had actively co-
operated in his propaganda, was also in danger.
After the fall of Robespierre, he was recalled to the Convention,
when he was instrumental in bringing Carrier and the others
responsible for the Noyades of Nantes to justice. His influence
was now considerable; he was elected a member of the Committee
of the Constitution, president of the Assembly, and member of
the Committee of Public Safety, against the overgrown power
of which he had in earlier days protested. His hatred of the
Mountain had not made him reactionary; he was soon regarded
as one of the mainstays of the " Jacobins," and La Sentinelle
reappeared, under his auspices, preaching union among re-
publicans. Under the Directory (1795) he was elected a member
of the Council of Five Hundred, of which he was secretary, and
also a member of the Institute. Meanwhile he had returned to
his old trade and set up a bookseller's shop in the Palais Royal.
But, in spite of the fact that he had once more denounced the
Jacobins in La Sentinelle, his name had become identified with
all that the combative spirits of the jeunesse doree most disliked;
his shop was attacked by the "young men" with cries of
" A has la Loupe, a bas la belle Lodoiska, a has les gardes du corps
de Louvet I" he and his wife were insulted in the streets and the
theatres: " A bas les Louvets et les Louvetanls!" and he was
compelled to leave Paris. The Directory appointed him to the
consulship at Palermo, but he died on the 25th of August 1797
before taking up his post.
In 1795 Louvet published a portion of his Memoirs under the title
of Quelques notices pour I'histoire et le recit de mes perils depuis le 31
mat 1^93. They were mainly written in the various hiding-places
in which Louvet rook refuge, and they give a vivid picture of the
sufferings of the proscribed Girondists. They form an invaluable
document for the study of the psychology of the Revolution; for
in spite of their considerable literary art, they are artless in their
revelation of the mental and moral state of their author, a character-
istic type of the honest, sentimental, somewhat hysterical and wholly
unbalanced minds nurtured on the abstractions of the philosophes.
The first complete edition of the Memoires de Louvet de Couvrai,
edited, with preface, notes and tables, by F. A. Aulard, was published
at Paris in 1889.
LOUVIERS, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Eure, 17^ m. S.S.E. of
Rouen by road. Pop. (1906) 9449. Louviers is pleasantly situated
in a green valley surrounded by wooded hills, on the Eure, which
here divides into several branches. The old part of the town,
built of wood, stands on the left bank of the river; the more
modern portions, in brick and hewn stone, on the right. There
are spacious squares, and the place is surrounded by boulevards.
The Gothic church of Notre-Dame has a south portal which
ranks among the most beautiful works of the kind produced
in the isth century; it contains fine stained glass of the isth
and 1 6th centuries and other works of art. The h6tel-de-ville,
a large modern building, contains a museum and library. The
chief industry is cloth and flannel manufacture. There are
wool-spinning and fulling mills, thread factories and manu-
factories of spinning and weaving machinery, and enamel ware;
leather-working, dyeing, metal-founding and bell-founding
are also carried on. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and
has a court of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a chamber
of arts and manufactures, and a council of trade arbitrators.
Louviers (Lovera) was originally a villa of the dukes of Normandy
and in the middle ages belonged to the archbishops of Rouen; its
cloth-making industry first arose in the beginning of the I3th
century. It changed hands once and again during the Hundred
Years' War, and from Charles VII. it received extensive privileges,
LOUVOIS, MARQUIS DE LOVAT,
BARON
69
and the title of Louviers le Franc for the bravery of its inhabitants
in driving the English from Pont de 1'Arche, Verneuil and Harcourt.
It passed through various troubles successively at the period of the
League of the Public Weal under Louis XL, in the religious wars
(when the parlement of Rouen sat for a time at Louviers) and in the
wars of the Fronde.
See G. Petit, Hist, de Louviers (Louviers, 1877).
LOUVOIS, FRANCOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE
(1641-1691), French statesman, war minister of Louis XIV.,
was born at Paris on the i8th of January 1641. His father,
Michel le Tellier (q.v.), married him to an heiress, the marquise
de Courtenvaux, and instructed him in the management of state
business. The young man won the king's confidence, and in 1666
he succeeded his father as war minister. His talents were per-
ceived by Turenne in the war of Devolution (1667-68), who gave
him instruction in the art of providing armies. After the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louvois devoted himself to organizing the
French army. The years between 1668 and 1672, says Camille
Rousset, " were years of preparation, when Lionne was labouring
with all his might to find allies, Colbert to find money, and
Louvois soldiers for Louis." The work of Louvois in these years
is bound up with the historical development of the French army
and of armies in general (see ARMY). Here need only be men-
tioned Louvois's reorganization of the military orders of merit,
his foundation of the H6tel des Invalides, and the almost forcible
enrolment of the nobility and gentry of France, in which Louvois
carried out part of Louis's measures for curbing the spirit of
independence by service in the army or at court. The success
of his measures is to be seen in the victories of the great war of
1672-78. After the peace of Nijmwegen Louvois was high in
favour, his father had been made chancellor, and the influence of
Colbert was waning. The ten years of peace between 1678 and
1688 were distinguished in French history by the rise of Madame
de Maintenon, the capture of Strassburg and the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes, in all of which Louvois bore a prominent
part. The surprise of Strassburg in 1681 in time of peace was not
only planned but executed by Louvois and Monclar. A saving
clause in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which provided
for some liberty of conscience, if not of worship, Louvois sharply
annulled with the phrase " Sa majeste veut qu'on fasse sentir
les dernieres rigueurs a ceux qui ne voudront pas se faire de sa
religion." He claimed also the credit of inventing the dragon-
nades, and mitigated the rigour of the soldiery only in so far as
the licence accorded was prejudicial to discipline. Discipline,
indeed, and complete subjection to the royal authority was the
political faith of Louvois. Colbert died in 1683, and had been
replaced by Le Pelletier, an adherent of Louvois, in the controller-
generalship of finances, and by Louvois himself in his ministry
for public buildings, which he took that he might be the minister
able to gratify the king's two favourite pastimes, war and build-
ing. Louvois was able to superintend the successes of the first
years of the war of the League of Augsburg, but died suddenly of
apoplexy after leaving the king's cabinet on July 16, 1691.
His sudden death caused a suspicion of poison. Louvois was one
of the greatest of the rare class of great war ministers. French
history can only point to Carnot as his equal. Both had to
organize armies out of old material on a new system, both were
admirable contrivers of campaigns, and both devoted themselves
to the material well-being of the soldiers. In private life and
in the means employed for gaining his ends, Louvois was un-
scrupulous and shameless.
The principal authority for Louvois's life and times is Camille
Rousset's Histoire de Louvois (Paris, 1872), a great work founded
on the 900 volumes of his despatches at the Depot de la Guerre.
Saint Simon from his class prejudices is hardly to be trusted, but
Madame de Sevigne throws many side-lights on his times. Testament
politique de Louvois (1695) is spurious.
LOUYS, PIERRE (1870- ), French novelist and poet, was
born in Paris on the loth of December 1870. When he was
nineteen he founded a review, La Conque, which brought him
into contact with the leaders of the Parnassians, and counted
Swinburne, Maeterlinck, Mallarm6 and others among its con-
tributors. He won notoriety by his novel Aphrodite (1896),
which gave a vivid picture of Alexandrian morals at the
beginning of the Christian era. His Chansons de Bililis, roman
lyrique (1894), which purported to be a translation from the
Greek, is a glorification of Sapphic love, which in subject-matter
is objectionable in the highest degree; but its delicate decadent
prose is typical of a modern French literary school, and some
of the " songs " were set to music by Debussy and others. Later
books are: La Femme et le pantin (1898); Les Aventures du roi
Pausole (1900); Sanguines (1903); Archipel (1906). Louys
married in 1899 Louise de Heredia, younger daughter of the poet.
LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, I2TH BARON (c. 1667-1747), Scottish
chief and Jacobite intriguer, was born about 1667 and was the
second son of Thomas Fraser, third son of the 8th Lord Lovat.
The barony of Lovat dates from about 1460, in the person of
Hugh Fraser, a descendant of Simon Fraser (killed at Halidon
Hill in 1338) who acquired the tower and fort of Lovat near
Beauly, Inverness-shire, and from whom the clan Fraser was
called " Macshimi" (sons of Simon). Young Simon was educated
at King's College, Aberdeen, and his correspondence afterwards
gives proof, not only of a command of good English and idiomatic
French, but of such an acquaintance with the Latin classics as
to leave him never at a loss for an apt quotation from Virgil or
Horace. Whether Lovat ever felt any real loyalty to the Stuarts
or was actuated by self-interest it is difficult to determine, but
that he was a born traitor and deceiver there can be no doubt.
One of his first acts on leaving college was to recruit three hundred
men from his clan to form part of a regiment in the service of
William and Mary, in which he himself was to hold a command,
his object being to have a body of well-trained soldiers under his
influence, whom at a moment's notice he might carry over to
the interest of King James. Among other outrages in which he
was engaged about this time was a rape and forced marriage
committed on the widow of the zoth Lord Lovat with the view
apparently of securing his own succession to the estates; and it
is a curious instance of influence that, after being subjected by
him to horrible ill-usage, she is said to have become seriously
attached to him. A prosecution, however, having been instituted
against him by Lady Lovat's family, Simon retired first to his
native strongholds in the Highlands, and afterwards to France,
where he found his way in July 1 702 to the court of St Germain.
In 1699, on his father's death, he assumed the title of Lord Lovat.
One of his first steps towards gaining influence in France seems
to have been to announce his conversion to the Catholic faith.
He then proceeded to put the project of restoring the exiled
family into a practical shape. Hitherto nothing seems to have
been known among the Jacobite exiles of the efficiency of the
Highlanders as a military force. But Lovat saw that, as they
were the only part of the British population accustomed to the
independent use of arms, they could be at once put in action
against the reigning power. His plan therefore was to land
five thousand French troops at Dundee, where they might reach
the north-eastern passes of the Highlands in a day's march, and
be in a position to divert the British troops till the Highlands
should have time to rise. Immediately afterwards five hundred
men were to land on the west coast, seize Fort William or Inver-
lochy, and thus prevent the access of any military force from the
south to the central Highlands. The whole scheme indicates
Lovat's sagacity as a military strategist, and his plan was
continuously kept in view in all future attempts of the Jacobites,
and finally acted on in the outbreak of 1745. The advisers of
the Pretender seem to have been either slow to trust their
coadjutor or to comprehend his project. At last, however,
he was despatched (1703) on a secret mission to the Highlands to
sound those of the chiefs who were likely to rise, and to ascertain
what forces they could bring into the field. He found, however,
that there was little disposition to join the rebellion, and he
then apparently made up his mind to secure his own safety by
revealing all that he knew to the government of Queen Anne.
He persuaded the duke of Queensberry that his rival, the duke
of Atholl, was in the Jacobite plot, and that if Queensberry
supported him he could obtain evidence of this at St Germain.
Queensberry foolishly entered into the intrigue with him against
Atholl, but when Lovat had gone to France with a pass from
7 o
LOVE-BIRD LOVEDALE
Queensberry the affair was betrayed to Atholl by Robert
Ferguson, and resulted in Queensberry's discomfiture. The
story is obscure, and is complicated by partisanship on either
side; but Lovat was certainly playing a double game. His
agility, however, was not remunerative. On returning to Paris
suspicions got afloat as to Lovat's proceedings, and he was
imprisoned in the castle of Angouleme. He remained nearly
ten years under supervision, till in November 1714 he made
his escape to England. For some twenty-five years after this
he was chiefly occupied in lawsuit? for the recovery of his estates
and the re-establishment of his fortune, in both of which objects
he was successful. The intervals of his leisure were filled up by
Jacobite and Anti-Jacobite intrigues, in which he seems to have
alternately, as suited his interests, acted the traitor to both
parties. But he so far obtained the confidence of the government
as to secure the appointments of sheriff of Inverness and of colonel
of an independent company. His disloyal practices, however,
soon led to his being suspected; and he was deprived of both his
appointments. When the rebellion of 1745 broke out, Lovat
acted with characteristic duplicity. He represented to the
Jacobites what was probably in the main true that though
eager for their success his weak health and advanced years
prevented him from joining the standard of the prince in person,
while to the Lord President Forbes he professed his cordial
attachment to the existing state of things, but lamented that his
son, in spite of all his remonstrances, had joined the Pretender,
and succeeded in taking with him a strong force from the clan
of the Frasers. The truth was that the lad was unwilling to go,
but was compelled by his father. Lovat's false professions of
fidelity did not long deceive the government, and after the
battle of Culloden he was obliged to retreat to the Highlands,
after seeing from a distant height his castle of Dounie burnt by
the royal army. Even then, broken down by disease and old age,
carried on a litter and unable to move without assistance, his
mental resources did not fail; and in a conference with several
of the Jacobite leaders he proposed that they should raise a body
of three thousand men, which would be enough to make their
mountains impregnable, and at length force the government to
give them advantageous terms. The project was not carried out,
and Lovat, after enduring incredible hardships in his wanderings,
was at last arrested on an island in Loch Morar. He was conveyed
in a litter to London, and after a trial of five days sentence of
death was pronounced on the igth of March 1747. His execution
took place on the gth of April. His conduct to the last was
dignified and even cheerful. Just before submitting his head to
the block he repeated the line from Horace
" Dulce et decorum est pro patria tnori."
His son SIMON FRASER, Master of Lovat (1726-1782) (not to
be confused with another Simon Fraser who saw somewhat
similar service and was killed in 1777 at the battle of Saratoga),
was a soldier, who at the beginning of the Seven Years' War
raised a corps of Fraser Highlanders for the English service,
and at the outbreak of the American War of Independence raised
another regiment which took a prominent part in it. He fought
under Wolfe in Canada, and also in Portugal, and rose to be a
British major-general. The family estates were restored to him,
but the title was not revived till 1837. On his death without
issue, and also of his successor, his half-brother Archibald
Campbell Fraser (1736-1815), the Lovat estates passed to the
Frasers of Strichen, Aberdeenshire. The i6th Baron Lovat
(b. 1871) raised a corps of mounted infantry (Lovat's Scouts)
in the Boer war of 1899-1902.
See Memoirs of Lord Lovat (1746 and 1767); J. Hill Burton, Life
of Simon, Lord Lovat (1847); J. Anderson, Account of the Family of
Frizell or Fraser (Edinburgh, 1825); A. Mackenzie, History of the
Frasers of Lovat (Inverness, 1896); Mrs A. T. Thomson, Memoirs of
the Jacobites (1845-6); and W. C. Mackenzie, Simon Fraser, Lord
Lovat (1908).
LOVE-BIRD, a name somewhat indefinitely bestowed, chiefly
by dealers and their customers, on some of the smaller short-
tailed parrots, from the affection which examples of opposite sexes
exhibit towards each other. By many ornithologists the birds
thus named, brought almost entirely from Africa and South
America, have been retained in a single genus, Psittacula, though
those belonging to the former country were by others separated
as Agapornis. This separation, however, was neither generally
approved nor easily justified, until Garrod (Proc. Zool. Society,
1874, p. 593) assigned good anatomical ground, afforded by the
structure of the carotid artery, for regarding the two groups
as distinct, and thus removed the puzzle presented by the
geographical distribution of the species of Psittacula in a large
sense, though Huxley (op. cit. 1868, p. 319) had suggested one
way of meeting the difficulty. As the genus is now restricted,
only one of the six species of Psittacula enumerated in the
Nomenclator Avium of Sclater and Salvin is known to be found
outside the Neotropical Region, the exception being the Mexican
P. cyanopygia, and not one of the seven recognized by the same
authors as forming the nearly allied genus Urochroma. On the
other hand, of Agapornis, from which the so-called genus Polio-
psitta can scarcely be separated, five if not six species are known,
all belonging to the Ethiopian Region, and all but one, A . cana
(which is indigenous to Madagascar, and thence has been widely
disseminated), are natives of Africa. In this group probably
comes also Psittinus, with a single species from the Malayan
Subregion. One of the birds most commonly called love-birds,
but with no near relationship to any of the above, being a long-
tailed though very small parrot, is the budgerigar (Melopsittacus
undulalus) now more familiar in Europe than most native birds,
as it is used to " tell fortunes " in the streets, and is bred by
hundreds in aviaries. Its native country is Australia. (A. N.)
LOVEDALE, a mission station in the Victoria East division
of the Cape province, South Africa. It lies 1720 ft. above the
sea on the banks of the Tyumie (Chumie) tributary of the
Keiskama river, some 2 m. N. of Alice, a town 88 m. N.W. by
rail of East London. The station was founded in 1824 by the
Glasgow Missionary Society and was named after Dr John Love,
one of the leading members of, and at the time secretary to, the
society. The site first chosen was in the Ncera valley. But in
1834 the mission buildings were destroyed by the Kaffirs.
On rebuilding, the station was removed somewhat farther
north to the banks of the Tyumie. In 1846 the work at Lovedale
was again interrupted, this time by the War of the Axe (see
CAPE COLONY: History). On this occasion the buildings were
converted into a fort and garrisoned by regular troops. Once
more, in 1850, the Kaffirs threatened Lovedale and made an
attack on" the neighbouring Fort Hare, 1 built during the previous
war.
Until 1841 the missionaries had devoted themselves almost
entirely to evangelistic work; in that year the Lovedale
Missionary Institute was founded by the Rev. W. Govan, who,
save for brief intervals, continued at its head until 1870. He
was then succeeded by the Rev. James Stewart (1831-1905), who
had joined the mission in 1867, having previously (1861-1863),
and partly in company with David Livingstone, explored the
Zambezi regions. To Stewart, who remained at the head of the
institute till his death, is due the existing organization at Love-
dale. The institute, in addition to its purely church work in
which no sectarian tests are allowed provides for the education
of natives of both sexes in nearly all branches of learning (Stewart
discontinued the teaching of Greek and Latin, adopting English
as the classic); it also takes European scholars, no colour dis-
tinction being allowed in any department of the work. The
institute gives technical training in many subjects and maintains
various industries, including such diverse enterprises as farming
and printing-works. It also maintains a hospital. The school
buildings rival in accommodation and completeness those of
the schools in large English cities. The sum paid in fees by
scholars (of whom fully nine-tenths were Kaffirs) in the period
1841-1908 was 84,000. The educational and industrial methods
initiated at Lovedale have been widely adopted by other
1 This fort was named after Colonel John Hare (d. 1846) of
the 27th Regiment, from 1838 lieutenant-governor of the eastern
provinces and commander of the first division of the field force in
the War of the Axe.
LOVELACE LOVER, SAMUEL
missionary bodies. Lovedale is now a branch of the work of
the United Free Church of Scotland.
See R. Young, African Wastes Reclaimed and Illustrated in the
Story of the Lovedale Mission (London, 1902); J. Stewart, Lovedale,
Past and Present (London, 1884), and Dawn in the Dark Continent
(London, 1903) ; J. Wells, Stewart of Lovedale (London, 1908).
LOVELACE, RICHARD (1618-1658), English poet, was born
at Woolwich in 1618. He was a scion of a Kentish family,
and inherited a tradition of military distinction, maintained
by successive generations from the time of Edward III. His
father, Sir William Lovelace, had served in the Low Countries,
received the honour of knighthood from James I., and was killed
at Grolle in 1628. His brother, Francis Lovelace, the " Colonel
Francis " of Lucasta, served on the side of Charles I., and de-
fended Caermarthen in 1644. His mother's family was legal;
her grandfather had been chief baron of the exchequer. Richard
was educated at the Charterhouse and at Gloucester Hall,
Oxford, where he matriculated in 1634. Through the request
of one of the queen's ladies on the royal visit to Oxford he was
made M.A., though only in his second year at the university.
Lovelace's fame has been kept alive by a few songs and the
romance of his career, and his poems are commonly spoken
of as careless improvisations, and merely the amusements of an
active soldier. But the unhappy course of his life gave him
more leisure for verse-making than opportunity of soldiering.
Before the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 his only active
service was in the bloodless expedition which ended in the
Pacification of Berwick in 1640. On the conclusion of peace he
entered into possession of the family estates at Bethersden,
Canterbury, Chart and Halden in Kent. By that time he was
one of the most distinguished of the company of courtly poets
gathered round Queen Henrietta, who were influenced as a school
by contemporary French writers of vers de socUte. He wrote a
comedy, The Scholar, when he was sixteen, and a tragedy,
The Soldier, when he was twenty-one. From what he says of
Fletcher, it would seem that this dramatist was his model, but
only the prologue and epilogue to his comedy have been preserved.
When the rupture between king and parliament took place,
Lovelace was committed to the Gatehouse at Westminster for
presenting to the Commons in 1642 a petition from Kentish
royalists in the king's favour. It was then that he wrote his
most famous song, " To Althea from Prison." He was liberated,
says Wood, on bail of 40,000 (more probably 4000), and
throughout the civil war was a prisoner on parole, with this
security in the hands of his enemies. He contrived, however,
to render considerable service to the king's cause. He provided
his two brothers with money to raise men for the Royalist army,
and befriended many of the king's adherents. He was especially
generous to scholars and musicians, and among his associates in
London were Henry Lawes and John Gamble, the Cottons, Sir
Peter Lely, Andrew Marvell and probably Sir John Suckling.
He joined the king at Oxford in 1645, and after the surrender
of the city in 1646 he raised a regiment for the service of the
French king. He was wounded at the siege of Dunkirk, and with
his brother Dudley, who had acted as captain in his brother's
command, returned to England in 1648. It is not known
whether the brothers took any part in the disturbances in Kent
of that year, but both were imprisoned at Petre House in Alders-
gate. During this second imprisonment he collected and revised
for the press a volume of occasional poems, many if not most of
which had previously appeared in various publications. The
volume was published in 1649 under the title of Lucasta, his
poetical name contracted from Lux Casta for a lady rashly
identified by Wood as Lucy Sacheverell, who, it is said, married
another during his absence in France, on a report that he had
died of his wounds at Dunkirk. The last ten years of Lovelace's
life were passed in obscurity. His fortune had been exhausted
in the king's interest, and he is said to have been supported by
the generosity of friends. He died in 1658 " in a cellar in Long-
acre," according to Aubrey, who, however, possibly exaggerates
his poverty. A volume of Lovelace's Posthume Poems was
published in 1659 by his brother Dudley. They are of inferior
merit to his own collection.
The world has done no injustice to Lovelace in neglecting all but
a few of his modest offerings to literature. But critics often do him
injustice in dismissing him as a gay cavalier, who dashed off his
verses hastily and cared little what became of them. It is a mistake
to class him with Suckling; he has neither Suckling's easy grace
nor his reckless spontaneity. We have only to compare the version
of any of his poems in Lucasta with the form in which it originally
appeared to see how fastidious was his revision. In many places it
takes time to decipher his meaning. The expression is often elliptical,
the syntax inverted and tortuous, the train of thought intricate and
discontinuous. These faults they are not of course to be found in
his two or three popular lyrics, " Going to the Wars," " To Althea
from Prison," ' The Scrutiny " are, however, as in the case of his
poetical master, Donne, the faults not of haste but of over-elabora-
tion. His thoughts are not the first thoughts of an improvisatore,
but thoughts ten or twenty stages removed from the first, and they
are generally as closely packed as they are far-fetched.
His poems were edited by W. C. Hazlitt in 1864.
LOVELL, FRANCIS LOVELL, VISCOUNT (1454-1487), sup-
porter of Richard III., was son of John, 8th Baron Lovell. As
a young man he served under Richard of Gloucester in the
expedition to Scotland in 1480. After the death of Edward
IV. he became one of his patron's strongest supporters. He
had been created a viscount on the 4th of January 1483, and
whilst still Protector Richard made him Chief Butler. As soon
as Richard became king, Lovell was promoted to be Lord
Chamberlain. Lovell helped in the suppression of Buckingham's
rebellion, and as one of Richard's most trusted ministers was
gibbeted in Collingbourne's couplet with Catesby and Rat cliff e:
" The catte, the ratte and Lovell our dogge
Rulyth all England under a hogge."
He had command of the fleet which was to have stopped Henry
Tudor's landing in 1485, but fought for Richard at Bosworth
and after the battle fled to sanctuary at Colchester. Thence
he escaped next year to organize a dangerous revolt in York-
shire. When that failed he fled to Margaret of Burgundy in
Flanders. As a chief leader of the Yorkist party he had a
foremost part in Lambert Simnel's enterprise. With John de
la Pole, earl of Lincoln, he accompanied the pretender to Ireland
and fought for him at Stoke on the i6th of June 1487. He was
seen escaping from the battle, but was never afterwards heard
of; Bacon relates that according to one report he lived long
after in a cave or vault (Henry VII., p. 37, ed. Lumby). More
than 200 years later, in 1708, the skeleton of a man was found in
a secret chamber in the family mansion at Minster Lovell in
Oxfordshire. It is supposed that Francis Lovell had hidden
himself there and died of starvation.
Collingbourne's couplet is preserved by Fabyan, Chronicle, p. 672.
For the discovery at Minster Lovell see Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. i.
and 5th ser. x. (C. L. K.)
LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868), Irish novelist, artist, song-
writer and musician, was born in Dublin on the 24th of February
1797. His father was a stockbroker. Lover began life as an
artist, and was elected in 1828 a member of the Royal Hibernian
Academy a body of which two years afterwards he became
secretary. He acquired repute as a miniature painter, and a
number of the local aristocracy sat to him for their portraits.
His love for music showed itself at an early age. At a dinner
given to the poet Tom Moore in 1818 Lover sang one of his own
songs, which elicited special praise from Moore. One of his best-
known portraits was that of Paganini, which was exhibited at
the Royal Academy. He attracted attention as an author by
his Legends and Stones of Ireland (1832), and was one of the first
writers for the Dublin University Magazine. He went to London
about 1835, where, among others, he painted Lord Brougham
in his robes as lord chancellor. His gifts rendered him popular
in society; and he appeared often at Lady Blessington's evening
receptions. There he sang several of his songs, which were,
so well received that he published them (Songs and Ballads,
1839). Some of them illustrated Irish superstitions, among
these being " Rory O'More," " The Angel's Whisper," " The
May Dew " and " The Four-leaved Shamrock." In 1837 appeared
Rory O'More, a National Romance, which at once made him a
reputation as a novelist; he afterwards dramatized it for the
Adelphi Theatre, London. In 1842 was published his best-known
work, Handy Andy, an Irish Tale. Meanwhile his pursuits had
LOVERE LOWE, SIR H.
affected his health; and .in 1844 he gave up writing for some
time, substituting instead public entertainments, called by him
" Irish Evenings," illustrative of his own works. These were
successful both in Great Britain and in America. In addition
to publishing numerous songs of his own, Lover edited a collec-
tion entitled The Lyrics of Ireland, which appeared in 1858.
He died on the 6th of July 1868. Besides the novels already
mentioned he wrote Treasure Trove (1844), and Metrical Tales
and Other Poems (1860).
His Life was written in 1874 by Bayle Bernard.
LOVERE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Bergamo, at the north-west end of the Lago d' Iseo, 522 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3306. It is a picturesque town,
the houses having the overhanging wooden roofs of Switzerland
united with the heavy stone arcades of Italy, while the situation
is beautiful, with the lake in front and the semicircle of bold
mountains behind. The church of Santa Maria in Valvendra,
built in 1473, has frescoes by Floriano Ferramola of Brescia
(d. 1528). The Palazzo Tadini contains a gallery of old pictures,
some sculptures by Benzoni and Canova, and a zoological collec-
tion. Lovere possesses a silk-spinning factory, and the Stabli-
mento Metallurgico Gregorini, a large iron-work and cannon
foundry, employs 1600 workmen. Lovere is reached by steamer
from Sarnico at the south end of the lake, and there is a steam
tramway through the Val Camonica, which is highly cultivated,
and contains iron- and silk-works. From Cividate, the terminus,
the road goes on to Edolo (2290 ft.), whence passes lead into
Tirol and the Valtellina.
LOW, SETH (1850- ), American administrator and edu-
cationist, was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the i8th
of January 1850. He studied in the Polytechnic Institute of
Brooklyn and in Columbia University, where he graduated in
1870. He became a clerk (1870) and then a partner (1875) in
his father's tea and silk-importing house, A. A. Low & Brothers,
which went out of business in 1888. In 1878 he organized, and
became president of, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. In
1882-1886 he was mayor of the city of Brooklyn, being twice
elected on an independent ticket; and by his administration of
his office he demonstrated that a rigid " merit " civil-service
system was practicable in September 1884 the first municipal
civil-service rules in the United Service were adopted in Brooklyn.
He was president of Columbia University from 1890 to 1901,
and did much for it by his business administration, his liberality
(he gave $1,000,000 for the erection of a library) and his especial
interest in the department of Political Science. In his term
Columbia became a well-organized and closely-knit university.
Its official name was changed from Columbia College to Columbia
University. It was removed to a new site on Morningside
Heights, New York City. The New York College for the Training
of Teachers became its Teachers' College of Columbia; a Faculty
of Pure Science was added; the Medical School gave up its
separate charter to become an integral part of the university;
Barnard College became more closely allied with the university;
relations were entered into between the university and the
General, Union and Jewish theological seminaries of New York
City and with Cooper Union, the Metropolitan Museum of Fine
Arts and the American Museum of Natural History; and its
faculty and student body became less local in character. Dr
Low was a delegate to the Hague Peace Conference in 1899. He
was prominent among those who brought about the chartering
of Greater New York in 1897, and in this year was an unsuccessful
candidate, on an independent ticket, for mayor of New York
City; in 1900, on a fusion ticket, he was elected mayor and
served in 1901-1903.
LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- ), American artist and writer
on art, was born at Albany, New York, on the 3ist of May 1853.
In 1873 he entered the atelier of J. L. Ger6me in the Ecole des
Beaux Arts at Paris, subsequently joining the classes of Carolus-
Duran, with whom he remained until 1877. Returning to New
York, he became a member of the Society of American Artists
in 1878 and of the National Academy of Design in 1890. His
pictures of New England types, and illustrations of Keats, brought
him into prominence. Subsequently he turned his attention to
decoration, and executed panels and medallions for the Waldorf-
Astoria Hotel, New York, a panel for the Essex County Court
House, Newark, New Jersey, panels for private residences and
stained-glass windows for various churches, including St Paul's
Methodist Episcopal Church, Newark, N.J. He was an in-
structor in the schools of Cooper Union, New York, in 1882-
1885, and in the school of the National Academy of Design in
1889-1892. Mr Low, who is known to a wider circle as the
friend of R. L. Stevenson, published some reminiscences, A
Chronicle of Friendships, 187 3-1 goo (1908). In 1909 he
married Mary (Fairchild), formerly the wife of the sculptor
MacMonnies.
LOWBOY, a small table with one or two rows of drawers, so
called in contradistinction to the tallboy, or double chest of
drawers. Both were favourite pieces of the i8th century, both
in England and America; the lowboy was most frequently used
as a dressing-table, but sometimes as a side-table. It is usually
made of oak, walnut or mahogany, with brass handles and
escutcheons. The more elegant examples of the Chippendale
period have cabriole legs, claw-and-ball feet and carved knees,
and are sometimes sculptured with the favourite shell motive
beneath the centre drawer.
LOW CHURCHMAN, a term applied to members of the Church
of England or its daughter churches who, while accepting the
hierarchical and sacramental system of the Church, do not
consider episcopacy as essential to the constitution of the Church,
reject the doctrine that the sacraments confer grace ex opere
operato (e.g. baptismal regeneration) and lay stress on the Bible
as the sole source of authority in matters of faith. They thus
differ little from orthodox Protestants of other denominations,
and in general are prepared to co-operate with them on equal
terms.
The name was used in the early part of the i8th century as
the equivalent of " Latitudinarian," i.e. one who was prepared to
concede much latitude in matters of discipline and faith, in
contradistinction to " High Churchman," the term applied to
those who took a high view of the exclusive authority of the
Established Church, of episcopacy and of the sacramental
system. It subsequently fell into disuse, but was revived in the
1 9th century when the Tractarian movement had brought the
term " High Churchman " into vogue again in a modified sense,
i.e. for those who exalted the idea of the Catholic Church and the
sacramental system at the expense both of the Establishment
and of the exclusive authority of Scripture. " Low Churchman "
now became the equivalent of " Evangelical," the designation of
the movement, associated with the name of Simeon, which laid the
chief stress on the necessity of personal " conversion." " Lati-
tudinarian " gave place at the same time to " Broad Churchman,"
to designate those who lay stress on the ethical teaching of the
Church and minimize the value of orthodoxy. The revival of
pre-Reformation ritual by many of the High Church clergy led
to the designation " ritualist " being applied to them in a some-
what contemptuous sense; and " High Churchman " and
" Ritualist " have often been wrongly treated as convertible
terms. Actually many High Churchmen are not Ritualists,
though they tend to become so. The High Churchman of the
" Catholic " type is further differentiated from the " old-
fashioned High Churchman " of what is sometimes described as
the " high and dry " type of the period anterior to the Oxford
Movement.
LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1760-1844), English general, was the
son of an army surgeon, John Lowe, and was born at Galway
on the 28th of July 1769. His mother was a native of that
county. His childhood was spent in various garrison towns
but he was educated chiefly at Salisbury grammar school. He
obtained a post as ensign in the East Devon Militia before his
twelfth year, and subsequently entered his father's regiment,
the soth, then at Gibraltar (1787) under Governor- General
O'Hara. After the outbreak of war with France early in 1793,
Lowe saw active service successively in Corsica, Elba, Portugal
and Minorca, where he was entrusted with the command of a
LOWE LOWELL, A. L.
73
battalion of Corsican exiles, called The Corsican Rangers. With
these he did good work in Egypt in 1800-1801. After the peace
of Amiens, Lowe, now a major, became assistant quartermaster-
general; but on the renewal of war with France in 1803 he was
charged, as lieutenant-colonel, to raise the Corsican battalion
again and with it assisted in the defence of Sicily. On the
capture of Capri he proceeded thither with his battalion and a
Maltese regiment; but in October 1808 Murat organized an
attack up'on the island, and Lowe, owing to the unsteadiness of
the Maltese troops and the want of succour by sea, had to agree
to evacuate the island. The terms in which Sir William Napier
and others have referred to Lowe's defence of Capri are unfair.
His garrison consisted of 1362 men, while the assailants numbered
between 3000 and 4000. In the course of the year 1809 Lowe
and his Corsicans helped in the capture of Ischia and Procida, as
well as of Zante, Cephalonia and Cerigo. For some months he
acted as governor of Cephalonia and Ithaca, and later on of
Santa Maura. He returned to England in 1812, and in January
1813 was sent to inspect a Russo-German legion then being
formed, and he accompanied the armies of the allies through the
campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being present at thirteen important
battles. He won praise from Blucher and Gneisenau for his
gallantry and judgment. He was chosen to bear to London the
news of the first abdication of Napoleon in April 1814. He was
then knighted and became major-general; he also received decora-
tions from the Russian and Prussian courts. Charged with the
duties of quartermaster-general of the army in the Netherlands in
1814-1815, he was about to take part in the Belgian campaign when
he was offered the command of the British troops at Genoa; but
while still in the south of France he received (on the ist of August
1815) news of his appointment to the position of custodian of
Napoleon, who had surrendered to H.M.S. " Bellerophon " off
Rochefort. Lowe was to be governor of St Helena, the place of
the ex-emperor's exile.
On his arrival there at Plantation House he found that
Napoleon had already had scenes with Admiral Cockburn, of
H.M.S. " Northumberland," and that he had sought to induce
the former governor, Colonel Wilks, to infringe the regulations
prescribed by the British government (see Monthly Review,
January 1901). Napoleon and his followers at Longwood
pressed for an extension of the limits within which he could move
without surveillance, but it was not in Lowe's power to grant this
request. Various matters, in some of which Lowe did not evince
much tact, produced friction between them. The news that
rescue expeditions were being planned by the Bonapartists in the
United States led to the enforcement of somewhat stricter
regulations in October 1816, Lowe causing sentries to be posted
round Longwood garden at sunset instead of at 9 P.M. This was
his great offence in the eyes of Napoleon and his followers. Hence
their efforts to calumniate Lowe, which had a surprising success.
O'Meara, the British surgeon, became Napoleon's man, and lent
himself to the campaign of calumny in which Las Cases and
Montholon showed so much skill. In one of the suppressed
passages ofhis Journal Las Cases wrote that the exiles had to
" reduce to a system our demeanour, our words, our sentiments,
even our privations, in order that we might thereby excite a
lively interest in a large portion of the population of Europe, and
that the opposition in England might not fail to attack the
ministry." As to the privations, it may be noted that Lowe
recommended that the government allowance of 8000 a year
to the Longwood household should be increased by one-half.
The charges of cruelty brought against the governor by O'Meara
and others have been completely refuted; and the most that can
be said against him is that he was occasionally too suspicious
in the discharge of his duties. After the death of Napoleon in
May 1821, Lowe returned to England and received the thanks
of George IV. On the publication of O'Meara's book he resolved
to prosecute the author, but, owing to an unaccountable delay,
the application was too late. This fact, together with the reserved
behaviour of Lowe, prejudiced the public against him, and the
government did nothing to clear his reputation. In 1825-1830
he commanded the forces in Ceylon, but was not appointed
to the governorship when it fell vacant in 1830. In 1842 he
became colonel of his old regiment, the soth; he also received
the G.C.M.G. He died in 1844.
See W. Forsyth, History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena
(3 vols., London, 1853); Gourgaud, Journal inedite de Sainte-
Helene (1815-1818; 2 vols., Paris, 1899); R. C. Seaton, Napoleon's
Captivity in relation to Sir Hudson Lowe (London, 1903) ; Lieut.-Col.
Basil Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff-Officer (London,
1903); the earl of Rosebery, Napoleon; the Last Phase (London
1900); J. H. Rose, Napoleonic Studies (London, 1904). (J- HL. R.)
L6WE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869), German
composer, was born at Lobejiin, near Halle, on the 3oth of
November 1796, and was a choir-boy at Kothen from 1807
to 1809, when he went to the Franke Institute at Halle, studying
music with Turk. The beauty of Lowe's voice brought him
under the notice of Madame de Stae'l, who procured him a pension
from Jer6me Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia; this stopped
in 1813, on the flight of the king. He entered the University
of Halle as a theological student, but was appointed cantor at
Stettin in 1820, and director of the town music in 1821, in which
year he married Julie von Jacob, who died in 1823. His second
wife, Auguste Lange, was an accomplished singer, and they
appeared together in his oratorio performances with great success.
He retained his office at Stettin for 46 years, when, after a stroke
of paralysis, he was somewhat summarily dismissed. He
retired to Kiel, and died on the 2oth of April 1869. He undertook
many concert tours during his tenure of the post at Stettin,
visiting Vienna, London, Sweden, Norway and Paris. His
high soprano voice (he could sing the music of the " Queen
of Night " in Die Zauberflote as a boy) had developed into a
fine tenor. Lowe was a voluminous composer, and wrote five
operas, of which only one, Die drei WUnsche, was performed
at Berlin in 1834, without much success; seventeen oratorios,
many of them for male voices unaccompanied, or with short
instrumental interludes only; choral ballads, cantatas, three
string quartets, a pianoforte trio; a work for clarinet and piano,
published posthumously; and some piano solos. But the
branch of his art by which he is remembered, and in which he
must be admitted to have attained perfection, is the solo ballad
with pianoforte accompaniment. His treatment of long narrative
poems, in a clever mixture of the dramatic and lyrical styles,
was undoubtedly modelled on the ballads of Zumsteeg, and has
been copied by many composers since his day. His settings of
the " Erlkonig " (a very early example), " Archibald Douglas,"
"Heinrich der Vogler," "Edward" and "Die Verfallene
Mtihle," are particularly fine.
LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856- ), American
educationalist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts on the I3th
of December 1856, the great-grandson of John Lowell, the
" Columella of New England," and on his mother's side, a grand-
son of Abbott Lawrence. He graduated at Harvard College
in 1877, with highest honours in mathematics; graduated at
the Harvard Law School in 1880; and practised law in 1880-
1897 in partnership with his cousin, Francis Cabot Lowell
(b. 1855), with whom he wrote Transfer of Stock in Corporations
(1884). In 1897 he became lecturer and in 1898 professor of
government at Harvard, and in 1909 succeeded Charles William
Eliot as president of the university. In the same year he was
president of the American Political Science Association. In
1900 he had succeeded his father, Augustus Lowell (1830-
1901), as financial head of the Lowell Institute of Boston. He
wrote Essays on Government (1889), Governments and Parties in
Continental Europe (2 vols., 1896), Colonial Civil Service (1900;
with an account by H. Morse Stephens of the East India College
at Haileybury), and The Government of England (2 vols., 1008).
His brother, PERCIVAL LOWELL (1855- ), the well-known
astronomer, graduated at Harvard in 1876, lived much in Japan
between 1883 and 1893, and in 1894 established at Flagstaff,
Arizona, the Lowell Observatory, of whose Annals (from 1898)
he was editor. In 1902 he became non-resident professor of
astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He
wrote several books on the Far East, including Choson (1885),
The Soul of the Far East (1886), Noto, an Unexplored Corner
74
LOWELL, C. R. LOWELL, J. R.
of Japan (1891), and Occult Japan (1895), but he is best known
for his studies of the planet Mars he wrote Mars (1895), Mars
and Its Canals (1907), and Mars, the Abode of Life (1908) and
his contention that the " canals " of Mars are a sign of life and
civilization on that planet (see MARS). He published The
Evolution of Worlds in 1909.
LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-1864), American
soldier, was born on the 2nd of January 1835 in Boston, Massa-
chusetts. His mother, Anna Cabot Jackson Lowell (1819-1874),
a daughter of Patrick Tracy Jackson, married Charles Russell
Lowell, a brother of James Russell Lowell; she wrote verse and
books on education. Her son graduated at Harvard in 1854,
worked in an iron mill in Trenton, New Jersey, for a few months
in 1855, spent two years abroad, and in 1858-1860 was local
treasurer of the Burlington & Missouri river railroad. In 1860
he took charge of the Mount Savage Iron Works, in Cumberland,
Maryland. He entered the Union army in June 1861 (commission
May 14) as captain of the 3rd (afterwards 6th) U.S. cavalry;
on the isth of April 1863 he became colonel of the 2nd Massa-
chusetts cavalry; he was wounded fatally at Cedar Creek on
the 1 9th of October 1864, when he was promoted brigadier-
general of U.S. Volunteers, and died on the next day at Middle-
town, Va. Lowell married in October 1863, Josephine Shaw
(1843-1905), a sister of Colonel R. G. Shaw. Her home when
she was married was on Staten Island, and she became deeply
interested in the social problems of New York City. She was a
member of the State Charities Aid Society, and from 1877 to
1889 was a member of the New York State Board of Charities,
being the first woman appointed to that board. She founded
the Charity Organization Society of New York City in 1882,
and wrote Public Relief and Private Charity (1884) and Industrial
Arbitration and Conciliation (1893).
See Edward E. Emerson (ed.), The Life and Letters of Charles
Russell Lowell (Boston, 1907).
LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891), American author
and diplomatist, was born at Elmwood, in Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, en the 22nd of February 1819, the son of Charles
Lowell (i 782-I86I). 1 On his mother's side he was descended from
the Spences and Traills, who made their home in the Orkney
Islands, his great-grandfather, Robert Traill, returning to England
on the breaking out of hostilities in 1775. He was brought up
in a neighbourhood bordering on the open country, and from
his earliest years he found a companion in nature; he was
also early initiated into the reading of poetry and romance,
hearing Spenser and Scott in childhood, and introduced to old
ballads by his mother. He had for schoolmaster an Englishman
who held by the traditions of English schools, sc that before he
entered Harvard College he had a more familiar acquaintance
with Latin verse than most of his fellows a familiarity which
showed itself later in his mock-pedantic accompaniment to
The Biglow Papers and his macaronic poetry. He was a wide
reader, but a somewhat indifferent student, graduating at
Harvard without special honours in 1838. During his college
* course he wrote a number of trivial pieces for a college magazine,
and shortly after graduating printed for private circulation
the poem which his class asked him to write for their graduation
festivities.
He was uncertain at first what vocation to choose, and vacil-
lated between business, the ministry, medicine and law. He
decided at last to practise law, and after a course at the Harvard
law school, was admitted to the bar. While studying for his
profession, however, he contributed poems and prose articles
to various magazines. He cared little for the law, regarding
it simply as a distasteful means of livelihood, yet his experiments
in writing did not encourage him to trust to this for support.
An unhappy adventure in love deepened his sense of failure,
but he became betrothed to Maria White in the autumn of
1840, and the next twelve years of his life were deeply affected
by her influence. She was a poet of delicate power, but also
possessed a lofty enthusiasm, a high conception of purity and
justice, and a practical temper which led her to concern herself
1 See under LOWELL, JOHN.
in the movements directed against the evils of intemperance
and slavery. Lowell was already looked upon by his companions
as a man marked by wit and poetic sentiment; Miss White
was admired for her beauty, her character and her intellectual
gifts, and the two became thus the hero and heroine among a
group of ardent young men and women. The first-fruits of this
passion was a volume of poems, published in 1841, entitled
A Year's Life, which was inscribed by Lowell in a veiled dedica-
tion to his future wife, and was a record of his new emotions
with a backward glance at the preceding period of depression
and irresolution. The betrothal, moreover, stimulated Lowell
to new efforts towards self-support, and though nominally
maintaining his law office, he threw his energy into the establish-
ment, in company with a friend, Robert Carter, of a literary
journal, to which the young men gave the name of The Pioneer.
It was to open the way to new ideals in literature and art, and
the writers to whom Lowell turned for assistance Hawthorne,
Emerson, Whittier, Poe, Story and Parsons, none of them
yet possessed of a wide reputation indicate the acumen of the
editor. Lowell himself had already turned his studies in dramatic
and early poetic literature to account in another magazine,
and continued the series in The Pioneer, besides contributing
poems; but after the issue of three monthly numbers, beginning
in January 1843, the magazine came to an end, partly because
of a sudden disaster which befell Lowell's eyes, partly through
the inexperience of the conductors and unfortunate business
connexions.
The venture confirmed Lowell in his bent towards literature.
At the close of 1843 he published a collection of his poems, and
a year later he gathered up certain material which he had printed,
sifted and added to it, and produced Conversations on some of
the Old Poets. The dialogue form was used merely to secure
an undress manner of approach to his subject; there was no
attempt at the dramatic. The book reflects curiously Lowell's
mind at this time, for the conversations relate only partly to
the poets and dramatists of the Elizabethan period; a slight
suggestion sends the interlocutors off on the discussion of current
reforms in church and state and society. Literature and reform
were dividing the author's mind, and continued to do so for the
next decade. Just as this book appeared Lowell and Miss White
were married, and spent the winter and early spring of 1845
in Philadelphia. Here, besides continuing his literary contribu-
tions to magazines, Lowell had a regular engagement as an
editorial writer on The Pennsylvania Freeman, a fortnightly
journal devoted to the Anti-Slavery cause. In the spring of
1845 the Lowells returned to Cambridge and made their home
at Elmwood. On the last day of the year their first child,
Blanche, was born, but she lived only fifteen months. A second
daughter, Mabel, was born six months after Blanche's death,
and h'ved to survive her father; a third, Rose, died an infant.
Lowell's mother meanwhile was living, sometimes at home, some-
times at a neighbouring hospital, with clouded mind, and his
wife was in frail health. These troubles and a narrow income
conspired to make Lowell almost a recluse in these days, but
from the retirement of Elmwood he sent forth writings which
show how large an interest he took in affairs. He contributed
poems to the daily press, called out by the Slavery question;
he was, early in 1846, a correspondent of the London Daily News,
and in the spring of 1848 he formed a connexion with the National
Anti-Slavery Standard of New York, by which he agreed to furnish
weekly either a poem or a prose article. The poems were most
frequently works of art, occasionally they were tracts; but
the prose was almost exclusively concerned with the public
men and questions of the day, and forms a series of incisive,
witty and sometimes prophetic diatribes. It was a period with
him of great mental activity, and is represented by four of his
books which stand as admirable witnesses to the Lowell of 1848,
namely, the second series of Poems, containing among others
" Columbus," " An Indian Summer Reverie," " To the Dande-
lion," " The Changeling "; A Fable for Critics, in which, after
the manner of Leigh Hunt's The Feast of lite Poets, he charac-
terizes in witty verse and with good-natured satire American
LOWELL, J. R.
75
contemporary writers, and in which, the publication being anony-
mous, he included himself; The Vision of Sir Launfal, a
romantic story suggested by the Arthurian legends one of his
most popular poems; and finally The Biglow Papers.
Lowell had acquired a reputation among men of letters and
a cultivated class of readers, but this satire at once brought
him a wider fame. The book was not premeditated; a single
poem, called out by the recruiting for the abhorred Mexican
war, couched in rustic phrase and sent to the Boston Courier,
had the inspiriting dash and electrifying rat-tat-tat of this
new recruiting sergeant in the little army of Anti-Slavery re-
formers. Lowell himself discovered what he had done at the
same time that the public did, and he followed the poem with
eight others either in the Courier or the Anti-Slavery Standard.
He developed four well-defined characters in the process a
country farmer, Ezekiel Biglow, and his son Hosea; the Rev.
Homer Wilbur, a shrewd old-fashioned country minister; and
Birdofredum Sawin, a Northern renegade who enters the army,
together with one or two subordinate characters; and his
stinging satire and sly humour are so set forth in the vernacular
of New England as to give at once a historic dignity to this
form of speech. (Later he wrote an elaborate paper to show
the survival in New England of the English of the early I7th
century.) He embroidered his verse with an entertaining
apparatus of notes and mock criticism. Even his index was
spiced with wit. The book, a caustic arraignment of the course
taken in connexion with the annexation of Texas and the war
with Mexico, made a strong impression, and the political philo-
sophy secreted in its lines became a part of household literature.
It is curious to observe how repeatedly this arsenal was drawn
upon in the discussions in America about the " Imperialistic "
developments of 1900. The death of Lowell's mother, and the
fragility of his wife's health, led Lowell, with his wife, their
daughter Mabel and their infant son Walter, to go to Europe
in 1851, and they went direct to Italy. The early months of
their stay were saddened by the death of Walter in Rome, and
by the news of the illness of Lowell's father, who had a slight shock
of paralysis. They returned in November 1852, and Lowell
published some recollections of his journey in the magazines,
collecting the sketches later in a prose volume, Fireside Travels.
He took some part also in the editing of an American edition
of the British Poets, but the low state of his wife's health kept
him in an uneasy condition, and when her death (27th October
1853) released him from the strain of anxiety, there came with
the grief a readjustment of his nature and a new intellectual
activity. At the invitation of his cousin, he delivered a course
of lectures on English poets before the Lowell Institute in Boston
in the winter of 1855. This first formal appearance as a critic
and historian of literature at once gave him a new standing
in the community, and was the occasion of his election to the
Smith Professorship of Modern Languages in Harvard College,
then vacant by the retirement of Longfellow. Lowell accepted
the appointment, with the proviso that he should have a year
of study abroad. He spent his time mainly in Germany, visiting
Italy, and increasing his acquaintance with the French, German,
Italian and Spanish tongues. He returned to America in the
summer of 1856, and entered upon his college duties, retaining
his position for twenty years. As a teacher he proved himself
a quickener of thought amongst students, rather than a close
and special instructor. His power lay in the interpretation of
literature rather than in linguistic study, and his influence over
his pupils was exercised by his own fireside as well as in the
relation, always friendly and familiar, which he held to them
in the classroom. In 1856 he married Miss Frances Dunlap,
a lady who had since his wife's death had charge of his daughter
Mabel.
In the autumn of 1857 The Atlantic Monthly was established,
and Lowell was its first editor. He at once gave the magazine
the stamp of high literature and of bold speech on public affairs.
He held this position only till the spring of 1861, but he continued
to make the magazine the vehicle of his poetry and of some
prose for the rest of his life; his prose, however, was more
abundantly presented in the pages of The North American
Review during the years 1862-1872, when he was associated with
Mr Charles Eliot Norton in its conduct. This magazine especially
gave him the opportunity of expression of political views during
the eventful years of the War of the Union. It was in The
Atlantic during the same period that he published a second
series of The Biglow Papers. Both his collegiate and editorial
duties stimulated his critical powers, and the publication in the
two magazines, followed by republication in book form, of a
series of studies of great authors, gave him an important place
as a critic. Shakespeare, Dryden, Lessing, Rousseau, Dante,
Spenser, Wordsworth, Milton, Keats, Carlyle, Thoreau, Swinburne,
Chaucer, Emerson, Pope, Gray these are the principal subjects
of his prose, and the range of topics indicates the catholicity of
his taste. He wrote also a number of essays, such as " My Garden
Acquaintance," " A Good Word for Winter," " On a Certain
Condescension in Foreigners," which were incursions into the
field of nature and society. Although the great bulk of his
writing was now in prose, he made after this date some of his
most notable ventures in poetry. In 1868 he issued the next
collection in Under the Willows and other Poems, but in 1865
he had delivered his " Ode recited at the Harvard Commemora-
tion," and the successive centennial historical anniversaries
drew from him a series of stately odes.
In 1877 Lowell, who had mingled so little in party politics
that the sole public office he had held was the nominal one of
elector in the Presidential election of 1876, was appointed by
President Hayes minister resident at the court of Spain. He
had a good knowledge of Spanish language and literature, and
his long-continued studies in history and his quick judgment
enabled him speedily to adjust himself to these new relations.
Some of his despatches to the home government were published
in a posthumous volume Impressions of Spain. In 1880 he
was transferred to London as American minister, and remained
there till the close of President Arthur's administration in the
spring of 1885. As a man of letters he was already well known
in England, and he was in much demand as an orator on public
occasions, especially of a literary nature; but he also proved
himself a sagacious publicist, and made himself a wise interpreter
of each country to the other. Shortly after his retirement from
public life he published Democracy and other Addresses, all of
which had been delivered in England. The title address was an
epigrammatic confession of political faith as hopeful as it was
wise and keen. The close of his stay in England was saddened
by the death of his second wife in 1885. After his return to
America he made several visits to England. His public life had
made him more of a figure in the world; he was decorated with
the highest honours Harvard could pay officially, and with
degrees of Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrews, Edinburgh and
Bologna. He issued another collection of his poems, Heartsease
and Rue, in 1888, and occupied himself with revising and re-
arranging his works, which were published in ten volumes in
1890. The last months of his life were attended by illness, and
he died at Elmwood on the i2th of August 1891. After his
death his literary executor, Charles Eliot Norton, published a
brief collection of his poems, and two volumes of added prose,
besides editing his letters.
The spontaneity of Lowell's nature is delightfully disclosed
in his personal letters. They are often brilliant, and sometimes
very penetrating in their judgment of men and books; but the
most constant element is a pervasive humour, and this humour,
by turns playful and sentimental, is largely characteristic of his
poetry, which sprang from a genial temper, quick in its sympathy
with nature and humanity. The literary refinement which
marks his essays in prose is not conspicuous in his verse, which
is of a more simple character. There was an apparent conflict
in him of the critic and the creator, but the conflict was superficial.
The man behind both critical and creative work was so genuine,
that through his writings and speech and action he impressed
himself deeply upon his generation in America, especially upon
the thoughtful and scholarly class who looked upon him as
especially their representative. This is not to say that he was
LOWELL, J. LOWELL
a man of narrow sympathies. On the contrary, he was demo-
cratic in his thought, and outspoken in his rebuke of whatever
seemed to him antagonistic to the highest freedom. Thus,
without taking a very active part in political life, he was recog-
nized as one of the leaders of independent political thought.
He found expression in so many ways, and was apparently so
inexhaustible in his resources, that his very versatility and the
ease with which he gave expression to his thought sometimes
stood in the way of a recognition of his large, simple political
ideality and the singleness of his moral sight.
WRITINGS. The Works of James Russell Lowell, in ten volumes
(Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890); edition de
luxe, 61 vols. (1904); Latest Literary Essays and Addresses (1891);
The Old English Dramatists (1892); Conversations on some of the
Old Poets (Philadelphia, David M'Kay; reprint of the volume pub-
lished in 1843 and subsequently abandoned by its author, 1893);
The Power of Sound: a Rhymed Lecture (New York, privately
printed, 1896); Lectures on English Poets (Cleveland, The Rowfant
Club, 1899).
MEMOIRS. Letters of James Russell Lowell, edited by Charles
Eliot Norton, in two volumes (New York, Harper & Brothers,
1899); Life of James Russell Lowell (2 vols.), by Horace E. Scudder
(Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1901); James Russell Lowell and his
Friends (Boston, 1899), by Edward Everett Hale. (H. E. S.*)
LOWELL, JOHN (1743-1802), American jurist, was born in
Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the i7th of June 1743, and
was a son of the Reverend John Lowell, the first pastor of
Newburyport, and a descendant of Perceval Lowle or Lowell
( 1 57 1-1665) i wno emigrated from Somersetshire to Massachusetts
Bay in 1639 and was the founder of the family in New England.
John Lowell graduated at Harvard in 1760, was admitted to the
bar in 1763, represented Newburyport (1776) and Boston (1778)
in the Massachusetts Assembly, was a member of the Massa-
chusetts Constitutional .Convention of 1770-1780 and, as a
member of the committee appointed to draft a constitution,
secured the insertion of the clause, " all men are born free and
equal," which was interpreted by the supreme court of the state
in 1783 as abolishing slavery in the state. In 1781-1783 he
was a member of the Continental Congress, which in 1782 made
him a judge of the court of appeals for admiralty cases; in
1784 he was one of the commissioners from Massachusetts to
settle the boundary line between Massachusetts and New York;
in 1780-1801 he was a judge of the U.S. District Court of Massa-
chusetts; and from 1801 until his death in Roxbury on the
6th of May 1802 he was a justice of the U.S. Circuit Court
for the First Circuit (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts
and Rhode Island).
His son, JOHN LOWELL (1769-1840), graduated at Harvard in
1786, was admitted to the bar in 1789 (like his father, before he
was twenty years old), and retired from active practice in 1803.
He opposed French influence and the policies of the Democratic
party, writing many spirited pamphlets (some signed " The
Boston Rebel," some " The Roxbury Farmer "), including:
The Antigallican (1797), Remarks on the Hon. J. Q. Adams's
Review of Mr Ames's Works (1809), New England Patriot,
being a Candid Comparison of the Principles and Conduct of the
Washington and Jefferson Administrations (1810), Appeals to the
People on the Causes and Consequences of War with Great Britain
(181 1) and Mr Madison's War (181 2). These pamphlets contain
an extreme statement of the anti-war party and defend impress-
ment as a right of long standing. After the war Lowell abandoned
politics, and won for himself the title of " the Columella of New
England " by his interest in agriculture he was for many years
president of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. He was a
benefactor of the Boston Athenaeum and the Massachusetts
General Hospital.
Another son of the first John Lowell, FRANCIS CABOT LOWELL
(1775-1817), the founder in the United States of cotton manu-
facturing, was born in Newburyport on the 7th of April 1775,
graduated at Harvard in 1793, became a merchant in Boston,
and, during the war of 1812, with his cousin (who was also
his brother-in-law), Patrick Tracy Jackson, made use of the
knowledge of cotton-spinning gained by Lowell in England
(whither he had gone for his health in 1810) and devised a power
loom. Experiments were successfully carried on at Waltham in
1814. Lowell worked hard to secure a protective tariff on cotton
goods. The city of Lowell, Massachusetts, was named in his
honour. He died in Boston on the loth of August 1817.
CHARLES LOWELL (1782-1861), brother of the last named,
was born in Boston, graduated at Harvard in 1800, studied law
and then theology, and after two years in Edinburgh and one year
on the Continent was from 1806 until his death pastor of the
West Congregational (Unitarian) Church of Boston, a charge
in which Cyrus A. Bartol was associated with him after 1837.
Charles Lowell had a rare sweetness and charm, which reappeared
in his youngest son, James Russell Lowell (<?..).
Francis Cabot Lowell's son, JOHN LOWELL (1790-1836), was
born in Boston, travelled in India and the East Indies on business
in 1816 and 1817, in 1832 set out on a trip around the world, and
on the 4th of March 1836 died in Bombay. By a will made, said
Edward Everett, " on the top of a palace of the Pharaohs,"
he left $237,000 to establish what is now known as the Lowell
Institute (?..).
See the first lecture delivered before the Institute, Edward
Everett's A Memoir of Mr John Lowell, Jr. (Boston, 1840).
A grandson of Francis Cabot Lowell, EDWARD JACKSON
LOWELL (1845-1894), graduated at Harvard in 1867, was
admitted to the Suffolk county (Mass.) bar in 1872, and practised
law for a few years. He wrote The Hessians and the Other German
Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War (1884),
The Eve of the French Revolution (1892) and the chapter, " The
United States of America 1775-1782 : their Political Relations
with Europe," in vol. vii. (1888) of Winsor's Narrative and
Critical History of America.
LOWELL, a city and one of the county-seats (Cambridge
being the other) of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated in the N.E. part of the county at the confluence of the
Concord and Merrimack rivers, about 25 m. N.W. of Boston.
Pop. (1890) 77,696; (1900) 94,969, of whom 40,974 were foreign-
born (14,674 being French Canadian, 12,147 Irish, 4485
English Canadian, 4446 English, 1203 Greek, 1099 Scotch);
(1910 census), 106,294. Lowell is served by the Boston &
Maine and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and
by interurban electric lines. The area of Lowell is 14-1 sq. m.,
much the larger part of which is S. of the Merrimack. The city
is irregularly laid out. Its centre is Monument Square, in
Merrimack Street, where are a granite monument to the first
Northerners killed in the Civil War, Luther C. Ladd and A. O.
Whitney (both of Lowell), whose regiment was mobbed in
Baltimore on the igth of April 1861 while marching to Wash-
ington; and a bronze figure of Victory (after one by Rauch in
the Valhalla at Ratisbon), commemorating the Northern triumph
in the Civil War. The Lowell textile school, opened in 1897,
offers courses in cotton manufacturing, wool manufacturing,
designing, chemistry and dyeing, and textile engineering;
evening drawing schools and manual training in the public
schools have contributed to the high degree of technical perfec-
tion in the factories. The power gained from the Pawtucket
Falls in the Merrimack river has long been found insuffi-
cient for these. A network of canals supplies from 14,000 to
24,000 h.p.; and a small amount is also furnished by the Concord
river, but about 26,000 h.p. is supplied by steam. In factory
output ($46,879,212 in 1905; $41,202,984 in 1900) Lowell
ranked fifth in value in 1905 and fourth in 1900 among the
cities of Massachusetts; more than three-tenths of the total
population are factory wage-earners, and nearly 19% of the
population are in the cotton mills. Formerly Lowell was called
the " Spindle City " and the " Manchester of America," but
it was long ago surpassed in the manufacture of textiles by FalJ
River and New Bedford: in 1905 the value of the cotton product
of Lowell, $19,340,925, was less than 60% of the value of cotton
goods made at Fall River. Woollen goods made in Lowell in 1905
were valued at $2,579,363; hosiery and knitted goods, at
$3,816,964; worsted goods, at $1,978,552. Carpets and textile
machinery are allied manufactures of importance. There are
other factories for machinery, patent medicines, boots and shoes,
LOWELL INSTITUTE LOWENSTEIN
77
perfumery and cosmetics, hosiery and rubber heels. Lowell was
the home of the inventor of rubber heels, Humphrey O'Sullivan.
The founders of Lowell were Patrick Tracy Jackson (1780-
1847), Nathan Appleton (1779-1861), Paul Moody (1770-1831)
and the business manager chosen by them, Kirk Boott (1790-
1837). The opportunity for developing water-power by the
purchase of the canal around Pawtucket Falls (chartered for
navigation in 1792) led them to choose the adjacent village
of East Chelmsford as the site of their projected cotton mills;
they bought the Pawtucket canal, and incorporated in 1822
the Merrimack Manufacturing Company; in 1823 the first cloth
was actually made, and in 1826 a separate township was formed
from part of Chelmsford and was named in honour of Francis
Cabot Lowell, who with Jackson had improved Cartwright's
power loom, and had planned the mills at Waltham. In 1836
Lowell was chartered as a city. Lowell annexed parts of Tewks-
bury in 1834, 1874, 1888 and 1906, and parts of Dracut in 1851,
1874 and 1879. Up to 1840 the mill hands, with the exception
of English dyers and calico printers, were New England girls.
The " corporation," as the employers were called, provided
from the first for the welfare of their employees, and Lowell
has always been notably free from labour disturbances.
The character of the early employees of the mills, later largely
displaced by French Canadians and Irish, and by immigrants from
various parts of Europe, is clearly seen in the periodical, The Lowell
Offering, written and published by them in 1840-1845. This
monthly magazine.orgamzed by the Rev. Abel Charles Thomas (1807-
1880), pastor of the First Universalist Church, was from October
1840 to March 1841 made up of articles prepared for some of the
many improvement circles or literary societies; it then became
broader in its scope, received more spontaneous contributions, and
from October 1842 until December 1845 was edited by Harriot F.
Curtis (1813-1889), known by her pen name, " Mina Myrtle," and
by Harriet Farley (1817-1907), who became manager and proprietor,
and published selections from the Offering under the titles Shells
from the Strand of the Sea of Genius (1847) and Mind among the
Spindles (1849), with an introduction by Charles Knight. In 1854
she married John Intaglio Donlevy (d. 1872). Famous contributors
to the Offering were Harriet Hanson (b. 1825) and Lucy Larcom
(1824-1893). Harriet Hanson wrote Early Factory Labor in New
England (1883) and Loom and Spindle (1898), an important contri-
bution to the industrial and social history of Lowell. She was
prominent in the anti-slavery and woman suffrage agitations in
Massachusetts, and wrote Massachusetts in the Woman Suffrage
Movement (1881). She married in 1848 William Stevens Robinson
(1818-1876), who wrote in 1856-1876 the political essays signed
" Warrington " for the Springfield Republican. Lucy Larcom, 1
born in Beverly, came to Lowell in 1835, where her widowed mother
kept a " corporation " boarding-house, and where she became a
" doffer," changing bobbins in the mills. She wrote much, especially
for the Offering; became an ardent abolitionist and (in 1843) the
friend of Whittier; left Lowell in 1846, and taught for several years,
first in Illinois, and then in Beverly and Norton, Massachusetts.
An Idyl of Work (1875) describes the life of the mills and A New
England Girlhood (1889) is autobiographical; she wrote many stories
and poems, of which Hannah Binding Shoes is best known.
Benjamin F. Butler was from boyhood a resident of Lowell,
where he began to practise law in 1841. James McNeill Whistler
was born here in 1834, and in 1907 his birthplace in Worthen Street
was purchased by the Art Association to be used as its headquarters
and as an art museum and gallery ; it was dedicated in 1908, and in
the same year a replica of Rodin's statue of Whistler was bought for
the city.
See S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County, 2, p. 53 et seq.
(Boston, 1880); Illustrated History of Lowell, Massachusetts (Lowell,
1897); the books of Harriet H. Robinson and Lucy Larcom already
named as bearing on the industrial conditions of the city between
1835 and 1850; and the famous description in the fourth chapter of
Dickens's American Notes.
LOWELL INSTITUTE, an educational foundation in Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S. A., providing for free public lectures, and en-
dowed by the bequest of $23 7 ,000 left by John Lowell, junior, who
died in 1836. Under the terms of his will 10% of the net income
was to be added to the principal, which in 1909 was over a million
dollars. None of the fund was to be invested in a building
for the lectures; the trustees of the Boston Athenaeum were
made visitors of the fund; but the trustee of the fund is author-
ized to select his own successor, although in doing so he must
" always choose in preference to all others some male descendant
1 See D. D. Addison, Lucy Larcom; Life, Letters and Diary
(Boston, 1897).
of my grandfather John Lowell, provided there is one who
is competent to hold the office of trustee, and of the name of
Lowell," the sole trustee so appointed having the entire selection
of the lecturers and the subjects of lectures. The first trustee
was John Lowell junior's cousin, John Amory Lowell, who
administered the trust for more than forty years, and was
succeeded in 1881 by his son, Augustus Lowell, who in turn
was succeeded in 1900 by his son Abbott Lawrence Lowell, who
in 1909 became president of Harvard University.
The founder provided for two kinds of lectures, one popular,
" and the other more abstruse, erudite and particular." The
popular lectures have taken the form of courses usually ranging
from half a dozen to a dozen lectures, and covering almost every
subject. The fees have always been large, and many of the most
eminent men in America and Europe have lectured there. A
large number of books have been published which consist of
those lectures or have been based upon them. As to the advanced
lectures, the founder seems to have had in view what is now
called university extension, and in this he was far in advance
of his time; but he did not realize that such work can only be
done effectively in connexion with a great school. In pursuance
of this provision public instruction of various kinds has been
given from time to time by the Institute. The first freehand
drawing in Boston was taught there, but was given up when the
public schools undertook it. In the same way a school of practical
design was carried on for many years, but finally, in 1903, was
transferred to the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction for working
men was given at the Wells Memorial Institute until 1908, when
the Franklin Foundation took up the work. A Teachers' School
of Science is maintained in co-operation with the Natural History
Society. For many years advanced courses of lectures were
given by the professors of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, but in 1904 they were superseded by an evening
school for industrial foremen. In 1907, under the title of
" Collegiate Courses," a number of the elementary courses
in Harvard University were offered free to the public under the
same conditions of study and examination as in the university.
For the earlier period, see Harriett Knight Smith, History of the
Lowell Institute (Boston, 1898).
LOWENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Sober, 39 m. E. of Gorlitz by rail. Pop. 5682.
It is one of the oldest towns in Silesia; its town hall dates
from the i6th century, and it has a Roman Catholic church
built in the I3th century and restored in 1862. The town has
sandstone and gypsum quarries, breweries and woollen mills,
and cultivates fruit and vegetables. Lowenberg became a
town in 1217 and has been the scene of much fighting, especially
during the Napoleonic wars. Near the town is the village and
estate of Hohlstein, the property of the Hohenzollern family.
LOWENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, capital of the mediatized county of that name,
situated under the north slope of the Lowenstein range, 6 m.
from Heilbronn. Pop. 1527. It is dominated by the ruined
castle of the counts of Lowenstein, and enclosed by medieval
walls. The town contains many picturesque old houses. There
is also a modern palace. The cultivation of vines is the chief
industry, and there is a brine spring (Theusserbad).
Lowenstein was founded in 1123 by the counts of Calw, and
belonged to the Habsburgs from 1281 to 1441. In 1634 the
castle was destroyed by the imperialists. The county of Lowen-
stein belonged to a branch of the family of the counts of Calw
before 1281, when it was purchased by the German king Rudolph
I., who presented it to his natural son Albert. In 1441 Henry,
one of Albert's descendants, sold it to the elector palatine of
the Rhine, Frederick I., and later it served as a portion for
Louis (d. 1524), a son of the elector by a morganatic marriage,
who became a count of the Empire in 1494. Louis's grandson
Louis II. (d. 1611) inherited the county of Wertheim and other
lands by marriage and called himself count of Lowenstein-
Wertheim; his two sons divided the family into two branches.
The heads of the two branches, into which the older and Pro-
testant line was afterwards divided, were made princes by the
7 8
LOWESTOFT LOWTH
king of Bavaria in 1812 and by the king of Wiirttemberg in
1813; the head of the younger, or Roman Catholic line, was
made a prince of the Empire in 1711. Both lines are flourishing,
their present representatives being Ernst (b. 1854) prince of
Lowenstein- Wertheim-Freudenberg, and Aloyse (b. 1871) prince
of Lowenstein- Wertheim-Rosenberg. The lands of the family
were mediatized after the dissolution of the Empire in 1806.
The area of the county of Lowenstein was about 53 sq. m.
See C. Rommel, Grundztige einer Chronik der Stadt Lowenstein
(Lowenstein, 1893).
LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-
place in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England,
117! m. N.E. from London by ' the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 29,850. It lies on either side of the formerly
natural, now artificial outlet of the river Waveney to the North
Sea, while to the west the river forms Oulton Broad and Lothing
Lake. The northern bank is the original site. South Lowestoft
arose on the completion of harbour improvements, begun in
1844, when the outlet of the Waveney, reopened in 1827, was
deepened. The old town is picturesquely situated on a lofty
declivity, which includes the most easterly point of land in
England. The church of St Margaret is Decorated and Per-
pendicular. South Lowestoft has a fine esplanade, a park
(Bellevue) and other adjuncts of a watering-place. Bathing
facilities are good. There are two piers enclosing a harbour with
a total area of 48 acres, having a depth of about i6ft. at high
tide. The fisheries are important and some 600 smacks belong
to the port. Industries include ship and boat building and
fitting, and motor engineering. The town is governed by a
mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 2178 acres.
Lowestoft (Lothu Wistoft, Lowistoft, Loistoft) owes its origin
to its fisheries. In 1086 it was a hamlet in the demesne of the
royal manor of Lothingland. The men of Lowestoft as tenants
on ancient demesne of the crown possessed many privileges,
but had no definite burghal rights until 1885. For several
centuries before 1740 the fisheries were the cause of constant
dispute between Lowestoft and Yarmouth. During the last
half of the i8th century the manufacture of china flourished in
the town. A weekly market on Wednesdays was granted to
John, earl of Richmond, in 1308 together with an eight days'
fair beginning on the vigil of St Margaret's day, and in 1445
John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, one of his successors as lord of
the manor, received a further grant of the same market and also
two yearly fairs, one on the feast of St Philip and St James and
the other at Michaelmas. The market is still held on Wednes-
days, and in 1792 the Michaelmas fair and another on May-day
were in existence. Now two yearly fairs for small wares are held
on the I3th of May and the nth of October. In 1643 Cromwell
performed one of his earlier exploits in taking Lowestoft, captur-
ing large supplies and making prisoners of several influential
royalists. In the war of 1665 the Dutch under Admiral Opdam
were defeated off Lowestoft by the English fleet commanded by
the duke of York.
See Victoria County History, Suffolk; E. Gillingwater, An His-
torical Account of the Town of Lowestoft (ed. 1790).
LOWIN, JOHN (1576-1659), English actor, was born in London,
the son of a carpenter. His name frequently occurs in Henslowe's
Diary in 1602, when he was playing at the Rose Theatre in the
earl of Worcester's company, and he was at the Blackfriars in
1603, playing with Shakespeare, Burbage and the others, and
owning by 1608 a share and a half -of the twenty shares in
that theatre. About 1623 he was one of the managers. He lived
in Southwark, and Edward Alleyn speaks of his dining with him
in 1620. " Lowin in his latter days kept an inn (the Three Pigeons)
at Brentford, where he deyed very old." Two of his favourite
parts were Falstaff , and Melanteus in The Maid's Tragedy.
LOWLAND, in physical geography, any broad expanse of land
with a general low level. The term is thus applied to the land-
ward portion of the upward slope from oceanic depths to con-
tinental highlands, to a region of depression in the interior of a
mountainous region, to a plain of denudation or to any region
in contrast to a highland. The Lowlands and Highlands of
Scotland are typical.
LOWNDES, THOMAS (1692-1748), founder of the Lowndean
professorship of astronomy at Cambridge university, England,
was born in 1692, both his father and mother being Cheshire
landowners. In 1725 he was appointed provost marshal of
South Carolina, a post he preferred to fill by deputy. In 1727
Lowndes claimed to have taken a prominent part in inducing
the British government to purchase Carolina, but he surrendered
his patent when the transfer of the colony to the crown was
completed. His patent was renewed in 1730, but he resigned
it in 1733. He then brought various impractical schemes before
the government to check the illicit trade in wool between Ireland
and France; to regulate the paper currency of New England;
and to supply the navy with salt from brine, &c. He died on the
1 2th of May 1748. By his will he left his inherited Cheshire
properties to the university of Cambridge for the foundation of
a chair of astronomy and geometry.
LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS (1798-1843), English biblio-
grapher, was born about 1798, the son of a London bookseller.
His principal work, The Bibliographer's Manual of English
Literature the first systematic work of the kind was published
in four volumes in 1834. It took Lowndes fourteen years to
compile, but, despite its merits, brought him neither fame nor
money. Lowndes, reduced to poverty, subsequently became
cataloguer to Henry George Bohn, the bookseller and publisher.
In 1839 he published the first parts of The British Librarian,
designed to supplement his early manual, but owing to failing
health did not complete the work. Lowndes died on the 3ist of
July 1843.
LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called because
of its proximity to the " highest" of all feasts and Sundays,
Easter. It was also known formerly as White Sunday, being still
officially termed by the Roman Catholic Church Dominica in
albis, " Sunday in white garments," in allusion to the white
garments anciently worn on this day by those who had been
baptized and received into the Church just before Easter. Alb-
Sunday, Quasimodo and, in the Greek Church, Antipascha, and
fl SeurepoTrpcbn? Kupia/c^ (literally " second-first Sunday," i.e.
the second Sunday after the first) were other names for the day.
LOWTH, ROBERT (1710-1787), English divine and Orientalist,
was born at Winchester on the 27th of November 1710. He was
the younger son of William Lowth (1661-1732), rector of Buriton,
Hampshire, a theologian of considerable ability. Robert was
educated on the foundation of Winchester College, and in 1729.
was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. He gradu-
ated M.A. in 1737, and in 1741 he was appointed professor of
poetry at Oxford, in which capacity he delivered the Praelectiones
Academicae de Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum. Bishop Hoadly ap-
pointed him in 1744 to the rectory of Ovington, Hampshire,
and in 1750 to the archdeaconry of Winch"-*:;'. In 1753 he was
collated to the rectory of East Woodhay, Hampshire, and in the
same year he published his lectures on Hebrew poetry. In 1754
he received the degree of doctor of divinity from his university,
and in 1755 he went to Ireland for a short time as first chaplain
to the lord-lieutenant, the 4th duke of Devonshire. He declined
a presentation to the see of Limerick, but accepted a prebendal
stall at Durham and the rectory of Sedgefield. In 1758 he
published his Life of William of Wykeham; this was followed
in 1762 by A Short Introduction to English Grammar. In 1765,
the year of his election into the Royal Societies of London and
Gottingen, he engaged in controversy with William Warburton
on the book of Job, in which he was held by Gibbon to have had
the advantage. In June 1766 Lowth was consecrated bishop of
St David's, and about four months afterwards he was translated
to Oxford, where he remained till 1777, when he became bishop-
of London and dean of the Chapel Royal. In 1778 appeared his
last work, Isaiah, a new Translation, with a Preliminary Dis-
sertation, And Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory.
He declined the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1783, and died
at Fulham on the 3rd of November 1787.
The Praelectiones, translated in 1787 by G. Gregory as Lectures on
the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, exercised a great influence both in
England and on the continent. Their chief importance lay in the-
LOXODROME LOYALISTS
79
idea of looking at the sacred poetry as poetry, and examining it by
the ordinary standards of literary criticism. Lowth's aesthetic criti-
cism was that of the age, and is now in great part obsolete, a more
natural method having been soon after introduced by Herder.
The principal point in which Lowth's influence has been lasting is his
doctrine of poetic parallelism, and even here his somewhat mechanical
classification of the forms of Hebrew sense-rhythm, as it should
rather be called, is open to serious objections. Editions of the
Lectures and of the Isaiah have been numerous, and both have
been translated into German. A volume of Sermons and other
Remains, with memoir by the topographer, Peter Hall (1802-
1849), was published in 1834, and an edition of the Popular Works
of Robert Lowth in 3 vols. appeared in 1843.
LOXODROME (from Gr. Xo6s, oblique, and dp&tws, course),
the line on the earth's surface making a constant angle with
the meridian.
LOYALISTS or TORIES, in America, the name given to
the colonists who were loyal to Great Britain during the War
of Independence. In New England and the Middle Colonies
loyalism had a religious as well as a political basis. It repre-
sented the Anglican as opposed to the Calvinistic influence.
With scarcely an exception the Anglican ministers were ardent
Loyalists, the writers and pamphleteers were the ministers
and teachers of that faith, and virtually all the military or civil
leaders were members of that church. The Loyalists north
of Maryland represented the old Tory traditions. In the southern
colonies, where Anglicanism predominated, the division did not
follow religious lines so closely. In Virginia and South Carolina
the Whig leaders were almost without exception members of
the established church. Out of twenty Episcopal ministers
in South Carolina only five were Loyalists. Although many of
the wealthy Anglican planters of the tide-water section fought
for the mother country, the Tories derived their chief support
from the non-Anglican Germans and Scotch in the upper country.
The natural leaders in these colonies were members of the same
church as the governor and vied with him in their zeal for the
support of that church. Since religion was not an issue, the
disputes over questions purely political in character, such as
taxation, distribution of land and appointment of officials,
were all the more bitter. The settlers on the frontier were
snubbed both socially and politically by the low-country aristo-
cracy, and in North Carolina and South Carolina were denied
courts of justice and any adequate representation in the colonial
assembly. Naturally they refused to follow such leaders in a
war in defence of principles in which they had no material
interest. They did not drink tea and had little occasion for the
use of stamps, since they were not engaged in commerce and
had no courts in which to use legal documents. The failure
of the British officers to realize that conditions in the south
differed from those in the north, and the tendency on their
part to treat all Dissenters as rebels, were partly responsible
for the ultimate loss of their southern campaign. The Scotch-
Irish in the south, influenced perhaps by memories of commercial
and religious oppression in Ulster, were mostly in sympathy
with the American cause.
Taking the Thirteen Colonies as a whole, loyalism drew its
strength largely from the following classes: (i) the official
class men holding positions in the civil, military and naval
services, and their immediate families and social connexions,
as, for example, Lieutenant-Governor Bull in South Carolina,
Governor Dunmore in Virginia and Governor Tryon in New
York; (2) the professional classes lawyers, physicians, teachers
and ministers, such as Benjamin Kissam, Peter Van Schaack
and Dr Azor Belts of New York and Dr Myles Cooper, president
of King's College (now Columbia University); (3) large landed
proprietors and their tenants, e.g. William Wragg in South
Carolina and the De Lanceys, De Peysters and Van Cortlandts
in New York; (4) the wealthy commercial classes in New York,
Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Charleston, whose business
interests would be affected by war; (5) natural conservatives
of the type of Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, and numerous
political trimmers and opportunists. Before 1776 the Loyalists
may be divided into two groups. There was a minority of
extremists led by the Anglican ministers and teachers, who
favoured an unquestioning obedience to all British legislation.
The moderate majority disapproved of the mother country's
unwise colonial policy and advocated opposition to it through
legally organized bodies. Many even sanctioned non-importation
and non-exportation agreements, and took part in the election
of delegates to the First Continental Congress. The aggressive
attitude of Congress, the subsequent adoption of the Declara-
tion of Independence, and the refusal to consider Lord Howe's
conciliatory propositions finally forced them into armed opposi-
tion. Very few really sanctioned the British policy as a whole, but
all felt that it was their first duty to fight for the preservation
of the empire and to leave constitutional questions for a later
settlement. John Adams's estimate that one-third of all the
people in the thirteen states in 1776 were Loyalists was perhaps
approximately correct. In New England the number was small,
perhaps largest in Connecticut and in the district which after-
wards became the state of Vermont. New York was the chief
stronghold. The " De Lancey party " or the " Episcopalian
party " included the majority of the wealthy farmers, merchants
and bankers, and practically all communicants of the Anglican
church. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and
Virginia contained large and influential Loyalist minorities; North
Carolina was about equally divided; South Carolina probably,
and Georgia certainly, had Loyalist majorities. Some of the
Loyalists joined the regular British army, others organized
guerilla bands and with their Indian allies inaugurated a reign
of terror on the frontier from New York to Georgia. New
York alone furnished about 15,000 Loyalists to the British army
and navy, and about 8500 militia, making in all 23,500 Loyalist
troops. This was more than any other colony supplied, perhaps
more than all the others combined. Johnson's " Loyal Greens "
and Butler's " Tory Rangers " served under General St Leger
in the Burgoyne campaign of 1777, and the latter took part in
the Wyoming and Cherry Valley massacres of 1778. The
strength of these Loyalists in arms was weakened in New York
by General Sullivan's success at Newtown (now Elmira) on the
2Qth of August 1779, and broken in the north-west by George
Rogers Clark's victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in 1778 and
1779, and in the south by the battles of King's Mountain and
Cowpens in 1 780. Severe laws were passed against the Loyalists
in all the states. They were in general disfranchised and forbidden
to hold office or to practise law. Eight of the states formally
banished certain prominent Tories either conditionally or un-
conditionally, and the remaining five, Connecticut, New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, did practically the same
indirectly. Social and commercial ostracism forced many
others to flee. Their property was usually confiscated for the
support of the American cause. They went to England, to the
West Indies, to the Bahamas, to Canada and to New York,
Newport, Charleston and other cities under British control.
According to a trustworthy estimate 60,000 persons went into
exile during the years from 1775 to 1787. The great majority
settled in Nova Scotia and in Upper and Lower Canada, where
they and their descendants became known as " United Empire
Loyalists." Those who remained in the United States suffered
for many years, and all the laws against them were not finally
repealed until after the War of 1812. The British government,
however, endeavoured to look after the interests of its loyal
colonists. During the war a number of the prominent Loyalists
(e.g. Joseph Galloway) were appointed to lucrative positions,
and rations were issued to many Loyalists in the cities, such as
New York, which were held by the British. During the peace
negotiations at Paris the treatment of the Loyalists presented
a difficult problem, Great Britain at first insisting that the
United States should agree to remove their disabilities and to
act toward them in a spirit of conciliation. The American
commissioners, knowing that a treaty with such provisions would
not be accepted at home, and that the general government had,
moreover, no power to bind the various states in such a matter,
refused to accede; but in the treaty, as finally ratified, the United
States agreed (by Article V.) to recommend to the legislatures
of the various states that Loyalists should " have free liberty
8o
LOYALTY LOYOLA
to go to any part or parts of any of the thirteen United States,
and therein to remain twelve months, unmolested in their en-
deavours to obtain the restitution of such of their estates, rights
and properties as may have been confiscated," that acts and
laws in the premises be reconsidered and revised, and- that
restitution of estates, &c., should be made. The sixth article
provided " that there shall be no future confiscations made,
nor any prosecutions commenced against any person " for
having taken part in the war; and that those in confinement
on such charges should be liberated. In Great Britain opponents
of the government asserted that the Loyalists had virtually
been betrayed; in America the treaty aroused opposition
as making too great concessions to them. Congress made
the promised recommendations, but they were unheeded by the
various states, in spite of the advocacy by Alexander Hamilton
and others of a conciliatory treatment of the Loyalists; and
Great Britain, in retaliation, refused until 1796 to evacuate
the western posts as the treaty prescribed. Immediately after
the war parliament appointed a commission of five to examine
the claims of the Loyalists for compensation for services and
losses; and to satisfy these claims and to establish Loyalists
in Nova Scotia and Canada the British government expended
fully 6,000,000.
See C. H. van Tyne, The Loyalists in the American Revolution
(New York, 1902), which contains much valuable information but
does not explain adequately the causes of loyalism. More useful in
this respect is the monograph by A. C. Flick, Loyalism in New York
during the American Revolution (New York, 1901). On the bio-
graphical side see Lorenzo Sabine, Biographical Sketches of Loyalists
of the American Revolution (2 vols., Boston, 1864); on the literary
side, M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution, 1763-
1783 (2 vols., New York, 1897).
LOYALTY, allegiance to the sovereign or established govern-
ment of one's country, also personal devotion and reverence
to the sovereign and royal family. The English word came into
use in the early part of the isth century in the sense of fidelity
to one's oath, or in service, love, &c.; the later and now the
ordinary sense appears in the i6th century. The O. Fr. loialte,
mod. loyauti, is formed from loial, loyal, Scots leal, Lat. legalis,
legal, from lex, law. This was used in the special feudal sense
of one who has full legal rights, a legalis homo being opposed to
the exlex, utlegatus, or outlaw. Thence in the sense of faithful,
it meant one who kept faithful allegiance to his feudal lord,
and so loyal in the accepted use of the word.
LOYALTY ISLANDS (Fr. lies Loyalty or Loyaute), a group
in the South Pacific Ocean belonging to France, about 100 m.
E. of New Caledonia, with a total land area of about 1050 sq. m.
and 20,000 inhabitants. It consists of Uea or Uvea (the northern-
most), Lifu (the largest island, with an area of 650 sq. m.), Tiga
and several small islands and Mard or Nengone. They are coral
islands of comparatively recent elevation, and in no place rise
more than 250 ft. above the level of the sea. Enough of the
rocky surface is covered with a thin coating of soil to enable
the natives to grow yams, taro, bananas, &c., for their support;
cotton thrives well, and has even been exported in small
quantities, but there is no space available for its cultivation
on any considerable scale. Fresh water, rising and falling with
the tide, is found in certain large caverns in Lifu, and by sinking
to the sea-level a supply may be obtained in any part of the
island. The chief product of the islands are bananas \> the chief
export sandal-wood.
The Loyalty islanders are Melanesians; the several islands have
each its separate language, and in Uea one tribe uses a Samoan
and another a New Hebridean form of speech. The Loyalty
group was discovered at the beginning of the igth century, and
Dumont d'Urville laid down the several islands in his chart.
For many years the natives had a reputation as dangerous
cannibals, but they are now among the most civilized Melanesians.
Christianity was introduced into Mare by native teachers from
Rarotonga and Samoa; missionaries were settled by the London
Missionary Society at Mare in 1854, at Lifu in 1859 and at Uea
in 1865: Roman Catholic missionaries also arrived from New
Caledonia; and in 1864 the French, considering the islands a
dependency of that colony, formally instituted a commandant.
An attempt was made by this official to put a stop to the English
missions by violence; but the report of his conduct led to so
much indignation in Australia and in England that the emperor
Napoleon, on receipt of a protest from Lord Shaftesbury and
others, caused a commission of inquiry to be appointed and
free liberty of worship to be secured to the Protestant missions.
A further persecution of Christians in Uea, during 1875, called
forth a protest from the British government.
LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491-1556), founder of the
Society of Jesus. Inigo Lopez de Recalde, son of Beltran,
lord of the noble houses of Loyola and Onaz, was born, according
to the generally accepted opinion, on the 24th of December
1491 at the castle of Loyola, which is situated on the river
Urola, about i m. from the town of Azpeitia, in the province of
Guipuzcoa. He was the youngest of a family of thirteen. As
soon as he had learnt the elements of reading and writing, he was
sent as a page to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; after-
wards, until his twenty-sixth year, he took service with Antonio
Maurique, duk,e of Nagera, and followed the career of arms. He
was free in his relations with women, gambled and fought;
but he also gave indications of that courage, constancy and
prudence which marked his after life. In a political mission to
settle certain disputes in the province he showed his dexterity
in managing men.
Despite the treaty of Noyon (1516), Charles V. kept Pampeluna,
the capital of Navarre. Andr6 de Foix, at the head of the French
troops, laid siege to the town in 1521 and Ignatius was one of the
defending garrison. In the hour of danger, the claims of religion
reasserted themselves on the young soldier, and, following a
custom when no priest was at hand, he made his confession to a
brother officer, who in turn also confessed to him. During the
final assault on the igth of May 1521 a cannon ball struck him,
shattering one of his legs and badly wounding the other. The
victorious French treated him kindly for nearly two weeks,
and then sent him in a litter to Loyola. The doctors declared
that the leg needed to be broken and set again; and the operation
was borne without a sign of pain beyond a clenching of his fist.
His vanity made him order the surgeons to cut out a bone which
protruded below the knee and spoilt the symmetry of his leg.
He was lame for the rest of his days. Serious illness followed
the operations, and, his life being despaired of, he received the
last sacraments on the z8th of June. That night, however, he
began to mend, and in a few days he was out of danger. During
convalescence two books that were to influence his life were
brought to him. These were a Castilian translation of The Life
of Christ by Ludolphus of Saxony, and the popular Flowers of the
Saints, a series of pious biographies. He gradually became
interested in these books, and a mental struggle began. Some-
times he would pass hours thinking of a certain illustrious lady,
devising means of seeing her and of doing deeds that would win
her favour; at other times the thoughts suggested by the books
got the upper hand. He began to recognize that his career of
arms was over: so he would become the knight of Christ. He
determined to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to practise
all. the austerities that he read of in The Flowers of the Saints.
Expiating his sins was not so much his aim as to accomplish
great deeds for God. During the struggle that went on in his soul ,
he began to take note of his psychological state; and this was
the first time that he exercised his reason on spiritual things;
the experience thus painfully gained he found of great use after-
wards in directing others. One night while he lay awake, he
tells us, he saw the likeness of the Blessed Virgin with her
divine Son; and immediately a loathing seized him for the
former deeds of his life, especially for those relating to carnal
desires; and he asserts that for the future he never yielded to any
such desires. This was the first of many visions. Ignatius
proposed after returning from Jerusalem to join the Carthusian
order at Seville as a lay brother. About the same time Martin
Luther was in the full course of his protest against the papal
supremacy and had already burnt the pope's bull at Worms. The
two opponents were girding themselves for the struggle; and
LOYOLA
81
what the Church of Rome was losing by the defection of the
Augustinian was being counterbalanced by the conversion of
the founder of the Society of Jesus.
As soon as Ignatius had regained strength, he started ostensibly
to rejoin the duke of Nagera, but in reality to visit the great
Benedictine abbey of Montserrato, a famous place of pilgrimage.
On the way, he was joined by a Moor, who began to jest at some
of the Christian doctrines, especially at the perpetual virginity
of the Blessed Virgin. Ignatius was no controversialist; and
the Moor rode off victorious. The chivalrous nature of Ignatius
was aroused. Seized with a longing to pursue and kill the Moor
on account of his insulting language, Ignatius, still doubting
as to his best course, left the matter to his mule, which at the
dividing of the ways took the path to the abbey, leaving the
open road which the Moor had taken. Before reaching Mont-
serrato, Ignatius purchased some sackcloth for a garment and
hempen shoes, which, with a staff and gourd, formed the usual
pilgrim's dress. Approaching the abbey he resolved to do as
his favourite hero Amadis de Gaul did keep a vigil all night
before the Lady altar and then lay aside his worldly armour to
put on that of Christ. He arrived at the abbey just about the
feast of St Benedict (the zist of March 1522), and there made a
confession of his life to a priest belonging to the monastery.
He found in use for the pilgrims a translation of the Spiritual
Exercises of the former abbot, Garcia di Cisneros (d. 1510);
and this, book evidently gave Ignatius the first idea of his more
famous work under the same title. Leaving his mule to the
abbey, and giving away his worldly clothes to a beggar, he kept
his watch in the church during the night of the 24th-25th of
March, and placed on the Lady altar his sword and dagger.
Early the next morning he received the Holy Eucharist and
left before any one could recognize him, going to the neighbouring
town of Manresa, where he first lived in the hospice. Here
began a series of heavy spiritual trials which assailed him for
many months. Seven hours a day he spent on his knees in prayer
and three times a day he scourged his emaciated body. One day,
almost overcome with scruples, he was tempted to end his
miseries by suicide. At another time, for the same reason, he
kept an absolute fast for a week. He tells us that, at this time,
God wrought with him as a master with a schoolboy whom he
teaches. Bait his energies were not confined to himself. He
assisted others who came to him for spiritual advice; and seeing
the fruit reaped from helping his neighbour, he gave up the
extreme severities in which he had delighted and began to take
more care of his person, so as not needlessly to offend those
whom he might influence for good.
During his stay at Manresa, he lived for the most part in a
cell at the Dominican convent; and here, evidently, he had
severe illnesses. He recounts the details of at least two of these
attacks, but says nothing about the much-quoted swoon of
eight days, during which he is supposed to have seen in vision
the scheme of the future Society. Neither does he refer in any
way to the famous cave in which, according to the Ignatian
myth, the Spiritual Exercises were written. Fortunately we
have the first-hand evidence of his autobiography, which is a
surer guide than the lines written by untrustworthy disciples.
Ignatius remained at Manresa for about a year, and in the spring
of 1523 set out for Barcelona on his way to Rome, where he
arrived on Palm Sunday. After two weeks he left, having
received the blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and proceeded by
Padua to Venice, where he begged his bread and slept in the
Piazza di San Marco until a rich Spaniard gave him shelter
and obtained an order from the doge for a passage in a pilgrim
ship bound for Cyprus, whence he could get to Jaffa. In due
course Ignatius arrived at Jerusalem, where he intended to
remain, in order continuously to visit the holy places and help
souls. For this end he had obtained letters of recommendation
to the guardian, to whom, however, he only spoke of his desire
of satisfying his devotion, not hinting his other motive. The
Franciscans gave him no encouragement to remain; and the
provincial threatened him with excommunication if he persisted.
Not only had the friars great difficulty in supporting themselves,
but they dreaded an outbreak from the fanatical Turks who
resented some imprudent manifestations of Loyola's zeal.
Ignatius returned to Venice in the middle of January 1524;
and, determining to devote himself for a while to study, he set
out for Barcelona, where he arrived in Lent. Here he consulted
Isabella Roser, a lady of high rank and piety, and also the master
of a grammar school. These both approved his plan; the one
promised to teach him without payment and the other to provide
him with the necessaries of life. Here, in his thirty-third year,
he began to learn Latin, and after two years his master urged
him to go to Alcala to begin philosophy. During his stay of a
year and a half in this university, besides his classes, he found
occasion to give to some companions his Spiritual Exercises in
the form they had then taken and certain instructions in Christian
doctrine. On account of these discourses Ignatius came into-
conflict with the Inquisition. He and his companions were
denounced as belonging to the sects of Sagali and Illuminati.
Their mode of life and dress was peculiar and hinted at innovation.
But, always ready to obey authority, Ignatius was able to disarm
any charges that, now and at other times, were brought against
him. The Inquisition merely advised him and his companions
to dress in a less extraordinary manner and to go shod. Four
months later he was suddenly cast into prison; and, after
seventeen days, he learnt that he was falsely accused of
sending two noble ladies on a pilgrimage to Jaen. During
their absence, from the 2ist of April 1527 to the ist of June,
he remained in prison, and was then set free with a prohibition
against instructing others until he had spent four years in study.
Seeing his way thus barred at Alcala, he went with his
companions to Salamanca. Here the Dominicans, doubting the
orthodoxy of the new-comers, had them put into prison, where
they were chained foot to foot and fastened to a stake set up in
the middle of the cell. Some days afterwards Ignatius was
examined and found without fault. His patience won him many
friends; and when he and his companions remained in prison
while the other prisoners managed to escape, their conduct
excited much admiration. After twenty-two days they were
called up to receive sentence. No fault was found in their life
and teaching; but they were forbidden to define any sins as
being mortal or venial until they had studied for four years.
Hampered again by such an order, Ignatius determined to go
to Paris to continue his studies. Up to the present he was far
from having any idea of founding a society. The only question
before him now was whether he should join an order, or continue
his wandering existence. He decided upon Paris for thfe present,
and before leaving Salamanca he agreed with his companions
that they should wait where they were until he returned; for
he only meant to see whether he could find any means by which
they all might give themselves to study. He left Barcelona and,
travelling on foot to Paris, he arrived there in February 1528.
The university of Paris had reached its zenith at the time
of the council of Constance (1418), and was now losing its
intellectual leadership under the attacks of the Renaissance and
the Reformation. In 1521 the university had condemned
Luther's Babylonish Captivity, and in 1527 Erasmus's Colloquies
met with the same fate. Soon after his arrival, Ignatius may
have seen in the Place de Greve the burning of Louis de Berquin
for heresy. 1 At this period there were between twelve and
fifteen thousand students attending the university, and the
life was an extraordinary mixture of licentiousness and devout
zeal. When Ignatius arrived in Paris, he lodged at first with
some fellow-countrymen; and for two years attended the
lectures on humanities at the college de Montaigu, supporting
himself at first by the charity of Isabella (Roser; but, a fellow-
lodger defrauding him of his stock, he found himself destitute
and compelled to beg his bread. He retired to the hospice
1 Louis de Berquin, who died on the 1 7th of April 1529, belonged
to a noble family of Artois. He was a man of exemplary life and a
friend of Erasmus and the humanists, besides being a persona grata
at the court of Louise of Savoy and Francis I. His main offence
was that he attacked the monks and clergy, and that he advocated
the reading of the Scriptures by the people in the vulgar tongue.
(W. A. P.)
LOYOLA
of St Jacques; and, following the advice of a Spanish monk,
spent his vacations in Flanders, where he was helped by the
rich Spanish merchants. At Bruges he became acquainted with
the famous Spanish scholar, Juan Luis Vives, with whom he
lodged. In the summer of 1530 he went to London, where he
received alms more abundantly than elsewhere. As he could
only support himself at Paris with difficulty, it was impossible
to send for his companions in Salamanca. Others, however,
joined him in Paris, and to some of them he gave the Spiritual
Exercises, with the result that the Inquisition made him give up
speaking on religious subjects during the time he was a student.
At the end of 1529 he came into contact with the men who were
eventually to become the first fathers of the Society of Jesus.
He won over the Savoyard Pierre Lefevre (Faber), whose room
he shared, and the Navarrese Francis Xavier, who taught
philosophy in the college of St Barbara. Afterwards he became
acquainted with the young Castilian, Diego Laynez, who had
hea'rd of him at Acala and found him out in Paris. With
Laynez came two other young men, the Toledan Alfonso Salmeron
and the Portuguese Simon Rodriguez. Nicholas Bobadilla,
a poor Spaniard who had finished his studies, was the next to
join him. The little company of seven determined to consecrate
their union by vows. On the isth of August 1534, the Feast
of the Assumption, they assembled in the crypt of the church
of St Mary on Montmartre, and Faber, the only one who was a
priest, said Mass. They then took the vows of poverty and
chastity, and pledged themselves to go to the Holy Land as
missionaries or for the purpose of tending the sick; or if this
design should prove impracticable, to go to Rome and place
themselves at the disposal of the pope for any purpose. But,
whatever may have been the private opinion of Ignatius, there
was on this occasion no foundation of any society. The vows
were individual obligations which could be kept quite apart from
membership in a society. A provision was made that if, after
waiting a year at Venice, they were unable to go to Jerusalem,
this part of the vow should be cancelled and they should at
once betake themselves to Rome.
At this time Ignatius was again suffering from his former
imprudent austerities; and he was urged to return for a while
to his native air. He left Paris for Spain in the autumn of 1535,
leaving Faber in charge of his companions to finish their studies.
During the absence of Ignatius, Faber gained three more
adherents. But before leaving Paris Ignatius heard once more
that complaints had been lodged against him at the Inquisition;
but these like the others were found to be without any foundation.
When he arrived near Loyola he would not go to the castle, but
lived at the public hospice at Azpeitia, and began his usual life
of teaching Christian doctrine and reforming morals. Falling
ill again he went to other parts of Spain to transact business for
his companions. Then, sailing from Valencia to Genoa, he made
his way to Venice, where he arrived during the last days of 1535.
Here he waited for a year until his companions could join him,
and meanwhile he occupied himself in his usual good works,
gaining several more companions and meeting Giovanni Piero
Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV., who had lately founded the
Theatines. What happened between the two does not appear;
but henceforth Caraffa seems to have borne ill will towards
Ignatius and his companions. At Venice Ignatius was again
accused of heresy, and it was said that he had escaped from the
Inquisition in Spain and had been burnt in effigy at Paris. These
charges he met successfully by insisting that the nuncio should
thoroughly inquire into the matter.
After a journey of fifty-four days his companions arrived at
Venice in January 1537; and here they remained until the
beginning of Lent, when Ignatius sent them to Rome to get
money for the proposed voyage to Palestine. He himself stayed
behind, as he feared that, if he went with them, Caraffa at Rome,
together with Dr Ortiz, a German opponent in Paris and now
Charles V.'s ambassador at the Vatican, would prejudice the
pope against them. But Ortiz proved a friend and presented
them to Paul III., who gave them leave to go to Palestine to
preach the Gospel, bestowing upon them abundant alms. He
likewise gave licence for those not yet priests to be ordained by
any catholic bishop on the title of poverty. They had returned
to Venice where Ignatius and the others were ordained priests
on the 24th of June 1537, after having renewed their vows of
poverty and chastity to the legate Verallo. Ignatius, now a
priest, waited for eighteen months before saying Mass, which he
did for the first time on the 25th of December 1538 in the church
of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.
The year of waiting passed away without any chance of going
to the Holy Land. Finding it impossible to keep this part of
their vow, the fathers met at Vicenza, where Ignatius was staying
in a ruined monastery; and here after deliberation it was deter-
mined that he, Laynez and Faber should go to Rome to place
the little band at the disposal of the pope. It was now that the
Society began to take some visible form. A common rule was
devised and a name adopted. Ignatius declared that having
assembled in the name of Jesus, the association should henceforth
bear the name of the " Company of Jesus." The word used
shows Loyola's military ideal of the duties and methods of the
nascent society.
On the road to Rome a famous vision took place, as to which
we have the evidence of Ignatius himself. In a certain church,
a few miles before Rome, whilst in prayer he was aware of a
stirring and a change in his soul; and so openly did he see God
the Father placing him with Christ, that he could not dare to
doubt that God the Father had so placed him. Subsequent
writers add that Christ, looking at him with a benign countenance,
said: " I shall be propitious to you "; while others add the
significant words, " at Rome." Ignatius, however, says nothing
about so important a matter; indeed he understood the vision
to mean that many things would be adverse to them, and told
his companions when they reached the city that he saw the
windows there closed against him. He also said: " We must of
necessity proceed with caution; and we must not make the
acquaintance of women unless they be of very high rank."
They arrived in Rome in October 1537; and lived at first in a
little cottage in a vineyard and near the Trinita dei Monti. The
pope appointed Faber to teach Holy Scripture, and Laynez
scholastic theology, in the university of the Sapienza. Ignatius
was left free to carry on his spiritual work, which became so large
that he was obliged to call his other companions to Rome.
During the absence of the pope, a certain hermit began to spread
heresy and was opposed by Ignatius and his companions. In
revenge the hermit brought up the former accusations concerning
the relations to the Inquisition, and proclaimed Ignatius and his
friends to be false, designing men and no better than concealed
heretics. The matter was examined and the legate ordered the
suit to be quashed. But this did not suit Ignatius. It was
necessary for his own good repute and the future of his work that
a definitive sentence should be pronounced and his name cleared
once and for all. The legate demurred; but on the pope's
return sentence was formally given in his favour.
The life of Ignatius is now mainly identified with the formation
and growth of his Society (see JESUITS), but his zeal found other
outlets in Rome. He founded institutions for rescuing fallen
women, started orphanages and organized catechetical instruc-
tions. He obtained, after difficulty, the official recognition of
his Society from Paul III. on the 27th of September 1540, and
successfully steered it through many perils that beset it in its
early days. He was unanimously elected the first general in
April 1541; and on the 22nd of that month received the first
vows of the Society in the church of San Paolo fuori la mura.
Two works now chiefly occupied the remainder of his life: the
final completion of the Spiritual Exercises and the drawing up of
the Constitutions, which received their final form after his death.
These two are so constantly connected that the one cannot be
understood without the other. The Constitutions are discussed
in the article on the Jesuits. In these he taught his followers to
respond to the call; by the Spiritual Exercises he moulded their
character.
The Book of theSpiritual Exercises has been one of the world-moving
books. In its strict conception it is only an application of the Gospel
LOYOLA
precepts to the individual soul. Its object is to convince a man of
sin, of justice and of judgment. The idea of the book is not original
to Ignatius At Montserrato he had found in use a popular trans-
lation of the Exercitatorio de la. vida spiritual (1500), written in Latin
by Abbot Garcias de Cisneros (d. 1510), and divided into three ways
or periods during which purity of soul, enlightenment and union
are to be worked for; a fourth part is added on contemplation.
This book evidently afforded the root idea of the Ignatian and more
famous book. But the differences are great. While taking the title,
the idea of division by periods and the subjects of most of the medi-
tations from the older work, Ignatius skilfully adapted it to his own
requirements. Above all the methods of the two are essentially
different. The Benedictine work follows the old monastic tradition
of the direct intercourse of the soul with God. Ignatius, with his
military instinct and views of obedience, intervenes with a director
who gives the exercises to the person who in turn receives them.
If this introduction of the director is essential to the end for which
Ignatius framed his Exercises, in it we also find dangers. A director,
whose aim is only the personal advantage of the one who is receiving
the exercises, will be the faithful interpreter of his founder's inten-
tions: but in the case of one whose esprit de corps is unbalanced,
the temporary and pecuniary advantage of the Society may be
made of more importance than that of the exercitant. Another
danger may come when minuteness of direction takes away the
wholesome sense of responsibility. Apart from these abuses the
Spiritual Exercises have proved their value over and over again,
and have received the sincerest form of flattery in countless imita-
tions. The original parts of the book are principally to be found in
the meditations, which are clearly Ignatian in conception as well as
method. These are The Reign of Christ, wherein Christ as an earthly
king calls his subjects to war: and Two Standards, one of Jesus Christ
and the other of Lucifer. Besides these there are various additions
to the series of meditations, which are mostly the practical results
of the experiences which Ignatius went through in the early stages
of his conversion. He gives various methods of prayer; methods of
making an election; his series of rules for the discernment of spirits;
rules for the distribution of alms and the treatment of scruples;
tests of orthodoxy. These additions are skilfully worked into the
series of meditations; so that when the exercitant by meditation
has moved his soul to act, here are practical directions at hand.
The exercises are divided into four series of meditations technically
called " weeks," each of which may last as long as the director con-
siders necessary to achieve the end for which each week is destined.
But the whole period is generally concluded in the space of a month.
The first week is the foundation, and has to do with the consideration
of the end of man, sin, death, judgment and hell. Having purified
the soul from sin and obtained a detestation thereof, the second week
treats of the kingdom of Christ, and is meant to lead the soul to
make an election of the service of God. The third and fourth weeks
are intended to confirm the soul in the new way chosen, to teach
how difficulties can be overcome, to inflame it with the love of God
and to help it to persevere.
The Book of the Spiritual Exercises was not written at Manresa,
although there is in that place an inscription testifying to the sup-
posed fact. Ignatius was constantly adding to his work as his own
personal experience increased, and as he watched the effects of his
method on the souls of those to whom he gave the exercises. The
latest critics, even those of the Society itself, give 1548 as the date
when the book received its final touches; though Father Roothaan
gives Rome, the 9th of J uly 1 54 1 , as the date at the end of the ancient
MS. version. Ignatius wrote originally in Spanish, but the book was
twice translated into Latin during his lifetime. The more elegant
version (known as the common edition) differs but slightly from the
Spanish. Francisco Borgia, while duke of Gandia, petitioned Paul
III. to have the book examined and approved. The pope appointed
censors for both translations, who found the work to be replete with
piety and holiness, highly useful and wholesome. Paul III. on re-
ceiving this report confirmed it on the aist of July 1548 by the breve
Pastoralis officii cura. This book, which is rightly called the spiritual
arm of the Society, was the firstjbook published by the Jesuits.
The progress of the Society of Jesus in Loyola's lifetime was
rapid (see JESUITS). Having always had an attraction for a life
of prayer and retirement, in 1547 he tried to resign the general-
ship, and again in 1550, but the fathers unanimously opposed the
project. One of his last trials was to see in 1556 the election as
pope of his old opponent Caraffa, who soon showed his intention
of reforming certain points in the Society that Ignatius considered
vital. But at this difficult crisis he never lost his peace of mind.
He said: " If this misfortune were to fall upon me, provided it
happened without any fault of mine, even if the Society were to
melt away like salt in water, I believe that a quarter of an hour's
recollection in God would be sufficient to console me and to re-
establish peace within me." It is clear that Ignatius never
dreamed of putting his Society before the church nor of identifying
the two institutions.
In the beginning of 1556 Ignatius grew very weak and resigned
the active government to three fathers, Polanco, Madrid and
Natal. Fever laid hold of him, and he died somewhat suddenly
on the 3ist of July 1556, without receiving or asking for the last
sacraments. He was beatified in 1609 by Paul V. and canonized
in 1628 by Gregory XV. His body lies under the altar in the
north transept of the Gesu in Rome.
His portrait is well known. The olive complexion, a face
emaciated by austerities, the large forehead, the brilliant and
small eyes, the high bald head tell their own tale. He was of
medium height and carried himself so well that his lameness was
hardly noticeable. His character was naturally impetuous and
enthusiastic, but became marked with great self-control as he
gradually brought his will under his reason. There was always
that love of overcoming difficulty inherent in a chivalrous
nature; and this also accounts for that desire of surpassing
every one else that marked his early days. Whilst other Chris-
tians, following St Paul, were content to do all things for the
glory of God, Ignatius set himself and his followers to strive after
the greater glory. Learning by his own experience and errors,
he wisely developed a sovereign prudence which nicely adjusted
means to the end in view. He impressed on his followers the
doctrine that in all things the end was to be considered. Never
would Ignatius have countenanced so perverted an idea as that the
end justified the means, for with his spiritual light and zeal for
God's glory he saw clearly that means in themselves unjust were
opposed to the very end he held in view. As a ruler he displayed
the same common sense. Obedience he made one of his great
instruments, yet he never intended it to be a galling yoke. His
doctrine on the subject is found in the well-known letter to the
Portuguese Jesuits in 1553, and if this be read carefully together
with the Constitutions his meaning is clear. If he says that a
subject is to allow himself to be moved and directed, under God,
by a superior just as though he were a corpse or as a staff in the
hands of an old man, he is also careful to say that the obedience
is only due in all things " wherein it cannot be defined (as it is
said) that any kind of sin appears." The way in which his
teaching on obedience is practically carried out is the best correc-
tive of the false ideas that have arisen from misconceptions of
its nature. His high ideas on the subject made him a stern ruler.
There are certain instances in his life which, taken by themselves,
show a hardness in treating individuals who would not obey;,
but as a rule, he tempered his authority to the capacity of those
with whom he had to deal. When he had to choose between the
welfare of the Society and the feelings of an individual it was
clear to which side the balance would fall.
There was in his character a peculiar mixture of conservatism
and a keen sense of the requirements of the day. In intellectual
matters he was not in advance of his day. The Jesuit system of
education, set forth in the Ratio studiorum, owes nothing to him.
While he did not reject any approved learning, he abhorred any
intellectual culture that destroyed or lessened piety. He wished
to secure uniformity in the judgment of the Society even in
points left open and free by the church : " Let us all think in the
same way, let us all speak in the same manner if possible."'
Bartole, the official biographer of Ignatius, says that he would
not permit any innovation in the studies; and that, were he
to live five hundred years, he would always repeat " no novelties '*
in theology, in philosophy or in logic not even in grammar.
The revival of learning had led many away from Christ; in-
tellectual culture must be used as a means of bringing them
back. The new learning in religion had divided Christendom;
the old learning of the faith, once delivered to the saints, was to
reconcile them. This was the problem that faced Ignatius,
and in his endeavour to effect a needed reformation in the
individual and in society his work and the success that crowned
it place him among the moral heroes of humanity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Ignatian literature is very large. Fortun-
ately we have in the Acta quaedam what is in effect the autobiography
of the saint. This has been translated into English under the title
of The testament of Ignatius Loyola, being sundry acts of our Father
Ignatius, under God, the first founder of the Society of Jesus, taken down
from the Saint's own lips by Luis Consoles (London, 1900) ; and the
LOZENGE LUBAO
above account of Ignatius is taken in most places directly from this,
which is not only the best of all sources but also a valuable corrective
of the later and more imaginative works. Next to the Acta quaedam
comes in value Polanco's Vita Ignatii Loiolae, which is published in
the Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu now in progress. Polanco
was the saint's secretary towards the end of his life. Ribadeneira,
who as a youth had been associated with the founder, wrote his
Vida del S. Ignacio de Loyola (Madrid, 1594), based on an early
Latin work (Naples, 1572). Bartole, the official biographer, wrote
his Delia vita e dell' institute di S. Ignatio (Rome, 1650, 1659) ;
Genelli wrote Das Leben des heiligen Ignatius von Loyola (Innsbruck,
1848); Nicolas Orlandinus gives a life in the first volume of the
Historiae Societatis Jesu (Rome, 1615). It would be impossible to
give a list even of the other lives, most of which are without value as
Histories, being written mainly for edification. But the student may
be referred to the modern books Henri Joli's St Ignace de Loyola
(Paris, 1899), which is based on the best authorities, and to H.
Miiller's curious Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jesus (Paris, 1898),
in which the author tries to establish a Mahommedan origin for
many of the ideas adopted by the saint.
The literature connected with the Spiritual Exercises is also large.
It will be sufficient here to mention : A Book of Spiritual Exercises,
written by Garcias de Cisneros (London, 1876) ; the official Latin text
in the third volume of the Avignon edition of the Constitutions
(1830); Roothaan's Exercitia spiritualia S. P. Ignatii de Loyola,
cum versions litterali ex autographo Hispanico, notis illustrata (Namur,
1841) ; Diertino, Historia exercitiorum S. P. Ignatii de Loyola (1887).
Especially worthy of notice is P. Watrigant's La Genese des exercices
de Saint Ignace de Loyola, republished from Les Etudes (zoth May,
20th July, 20th October 1897). (E. TN.)
LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also
appears in Span, losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived
from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears
in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span, losa, the ultimate origin
of which is unknown, the Lat. lapis, stone, orlaus, praise, in the
sense of epitaph, have been suggested), properly a four equal-
sided figure, having two acute and two obtuse angles, a rhomb
or " diamond." The figure is frequently used as a bearing in
heraldry and especially as a shield so shaped on which the arms
of a widow or spinster are emblazoned. It is used also to denote
the diamond-shaped facets of a precious stone when cut, also
the diamond panes of a casement window. In the I4th century
the " lozenge pattern " was a favourite design for decoration.
The word is also applied to a small tablet of sugar, originally
diamond shaped, containing either medical drugs or some
simple flavouring, or to a tablet of any concentrated substance,
such as a meat-lozenge. In the reign of James I. of Scotland
(1406-1437) a Scotch gold coin having a lozenge-shaped shield
with the arms of Scotland on the obverse side was called a
" lozenge-lion."
LOZERE, a department of south-eastern France belonging
to the central plateau, composed of almost the whole of Gevaudan
and of some portions of the old dioceses of Uzes and Alais,
districts all formerly included in the province of Languedoc.
Pop. (1906) 128,016. Area, 1999 sq. m. It is bounded N. by
Cantal and Haute-Loire, E. by Ardeche and Card, S. by Card
and Aveyron and W. by Aveyron and Cantal. Lozere is moun-
tainous throughout and in average elevation is the highest of all
the French departments. It has three distinct regions the
Cevennes proper to the south-east, the causses to the south-west
and the mountain tracts which occupy the rest of its area. The
Cevennes begin (within Lozere) with Mont Aigoual, which rises
to a height of more than 5100 ft.; parallel to this are the moun-
tains of Bouges, bold and bare on their southern face, but falling
gently with wooded slopes towards the Tarn which roughly
limits the Cevennes on the north. To the north of the Tarn is the
range of Lozere, including the peak of Finiels, the highest point
Of the department (5584 ft.). Farther on occurs the broad
marshy plateau of Montbel, which drains southward^ to the
Lot, northwards to the Allier, eastward by the Chassezac to
the Ardeche. From this plateau extend the mountains of
La Margeride, undulating granitic tablelands partly clothed with
woods of oak, beech and fir, and partly covered with pastures,
to which flocks are brought from lower Languedoc in summer.
The highest point (True de Randon) reaches 3098 ft. Adjoining
the Margeride hills on the west is the volcanic range of Aubrac,
a pastoral district where horned cattle take the place of sheep;
the highest point is 4826 ft. The causses of Lozere, having an area
of about 564 sq. m., are calcareous, fissured and arid, but separated
from each other by deep and well-watered gorges, contrasting
with the desolate aspect of the plateaus. The causse of Sauve-
terre, between the Lot and the Tarn, ranges from 3000 to 3300 ft.
in height; that of Mejan has nearly the same average altitude,
but has peaks some 1000 ft. higher. Between these two causses
the Tarn valley is among the most picturesque in France.
Lozere is watered entirely by rivers rising within its own bound-
aries, being in this respect unique. The climate of Lozere varies
greatly with the locality. The mean temperature of Mende
(50 F.) is below that of Paris; that of the mountains is always
low, but on the causses the summer is scorching and the winter
severe; in the Cevennes the climate becomes mild enough at
their base (656 ft.) to permit the growth of the olive. Rain falls
in violent storms, causing disastrous floods. On the Mediter-
ranean versant there are 76 in., in the Garonne basin 46 and in
that of the Loire only 28. Sheep and cattle-rearing and cheese-
making are the chief occupations. Bees are kept, and, among
the Cevennes, silkworms. Large quantities of chestnuts are
exported from the Cevennes, where they form an important article
of diet. In the valley of the Lot wheat and fruit are the chief
products; elsewhere rye is the chief cereal, and oats, barley,
meslin and potatoes are also grown. Fruit trees and leguminous
plants are irrigated by small canals (beats) on terraces made and
maintained with much labour. Lead, zinc and antimony are
found. Saw-milling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and wool-
spinning are carried on; otherwise industries are few and
unimportant. Of mineral springs, those of Bagnols-les-Bains are
most frequented. The line of the Paris-Lyon company from
Paris to Nimes traverses the eastern border of the department,
which is also served by the Midi railway with the line from
Neussargues to Beziers via Marvejols. The arrondissements
are Mende, Florae and Marvejols; the cantons number 24,
the communes 198. Loze're forms the diocese of Mende and part
of the ecclesiastical province of Albi. It falls within the region
of the XVI. army corps, the circumscriptions of the academic
(educational division) of Montpellier and the appeal court of
Nimes. Mende (q.v .) is its most important town.
LUANG-PRABANG, a town of French Indo-China, capital
of the Lao state of that name, on the left bank of the Me Kong
river. It lies at the foot of the pagoda hill which rises about
200 ft. above the plain on the promontory of land round which
the Nam Kan winds to the main river. It has a population of
about 9000 and contains the " palace " of the king of the state
and several pagodas. In 1887 it was taken and sacked by the
Haw or Black Flags, robber bands of Chinese soldiery, many
of them survivors of the Taiping rebellion. In 1893 Siam was
compelled to renounce her claims to the left bank of the Me
Kong, including Luang-Prabang and the magnificent highlands
of Chieng Kwang. That portion of the state which was on the
right bank of the Me Kong was not affected by the treaty, except
in so far as a portion of it fell within the sixteen miles' zone
within which Siam agreed not to keep troops. Trade is in the
hands of Chinese or Shan traders; hill rice and other jungle
products are imported from the surrounding districts by the
Kha or hill people. The exports, which include rubber, gum
benjamin, silk, wax, sticklac, cutch, cardamon, a little ebony,
cinnamon, indigo, rhinoceros and deer horns, ivory and fish
roe, formerly all passed by way of Paklai to the Me Nam, and so
to Bangkok, but have now almost entirely ceased to follow
that route, the object of the French government being to deflect
the trade through French territory. Luang-Prabang is the
terminus of navigation on the upper Me Kong and the centre
of trade thereon.
LUBAO, a town in the south-western part of the province
of Pampanga, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 30 m. N.W. of
Manila. Pop. (1903) 19,063. Lubao is served by the Manila &
Dagupan railway, and has water communication with Manila
by tidal streams and Manila Bay. Its products are, therefore,
readily marketed. It lies in a low, fertile plain, suited to the
growing of rice and sugar. Many of the inhabitants occupy
LUBBEN LUBECK
themselves in the neighbouring nipa swamps, either preparing
the nipa leaves for use in house construction, or distilling " nipa-
wine " from the juice secured by tapping the blossom stalks.
The language is Pampangan.
LUBBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on the Spree, 47 m. S.S.E. of Berlin, on the railway
to Gorlitz. Pop. (1905) 7173. It is the chief town of the
Spreewald, and has saw-mills and manufactories of hosiery,
shoes and paper, and is famous for its gurken, or small pickling
cucumbers. The poet Paul Gerhardt (1607-1676) was pastor
here and is buried in the parish church.
LUBECK, a state and city (Freie und Hansestadt Liibeck)
of Germany. The principality of Lubeck, lying north of the
state, is a constituent of the grand-duchy of Oldenburg (q.v.).
The state is situated on an arm of the Baltic between Holstein
and Mecklenburg-Schwerin. It consists of the city of Lubeck,
the town of Travemunde, 49 villages and the country districts,
embraces 115 sq. m. of territory, and had a population in 1907 of
109,265, of which 93,978 were included in the city and its immediate
suburbs. The state lies in the lowlands of the Baltic, is diversified
by gently swelling hills, and watered by the Trave and its
tributaries, the Wakenitz and the Stecknitz. The soil is fertile,
and, with the exception of forest land (14% of the whole area),
is mostly devoted to market gardening. Trade is centred in
the city of Lubeck.
The constitution of the free state is republican, and, by the
fundamental law of 1875, amended in 1905 and again in 1907,
consists of two assemblies, (i) The Senate of fourteen members,
of whom eight must belong to the learned professions, and six
of these again must be jurists, while of the remaining six, five
must be merchants. The Senate represents the sovereignty of
the state and is presided over by theOberbiirgermeister, who during
his two years' term of office bears the title of " magnificence."
(2) The House of Burgesses (Burgerschaft), of 120 members,
elected by free suffrage and exercising its powers partly in
its collective capacity and partly through a committee of thirty
members. Purely commercial matters are dealt with by the
chamber of commerce, composed of a praeses, eighteen members
and a secretary. This body controls the exchange and appoints
brokers, shipping agents and underwriters. The executive
is in the hands of the Senate, but the House of Burgesses has the
right of initiating legislation, including that relative to foreign
treaties; the sanction of both chambers is required to the
passing of any new law. Lubeck has a court of first instance
(Amtsgerkht) and a high court of justice (Landgericht) ; from
the latter appeals lie to the Hanseatic court of appeal (Oberlandes-
gerichl) at Hamburg, and from this again to the supreme court
of the empire (Reicksgericht) in Leipzig. The people are nearly
all Lutherans, and education is compulsory between the ages
of six and fourteen.
The estimated revenue for the year 1908-1909 amounted to
about 650,000, and the expenditure to a like sum. The public
debt amounted, in 1908, to about 2,518,000. Lubeck has one
vote in the federal council (Bundesrat) of the German Empire,
and sends one representative to the imperial parliament
(Reichstag).
History of the Constitution. At the first rise of the town justice
was administered to the inhabitants by the Vogt (advocates) of
the count of Holstein. Simultaneously with its incorporation
by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, who presented the city
with its own mint toll and market, there appears a magistracy
of six, chosen probably by the Vogt from the SchS/en (scabini,
probi homines). The members of the town council had to be
freemen, born in lawful wedlock, in the enjoyment of estates
in freehold and of unstained repute. Vassals or servants of any
lord, and tradespeople, were excluded. A third of the number
had annually to retire for a year, so that two-thirds formed
the sitting council. By the middle of the i3th century there
were two burgomasters (magistri burgensium). Meanwhile,
the number of magistrates (consules) had increased, ranging
from twenty to forty and upwards. The council appointed
its own officers in the various branches of the administration.
In the face of so much self-government the Vogt presently dis-
appeared altogether. There were three classes of inhabitants,
full freemen, half freemen and guests or foreigners. People of
Slav origin being considered unfree, all intermarriage with them
tainted the blood; hence nearly all surnames point to Saxon,
especially Westphalian, and even Flemish descent. The magis-
tracy was for two centuries almost exclusively in the hands
of the merchant aristocracy, who formed the companies of
traders or " nations," such as the Bergen-fahrer, Novgorod-
fahrer, Riga-fahrer and Stockholm- fahrer. From the beginning,
however, tradesmen and handicraftsmen had settled in the
town, all of them freemen of German parentage and with property
and houses of their own. Though not eligible for the council,
they shared to a certain extent in the self-government through
the aldermen of each corporation or gild, of which some appear
as early as the statutes of 1240. Naturally, there arose much
jealousy between the gilds and the aristocratic companies,
which exclusively ruled the republic. After an attempt to upset
the merchants had been suppressed in 1384, the gilds succeeded,
under more favourable circumstances, in 1408. The old patrician
council left the city to appeal to the Hansa and to the imperial
authorities, while a new council with democratic tendencies, elected
chiefly from the gilds, took their place. In 1416, however, owing
to the pressure brought to bear by the Hansa, by the emperor
Sigismund and by Eric, king of Denmark, there was a restoration.
The aristocratic government was again expelled under the
dictatorship of Jiirgen Wullenweber (c. 1492-1537), till the old
order was re-established in 1535. In the constitution of 1669,
under the pressure of a large public debt, the great companies
yielded a specified share in the financial administration to the
leading gilds of tradesmen. Nevertheless, the seven great com-
panies continued to choose the magistrates by co-optation among
themselves. Three of the four burgomasters and two of the
senators, however, had henceforth to be graduates in law. The
constitution, set aside only during the French occupation, has
subsequently been slowly reformed. From 1813 the popular
representatives had some share in the management of the
finances. But the reform committee of 1814, whose object was
to obtain an extension of the franchise, had made little progress,
when the events of 1848 led to the establishment of a representative
assembly of 120 members, elected by universal suffrage, which
obtained a place beside the senatorial government. The republic
has given up its own military contingent, its coinage and its
postal dues to the German Empire; but it has preserved its
municipal self-government and its own territory, the inhabitants
of which enjoy equal political privileges with the citizens.
The City of Liibeck. Lubeck, the capital of the free state, was
formerly the head of the Hanseatic League. It is situated on a
gentle ridge between the rivers Trave and Wakenitz, 10 m. S.W.
of the mouth of the former in the bay of Lubeck, 40 m. by rail
N.E. of Hamburg, at the junction of lines to Eutin, Biichen,
Travemunde and Strassburg (in Mecklenburg-Schwerin) and
consists of an inner town and three suburbs. The former
ramparts between the Trave and the old town ditch have been
converted into promenades. The city proper retains much of its
ancient grandeur, despite the tendency to modernize streets and
private houses. Foremost among its buildings must be men-
tioned its five chief churches, stately Gothic edifices in glazed
brick, with lofty spires and replete with medieval works of art
pictures, stained glass and tombs. Of them, the Marienkirche,
built in the i3th century, is one of the finest specimens of early
Gothic in Germany. The cathedral, or Domkirche, founded in
1173, contains some curious sarcophagi and a magnificent altar-
piece in one of the chapels, while the churches of St James
(Jakobikircke), of St Peter (Petrikirche) and of St Aegidius
(Aegidienkirche) are also remarkable. The Rathaus (town hall)
of red and black glazed brick, dating from various epochs during
the middle ages, is famous for its staircase, the vaulted wine
cellar of the city council beneath and magnificent wood carving.
There should also be mentioned the Schiffershaus; the medieval
gates (Holstentor, Burgtor); and the Hospital of the Holy
Ghost, remarkable for ancient frescoes and altars in rich wood
86
LUBECK
carving, the entrance hall of which is a 13th-century chapel,
restored in 1866 and decorated in 1898. The museum preserves
the most remarkable municipal archives in existence as well as
valuable collections of historical documents.
The poet, Emanuel Geibel (1889), and the painter, Johann
Friedrich Overbeck (1789-1869), were natives of Liibeck. This
city is famous for the number and wealth of its charitable
institutions. Its position as the first German emporium of the
west end of the Baltic has been to some extent impaired by
Hamburg and Bremen since the construction of the North Sea
and Baltic Canal, and by the rapid growth and enterprise of
Stettin. In order to counterbalance their rivalry, the quays have
been extended, a canal was opened in 1900 between the Trave
and the Elbe, the river up to the wharves has been deepened to
25 ft. or more. The river is kept open in winter by ice-breakers.
A harbour was made in 1 899-190x3 on the Wakenitz Canal for
boats engaged in inland traffic, especially on the Elbe and Elbe-
Trave Canal. Liibeck trades principally with Denmark, Sweden,
Finland, Russia, the eastern provinces of Prussia, Great Britairj
and the United States. The imports amounted in value to about
4,850,000 in 1906 and the exports to over 10,000,000. The
chief articles of import are coal, grain, timber, copper, steel and
wine, and the exports are manufactured goods principally to
Russia and Scandivania. The industries are growing, the chief
being breweries and distilleries, saw-mills and planing-mills,
shipbuilding, fish-curing, the manufacture of machinery, engines,
bricks, resin, preserves, enamelled and tin goods, cigars, furniture,
soap and leather. Pop. (1885) 55,399; (1905) 9i,S4i-
History. Old Lubeck stood on the left bank of the Trave,
where it is joined by the river Schwartau, antf was destroyed in
1138. Five years later Count Adolphus II. of Holstein founded
new Lubeck, a few miles farther up, on the peninsula Buku,
where the Trave is joined on the right by the Wakenitz, the
emissary of the lake of Ratzeburg. An excellent harbour,
sheltered against pirates, it became almost at once a competitor
for the commerce of the Baltic. Its foundation coincided with
the beginning of the advance of the Low German tribes of
Flanders, Friesland and Westphalia along the southern shores of
the Baltic the second great emigration of the colonizing Saxon
element. In 1140 Wagria, in 1142 the country of the Polabes
(Ratzeburg and Lauenburg), had been annexed by the Holtsaetas
(the Transalbingian Saxons). From 1166 onwards there was a
Saxon count at Schwerin. Frisian and Saxon merchants from
Soest, Bardowiek and other localities in Lower Germany, who
already navigated the Baltic and had their factory in Gotland,
settled in the new town, where Wendish speech and customs
never entered. About 1157 Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
forced his vassal, the count of Holstein, to give up Lubeck to
him; and in 1163 he removed thither the episcopal see of
Oldenburg (Stargard), founding at the same time the dioceses
of Ratzeburg and Schwerin. He issued the first charter to the
citizens, and constituted them a free Saxon community having
their own magistrate, an advantage over all other towns of his
dominions. He invited traders of the north to visit his new
market free of toll and custom, providing his subjects were
promised similar privileges in return. From the beginning the
king of Denmark granted them a settlement for their herring
fishery on the coast of Schoonen. Adopting the statutes of
Soest in Westphalia as their code, Saxon merchants exclusively
ruled the city. In concurrence with the duke's Vogt (adwcatus)
they recognized only one right of judicature within the town,
to which nobles as well as artisans had to submit. Under these
circumstances the population grew rapidly in wealth and influence
by land and sea, so that, when Henry was attainted by the
emperor, Frederick I., who came in person to besiege Lubeck
in 1181, this potentate," in consideration of its revenues and its
situation on the frontier of the Empire," fixed by charter, dated
the igth of September 1188, the limits, and enlarged the liberties,
of the free town. In the year 1201 Lubeck was conquered by
Waldemar II. of Denmark. But in 1223 it regained its liberty,
after the king had been taken captive by the count of Schwerin.
In 1226 it was made a free city of the Empire by Frederick II.,
and its inhabitants took part with the enemies of the Danish
king in the victory of Bornhovede in July 1227. The citizens
repelled the encroachments of their neighbours in Holstein and
in Mecklenburg. On the other hand their town, being the
principal emporium of the Baltic by the middle of the i3th
century, acted as the firm ally of the Teutonic knights in Livonia.
Emigrants founded new cities and new sees of Low German
speech among alien and pagan races; and thus in the course
of a century the commerce of Lubeck had supplanted that of
Westphalia. In connexion with the Germans at Visby, the
capital of Gotland, and at Riga, where they had a house from
1231, the people of Lubeck with their armed vessels scoured the
sea between the Trave and the Neva. They were encouraged by
papal bulls in their contest for the rights of property in wrecks
and for the protection of shipping against pirates and slave-
hunters. Before the close of the century the statutes of Lubeck
were adopted by most Baltic towns having a German population,
and Visby protested in vain against the city on the Trave having
become the court of appeal for nearly all these cities, and even
for the German settlement in Russian Novgorod. In course of
time more than a hundred places were embraced in this relation,
the last vestiges of which did not disappear until the beginning
of the i8th century. From about 1299 Lubeck presided over a
league of cities, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswald and
some smaller ones, and this Hansa of towns became heir to a
Hansa of traders simultaneously on the eastern and the western
sea, after Lubeck and her confederates had been admitted to the
same privileges with Cologne, Dortmund and Soest at Bruges
and in the steelyards of London, Lynn and Boston. The union
held its own, chiefly along the maritime outskirts of the Empire,
rather against the will of king and emperor, but nevertheless
Rudolph of Habsburg and several of his successors issued new
charters to Lubeck. As early as 1241 Lubeck, Hamburg and
Soest had combined to secure their highways against robber
knights. Treaties to enforce the public peace were concluded
in 1291 and 1338 with the dukes of Brunswick, Mecklenburg and
Pomerania, and the count of Holstein. Though the great federal
armament against Waldemar IV., the destroyer of Visby, was
decreed by the city representatives assembled at Cologne in
1367, Lubeck was the leading spirit in the war which ended with
the surrender of Copenhagen and the peace concluded at Stralsund
on the 24th of May 1370. Her burgomaster, Brun Warendorp,
who commanded the combined naval and land forces, died on
the field of battle. In 1368 the seal of the city, a double-headed
eagle, which in the I4th century took the placeof the more ancient
ship, was adopted as the common seal of the confederated towns
(civitates maritimae), some seventy in number. Towards the end
of the 1 5th century the power of the Hanseatic League began
to decline, owing to the rise of Burgundy in the west, of Poland
and Russia in the east and the emancipation of the Scandinavian
kingdom from the union of Calmar. Still Lubeck, even when
nearly isolated, strove to preserve its predominance in a war
with Denmark (1501-12), supporting Gustavus Vasa in Sweden,
lording it over the north of Europe during the years 1534 and 1535
in the person of Jiirgen Wullenweber, the democratic burgo-
master, who professed the most advanced principles of the
Reformation, and engaging with Sweden in a severe naval war
(1536-70).
But the prestige and prosperity of the town were beginning
to decline. Before the end of the i6th century the privileges
of the London Steelyard were suppressed by Elizabeth. As
early as 1425 the herring, a constant source of early wealth,
began to forsake the Baltic waters. Later on, by the discovery
of a new continent, commerce was diverted into new directions.
Finally, with the Thirty Years' War, misfortunes came thick.
The last Hanseatic diet met at Lubeck in 1630, shortly after
Wallenstein's unsuccessful attack on Stralsund; and from that
time merciless sovereign powers stopped free intercourse on all
sides. Danes and Swedes battled for the possession of the Sound
and for its heavy dues. The often changing masters of Holstein
and Lauenburg abstracted much of the valuable landed property
of the city and of the chapter of Lubeck. Towards the end of
LUBLIN LUBRICANTS
the i8th century there were signs of improvement. Though
the Danes temporarily occupied the town in 1801, it preserved
its freedom and gained some of the chapter lands when the
imperial constitution of Germany was broken up by the act of
February 1803, while trade and commerce prospered for a few
years. But in November 1806, when Blucher, retiring from
the catastrophe of Jena, had to capitulate in the vicinity of
LUbeck, the town was sacked by the French. Napoleon annexed
it to his empire in December 1810. But it rose against the French
in March 1813, was re-occupied by them till the sth of December,
and was ultimately declared a free and Hanse town of the German
Confederation by the act of Vienna of the 9th of June 1815.
The Hanseatic League, however, having never been officially
dissolved, LUbeck still enjoyed its traditional connexion, with
Bremen and Hamburg. In 1853 they sold their common property,
the London Steelyard; until 1866 they enlisted by special
contract their military contingents for the German Confederation,
and down to 1879 they had their own court of appeal at Lubeck.
LUbeck joined the North German Confederation in 1866, profiting
by the retirement from Holstein and Lauenburg of the Danes,
whose interference had prevented as long as possible a direct
railway between LUbeck and Hamburg. On the 27th of June
1867 Lubeck concluded a military convention with Prussia,
and on the nth of August 1868 entered the German Customs
Union (Zolherein), though reserving to itself certain privileges
in respect of its considerable wine trade and commerce with
the Baltic ports.
See E. Deecke, Die Freie und Hansestadt Lubeck (4th ed., Lubeck,
1881) and Lubische Geschichten und Sagen (Lubeck, 1891); M. Hoff-
mann, Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Lubeck (Lubeck, 1889-
1892) and Chronik von Lubeck (Lubeck, 1908); Die Freie und
Hansestadt Lubeck, published by Die geographische Gesellschaft in
Lubeck (Lubeck, 1891); C. W. Pauli, Liibecksche Zustdnde im Mittel-
alter (Lubeck, 1846-1878) ; J. Geffcken, Lubeck in der Mitte des i6" n
Jahrliunderts (Lubeck, 1905); P. Hasse, Die Anfange Lubecks
(Lubeck; 1893); H. Bodeker, Geschichte der Freien und Hansesladt
Lubeck (Lubeck, 1898); A. Holm, Lubeck, die Freie und Hansestadt
(Bielefeld, 1900) ; G. Waitz, Lubeck unter Jtirgen Wullenweber (Berlin,
1855-1856); Klug, Geschichte Lubecks wdhrend der Vereinigung mil
dem franzosischen Kaiserreich (Lubeck, 1857); F. Frensdorff, Die
Stadt- und Gerichtsverfassung Lubecks im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert
(Lubeck, 1861); the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lubeck (Lubeck, 1843-
1904); the Lubecker Chroniken (Leipzig, 1884-1903); and the
Zeitschrift des Vereins fur lubeckische Geschichte (Lubeck, 1860 fol.).
(R. P.; P. A. A.)
LUBLIN, a government of Russian Poland, bounded N. by
Siedlce, E. by Volhynia (the Bug forming the boundary), S.
by Galicia, and W. by Radom (the Vistula separating the two).
Area, 6499 sq. m. The surface is an undulating plain of Cretaceous
deposits, 800 to 900 ft. in altitude, and reaching in one place
1050 ft. It is largely covered with forests of oak, beech and
lime, intersected by ravines and thinly inhabited. A marshy
lowland extends between the Vistula and the Wieprz. The
government is drained by the Vistula and the Bug, and by their
tributaries the Wieprz, San and Tanev. Parts of the government,
being of black earth, are fertile, but other parts are sandy.
Agriculture is in good condition. Many Germans settled in
the government before immigration was stopped in 1887; in
1897 they numbered about 26,000. Rye, oats, wheat, barley
and potatoes are the chief crops, rye and wheat being exported.
Flax, hemp, buckwheat, peas, millet and beetroot are also
cultivated. Horses are carefully bred. In 1897 the population
was 1,165,122, of whom 604,886 were women. The Greek
Orthodox (chiefly Little Russians in the south-east) amounted
to 20-1% of the whole; Roman Catholics (i.e. Poles) to 62-8%;
Jews to 14-2%; and Protestants to 2-8%. The urban popula-
tion was 148,196 in 1897. The estimated population in 1906
was 1,362,500. Industrial establishments consist chiefly of
distilleries, sugar-works, steam flour-milk, tanneries, saw-mills
and factories of bent-wood furniture. Domestic industries are
widely developed in the villages. River navigation employs
a considerable portion of the population. The government
is divided into ten districts, the chief towns of which, with their
populations in 1897, are Lublin, capital of the province (50,152) ;
Biegoray (6286); Cholm (19,236); Hrubieszow (10,699);
Yanow (7927); Krasnystaw or Kraznostav (8879); Lubartow
(5249); Nova-Alexandrya or Pulawy (3892); Sarnostye (12,400);
and Tomaszow (6224).
LUBLIN, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the government
of the same name, 109 m. by rail S.E. of Warsaw, on a small
tributary of the Wieprz. Pop. (1873) 28,900; (1897) 50,152.
It is the most important town of Poland after Warsaw and
Lodz, being one of the chief centres of the manufacture of thread-
yarn, linen and hempen goods and woollen stuffs; there is also
trade in grain and cattle. It has an old citadel, several palaces
of Polish nobles and many interesting churches, and is the head-
quarters of the XIV. army corps, and the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop. The cathedral dates from the i6th century. Of the
former fortifications nothing remains except the four gates,
one dating from 1342.
Lublin was in existence in the loth century, and has a church
which is said to have been built in 986. During the time the
JageUon dynasty ruled over Lithuania and Poland it was the
most important city between the Vistula and the Dnieper, having
40,000 inhabitants (70,000 according to other authorities)
and all the trade with Podolia, Volhynia and Red Russia. Indeed,
the present town is surrounded with ruins, which prove that it
formerly covered a much larger area. But it was frequently
destroyed by the Tatars (e.g. 1240) and Cossacks (e.g. 1477).
In 1568-1569 it was the seat of the stormy convention at which
the union between Poland and Lithuania was decided. In
1702 another convention was held in Lublin, in favour of Augustus
II. and against Charles XII. of Sweden, who carried the town
by assault and plundered it. In 1831 Lublin was taken by the
Russians. The surrounding country is rich in reminiscences
of the struggle of Poland for independence.
LUBRICANTS. Machines consist of parts which have
relative motion and generally slide and rub against each other.
Thus the axle of a cart or railway vehicle is pressed against a
metallic bearing surface supporting the body of the vehicle,
and the two opposed surfaces slide upon each other and are
pressed together with great force. If the metallic surfaces be
clean, the speed of rubbing high, and the force pressing the
surfaces together considerable, then the latter will abrade each
other, become hot and be rapidly destroyed. It is possible,
however, to prevent the serious abrasion of such opposing surfaces,
and largely to reduce the frictional resistance they oppose to
relative motion by the use of lubricants (Lat. lubricare, lubricus,
slippery). These substances are caused to insinuate themselves
between the surfaces, and have the property of so separating
them as to prevent serious abrasion. The solid and semi-solid
lubricants seem to act as rollers between the surfaces, or form a
film between them which itself suffers abrasion or friction. The
liquM lubricants, however, maintain themselves as liquid films
between the surfaces, upon which the bearing floats. The
frictional resistance is then wholly in the fluid. Even when
lubricants are used the friction, i.e. the resistance to motion
offered by the opposing surfaces, is considerable. In the article
FRICTION will be found a statement of how friction is measured
and the manner in which it is expressed. The coefficient of
friction is obtained by dividing the force required to cause the
surfaces to slide over each other by the load pressing them to-
gether. For clean unlubricated surfaces this coefficient may be
as great as 0-3, whilst for well-lubricated cylindrical bearings
it may be as small as 0-0006. Engineers have, therefore, paid
particular attention to the design of bearings with the object
of reducing the friction, and thus making use of as much as
possible of the power developed by prime movers. The import-
ance of doing this will be seen when it is remembered that the
energy wasted is proportional to the coefficient of friction, and
that the durability of the parts depends upon the extent to which
they are separated by the lubricant and thus prevented from
injuring each other.
There is great diversity in the shapes of rubbing surfaces, the
loads they have to carry vary widely, and the speed of rubbing
ranges from less than one foot to thousands of feet per minute.
There is also a large number of substances which act as lubricants,
LUBRICANTS
some being liquids and others soft solids. In many instruments or
machines where the surfaces in contact which have to slide upon
each other are only lightly pressed together, and are only occasion-
ally given relative motion, the lubricant is only needed to prevent
abrasion. Microscopes and mathematical instruments are of this
kind. In such cases, the lubricant which keeps the surfaces from
abrading each other is a mere contamination film, either derived
from the air or put on when the surfaces are finished. When such
lubricating films are depended upon, the friction surfaces should
be as hard as possible and, if practicable, of dissimilar metals.
In the absence of a contamination film, most metals, if rubbed
when in contact, will immediately adhere to each other. A large
number of experiments have been made to ascertain the co-
efficient of friction under these imperfect conditions of lubrica-
tion. Within wide limits of load, the friction is proportional to
the pressure normal to the surfaces and is, therefore, approxi-
mately independent of the area of the surfaces in contact.
Although the static coefficient is often less than the kinetic at
very low speeds, within wide limits the latter coefficient de-
creases with increasing speed. These laws apply to all bearings
the velocity of rubbing of which is very small, or which are
lubricated with solid or semi-solid materials.
When the speed of rubbing is considerable and the contamina-
tion film is liable to be destroyed, resort is had to lubricants
which possess the power of keeping the surfaces apart, and
thereby reducing the friction. The constant application of such
substances is necessary in the case of such parts of machine
tools as slide rests, the surfaces of which only move relatively
to each other at moderate speeds, but which have to carry heavy
loads. In all ordinary cases, the coefficient of friction of flat
surfaces, such as those of slide blocks or pivot bearings, is high,
owing to the fact that the lubricant is not easily forced between
the surfaces. In the case of cylindrical bearing surfaces, such as
those of journals and spindles, owing to the fact that the radius
of the bearing surface is greater than that of the journal or spindle,
the lubricant, if a liquid, is easily drawn in and entirely separates
the surfaces (see LUBRICATION). Fortunately, cylindrical bear-
ings are by far the most common and important form of bearing,
and they can be so lubricated that the friction coefficient is very
low. The lubricant, owing to its viscosity, is forced between the
surfaces and keeps them .entirely apart. This property of vis-
cosity is one of the most important possessed by liquid lubricants.
Some lubricants, such as the oils used for the light spindles of
textile machinery, are quite thin and limpid, whilst others,
suitable for steam engine cylinders and very heavy bearings, are,
at ordinary temperatures, as thick as treacle or honey. Gener-
ally speaking, the greater the viscosity of the lubricant the
greater the load the bearing will carry, but with thick lubricants
the frictional coefficient is correspondingly high. True lubricants
differ from ordinary liquids of equal viscosity inasmuch as they
possess the property of " oiliness." This is a property which
enables them to maintain an unbroken film between surfaces
when the loads are heavy. It is possessed most markedly by
vegetables and animal oils and fats, and less markedly by mineral
oils. In the case of mineral lubricating oils from the same
source, the lower the specific gravity the greater the oiliness of
the liquid, as a rule. Mixtures of mineral oil with animal or
vegetable oil are largely used, one class of oil supplying those
qualities in which the other is deficient. Thus the mineral
oils, which are comparatively cheap and possess the important
property of not becoming oxidized into gummy or sticky sub-
stances by the action of the air, which also are not liable to
cause spontaneous ignition of cotton waste, &c., and can be
manufactured of almost any desired viscosity, but which on the
other hand are somewhat deficient in the property of oiliness,
are mixed with animal or vegetable oils which possess the latter
property in marked degree, but are liable to gum and become
acid and to cause spontaneous ignition, besides being compara-
tively expensive and limited in quantity. Oils which become
acid attack the bearings chemically, and those which oxidize
may become so thick that they fail to run on to the bearings
properly.
The following table shows that the permissible load on bearings
varies greatly:
Description of Bearing. Load in ft
per sq. in.
Hard steel bearings on which the load is inter-
mittent, such as the crank pins of shearing
machines 3000
Bronze crosshead neck journals . . 1200
Crank pins of large slow engines . . 800-900
Crank pins of marine engines . . 400-500
Main crank-shaft bearings, slow marine 600
Main crank-shaft bearings, fast marine 400
Railway coach journals .... 300-400
Fly-wheel shaft journals . . . 150-200
Small engine crank pins .... 150-200
Small slide blocks, marine engines . 100
Stationary engine slide block ' . . 25-125
Stationary engine slide block, usually . 30-60
Propeller thrust bearings . . . 50-70
Shafts in cast iron steps, high speed . 15
Solid Lubricants. Solid substances, such as graphite or plumbago,
soapstone, &c., are used as lubricants when there is some objection
to liquids or soft solids, but the surfaces between which they are
placed should be of very hard materials. They are frequently mixed
with oils or greases, the lubricating properties of which they improve.
Semi-solid Lubricants. The contrast in lubricating properties
between mineral and fatty oils exists also in the case of a pure mineral
grease like vaseline and an animal fat such as tallow, the latter
possessing in a far greater degree the property of greasiness. A
large number of lubricating greases are made by incorporating or
emulsifying animal and vegetable fats with soap and water; also by
thickening mineral lubricating oils with soap. Large quantities of
these greases are used with very good results for the lubrication of
railway waggon axles, and some oT them are excellent lubricants for
the bearings of slow moving machinery. Care must be taken, how-
ever, that they do not contain excess of water and are not adulterated
with such useless substances as china clay ; also, that they melt as a
whole, and that the oil does not run down and leave the soap. This
is liable to occur with badly made greases, and hot bearings are the
result. Except in special cases, greases should not be used for
quick-running journals, shafts or spindles, on account of the high
frictional resistance which they offer to motion. In the case of fats
and greases whose melting points are not much above the tempera-
ture of surrounding objects it generally happens that the lubricating
films are so warmed by friction that they actually melt and act as
oils. These lubricants are generally forced into the bearings by a form
of syringe fitted with a spring piston, or are squeezed between the
faces by means of a screw-plug.
Liquid Lubricants. Generally speaking, all bearings which it is
necessary should run with as little friction as possible must be sup-
plied with liquid lubricants. These may be of animal, vegetable or
mineral origin. The mineral oils are mixtures of hydrocarbons of
variable viscosity, flashing-point, density and oiliness. They are
obtained by distillation from American, Russian and other
petroleums. The fixed oils obtained from animal and vegetable
substances are not volatile without decomposition, and are found
ready made in the tissues of animals and plants. Animal oils are
obtained from the adipose tissue by simple heat or by boiling with
water. They are usually either colourless or yellow. The oils of
plants occur usually in the seeds or fruit, and are obtained either
by expression or by means of solvents such as ether or petroleum.
They are of various shades of yellow and green, the green colour
being due to the presence of chlorophyll. The fundamental difference
between fixed oils and mineral oils exists in their behaviour towards
oxygen. Mineral oils at ordinary temperatures are indifferent to
oxygen, but all fixed oils combine with it and thicken or gum more
or less, generating heat at the same time. Such oils are, therefore,
dangerous if dropped upon silk, cotton or woollen waste or other
combustible fibrous materials, which are thus rendered liable to
spontaneous ignition.
Liquid lubricants are used for all high speed bearings. In some
cases the rubbing surfaces work in a bath of the lubricant, which
can then reach all the rubbing parts with certainty. Small engines
for motor cars or road waggons are often lubricated in this way. In
the case of individual bearings, such as those of railway vehicles, a
pad of cotton, worsted and horse hair is kept saturated with the
lubricant and pressed against the under side of the journal. The
journal is thus kept constantly wetted with oil, and the film is forced
beneath the brass as the axle rotates. In many cases, oil- ways and
grooves are cut in the bearings, and the lubricant is allowed to run
by gravity into them and thus finds its way between the opposing
surfaces. To secure a steady feed various contrivances are adopted,
the most common being a wick of cotton or worsted used as a siphon.
In cases where it is important that little if any wear should take
place, the lubricant is forced by means of a pump between the friction
surfaces and a constant film of oil is thereby maintained between
them.
For the spindles of small machines such as clocks, watches and
other delicate mechanisms, which are only lubricated at long intervals
LUBRICATION
89
and are often exposed to extremes of temperature, the lubricant
must be a fluid oil as free as possible from tendency to gum or thicken
by oxidation or to corrode metal, and must often have a low freez-
ing-point. It must also possess a maximum of " oiliness." The
lubricants mostly used for such purposes are obtained from porpoise
or dolphin jaw oils, bean oil, hazel nut oil, neatsfoot oil, sperm oil
or olive oil. These oils are exposed for some time to temperatures as
low as the mechanism is required to work at, and the portion which
remains fluid is separated and used. Free acid should be entirely
eliminated by chemical refining. A little good mineral oil may with
advantage be mixed with the fatty oil.
For all ordinary machinery, ranging from the light ring spindles of
textile mills to the heavy shafts of large engines, mineral oils are
almost universally employed, either alone or mixed with fatty oils,
the general rule being to use pure mineral oils for bath, forced or
circulating pump lubrication, and mixed oils for drop, siphon and
other less perfect methods of lubrication. Pure mineral oils of
relatively low viscosity are used for high speeds and low pressures,
mixed oils of greater viscosity for low speeds and high pressures.
In selecting oils for low speeds and great pressures, viscosity must be
the first consideration, and next to that " oiliness." If an oil of
sufficiently high viscosity be used, a mineral oil may give a result as
good or better than a pure fixed oil ; a mixed oil may give a better
result than either. If a mineral oil of sufficient viscosity be not
available, then a fixed oil or fat may be expected to give the best
result.
In special cases, such as in the lubrication of textile machines,
where the oil is liable to be splashed upon the fabric, the primary
consideration is to use an oil which can be washed out without
leaving a stain. Pure fixed oils, or mixtures composed largely of
fixed oils, are used for such purposes.
In other special cases, such as marine engines working in hot places,
mixtures are used of mineral oil with rape or other vegetable oil
artificially thickened by blowing air through the heated oil, and
known as " blown " oil or " soluble castor oil."
In the lubrication of the cylinders and valves of steam, gas and oil
engines, the lubricant must possess as much viscosity as possible at
the working temperature, must not evaporate appreciably and must
not decompose and liberate fatty acids which would corrode the metal
and choke the steam passages with metallic soaps; for gas and oil
engines the lubricant must t>e as free as possible from tendency to
decompose and deposit carbon when heated. For this reason steam
cylinders and valves should be lubricated with pure mineral oils of
the highest viscosity, mixed with no more fixed oil than is necessary
to ensure efficient lubrication. Gas and oil engines also should be
lubricated with pure mineral oils wherever possible.
For further information on the theory and practice of lubrication
and on the testing of lubricants, see Friction and Lost Work in
Machinery and Mill Work, by R. H. Thurston (1903); and Lubri-
cation and Lubricants, by L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley (1906).
(R. M. D.)
LUBRICATION. Our knowledge of the action of oils and other
viscous fluids in diminishing friction and wear between solid
surfaces from being purely empirical has become a connected
theory, based on the known properties of matter, subjected to the
definition of mathematical analysis and verified by experiment.
The theory was published in 1886 (Phil. Trans., 1886, 177, pp.
157-234); but it is the purpose of this article not so much to
explain its application, as to give a brief account of the intro-
duction of the misconceptions that so long prevailed, and of the
manner in which their removal led to its general acceptance.
Friction, or resistance to tangential shifting of matter over
matter, whatever the mode and arrangement, differs greatly
according to the materials, but, like all material resistance, is
essentially limited. The range of the limits in available materials
has a primary place in determining mechanical possibilities,
and from the earliest times they have demanded the closest
attention on the part of all who have to do with structures or
with machines, the former being concerned to find those materials
and their arrangements which possess the highest limits, and the
latter the materials in which the limits are least. Long before the
reformation of science in the ijth and i6th centuries both these
limits had formed the subject of such empirical research as
disclosed numerous definite although disconnected circumstances
under which they could be secured; and these, however far from
the highest and lowest, satisfied the exigencies of practical
mechanics at the time, thus initiating the method of extending
knowledge which was to be subsequently recognized as the only
basis of physical philosophy. In this purely empirical research
the conclusion arrived at represented the results for the actual
circumstance from which they were drawn, and thus afforded no
place for theoretical discrepancies. However, in the attempts at
generalization which followed the reformation of science, oppor-
tunity was afforded for such discrepancies in the mere enunciation
of the circumstances in which the so-called laws of friction of
motion are supposed to apply. The circumstances in which
the great amount of empirical research was conducted as to the
resistance between the clean, plane, smooth surfaces of rigid
bodies moving over each other under pressure, invariably include
the presence of air at atmospheric pressure around, and to some
extent between, the surfaces; but this fact had received no
notice in the enunciation of these laws, and this constitutes
a theoretical departure from the conditions under which the
experience had been obtained. Also, the theoretical division
of the law of frictional resistance into two laws one dealing with
the limit of rest, and the other asserting that the friction of
motion, which is invariably less in similar circumstances than
that of rest, is independent of the velocity of sliding involves
the theoretical assumption that there is no asymptotic law of
diminution of the resistance, since, starting from rest, the
rate of sliding increases. The theoretical substitution of ideal
rigid bodies with geometrically regular surfaces, sliding in contact
under pressure at the common regular surface, for the aerated
surfaces in the actual circumstances, and the theoretical sub-
stitution of the absolute independence of the resistance of the
rate of sliding for the limited independence in the actual circum-
stances, prove the general acceptance of the conceptions (i)
that matter can slide over matter under pressure at a geometric-
ally regular surface; (2) that, however much the resistance
to sliding under any particular pressure (the co-efficient of
friction) may depend on the physical properties of the materials,
the sliding under pressure takes place at the geometrically
regular surface of contact of the rigid bodies; and (3) as the
consequence of (i) and (2), that whatever the effect of a lubricant,
such as oil, might have, it could be a physical surface effect. Thus
not only did these general theoretical conceptions, .resulting
from the theoretical laws of friction, fail to indicate that the
lubricant may diminish the resistance by the mere mechanical
separation of the surfaces, but they precluded the idea that such
might be the case. The result was that all subsequent attempts
to reduce the empirical facts, where a lubricant was used, to
such general laws as might reveal thc^separate functions of the
complex circumstances on which lubrication depends, com-
pletely failed. Thus until 1883 the science of lubrication had
not advanced beyond the empirical stage.
This period of stagnation was terminated by an accidental
phenomenon observed by Beauchamp Tower, while engaged
on his research on the friction of the journals of railway carriages.
His observation led him to a line of experiments which proved
that in these experiments the general function of the lubricant
was the mechanical separation of the metal surfaces by a layer
of fluid of finite thickness, thus upsetting the preconceived ideas
as expressed in the laws of the friction of motion. On the publica-
tion of Tower's reports (Proc. Inst. M.E., November 1883), it
was recognized by several physicists (B.A. Report, 1884, pp. 14,
625) that the evidence they contained afforded a basis for
further study of the actions involved, indicating as it did the
circumstances namely, the properties of viscosity and cohesion
possessed by fluids account of which had not been taken in
previous conclusions. It also became apparent that continuous
or steady lubrication, such as that of Tower's experiments, is
only secured when the solid surfaces separated by the lubricant
are so shaped that the thickness at the ingoing side is greater than
that at the outgoing side.
When the general equations of viscous fluids had been shown
as the result of the labours of C. L. M. H. Navier, 1 A. L. Cauchy, 1
S. D. Poisson, 3 A. J. C. Barre de St Venant, 4 and in 1845 of Sir
G. Gabriel Stokes, 6 to involve no other assumption than that
the stresses, other than the pressure equal in all directions,
1 Mem. de I'Acad. (1826), 6, p. 389.
* Mem. des sav. ttrang. 1. 40.
' Mem. de I'Acad. (1831), 10, p. 345. < B.A. Report (1846)
1 Cambridge Phil. Trans. (1845 and 1857).
9 o
LUBRICATION
are linear functions of the distortional rates of strain multiplied
by a constant coefficient, it was found that the only solutions
of which the equations admitted, when applied to fluids flowing
between fixed boundaries, as water in a pipe, were singular
solutions for steady or steady periodic motion, and that the
conclusions they entailed, that the resistance would be pro-
portional to the velocity, were for the most part directly at
variance with the common experience that the resistances
varied with the square of the velocity. This discrepancy was
sometimes supposed to be the result of eddies in the fluid, but
it was not till 1883 that it was discovered by experiments with
colour bands that, in the case of geometrically similar boundaries,
the existence or non-existence of such eddies depended upon
a definite relation between the mean velocity (U) of the fluid,
the distance between the boundaries, and the ratio of the co-
efficient of viscosity to the density Gu/p) , expressed by UDp/^t = K,
where K is a physical constant independent of units, which has
a value between 1900 and 2000, and for parallel boundaries
D is four times the area of the channel divided by the perimeter
of the section (Phil. Trans., 1883, part iii. 935-982). K is thus
a criterion at which the law of resistance to the mean flow changes
suddenly (as U increases), from being proportional to the flow,
to a law involving higher powers of the velocity at first, but as
the rates increase approaching an asymptote in which the power
is a little less that the square.
This sudden change in the law of resistance to the flow of
fluid between solid boundaries, depending as it does on a complete
change in the manner of the flow from direct parallel flow to
sinuous eddying motion serves to determine analytically the
circumstances as to the velocity and the thickness of the film
under which any fluid having a particular coefficient of viscosity
can act the part of a lubricant. For as long as the circumstances
are such that UDp//i is less than K, the parallel flow is held stable
by the viscosity, so that only one solution is possible that
in which the resistance is the product of n multiplied by the
rate of distortion, as pj^; in this case the fluid has lubricating
properties. But when the circumstances are such that UDp/^t
is greater than K, other solutions become possible, and the
parallel flow becomes unstable, breaks down into eddying
motion, and the resistance varies as pu", which approximates
to pw 1 ' 78 as the velocity increases; in this state the fluid has
no lubricating properties. Thus, within the limits of the criterion,
the rate of displacement of the momentum of the fluid is in-
significant as compared with the viscous resistance, and may
be neglected; while outside this limit the direct effects of the
eddying motion completely dominate the viscous resistance,
which in its turn may be neglected. Thus K is a criterion which
separates the flow of fluid between solid surfaces as definitely
as the flow of fluid is separated from the relative motions in
elastic solids, and it is by the knowledge of the limit on which
this distinction depends that the theory of viscous flow can
with assurance be applied to the circumstance of lubrication.
Until the existence of this physical constant was discovered,
any theoretical conclusions as to whether in any particular
circumstances the resistance of the lubricant would follow the
law of viscous flow or that of eddying motion was impossible.
Thus Tower, being unaware of the discovery of the criterion,
which was published in the same year as his reports, was thrown
off the scent in his endeavour to verify the evidence he had
obtained as to the finite thickness of the film by varying the
velocity. He remarks in his first report that, " according
to the theory of fluid motion, the resistance would be as the
square of the velocity, whereas in his results it did not increase
according to this law." The rational theory of lubrication does
not, however, depend solely on the viscosity within the interior
of fluids, but also depends on the surface action between the
fluid and the solid. In many respects the surface actions, as
indicated by surface tension, are still obscure, and there has
been a general tendency to assume that there may be discontinuity
in the velocity at the common surface. But whatever these
actions may be in other respects, there is abundant evidence
that there is no appreciable discontinuity in the velocity at the
surfaces as long as the fluid has finite thickness. Hence in the
case of lubrication the velocities of the fluid at the surfaces of
the solids are those of the solid. In as far as the presence of
the lubricant is necessary, such properties as cause oil in spite
of its surface tension to spread even against gravity over a bright
metal surface, while mercury will concentrate into globules on
the bright surface of iron, have an important place in securing
lubrication where the action is intermittent, as in the escapement
of a clock. If there is oil on the pallet, although the pressure
of the tooth causes this to flow out laterally from between the
surfaces, it goes back again by surface tension during the
intervals; hence the importance of using fluids with low surface
tension like oil, or special oils, when there is no other means of
securing the presence of the lubricant.
The differential equations for the equilibrium of the lubricant are
what the differential equations of viscous fluid in steady motion
become when subject to the conditions necessary for lubrication
as already defined (l) the velocity is below the critical value;
(2) at the surfaces the velocity of the fluid is that of the solid;
(3) the thickness of the film is small compared with the lateral
dimensions of the surfaces and the radii of curvature of the surfaces.
By the first of these conditions all the terms having p as a factor
may be neglected, and the equations thus become the equations of
equilibrium of the fluid ; as such, they are applicable to fluid whether
incompressible or elastic, and however the pressure may affect the
viscosity. But the analysis is greatly simplified by omitting all
terms depending on compressibility and by taking /i constant ; this
may be done without loss of generality in a qualitative sense. With
these limitations we have for the differential equation of the equili-
brium of the lubricant :
du dv . dw~\
(i)
These are subject to the boundary conditions (2) and (3). Taking
* as measured parallel to one of the surfaces in the direction of rela-
tive motion, y normal to the surface and 2 normal to the plane of xy
by condition (3), we may without error disregard the effect of any
curvature in the surfaces. Also is small compared with u and w,
and the variations of u and w in the directions x and 2 are small com-
pared with their variation in the direction y. The equations (l)
reduce to
dp d*u dp dp d?w du . dv , <fc
- 0= ^- 0=
du
dw
(2)
For the boundary conditions, putting f(x, z) as limiting the lateral
area of the lubricant, the conditions at the surfaces may be expressed
thus :
= o,
i >
(3)
when f(x, z)=o, p = po , J
Then, integrating the equations (2) over y, and determining the
constants by equations (3), we have, since by the second of equations
(2) p is independent of y,
(4)
i dp
Then, differentiating equations (4) with respect to x and 2 respec-
tively, and substituting in the 4th of equations (2), and integrating
from y = o to y = h, so that only the values of v at the surfaces may be
required, we have for the differential equation of normal pressure at
any point x, z, between the boundaries:
Tx
("f) +.4 Wl)
(5)
Again differentiating equations (4), with respect to x and z respec-
tively, and substituting in the 5th and 6th of equations (2), and
putting f x and f, for the intensities of the tangential stresses at the
lower and upper surfaces:
(6)
hdp
=
LUCAN
9 1
Equations (5) and (6) are the general equations for the stresses
at the boundaries at x, z, when A is a continuous function of * and z,
it and p being constant.
For the integration of equations (6) to get the resultant stresses
and moments on the solid boundaries, so as to obtain the conditions
of their equilibrium, it is necessary to know how * and z at any point
on the boundary enter into h, as well as the equation /(*, z)=o,
which determines the limits of the lubricating film. If y, the normal
to one of the surfaces, has not the same direction for all points of
this surface, in other words, if the surface is not plane, * and z be-
come curvilinear co-ordinates, at all points perpendicular to y. Since,
for lubrication, one of the surfaces must be plane, cylindrical, or a
surface of revolution, we may put x = R0, y = r R, and z perpendicular
to the plane of motion. Then, if the data are sufficient, the resultant
stresses and moments between the surfaces are obtained by integrat-
ing the intensity of the stress and moments of intensity of stress over
the surface.
This, however, is not the usual problem that arises. What is
generally wanted is to find the thickness of the film where least (ho)
and its angular position with respect to direction of load, to resist a
definite load with a particular surface velocity. If the surfaces are
plane, the general solution involves only one arbitrary constant, the
least thickness (/to) ; since in any particular case the variation of k
with * is necessarily fixed, as in this case lubrication affords no auto-
matic adjustment of this slope. When both surfaces are curved in
the plane of motion there are at least two arbitrary constants, ho,
and <t> the angular position of h, with respect to direction of load;
while if the surfaces are both curved in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of motion as well as in the plane of motion, there are three
arbitrary constants, ho, <fo, z. The only constraint necessary is to
prevent rotation in the plane of motion of one of the surfaces, leaving
this surface free to move in any direction and to adjust its position so
as to be in equilibrium under the load.
The integrations necessary for the solutions of these problems
are practicable complete or approximate and have been
effected for circumstances which include the chief cases of
practical lubrication, the results having been verified by reference
to Tower's experiments. In this way the verified theory is
available for guidance outside the limits of experience as well
as for determining the limiting conditions. But it is necessary
to take into account certain subsidiary theories. These limits
depend on the coefficient of viscosity, which diminishes as the
temperature increases. The total work in' overcoming the re-
sistance is spent in generating heat in the lubricant, the volume
of which is very small. Were it not for the escape of heat by
conduction through the lubricant and the metal, lubrication
would be impossible. Hence a knowledge of the empirical law
of the variation of the viscosity of the lubricant with temperature,
the coefficients of conduction of heat in the lubricant and in
the metal, and the application of the theory of the flow of heat
in the particular circumstances, are necessary adjuncts to the
theory of lubrication for determining the limits of lubrication.
Nor is this all, for the shapes of the solid surfaces vary with the
pressure, and more particularly with the temperature.
The theory of lubrication has been applied to the explanation of
the slipperiness of ice (Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1899).
(O. R.)
LUCAN [MARCUS ANNAEUS LUCANUS], (A.D. 30-65), Roman
poet of the Silver Age, grandson of the rhetorician Seneca and
nephew of the philosopher, was born at Corduba. His mother
was Acilia; his father, Marcus Annaeus Mela, had amassed
great wealth as imperial procurator for the provinces. From
a memoir which is generally attributed to Suetonius we learn
that Lucan was taken to Rome at the age of eight months and
displayed remarkable precocity. One of his instructors was the
Stoic philosopher, Cornutus, the friend and teacher of Persius.
He was studying at Athens when Nero recalled him to Rome
and made him quaestor. These friendly relations did not last
long. Lucan is said to have defeated Nero in a public
poetical contest; Nero forbade him to recite in public, and the
poet's indignation made him an accomplice in the conspiracy
of Piso. Upon the discovery of the plot he is said to have been
tempted by the hope of pardon to denounce his own mother.
Failing to obtain a reprieve, he caused his veins to be opened,
and expired repeating a passage from one of his poems descriptive
of the death of a wounded soldier. His father was involved
in the proscription, his mother escaped, and his widow Folia
Argentaria survived to receive the homage of Statius under
Domitian. The birthday of Lucan was kept as a festival after
his death, and a poem addressed to his widow upon one of these
occasions and containing information on the poet's work and
career is still extant (Statius's Silvae, ii. 7, entitled Genethliacon
Lucani).
Besides his principal performance, Lucan's works included
poems on the ransom of Hector, the nether world, the fate of
Orpheus, a eulogy of Nero, the burning of Rome, and one in
honour of his wife (all mentioned by Statius), letters, epigrams,
an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Medea and numerous
miscellaneous pieces. His minor works have perished except
for a few fragments, but all that the author wrote of the Pharsalia
has come down to us. It would probably have concluded with
the'^battle of Philippi, but breaks off abruptly as Caesar is about
to plunge into the harbour of Alexandria. The Pharsalia opens
with a panegyric of Nero, sketches the causes of the war and the
characters of Caesar and Pompey, the crossing of the Rubicon
by Caesar, the flight of the tribunes to his camp, and the panic
and confusion in Rome, which Pompey has abandoned. The
second book describes the visit of Brutus to Cato, who is persuaded
to join the side of the senate, and his marriage a second time to
his former wife Marcia, Ahenobarbus's capitulation at Cornnium
and the retirement of Pompey to Greece. In the third book
Caesar, after settling affairs in Rome, crosses the Alps for Spain.
Massilia is besieged and falls. The fourth book describes the
victories of Caesar in Spain over Afranius and Petreius, and the
defeat of Curio by Juba in Africa. In the fifth Caesar and Antony
land in Greece, and Pompey's wife Cornelia is placed in security
at Lesbos. The sixth book describes the repulses of Caesar
round Dyrrhachium, the seventh the defeat of Pompey at
Pharsalia, the eighth his flight and assassination in Egypt,
the ninth the operations of Cato in Africa and his march through
the desert, and the landing of Caesar in Egypt, the tenth the
opening incidents of the Alexandrian war. The incompleteness
of the work should not be left out of account in the estimate of
its merits, for, with two capital exceptions, the faults of the
Pharsalia are such as revision might have mitigated or rendered.
No such pains, certainly, could have amended the deficiency
of unity of action, or supplied the want of a legitimate protagonist.
The Pharsalia is not true to history, but it cannot shake off its
shackles, and is rather a metrical chronicle than a true epic.
If it had been completed according to the author's design,
Pompey, Cato and Brutus must have successively enacted the
part of nominal hero, while the real hero is the arch-enemy
of liberty and Lucan, Caesar. Yet these defects, though glaring,
are not fatal or peculiar to Lucan. The false taste, the strained
rhetoric, the ostentatious erudition, the tedious harangues and
far-fetched or commonplace reflections so frequent in this
singularly unequal poem, are faults much more irritating, but
they are also faults capable of amendment, which the writer
might not improbably have removed. Great allowance should
also be made in the case of one who is emulating predecessors
who have already carried art to its last perfection. Lucan's
temper could never have brooked mere imitation; his versifica-
tion, no less than his subject, is entirely his own; he avoids
the appearance of outward resemblance to his great predecessor
with a persistency which can only have resulted from deliberate
purpose, but he is largely influenced by the declamatory school
of his grandfather and uncle. Hence his partiality for finished
antithesis, contrasting strongly with his generally breathless
style and turbid diction. Quintilian sums up both aspects of
his genius with pregnant brevity, " Ardens et concitatus et
sententiis clarissimus," adding with equal justice, " Magis
oratoribus quam poetis annumerandus." Lucan's oratory,
however, frequently approaches the regions of poetry, e.g. the
apotheosis of Pompey at the beginning of the ninth book, and
the passage in the same book where Cato, in the truest spirit of
the Stoic philosophy, refuses to consult the oracle of Jupiter
Ammon. Though in many cases Lucan's rhetoric is frigid,
hyperbolical, and out of keeping with the character of the speaker,
yet his theme has a genuine hold upon him; in the age of Nero
he celebrates the republic as a poet with the same energy with
which in the age of Cicero he might have defended it as an orator.
LUCANIA LUCARIS
But for him it might almost have been said that the Roman
republic never inspired the Roman muse.
Lucan never speaks of himself, but his epic speaks for him.
He must have been endowed with no common ambition, industry
and self-reliance, an enthusiastic though narrow and aristocratic
patriotism, and a faculty for appreciating magnanimity in others.
But the only personal trait positively known to us is his conjugal
affection, a characteristic of Seneca also.
Lucan, together with Statius, was preferred even to Virgil
in the middle ages. So late as 1493 his commentator Sulpitius
writes: " Magnus profecto est Maro, magnus Lucanus;
adeoque prope par, ut quis sit major possis ambigere." Shelley
and Southey, in the first transport of admiration, thought
Lucan superior to Virgil; Pope, with more judgment, says that
the fire which burns in Virgil with an equable glow breaks forth
in Lucan with sudden, brief and interrupted flashes. Of late,
notwithstanding the enthusiasm of isolated admirers, Lucan
has been unduly neglected, but he has exercised an important
influence upon one great department of modern literature by his
effect upon Corneille, and through him upon the classical French
drama.
AUTHORITIES. The Pharsalia was much read in the middle ages,
and consequently it is preserved in a large number of manuscripts,
the relations of which have not yet been thoroughly made out.
The most recent critical text is that of C. Hosius (and ed. 1906),
and the latest complete commentaries are those of C. E. Haskins
(1887, with a valuable introduction by W. E. Heitland) and C. M.
Francken (1896). There are separate editions of book i. by P. Lejay
(1894) and book vii. by I. P. Ppstgate (1896). Of earlier editions
those of Oudendorp (which contains the continuation of the Pharsalia
to the death of Caesar by Thomas May, 1728), Burmann (1740),
Bentley (1816, posthumous) and Weber (1829) may be mentioned.
There are English translations by C. Marlowe (book i. only, 1600),
Sir F. Gorges (1614), Thomas May (1626), N. Rowe (1718) and Sir E.
Ridley (2nd ed. 1905), the two last being the best.
(R.G.;J. P. P.)
LUCANIA, in ancient geography, a district of southern Italy,
extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Tarentum.
To the north it adjoined Campania, Samnium and Apulia, and
to the south it was separated by a narrow isthmus from the
district of Bruttii. It thus comprised almost all the modern
province of the Basilicata, with the greater part of the pro-
vince of Salerno and a portion of that of Cosenza. The
precise limits were the river Silarus on the north-west, which
separated it from Campania, and the Bradanus, which flows
into the Gulf of Tarentum, on the north-east; while the two
little rivers Laus and Crathis, flowing from the ridge of the
Apennines to the sea on the west and east, marked the limits
of the district on the side of the Bruttii.
Almost the whole is occupied by the Apennines, here an
irregular group of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches
the western sea, and is continued from the lofty knot of mountains
on the frontiers of Samnium, nearly due south to within a few
miles of the Gulf of Policastro, and thenceforward is separated
from the sea by only a narrow interval till it enters the district
of the Bruttii. Just within the frontier of Lucania rises Monte
Pollino, 7325 ft., the highest peak in the southern Apennines.
The mountains descend by a much more gradual slope to the
coastal plain of the Gulf of Tarentum. Thus the rivers which
flow to the Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared
with those that descend towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of
these the most important are the Bfadanus (Bradano), the
Casuentus (Basiento), the Aciris (Agri), and the Siris (Sinno).
The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit of the
province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii,
but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the
mountains of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the
western side is the Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern
boundary, and has two important tributaries in the Calor
(Galore) and the Tanager (Negro) which joins it from the south.
The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing
the name Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about
the middle of the sth century B.C. Before that period it was
included under the general name of Oenotria, which was applied
by the Greeks to the southernmost portion of Italy. The
mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes known as
Oenotrians and Chones, while the coasts on both sides were
occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised
a protectorate over the interior (see MAGNA GRAECIA). The
Lucanians were a southern branch of the Samnite or Sabelline
race, who spoke the Osca Lingua (q.v.). We know from Strabo
that they had a democratic constitution save in time of war,
when a dictator was chosen from among the regular magistrates.
A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in Greek characters,
from the 4th or 3rd century B.C., and some coins with Oscan
legends of the 3rd century (see Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 1 1 sqq. ;
Mommsen, C.I.L. x. p. 21; Roehl, Inscriptiones Graecae Anti-
quissimae, 547). The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole
country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast)
from the borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern
extremity of Italy. Subsequently the inhabitants of the
peninsula, now known as Calabria, broke into insurrection, and
under the name of Bruttians established their independence,
after which the Lucanians became confined within the limits
already described. After this we find them engaged in hostilities
with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who
was called in by that people to their assistance, 326 B.C. In 298
B.C. (Livy x. ii seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman
influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291 B.C.),
Paestum (273), and above all Tarentum (272). Subsequently
they were sometimes in alliance, but more frequently engaged
in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. On the landing of
Pyrrhus in Italy (281 B.C.) they were among the first to declare
in his favour, and found themselves exposed to the resentment
of Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the
mercy of the Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced
to subjection (272 B.C.). Notwithstanding this they espoused
the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216 B.C.),
and their territory during several campaigns was ravaged by
both armies. "The country never recovered from these disasters,
and under the Roman government fell into decay, to which
the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the
Samnites against Rome (90-88 B.C.) gave the finishing stroke.
In the time of Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen
into insignificance, and owing to the decrease of population and
cultivation the malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The
few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part
of the province was given up to pasture, and the mountains
were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears
and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities,
but none of great importance.
For administrative purposes under the Roman empire,
Lucania was always united with the district of the Bruttii.
The two together constituted the third region of 'Augustus.
The towns on the east coast were Metapontum, a few miles south
of the Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Siris,
on the river of the same name. Close to its southern frontier stood
Sybaris, which was destroyed in 510 B.C., but subsequently replaced
by Thurii. On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the
Roman government as Paestum; below that came Elea or Velia,
Pyxus, called by the Romans Buxentum, and Laus, near the frontier
of the province towards Bruttium. Of the towns of the interior
the most considerable was Potentia, still called Potenza. To the
north, near the frontier of Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged
more properly to Apulia); while due south from Potentia was
Grumentum, and still farther in that direction were Nerulum and
Muranum. In the upland valley of the Tanagrus wereAtina,
Forum Popilii and Consilinum; Eburi (Eboli) and Voiceii (Buccino),
though to the north of the Silarus, were also included in Lucania.
The Via Popillia traversed the district from N. to S., entering it at
the N.W. extremity; the Via Herculia, coming southwards from
the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and Grumentum, joined
the Via Popillia near the S.W. edge of the district: while another
nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of less import-
ance ran W. from Potentia to the Via Popillia, N.E. to the Via Appia
and E. from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea. (T. As.)
LUCARIS, CYRILLOS (1572-1637), Greek prelate and theo-
logian, was a native of Crete. In youth he travelled, studying
at Venice and Padua, and at Geneva coming under the influence
of the reformed faith as represented by Calvin. In 1602 he was
LUCARNE LUCAS VAN LEYDEN
93
elected patriarch of Alexandria, and in 1621 patriarch of Con-
stantinople. He was the first great name in the Orthodox
Eastern Church since 1453, and dominates its history in the
I7th century. The great aim of his life was to reform the church
on Calvinistic lines, and to this end he sent many young Greek
theologians to the universities of Switzerland, Holland and
England. In 1629 he published his famous Confessio, Calvinistic
in doctrine, but as far as possible accommodated to the language
and creeds of the Orthodox Church. It appeared the same year
in two Latin editions, four French, one German and one English,
and in the Eastern Church started a controversy which culminated
in 1691 in the convocation by Dositheos, patriarch of Jerusalem,
of a synod by which the Calvinistic doctrines were condemned.
Lucaris was several times temporarily deposed and banished
at the instigation of his orthodox opponents and of the Jesuits,
who were his bitterest enemies. Finally, when Sultan Murad
was about to set out for the Persian War, the patriarch was
accused of a design to stir up the Cossacks, and to avoid trouble
during his absence the sultan had him killed by the Janissaries
(June 1637). His body was thrown into the sea, recovered and
buried at a distance from the capital by his friends, and only
brought back to Constantinople after many years.
The orthodoxy of Lucaris himself continued to be a matter
of debate in the Eastern Church, even Dositheos, in view of the
reputation of the great patriarch, thinking it expedient to gloss
over his heterodoxy in the interests of the Church.
. See the article " Lukaris " by Ph. Meyer in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklop. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1902), which gives further authorities.
LUCARNE, a French architectural term for a garret window,
also for the lights or small windows in spires.
LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648), English soldier, was the son
of Sir Thomas Lucas of Colchester, Essex. As a young man
he saw service in the Netherlands under. the command of his
brother, and in the " Bishops' War " he commanded a troop
of horse in King Charles I.'s army. In 1639 he was made a knight.
At the outbreak of the Civil War Lucas naturally took the king's
side, and at the first cavalry fight, Powick Bridge, he was wounded.
Early in 1643 he raised a regiment of horse, with which he
defeated Middleton at Padbury on July ist. In January 1644
he commanded the forces attacking Nottingham, and soon
afterwards, on Prince Rupert's recommendation, he was made
lieutenant-general of Newcastle's Northern army. When New-
castle was shut up in York, Lucas and the cavalry remained
in the open country, and when Rupert's relieving army crossed
the mountains into Yorkshire he was quickly joined by New-
castle's squadrons. At Marston Moor Lucas swept Fairfax's
Yorkshire horse before him, but later in the day he was taken
prisoner. Exchanged during the winter, he defended Berkeley
Castle for a short time against Rainsborough, but was soon in
the field again. As lieutenant-general of all the horse he
accompanied Lord Astley in the last campaign of the first war,
and, taken prisoner at Stow-on-the-Wold, he engaged not to
bear arms against parliament in the future. This parole he must
be held to have broken when he took a prominent part in the
seizure of Colchester in 1648. That place was soon invested,
and finally fell, after a desperate resistance, to Fairfax's army.
The superior officers had to surrender " at mercy," and Lucas
and Sir George Lisle were immediately tried by court martial
and sentenced to death. The two Royalists were shot the same
evening in the Castle of Colchester.
See Lloyd, Memoirs of Excellent Personages (1669) ; and Earl de
Grey, A Memoir of the Life of Sir Charles Lucas (1845).
LUCAS, CHARLES (1713-1771), Irish physician and politician,
was the son of a country gentleman of small means in Co.
Clare. Charles opened a small business as an apothecary in
Dublin, and between 1735 and 1741 he began his career as a
pamphleteer by publishing papers on professional matters
which led to legislation requiring inspection of drugs. Having
been elected a member of the common council of Dublin in 1741
he detected and exposed encroachments by the aldermen on the
electoral rights of the citizens, and entered upon a controversy
on the subject, but failed in legal proceedings against the alder-
men in 1744. With a view to becoming a parliamentary candi-
date for the city of Dublin he issued in 1748-1749 a series of
political addresses in which he advocated the principles of
Molyneux and Swift; and he made himself so obnoxious to the
government that the House of Commons voted him an enemy
to the country, and issued a proclamation for his arrest, thus
compelling him to retire for some years to the continent. Having
studied medicine at Paris, Lucas took the degree of M.D. at
Leiden in 1752. In the following year he started practice as
a physician in London, and in 1756 he published a work on
medicinal waters, the properties of which he had studied on the
continent and at Bath. The essay was reviewed by Dr Johnson,
and although it was resented by the medical profession it gained
a reputation and a considerable practice for its author. In 1760
he renewed his political pamphleteering; and having obtained
a pardon from George III., he proceeded to Dublin, where he
received a popular welcome and a Doctor's degree from Trinity
College. He was elected member for the city of Dublin in 1761,
his colleague in the representation being the recorder, Henry
Grattan's father. On the appointment of Lord Halifax as lord
lieutenant in the same year Lucas wrote him a long letter
(igth of Sept. 1761, MSS. Irish State Paper Office) setting forth
the grievances which Ireland had suffered in the past, chiefly
on account of the exorbitant pensions enjoyed by government
officials. The cause of these evils he declared to be the un-
representative character of the Irish constitution; and among
the remedies he proposed was the shortening of parliaments.
Lucas brought in a bill in his first session to effect this reform,
but was defeated on the motion to have the bill sent to England
for approval by the privy council; and he insisted upon the
independent rights of the Irish parliament, which were after-
wards in fuller measure successfully vindicated by Grattan.
He also defended the privileges of the Irish Protestants in the
press, and especially in the Freeman's Journal, founded in 1763.
His contributions to the press, and his Addresses to the Lord
Mayor and other political pamphlets made him one of the most
popular writers in Ireland of his time, although he was anti-
catholic in his prejudices, and although, as Lecky observes,
" there is nothing in his remains to show that he possessed any
real superiority either of intellect or knowledge, or even any
remarkable brilliancy of expression." He died on the 4th of
November 1771, and was accorded a public funeral. As an orator
Charles Lucas appears to have had little power, and he made
no mark in the House of Commons.
See R. R. Madden, Hist, of Irish Periodical Literature from the End
of the 17th to the Middle of the ipth Century (2 vols., London, 1867) ;
Francis Hardy, Memoirs of the Earl of Charlemont (2 .vols., London,
1812) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century,
vols. i. and ii. (5 vols., London, 1892).
LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1840- ), English painter, was
born in London, and was a student in the Royal Academy
Schools. He was elected an associate of the academy in 1886
and academician in 1898, and became a constant exhibitor of
pictures of historical and domestic incidents, notably of the
Tudor and Stuart periods, painted with much skill and with
close attention to detail. One of his most important works is
a panel in the Royal Exchange, presented by the corporation
of London, representing William the Conqueror granting the
first charter to the city; and one of his earlier pictures, " After
Culloden: Rebel Hunting," is in the National Gallery of British
Art.
LUCAS VAN LEYDEN (c. 1494-1533), Dutch painter, was born
at Leiden, where his father Huig Jacobsz gave him the first
lessons in art. He then entered the painting-room of Cornells
Engelbrechtszen of Leiden, and soon became known for his
capacity in making designs for glass, engraving copper-plates,
painting pictures, portraits and landscapes in oil and distemper.
According to van Mander he was born in 1494, and painted at
the age of twelve a " Legend of St Hubert " for which he was
paid a dozen florins. He was only fourteen when he finished
a plate representing Mahomet taking the life of Sergius, the
monk, and at fifteen he produced a series of nine plates for a
"Passion," a "Temptation of St Anthony," and a "Conversion
94
LUCCA
of St Paul." The list of his engravings in 1510, when, according
to van Mander, he was only sixteen, includes subjects as various
as a celebrated " Ecce Homo," " Adam and Eve expelled from
Paradise," a herdsman and a milkmaid with three cows, and a
little naked girl running away from a barking dog. Whatever
may be thought of the tradition embodied in van Mander's
pages as to the true age of Lucas van Leyden, there is no doubt
that, as early as 1508, he was a master of repute as a copper-
plate engraver. It was the time when art found patrons among
the public that could ill afford to buy pictures, yet had enough
interest in culture to satisfy itself by means of prints. Lucas
van Leyden became the representative man for the public
of Holland as Durer for that of Germany; and a rivalry grew
up between the two engravers, which came to be so close that
on the neutral market of Italy the products of each were all
but evenly quoted. Vasari affirmed that Durer surpassed
Lucas as a designer, but that in the use of the graver they
were both unsurpassed, a judgment which has not been reversed.
But the rivalry was friendly. About the time when Durer
visited the Netherlands Lucas went to Antwerp, which then
flourished as an international mart for productions of the pencil
and the graver, and it is thought that he was the master who
took the freedom of the Antwerp gild in 1521 under the name
of Lucas the Hollander. In Durer's diary kept during his travels
in the Low Countries, we find that at Antwerp he met Lucas,
who asked him to dinner, and that Durer accepted. He valued
the art of Lucas at its true figure, and exchanged the Dutchman's
prints for eight florins' worth of his own. In 1527 Lucas made a
tour of the Netherlands, giving dinners to the painters of the
gilds of Middleburg, Ghent, Malines and Antwerp. He was
accompanied during the trip by Mabuse, whom he imitated in
his style as well as in his love of rich costume. On his return
home he fell sick and remained ailing till his death in 1533, and
he believed that poison had been administered to him by some
envious comrade.
A few days before his death Lucas van Leyden was informed
of the birth of a grandson, first-born of his only daughter
Gretchen. Gretchen's fourth son JEAN DE HOEY followed the
profession of his grandfather, and became well known at the
Parisian court as painter and chamberlain to the king of France,
Henry IV.
As an engraver Lucas van Leyden deserves his reputation. He has
not the genius, nor had he the artistic tact, of Diirer ; and he displays
more cleverness ot expression than skill in distribution or in refinement
in details. But' his power in handling the graver is great, and some
of his portraits, especially his own, are equal to anything by the
master of Nuremberg. Much that he accomplished as a painter has
been lost, because he worked a good deal upon cloth in distemper.
In 1522 he painted the " Virgin and Child with the Magdalen and a
Kneeling Donor," now in the gallery of Munich. His manner was
then akin to that of Mabuse. The " Last Judgment '" in the town-
gallery of Leiden is composed on the traditional lines of Cristus and
Memling, with monsters in the style of Jerom Bosch and figures in
the stilted attitudes of the South German school ; the scale of colours
in yellow, white and grey is at once pale and gaudy, the quaintest
contrasts are produced by the juxtaposition of alabaster flesh in
females and bronzed skin in males, or black hair by the side of
yellow, or rose-coloured drapery set sharply against apple-green
or black; yet some of the heads are painted with great delicacy
and modelled with exquisite feeling. Dr Waagen gave a favourable
opinion of a triptych now at the Hermitage at St Petersburg, exe-
cuted, according to van Mander, in 1531, representing the " Blind
Man of Jericho healed by Jesus Christ." Here too the German critic
observed the union of faulty composition with great finish and warm
flesh-tints with a gaudy scale of colours. The same defects and
qualities will be found in such specimens as are preserved in public
collections, among which may be mentioned the " Card Party " at
Wilton House, the " Penitent St Jerome " in the gallery of Berlin,
and the hermits " Paul " and Anthony " in the Liechtenstein
collection at Vienna. There is a characteristic " Adoration of the
Magi " at Buckingham Palace.
LUCCA (anc. Luca) , a town and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany,
Italy, capital of the province of Lucca, 13 m. by rail N.E. of
Pisa. Pop. (1901) 43,366 (town); 73,465 (commune). It is
situated 62 ft. above the level of the sea, in the valley of the
Serchio, and looks out for the most part on a horizon of hills
and mountains. The fortifications, pierced by four gates, were
begun in 1504 and completed in 1645, and long ranked among
the most remarkable in the peninsula. They are still well-
preserved and picturesque, with projecting bastions planted
with trees.
The city has a well-built and substantial appearance, its
chief attraction lying in the numerous churches, which belong
in the main to a well-marked basilican type, and present almost
too richly decorated exteriors, fine apsidal ends and quadrangular
campaniles, in some cases with battlemented summits, and
windows increasing in number as they ascend. In style they
are an imitation of the Pisan. It is remarkable that in the arcades
a pillar generally occupies the middle of the facade. The cathe-
dral of St Martin was begun in 1063 by Bishop Anselm (later
Pope Alexander II.); but the great apse with its tall columnar
arcades and the fine campanile are probably the only remnants
of the early edifice, the nave and transepts having been rebuilt
in the Gothic style in the i4th century, while the west front
was begun in 1204 by Guidetto (lately identified with Guido
Bigarelli of Como), and " consists of a vast portico of three
magnificent arches, and above them three ranges of open galleries
covered with all the devices of an exuberant fancy." The ground
plan is a Latin cross, the nave being 273 ft. in length and 84 ft.
in width, and the transepts 144 ft. in length. In the nave is a
little octagonal temple or chapel, which serves as a shrine for the
most precious of the relics of Lucca, a cedar- wood crucifix, carved,
according to the legend, by Nicodemus, and miraculously con-
veyed to Lucca in 782. The Sacred Countenance (Volto Santo),
as it is generally called, because the face of the Saviour is con-
sidered a true likeness, is only shown thrice a year. The chapel
was built in 1484 by Matteo Civitali, a local sculptor of the early
Renaissance (1436-1501); he was the only master of Tuscany
outside Florence who worked thoroughly in the Florentine style,
and his creations are among the most charming works of the
Renaissance. The cathedral contains several other works by
him the tomb of P. da Noceto, the altar of S. Regulus and the
tomb of Ilaria del Carretto by Jacopo della Quercia of Siena
(described by Ruskin in Modern Painters, ii.), the earliest of his
extant works (1406), and one of the earliest decorative works of
the Renaissance. In one of the chapels is a fine Madonna by Fra
Bartolommeo; in the municipal picture gallery are a fine " God
the Father " and another Madonna by him; also some sculptures
by Civitali, and some good wood carving, including choir stalls.
In the cathedral choir is good stained glass of 1485. The church
of St Michael, founded in the 8th century, and built of marble
within and without, has a lofty and magnificent western fafade
(1188) an architectural screen rising much above the roof of the
church. The interior is good but rather bare. The church of
St Martino at Arliano near Lucca belongs to the first half of the
8th century; it is of basilican plan (see G. T. Rivoira, Origini
dell' Architettura Lombarda, in. [Rome, 1901] 138). St Frediano
or Frigidian dates originally from the 7th century, but was built
in the Romanesque style in 1112-1147, though the interior,
originally with four aisles and nave, shows traces of the earliest
structure; the front occupies the site of the ancient apse; in one
of its chapels is the tomb of Santa Zita, patroness of servants
and of Lucca itself. In S. Francesco, a fine Gothic church, is
the tomb of Castruccio Castracane. San Giovanni (originally
of the 1 2th century), S. Cristoforo, San Romano (rebuilt in the
I7th century, by Vincenzo Buonamici), and Santa Maria Fori-
sportam (of the 1 2th century) also deserve mention.
Among the secular buildings are the old ducal palace, begun
in 1578 by Ammanati, and now the residence of the prefect
and seat of the provincial officers and the public picture gallery;
the early Renaissance Palazzo Pretorio, or former residence of
the podesta, now the seat of the civil and correctional courts;
the palace, erected in the isth century by a member of the
Guinigi family, of brick, in the Italian Gothic style, and now
serving as a poor-house; the 16th-century palace of the marquis
Guidiccioni, now used as a depository for the archives, the earliest
documents going back to A.D. 790. The Palazzo Mansi contains
a collection of Dutch pictures. There are several other fine
late 16th-century palaces. The principal market-place in the
city (Piazza del Mercato) has taken possession of the arena of the
LUCCA, BAGNI DI LUCCHESINI
95
ancient amphitheatre, the outer arches of which can still be seen
in the surrounding buildings. The whole building, belonging
probably to the early Empire, measured 135 by 105 yds., and
the arena 87 J by 58 yds. The outline of the ancient theatre can
be traced in the Piazza delle Grazie,and some of its substructure
walls are preserved. The ancient forum was on the site of the
Piazza S. Michele in the centre of the town; remains of a small
public building or shrine were found not far off in 1906 (L. Pernier
in Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, p. 117). The rectangular disposition
of the streets in the centre of the town is a survival of Roman
times. Besides the academy of sciences, which dates from 1 584,
there are several institutions of the same kind a royal philo-
mathic academy, a royal academy of arts and a public library
of 50,000 volumes. The archiepiscopal library and archives are
also important, while the treasury contains some fine goldsmith's
work, including the 14th-century Croce dei Pisani, made by the
Pisans for the cathedral.
The river Serchio affords water-power for numerous factories.
The most important industries are the manufacture of jute goods
(carried on at Ponte a Moriano in the Serchio valley, 6 m. N. of
Lucca), tobacco, silks and cottons. The silk manufacture, intro-
duced at Lucca about the close of the i ith century, and in the
early part of the i6th the means of subsistence for 30,000 of its
inhabitants, now gives employment (in reeling and throwing)
to only about 1500. The bulk of the population is engaged in
agriculture. The water supply is maintained by an aqueduct
built in 1823-1832 with 459 arches, from the Pisan mountains.
The ancient Luca, commanding the valley of the Serchio, is first
mentioned as the place to which Sempronius retired in 218 B.C.
before Hannibal; but there is some doubt as to the correctness
of Livy's statement, for, though there were continual wars with
the Ligurians, after this time, it is not mentioned again until we
are told that in 177 B.C. a Latin colony was founded there in
territory offered by the Pisans for the purpose. 1 It must have
become a municipium by the lex Julia of 90 B.C., and it was here
that Julius Caesar in 56 B.C. held his famous conference with
Pompey and Crassus, Luca then being still in Liguria, not in
Etruria. A little later a colony was conducted hither by the
triumvirs or by Octavian; whether after Philippi or after Actium
is uncertain. In the Augustan division of Italy Luca was as-
signed to the 7th region (Etruria); it is little mentioned in the
imperial period except as a meeting-point of roads to Florentia
(see CLODIA, VIA), Luna and Pisae. The road to Parma given
in the itineraries, according to some authorities, led by Luna
and the Cisa pass (the route taken by the modern railway from
Sarzana to Parma), according to others up the Serchio valley and
over the Sassalbo pass (O. Cuntz in Jahreshefte des oesterr. arch.
Instituts, 1904, 53). Though plundered and deprived of part of
its territory by Odoacer, Luca appears as an important city and
fortress at the time of Narses, who besieged it for three months
in A.D. 5 S3, and under the Lombards it was the residence of a
duke or marquis and had the privilege of a mint. The dukes
gradually extended their power over all Tuscany, but after the
death of the famous Matilda the city began to constitute itself an
independent community, and in 1160 it obtained from Welf VI.,
duke of Bavaria and marquis of Tuscany, the lordship of all the
country for 5 m. round, on payment of an annual tribute. In-
ternal discord afforded an opportunity to Uguccione della Fag-
giuola, with whom Dante spent some time there, to make himself
master of Lucca in 1314, but the Lucchesi expelled him two years
afterwards, and handed over their city to Castruccio Castracane,
under whose masterly tyranny it became " for a moment the
leading state of Italy," until his death in 1328 (his tomb is in
S. Francesco). Occupied by the troops of Louis of Bavaria, sold
to a rich Genoese Gherardino Spinola, seized by John, king of
Bohemia, pawned to the Rossi of Parma, by them ceded to
Martino della Scala of Verona, sold to the Florentines, surrendered
to the Pisans, nominally liberated by the emperor Charles IV.
and governed by his vicar, Lucca managed, at first as a demo-
1 Some confusion has arisen owing to the similarity of the names
Luca and Luna ; the theory of E. Bormann in Corp. Inscrip. Latin.
(Berlin, 1888), xi. 295 is here followed.
cracy, and after 1628 as an oligarchy, to maintain " its independ-
ence alongside of Venice and Genoa, and painted the word
Libertas on its banner till the French Revolution." In the begin-
ning of the i6th century one of its leading citizens, Francesco
Burlamacchi, made a noble attempt to give political cohesion to
Italy, but perished on the scaffold (1548); his statue by Ulisse
Cambi was erected on the Piazza. San Michele in 1863.' As a
principality formed in 1805 by Napoleon in favour of his sister
Elisa and her husband Bacchiocchi, Lucca was for a few years
wonderfully prosperous. It was occupied by the Neapolitans
in 1814; from 1816 to 1847 it was governed as a duchy by Maria
Luisa, queen of Etruria, and her son Charles Louis; and it after-
wards formed one of the divisions of Tuscany.
The bishops of Lucca, who can be traced back to 347, received
exceptional marks of distinction, such as the pallium in 1120,
and the archiepiscopal cross from Alexander II. In 1726
Benedict XIII. raised their see to the rank of an archbishopric,
without suffragans.
See A. Mazzarosa, Sloria di Lucca, (Lucca, 1833); E. Ridolfi,
L'Arte in Lucca studiata nella sua Catledrale (1882); Guidi di Lucca;
La Basilica di S. Michele in Foro in Lucca. i (T. As.)
LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a
Corsena), a commune of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca,
containing a number of famous watering-places. Pop. (1901)
13,685. The springs are situated in the valley of the Lima,
a tributary of the Serchio; and the district is known in the
early history of Lucca as the Vicaria di Val di Lima. Ponte
Serraglio (16 m. N. of Lucca by rail) is the principal village
(pop. 1312), but there are warm springs and baths also at Villa,
Docce Bassi, Bagno Caldo, &c. The springs do not seem to have
been known to the Romans. Bagno a Corsena is first mentioned
in 1284 by Guidone de Corvaia, a Pisan historian (Muratori,
R.I.S. vol. xxii.). Fallopius, who gave them credit for the
cure of his own deafness, sounded their praises in 1569; and
they have been more or less in fashion since. The temperature
of the water varies from 98 to 130 Fahr.; in all cases it gives
off carbonic acid gas and contains lime, magnesium and sodium
products. In the village of Bagno Caldo there is a hospital
constructed largely at the expense of Nicholas Demidoff in
1826. In the valley of the Serchio, 3 m. below Ponte a Serraglio, is
the medieval Ponte del Diavolo (1322) with its lofty central arch.
LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS, Roman orator and historian, friend and
correspondent of Cicero. A man of considerable wealth and
literary tastes, he may be compared with Atticus. Disgusted
at his failure to become consul in 60, he retired from public
life, and devoted himself to writing a history of the Social and
Civil Wars. This was nearly completed, when Cicero earnestly
requested him to write a separate history of his (Cicero's) consul-
ship. Cicero had already sung his own praises in both Greek
and Latin, but thought that a panegyric by Lucceius, who had
taken considerable interest in the affairs of that critical period,
would have greater weight. Cicero offered to supply the material,
and hinted that Lucceius need not sacrifice laudation to accuracy.
Lucceius almost promised, but did not perform. Nothing
remains of any such work or of his history. In the civil war
he took the side of Pompey; but, having been pardoned by
Caesar, returned to Rome, where he lived in retirement until
his death. .
Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), especially Ad Fam. v. 12;
and Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum.
LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO (1751-1825), Prussian diplomatist,
was born at Lucca on the 7th of May 1751, the eldest son of
Marquis Lucchesini. In 1779 he went to Berlin where Frederick
the Great gave him a court appointment, making use of him
in his literary relations with Italy. Frederick William II.,
who recognized his gifts for diplomacy, sent him in 1787 to Rome
to obtain the papal sanction for the appointment of a coadjutor
to the bishop of Mainz, with a view to strengthening the German
Fttrstenbund. In 1788 he was sent to Warsaw, and brought
about a rapprochement with Prussia and a diminution of
Russian influence at Warsaw. He was accredited ambassador
to the king and republic of Poland on the I2th of April 1789.
9 6
LUCENA LUCERNE
Frederick William was at that time intriguing with Turkey,
then at war with Austria and Russia. Lucchesini was to rouse
Polish feeling against Russia, and to secure for Prussia the
concourse of Poland in the event of war with Austria and Russia.
All his power of intrigue was needed in the conduct of these
hazardous negotiations, rendered more difficult by the fact that
Prussian policy excluded the existence of a strong Polish govern-
ment. A Prusso- Polish alliance was concluded in March 1790.
Lucchesini had been sent in January of that year to secure the
alliance of Saxony against Austria, and in September he was
sent to Sistova, where representatives of the chief European
powers were engaged in settling the terms of peace between
Austria and Turkey, which were finally agreed upon on the 4th
of August 1791. Before he returned to Warsaw the Polish
treaty of which he had been the chief author had become a dead
letter owing to the engagements made between Prussia and
Austria at Reichenbach in July 1790, and Prussia was already
contemplating the second partition of Poland. He was recalled
at the end of 1791, and in July 1792 he joined Frederick William
in the invasion of France. He was to be Prussian ambassador
in Paris when the allied forces should have reinstated the
authority of Louis XVI. He was opposed alike to the invasion
of France and the Austrian alliance, but his prepossessions
did not interfere with his skilful conduct of the negotiations
with Kellermann after the allies had been forced to retire by
Dumouriez's guns at Valmy, nor with his success in securing
the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt's assistance against France.
In 1793 he was appointed ambassador to Vienna, with the
ostensible object of securing financial assistance for the Rhenish
campaign. He accompanied Frederick William through the
Polish campaign of 1793-94, and in the autumn returned to
Vienna. His anti-Austrian bias made him extremely unpopular
with the Austrian court, which asked in vain for his recall in
1795. In 1797, after a visit to Italy in which he had an interview
with Napoleon at Bologna, these demands were renewed and
acceded to. In 1800 he was sent by Frederick William III.
on a special mission to Paris. Despatches in which he expressed
his distrust of Bonaparte's peaceful professions and his conviction
of the danger of the continuance of a neutral policy were inter-
cepted by the first consul, who sought his recall, but eventually
accepted him as regular ambassador (1802). He consistently
sought friendly relations between France and Prussia, but he
warned his government in 1806 of Napoleon's intention of
restoring Hanover to George III. and of Murat's aggressions in
Westphalia. He was superseded as ambassador in Paris in
September just before the outbreak of war. After the disaster
of Jena on the i4th of October he had an interview with Duroc
near Wittenberg to seek terms of peace. After two unsuccessful
attempts at negotiation, the first draft being refused by Napoleon,
the second by Frederick William, he joined the Prussian court
at Konigsberg only to learn that his services were no longer
required. He then joined the court of Elisa, grand duchess of
Tuscany, at Lucca and Florence, and after Napoleon's fall
devoted himself to writing. He died on the 2oth of October
1825.
He published in. 1819 three volumes, Suite cause et gli effetti delta
tonfederazione rhenana, at Florence, but revealed little that was not
already available in printed sources. His memoirs remained in MS.
His despatches are edited by Bailleu in Preussen und Frankreich
(Leipzig, 1887, Publikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven).
LUCENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova,
37 m. S.S.E. of Cordova, on the Madrid-Algeciras railway.
Pop. (1900) 21,179. Lucena is situated on the Cascajar, a minor
tributary of the Genii. The parish church dates from the
beginning of the i6th century. The chief industries are the
manufacture of matches, brandy, bronze lamps and pottery,
especially the large earthenware jars (linajas) used throughout
Spain for the storage of oil and wine, some of which hold more
than 300 gallons. There is considerable trade in agricultural
produce, and the horse fair is famous throughout Andalusia.
Lucena was taken from the Moors early in the i4th century;
it was in the attempt to recapture it that King Boabdil of
Granada was taken prisoner in 1483.
LUCERA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, 12! m.
W.N.W. by rail of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 16,962. It is situated
upon a lofty plateau, the highest point of which (823 ft.), pro-
jecting to the W., was the ancient citadel, and is occupied by
the well-preserved castle erected by Frederick II., and rebuilt
by Pierre d'Angicourt about 1280. The cathedral, originally
Romanesque, but restored after 1300 is in the Gothic style;
the fafade is good, and so is the ciborium. The interior was
restored in 1882. The town occupies the site of the ancient
Luceria, the key of the whole country. According to tradition
the temple of Minerva, founded by Diomede, contained the
Trojan Palladium, and the town struck numerous bronze coins;
but in history it is first heard of as on the Roman side in the
Samnite Wars (321 B.C.), and in 315 or 314 B.C. a Latin colony
was sent here. It is mentioned in subsequent military history,
and its position on the road from Beneventum, via Aecae (mod.
Troja) to Sipontum, gave it some importance. Its wool was
also renowned. It now contains no ancient remains above
ground, though several mosaic pavements have been found and
there are traces of the foundations of an amphitheatre outside
the town on the E. The town-hall contains a statue of Venus,
a mosaic and some inscriptions (but cf. Th. Mommsen's remarks
on the local neglect of antiquities in Corp. Inscr. Lot. ix. 75).
In 663 it was destroyed by Constans II., and was only restored
in 1223 by Frederick II., who transported 20,000 Saracens hither
from Sicily. They were at first allowed religious freedom, but
became Christians under compulsion in 1300. Up to 1806
Lucera was the capital of the provinces of Basilicata and
Molise. (T. As.)
LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerna), one of the cantons
of central Switzerland. Its total area is 579-3 sq. m., of which
530-2 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering
120-4 sq. m., and vineyards -04 sq. m.). It contains no glaciers
or eternal snows, its highest points being the Brienzer Rothhorn
(7714 ft.) and Pilatus (6995 ft.), while the Rothstock summit
(5453 ft.) and the Kaltbad inn, both on the Rigi, are included
in the canton, the loftiest point of the Rigi range (the Kulm)
being entirely in Schwyz. The shape of the canton is an irregular
quadrilateral, due to the gradual acquisition of rural districts
by the town, which is its historical centre. The northern portion,
about 155 sq. m., of the Lake of Lucerne is in the canton. Its
chief river is the Reuss, which flows through it for a short distance
only receiving the Kleine Emme that flows down through the
Entlebuch. In the northern part the Wigger, the Suhr and the
Wynen streams flow through shallow valleys, separated by low
hills. The canton is fairly well supplied with railways. The lakes
of Sempach and Baldegg are wholly within the canton, which
also takes in small portions of those of Hallwil and of Zug.
In 1900 the population numbered 146,519, of which 143,337
were German-speaking, 2204 Italian-speaking and 747 French-
speaking, while 134,020 were Romanists, 12,085 Protestants
and 319 Jews. Its capital is Lucerne (q.v.); the other towns
are Kriens (pop. 5951), Willisau (4131), Ruswil (3928), Littau
(3699), Emmen (3162) and Escholzmatt (3127). The peasants
are a fine race, and outside the chief centres for foreign visitors
have retained much of their primitive simplicity of manners
and many local costumes. In the Entlebuch particularly the
men are of a robust type, and are much devoted to wrestling
and other athletic exercises. That district is mainly pastoral
and is famous for its butter and cheese. Elsewhere in the canton
the pastoral industry (including swine-breeding) is more extended
than agriculture, while chiefly in and around Lucerne there are
a number of industrial establishments. The Industrie des etr angers
is greatly developed in places frequented by foreign visitors.
The population as a whole is Conservative in politics and
devotedly Romanist in religion. But owing to the settlement of
many non-Lucerne hotel-keepers and their servants in the
town of Lucerne the capital is politically Radical.
The canton ranks officially third in the Swiss confederation
next after Zurich and Bern. It was formerly in the diocese of
Constance, and is now in that of Basel. It contains 5 adminis-
trative districts and 107 communes. The existing cantonal
LUCERNE LUCERNE, LAKE OF
97
constitution dates in its main features from 1875. The legislature
or Grossrath consists of members elected in 55 electoral circles,
in the proportion of i to every 1000 souls (or fraction over 500)
of the Swiss population, and lasts for 4 years. On the 4th of
April 1909 proportional representation was adopted for elections
of members of the Grossrath. Since 1905 the executive of 7
members is elected by a popular vote for 4 years, as are the 2
members of the federal Standerath and the 7 members of the
federal N ' ationalrath. Five thousand citizens ' can demand a
facultative referendum as to all legislative projects and important
financial decrees, or as to the revision of the cantonal constitution,
while the same number can also revoke the mandate of the
cantonal legislature before its proper term of office has ended,
though this revocation does not affect the executive. Four
thousand citizens have the right of " initiative " as to constitu-
tional amendments or legislative projects.
The canton is composed of the various districts which the town
acquired, the dates being those at which the particular region
was finally secured Weggis (1380), Rothenburg, Kriens, Horw,
Sempach and Hochdorf (all in 1394), Wolhusen and the Entlebuch
(1405), the so-called " Habsburger region " to the N.E. of the
town of Lucerne (1406), Willisau (1407), Sursee and Beromunster
(1415), Mailers (1477) and Littau (1481), while in 1803, in
exchange for Hitzkirch, Merenschwand (held since 1397) was
given up. (W. A. B. C.)
LUCERNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name.
It is one of the principal tourist centres of Switzerland, being
situated on the St Gotthard railway line, by which it is 59 m.
from Basel and 180 m. from Milan. Its prosperity has always
been bound up with the St Gotthard Pass, so that the successive
improvements effected on that route (mule path in the I3th
century, carriage road 1820-1830, and railway tunnel in 1882)
have had much effect on its growth. It is beautifully situated
on the banks of the river Reuss, just as it issues from the Lake
of Lucerne, while to the south-west rises the rugged range of
Pilatus, balanced on the east by the more smiling ridge of the
Rigi and the calm waters of the lake. The town itself is very
picturesque. On the rising ground to its north still stand nine
of the towers that defended the old town wall on the Musegg
slope. The Reuss is still crossed by two quaint old wooden
bridges, the upper being the Kapellbriicke (adorned by many
paintings illustrating the history of Switzerland and the town
and clinging to the massive Wasserthurm) and the lower the
Miihlenbriicke (also with paintings, this time of the Dance of
Death). The old Hofbriicke (on the site of the Schweizerhof
quay) was removed in 1852, when the process of embanking
the shore of the lake began, the result being a splendid series
of quays, along which rise palatial hotels. The principal building
is the twin-towered Hofkirche (dedicated toStLegeror Leodegar)
which, though in its present form it dates only from 1633-1635,
was the centre round which the town gradually gathered;
originally it formed part of a Benedictine monastery, but since
1455 has been held by a college of secular canons. It has a fine
17th-century organ. The 16th-century town-hall (Rathhaus)
now houses the cantonal museum of antiquities of all dates.
Both the cantonal and the town libraries are rich in old books,
the latter being now specially devoted to works (MS. or printed)
relating to Swiss history before 1848. The Lion monument,
designed by Thorwaldsen, dedicated in 1821, and consisting of
a dying lion hewn out of the living sandstone, commemorates
the officers and men of the Swiss Guard (26 officers and about
760 men) who were slain while defending the Tuileries in Paris
in 1792, and is reflected in a clear pool at its foot. In the im-
mediate neighbourhood is the Glacier Garden, a series of potholes
worn in the sandstone rock bed of an ancient glacier. Among
modern buildings are the railway station, the post office and the
Museum of War and Peace, all in the new quarter on the left
bank of the Reuss. In the interior of the town are many quaint
old private houses. In 1799 the population numbered but 4337,
but had doubled by 1840. Since then the rise has been rapid
and continuous, being 29,255 in 1900. The vast majority are
German-speaking (in 1900 there were 1242 Italian-speaking and
529 French-speaking persons) and Romanists (in 1900 there
were 4933 Protestants and 299 Jews).
The nucleus of the town was a Benedictine monastery, founded
ab out 7 50 on the right bank of the Reuss by the abbey of Murbach
in Alsace, of which it long remained a " cell." It is first men-
tioned in a charter of 840 under the name of " Luciaria," which
is probably derived from that of the patron saint of the monastery,
St Leger or Leodegar (in O. Ger. Leudegar or Lutgar) the form
" Lucerrun " is first found in 1252. Under the shadow of this
monastery there grew up a small village. The germs of a
municipal constitution appear in 1252, while the growing power
of the Habsburgs in the neighbourhood weakened the ties that
bound Lucerne to Murbach. In 1291 the Habsburgs finally pur-
chased Lucerne from Murbach, an act that led a few weeks later
to the foundation of the Swiss Confederation, of which Lucerne
became the fourth member (the first town to be included) in 1332.
But it did not get rid of all traces of Habsburg domination till
after the glorious victory of Sempach (1386). That victory led
also to the gradual acquisition of territory ruled by and from
the town. At the time of the Reformation Lucerne clave to the
old faith, of which ever since it has been the great stronghold
in Switzerland. The papal nuncio resided here from 1601 to 1873.
In the i6th century, as elsewhere in Switzerland, the town
government fell into the hands of an aristocratic oligarchy,
whose power, though shaken by the great peasant revolt (1653)
in the Entlebuch, lasted till 1798. Under the Helvetic republic
(1798-1803) Lucerne was the seat of the central government,
under the Act of Mediation (1803-1814) one of the six " Direc-
torial " cantons and from 1815 to 1848 one of the three ruling
cantons. The patrician government was swept away by the
cantonal constitution of 1831. But in 1841 the Conservatives
regained power, called in the Jesuits (1844) and so brought
about the Sonderbund War (1847) in which they were defeated,
the decisive battle taking place at Gisikon, not far from Lucerne.
Since 1848 Lucerne has been in disfavour with the Radicals who
control the federal government, and has not been chosen as the
site of any great federal institution. The Radicals lost power
in the canton in 1871, after which date the Conservatives became
predominant in the canton, though in the town the Radicals
were in the majority.
See J. J. Blumer, Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demo-
kratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859); A. L. Gassmann, Das Volkslied
im Luzerner Wiggerthal u. Hinterland (Basel, 1906) ; Geschichtsfreund
(organ of the Historical Society of the Forest Cantons) from 1843.
A. von Liebenau, CharakterbUder aus Luzern's Vergangenheit (2 vols.,
Lucerne, 1884-1801); T. von Liebenau, Das alte Luzern (Lucerne,
1881) and " Der luzernische Bauernkrieg vom 1653 " (3 articles in
vols. xviii.-xx., 1893-1895, of the Jahrbuch f. Schweizerische Ge-
schichte); Heimathkunde fur den Kanton Luzern (6 vols., Lucerne,
1867-1883); A. Ltttolf, Sagen, Brauche, Legenden aus d. Funf Orten
(Lucerne, 1862); K. Pfyffer, Der Kanton Luzern (2 vols., 1858-
1859) and Geschichte d. Stadt u. Kanton Luzern (2 vols., new ed.,
1861); A. P. von Segesser, Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt u. Republik
Luzern (4 vols., 1850-1858) and 45 Jahre (1841-1887) im Luzernischen
Staatsdienst (Bern, 1887); J. Sowerby, The Forest Cantons of
Switzerland (London, 1892).. (W. A. B. C.)
LUCERNE, LAKE OF, the name .usually given by foreigners
to the principal lake of Central Switzerland. In French it is
called the Lac des Quatre Cantons, and in German the Vierwald-
stdltersee, this term being often wrongly translated " Lake of the
Four Forest Cantons," whereas it means the " Lake of the Four
Valleys " voiles which form the four Cantons of Lucerne,
Unterwalden, Uri and Schwyz. It takes its name from the town
of Lucerne, which is situated at its west end, just where the Reuss
issues from the lake, after having entered it at Fliielen at the east
end and so practically formed it; the Muota enters the lake
at Brunnen (northern shore) and the two mountain streams
called the Engelberg and the Sarnen Aa at Buochs and Alpnach-
stad respectively (S.). The lake is generally supposed to be, on
the whole, the most beautiful in Switzerland. This is partly
due to the steep limestone mountains between which it lies,
the best known being the Rigi (5006 ft.) to the N., and Pilatus
(6995 ft.) to the S.W., and to the great promontories that thrust
themselves into its waters, such as those of Horw (S.), of Biirgen-
stock (S.), of Meggenhorn (N.) and of Seelisberg (S.), and partly
xvn. 4
9 8
LUCERNE LUCHAIRE
to the irregularity of its shape. It is, in fact, composed of four
main basins (with two side basins), which represent four different
valleys, orographically distinct, and connected only by narrow
and tortuous channels. There is, first, the most easterly basin,
the Bay of Uri, extending from Fliielen on the south to Brunnen
on the north. At Brunnen the great delta of the Muota forces the
lake to the west, so that it forms the Bay of Gersau or the Gulf
of Buochs, extending from the promontory of Seelisberg (E.)
to that of the Biirgenstock (W.). Another narrow strait between
the two " Noses " (Nasen) leads westwards to the Basin of Weggis,
enclosed between the Rigi (N.) and the Biirgenstock promontory
(S.). This last named bay forms the eastern arm of what is called
the Cross of Lucerne, the western arm of which is formed by the
Bay of Lucerne, while the northern arm is the Bay of Kiissnacht
and the southern that of Hergiswil, prolonged S.W. by the
Bay of Alpnach, with which it is joined by a very narrow channel,
spanned by the Acher iron bridge. The Bay of Uri offers the
sternest scenery, but is the most interesting, by reason of its
connexion with early Swiss history at Brunnen the Everlasting
League of 1315 was really made, while the legendary place of
meeting of the founders of Swiss freedom was the meadow of the
Riitli on the west (purchased by the Confederation in 1859),
and the site of Tell's leap is marked by the Chapel of Tell (E.).
Nearly opposite Brunnen, close to the west shore, an isolated
rock (the Schillerstein or Mythensteiri) now bears an inscription
in honour of Friedrich Schiller, the author of the famous play of
William Tell (1804). In the Bay of Gersau the most interesting
spot is the village of Gersau (N.), which formed an independent
republic from 1390 to 1798, but in 1818 was finally united to the
canton of Schwyz. In the next basin to the west is Weggis (N.),
also for long in the middle ages a small independent state;
to the S.E. of Weggis, on the north shore of the lake, is Vitznau,
whence a rack railway (1871) leads up to the top of the Rigi
(41 m.), while S.W. of Weggis, on the south shore of the lake,
is Kehrsiten, whence an electric railway leads up to the great
hotels on the Biirgenstock promontory (2854 ft.). The town
of Lucerne is connected with Fliielen by the main line of the
St Gotthard railway (32 m.), though only portions of this line
(from Lucerne to Kiissnacht, 105 m., and from Brunnen to
Fliielen, 7 m.) run along the shore; Brunnen is also connected
with Fliielen by the splendid carriage road known as the Axen-
strasse (7! m.)and is the starting-point of an electric line (1905)
up to Morschach (S.E.) and the great hotels of Axenstein and
Axenfels near it. On the promontory between Lucerne and
Kiissnacht stands the castle of New Habsburg (modern), while
from Kussnacht a carriage road leads through the remains of the
" Hollow Way " (Hohle Gasse), the scene of the legendary murder
of Gessler by William Tell. The west shore of the southern arm,
or the basin of Hergiswil and the Bay of Alpnach, is traversed
from Horw to Alpnachstad by the Brttnig railway (5^ m.), which
continues towards Sarnen (Obwalden) and the Bernese Oberland,
S.W. from Alpnachstad, whence a rack railway leads N.W. up
Pilatus (2! m.). Opposite Hergiswil, but on the east shore of
the Basin of Hergiswil, is Stanstad, the port of Stans (Nidwalden),
which is connected by an electric line with Engelberg (14 m.).
The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1835. Lucerne is the
only town of importance, but several spots serve as ports for
neighbouring towns or large villages (Brunnen for Schwyz,
Fliielen for Altdorf, Stanstad for Stans, Alpnachstad for Sarnen).
Most of the villages on the shores are frequented in summer by
visitors (Gersau also in winter), especially Hertenstein, Weggis,
Gersau, Brunnen, Beckenried and Hergiswil, while great hotels,
commanding magnificent views, have been built on heights above
it, such as the Biirgenstock, Seelisberg, and near Morschach,
above Brunnen, besides those on the Rigi, Pilatus and the
Stanserhorn. The area of the lake is about 44? sq. m., its length
about 24 m., its greatest width only 2 m. and its greatest depth
702 ft., while the surface of the water is 1434 ft. above sea-level.
Of the total area about 155 sq. m. are in the Canton of Lucerne,
13 sq. m. in that of Nidwalden, 7^ sq. m. in that of Uri,
7! sq. m. in that of Schwyz, and about i sq. m. in that of
Obwalden. (W. A. B. C.)
LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK or ALFALFA, known botanically
as Medicago saliva, a plant of the natural order Leguminosae.
In England it is still commonly called " lucerne," but in America
" alfalfa," an Arabic term ("the best fodder "), which, owing to
its increasing cultivation in the western hemisphere, has come
into widening usage since the introduction of the plant by the
Spaniards. It is an erect perennial herb with a branched hollow
stem i to 2 ft. high, trifoliolate leaves, short dense racemes of
small yellow, blue or purple flowers, and downy pods coiled
two or three times in a loose
spiral. It has a characteristic
long tap-root, often extending 15
ft. or more into the soil. It is
a native of the eastern Mediter-
ranean region, but was intro-
duced into Italy in the ist
century A.D., and has become
more widely naturalized in
Europe; it occurs wild in hedges
and fields in Britain, where it
was first cultivated about 1650.
It seems to have been taken
from Spain to Mexico and South
America in the i6th century,
but the extension of its cultiva-
tion in the Western States of
the American Union practically
dates from the middle of the
1 9th century, and in Argentina
its development as a staple crop
is more recent. It is much culti-
vated as a forage crop in France
and other parts of the continent
of Europe, but has not come
into such general use in Britain,
where, however, it is frequently
met with in small patches in
districts where the soil is very
light, with a dry subsoil. Its Lucerne (Medicago saliva), J nat.
thick tap-roots penetrate very s ' ze -
deeply into the soil; and if a J; %S3%3fit. size,
good cover is once obtained, the 3i Fruit, enlarged,
plants will yield abundant cut-
tings of herbage for eight or ten years, provided they are properly
top-dressed and kept free from perennial weeds. The time to
cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin, when it is in early flower.
In the United States alfalfa has become the staple leguminous
forage crop throughout the western half of the country. Some
idea of the increase in its cultivation may be obtained from the
figures for Kansas, where in 1891 alfalfa was cultivated over
34,384 acres, while in 1907 the number was 743,050. The pro-
gress of irrigation has been an important factor in many districts.
The plant requires a well-drained soil (deep and permeable
as possible), rich in lime and reasonably free from weeds.
See, for practical directions as to cultivation, Farmers' Bulletin
339 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by J. M. Westgate
(Washington, December 1908).
LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908), French
historian, was born in Paris on the 24th of October 1846. In
1879 he became a professor at Bordeaux and in 1889 professor
of medieval history at the Sorbonne; in 1895 he became a
member of the Academic des sciences morales et poliliques, where
he obtained the Jean Reynaud prize just before his death on the
i4th of November 1908. The most important of Achille
Luchaire's earlier works is his Histoire des institutions monarchiques
de la France sous les premiers Capetiens (1883 and again 1891);
he also wrote a Manuel des institutions franc.aises: periode des
Capetiens directs (1892); Louis VI. le Gros, annales de sa vie
et de son regne (1890); and Etude sur les actes de Louis VII.
(1885). His later writings deal mainly with the history of
the papacy, and took the form of an elaborate work on Pope
Innocent III. This is divided into six parts: (i.) Rome et Italie
LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO
99
(1904); (ii.) La Croisade des Albigeois (1905); (iii.) La Papaute et
I 'empire (1905); (iv.) La Question a Orient (1906); (v.) Les
Royautes vassales du Saint-Siege (1908); and (vi.) Le Conctte de
Latran et la rtforme de l'glise (1908). He wrote two of the
earlier volumes of E. Lavisse's Histoire de France.
LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO (called also RIUKIU, LOO-CHOO and
LIUKIU), a long chain of islands belonging to Japan, stretching
from a point 80 m. S. of Kiushiu to a point 73 m. from the N.E.
coast of Formosa, and lying between 24 and 30 N. and 123
and 130 E. Japanese cartographers reckon the Luchu islands
as 55, having a total coast-line of 768 m., an area of 935 sq. m.,
and a population of about 455,000. They divide them into
three main groups, of which the northern is called Oshima-
shoto; the central, Okinawa-gunto; and the southern, Saki-
shima-retto. The terms shoto, gunto and retto signify " archi-
pelago," "cluster of islands " and "string of islands" respectively.
The last-named group is subdivided into Miyako-gunto and
Yayeyama-gunto. The principal islands of these various
groups are :
Oshima-shoto
Amami-Oshima . . . . 34 m. long and 17 m. broad
Tokuno-shima . . . . 16 8J
Okinawa-gunto
Okinawa-shima(GreatLuchu)63^ m. long and 14^ m. broad
Kume-shima 9f 7!
Okinoerabu-shima . . . 9i 5
Ihiya-shima 5 2
Miyako-gunto
Miyako-shima .... 12} m. long and 12 m. broad
Erabu-shima 4! ,, 3!
Yayeyama-gunto
Ishigaki-shima .... 243 m. long and 144 m. broad
Iriomoto-shima .... I4i 14
Yonakuni-shima . 7i 3i ,,
The remaining islands of the archipelago are of very small
size, although often thickly populated. Almost at the extreme
north of the chain are two islands with active volcanoes:
Nakano-shima (3485 ft.) and Suwanose-shima (2697 ft.), but
the remaining members of the group give no volcanic indica-
tions, and the only other mountain of any size is Yuwan-dake
(2299 ft.) in Amami-Oshima. The islands " are composed chiefly
of Palaeozoic rocks limestones and quartzites found in the west,
and clay, slate, sandstone and pyroxenite or amphibolite on
the east. . . . Pre-Tertiary rocks have been erupted through
these. The outer sedimentary zone is of Tertiary rocks." 1
The capital is Shuri in Okinawa, an old-fashioned place with a
picturesque castle. The more modern town of Nafa, on the same
island, possesses the principal harbour and has considerable
trade.
The scenery of Luchu is unlike that of Japan. Though so close
to the tropics, the islands cannot be said to present tropical features:
the bamboo is rare; there is no high grass or tangled undergrowth;
open plains are numerous; the trees are not crowded together;
lakes are wanting; the rivers are insignificant; and an unusual
aspect is imparted to the scenery by numerous coral crags. The
temperature in Nafa ranges from a mean of 82 F. in July to 60 in
January. The climate is generally (though not in all the islands)
pleasant and healthy, in spite of much moisture, the rainfall being
very heavy.
The fauna includes wild boars and deer, rats and bats. Excellent
small ponies are kept, together with cattle, pigs and goats. The
majority of the islands are infested with venomous snakes called
habu (Trimeresurus), which attain a length of 6 to 7 ft. and a diameter
of from 2j to 3 in. Their bite generally causes speedy death, and in
the island of Amami-Oshima they claim many victims every year.
The most important cultivated plant is the sugar-cane, which provides
the principal staple of trade.
Luchu is noted for the production of particularly durable vermilion-
coloured lacquer, which is much esteemed for table utensils in Japan.
The islands also manufacture certain fabrics which are considered a
speciality. These are Riukiu-tsumugi, a kind of fine pongee; the so-
called Satsuma-gasuri, a cotton fabric greatly used for summer wear;
basho-fu, or banana-cloth (called also aka-basho), which is woven
from the fibre of a species of banana; and hoso-jofu, a particularly
fine hempen stuff, made in Miyako-shima, and demanding such
1 Note in Geographical Journal, xx., on S. Yoshiwara, " Raised
Coral Reefs in the Islands of the Riukiu Curve," in Journ. Coll. of
Science, Imp. Univ., Tokyo (1901).
difficult processes that six months are required to weave and dye a
piece gj yds. long.
People. Although the upper classes in Luchu and Japan closely
resemble each other, there are palpable differences between the lower
classes, the Luchuans being shorter and better proportioned than
the Japanese; having higher foreheads, eyes not so deeply set, faces
less flattened, arched and thick eyebrows, better noses, less marked
cheek-bones and much greater hairiness. The last characteristic has
been attributed to the presence of Ainu blood, and has suggested a
theory that when the Japanese race entered south-western Japan
from Korea, they drove the Ainu northwards and southwards, one
portion of the latter finding their way to Luchu, the other to Yezo.
Women of the upper class never appea- in public in Luchu, and are
not even alluded to in conversation, but women of the lower orders
go about freely with uncovered faces. The Luchu costume resembles
that of Japan, the only marked difference being that the men use
two hairpins, made of gold, silver, pewter or wood, according to the
rank of the wearer. Men shave their faces until the age of twenty-
five, after which moustache and beard are allowed to grow, though the
cheeks are kept free from hair. Their burial customs are peculiar
and elaborate, and their large sepulchres, generally mitre-shaped,
and scattered all over the country, according to Chinese fashion,
form a striking feature of the landscape. The marriage customs are
also remarkable. Preliminaries are negotiated by a middleman, as
in China and Japan, and the subsequent procedure extends over
several days. The chief staple of the people's diet is the sweet
potato, and pork is the principal luxury. An ancient law, still in
force, requires each family to keep four pigs. In times of scarcity a
species of sago (obtained from the Cycas revoluta) is eaten. There is a
remarkable absence of religious influence in Luchu. Places of worship
are few, and the only function discharged by Buddhist priests seems
to be to officiate at funerals. The people are distinguished by gentle-
ness, courtesy and docility, as well as by marked avoidance of crime.
With the exception of petty thefts, their Japanese administrators find
nothing to punish, and for nearly three centuries no such thing
as a lethal weapon has been known in Luchu. Professor Chamber-
lain states that the Luchuan language resembles the Japanese in
about the same 'degree as Italian resembles French, and says that
they are sister tongues, many words being identical, others differing
only by letter changes which follow certain fixed analogies, and
sentences in the one being capable of translation into the other word
for word, almost syllable for syllable.
History. Tinsunshi," Grandson of Heaven," is the mythical
founder of the Luchu monarchy. Towards the close of the 1 2th
century his descendants were driven from the throne by rebellion,
but the old national party soon found a victorious leader in
Shunten, son of Tametomo, a member of the famous Minamoto
family, who, having been expelled from Japan, had come to
Luchu and married there. The introduction of the arts of reading
and writing are assigned to Shunten's reign. Chinese invasions
of Luchu may be traced back to A.D. 605, but they did not result
in annexation; and it was in 1372 that China first obtained from
the Luchuans recognition of supremacy. Luchuan relations
with Japan had long been friendly, but at the end of the i6th
century the king refused Japan assistance against Korea, and in
1609 the prince ofSatsuma invaded the islands with 3000 men,
took the capital by storm> captured the king and carried him off
to Kagoshima. A few years later he was restored to his throne
on condition of acknowledging Japanese suzerainty and paying
tribute. The Luchuans nevertheless continued to pay tribute
to China also.
The Chinese government, however, though taking a benevolent
interest in the welfare of the islanders, never attempted to bring
them under military sway. The incongruity of this state of
affairs did not force itself upon Japan's attention so long as her
own empire was divided into a number of semi-independent
principalities. But in 1879 the Japanese government, treating
Luchu as an integral part of the mikado's dominions, dethroned
its prince, pensioned him as the other feudal chiefs had been
pensioned, and converted Luchu into a prefecture under the name
of Okinawa. This name signifies " extended rope," and alludes
to the attenuated nature of the archipelago. China remonstrat-
ing, a conference was held in Peking, when plenipotentiaries of
the two empires signed an agreement to the ffect that the
archipelago should be divided equally between the claimants.
The Chinese government, however, refused to ratify this com-
promise, and the Japanese continued their measures for the
effective administration of all the islands. Ultimately (1895)
Formosa also came into Japan's possession, and her title to the
whole chain of islands ceased to be disputed.
IOO
LUCIA LUClAN
Though Captain Broughton, of H.M.S. " Providence," was
wrecked on Miyako-shima and subsequently visited Nafa in
1797, it was not till the " Alceste " and "Lyra" expedition
in 1816-1817, under Captains Basil Hall and Murray Maxwell,
that detailed information was obtained about Luchu. The
people at that time showed a curious mixture of courtesy and
shyness. From 1844 efforts were made by both Catholic (French)
and Protestant missionaries to Christianize them, but though
hospitable they made it clear that these efforts were unwelcome.
Further visits were made by British vessels under Captain
Beechey (1826) and Sir Edward Belcher (1845). The American
expedition under Commodore M. C. Perry (1853) added largely
to knowledge of the islands, and concluded a treaty with the
Luchuan government.
See Basil Hall, Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast
of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island (London, 1818); Comm.
M. C. Perry, Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron
to the China Seas and Japan, 1852-1854 (Washington, 1856);
B. H. Chamberlain, " The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants," in
the Geographical Journal, vol. v. (1895) ; " Contributions to a Biblio-
graphy of Luchu," in Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan, xxiv. (1896); C. S.
Leavenworth, " History of the Loo-choo Islands," Journ. China Br.
Royal Asiatic Soc. xxxvi. (1905).
LUCIA (or LUCY), ST, virgin and martyr of Syracuse, whose
name figures in the canon of the mass, and whose festival
is celebrated on the i3th of December. According to the legend,
she lived in the reign of Diocletian. Her mother, having been
miraculously cured of an illness at the sepulchre of St Agatha
in Catania, was persuaded by Lucia to distribute all her wealth
to the poor. The youth to whom the daughter had been betrothed
forthwith denounced her to Pascasius, the prefect, who ordered
that she should be taken away and subjected to shameful outrage.
But it was found that no force which could be applied was able
to move her from the spot on which she stood; even boiling oil
and burning pitch had no power to hurt her, until at last she was
slain with the sword. The most important documents concerning
St Lucy are the mention in the Marlyrologium Hieronymianum
and the ancient inscription discovered at Syracuse, in which
her festival is indicated. Many paintings represent her bearing
her eyes in her hand or on a salver. Some artists have even
represented her blind, but nothing in her Ada justifies this
representation. It is probable that it originated in a play upon
words (Lucia, from Lat. lux, light), just as St Clair is invoked
in cases of eye-disease.
See O. Caietanus, Vitae sanctorum Siculorum, i. 114-121 (Palermo,
1657); loannes de loanne, Acta sincera sanctae Luciae (Palermo,
1758); Analecta Bollandiana, xxii. 492; Cahier, Caracttristiques des
saints, i. 105 (Paris, 1867). (H. DE.)
LUCIAN(d. 312), Christian martyr, was born, like the famous,
heathen writer of the same name, at Samosata. His parents,
who were Christians, died when he was in his twelfth year.
In his youth he studied under Macarius of Edessa, and after
receiving baptism he adopted a strictly ascetic life, and devoted
himself with zeal to the continual study of scripture. Settling
at Antioch when Malchion was master of the Greek school he
became a presbyter, and, while supporting himself by his skill
as a rapid writer, became celebrated as a teacher, so that he is
regarded as the founder of the famous theological school of
Antioch. He did not escape suspicion of heresy, and is repre-
sented as the connecting link between Paul of Samosata and
Arius. Indeed, on the deposition of the former (A.D. 268) he
was excluded from ecclesiastical fellowship by three successive
bishops of Antioch, while Arius seems to have been among his
pupils (Theodoret, Hist. Eccl. i. 3, 4). He was, however, restored
before the outbreak of persecution, and the reputation won
by his high character and learning was confirmed by his courage-
ous martyrdom. He was carried to Nicomedia before Maximin
Daza, and persisting in his faith perished on the 7th of January
312, under torture and hunger, which he refused to satisfy with
food offered to idols. His defence is preserved by Rufinus
(ix. 6; on Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. ix. 9). His remains were
conveyed to Drepanum in Bithynia, and under Constantine
the town was founded anew in his honour with the name of
Helenopolis, and exempted from taxes by the emperor (A.D. 327)
(see Chron. Pasch., Bonn ed., p. 527). Here in 387, on the anni-
versary of his death, Chrysostom delivered the panegyrical
homily from which, with notices in Eusebius, Theodoret and the
other ecclesiastical historians, the life by Jerome ( Vir. III. cap.
77), but especially from the account by S. Metaphrastes (cited
at length in Bernhardy's notes to Suidas, s.v. voBfixi), the facts
above given are derived. See also, for the celebration of his day
in the Syriac churches, Wright, Cat. of Syr. MSS. p. 283.
Jerome says that Lucian wrote Libelli de fide and several letters,
but only a short fragment of one epistle remains (Chron. Pasch., ed.
Dindorf, i. 516). The authorship of a confession of faith ascribed to
Lucian and put forth at the semi-Arian synod of Antioch (A.D. 341)
is questioned. Lucian's most important literary labour was his
edition of the Greek Old Testament corrected by the Hebrew text,
which, according to Jerome (Adv. Ruf. ii. 77), was in current use
from Constantinople to Antioch. That the edition of Lucian is
represented by the text used by Chrysostom and Theodoret, as well
as by certain extant MSS., such as the Arundelian of the British
Museum, was proved by F. Field (Prol. ad Origenis Hexapla, cap. ix.).
Before the publication of Field's Hexapla, Lagarde had already
directed his attention to the Antiochian text (as that of Lucian may
be called) and ultimately published the first part (Genesis, 2 Esdras,
Esther) of a provisional reconstructed text. The distinguishing
marks of the Lucianic recension are thus summarized by S. R.
Driver, Notes on Heb. Text of Samuel, p. li. seq. : (i) The substitution
of synonyms for the words employed by the Septuagint; (2) the
occurrence of double renderings; (3) the occurrence of renderings
" which presuppose a Hebrew original self-evidently superior in the
passages concerned to the existing Massoretic text," a peculiarity
which makes it very important for the criticism of the Hebrew Bible.
From a statement of Jerome in his preface to the gospels it seems
probable that Lucian had also a share in fixing the Syrian recension
of the New Testament text, but of this it is impossible to speak with
certainty. He was associated in his work with the Hebraist
Dorotheus.
See, generally, A. Harnack's art. in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk.
vol. xi., and for " remains " Routh, Rel. Sac. iv. 3-17. A full account
of his recension of the Septuagint is given in H. B. Swete's Introduc-
tion to the Old Testament in Greek, p. 81 sqq. ; and a good account of his
doctrinal position in the prolegomena to the volume on Athanasius
in the series of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (p. xxviii.) and
A. Harnack's History of Dogma, especially vol. iv.
LUCIAN [AouKtcuw] (c. A.D. 120-180), Greek satirist of the
Silver Age of Greek literature, was born at Samosata on the
Euphrates in northern Syria. He tells us in the Somnium or
Vita Luciani, i, that, his means being small, he was at first
apprenticed to his maternal uncle, a statuary, or rather sculptor
of the stone pillars called Hermae. Having made an unlucky
beginning by breaking a marble slab, and having been well
beaten for it, he absconded and returned home. Here he had
a dream or vision of two women, representing Statuary and
Literature. Both plead their cause at length, setting forth the
advantages and the prospects of their respective professions;
but the youth chooses liaiotLa, and decides to pursue learning.
For some time he seems to have made money as a prirup, following
the example of Demosthenes, on whose merits and patriotism
he expatiates in the dialogue Demoslhenis Encomium. He was
very familiar with the rival schools of philosophy, and he must
have well studied their teachings; but he lashes them all alike,
the Cynics, perhaps, being the chief object of his derision. Lucian
was not only a sceptic; he was a scoffer and a downright un-
believer. He felt that men's actions and conduct always fall
far short of their professions and therefore he concluded that the
professions themselves were worthless, and a mere guise to secure
popularity or respect. Of Christianity he shows some knowkdge,
and it must have been somewhat largely professed in Syria at
the close of the 2nd century. 1 In the] Philopatris (q,v.), though
the dialogue so called is generally regarded as spurious, there
is a statement of the doctrine of the Trinity, 2 and the " Galilaean
who had ascended to the third heaven " (12), and " renewed "
(6.vKalvt.o~fv) by the waters of baptism, may possibly allude
to St Paul. The doctrines of the Ao-yos and the " Light of the
world," and that God is in heaven making a record of the good
1 In the Alexander (25) we are told that the province of Pontus,
due north of Syria, was " full of Christians."
1 Philopatris, 12, inl/int&oira Qtiiv fiiyav HnlipoTov otopavlwva, vlAr
Harpits, nvevna in irorpis iKVopiv&ntvov, Iv in rpiwv Kal t ivds Tpla,
a passage which bears on the controverted procession "a Patre
Filioque."
LUCIAN
101
and bad actions of men, 1 seem to have come from the same
source, though the notion of a written catalogue of human
actions to be used in judgment was familiar to Aeschylus and
Euripides.
As a satirist and a wit Lucian occupies in prose literature
the unique position which Aristophanes holds in Greek poetry.
But whether he is a mere satirist, who laughs while he lashes,
or a misanthrope, who hates while he derides, is not very clear.
In favour of the former view it may be said that the two main
objects of his ridicule are mythology and the sects of philosophy;
in favour of the latter, his bitter exposure of imposture and
chicanery in the Alexander, and the very severe attacks he
makes on the " humbug " of philosophy , 2 which he everywhere
assails with the most acrimonious and contemptuous epithets.
As a writer Lucian is fluent, easy and unaffected, and a close
follower of the best Attic models, such as Plato and the orators.
His style is simpler than Plutarch's, and some of his compositions,
especially the Dialogues of the Gods (pp. 204-287) and of the
Marine Deities (288-327), and, above all, the Dialogues of the
Dead (329-454), are models of witty, polished and accurate Greek
composition. Not less clever, though rather lax in morality,
are the traipiKoi 610X0701 (pp. 280-325), which remind us
somewhat of the letters of Alciphron. The sarcasms on the
popular mythology, the conversations of Pluto, Hermes, Charon
and others of the powers in Hades, show a positive disbelief
in any future state of existence. The model Lucian followed
in these dialogues, as well in the style as in the sparkling and
playful repartee, was the Platonic conversations, founded on the
drama, of which the dialogue may be called the prose repre-
sentative. Aristotle never adopted it, perhaps regarding it as
beneath the true dignity of philosophy. The dialogue, in fact,
was revived and improved by Lucian,* the old traditions of the
Xo7oirotoi and Xo7O7p<i</>oi, and, above all, the immense influence
of rhetoric as an art, having thrown some discredit on a style
of composition which, as introduced by Plato, had formed quite
a new era in Greek prose composition. For rhetoric loved to
talk, expatiate and declaim, while dialectic strove to refute
by the employment of question and answer, often in the briefest
form.
Lucian evinces a perfect mastery over a language as wonderful
in its inflections as in its immense and varied vocabulary; and
it is a well-merited praise of the author to say that to a good
Greek scholar the pages of Lucian are almost as easy and as enter-
taining as an English or French novel. It is true that he employs
some forms and compounds which were not in use in the time of
Plato or Demosthenes, and, as one who lived under Roman
rule, has a tendency towards Latinisms. But his own sentiments
on the propriety of diction are shown by his reproof to Lexiphanes,
" if anywhere you have picked up an out-of-the-way word, or
coined one which you think good, you labour to adapt the sense
of it, and think it a loss if you do not succeed in dragging it in
somewhere, even when it it not really wanted."
Lucian founded his style, or obtained his fluency, from the
successful study of rhetoric, by which he appears to have made
a good income from composing speeches which attracted much
attention. At a later period in life he seems to have held a
lucrative legal office in Egypt, which he retained till his death.
His extant works are so numerous that of some of the principal
only a short sketch can be given. More than 80 pieces have
come down to us under his name (including three collections
of 71 shorter dialogues), of which about 20 are spurious or of
1 Philopatris, 13. Aesch. Eum. 265, &e\Toyp&4xf 51 T&VT' Iru-ry.
<t>ptvl.
* In Hermotimns (51) Hermotimus says to Lycinus (who must be
assumed to represent Lucian himself), fi/3pm)s &tl <ri, icoi obn oU'
S TI iraBwv juffets ^iXoffo^iaK not Is TOVS 4>i\oao<t>ouvTas diroffKanrreis.
In Icaromenippui (5; see also 29) he says he always guessed who
were the best physical philosophers " by their sour-faced looks, their
paleness of complexion and the length of their beards."
3 He says (speaking as 26pos in Bis accusatus, 34) that he found
dialogue somewhat out of repute from the too numerous questions
(i.e. employed by Plato), and brought it up to a more human and
natural standard, substituting banter and repartee for dialectic
quibbles and close logical reasoning.
doubtful authorship. To understand them aright we must
remember that the whole moral code, the entire " duty of man,"
was included, in the estimation of the pagan Greek, in the
various schools of philosophy. As these were generally rivals,
and the systems they taught were more or less directly antagon-
istic, truth presented itself to the inquirer, not as one, but as
manifold. The absurdity and the impossibility of this forms
the burden of all Lucian's writings. He could only form one
conclusion, viz. that there is no such thing as truth.
One of the best written and most amusing treatises of antiquity
is Lucian's True History, forming a rather long narrative in two
books, which suggested Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Rabelais's
Voyage of Pantagruel and Cyrano de Bergerac's Journey to
the Moon. It is composed, the author tells us in a brief intro-
duction, not only as a pastime and a diversion from severer
studies, but avowedly as a satire on the poets and logographers
who had written so many marvellous tales. He names Ctesias
and Homer; but Hellanicus and Herodotus, perhaps other
Xo7oirotot still earlier, appear to have been in his mind. 4 The
only true statement in his History, he wittily says (p. 72), is that
it contains nothing but lies from beginning to end.
The main purport of the story is to describe a voyage to the
moon. He set out, he tells us, with fifty companions, in a well-
provisioned ship, from the " Pillars of Hercules," intending to
explore the western ocean. After eighty days' rough sailing they
came to an island on which they found a Greek inscription, " This
was the limit of the expedition of Heracles and Dionysus ";
and the visit of the wine-god seemed attested by some miraculous
vines which they found there. After leaving the island they
were suddenly carried up, ship and all, by a whirlwind into the
air, and on the eighth day came in sight of a great round island
shining with a bright light (p. 77), and lying a little above the
moon. In a short time they are arrested by a troop of gigantic
" horse-vultures " and brought as captives to the " man in the
moon," who proves to be Endymion. He is engaged in a war
with the inhabitants of the sun, which is ruled by King Phaethon,
the quarrel having arisen from an attempt to colonize the planet
Venus (Lucifer). The voyagers are enlisted as " Moonites,"
and a long description follows of the monsters and flying dragons
engaged in the contest. A fight ensues, in which the slaughter
is so great that the very clouds are tinged with red (p. 84). The
long description of the inhabitants of the moon is extremely
droll and original. After descending safely into the sea, the ship is
swallowed by a huge " sea serpent " more than 100 miles long.
The adventures during the long confinement in the creature's
belly are most amusing; but at last they sail out through the
chinks between the monster's teeth, and soon find themselves
at the " Fortunate Islands." Here they meet with the spirits
of heroes and philosophers of antiquity, on whom the author
expatiates 'at some length. The tale comes to an abrupt end
with an allusion to Herodotus in the promise that he " will tell
the rest in his next books."
Another curious and rather long treatise is entitled Aot/ooj ^
"Ovos, the authorship of which is regarded as doubtful. Parts
of the story are coarse enough; the point turns on one Lucius
visiting in a Thessalian family, in which the lady of the house
was a sorceress. Having seen her changed into a bird by anoint-
ing herself with some potent drug, he resolves to try a similar
experiment on himself, but finds that he has become an ass,
retaining, however, his human senses and memory. The mistake
arose from his having filched the wrong ointment; however, he
is assured by the attendant, Palaestra, that if he can but procure
roses to eat, his natural form will be restored. In the night a
party of bandits break into the house and carry off the stolen
goods into the mountains on the back of the unfortunate donkey,
who gets well beaten for stumbling on the rough road. Seeing,
as he fancies, some roses in a garden, he goes in quest of them,
4 He says (p. 127) that he saw punished in Hades, more severely
than any other sinners, writers of false narratives, among whom were
Ctesias of Cnidus and Herodotus. Yet in the short essay inscribed
Herodotus (p. 831), he wishes it were possible for him to imitate the
many excellencies of that writer.
102
LUCIAN
and again gets beaten as a thief by the gardener (p. 585). After
many adventures with the bandits, he attempts to run away,
but is caught. A council is held, and he is condemned to die
together with a captive, girl who had essayed to escape on his
back. Suddenly, however, soldiers appear, and the bandits
are arrested (p. 595). Again the ass escapes " to the great and
populous city of Beroea in Macedonia " (p. 603). Here he is sold
to a strolling conjurer, afterwards to a market-gardener; and
both experiences are alike painful. Again he passes into the
possession of a cook, where he gets fat and sleek on food more
suited to his concealed humanity than the hard fare he has of
late lived upon (p. 614). At last, during an exhibition in the
theatre, he sees some roses being carried past, and, making
a successful rush to devour them, he recovers his former shape.
" I am Lucius," he exclaims to the wondering president of the
exhibition, " and my brother's name is Caius. It was a Thes-
salian witch that changed me into a donkey." Thus all ends
well, and he returns safe to his country.
The treatise On the Syrian Goddess (Mylitta, the moon-goddess,
the Semitic Aphrodite) is written in the Ionic dialect in imita-
tion perhaps of the style of Herodotus, though the resemblance
is by no means close. The writer professes to be an Assyrian
(p. 452), and to describe the wonders in the various temples of
Palestine and Syria; he descanfs on the eunuchs of Syria and
the origin of the self-imposed privation of manhood professed
and practised by the Galli. The account of the temples, altars
and sacrifices is curious, if really authentic; after the manner
of Pausanias it is little more than a list, with the reasons in most
cases added, or the origin of the custom explained.
De Morte Peregrini is a narrative of one Proteus, a Cynic, who
after professing various doctrines, and among them those of
Christianity, ended his own life by ascending a burning pyre
(see PEREGRINUS PROTEUS).
Bis accusatus (" Twice Accused ") is a dialogue beginning
with a satire on the folly of the popular notion that the gods
alone are happy. Zeus is represented as disproving this by
enumerating the duties that fall to their lot in the government
of the world, and Hermes remarks on the vast crowds of philo-
sophers of rival sects, by whose influence the respect and worship
formerly paid to the gods have seriously declined. A trial is
supposed to be held under the presidency of the goddess AIKIJ,
between the Academy, the Porch, the schools of the Cynics and
Epicureans, and Pleasure, Revelry, Virtue, Luxury, &c., as
variously impugned or defended by them. Then Conversation
and Rhetoric come before the court, each having an action for
defamation to bring against Syrus the essayist, who of course is
Lucian himself (p.823). His defence is heard, and in both cases
he is triumphantly acquitted. This essay is brilliant from its
clever parodies of Plato and Demosthenes, and the satire on the
Socratic method of arguing by short questions and answers.
The Loner of Lying (^iXo^eM^s) discusses the reason why some
persons seem to take pleasure in falsehood for its own sake.
Under the category of lying all mythology (e.g. that of Homer
and Hesiod) is included, and the question is asked, why the
hearers of such stories are amused by them? Quack remedies,
charms and miraculous cures are included among the most
popular kinds of falsehood; witchcraft, spiritualism, exorcism,
expulsion of devils, spectres, are discussed in turn, and a good
ghost story is told in p. 57. An anecdote is given of Democritus,
who, to show his disbelief in ghosts, had shut himself up in a
tomb, and when some young men, dressed up with death's
heads, came to frighten him at night, he did not even look up,
but called out to them, " Stop your joking " (p. 59). This
treatise, a very interesting one, concludes with the reflection that
truth and sound reason are the only remedies for vain and
superstitious terrors.
The dialogue Navigium seu Vota ("The Ship or the Wishes ")
gives an apparently authentic account of the measurements and
fittings of an Egyptian ship which has arrived with a cargo of
corn at the Peiraeus, driven out of its course to Italy by adverse
winds. The full length is 180 ft., the breadth nearly 50, the
depth from deck to the bottom of the hold 43 ft. The " wishes "
turn on a party of friends, who have been to see the ship, declaring
what they would most desire to possess. One would have the
ship filled with gold, another a fine house with gold plate; a
third would be a " tyrant " with a large force devoted to his
interests; a fourth would like to make himself invisible, enter
any house that he pleased, and be transported through the air
to the objects of his affection. After hearing them all, the first
speaker, Lycinus (Lucian), says that he is content with the
privilege of laughing heartily at the vanity of human wishes,
especially when they are those of professed philosophers.
The dialogue between Philo and Lycinus, Convivium seu
Lapithae, is a very amusing description of a banquet, at which
a party of dignified philosophers quarrelled over their viands
at a marriage feast, and came to blows. The style is a good
imitation of Plato, and the scene reminds one of the " clients'
dinner " in the fifth satire of Juvenal. Matters come to a climax
by the attempt of one of the guests, Zenothemis, to secure for
himself a fatter fowl which had been served to his next neighbour
Hermon. Each seizes his bird and hits the other with it in the
face, at the same time pulling his beard. Then a general fight
ensues. The story is a satire on philosophy, the favourite topic
of a writer who believed neither in gods nor in men.
The Piscalor (" Fisherman "), a dialogue between Lucian,
Socrates, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato and others, commences
with a general attack on the author as the enemy of philosophy.
Socrates proposes that the culprit should be tried, and that
Philosophia should assist in the prosecution. Lucian declares
that he does not know where such a person lives, long as he has
been looking for her (n). She is found at last, but declares
Lucian has never disparaged her, but only impostors and pre-
tenders under her name (15). He makes a long defence (pp. 598-
606), abusing the philosophers in the sort of language in which
some schools of theologians abuse the monks of the middle ages
(34). The trial is held in the Acropolis of Athens, and the sham
philosophers, dreading a verdict against them, throw themselves
from the rock. A Cynic flings away his scrip in the hurry, and on
examination it is found to contain, not books or loaves of bread,
but gold coins, dice and fragrant essences (44). At the end Lucian
baits his hook with a fig and a gold coin, and catches gluttonous
strollers in the city while seated on the wall of the Acropolis.
The Voyage Home (KaTcnrXouj) opens with the complaint that
Charon's boat is kept waiting for Hermes, who soon appears
with his troop of ghosts. Among them is a rvpavvos, one Mega-
penthes, who, as his name is intended to express, mourns greatly
over the life he has just left. Amusing appeals are made by other
souls for leave to return to life, and even bribes are offered to the
presiding goddess of destiny, but Clotho is inexorable. The
moral of the piece is closely like that of the parable of Dives and
Lazarus: the rich and prosperous bewail their fate, while the
poor and afflicted find rest from their troubles, and have no desire
to return to them. The rvpavvos here is the man clothed in
purple and fine linen, and Lucian shows the same bitter dislike
of tyrants which Plato and the tragic writers display. The heavy
penalty is adjudged to Megapenthes that he may ever remember
in the other world the misdeeds done in life.
The Sales of Lives is an auction held by Zeus to see what price
the lives of philosophers of the rival sects will bring. A Pytha-
gorean, who speaks in the Ionic dialect, first undergoes an
examination as to what he can teach, and this contains an
enumeration of the doctrines usually ascribed to that sect,
including metempsychosis. He is valued at 75. 6d., and is suc-
ceeded by Diogenes, who avows himself the champion of truth,
a cosmopolitan (8), and the enemy of pleasure. Socrates brings
two talents, and is purchased by Dion, tyrant of Syracuse (19).
Chrysippus, who gives some specimens of his clever quibbles, 1
is bought for fifty pounds, Aristotle for nearly a hundred, while
Pyrrho the sceptic (or one of his school), who professes to " know
1 E.g. " A stone is a body; a living creature is a body; you are a
living creature; therefore you are a stone." Again: " Is every^
body possessed of life? " No. " " Is a stone possessed of life? '
" No. ' " Are you a body ?" " Yes." " A living body ?"
" Yes." " Then, if a living body, you are not a stone."
LUCIFER
103
nothing," brings four pounds, " because he is dull and stupid and
has no more sense than a grub " (27). But the man raises a doubt,
" whether or not he has really been bought," and refuses to go
with the purchaser till he has fully considered the matter.
Timon is a very amusing and witty dialogue. The misanthrope,
once wealthy, has become a poor farm-labourer, and reproaches
Zeus for his indifference to the injustice of man. Zeus declares
that the noisy disputes in Attica have so disgusted him that he
has not been there for a long time (9). He tells Hermes to con-
duct Plutus to visit Timon, and see what can be done to help
him. Plutus, who at first refuses to go, is persuaded after a
long conversation with Hermes, and Timon is found by them
digging in his field (31). Poverty is unwilling to resign her
votary to wealth; and Timon himself is with difficulty per-
suaded to turn up with his mattock a crock of gold coins. Now
that he has once more become rich, his former flatterers come
cringing with their congratulations and respects, but they are
all driven off with broken heads or pelted with stones. Between
this dialogue and the Plutus of Aristophanes there are many
close resemblances.
Hermotimus (pp. 739-831) is one of the longer dialogues,
Hermotimus, a student of the Stoic philosophy for twenty years
(2), and Lucian (Lycinus) being the interlocutors. The long
time forty years at the least required for climbing up to the
temple of virtue and happiness, and the short span of life, if any,
left for the enjoyment of it, are discussed. That the greatest
philosophers do not always attain perfect indifference, the Stoic
ultimatum, is shown by the anecdote of one who dragged his pupii
into court to make him pay his fee (9), and again by a violent
quarrel with another at a banquet (n). Virtue is compared to a
city with just and good and contented inhabitants; but so
many offer themselves as guides to the right road to virtue that
the inquirer is bewildered (26). What is truth, and who are the
right teachers of it? The question is argued at length, and
illustrated by a peculiar custom of watching the pairs of athletes
and setting aside the reserved combatant (irdp6pos) at the
Olympian games by the marks on the ballots (40-43). This, it
is argued, cannot be done till all the ballots have been examined ;
so a man cannot select the right way till he has tried all the ways
to virtue. But to know the doctrines of all the sects is impossible
in the term of a life (49). To take a taste of each, like trying a
sample of wine, will not do, because the doctrines taught are not,
like the crock of wine, the same throughout, but vary or advance
day by day (59). A suggestion is made (68) that the searcher
after truth should begin by taking lessons in the science of
discrimination, so as to be a good judge of truth before testing
the rival claims. But who is a good teacher of such a science ?
(70). The general conclusion is that philosophy is not worth the
pursuit. " If I ever again," says Hermotimus, " meet a philo-
sopher on the road, I will shun him, as I would a mad dog."
The Anacharsis is a dialogue between Solon and the Scythian
philosopher, who has come to Athens to learn the nature of the
Greek institutions. Seeing the young men performing athletic
exercises in the Lyceum, he expresses his surprise at such a waste
of energy. This gives Socrates an opportunity of descanting at
length on training as a discipline, and emulation as a motive for
excelling. Love of glory, Solon says, is one of the chief goods in
life. The argument is rather ingenious and well put; the style
reminds us of the minor essays of Xenophon.
The Alexander or False Prophet is the subject of a separate
article (see ALEXANDER the PAPHLAGONIAN).
These are the chief of Lucian's works. Many others, e.g.
Prometheus, Menippus, Life of Demonax, Toxaris, Zeus Tra-
goedus, The Dream or the Cock, Icaromenippus (an amusing
satire on the physical philosophers), are of considerable literary
value. (F. A. P.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editio princeps (Florence, 1496); valuable
editions with notes by T. Hcmsterhuis and 1. F. Reitz (1743-1746,
with Lexicon Lucianeum by C. C. Reitz) and J. T. Lehmann (1822-
1831). Editions of the text by C. Jacobitz (1886-1888) and J.
Sommerbrodt (1886-1899). The scholia have been edited by H.
Rabe in the Teubner series (1906). There are numerous editions
of separate portions of Lucian's works and translations in most
European languages; amongst the latter may be mentioned the
German version by C. M. Wieland (1788), with valuable notes and
commentaries: English; one by several hands (1711), for which
Drydcn had previously written an unsatisfactory life of the author,
by T. Francklin (1780) and W. Tooke (1820): and French; of The
Ass, by P. L. Courier, with full bibliography by A. J. Ppns (1887),
and of the complete works by E. Talbot (1866) and Bclin de Ballu
(1789; revised ed. by L. Humbert, 1896). A complete modern
English translation, racy and colloquial, appeared in 1905, The Works
of Lucian of Samosata, by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. On
Lucian generally, the best work is M. Croiset's Essai sur la vie el les
ceuvres de Lucien (1882); see also E. Egger, " Parallele de Lucien et
Voltaire," in Memoires de litterature ancienne (1862); C. Martha,
Les Moralistes sous I'empire remain (1866); H. W. L. Hime, Lucian,
the Syrian Satirist (1900); Sir R. C. Jebb, Essays and Addresses
(1907); " Lucian," by W. L. Collins in Blackwopd's Ancient Classics
for English Readers; the Prolegomena to editions of select works
with notes by Sommerbrodt ; and the exhaustive bibliography of the
earlier literature in Engelmann, Scriptores Graeci (1880). On some
special questions see E. Rohde, Uber Lucians Schrift Aofocto; fj "Ovot
(Leipzig, 1869); C. Buerger, De Lucio Patrensi (Berlin, 1887);
J. Bernays, Lucian und die Kyniker (Berlin, 1879) ; C. G. Jacob,
Characteristik Lucians von Samosata (Hamburg, 1832); C. F. Her-
mann, Charakteristik Lucians (Gottingen, 1849); P. M. Bolderman,
Studia Lucianea (Leiden, 1893); R. Helm, "Lucian und die
Philosophenschulen," in Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum
(1901), pp. 188, 263, 367.
LUCIFER (d. 370/1), bishop of Cagliari (hence called Cara-
litanus), an ardent supporter of the cause of Athanasius. After
the unfavourable result of the synod of Aries in 353 he volunteered
to endeavour to obtain a new and impartial council. He was
accordingly sent by Pope Liberius, with Pancratius the presbyter
and Hilarius the deacon, but could not prevent the condemnation
of Athanasius, which was renewed at Milan in 355. For his own
persistent adherence to the orthodox creed he was banished to
Germanicia in Commagene; he afterwards lived at Eleuther-
opolis in Palestine, and finally in the upper Thebaid. His exile
came to an end with the publication of Julian's edict in 362.
From 363 until his death in 371 he lived at Cagliari in a state of
voluntary separation from ecclesiastical fellowship with his
former friends Eusebius of Vercelli, Athanasius and the rest, on
account of their mild decision at the synod of Alexandria in
362 with reference to the treatment of those who had unwillingly
Arianized under the persecutions of Constantius. Lucifer was
hardly sufficiently educated to appreciate the real question at
issue, and the sect which he thus founded did not continue
long after his death. It is doubtful whether it ever formulated
any distinctive doctrine; certainly it developed none of any
importance. The memory of Lucifer is still cherished in Sardinia;
but, although popularly regarded there as a saint, he has never
been canonized.
The controversial writings of Lucifer, dating from his exile, are
chiefly remarkable for their passionate zeal, and for the boldness and
violence of the language addressed to the reigning emperor, whom
he did not scruple to call the enemy of God and a second Saul,
Ahab and Jeroboam. Their titles, in the most probable chrono-
logical order, are De non parcendis in Deum delinquentibus, De
regibus apostaticis, Ad Constantium Augustum pro Athanasio libri
''., De non conveniendo cum haereticis and Moriendum esse pro
Filio Dei. Their quotations of Scripture are of considerable value to
the critical student of the Latin text before Jerome. They were
first collected and edited by Tilius (Paris, 1568); the best edition
is that of W. Hartel in the Vienna Corpus, Script. Eccl. Lat. (1886).
See also G. Kriiger, Lucifer Bischof von Cagliari und das Schisma der
Luciferianer (Leipzig, 1886); F. G. Kenyon, Textual Criticism,
pp. 181, 221.
LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. <o><7</>6pos, " light-
bearer "), the name given to the " morning star," i.e. the planet
Venus when it appears above the E. horizon before sunrise,
and sometimes also to the " evening star," i.e. the same planet in
the W. sky after sundown, more usually called Hesperus (q.v.).
The term " day star " (so rendered in the Revised Version)
was used poetically by Isaiah for the king of Babylon: " How
art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning!
how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the
nations " (Is. xiv. 12, Authorized Version). The words ascribed
to Christ in Luke x. 18: "I beheld Satan as lightning fall from
heaven " (cf. Rev. ix. i), were interpreted by the Christian
Fathers as referring to the passage in Isaiah; whence, in
Christian theology, Lucifer came to be regarded as the name of
IO4
LUCILIUS
Satan before his fall. This idea finds its most magnificent
literary expression in Milton's Paradise Lost. In this sense the
name is most commonly associated with the familiar phrase
" as proud as Lucifer."
LUCILIUS, 6AIUS (c. 180-103 B.C.), the earliest Roman
satirist, of whose writings only fragments remain, was born
at Suessa Aurunca in Campania. The dates assigned by Jerome
for his birth and death are 148 and 103 or 102 B.C. But it is
impossible to reconcile the first of these dates with other facts
recorded of him, and the date given by Jerome must be due to an
error, the true date being about 180 B.C. We learn from Velleius
Paterculus that he served under Scipio at the siege of Numantia
in 134. We learn from Horace that he lived on the most intimate
terms of friendship with Scipio and Laelius, and that he cele-
brated the exploits and virtues of the former in his satires.
Fragments of those books of his satires which seem to have been
first given to the world (books xxvi.-xxix.) clearly indicate that
they were written in the lifetime of Scipio. Some of these bring
the poet before us as either corresponding with, or engaged in
controversial conversation with, his great friend. One line
Percrepa pugnam Popilli, facta Cornell cane
in which the defeat of M. Popillius Laenas, in 138, is contrasted
with the subsequent success of Scipio, bears the stamp of having
been written while the news of the capture of Numantia was still
fresh. It is in the highest degree improbable that Lucilius
served in the army at the age of fourteen; it is still more unlikely
that he could have been admitted into the familiar intimacy
of Scipio and Laelius at that age. It seems a moral impossibility
that between the age of fifteen and nineteen i.e. between 133
and 129, the year of Scipio 's death he could have come before
the world as the author of an entirely new kind of composition,
and one which, to be at all successful, demands especially
maturity of judgment and experience. It may further be said
that the well-known words of Horace (Satires, ii. i, 33), in which
he characterizes the vivid portraiture of his life, character and
thoughts, which Lucilius bequeathed to the world,
quo fit ut omnis
Votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella
Vita senis, 1
lose much of their force unless senis is to be taken in its ordinary
sense which it cannot be if Lucilius died at the age of forty-six.
He spent the greater part of his life at Rome, and died, according
to Jerome, at Naples. Lucilius belonged to the equestrian order,
a fact indicated by Horace's notice of himself as " infra Lucili
censum." Though not himself belonging to any of the great
senatorial families, he was in a position to associate with them
on equal terms. This circumstance contributed to the boldness,
originality and thoroughly national character of his literary
work. Had he been a " semi-Graecus," like Ennius and Pacuvius,
or of humble origin, like Plautus, Terence or Accius, he would
scarcely have ventured, at a time when the senatorial power
was strongly in the ascendant, to revive the r61e which had
proved disastrous to Naevius; nor would he have had the
intimate knowledge of the political and social life of his day
which fitted him to be its painter. Another circumstance deter-
mining the bent of his mind was the character of the time.
The origin of Roman political and social satire is to be traced
to the same disturbing and disorganizing forces which led to
the revolutionary projects and legislation of the Gracchi.
The reputation which Lucilius enjoyed in the best ages of
Roman literature is proved by the terms in which Cicero and
Horace speak of him. Persius, Juvenal and Quintilian vouch
for the admiration with which he was regarded in the first century
of the empire. The popularity which he enjoyed in his own
time is attested by the fact that at his death, although he had
filled none of the offices of state, he received the honour of a public
funeral. His chief claim to distinction is his literary originality.
He may be called the inventor of poetical satire, as he was the
first to impress upon the rude inartistic medley, known to the
Romans by the name of satura, that character of aggressive
1 "And so it happens that the whole life of the old man stands
clearly before us, as if it were represented on a votive picture."
and censorious criticism of persons, morals, manners, politics,
literature, &c. which the word satire has ever since denoted.
In point of form the satire of Lucilius owed nothing to the Greeks.
It was a legitimate development of an indigenous dramatic enter-
tainment, popular among the Romans before the first introduc-
tion of the forms of Greek art among them ; and it seems largely
also to have employed the form of the familiar epistle. But the
style, substance and spirit of his writings were apparently as
original as the form. He seems to have commenced his poetical
career by ridiculing and parodying the conventional language
of epic and tragic poetry, and to have used the language com-
monly employed in the social intercourse of educated men.
Even his frequent use of Greek words, phrases and quotations,
reprehended by Horace, was probably taken from the actual
practice of men, who found their own speech as yet inadequate
to give free expression to the new ideas and impressions which
they derived from their first contact with Greek philosophy,
rhetoric and poetry. Further, he not only created a style of his
own, but, instead of taking the substance of his writings from
Greek poetry, or from a remote past, he treated of the familiar
matters of daily life, of the politics, the wars, the administration
of justice, the eating and drinking, the money-making and
money-spending, the scandals and vices, which made up the
public and private life of Rome in the last quarter of the 2nd
century B.C. This he did in a singularly frank, independent
and courageous spirit, with no private ambition to serve, or
party cause to advance, but with an honest desire to expose
the iniquity or incompetence of the governing body, the sordid
aims of the middle class, and the corruption and venality of the
city mob. There was nothing of stoical austerity or of rhetorical
indignation in the tone in which he treated the vices and follies
of his time. His character and tastes were much more akin
to those of Horace than of either Persius or Juvenal. But he
was what Horace was not, a thoroughly good hater; and he
lived at a time when the utmost freedom of speech and the most
unrestrained indulgence of public and private animosity were
the characteristics of men who took a prominent part in affairs.
Although Lucilius took no active part in the public life of his
time, he regarded it in the spirit of a man of the world and of
society, as well as a man of letters. His ideal of public virtue
and private worth had been formed by intimate association
with the greatest and best of the soldiers and statesmen of an
older generation.
The remains of Lucilius extend to about eleven hundred, mostly un-
connected lines, most of them preserved by late grammarians, as
illustrative of peculiar verbal usages. He was, for his time, a
voluminous as well as a very discursive writer. He left behind him
thirty books of satires, and there is reason to believe that each book,
like the books of Horace and Juvenal, was composed of different
pieces. The order in which they were known to the grammarians was
not that in which they were written. The earliest in order of com-
position were probably those numbered from xxvi. to xxix., which
were written in the trochaic and iambic metres that had been em-
ployed by Ennius and Pacuvius in their Saturae. In these he made
those criticisms on the older tragic and epic poets of which Horace
and other ancient writers speak. In them too he speaks of the
Numantine War as recently finished, and of Scipio as still living.
Book i., on the other hand, in which the philosopher Carneades, who
died in 128, is spoken of as dead, must have been written after the
death of Scipio. Most of the satires of Lucilius were written in hexa-
meters, but, so far as an opinion can be formed from a number of
unconnected fragments, he seems to have written the trochaic
tetrameter with a smoothness, clearness and simplicity which he
never attained in handling the hexameter. The longer fragments
produce the impression of great discursiveness and carelessness, but
at the same time of considerable force. He appears, in the com-
position of his various pieces, to have treated everything that
occurred to him in the most desultory fashion, sometimes adopting
the form of dialogue, sometimes that of an epistle or an imaginary
discourse, and often to have spoken in his own name, giving an
account of his travels and adventures, or of amusing scenes that he
had witnessed, or expressing the results of his private meditations
and experiences. Like Horace he largely illustrated his own obser-
vations by personal anecdotes and fables. The fragments clearly
show how often Horace has imitated him, not only in expression, but
in the form of his satires (see for instance i. 5 and ii. 2), in the topics
which he treats of, and the class of social vices and the types of
character which he satirizes. For students of Latin literature, the
LUCILIUS JUNIOR LUCKE
chief interest of studying the fragments of Lucilius consists in the
light which they throw on the aims and methods of Horace in the
composition of his satires, and, though not to the same extent, of
his epistles. They are important also as materials for linguistic
study ; and they have considerable historical value.
Editions by F. D. Gerlach (1846), L. Muller (1872), C. Lachmann
(1876, posthumous), F. Marx (1905); see also L. Muller, Leben und
Werke des Lucilius (1876); " Luciliana," by H. A. J. Munro, in
the Journal of Philology, vii. (1877); Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
bk. iv. ch. 13; " Luciliana," by A. E. llousman, in Classical
Quarterly (April, 1907); C. Cichorius, Untersuchungen zu Lucilius
(Berlin, 1908). (W. Y. S,; X.)
LUCILIUS JUNIOR, a friend and correspondent of the younger
Seneca, probably the author of Aetna, a poem on the origin
of volcanic activity, variously attributed to Virgil, Cornelius
Severus (epic poet of the Augustan age) and Manilius. Its
composition has been placed as far back as 44 B.C., on the ground
that certain works of art, known to have been removed to Rome
about that date, are referred to as being at a distance from the
city. But as the author appears to have known and made use
of the Quaestiones Naturales of Seneca (written A.D. 65), and no
mention is made of the great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79), the
time of its composition seems to lie between these two dates.
In favour of the authorship of Lucilius are the facts that he was
a friend of Seneca and acquainted with his writings; that he
had for some time held the office of imperial procurator of Sicily,
and was thus familiar with the locality; that he was the author
of a poem on Sicilian subjects. It is objected that in the 79th
letter of Seneca, which is the chief authority on the question,
he apparently asks that Lucilius should introduce the hackneyed
theme of Aetna merely as an episode in his contemplated poem,
not make it the subject of separate treatment. The sources of
the Aetna are Posidonius of Apamea, and perhaps the pseudo-
Aristotelian De Mundo, while there are many reminiscences of
Lucretius. It has come down in a very corrupt state, and its
difficulties are increased by the unpoetical nature of the subject,
the straining after conciseness, and the obtrusive use of metaphor.
Editions by J. Scaliger (1595), F. Jacob (1826), H. A. J. Munro
(1867), M. Haupt (in his edition of Virgil, 1873), E. Bahrens (in Poetae
latini minores, ii.), S. Sudhaus (1898), R. Ellis (1901, containing a
bibliography of the subject); see also M. Haupt's Opuscula, i. 40,
ii. 27, 162, iii. 437 (notes, chiefly critical); R. Ellis in Journal of
Philology, xvi. 292; P. R. Wagler, De Aetna poemate quaesliones
criticae (1884); B. Kruczkiewicz, Poema de Aetna Monte (1883, in
which the ancient view of the authorship of Virgil is upheld) ; L. Al-
zinger, Studia in Aetnam collata (1896); R. Hildebrandt, Beilrdge
zur Erklarung des Gedichtes Aetna (1900); J. Vessereau (text, trans-
lation and commentary, 1905) ; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman
Literature (Eng. trans. 307, 308).
LUCINA, goddess of light, a title given to Juno and Diana as
presiding over childbirth and bringing children into the light
of the world. The full name is lucina dea, " the light-bringing
goddess " (lux, light, hence adj. lucinus). It is also given to
Hecate (Tibullus 3. 4. 13), as the bringer of terrible dreams,
and is used metaphorically as a synonym for child-birth (Virg.
Georg. iii. 60; Ovid, Ars. Amat. iii. 785).
LUCIUS, the name of three popes.
Lucius L, pope for eight months (253-254), spent a short
period of his pontificate in exile. He is referred to in several
letters of Cyprian (see Epist. Ixviii. 5) as having been in agree-
ment with his predecessor Cornelius in preferring the milder
view on the question as to how the lapsed penitent should be
treated. He is commemorated on the 4th of March. (L. D.*)
Lucius II. (Gherardo Caccianemici dal Orso), pope from the
1 2th of March 1144 to the isth of February 1145, a Bolognese,
successively canon at his native city, cardinal priest of Sta
Croce in Gerusalemme, treasurer of the Roman Church, papal
legate in Germany for Honorius II., chancellor and librarian
under Innocent II., was the successor of Celestine II. His
stormy pontificate was marked by the erection of a revolutionary
republic at Rome which sought to deprive the pope of his temporal
power, and by the recognition of papal suzerainty over Portugal.
He was succeeded by Eugenius III.
His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 179. A single
unreliable writer, Godfrey of Viterbo (in J. M. Watterich, Pontif.
Roman. Vitae), is authority for the statement that Lucius II. perished
in an attempt to storm the Capitol. See Jaffd-Wattenbach, Regesta
pontif. Roman. (1885-1888); J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen
Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocent III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregoro-
vius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton
(London, 1896).
Lucios III. (Ubaldo Allucingoli), pope from the ist of Sep-
tember 1181 to the 25th of November 1185, a native of Lucca
and a Cistercian monk, named cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede
by Innocent II. and cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri by
Adrian IV., succeeded Alexander III. He lived at Rome from
November 1181 to March 1182, but dissensions in the city com-
pelled him to pass the remainder of his pontificate in exile,
mainly at Velletri, Anagni and Verona. He disputed with the
emperor Frederick I. the disposal of the territories of the Countess
Matilda. In November 1184 he held a synod at Verona which
condemned the Cathari, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists,
and anathematized all heretics and their abettors. Lucius died
in the midst of preparations for a crusade in answer to appeals of
Baldwin IV. of Jerusalem. His successor was Urban III.
His letters are in I. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat, vol. 201. Consult I. M.
Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862) ; and Jaff<5-
Wattenbach, Regesta Pontif. Roman. (1885-1888). See J. Langen,
Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III.
(Bonn, 1893) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896) ; P. Scheffer-Boichorst,
" Zu den mathildinischen Schenkungen," in Mittheilungen des
osterreichen Instituts (1888). (C. H. HA.)
LUCK, a term for good or bad fortune, the unforeseen or
unrecognized causes which bring success or failure in any enter-
prise, particularly used of the result of chances in games of skill
or chance (see PROBABILITY). The word does not occur in
English before the i6th century. It was taken from the Low
Ger. luk, a shortened form of geluk, cf. Modern Ger. Cluck,
happiness, good fortune. The New English Dictionary considers
the word to have been introduced from the Low Countries as a
gambling term. The ultimate origin is doubtful; it has been
connected with the German gelingen, to succeed (cf. Druck,
pressure, from dringen), or with locken, to entice.
At Eden Hall in Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family,
has been long preserved a vessel known as " the luck," supposed
to be of Venetian or Byzantine make, and dating from the loth
century. It is a chalice of enamelled glass, and on its safe
preservation the fortunes of the Musgrave family are supposed
to depend, in accordance with the rhyme:
" Should this cup either break or fall,
Farewell the luck of Edenhall."
LUCRE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791-1855),
German theologian, was born on the 24th of August 1791, at
Egeln near Magdeburg, where his father was a merchant. He
studied theology at Halle and Gottingen. In 1813 he became
repetent at Gottingen, and in 1814 he received the degree of
doctor in philosophy from Halle; in 1816 he removed to Berlin,
where he became licentiate in theology, and qualified as privat-
docent. He soon became intimate with Schleiermacher and de
Wette, and was associated with them in 1819 in the redaction
of the Theologische Zeitschrift. Meanwhile his lectures and
publications (among the latter a Grundriss der Neutestament-
lichen Hermeneutik, 1816) had brought him into considerable
repute, and he was appointed professor extraordinarius in the
new university of Bonn in the spring of 1818; in the following
autumn he became professor ordinarius. From Bonn, where
he had J. C. W. August! (1772-1841), J. K. L. Gieseler, and
Karl Immanuel Nitzsch for colleagues, he was called in 1827
to Gottingen to succeed K. F. Staudlin (1761-1826). In that
year he helped to found the Theologische Studien und Kritiken,
the chief organ of the " mediation " theology ( Vermitlelungs-
theologie). At Gottingen he remained, declining all further
calls elsewhere, as to Erlangen, Kiel, Halle, Tubingen, Jena
and Leipzig, until his death, which occurred on the 4th of
February 1855.
Lticke, who was one of the most learned, many-sided and influential
of the so-called " mediation " school of evangelical theologians
(Vermittelungstheologie), is now chiefly known by his Kommentar
uber die Schriften d. Evangelisten Johannes (4 vols., 1820-1832); it
has since passed through two new and improved editions (the last
volume of the 3rd edition by E. Bertheau, 1856). He is an intelligent
io6
LUCKENWALDE LUCRETIUS MONS
tnaintainer of the Johahnine authorship of the Fourth Gospel;
in connexion with this thesis he was one of the first to argue for the
early date and non-apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse. His
Einleitung in die Offenbarung Jphannis was published in 1832 (2nd
ed., 1848-1852). He also published a Synopsis Evangeliorum, con-
jointly with W. M. L. de Wette (1818, 2nd ed., 1840). See Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyhlopadie.
LUCKENWALDE, a town in the Prussian province of Branden-
burg, on the Nuthe, 30 m. S. of Berlin, on the main line to
Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. (1905) 22,263. Its cloth and wool
manufactories are among the most extensive in Prussia. Among
its other industries are cotton printing and dye works, brewing,
and the making of metal and bronze goods.
The site of Luckenwalde was occupied in the I2th century
by a Cistercian monastery, but the village did not spring up till
the reign of Frederick the Great. It was made a town in 1808.
LUCKNOW, a city, district and division of British India.
The city was the capital of Oudh from 1775 until it was merged
in the United Provinces in 1901. Pop. (1901) 264,049. It lies
mainly on the right bank of the winding river Gumti, which is
crossed by two railway and three road bridges. It contains
the Canning college (1864), with an Oriental department, and
La Martiniere college, where about 100 boys are educated, the
institution being in part supported by an endowment left by
General Claude Martin in 1800. There are native manufactures
of gold and silver brocade, muslins, embroidery, brass and
copper wares, pottery and moulding in clay. There are also
important European industrial establishments, such as iron-
works and paper-mills. Lucknowjs the centre of the Oudh and
Rohilkhand railway system, with large workshops. Lines
radiate to Cawnpore, Bareilly, Gonda, Fyzabad and Rae Bareli.
Lucknow is the headquarters of the 8th division of the northern
army. The cantonments are situated 3 m. E. of the city.
Lucknow is chiefly notable in the history of British India
as the capital of the nawabs who had dealings with Warren
Hastings, and their successors the kings of Oudh, whose deposi-
tion by Lord Dalhousie was one of the chief causes of the Mutiny.
Amongst the events of the Mutiny the defence of the residency
of Lucknow comes only second in historic interest to the massacre
at Cawnpore itself. For the two sieges, see INDIAN MUTINY.
The name of the residency is now applied not only to the resid-
ency itself, but to the whole of the outbuildings and entrench-
ments in which Sir Henry Lawrence concentrated his small
force. These entrenchments covered almost 60 acres of ground,
and consisted of a number of detached houses, public edifices,
outhouses and casual buildings, netted together, and welded by
ditches, parapets, stockades and batteries into one connected
whole. On the summit of the plateau stands the residency
proper, the official residence of the chief commissioner, a lofty
building three storeys high, with a fine portico. Near the
residency comes the banqueting hall, and beyond the Baillie
Guardgate lie the ruins of the surgeon's house, where Sir Henry
Lawrence died of a shell-wound, and where the ladies of the
garrison were sheltered in underground rooms. Round the
line of the entrenchments are pillars marked with the name of
the various " posts " into which the garrison was distributed.
The most dangerous of these was the Cawnpore battery post,
where the stockade was directly exposed to the enemy's fire.
The mutineers had rifles fixed in rests in the house opposite,
and swept the road that led through the residency enclosure
at this point. Close to the residency is the Lawrence Memorial,
an artificial mound 30 ft. high crowned by a marble cross.
Among the other buildings of interest in Lucknow is the
Imambara, which is one of the largest rooms in the world(i62 ft.
by 54), having an arched roof without supports. This room was
built by the Nawab Asaf-ud-dowlah in 1784, to afford relief to
the famine-stricken people. The many monuments of his
reign include his country palace of Bibiapur, outside the city.
Among later buildings are the two palaces of Chhattar Manzil,
erected for the wives of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar (1814), the remains
of the Farhat Baksh, dating from the previous reign, and ad-
joining the greater Chhattar Manzil, the observatory (now a
bank) of Nasir-ud-din Haidar (1827), the imambara or mausoleum
and the unfinished great mosque (Jama Masjid) of Mahommed
AH Shah (1837), and the huge debased Kaisar Bagh, the palace
of Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856).
The DISTRICT OF LUCKNOW lies on both sides of the river Gumti,
and has an area of 967 sq. m. Its general aspect is that of an open
champaign, well studded with villages, finely wooded and in parts
most fertile and highly cultivated. In the vicinity of rivers, however,
stretch extensive barren sandy tracts (bhur), and there are many
wastes of saline efflorescence (usdr). The country is an almost dead
level, the average slope, which is from N.W. to S.E., being less than
a foot per mile. The principal rivers are the Gumti and the Sai
with their tributaries. The population in 1901 was 793,241, showing
an increase of 2-5 % in the preceding decade.
The DIVISION OF LUCKNOW contains the western half of the old
province of Oudh. It comprises the six districts of Lucknow, Unao,
Sitapur, Rae Bareli, Hardoi and Kheri. Its area is 12,051 sq. m.
and its population in 1901 was 5,977,086, showing an increase of
2-06% in the decade.
See Lucknow District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904). For a fuller
description of the city see G. W. Forrest, Cities of India (1903).
LUC.ON, a town of western France, in the department of
Vendee, 23 m. S.E. of La Roche-sur-Yon, on the railway from
Nantes to Bordeaux, and on the canal of Lucon (9 m. long), which
affords communication with the sea in the Bay of Aiguillon.
Pop. (1906) 6163. Between Lucon and the sea stretch marshy
plains, the bed of the former gulf, partly drained by numerous
canals, and in the reclaimed parts yielding excellent pasturage,
while in other parts are productive salt-marshes, and ponds for
the rearing of mussels and other shell-fish. Lucon is the seat
of a bishopric, established in 1317, and held by Richelieu from
1607 to 1624. The cathedral, partly of the 12th-century and
partly of later periods, was originally an abbey church. The
facade and the clock tower date from about 1700, and the tower
is surmounted by a crocketed spire rising 275 ft. above the
ground, attributed to the architect Francois Leduc of Tuscany.
The cloisters are of the late isth century. Adjacent is the
bishop's palace, possessing a large theological library and
Titian's " Disciples of Emmaus," and there is a fine public
garden. A communal college and an ecclesiastical seminary are
among the public institutions. During the Vendean wars,
Lucon was the scene of several conflicts, notably in 1793.
LUCRE (Lat. lucrum, gain; the Indo-European root is seen
in Gr. avoXavfLV, to enjoy, and in Ger. Lohn, wages), a term
now only used in the disparaging sense of unworthy profit, or
money that is the object of greed, especially in the expression
" filthy lucre " (i Tim. iii. 3). In the adjective " lucrative,"
profitable, there is, however, no sense of disparagement. In
Scots law the term " lucrative succession " (lucrative acquisitio)
is used of the taking by an heir, during the lifetime of his ancestor,
of a free grant of any part of the heritable property.
LUCRETIA, a Roman lady, wife of Lucius Tarquinius Col-
latinus, distinguished for her beauty and domestic virtues.
Having been outraged by Sextus Tarquinius, one of the sons of
Tarquinius Superbus, she informed her father and her husband,
and, having exacted an oath of vengeance from them, stabbed
herself to death. Lucius Junius Brutus, her husband's cousin,
put himself at the head of the people, drove out the Tarquins,
and established a republic. The accounts of this tradition in
later writers present many points of divergence.
Livy i. 57-59; Dion. Halic. iv. 64-67, 70, 82; Ovid, Fasti, ii. 721-
852 ; Dio Cassius, frag. 1 1 (Bekker) ; G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility
of Early Roman History, i.
LUCRETIUS MONS, a mountain of the Sabine territory,
mentioned by Horace (Od. i. 17, i) as visible from his Sabine
farm, and probably identical with the " Mons Lucretius " men-
tioned in the Liber Pontificates (ed. Duchesne, i. 183), which
speaks of " possessio in territorio Sabinensi quae cognominatur
ad duas casas sub monte Lucretio " in the time of Constantine.
The name " ad duas casas " is supposed to survive hi the chapel
of the Madonna della Casa near Rocca Giovane, and the Mons
Lucretilis is generally (and rightly) identified with Monte
Gennaro, a limestone peak 4160 ft. high, which forms a promi-
nent feature in the view N.E. of Rome. Excavations on the
supposed site of Horace's farm were begun by Professor Pasqui
in September 1909. (T. As.)
LUCRETIUS
107
LUCRETIUS (TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS) (c. 98-55 B.C.), the
great Latin didactic poet. Our sole information concerning his
life is found in the brief summary of Jerome, written more than
four centuries after the poet's death. Jerome followed, often
carelessly, the accounts contained in the lost work of Suetonius
De Viris Illustribus, written about two centuries after the death
of Lucretius; and, although it is likely that Suetonius used the
information transmitted by earlier grammarians, there is nothing
to guide us to the original sources. According to this account
the poet was born in 95 B.C.; he became mad in consequence of
the administration of a love-philtre; and after composing
several books in his lucid intervals, which were subsequently
corrected by Cicero, he died by his own hand in the forty-fourth
year of his age. Donatus states in his life of Virgil, a work also
based on the lost work of Suetonius, that Lucretius died on the
same day on which Virgil assumed the toga virilis, that is, in the
seventeenth year of Virgil's life, and on the very day on which
he was born, and adds that the consuls were the same, that is
Cn. Pompeius Magnus and M. Licinius Crassus, consuls in 70
and again in 55. The statements cannot be perfectly reconciled;
but we may say with certainty that Lucretius was born between
98 and 95 B.C., and died in 55 or 54. A single mention of his
poem, the De rerum natura (which from the condition in which
it has reached us may be assumed to have been published
posthumously) in a letter of Cicero's to his brother Quintus,
written early in 54 B.C., confirms the date given by Donatus
as that of the poet's death. The statements of Jerome have
been questioned or disbelieved on the ground of their intrinsic
improbability. They have been regarded as a fiction invented
later by the enemies of Epicureanism, with the view of discredit-
ing the most powerful work ever produced by any disciple of
that sect. It is more in conformity with ancient credulity than
with modern science to attribute a permanent tendency to
derangement to the accidental administration of any drug,
however potent. A work characterized by such strength,
consistency and continuity of thought is not likely to have been
composed " in the intervals of madness " as Jerome says.
Donatus, in mentioning the poet's death, gives no hint of the
act of suicide. The poets of the Augustan age, who were deeply
interested both in his philosophy and in his poetry, are entirely
silent about the tragical story of his life. Cicero, by his professed
antagonism to the doctrines of Epicurus, by his inadequate
appreciation of Lucretius himself and by the indifference
which he shows to other contemporary poets, seems to have been
neither fitted for the task of correcting the unfinished work of
a writer whose genius was so distinct from his own, nor likely to
have cordially undertaken such a task.
Yet these considerations do not lead to the absolute rejection
of the story. The evidence afforded by the poem rather leads
to the conclusion that the tradition contains some germ of fact.
It is remarkable that in more than one passage of his poem
Lucretius writes with extraordinary vividness of the impression
produced both by dreams and by waking visions. It is true
that the philosophy of Epicurus put great stress on these, as
affording the explanation of the origin of supernatural beliefs.
But the insistence with which Lucretius returns to the subject,
and the horror with which he recalls the effects of such abnormal
phenomena, suggest that he himself may have been liable to
such hallucinations, which are said to be consistent with perfect
sanity, though they may be the precursors either of madness
or of a state of despair and melancholy. Other passages, where
he describes himself as ever engaged, even in his dreams, on his
task of inquiry and composition, produce the impression of an
unrelieved strain of mind and feeling, which may have ended in
some extreme reaction of spirit, or in some failure of intellectual
power, that may have led him to commit suicide. But the
strongest confirmation of the tradition is the unfinished condition
in which the poem has reached us. The subject appears indeed
to have been fully treated in accordance with the plan sketched
out in the introduction to the first book. But that book is the
only one which is finished in style and in the arrangement of
its matter. In all the others, and especially in the last three,
the continuity of the argument is frequently broken by passages
which must have been inserted after the first draft of the argu-
ments was written out. Thus, for instance, in his account of
the transition from savage to civilized life, he assumes at
v. ion the discovery of the use of skins, fire, &c., and the first
beginning of civil society, and proceeds at 1028 to explain the
origin of language, and then again returns, from 1090 to 1160,
to speculate upon the first use of fire and the earliest stages of
political life. These breaks in continuity show what might also
be inferred from frequent repetitions of lines which have appeared
earlier in the poem, and from the rough workmanship of passages
in the later books, that the poem could not have received the
final revision of the author. Nor is there any great difficulty
in believing that Cicero edited it; the word " emendavit,"
need not mean more than what we call " preparing for
press."
From the absence of any claim on the part of any other district
of Italy to the honour of having given birth to Lucretius it is
inferred that he was of purely Roman origin. No writer certainly
is more purely Roman in personal character and in strength of
understanding. His silence on the subject of Roman greatness
and glory as contrasted with the prominence of these subjects
in the poetry of men of provincial birth such as Ennius, Virgil
and Horace, may be explained by the principle that familiarity
had made the subject one of less wonder and novelty to him.
The Lucretian gens to which he belonged was one of the oldest
of the great Roman houses, nor do we hear of the name, as we
do of other great family names, as being diffused over other
parts of Italy, or as designating men of obscure or servile
origin. It may well be assumed that Lucretius was a member of
the Roman aristocracy, belonging either to a senatorian or to
one of the great equestrian families. If the Roman aristocracy
of his time had lost much of the virtue and of the governing
qualities of their ancestors, they showed in the last years before
the establishment of monarchy a taste for intellectual culture
which might have made Rome as great in literature as in arms
and law. A new taste for philosophy had developed among
members of the governing class during the youth of Lucretius,
and eminent Greek teachers of the Epicurean sect settled at
Rome at the same time, and lived on terms of intimacy with
them. The inference that Lucretius belonged to this class
is confirmed by the tone in which he addresses Gaius Memmius,
a man of an eminent senatorian family, to whom the poem is
dedicated. His tone is quite unlike that in which Virgil or even
Horace addresses Maecenas. He addresses him as an equal;
he expresses sympathy with the prominent part he played in
public life, and admiration for his varied accomplishments,
but on bis own subject claims to speak to him with authority.
Although our conception of the poet's life is necessarily vague
and meagre, yet his personal force is so remarkable and so vividly
impressed on his poem, that we seem able to form a consistent
idea of his qualities and characteristics. We know, for example,
that the choice of a contemplative life was not the result of
indifference to the fate of the world, or of any natural coldness
or even calmness of temperament. In the opening lines of the
second and third books we can mark the recoil of a humane
and sensitive spirit from the horrors of the reign of terror which
he witnessed in his youth, and from the anarchy and confusion
which prevailed at Rome during his later years. We may also
infer that he had not been through his whole career so much
estranged from the social life of his day as he seems to have been
in his later years. Passages in his poem attest his familiarity
with the pomp and luxury of city life, with the attractions of
the public games and with the pageantry of great military
spectacles. But much the greater mass of the illustrations of
his philosophy indicate that, while engaged on his poem he must
have passed much of his time in the open air, exercising at once
the keen observation of a naturalist and the contemplative vision
of a poet. He seems to have found a pleasure, more congenial
to the modern than to the ancient temperament, in ascending
mountains or wandering among their solitudes (vi. 469, iv.
575). References to companionship in these wanderings, and
io8
LUCRETIUS
the well-known description of the charm of a rustic meal
(ii. 29) speak of kindly sociality rather than of any austere
separation from his fellows.
Other expressions in his poem (e.g. iii. 10, &c.) imply that
he was also a student of books. Foremost among these were
the writings of Epicurus; but he had also an intimate know-
ledge of the philosophical poem of Empedocles, and at least
an acquaintance with the works of Democritus, Anaxagoras,
Heraclitus, Plato and the Stoical writers. Of other Greek prose
writers he knew Thucydides and Hippocrates; while of the
poets he expresses in more than one passage the highest admira-
tion of Homer, whom he imitated in several places. Next to
Homer Euripides is most frequently reproduced by him. But
his poetical sympathy was not limited to the poets of Greece.
For his own countryman Ennius he expresses an affectionate
admiration; and he imitates his language, his rhythm and his
manner in many places. The fragments of the old tragedian
Pacuvius and of the satirist Lucilius show that Lucretius had
made use of their expressions and materials. In his studies he
was attracted by the older writers, both Greek and Roman, in
whose masculine temperament and understanding he recognized
an affinity with his own.
His devotion to Epicurus seems at first sight more difficult
to explain than his enthusiasm for Empedocles or Ennius.
Probably he found in his calmness of temperament, even in his
want of imagination, a sense of rest and of exemption from the
disturbing influences of life; while in his physical philosophy
he found both an answer to the questions which perplexed him
and an inexhaustible stimulus to his intellectual curiosity. The
combative energy, the sense of superiority, the spirit of satire,
characteristic of him as a Roman, unite with his loyalty to
Epicurus to render him not only polemical but intolerant and
contemptuous in his tone toward the great antagonists of his
system, the Stoics, whom, while constantly referring to them,
he does not condescend even to name. With his admiration of
the genius of others he combines a strong sense of his^wn-power.
He is quite conscious of the great importance and of the difficulty-
of his task; but he feels his own ability to cope with it.
It is more difficult to infer the moral than the intellectual
characteristics of a great writer from the personal impress left
by him on his work. Yet it is not too much to say that there is no
work in any literature that produces a profounder impression of
sincerity. No writer shows a juster scorn of all mere rhetoric
and exaggeration. No one shows truer courage, not marred by
irreverence, in confronting the great problems of human destiny,
or greater strength in triumphing over human weakness. No one
shows a truer humanity and a more tender sympathy with
natural sorrow.
The peculiarity of the poem of Lucretius, that which makes it
unique in literature, is that it is a reasoned system of philosophy,
written in verse. The prosaic title De Rerum Nalura, a transla-
tion of the Gr. Trtpi <^iieros, implies the subordination of the
artistic to a speculative motive. As in the case of nearly all the
great works of Roman literary genius, the form of the poem was
borrowed from the Greeks. The rise of speculative philosophy
in Greece was coincident with the beginning of prose composition,
and many of the earliest philosophers wrote in the prose of the
Ionic dialect; others, however, and especially the writers of the
Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, expounded their systems in
continuous poems composed in the epic hexameter. Most famous
in connexion with this kind of poetry are Xenophanes and
Parmenides, the Eleatics and Empedocles of Agrigentum. The
last was less important as a philosopher, but greater than the
others both as a poet and a physicist. On both of these grounds
he had a greater attraction to Lucretius. The fragments of the
poem of Empedocles show that the Roman poet regarded that
work as his model. In accordance with this model he has given
to his own poem the form of a personal address, he has developed
his argument systematically, and has applied the sustained
impetus of epic poetry to the treatment of some of the driest and
abstrusest topics. Many ideas and expressions of the Sicilian
have been reproduced by the Roman poet ; and the same tone of
impassioned solemnity and melancholy seems to have pervaded
both works. But Lucretius, if less original as a thinker, was
probably a much greater poet than Empedocles. What chiefly
distinguishes him from his Greek prototypes is that his purpose
is rather ethical than purely speculative; the zeal of a teacher
and reformer is more strong in him than even the intellectual
passion of a thinker. His speculative ideas, his moral teaching
and his poetical power are indeed interdependent on one another,
and this interdependence is what mainly constitutes their
power and interest. But of the three claims which he makes to
immortality, the importance of his subject, his desire to liberate
the mind from the bonds of superstition and the charm and
lucidity of his poetry that which he himself regarded as supreme
was the second. The main idea of the poem is the irreconcilable
opposition between the truth of the laws of nature and the
falsehood of the old superstitions. But, further, the happiness
and the dignity of life are regarded by him as absolutely
dependent on the acceptance of the true and the rejection of the
false doctrine. In the Epicurean system of philosophy he
believed that he had found the weapons by which this war of
liberation could be most effectually waged. Following Epicurus
he sets before himself the aim of finally crushing that fear of the
gods and that fear of death resulting from it which he regards as
the source of all the human ills. Incidentally he desires also
to purify the heart from other violent passions which corrupt it
and mar its peace. But the source even of these the passions of
ambition and avarice he finds in the fear of death; and that
fear he resolves into the fear of eternal punishment after death.
The selection of his subject and the order in which it is treated
are determined by this motive. Although the title of the poem
implies that it is a treatise on the " whole nature of things,"
the aim of Lucretius is to treat only those branches of science
which are necessary to clear the mind from the fear of the gods
and the terrors of a future state. In the two earliest books,
accordingly, he lays down and largely illustrates the first prin-
ciples of being with the view of showing that the world is not
governed by capricious agency, but has come into existence,
continues in existence, and will ultimately pass away in accord-
ance with the primary conditions of the elemental atoms which,
along with empty space, are the only eternal and immutable
substances. These atoms are themselves infinite in number but
limited in their varieties, and by their ceaseless movement and
combinations during infinite time and through infinite space
the whole process of creation is maintained. In the third book
he applies the principles of the atomic philosophy to explain the
nature of the mind and vital principle, with the view of showing
that the soul perishes with the body. In the fourth book he
discusses the Epicurean doctrine of the images, which are cast
from all bodies, and which act either on the senses or immediately
on the mind, in dreams or waking visions, as affording the ex-
planation of the belief in the continued existence of the spirits
of the departed. The fifth book, which has the most general
interest, professes to explain the process by which the earth, the
sea, the sky, the sun, moon and stars, were formed, the origin
of life, and the gradual advance of man from the most savage to
the most civilized condition. All these topics are treated with
the view of showing that the world is not itself divine nor directed
by divine agency. The sixth book is devoted to the explanation,
in accordance with natural causes, of some of the more abnormal
phenomena, such as thunderstorms, volcanoes, earthquakes, &c.,
which are special causes of supernatural terrors.
The consecutive study of the argument produces on most
readers a mixed feeling of dissatisfaction and admiration. They
are repelled by the dryness of much of the matter, the unsuitable-
ness of many of the topics discussed for poetic treatment, the
arbitrary assumption of premises, the entire failure to establish
the connexion between the concrete phenomena which the
author professes to explain and these assumptions, and the
erroneousness of many of the doctrines which are stated with
dogmatic confidence. On the other hand, they are constantly
impressed by his power of reasoning both deductively and
inductively, by the subtlety and fertility of invention with which
LUCRINUS LACUS
109
he applies analogies, by the clearness and keenness of his observa-
tion, by the fulness of matter with which his mind is stored, and
by the consecutive force, the precision and distinctness of his
style, when employed in the processes of scientific exposition.
The first two books enable us better than anything else in ancient
literature to appreciate the boldness and, on the whole, the
reasonableness of the ancient mind in forming hypotheses on
great matters that still occupy the investigations of physical
science. The third and fourth books give evidence of acuteness
in psychological analysis; the fourth and sixth of the most
active and varied observation of natural phenomena; the fifth
of original insight and strong common sense in conceiving the
origin of society and the progressive advance of man to civiliza-
tion. But the chief value of Lucretius as a thinker lies in his
firm grasp of speculative ideas, and in his application of them to
the interpretation of human life and nature. All phenomena,
moral as well as material, are contemplated by him in their
relation to one great organic whole, which he acknowledges
. under the name of " Natura daedala rerum," and the most
beneficent manifestations of which he seems to symbolize and
almost to deify in the " Alma Venus," whom, in apparent con-
tradiction to his denial of a divine interference with human
affairs, he invokes with prayer in the opening lines of the poem.
In this conception of nature are united the conceptions of law and
order, of ever-changing life and interdependence, of immensity,
individuality, and all-pervading subtlety, under which the
universe is apprehended both by his intelligence and his imagina-
tion.
Nothing can be more unlike the religious and moral attitude
of Lucretius than the old popular conception of him as an
atheist and a preacher of the doctrine of pleasure. It is true that
he denies the doctrines of a supernatural government of the
world and of a future life. But his arguments against the first
are really only valid against the limited and unworthy concep-
tions of divine agency involved in the ancient religions; his
denial of the second is prompted by his vital realization of all
that is meant by the arbitrary infliction of eternal torment after
death. His war with the popular beliefs of his time is waged, not
in the interests of licence, but in vindication of the sanctity of
human feeling. The cardinal line of the poem,
" Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum,"
is elicited from him as his protest against the sacrifice of Iphigenia
by her father. But in his very denial of a cruel, limited and
capricious agency of the gods, and in his imaginative recognition
of an orderly, all-pervading, all-regulating power, we find at
least a nearer approach to the higher conceptions of modern
theism than in any of the other imaginative conceptions of
ancient poetry and art. But his conception even of the ancient
gods and of their indirect influence on human life is more worthy
than the popular one. He conceives of them as living a life of
eternal peace and exemption from passion, in a world of their
own; and the highest ideal of man is, through the exercise of his
reason, to realize an image of this life. Although they are
conceived of as unconcerned with the interest of our world,
yet influences are supposed to emanate from them which the
human heart is capable of receiving and assimilating. The effect
of unworthy conceptions of the divine nature is that they render
a man incapable of visiting the temples of the gods in a calm
spirit, or of receiving the emanations that " announce the
divine peace " in peaceful tranquillity. The supposed " atheism "
of Lucretius proceeds from a more deeply reverential spirit than
that of the majority of professed believers in all times.
His moral attitude is also far removed from that of ordinary
ancient Epicureanism or of modern materialism. Though he
acknowledges pleasure to be the law of life, yet he is far from
regarding its attainment as the end of life. What man needs is
not enjoyment, but " peace and a pure heart." The victory
to be won by man is the triumph over fear, ambition, passion,
luxury. With the conquest over these nature herself supplies
all that is needed for happiness. Self-control and renunciation
are the lessons which he preaches.
It has been doubted whether Cicero, 1 in his short criticism in
the letter already referred to, concedes to Lucretius both the
gifts of genius and the accomplishment of art or only one of
them. Readers of a later time, who could compare his work with
the finished works of the Augustan age, would certainly disparage
his art rather than his power. But with Cicero it was different. He
greatly admired, or professed to admire, the genius of the early
Roman poets, while he shows indifference to the poetical genius
of his younger contemporaries. Yet he could not have been
insensible to the immense superiority in rhythmical smoothness
which the hexameter of Lucretius has over that of Ennius and
Lucilius. And no reader of Lucretius can doubt that he attached
the greatest importance to artistic execution, and that he took
a great pleasure, not only in " the long roll of his hexameter,"
but also in producing the effects of alliteration, assonance,
&c., which are so marked a peculiarity in the style of Plautus and
the earlier Roman poets. He allows his taste for these tricks
of style to degenerate into mannerism. And this is the only
drawback to the impression of absolute spontaneity which his
style produces. He was unfortunate in living before the natural
rudeness of Latin art had been successfully grappled with.
His only important precursors in serious poetry were Ennius and
Lucilius, and, though he derived from the first of these an
impulse to shape the Latin tongue into a fitting vehicle for the
expression of elevated emotion and imaginative conception, he
could find in neither a guide to follow in the task he set before
himself. The difficulty and novelty of his task enhances our
sense of his power. His finest passages are thus characterized
by a freshness of feeling and enthusiasm of discovery. But the
result of these conditions and of his own inadequate conception
of the proper limits of his art is that his best poetry is clogged
with a great mass of alien matter, which no treatment in the
world could have made poetically endurable. (W. Y. S.)
AUTHORITIES. The two most ancient manuscripts of Lucretius,
O and Q, are both at Leiden, one being a folio (oblongus) and the other
a quarto (quadratus). Upon these alone the modern texts are
founded. The scientific editing of the text began with C. C. Lach-
mann (1852) whose work still holds the field. The most important
commentary is that of H. A. J. Munro (4th ed., 1886) with a prose
translation. For the earlier editions it is sufficient to refer to the
account in Munro's Introduction, vol. i. pp. 3 sqq. Giussani's com-
plete edition (with Italian notes, 1896) and R. Heinze's edition of
book iii. (1897) are also of value. So too are A. Brieger's numerous
contributions in German periodicals and his text in the Teubner series
(2nd ed., 1899).
The philosophy of Lucretius has been much studied in recent times.
Amongst special treatises may be mentioned K. H. Usener's Epicurca
(1887); J. Woltjer's Lucretii philosophia cum fontibus comparata
(1877); John Masson's Atomic Theory of Lucretius (1884) and
Lucretius: Epicurean and Poet (1909); and several papers and
treatises by Brieger and Giussani.
On the characteristics of the poet as a whole, C. Martha's Le
Poeme de Lucrece (4th ed., Paris, 1885) and W. Y. Sellar in chaps, xi.
sqq. of the Roman Poets of the Republic, may be consulted. There
are useful bibliographies in W. S. Teuffel's History of Roman Literature
(English trans, by G. C. W. Warr) and Martin v. Schanz's Geschichte
der romischen Litteratur.
The following translations into English verse are known : T. Creech
(1683), I. M. Good (1805), T. Busby (1813), C. F.Johnson (New York,
1872), T. C. Baring (1884). There is also a translation by Cyril
Bailey (Oxford, 1910).
LUCRINUS LACUS, or LUCRINE LAKE, a lake of Campania,
Italy, about $ m. to the N. of Lake Avernus, and only separated
fromjthe sea (Gulf of Pozzuoli) by a narrow strip of land, traversed
by the coast road, Via Herculanea, which runs on an embank-
ment, the construction of which was traditionally attributed to
Heracles in Strabo's time and the modern railway. Its size
has been much reduced by the rise of the crater of the Monte-
nuovo in 1538. Its greatest depth is about 15 ft. In Roman
days its fisheries were important and were let out by the state
1 Ad Q. Fratr. ii. 9 (u), 13. Both sense and words have been
much disputed. The general sense is probably that given by the
following restoration, Lucretii poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt multis
hominibus ingcnii multae etiam (MSS. tamen) artis, sed cum ad
umbilicum (omitted in MSS.) veneris, virum te putabo, si Sallustii
Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo." This would concede
Lucretius both genius and art, but imply at the same time that he
was not easy reading.
no
LUCULLUS
to contractors. Its oyster-beds were, as at the present day, re-
nowned; their foundation is attributed to one Sergius Grata,
about 100 B.C. It was also in favour as a resort for pleasure
excursions from Baiae (cf. Martial i. 63), and its banks were
covered with villas, of which the best known was Cicero's
Academia, on the E. bank. The remnants of this villa, with the
village of Tripergola, disappeared in 1 538.
See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. 2 (Breslau, 1890), 172.
LUCULLUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family of the
Licinian gens. By far the most famous of its members was
Lucius LICINIUS LUCULLUS (c. 110-56), surnamed Ponticus from
his victories in Asia Minor over Mithradates VI. of Pontus.
His father, of the same name, had held an important military
command in Sicily, but on his return to Rome he was prosecuted
on a charge of bribery and condemned to exile. His mother was
Caecilia, of the family of the Metelli, and sister of Quintus
Caecilius Metellus Numidicus. Early in life he attached himself
to the party of Sulla, and to that party he remained constant.
He attracted Sulla's notice in the Social War (90) and in 88,
when Sulla was appointed to the command of the war against
Mithradates, accompanied him as quaestor to Greece and Asia
Minor. While Sulla was besieging Athens, Lucullus raised a
fleet and drove Mithradates out of the Mediterranean. He won
a brilliant victory off Tenedos, and had he been more of a patriot
and less of a party man he might have ended a perilous war.
In 84 peace was concluded with Mithradates. Sulla returned
to Rome, while Lucullus remained in Asia, and by wise and
generous financial reforms laid the foundation of the prosperity
of the province. The result of his policy was that he became
extremely popular with the provincials, but offended many of
the publicani, a powerful class which farmed the public revenue.
In 80 he returned to Rome as curule aedile, in which capacity
he exhibited games of exceptional magnificence. Soon after-
wards (77) he was elected praetor, and was next appointed to
the province of Africa, where he again won a good name as a
just and considerate governor. In 74 he became consul, and
went to Asia at the head of about 30,000 foot and 2000 horse,
to defend the province of Bithynia against Mithradates, who
was besieging his colleague, Marcus Aurelius Cotta, in Chalcedon
on the Propontis. Mithradates was forced to retire along the
sea-coast till he halted before the strong city of Cyzicus, which
he besieged. Lucullus, however, cut off his communications on
the land side, and, aided by bad weather, forced him to raise
the siege. In the autumn of 73 Lucullus marched to Cabeira
or Neocaesarea, where the king had gone into winter quarters
with a vague hope that his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of Armenia,
and possibly even the Parthians, might come to his aid. Al-
though the forces of Mithradates were far superior in numbers,
his troops were no match for the Roman legionaries. A large
detachment of his army having been cut up by one of Lucullus's
lieutenant-generals, the king decided on instant retreat. The
retreat soon became a disorderly flight, Mithradates himself
escaping with difficulty into Lesser Armenia.
Thus Pontus, with the exception of some of the maritime
cities, such as Sinope, Heraclea and Amisus, became Roman
territory. Two years were occupied in the capture of these
strongholds, while Lucullus busied himself with a general reform
of the administration of the province of Asia. His next step
was to demand the surrender of Mithradates and to threaten
Tigranes with war in the event of refusal. In the spring of 69,
at the head of only two legions, he marched through Sophene,
the south-western portion of Armenia, crossed the Tigris, and
pushed on to the newly-built royal city, Tigranocerta, situated
on one of the affluents of that river. A motley host, made up out
of the tribes bordering on the Black Sea and the Caspian, hovered
round his small army, but failed to hinder him from laying siege
to the town. Lucullus showed consummate military capacity,
contriving to maintain the siege and at the same time to give
battle to the enemy's vastly superior forces. There might now
have been peace but for the interference of Mithradates, who
pressed Tigranes to renew the war and to seek the aid and
alliance of Parthia. The Parthian king, however, preferred a
treaty with Rome to a treaty with Armenia, and desired simply
to have the Euphrates recognized as his western boundary.
Mithradates next appealed to the national spirit of the peoples
of the East generally, and endeavoured to rouse them to a united
effort. The position of Lucullus was critical. The home govern-
ment was for recalling him, and his army was disaffected.
Nevertheless, though continually harassed by the enemy, he
persisted in marching northwards from Tigranocerta over the
iiigh table-land of central Armenia, in the hope of reaching
Artaxata on the Araxes. But the open mutiny of his troops
compelled him to recross the Tigris into the Mesopotamian
valley. Here, on a dark tempestuous night, he surprised and
stormed Nisibis, the capital of the Armenian district of Meso-
potamia, and in this city, which yielded him a rich booty, he
found satisfactory winter quarters. Meantime Mithradates was
again in Pontus, and in a disastrous engagement at Ziela the
Roman camp was taken and the army slaughtered to a man.
Lucullus was obliged to retreat into Asia Minor, leaving Tigranes
and Mithradates masters of Pontus and Cappadocia. The work
of eight years of war was undone. In 66 Lucullus was superseded
by Pompey. He had fairly earned the honour of a triumph, but
his powerful enemies at Rome and charges of maladministration,
to which his immense wealth gave colour, caused it to be deferred
till 63. From this time, with the exception of occasional public
appearances, he gave himself up to elegant luxury, with which
he combined a sort of dilettante pursuit of philosophy, literature
and art. As a general he does not seem to have possessed the
entire confidence of his troops, owing probably to his natural
hauteur and the strict discipline which he imposed on them.
The same causes made him unpopular with the Roman capitalists,
whose sole object was the accumulation of enormous fortunes
by farming the revenue of the provinces.
Among the Roman nobles who revelled in the newly acquired
riches of the East, Lucullus stood pre-eminent. His park and
pleasure grounds near Rome, and the costly and laborious works
in his parks and villas at Tusculum, near Naples, earned for him
from Pompey (it is said) the title of the " Roman Xerxes." On
one of his luxurious entertainments he is said to have spent
upwards of 2000. He was a liberal patron of Greek philosophers
and men of letters, and he collected a valuable library, to which
such men had free access. He himself is said to have been a
student of Greek literature, and to have written a history of the
Marsian war in Greek, inserting solecisms to show that he was a
Roman. He was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's Academica,
the second book (first edition) of which was called Lucullus.
Sulla also entrusted him with the revision of his Memoirs. The
introduction of the cherry-tree from Asia into Europe is attri-
buted to him. It appears that he became mentally feeble some
years before his death, and was obliged to surrender the manage-
ment of his affairs to his brother Marcus. The usual funeral
panegyric was pronounced on him in the Forum, and the people
would have had him buried by the side of Sulla in the Campus
Martius, but at his brother's request he was laid in his splendid
villa at Tusculum.
See Plutarch's Lucullus; Appian's Milhridalic War; the epitomes
of the lost books of Livy; and many passages in Cicero. Some
allusions will also be found in Dio Cassius, Pliny and Athenaeus.
For the Mithradatic wars, see bibliography under MITHRADATES (VI.
of Pontus) ; and generally G. Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng.
trans, by A. D. Jones, 1897); H. Peter, Hist. Rom. Reliquiae, i.
p. cclxxxv. ; W. Drumann, Geschichte Roms, iv. His Elogium is
given in C.I.L. i. 292.
His brother, MARCUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS, was adopted by
Marcus Terentius Varro, and was hence known as Marcus
Terentius Varro Lucullus. In 82 B.C. he served under Sulla
against Marius. In 79 he was curule aedile with his brother,
in 77 praetor, in 73 consul with Gaius Cassius Varus. When
praetor he forbade the carrying of arms by slaves, and with his
colleague in the consulship passed the lex Terenlia Cassia, to
give authority for purchasing corn with the public money and
retailing it at a fixed price at Rome. As proconsul in Macedonia
he made war with great cruelty against the Dardani and Bessi,
and compelled them to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome.
LUCUS FERONIAE LUDENSCHEID
in
Having enjoyed a triumph, he was sent out to the East to settle
the affairs of the provinces conquered by his brother. He sided
with Cicero during the Catilinarian conspiracy, did his utmost
to prevent his banishment, and subsequently supported his
claim for the restoration of his house. He was one of the better
representatives of the optimates, and enjoyed some reputation
as an orator.
See Cicero, De Domo, 52; Pro Tullio, 8; In Verrem, iii. 70, v. 21 ;
Florus, iii. 4, 7; Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. 4, II ; Plutarch,
Sulla, 27; Lucullus, 35, 36, 43; Orelli's Onomasticon Tullianum.
LUCUS FERONIAE, an ancient shrine in Etruria. It was
visited both by Latins and Sabines even in the time of Tullus
Hostilius and was plundered by Hannibal in 211 B.C. It was
undoubtedly in the territory of Capena (<?..); but in imperial
times it became an independent community receiving a colony
of Octavian's veterans (Colonia lulia fdix Lucoferensis) and
possessing an amphitheatre. Its site has been disputed. Some
authorities place it on the Colle Civitucola (but see CATENA),
others at the church of S. Abbondio near Rignano, others (and
probably rightly) at Nazzano, which was reached by a branch
road from the Via Flaminia, where remains of a circular temple
have been found.
See E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Lot. xi. 569 sqq. ; H. Nissen,
Ilalische Landeskunde, ii. 369 sqq. (T. As.)
LUCY, RICHARD DE (d. 1179), called the "loyal," chief
justiciar of England, appears in the latter part of Stephen's
reign as sheriff and justiciar of the county of Essex. He became,
on the accession of Henry II., chief justiciar conjointly with
Robert de Beaumont, earl of Leicester; and after the death
of the latter (1168) held the office without a colleague for twelve
years. The chief servant and intimate of the king he was among
the first of the royal party to incur excommunication in the
Becket controversy. In 1173 he played an important part in
suppressing the rebellion of the English barons, and commanded
the royalists at the battle of Fornham. He resigned the justiciar-
ship in 1179, though pressed by the king to continue in office,
and retired to Lesues Abbey in Kent, which he had founded and
where he died. Lucy's son, Godfrey de Lucy (d. 1204), was
bishop of Winchester from 1189 to his death in September 1204;
he took a prominent part in public affairs during the reigns
of Henry II., Richard I. and John.
See J. H. Round, Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892) ; Sir J. H. Ramsay,
Angevin Empire (1903) ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i.
LUCY, SIR THOMAS (1532-1600), the English Warwickshire
squire who is traditionally associated with the youth of William
Shakespeare, was born on the 24th of April 1532, the son of
William Lucy, and was descended, according to Dugdale, from
Thurstane de Cherlecote, whose son Walter received the village
of Charlecote from Henry de Montfort about 1190. Walter is
said to have married into the Anglo-Norman family of Lucy,
and his son adopted the mother's surname. Three of Sir Thomas
Lucy's ancestors had been sheriffs of Warwickshire and Leicester-
shire, and on his father's death in 1552 he inherited Sherborne
and Hampton Lucy in addition to Charlecote, which was rebuilt
for him by John of Padua, known as John Thorpe, about 1558.
By his marriage with Joyce Acton he inherited Sutton Park
in Worcestershire, and became in 1586 high sheriff of the county.
He was knighted in 1565. He is said to have been under the
tutorship of John Foxe, who is supposed to have imbued his
pupil with the Puritan principles which he displayed as knight
of the shire for Warwick in the parliament of 1571 and as sheriff
of the county, but as Mrs Carmichael Slopes points out Foxe
only left Oxford in 1545, and in 1547 went up to London, so
that the connexion must have been short. He often appeared
atStratford-on-Avon as justice of the peace and as commissioner
of musters for the county. As justice of the peace he showed
great zeal against the Catholics, and took his share in the arrest
of Edward Arden in 1583. In 1585 he introduced into parlia-
ment a bill for the better preservation of game and grain, and
his reputation as a preserver of game gives some colour to the
Shakespearian tradition connected with his name. Nicholas
Rowe, writing in 1710, told a story that Lucy prosecuted Shake-
speare for deer-stealing from Charlecote Park in 1585, and that
Shakespeare aggravated the offence by writing a ballad on his
prosecutor. The trouble arising from this incident is said to have
driven Shakespeare from Stratford to London. The tale was
corroborated by Archdeacon Davies of Sapperton, Gloucester-
shire, who died in 1708. The story is not necessarily falsified
by the fact that there was no deer park at Charlecote at the
time, since there was a warren, and the term warren legally covers
a preserve for other animals than hares or rabbits, roe-deer
among others. Shakespeare is generally supposed to have
caricatured the local magnate of Stratford in his portrait of
Justice Shallow, who made his first appearance in the second
part of Henry IV., and a second in the Merry Wives of Windsor.
Robert Shallow is a justice of the peace in the county of Glou-
cester and his ancestors have the dozen white luces in their
coats, the arms of the Lucys being three luces, while in Dug-
dale's Warwickshire (ed. 1656) there is drawn a coat-of-arms in
which these are repeated in each of the four quarters, making
twelve in all. There are many considerations which make it
unlikely that Shallow represents Lucy, the chief being the note-
worthy difference in their circumstances. Lucy died at Charle-
cote on the 7th of July 1600. His grandson, Sir Thomas Lucy
(1585-1640), was a friend of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and was
eulogized by John Davies of Hereford in 1610. The Charlecote
estates eventually passed to the Rev. John Hammond through
his marriage with Alice Lucy, and in 1789 he adopted the name
of Lucy.
For a detailed account of Sir Thomas Lucy, with his son and grand-
son of the same name, see Mrs C. Carmichael Slopes, Shakespeare's
Warwickshire Contemporaries (2nd ed., 1907). Cf. also an article by
Mrs Stones in the Fortnightly Review (Feb. 1903), entitled " Sir
Thomas Lucy not the Original of Justice Shallow, and J. O. Halli-
well-Phillipps, Observations on the Charlecote Traditions (Brighton,
1887).
LUDDITES, the name given to organized bands of English
rioters for the destruction of machinery, who made Iheir first
appearance in Nottingham and the neighbouring districts to-
wards the end of 1811. The origin of the name is given
in Pellew's Life of Lord Sidmouth (iii. So). In 1779 there
lived in a village in Leicestershire a person of weak intellect,
called Ned Ludd, who was the butt of the boys of the village.
On one occasion Ludd pursued one of his tormentors into a
house where were two of the frames used in stocking manufac-
ture, and, not being able to catch the boy, vented his anger on
the frames. Afterwards, whenever any frames were broken, it
became a common saying that Ludd had done it. The riots
arose out of the severe distress caused by the war with France.
The leader of the riotous bands took the name of " General
Ludd." The riols were specially direcled againsl machinery
because of the widespread prejudice that its use produced a
scarcity in the demand for labour. Apart from this prejudice,
it was inevitable that the economic and social revolution implied
in the change from manual labour to work by machinery should
give rise to great misery. The riots began with the destruction
of stocking and lace frames, and, continuing through the winter
and the following spring, spread into Yorkshire, Lancashire,
Derbyshire and Leicestershire. They were met by severe
repressive legislation, introduced by Lord Liverpool's govern-
menl, a notable feature in the opposition to which was Lord
Byron's speech in the House of Lords. In 1816 the rioting was
resumed, caused by the depression which followed the peace of
1815 and aggravated by one of the worst of recorded harvests.
In that year, although the centre of the rioting was again in
Nottingham, it extended over almost the whole kingdom. The
rioters were also thoroughly organized. While part of Ihe band
destroyed the machinery, sentinels were posled to give warning
of the approach of the military. Vigorous repressive measures,
and, especially, reviving prosperily, brought the movement
to an end.
See G. Pellew, Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, 1st
Vtscount Sidmouth (London, 1847); Spencer Walpole, History of
England, vol. i. (London, 1890); and the Annual Register for 1811.
1812 and 1816.
LUDENSCHEID, a town in the Prussian province of West-
phalia, 19 m. by rail S.S.E. of Hagen. Pop. (1905) 28,921. It
112
LUDHIANA LUDLOW, E.
is the seat of various hardware manufactures, among them metal-
plated and tin-plated goods, buckles, fancy nails and brooches,
and has iron-foundries and machine shops. From the counts of
Altena Liidenscheid passed to the counts of the Mark, with
which district it was ceded to Brandenburg early in the I7th
century.
LUDHIANA, a town and district of British India, in the
Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is 8 m. from the
present left bank of the Sutlej, 228 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi.
Pop. (1901) 48,649. It is an important centre of trade in grain,
and has manufactures of shawls, &c., by Kashmiri weavers, and
of scarves, turbans, furniture and carriages. There is an American
Presbyterian mission, which maintains a medical school for
Christian women, founded in 1894.
The DISTRICT OF LUDHIANA lies south of the river Sutlej, and
north of the native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler
Kotla. Area 1455 sq. m. The district consists for the most
part of a broad plain, without hills or rivers, stretching north-
ward from the native borders to the ancient bed of the Sutlej.
The soil is a rich clay, broken by large patches of shifting sand.
On the eastern edge, towards Umballa, the clay is covered by
a bed of rich mould, suitable for the cultivation of cotton and
sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand occurs in union with the
superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil, on which cereals
form the most profitable crop. Even here, however, the earth is
so retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped from
fields which appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste.
These southern uplands descend to the valley of the Sutlej by
an abrupt terrace, which marks the former bed of the river.
The principal stream has shifted to the opposite side of the
valley, leaving an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width, between its
ancient and its modern bed. The Sutlej itself is here only
navigable for boats of small burden. A branch of the Sirhind
canal irrigates a large part of the western area. The population
in 1901 was 673,097. The principal crops are wheat, millets,
pulse, maize and sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the main
line of the North-Western railway from Delhi to Lahore, with
two branches.
During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is
bound up with that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted
Rajputs, who received the country as a fief under the Sayyid
dynasty, about 1445. The town of Ludhiana was founded in
1480 by two of the Lodi race (then ruling at Delhi), from whom
it derives its name, and was built in great part from the pre-
historic bricks of Sunet . The Lodis continued in possession until
1620, when it again fell into the hands of the Rais of Raikot.
Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul empire the Raikot
family held sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of the troubled
period which accompanied the Mogul decadence to establish
their supremacy south of the Sutlej. Several of their chieftains
made encroachments on the domains of the Rais, who were only
able to hold their own by the aid of George Thomas, the famous
adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh crossed the Sutlej
and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and distributed
their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the British
occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and
population.
See Ludhiana District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1907).
LUOIN6TON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at. the mouth of the Mar-
quette river, about 85 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900)
7166 (2259 foreign-born); (1904, state census) 7259; (1910) 9132.
It is served by the Pere Marquette, and the Ludington and
Northern railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee and other lake ports. To Manitowoc, Milwaukee,
Kewanee and Two Rivers, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake
Michigan, cars, especially those of the Pere Marquette railway,
are ferried from here. Ludington was formerly well known as a
lumber centre, but this industry has greatly declined. There are
various manufactures, and the city has a large grain trade.
On the site of the city Pere Marquette died and was buried, but
his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace. Luding-
ton was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
It was originally named Pere Marquette, but was renamed in
187'! in honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman.
LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English parliamentarian,
son of Sir Henry Ludlow of Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, whose
family had been established in that county since the isth century,
was born in 1617 or 1618. He went to Trinity College, Oxford,
and was admitted to the Inner Temple in 1 638. When the Great
Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in the life guard
of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester, his next
at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643,
but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the i8th of
March 1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged
as major of Sir A. Hesilrige's regiment of horse. He was present
at the second battle of Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of
Basing House in November, and took part in an expedition to
relieve Taunton in December. In January his regiment was
surprised by Sir M. Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping with
difficulty. In 1646 he was elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of
his father and attached himself to the republican party. He
opposed the negotiations with the king, and was one of the chief
promoters of Pride's Purge in 1648. He was one of the king's
judges, and signed the warrant for his execution. In February
he was elected a member of the council of state. In January
1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as lieutenant-general of horse,
holding also a civil commission. Here he spared neither health
nor money in the public service. Ireton, the deputy of Ireland,
died on the 26th of November 1651 ; Ludlow then held the chief
command, and had practically completed the conquest of the
island when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October
1652. Though disapproving Cromwell's action in dissolving the
Long Parliament, he maintained his employment, but when
Cromwell was declared Protector he declined to acknowledge
his authority. On returning to England in October 1655 he was
arrested, and on refusing to submit to the government was
allowed to retire to Essex. After Oliver Cromwell's death
Ludlow was returned for Hindon in Richard's parliament of
1659, but opposed the continuance of the protectorate. He sat
in the restored Rump, and was a member of its council of state
and of the committee of safety after its second expulsion, and a
commissioner for the nomination of officers in the army. In July
he was sent to Ireland as commander-in-chief. Returning in
October 1659, he endeavoured to support the failing republican
cause by reconciling the army to the parliament. In December
he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in favour
of the Long Parh'ament, but on arrival found himself almost
without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660,
and was met by an impeachment presented against him to
the restored parliament. His influence and authority had now
disappeared, and all chance of regaining them vanished with
Lambert's failure. He took his seat in the Convention parlia-
ment as member for Hindon, but his election was annulled on the
i8th of May. Ludlow was not excepted from the Act of In-
demnity, but was included among the fifty-two for whom punish-
ment less than capital was reserved. Accordingly, on the
proclamation of the king ordering the regicides to come in,
Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the 2oth of June
surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was not
assured, he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva
and Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection
of the canton of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots
to assassinate him he was unmolested by the government of
that canton, which had also extended its protection to other
regicides. He steadily refused during thirty years of exile to
have anything to do with the desperate enterprises of republican
plotters. But in 1689 he returned to England, hoping to be
employed in Irish affairs. He was however remembered only
as a regicide, and an address from the House of Commons was
presented to William III. by Sir Edward Seymour, requesting
the king to issue a proclamation for his arrest. Ludlow escaped
again, and returned to Vevey, where he died in 1692. A monu-
ment raised to his memory by his widow is in the church of
LUDLOW LUDOLF
St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived was
placed the inscription " Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris."
Ludlow married Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of
Wenvoe, Glamorganshire, but left no issue.
His Memoirs, extending to the year 1672, were published in 1698-
1699 at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new edition, with
notes and illustrative material and introductory memoir, was issued
by C. H. Firth in 1894. They are strongly partisan, but the picture
of the times is lifelike and realistic. Ludlow also published " a
letter from Sir Hardress Waller ... to Lieutenant-General Ludlow
with his answer " (1660), in defence of his conduct in Ireland. See
C. H. Firth's article in Diet. Nat. Biog.; Guizot's Monk's Contempo-
raries; A. Stein's Brief e Englischer Fliichtlinge in der Schweiz.
LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-
Shrewsbury joint line of the Great Western and London &
North Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W. from London. Pop.
(1901) 4552. It is beautifully situated at the junction of the
rivers Teme and Corve, upon and about a wooded eminence
crowned by a massive ruined castle. Parts of this castle date
from the nth century, but there are many additions such as
the late Norman circular chapel, the Decorated state rooms,
and details in Perpendicular and Tudor styles. The parish
church of St Lawrence is a cruciform Perpendicular building,
with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy east window,
its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St Lawrence.
There are many fine half-timbered houses of the i;th century,
and one of seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school,
founded in the reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I.
The principal public buildings are the guildhall, town-hall
and market-house, and public rooms, which include a museum
of natural history. Tanning and flour-milling are carried on.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area 416 acres.
The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly,
while the scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal
Hill reaches 1235 ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.).
Richard's Castle, 3 m. S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates
from the reign of Edward the Confessor, but little more than
its great artificial mound remains. At Bromfield, 3 m. above
Ludlow on the Teme, the church and some remains of domestic
buildings belonged to a Benedictine monastery of the izth
century.
Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan
in the time of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire
identifies it with one of the " Ludes " mentioned in the Domesday
Survey, which was held by Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard
and supposes that Roger built the castle soon after 1086, while
a chronicle of the FitzWarren family attributes the castle to
Roger earl of Shrewsbury. The manor afterwards belonged to
the Lacys, and in the beginning of the I4th century passed by
marriage to Roger de Mortimer and through him to Edward IV.
Ludlow was a borough by prescription in the I3th century,
but the burgesses owe most of their privileges to their allegiance
to the house of York. Richard, duke of York, in 1450 confirmed
their government by 1 2 burgesses and 24 assistants, and Edward
IV. on his accession incorporated them under the title of bailiffs
and burgesses, granted them the town at a fee-farm of 24, 35. 4d.,
a merchant gild and freedom from toll. Several confirmations
of this charter were granted; the last, dated 1665, continued
in force (with a short interval in the reign of James II.) until
the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter of
Edward IV. Ludlow returned 2 members to parliament, but in
1867 the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town
was disfranchised. The market rights are claimed by the cor-
poration under the charters of Edward IV. (1461) and Edward
VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was established at Ludlow
in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be held here until
it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow castle
was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry
VII. to Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton's
Comus was performed in the castle under its original style of
" A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle," before the earl of
Bridgewater, Lord President of Wales. The castle was garrisoned
in 1642 by Prince Rupert, who went there after the battle
of Naseby, but in 1646 it surrendered to Parliament and was
afterwards dismantled.
See Victoria County History, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, The
History of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood (1826).
LUDLOW GROUP, or LUDLOVTAN, in geology, the uppermost
subdivision of the Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group
contains the following formations in descending order:
Tilestones, Downton Castle sandstones (90 ft.), Ledbury shales
(270 ft.), Upper Ludlow rocks (140 ft.), Aymestry limestone
(up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow rocks (350 to 780 ft.). The Ludlow
group is essentially shaly in character, except towards the top,
where the beds become more sandy and pass gradually into the
base of the Old Red Sandstone. The Aymestry limestone,
which is irregular in thickness, is sometimes absent, and where
the underlying Wenlock limestones are absent the shales of the
Ludlow group graduate downwards into the Wenlock shales.
The group is typically developed between Ludlow and Aymestry,
and it occurs also in the detached Silurian areas between Dudley
and the mouth of the Severn.
The Lower Ludlow rocks are mainly grey, greenish and brown
mudstones and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an
abundance of fossils. The series has been zoned by means of the
graptolites by E. M. R. Wood; the following in ascending order,
are the zonal forms : Monograptus vulgaris, M. Nilssoni. M. scanicus,
M. tumescens and M. leintwardinensis. Cyathaspis ludensis, the
earliest British vertebrate fossil, was found in these rocks at Leint-
wardine in Shropshire, a noted fossil locality. Trilobites are numerous
(Phacops caudatus, Lichas anglicus, Homolonotus delphinocephalus,
Calymene Blumenbachii) ; brachiopods (Leptaena rhomboidalis,
Rhynchonella Wilsoni, Atrypa reticularis) , pelecypods (Cardiola
interrupta, Ctenodonta sulcata) and gasteropods and cephalopods
(many species of Orthoceras and also Gomphoceras, Trochoceras) are
well represented. Other fossils are Ceratiocaris , Pterygotus, Protaster,
Palaeocoma and Palaeodiscus.
The Upper Ludlow rocks are mainly soft mudstones and shales with
some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as building-stones.
These sandy beds are often found covered with ripple-marks and
annelid tracks; one of the uppermost sandy layers is known as the
" Fucoid bed " from the abundance of the seaweed-like impressions
it bears. At the top of this sub-group, near Ludlow, a brown layer
occurs, from a quarter of an inch to 4 in. in thickness, full of the frag-
mentary remains of fish associated with those of Pterygotus and mol-
lusca. This layer, known as the " Ludlow Bone bed," has been
traced over a very large area (see BONE BED). The common fossils
include plants (Actinophyllum, Chondrites), ostracods, phyllocarids,
eurypterids, trilobites (less common than in the older groups),
numerous brachiopods (Lingula minima, Chonetes striatella), gastero-
pods, pelecypods and cephalopods (Orthoceras bullatum). Fish
include Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Auchenaspis. The Tilestones,
Downton Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales are occasionally
grouped together under the term Downtonian. They are in reality
passage beds between the Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, and were
originally placed in the latter system by Sir R. I. Murchison. They
are mostly grey, yellow or red micaceous, shaly sandstones. Lingula
cornea, Platyschisma helicites and numerous phyllocarids and ostra-
cods occur among the fossils.
In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the
Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from
below upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the Mono-
graptus leintwardinensis beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In the
Silurian area of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming the upper
part of the Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the Lower Ludlow;
they are succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000 ft.), the Bannisdale
Slates (5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags (2000 ft.).
In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks are
represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district by the
Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In the northern
belt Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills the lower portion (or
Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and greywackes;
but the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up principally of thick
red and yellow sandstones and conglomerates with green mudstones.
The Ludlow rocks of Ireland include the " Salrock beds " of County
Galway and the " Croagmarhin beds " of Dingle promontory.
See SILURIAN, and, for recent papers, the Q.J. Geol. Soc. (London)
and Geological Literature (Geol. Soc., London) annual.
LUDOLF (or LEUTHOLF), HIOB (1624-1704), German orienta-
list, was born at Erfurt on the isth of June 1624. After
studying philology at the Erfurt academy and at Leiden, he
travelled in order to increase his linguistic knowledge. While
in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an Abyssinian
LUDWIG, K. F. W. LUDWIGSBURG
scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the
Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke
of Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired
to Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote
a cherished scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but
his efforts were unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the
authorities of the Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort
in 1684, he gave himself wholly to literary work, which he con-
tinued almost to his death on the 8th of April 1704. In 1690
he was appointed president of the collegium imperiale historicum.
The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with
twenty-five languages, include Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae
(Jena, 1676); and the Historic, aethiopica (Frankfort, 1681), which
has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was
supplemented by a Commentarius .(1691) and by Appendices (1693-
1694). Among his other works are: Grammatica linguae amharicae
(Frankfort, 1698); Lexicon amharico-latinum (Frankfort, 1698);
Lexicon aethiopico-latinum (Frankfort, 1699) ; and Grammatica
aethiopica (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his Grammalik
der athiopischen Sprache (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on
the story of Ludolf's intimacy with Gregorius.
See C. Juncker, Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi
(Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, Geschichte des alien Testaments in der
christtichen Kirche (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, " Hiob Ludolf,"
in the Beitrage zur Assyriologie (Leipzig, 18901891).
LUDWI6, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895),
German physiologist, was born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on
the 2gth of December 1816. He studied medicine at Erlangen
and Marburg, taking his doctor's degree at Marburg in 1839.
He made Marburg his home for the next ten years, studying
and teaching anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to
F. L. Fick (1841), then as privat-doccnt (1842), and finally as
extraordinary professor (1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor
of anatomy and physiology at Zurich, and six years afterwards
he went to Vienna as professor in the Josephinum (school for
military surgeons). In 1865 he was appointed to the newly
created chair of physiology at Leipzig, and continued there
until his death on the 23rd of April 1895. Ludwig's name is
prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a large share
in bringing about the change in the method of that science
which took place about the middle of the igth century. With his
friends H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Briicke and E. Du Bois-
Reymond, whom he met tor the first time in Berlin in 1847,
he rejected the assumption that the phenomena of living animals
depend on special biological laws and vital forces different from
those which operate in the domain of inorganic nature; and he
sought to explain them by reference to the same laws as are
applicable in the case of physical and chemical phenomena.
This point of view was expressed in his celebrated Text-book
of Human Physiology (1852-1856), but it is as evident in his
earliest paper (1842) on the process of urinary secretion as in
all his subsequent work/ Ludwig exercised enormous influence
on the progress of physiology, not only by the discoveries he
made, but also by the new methods and apparatus he introduced
to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he showed that
secretory glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than mere
filters, and that their secretory action is attended by chemical
and thermal changes both in themselves and in the blood passing
through them. He demonstrated the existence of a new class
of secretory nerves that control this action, and by showing
that if the nerves are appropriately stimulated the salivary glands
continue to secrete, even though the animal be decapitated, he
initiated the method of experimenting with excised organs.
He devised the kymograph as a means of obtaining a written
record of the variations in the pressure of the blood in the blood-
vessels; and this apparatus not only conducted him to many
important conclusions respecting the mechanics of the circulation,
but afforded the first instance of the use of the graphic method
in physiological inquiries. For the purpose of his researches
on the gases in the blood, he designed the mercurial blood-pump
which in various modifications has come into extensive use,
and by its aid he made many investigations on the gases of the
lymph, the gaseous interchanges in living muscle, the significance
of oxidized material in the blood, &c. There is indeed scarcely
any branch of physiology, except the physiology of the senses,
to which he did not make important contributions. He was also
a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under
him the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized
centre of physiological research, whence issued a steady stream
of original work; and though the papers containing the results
usually bore the name of his pupils only, every investigation
was inspired by him and carried out under his personal direction.
Thus his pupils gained a practical acquaintance with his methods
and ways of thought, and, coming from all parts of Europe,
they returned to their own countries to spread and extend his
doctrines. Possessed himself of extraordinary manipulative
skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy work, and he insisted that
experiments on animals should be planned and prepared with
the utmost care, not only to avoid the infliction of pain (which
was also guarded against by the use of an anaesthetic), but to
ensure that the deductions drawn from them should have their
full scientific value.
LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist
and critic, was born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the nth of
February 1813. His father, who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when
the boy was twelve years old, and he was brought up amidst
uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his leisure to poetry
and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile career planned
for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was directed
to one of his musical compositions, an opera, Die KMerin, and
Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under
Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional
shyness caused him to give up a musical career, and he turned
exclusively to literary studies, and wrote several stories and
dramas. Of the latter, Der Erbforster (1850) attracted immediatf
attention as a masterly psychological study. It was followed
by Die Makkabaer (1852), in which the realistic method of
Der Erbforster was transferred to an historical milieu, which
allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer play of the imagina-
tion. With these tragedies, to which may be added Die Rechte
des Herzens and Das Friiulein von Scuderi, the comedy Hans
Frey, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes
Bernauer, Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany's
most notable dramatic poet at the middle of the igth century.
Meanwhile he had married and settled permanently in Dresden,
where he turned his attention to fiction. He published a
series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, characterized by
the same attention to minute detail and careful psychological
analysis as his dramas. The best of these are Die Heiteretei
und ihr Widerspiel (1851), and Ludwig's masterpiece, the power-
ful novel, Zwischen Himmel und Erde (1855) . In his Shakespeare-
Studien (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a dis-
criminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of
the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm
for Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way
which found little favour among his countrymen. He died at
Dresden on the 25th of February 1865.
Ludwig's Gesammelte Schriften were published by A. Stern and
E. Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892) ; also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900).
See A. Stern, Otto Ludwig, ein Dicnierleben (1891; 2nd ed., 1906),
and A. Sauer, Otto Ludwig (1893).
LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,
9 m. to the N. of Stuttgart by rail and ij m. from the river
Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093. It was founded and laid out at
the beginning of the i8th century by the duke of Wurttemberg,
Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by Duke
Charles Eugene. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town
bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious
squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military
depot in Wurttemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in
Germany, stands in a beautiful park and contains a portrait
gallery and the burial vault of the rulers of Wurttemberg. The
industries include the manufacture of organs and pianos, of cotton,
woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, iron and wire goods, and
brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is the beautiful
royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the park
of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to
LUDWIGSHAFEN LUGARD
1824 the town was famous for the production of a special kind
of porcelain.
See Belschner, Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderlen (Ludwigsburg,
1904).
LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian
Palatinate, on the left bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite
to Mannheim, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and
a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, (1900) 61,905, (1905)
72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, timber, coal and
agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a harbour
opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes
and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose,
artificial manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron
foundries and breweries in the town. The place, which was
founded in 1843 by Louis I., king of Bavaria, was only made a
town in 1859.
See J. E,ssc\born,Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen (Ludwigshafen,
1888).
LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin.
Pop. (1905) 6728. The castle was built by the duke of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There 'is
also another ducal residence, a fine park and a monument of
the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. 1837). The town has
a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. It has
manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigs-
lust was founded by the duke Frederick, being named
after this duke's father, Christian Louis II. It became a town
in 1876.
LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now
mainly used colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin ;
the Swedish lugg, forelock, lock of hair, gives lugga, to pull,
tug; and " lug " in some north-eastern English dialects is still
chiefly used in the sense of pulling a person's hair. " Luggage,"
passengers' baggage, means by origin that which has to be
" lugged " about. The Scandinavian word may be also the
source of " lug," in the sense of " ear," in Scotland the regular
dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-
shaped handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If
so the word means something that can be pulled or tugged. This
is also possibly the origin of the " lug " or " lug-sail," a four-
sided sail attached to a yard which is hung obliquely to the mast,
whence probably the name " lugger " of a sailing-vessel with
two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The word may,
however, be connected with the Dutch logger, a fishing-boat
using drag-nets. " Lug " is also the name of a marine worm,
Arenicola marina, used as bait.
LUGANO (Ger. Lauis), the most populous and most thriving
town in the Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.)
on the northern shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394,
almost all Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it
is dominated by the Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the
S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte Generoso (5591 ft.) a
magnificent view point. Both mountains are accessible by
railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 515 m.
from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line,
Lugano is now easily reached, so that it is much frequented
by visitors (largely German) in spring and in autumn. Though
politically Swiss since 1512, Lugano is thoroughly Italian in
appearance and character. Of recent years many improvements
have been made in the town, which has two important suburbs
Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The railway
station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the
fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue
of William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891),
a native of the town, while other works by him are in the gardens
of private villas in the neighbourhood. The principal church,
San Lorenzo, in part dates back earlier than the 15th century,
while its richly sculptured facade bears the figures 1517. This
church is now the cathedral church of the bishop of Lugano,
a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian parts
of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built
about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains
several very fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-
1 530 by Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures
has been built on the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como.
During the struggle of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from
Lombardy, Lugano served as headquarters for Mazzini and his
followers. Books and tracts intended for distribution in Italy
were produced there and at Capolago (9 m. distant, at the S.E.
end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian police to prevent
their circulation were completely powerless. (W. A. B. C.)
LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO), one of the smaller
lakes in Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.)
and the Lake of Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the
great promontory of Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting
off the western arm from the main lake. The whole lake has an
area of 19^ sq. m., its greatest length is about 22 m., its greatest
width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft., while its surface is
899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the town of
Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow
that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard
railway line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano
(at its northern end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from
BeUinzona and 9 m. from Capolago, the station at the south-
eastern extremity of the lake, which is but 8 m. by rail from
Como. At the south-western extremity a railway leads S.W.
from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the east end
of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como,
while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same
distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore.
Of the total area of the lake, about 75 sq. m. are in the Swiss
Canton of Ticino (Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests
made by the Swiss from the Milanese in 1512. The remainder
of the area is in Italy. The lake lies among the outer spurs
of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin from that of
the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed by
the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not
connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous
torrents issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains,
while it is drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing
into Lago Maggiore. The first steamer was placed on the lake
in 1856. (W. A. B. C.)
LUGANSK (also LUGAN and LUGANSKIY ZAv5o), a town of
southern Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop.
(1900) 34,175. It has a technical railway school and a meteoro-
logical observatory, stands on the small river Lugan, 10 m. from
its confluence with the northern Donets, in the Lugan mining
district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has prospered
greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the coal-
mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche,
occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river.
Although it is mentioned in the i6th century, and coal was dis-
covered there at the time of Peter the Great, it was not until
1795 that an Englishman, Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established
its first iron-works for supplying the Black Sea fleet and the
southern fortresses with guns and shot. This proved a failure,
owing to the great distance from the sea; but during the Crimean
War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and gun-
carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines,
and machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have
been the chief manufactures. There is an active trade in
cattle, tallow, wools, skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured
wares.
LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY (1858- ),
British soldier, African explorer and administrator, son of the
Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on the 22nd of January 1858. He
entered the army in 1878, joining the Norfolk regiment. He served
in the Afghan War of 1870-80, in the Sudan campaign of 1884-85,
and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on temporary
half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the
British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders
on Lake Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland
in April 1889, and in the same year was engaged by the Imperial
n6
LUGO LUGUDUNUM
British East Africa Company. In their service he explored the
Sabaki river and the neighbouring region, and elaborated a scheme
for the emancipation of the slaves held by the Arabs in the
Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the company to
Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end
to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting,
chiefly notable for an unprovoked attack by the " French "
on the " British " faction. While administering Uganda he
journeyed round Ruwenzori to Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping
a large area of the country. He also visited Albert Nyanza, and
brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left
there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard
returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandon-
ment of Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated
by the fourth Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was
despatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu, where,
distancing his French and German rivals in a country up to then
unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties with the kings
and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British company.
In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami
on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From
Ngami he was recalled by the British government and sent to
West Africa, where he was commissioned to raise a native
force to protect British interests in the hinterland of Lagos and
Nigeria against French aggression. In August 1897 he raised the
West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until the end
of December 1899. The differences with France were then com-
posed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its
charter, Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern
Nigeria. The part of Northern Nigeria under effective control
was small, and Lugard's task in organizing this vast territory
was rendered more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto
and many other Fula princes to fulfil their treaty obligations.
In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir of Kano and the
sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British control over
the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906
he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being
peacefully administered under the supervision of British residents
(see NIGERIA). In April 1907 he was appointed governor of
Hong-Kong. Lugard was created a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G.
in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and held the local rank
of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora Louise Shaw
(daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for
some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects
for The Times. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published
in 1893 The Rise of our East African Empire (partly auto-bio-
graphical), and was the author of various valuable reports
on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. Throughout
his African administrations Lugard sought strenuously to secure
the amelioration of the condition of the native races, among
other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic
liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.
LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in
1833 of districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and
bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by
Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and Corunna. Pop. (1900)
465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends for about
40 m. from the estuary of Rivadeo to Cape de Vares, is extremely
rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those of
Rivadeo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especi-
ally in the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the
Cantabrian chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates
it from Leon attains in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part
of the area is drained by the Mino. This river, formed by the
meeting of many smaller streams in the northern half of the
province, follows a southerly direction until joined by the Sil,
which for a considerable distance forms the southern boundary.
Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most important
are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the
Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces;
the Masma, the Oro and the Landrove.
Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn
but fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however,
is on the Mino and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and
a little silk are produced. Agriculture is in a very backward
condition, mainly owing to the extreme division of land that
prevails throughout Galicia. The exportation of cattle to Great
Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, was ruined by American
and Australian competition. Iron is found at Caurel and Incio,
arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous lead at
Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic
are exported from Rivadeo, frequent strikes and lack of transport
greatly impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of
the 2oth century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and
various kinds of slate and building-stone. The only important
manufacturing industries are those connected with leather,
preserves, coarse woollen and linen stuffs, timber and osier work.
About 250 coasting vessels are registered at the ports, and about
as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, which brings in
lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being salted
and tinned for export. The means of communication are
insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads,
and the railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna
run through the province.
Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of
Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondonedo (10,590),
Monforte (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Viyero
(12,843) are described in separate articles. The province contained
in 1900 twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the
largest being Sarria (11,998) and Savinao (11,182). For a general
description of the people and the history of this region see GALICIA.
LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on
the left bank of the river Mino and on the railway from Corunna
to Madrid. Pop. (1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was
formerly the capital of Gah'cia. Suburbs have grown up round
the original town, the form of which, nearly quadrangular, is
defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 ft. high and 20 ft.
thick, with projecting semicircular towers which numbered 85
as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were destroyed
by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The
Gothic cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the
1 2th century, but was modernized in the 1 8th, and possesses
no special architectural merit. The conventual church of Santo
Domingo dates from the i4th century. The principal industries
are tanning, and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth.
About i m. S., on the left bank of the Mino, are the famous hot
sulphur baths of Lugo.
Lugo (Lucus Augusti) was a flourishing city under Roman rule
(c. 19 B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a
comientus juridicus (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then
well known. It was sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th
century, and suffered greatly in the Moorish wars of the 8th
century. The bishopric dates from a very early period, and it
it said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the
6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago
de Compostela.
LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krasso-Szoreny, Hungary,
225 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is
situated on both banks of the river Temes, which divides the
town in two quarters, the Rumanian on the right and the German
on the left bank. It is the seat of a Greek-United (Rumanian)
bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in wine, and has several
important fairs, while the surrounding country, which is moun-
tainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of grapes
and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of
greater relative importance than at present. It was the last
seat of the Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849),
and the last resort of Kossuth and several other leaders of the
national cause, previous to their escape to Turkey.
LUGUOUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort
or hill of the god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several
towns in ancient Gaul. The most important was the town at
the confluence of the Sa6ne and Rhone now called Lyons (?..).
This place had in Roman times two elements. One was a Roman
colonia (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) situated
LUINI LUKE
117
on the hill near the present Fourvieres (Forum velus). The other,
territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the
Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the
64 Gallic cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania,
Lugudunensis and Belgica the so-called Tres Galliae sent
delegates every summer to hold games and otherwise celebrate
the worship of the emperor which was supposed to knit the
provincials to Rome. The two elements together composed the
most important town of western Europe in Roman times.
Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which
passed from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa;
it had a mint; it was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its
position in the south, and its wealth was such that, when Rome
was burnt in Nero's reign, its inhabitants subscribed largely to
the relief of the Eternal City. (F. J. H.)
LUINI, BERNARDINO (?i 4 6s-?iS4o), the most celebrated
master of the Lombard school of painting founded upon the
style of Leonardo da Vinci, was born at Luino, a village on Lago
Maggiore. He wrote his name as " Bernardin Lovino," but the
spelling " Luini " is now generally adopted. Few facts are known
regarding his life, and imtil a comparatively recent date many
even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of attribu-
tion, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini
studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under
Stephano Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure
of Da Vinci in 1500, or shortly before that event; it is thus
uncertain whether or not the two artists had any personal
acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in the painting-school
established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the later
works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is
superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from
the style of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever
visited Rome. His two sons are the only pupils who have with
confidence been assigned to him; and even this can scarcely be
true of the younger, who was born in 1530, when Bernardino,
was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has also been
termed his disciple. One of the sons, E\ angelista, has left little
which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accom-
plished in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a
brother of Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter.
Bernardino, who hardly ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a
poet, and is said to have composed a treatise on painting. The
precise date of his death is unknown; he may perhaps have
survived till about 1540. A serene, contented and happy mind,
naturally expressing itself in forms of grace and beauty, seems
stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same character is
traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his fresco of
" Christ crowned with Thorns " in the Ambrosian library in Milan
a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has
been preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the
single figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a
sum equal to 22 francs per day, along with wine, bread and
lodging; and he was so well satisfied with this remuneration that,
in completing the commission, he painted a Nativity for nothing.
A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of
Luini's works. They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty
which depends at least as much upon the loving self-withdrawn
expression as upon the mere refinement and attractiveness of
form. This quality of expression appears in all Luini's produc-
tions, whether secular or sacred, and imbues the latter with
a peculiarly religious grace not ecclesiastical unction, but the
devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely like those
painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and less
variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began
indeed with a somewhat dry style, as in the " Pieta " in the
church of the Passione; but this soon developed into the quality
which distinguishes all his most renowned works; although his
execution, especially as regards modelling, was never absolutely
equal to that of Leonardo. Luini's paintings do not exhibit an
impetuous style of execution, and certainly not a negligent one;
yet it appears that he was in fact a very rapid worker, as his
picture of the " Crowning with Thorns," painted for the College
del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, is
recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which
an assistant added eleven. His method was simple and ex-
peditious, the shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on
thick, while the lights are of the same colour thinly used, and
mixed with a little white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom
of hand than the oil pictures; and they are on the whole less like
the work of Da Vinci, having at an early date a certain resem-
blance to the style of Mantegna, as later on to that of Raphael.
Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and shade forcible.
Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned.
At Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life
of the Madonna her " Marriage," the " Presentation of the Infant
Saviour in the Temple," the " Adoration of the Magi " and other
incidents. His own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful
" Jesus with the Doctors in the Temple." This series in which some
comparatively archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses was
partly repeated from one which Luini had executed towards 1520
in S. Croce. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the
suppressed church of La Pace and the Convent della Felucca the
former treating subjects from the life of the Virgin, the latter, of
a classic kind, more decorative in manner. The subject of girls
playing at the game of " hot-cockles," and that of three angels
depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are particularly memorable,
each of them a work of perfect charm and grace in its way. In the
Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovias Metamorphoses. The
Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S. Maurizio) is a noble
treasure-house of Luini's art including a large Crucifixion, with
about one hundred and forty figures; " Christ bound to the
Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and
the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyr-
dom of this saint; the " Entombment of Christ," and a large
number of other subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco
(already mentioned), covering one entire wall of the Sala della S.
Corona, of " Christ crowned with Thorns," with two executioners,
and on each side six members of a confraternity ; in the same building
the "Infant Baptist playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the
" Virgin Enthroned, with Saints " (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the
" Daughter of Herodias receiving the Head of the Baptist "; in the
Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna, the " Virgin between Saints Catherine
and Barbara "; in the National Gallery, London, " Christ disputing
with the Doctors " (or rather, perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or
most of these gallery pictures used to pass for the handiwork of Da
Vinci. The same is the case with the highly celebrated " Vanity and
Modesty " in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, which also may nevertheless
in all probability be assigned to Luini. Another singularly beautiful
picture by him is in the Royal Palace in Milan a large composition
of " Women Bathing." That Luini was also pre-eminent as a decora-
tive artist is shown by his works in the Certosa of Pavia.
A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in
1900. (W. M. R.)
LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the
Book of Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the
New Testament. He alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin
(Col. iv. ii, 14), a fact of great interest in relation to his writings.
His name, a more familiar form of Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus,
Acts xvii. 4, i Thess. i. i, and see Encycl. Bibl. s.v., for instances
of Aouxas on Egyptian inscriptions), taken together with his
profession of physician (Col. iv. 14), suggests that he was son of
a Greek freedman possibly connected with Lucania in south
Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all
physicians in Rome (Sueton. Jul. 42), Luke may even have
inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man
would have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the
works attributed to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's
when in Rome (Philemon 24), where he seems to have remained
in constant attendance on his leader, as physician as well as
attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. n). That Luke, before
he became a Christian, was an adherent of the synagogue
not a full proselyte, but one of those " worshippers " of God to
whom Acts makes frequent reference is fairly certain from the
familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from
its sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from
specific Paulinism, of which there is but little trace.
The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the
Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in
MSS. of both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and
Acts, and says that Paul took him for his companion quasi ut
juris studiosum (" as being a student of law "). Here juris is
almost certainly corrupt; and whether we take the sense to have
n8
LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST
been " as being devoted to travel " (ut juris = itineris) or " as
skilled in disease " (voaov passing into vbfj.ov in the Greek
original), it is probably a mere inference from biblical data.
Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria (cf.
HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge,
we have the belief to which Origen (Horn. i. in Lucam) witnesses
as existing in his day, that Luke was the " brother " of 2 Cor. viii.
18, " whose praise in the Gospel " (as preached) was " throughout
all the churches." Though the basis of the identification be a
mistake, yet that this " brother," " who was also appointed by
the churches (note the generality of this) to travel with us in the
matter of the charity," was none other than Paul's constant
companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he seems to have been
almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. ix. 2-4)
of Paul's circle available 1 at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our
next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in
Greek, now known only in Latin, see Nov. Test. Latine (Oxford),
I. iii., II. i.), perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating
that Luke died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is
hard to see why this should be fiction, which usually took the
form of martyrdom, as in a later tradition touching his end.
The same prologue, and indeed all early tradition, connects him
originally with Antioch (see Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii. 4, 6, possibly
after Julius Africanus in the first half of the 3rd century).
That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the
statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal
evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in
Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether
any of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff.,
xiu. i ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used
by him (cf. A. Harnack, The Acts of the Apostles, 245 ff.) or not,
tl.is knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that
church. He shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have
stood in any such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name
" Christians " was first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in
early Church life there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, " when
we were assembled," may imply memory of this.
But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started
with him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly
at least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that
he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of
the Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's
original home was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the
" certain Macedonian " seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting
help for his countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the
view that, because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then re-
emerges in xx. 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval.
The use and disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and
his party, has probably a more subtle and psychological 1 meaning
(see ACTS). The local connexion in question may have been subse-
quent to that with Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the
province of Asia, and being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This
accords at once with Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts
in Asia 3 (Luke the Physician, p. 149 ffT), and with the early tradition,
above cited, that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four,
without ever having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic
feeling current already in the 2nd century).
The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference
or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius
Dial, de recta, fide, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus Lector,
6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. But
a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his writings
as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from which
came " the most beautiful book " ever written, as Renan styled
his Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us especially
in the section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51 xviii. 14) reflects
his own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows.
His was indeed a religio medici in its pity for frail and suffering
humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine
" healing art " upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, The
Acts, Excursus, iii.). His was also a humane 4 spirit, a spirit so
1 Tychicus may be the other " brother," in viii. 22.
1 So also A. Hilgenfeld, Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft (1907), p. 214,
argues that " we marks the author's wish to give his narrative
more vividness at great turning-points of the story the passage
from Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn
progress of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards
Rome, xxvii. i ff .
* Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia
and Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.).
4 Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and
" the gentle doctrine of humanity " on Hellenic soil, as embodied
in his description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (Oxford and
Cambridge Review, i. 101 ff.).
tender that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself
into the soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united
with a feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis
of Assisi. Luke, " the physician, the beloved physician," that was
Paul's characterization of him; and it is the impression which his
writings have left on humanity. How great his contribution to
Christianity has been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the
historical Jesus and of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest
followers, who can measure? Harnack even maintains (The Acts,
p. 301) that his story of the Apostolic age was the indispensable
condition for the incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's
canon of New Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of
the Gospel, viz. a Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight
infusion of Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind,
proved more easy of assimilation, and so more directly influential
for the ancient Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib.
281 ff.; cf. Luke the Physician, pp. 139-145).
LITERATURE. Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's
on Luke's Gospel in the" Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's^4c<io/
Ike Apostles (" Oxford Comm."); the article " Luke " in Hastings's
Diet, of the Bible and Diet, of Christ and the Gospels, the Encycl.
Biblica and Hauck's Realencyklopddie, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's
Paul the Traveller and Pauline and other Studies, and A. Harnack's
Lukas der Arzt (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and Die Apostelgeschichte
(1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities
quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.)
LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST, the third of the four canonical
Gospels of the Christian Church.
i. Authorship and Date. The earliest indication which we
possess of the belief that the author was Luke, the companion
of the Apostle Paul (Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. u),
is found in Justin Martyr, who, in his Dialogue with Trypho
(c. 103), when making a statement found only in our Luke, instead
of referring for it simply to the " Apostolic Memoirs," his
usual formula, says that it is contained in the memoirs composed
by " the Apostles and those that followed them." But the first
distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that by
Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (Adv.
Haer. III. i. 2, c. A.D. 180).
This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first
comes clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part
of the 2nd century, because the prominence and fame of Luke
were not such as would of themselves have led to his being singled
out to have a Gospel attributed to him. The question of the
authorship cannot, however, be decided without considering the
internal evidence, the interpretation of which in the case of the
Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing attributed to Luke)
is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally admitted that
the same person is the author of both works in their present
form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them
(Acts i. i); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout,
though in some parts much more strongly than in others, by
stylistic characteristics which we may conveniently call " Lucan "
without making a premature assumption as to the authorship.
The writer is more versed than any other New Testament writer
except the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and very much
more than most of them, in the literary Greek of the period of
the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other writers,
his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The
variations in the degree to which these appear in different
passages are in the main to be accounted for by his having before
him in many cases documents or oral reports, which he repro-
duces with only slight alterations in the language, while at other
times he is writing freely.
We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts
(xvi. 9-17, 'xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. i-xxviii. 16) in which
the first person plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted
that in these sections we have the genuine account of one who
was a member of Paul's company, who may well have been Luke.
But it has been and is still held by many critics that the author
of Acts is a different person, and that as in the Third Gospel he has
used documents for the Life of Christ, and perhaps also in the
earlier half of the Acts for the history of the beginnings of the
Christian Church, so in the " we " sections, and possibly in some
other portions of this narrative of Paul's missionary life, he has
used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the Apostle
LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST
on some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, com-
panion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is
supposed to follow both from its theological temper and from
discrepancies between its statements and those of the Pauline
Epistles on matters of fact.
A careful examination, however, of the " we " sections shows
that words and expressions characteristic of the author of the
third Gospel and the Acts are found in them to an extent which
is very remarkable, and that in many instances they belong to
the very texture of the passages. This linguistic evidence, which
is of quite unusual force, has never yet been fairly faced by those
who deny Luke's authorship of Acts. Moreover, the difficulties
in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an
earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not
seem to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to
explain some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul's
Epistles on this assumption than on that of authorship by a
writer who would have felt more dependent upon the information
which might be gathered from those Epistles, and who would have
been more likely to have had a collection of them at hand, if his
work was composed c. A.D. 100, as is commonly assumed by
critics who reject the authorship by Luke.
There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that
Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our
third Gospel and the Acts. Another argument in support of this
belief, upon which much reliance has been placed, is found in the
descriptions of diseases, and the words common in Greek medical
writers, contained in these two works. These, it is said, point to
the author's having been a physician, as Luke (Col. iv. 14) was
(see esp. Hobart, The Medical Language of St Luke, 1882). The
instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very distinctive.
Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based on
a comparison of the " we " sections of the Acts, with the re-
mainder of the two books.
If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person
plural in Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they
can hardly have been composed later than A.D. 96; he would
then have been about 65 years old, even if he was a very young
man when he first joined the Apostle. An earlier date than
A.D. 96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his writings show
acquaintance with the Antiquities of the Jewish People by
Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to
be wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in
2nd ed. of Smith's Diet, of Bible, p. 39) and it is not easy to see
why he should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand,
a comparison of Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to
show that in using his document Luke here mingled with the
prophecy the interpretation which events had suggested and
that the siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and dispersion of its in-
habitants had already taken place some little time before. Circa
A.D. 80 may with probability be given as the time of the com-
position of his Gospel.
2. Contents, Sources and Arrangement. In the preface to his
Gospel, i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which pre-
ceded his own. He does not say whether he made any use of them ,
but he seems to imply that his own was more complete. And this
was true in regard to the two which, from a comparison of his
Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know that he did use.
These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. Luke
also claims that he has written " in order." The instances in
which he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in
which he has introduced his additional matter into the Marcan
outline, do not suggest the idea that he had any independent
knowledge of an exact kind of the chronological sequence of
events. By the phrase " in order " he may himself have intended
chiefly to contrast the orderliness and consecutiveness of his
account with the necessarily fragmentary character of the cate-
chetical instruction which Theophilus had received. He may,
also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative of
the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the
history at what he considered to be its true point of departure;
to this he'plainly alludes when he says that he has " traced the
119
course of all things accurately from the first." He may, also,
in part be thinking of those indications which he and he alone
among the evangelists has given of the points in the course of
secular history at which Jesus was born and the Baptist began to
preach (ii. 1-3, iii. i, 2), though it may be doubted whether
these are in all respects accurate.
Chap. i. 5-11. 52. The Birth and Infancy of John and of Jesus.
This portion of the Gospel differs in style and character from all the
remainder. Its source may be an Aramaic or a Hebrew document.
Some critics, however, hold that it is wholly Luke's own composition,
and that the Hebraic style^-in which he was able to write in conse-
quence of his familiarity with the LXX. has been adopted by him
as suitable to the subject in hand. Perhaps an intermediate view
may be the most probable one; he may have obtained part of his
materials, especially the hymns, from some source, and have skilfully
worked these into his narrative.
Chap. iii. i-iv. 13. From the Commencement of the Preaching of the
Baptist to the End of the Temptation in the Wilderness. The accounts
of the Baptist's preaching and of the temptation are taken from the
Logian document. The genealogy of Jesus here given is peculiar to
this Gospel.
Chap. iv. I4~vi. 16. From the Commencement of the Ministry of
Jesus in Galilee to the Appointment of the Twelve. In the main Luke
here follows his Marcan document. He has, however, independent
narratives of the visit of Jesus to Nazareth (iv. 16-30) and the call
of the first disciples (v. i-i i). The former, which in Mark is placed
some way on in the Galilean ministry (vi. 1-60), is given by Luke
at the very beginning of it, perhaps because of the previous con-
nexion of Jesus with Nazareth. But that it is not In its right position
here, before any mention of the work in Capernaum, appears from
verse 23. Luke has also slightly altered the position of the call of
the first disciples in the sequence of events.
Chap. vi. 17-viii. 3. This is an insertion into the Marcan outline
of matter chiefly taken from the Logian document (the Address,
Luke vi. 20-49, corresponds with portions of the Sermon on the
Mount in Matt, v.-vii. ; the healing of the centurion's servant,
Luke vii. i-io = Matt. viii. 5-13; the message of the Baptist and the
discourse for which it gave occasion, Luke vii. 18-35 = Matt. xi. 2-19).
He includes besides, a few pieces peculiar to this Gospel which Luke
had probably himself collected.
Chap. viii. 4-ix. 50. From the A doption of Parabolic Teaching to the
End of the Ministry in Galilee. He begins again to follow his Marcan
document for what he gives. Many sections, however, contained in
the corresponding part of Mark have no parallel in Luke, while the
parallel to one of them is placed later and differs considerably in form.
Possibly this fact points to his Marcan document having been briefer
than our Mark, and to its having afterwards received interpolations
(see MARK, GOSPEL OF ST).
Chap. ix. 5i-xviii. 14. Incidents and Teaching connected with
Journey towards Jerusalem. This is another insertion into the Marcan
outline, much longer than the previous one, and consisting partly of
matter taken from the Logian document (warnings to men who offer
to become disciples, Luke ix. 57-60 = Matt. viii. 19-22; a mission-
charge, Luke x. 2-i6 = Matt. ix. 37 and x. 7-16, 40; thanksgiving
that the Father reveals to the simple that which is hidden from the
wise, Luke x. 2i-24 = Matt. xi. 25-27 and xiii. 16, 17, &c., &c.) and
partly of sections peculiar to Luke, about which the same remark
may be made as before.
Chap, xviii. 15-xxii. 13. From the Bringing of young Children to
Jesus to the Preparation for the Passover. luke again takes up his
Marcan document, nearly at the point at which he left it, and follows
it in the main, though he adds the story of Zacchaeus and the parable
of the Minae (the Ten Pieces of Money), and omits the withering of
the fig-tree and some matter at the end of the discourse on the Last
Things, which are given in Mark.
Chap. xxii. 14 to end. The Last Supper, Passion and Resurrection.
Though in this portion of his Gospel signs of use of Mark are not
wanting, he also has much that is peculiar to himself. It is supposed
by some that he here made use of another document. It seems more
likely that he had a good many distinct oral traditions for this part
of the history and that he used them freely, sometimes substituting
them for passages of the Marcan document, sometimes altering the
latter in accordance therewith.
3. Doctrinal, Ethical and Literary Characteristics. The thought
of divine forgiveness, as set forth in. the teaching of Jesus and
manifested in His own attitude towards, and power over, the
hearts of the outcasts among the people, is peculiarly prominent
in this Gospel. This feature of Christ's ministry appears only
in one passage of Mark; some other illustrations of it are
mentioned in Matthew, but in Luke there are several more
which are peculiar to himself (see the three individual cases
vii. 36 sqq.; xix. i sqq., xxiii. 40 sqq. ; also the description at xv. i,
and the three parables that follow). These were " lost sheep of
the house of Israel "; but Christ's freedom from Jewish exclusive-
ness is also brought out (i) as regards Samaritans, by the rebuke
120
LULEA LULL
administered to the disciples at ix-52 sqq., the parable in x. 3osqq.,
and the incident at xvii. 15-19; whereas they are not mentioned
in Mark, and in Matthew only in the saying (x. 5) in which the
Twelve are forbidden to enter any village of theirs; (2) as regards
Gentiles, by the words of Jesus at iv. 25-27, not to mention sayings
which have parallels in the other Gospels. The promises of Old
Testament prophets that the Gentiles would share in the blessing
of the coming of Christ are also recalled, ii. 32-iii. 6. Once more the
word evayyt\itoda.i ("to proclaim good tidings") is a favourite
one with Luke. These are all traits which we should expect to find
in one who was a companion of Paul and a Gentile (Col. iv. 1 1 , 14) .
With the breadth and depth of the Saviour's sympathy, which
are so fully exhibited in this Gospel, we may connect the clearness
with which His true humanity is here portrayed. An incident
of His boyhood is related in which His sense of vocation is
revealed, and this is followed by the years of quiet growth that
succeeded (ii. 41-52). Further, during the years of His public
ministry more glimpses of His inner life are given us than in either
Matthew or Mark. His being engaged in prayer is mentioned
several times where there is no parallel in those Gospels (iii. 21,
v. 16, vi. 12, ix. 18, 28, 29, xi. i). Again, besides narrating
the Temptation in the Wilderness and the Agony in the Garden,
this evangelist gives a saying which implies that Jesus had under-
gone many temptations, or rather a life of temptation (xxii. 28).
Once more he records a saying that shows Christ's sense of the
intense painfulness of the work He was sent into the world to do,
arising from the divisions which it caused (xii. 49 sqq.).
Among practical duties, the stress laid on that of almsgiving is
remarkable (see especially xi. 41, xii. 33, xvi. 9 sqq., which are
peculiar to this Gospel). In the second of these passages the
disciples are exhorted to choose a life of voluntary poverty; the
nearest parallel is the ideal set before the rich young man at
Mark x. 21 =Matt. xix. 21 = Luke xviii. 22. In the Beatitudes in
Luke vi. 20, 21 a condition of.physical want is contemplated, not,
as in Matt. v. 3, 6, poverty of spirit and spiritual hunger, while woes
are denounced against the rich and the full (vi. 24, 25). The folly
of absorption in the amassing and enjoyment of wealth is also
shown (xii. 15 sqq. and xvi. 19 sqq.). But it would be an exagger-
ation to say, as some have done, that the poor are represented as
being the heirs of a blessed hereafter, simply on the ground that
they are now poor. In the Beatitudes Christ's own disciples are
addressed, who were blessed though poor, whereas the rich as a
class were opposed or indifferent to the kingdom of God. Again,
the contrast between Lazarus and Dives in the future state
pictures vividly the reversals that are in store; but it is un-
reasonable to take it as implying that every poor man, whatever
his moral character, will be blessed.
But while there is in Luke's Gospel this strain of asceticism
as to many in modern times it will appear to be the prevailing
spirit is gentle and tender, and there is in it a note of spiritual
gladness, which is begun by the song and the messages of angels
and the hymns and rejoicing of holy men and women, accom-
panying the birth of the Christ (chaps, i. and ii., passim), and
prolonged by the expressions of joy, the ascriptions of thanks-
giving and praise, called forth by the words and works of Christ
and the wonders of the cross and resurrection, which are peculiarly
frequent and full (iv. 15, v. 25, 26, vii. 16, x. 17, xiii. 13, 17,
xvii. 15-18, xviii. 43, xix. 6, 37, 38, xxiii. 47, xxiv. 41, 52, 53.
Cf. also xv. 5, 7, 10, 32).
The peculiar charm which this Gospel has been generally
felt to possess is largely due to the spiritual and ethical traits
which have been noted. But from a purely literary point of view,
also, it is distinguished by great excellences. The evangelist's
phraseology is indeed affected to some extent by the rhetorical
style of the period when he wrote. Nevertheless his mode of
narration is simple and direct. And the many fascinating
character-sketches, which he has added to the portrait gallery
of Scripture, are drawn clearly and without signs of effort.
In some cases he has skilfully suggested parallelisms and con-
trasts. The chief instance is his careful interweaving of the
accounts of the births and early years of John the Baptist and
of Jesus. Later examples are the two sisters, Martha and Mary
(x. 38-42), and the penitent and the impenitent thief (xxiii.
39-48). That he was a man of great versatility appears in the
Acts from the speeches introduced on various occasions, if (as
is probable) they were in part, at least, his own composition.
In the Gospel he had no opportunity for showing his power in a
manner strictly analogous. But if the hymns in the two intro-
ductory chapters owe even their Greek form in any measure to
him, he was a poet of no mean order. His style varies grea ly;
at times, as in i. 1-4, it is Hellenistic; at others, as in i. 5 to end
of ii., it is strongly Hebraic. Such differences are largely due,
no doubt, to the degree in which he was in various parts inde-
pendent of, or dependent upon, sources. But he would seem in
some degree to have adapted his manner of writing to the subject-
matter in hand. And at all events it is worthy of note that we
pass without any sense of jar from passages in one style t"> those
in another.
See Godet, Commentaire sur Vkoangile de S, Luc (Eng. trans.,
1875); Plummer's Comm. on St Luke (in international Series,
4th ed., 1906); W. Ramsay, Was Christ born in Bethlehem? (3rd
ed., 1905); A. Harnack, Lukas der Arzt (1906); B. Weiss, Die
Quellen des Lukas-evangeliums (1907); also books on the Four
Gospels, or the Synoptic Gospels, mentioned at end of article GOSPEL.
(V. H. S.)
LULEA, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of
Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sando, at the mouth of the
Lule river and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia.
Pop. (1900) 9484. It is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the
main line of railway from Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik
on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this line Lulea is 723 m.
N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for the iron ore
mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting
works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being
floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is
closed by ice from November to the end of May. The town was
almost entirely burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new
the church (i888-i893), p the Norrbotten Museum and a technical
school being the most important. Lulea as founded by Gustavus
Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but was moved to the
present site in 1649.
LULL (or LULLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315),
Catalan author, mystic and missionary, was born at Palma
(Majorca). Inheriting the estate conferred upon his father for
services rendered during the victorious expedition (1229) against
the Balearic Islands, Lull was married at an early age to
Blanca Picany, and, according to his own account, led a
dissipated life till 1266 when, on five different occasions, he
beheld the vision of Christ crucified. After his conversion,
he resolved to devote himself to evangelical work among the
heathen, to write an exposure of infidel errors, and to promote
the teaching of foreign tongues in seminaries. He dedicated
nine years to the study of Arabic, and in 1275 showed such signs
of mental exaltation that, at the request of his wife and family,
an official was appointed to administer his estate. He withdrew
to Randa, there wrote his Ars major and Ars generalis, visited
Montpellier, and persuaded the king of Majorca to build a
Franciscan monastery at Miramar. There for ten years he acted
as professor of Arabic and philosophy, and composed many
controversial treatises. After a fruitless visit to Rome in 1285-
1286, he journeyed to Paris, residing in that city from 1287 to
1289, and expounding his bewildering theories to auditors who
regarded him as half insane. In 1289 he went to Montpellier,
wrote his Ars veritatis inventiva, and removed to Genoa where
he translated this treatise into Arabic. In 1291, after many
timorous doubts and hesitations for which he bitterly blamed
himself, Lull sailed for Tunis where he publicly preached Chris-
tianity for a year; he was finally imprisoned and expelled. In
January 1293 he reached Naples where tradition alleges that he
studied alchemy; there appears to be no foundation for this
story, and the treatises on alchemy which bear his name are all
apocryphal. 1 His efforts to interest Clement V. and Boniface
1 The alchemical works ascribed to Lull, such as Testamentum,
Codicillus seu Testamentum and Experimenta, are of early although
uncertain date. De Luanco ascribes some of them to a Raimundo
LULLABY LUMBINI
121
VIII. in his favourite project of establishing missionary colleges
were unavailing; but a visit to Paris in 1298 was attended with
a certain measure of success. He was, however, disappointed
in his main object, and in 1300 he sailed to Cyprus to seek support
for his plan of teaching Oriental languages in universities and
monasteries. He was rebuffed once more, but continued his
campaign with undiminished energy. Between 1302 and 1305
he wrote treatises at Genoa, lectured at Paris, visited Lyons
in the vain hope of enlisting the sympathies of Pope Clement
V., crossed over to Bougie in Africa, preached the gospel, and
was imprisoned there for six months. On being released he
lectured with increasing effect at Paris, attended the General
Council at Vienne in 1311, and there witnessed the nominal
adoption of his cherished proposals. Though close on eighty years
of age, Lull's ardour was unabated. He carried on his propaganda
at Majorca, Paris, Montpellier and Messina, and in 1314 crossed
over once more to Bougie. Here he resumed his crusade against
Mahommedanism, raised the fanatical spirit of the inhabitants,
was stoned outside the city walls and died of his wounds on the
2gth of June 1315. There can be no reasonable doubt that these
events actually occurred, but the scene is laid by one biographer
at Tunis instead of Bougie.
The circumstances of Lull's death caused him to be regarded as a
martyr, local patriotism helped to magnify his merits, and his fan-
tastic doctrines found many enthusiastic partisans. The doctor
illuminates was venerated throughout Catalonia and afterwards
throughout Spain, as a saint, a thinker and a poet ; but his doctrines
were disapproved by the powerful Dominican order, and in 1376
they were formally condemned in a papal bull issued at the instance
of the inquisitor, Nicolas Emeric. The authenticity of this docu-
ment was warmly disputed by Lull's followers, and the bull was
annulled by Martin V. in 1417. The controversy was renewed in
1503 and again in 1578; but the general support of the Jesuits and
the staunch fidelity of the Majorcans saved Lull from condemnation.
His philosophical treatises abound with incoherent formulae to
which, according to their inventor, every demonstration in every
science may be reduced, and posterity has ratified Bacon's disdainful
verdict on Lull's pretensions as a thinker; still the fact that he
broke away f roin the scholastic system has recommended him to the
historians of philosophy, and the subtle ingenuity of his dialectic
has compelled the admiration of men so far apart in opinion as
Giordano Bruno and Leibniz.
The speculations of Lull are now obsolete outside Majorca where
his philosophy still flourishes, but his more purely literary writings
are extremely curious and interesting. In Blanquerna (1283), a
novel which describes a new Utopia, Lull renews the Platonic
tradition and anticipates the methods of Sir Thomas More, Campan-
ella and Harrington, and in the Libre de Maravelles (1286) he adopts
the Oriental apologue from Kalilah and Dimnah. And as a poet
Lull takes a prominent position in the history of Catalan literature;
such pieces as El Desconort (1295) and Lo Cant de Ramon (1299)
combine in a rare degree simple beauty of expression with sublimity
of thought and impassioned sincerity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Histoire litteraire de la France (Paris, 1885),
vol. xxix. ; Obras rimadas de Ramon Lull (Palma, 1859), edited by
G. Rossello; Obras de Ramon Lull (Palma, in progress), edited by
G. Rossello; Jos6 R. de Luanco, Ramon Lull, considerado como
alquimista (Barcelona, 1870) and La Alquimia en Espana (2 vols.,
Barcelona, 1889-1897); K. Hofmann, " Ein Katalaniscne Thiere-
pos," in the Bavarian Academy's Abhandlungen (Munich, 1872),
vol. xii. pp. 173-240; M. Men6ndez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela
(Madrid, 1905), pp. 72-86; Havelock Ellis in Contemporary Review
(May 1906). (J. F.-K.)
LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to " lull "
them to sleep; the melody being styled in Fr. berceuse and in
Ger. Wiegenlied. " Lull," cf. Swed. Mia, Du. lullen, &c., is of
echoic or onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. lallare, to chatter.
LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (G. 1633-1687), Italian composer,
was born in Florence. Through the due de Guise he entered
the services of Madame de Montpensier as scullery-boy, and
with the help of this lady his musical talents were cultivated.
A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in his dismissal.
He then studied the theory of music under M6tra and entered
the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed
director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera.
The influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the
de Tarraga (c. 1370), a converted Jew who studied the occult.
Others are ascribed by Morhof to a Raymundus Lullius Neophytus,
who lived about 1440. See ALCHEMY, and also J. Ferguson, Biblio-
theca chemica (1906).
style of the dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and
stately movements which had prevailed until then, he introduced
lively ballets of rapid rhythm. In December 1661 he was
naturalized as a Frenchman, his original name being Giovanni
Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music master to the
royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the king
and ennobled. While directing a Te Deum on the 8th of January
1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously
that a cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the
22nd of March. Having found a congenial poet in Quinault,
Lully composed twenty operas, which met with a most enthusi-
astic reception. Indeed he has good claim to be considered the
founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian method of separate
recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of the two and a
quickened action of the story such as was more congenial to the
taste of the French public. He effected important improvements
in the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced
several new instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of
Moliere, for some of whose best plays he composed illustrative
music. His Miserere, written for the funeral of the minister
Sequier, is a work of genius; and very remarkable are also his
minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he wrote Bisogna
morire, peccatore.
LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful ailment
affecting the muscles of the lower part of the back, generally
regarded as of rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may
occur alone, or be associated with rheumatism in other parts of
the body. It usually comes on by a seizure, often sudden,
of pain in one or both sides of the small of the back, of a severe
cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on movement
of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the recumbent
posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, coughing
or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to suggest
the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring
internal organs, such as the kidne.ys, bowels, &c., but the absence
of the symptoms specially characteristic of these_latter complaints,
or of any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain,
renders the diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago
seems to be brought on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the
other exciting causes of rheumatism. Sometimes it follows
a strain of the muscles of the loins. The attack is in general
of short duration, but occasionally it continues for a long time,
as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on movement. The treat-
ment includes that for rheumatic affections in general (see RHEU-
MATISM) and the application of local remedies to allay the pain.
LUMBER, a word now meaning (i) useless discarded furniture
or other rubbish, particularly if of a bulky or heavy character;
(2) timber, when roughly sawn or cut into logs or beams (see
TIMBER) ; (3) as a verb, to make a loud rumbling noise, to move
in a clumsy heavy way, also to burden with useless material,
to encumber. " Lumber " and " lumber-house " were formerly
used for a pawnbroker's shop, being in this sense a variant of
" Lombard," a name familiar throughout Europe for a banker,
money-changer or pawnbroker. This has frequently been taken
to be the origin of the word in sense (i), the reference being to the
store of unredeemed and unsaleable articles accumulating in
pawnbrokers' shops. Skeat adopts this in preference to the
connexion with " lumber " in sense (3), but thinks that the word
may have been influenced by both sources (Etym. Diet., 1910).
This word is probably of Scandinavian origin, and is cognate
with a Swedish dialect word lomra, meining "to roar," a
frequentative of ljumma, " to make a noise." The English word
may be of native origin and merely onomatopoeic. The New
English Dictionary, though admitting the probability of the
association with " Lombard," prefers the second proposed
derivation. The application of the word to timber is of American
origin; the New English Dictionary quotes from Suffolk (Mass.)
Deeds of 1662 " Freighted in Boston, with beames . . . boards
. . . and other lumber."
LUMBINI, the name of the garden or grove in which Gotama,
the Buddha, was born. It is first mentioned in a very ancient
Pali ballad preserved in the Sutta Nipata (verse 583). This
122
LUMP-SUCKER LUMSDEN
is the Song of Nalaka (the Buddhist Simeon), and the words put
in the mouth of the angels who announce the birth to him are:
" The Wisdom-child, that jewel so precious, that cannot be
matched, has been born at Lumbini, in the Sakiya land, for weal
and for joy in the world of men." The commentaries on the
Jatakas (i. 52, 54), and on a parallel passage in the Majjhima
(J.R.A.S., 1895, p. 767), tell us that the mother of the future
Buddha was on her way from Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu) ,
the capital of the Sakiyas, to her mother's home at Devadaha,
the capital of the adjoining tribe, the Koliyas, to be confined
there. Her pains came upon her on the way, and she turned
aside into this grove, which lay not far from Devadaha, and gave
birth there to her son. All later Buddhist accounts, whether
Pali or Sanskrit, repeat the same story.
A collection of legends about Asoka, included in the Divydva-
dana, a work composed probably in the ist or 2nd century A.D.,
tells us (pp. 389, 390) how Asoka, the Buddhist emperor, visited
the traditional site of this grove, under the guidance of Upagupta.
This must have been about 248 B.C. Upagupta (Tissa: see
PALI) himself also mentions the site in his Kathd Vatlhu (p. 559).
The Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, visiting India
in the 5th and 7th centuries A.D., were shown the site; and the
latter (ed. Walters, ii. 15-19) mentions that he saw there an
Asoka pillar, with a horse on the top, which had been split,
when Hsuan Tsang saw it, by lightning. This pillar was re-
discovered under the following circumstances.
The existence, a few miles beyond the Nepalese frontier,
of an inscribed pillar had been known for some years when,
in 1895, the discovery of another inscribed pillar at Nigllva,
near by, led to the belief that this other, hitherto neglected,
one must also be an Asoka pillar, and very probably the one
mentioned by Hsuan Tsang. At the request of the Indian
government the Nepalese government had the pillar, which was
half buried, excavated for examination; and Dr Fiihrer, then
in the employ of the Archaeological Survey, arrived soon after-
wards at the spot.
The stone was split into two portions, apparently by lightning,
and was inscribed with Pali characters as used in the time of
Asoka. Squeezes of the inscription were sent to Europe, where
various scholars discussed the meaning, which is as follows:
" His Majesty, Piyadassi, came here in the 2ist year of his reign
and paid reverence. And on the ground that the Buddha,
the Sakiya sage, was born here, he (the king) had a flawless
stone cut, and put up a pillar. And further, since the Exalted
One was born in it, he reduced taxation in the village of Lumbini,
and established the dues at one-eighth part (of the crop)."
The inscription, having been buried for so many centuries
beneath the soil, is in perfect preservation. The letters, about
an inch in height, have been clearly and deeply cut in the stone.
No one of them is doubtful. But two words are new, and scholars
are not agreed in their interpretation of them. These are the
adjective vigadabhi applied to the stone, and rendered in our
translation "flawless"; and secondly, the last word, rendered
in our translation " one-eighth part (of the crop)." Fortunately
these words are of minor importance for the historical value
of this priceless document. The date, the twenty-first year after
the formal coronation of Asoka, would be 248 B.C. The name
Piyadassi is the official epithet always used by Asoka in his
inscriptions when speaking of himself. The inscription confirms
in every respect the Buddhist story, and makes it certain that,
at the time when it was put up, the tradition now handed down
in the books was current at the spot. Any further inference
that the birth really took place there is matter of probability
on which opinions will differ.
The grove is situate about 3 m. north of Bhagwanpur, the
chief town of a district of the same name in the extreme south
of Nepal, just over the frontier dividing Nepal from the district
of Basti in British territory. It is now called Rummin-dei, i.e.
the shrine of the goddess of Rummin, a name no doubt derived
from the ancient name Lumbini. There is a small shrine at
the spot, containing a bas-relief representing the birth of the
Buddha. But the Buddha is now forgotten there, and the bas-
relief is reverenced only for the figure of the mother, who has
been turned into a tutelary deity of the place. Except so far
as the excavation of the pillar is concerned the site has not been
explored, and four small stupas there (already noticed by
Hsuan Tsang) have not been opened.
AUTHORITIES. Sulla Nipata, ed. V. Fansboll (London Pali Text
Society, 1884); Katha Vatthu, ed. A. C. Taylor (London, 1897);
Jataka, ed. V. Fansboll, vol. i. (London, 1877); Divydvadana, ed.
Cowell and Niel (Cambridge, 1886); G. Biihler in the Proceedings of
the Vienna Academy for Jan. 1897, in Epigraphia Indica, vol. v.
(London, 1898) and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1897),
p. 429. See also ibid. (1895), pp. 751 ft.; (1897) pp. 615, 644;
(1898) pp. 199-203; A. Earth in the Journal des savants (Paris,
1897) ; R. Pischel in Sitzungsberichte der konigl. preussischen A kademie
for the gth July 1903; Babu P. Mukherji, Report on a Tour of
Exploration of the Antiquities in the Terai (Calcutta, 1903); V. A.
Smith in Indian Antiquary (Bombay, 1905). (T. W. R. D.)
LUMP-SUCKER, or LUMP-FISH (Cycloplerus lumpus), a
marine fish, which with another British genus (Liparis) and a
few other genera forms a small family (Cyclopteridae). Like
many littoral fishes of other families, the lump-suckers have
the ventral fins united into a circular concave disk, which,
acting as a sucker, enables them to attach themselves firmly to
rocks or stones. The body (properly so called) is short and thick,
with a thick and scaleless skin, covered with rough tubercles,
the larger of which are arranged in four series along each side
of the body. The first dorsal fin is almost entirely concealed by
the skin, appearing merely as a lump on the back. The lump-
sucker inhabits the coasts of both sides of the North Atlantic;
it is not rare on the British coasts, but becomes more common
farther north. It is so sluggish in its habits that individuals
have been caught with sea-weed growing on their backs. In the
spring the fish approaches the shores to spawn, clearing out a
hollow on a stony bottom in which it deposits an immense
quantity of pink-coloured ova. Fishermen assert that the male
watches the spawn until the young are hatched, a statement
which receives confirmation from the fact that the allied gobies,
or at least some of them, take similar care of their progeny.
The vernacular name, " cock and hen paddle," given to the lump-
fish on some parts of the coast, is probably expressive of the
difference between the two sexes in their outward appearance,
the male being only half or one-third the size of the female, and
assuming during the spawning season a bright blue coloration,
with red on the lower parts. This fish is generally not esteemed
as food, but Franz Faber (Fische Islands, p. 53) states that the
Icelanders consider the flesh of the male as a delicacy. 1 The
bones are so soft, and contain so little inorganic matter, that the
old ichthyologists placed the lump-sucker among the cartilagin-
ous fishes.
LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896), Anglo-
Indian soldier, son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born
on the 1 2th of November 1821. He joined the 59th Bengal
Native Infantry in 1838, was present at the forcing of the Khyber
Pass in 1842, and went through the first and second Sikh wars,
being wounded at Sobraon. Having become assistant to Sir
Henry Lawrence at Lahore in 1846, he was appointed in 1847
to raise the Corps of Guides. The object of this corps, composed
of horse and foot, was to provide trustworthy men to act as
guides to troops in the field, and also to collect intelligence
beyond as well as within the North-West frontier of India. The
regiment was located at Mardan on the Peshawar border, and has
become one of the most famous in the Indian army. For the
equipment of this corps, Lumsden originated the khaki uniform.
In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar with his younger
brother, Sir Peter Lumsden, in connexion with the subsidy paid
by the Indian government to the amir, and was in Afghanistan
throughout the Mutiny. He took part in the Waziri Expedition
of 1860, was in command of the Hyderabad Contingent from
1862, and left India in 1869. He became lieutenant-general
in 1875, and died on the I2th of August 1896.
See Sir Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, Lumsden of the Guides
(1899).
1 The "cock-padle " was formerly esteemed also in Scotland, and
figures in the Antiquary, chap. xi.
LUNA, A. DE LUND, T. F.
123
LUNA, ALVARO DE (d. 1453), Constable of Castile, Grand
Master of Santiago, and favourite of King John II. of Castile,
was the natural son of Alvaro de Luna, a Castilian noble. He was
introduced to the court as a page by his uncle Pedro de Luna,
archbishop of Toledo, in 1410. Alvaro soon secured a command-
ing influence over John II., then a mere boy. During the regency
of the king's uncle Ferdinand, which ended in 1412, he was not
allowed to be more than a servant. When, however, Ferdinand
was elected king of Aragon, and the regency remained in the
hands of the king's mother, Constance, daughter of John of
Gaunt, a foolish and dissolute woman, Alvaro became a very
important person. The young king regarded him with an
affection which the superstition of the time attributed to witch-
craft. As the king was surrounded by greedy and unscrupulous
nobles, among whom his cousins, the sons of Ferdinand, com-
monly known as the Infantes (princes) of Aragon, were perhaps
the worst, his reliance on a favourite who had every motive to
be loyal to him is quite intelligible. Alvaro too was a master of
all the accomplishments the king admired a fine horseman,
a. skilful lance and a writer of court verse. Until he lost the
king's protection he was the central figure of the Castilian history
of the time. It was a period of constant conflict conducted by
shifting coalitions of the nobles, who under pretence of freeing
the king from the undue influence of his favourite were intent on
making a puppet of him for their own ends. The part which
Alvaro de Luna played has been diversely judged. To Mariana
he appears as a mere self-seeking favourite. To others he has
seemed to be a loyal servant of the king who endeavoured to
enforce the authority of the crown, which in Castile was the only
alternative to anarchy. He fought for his own hand, but his
supremacy was certainly better than the rule of gangs of plunder-
ing nobles. His story is in the main one of expulsions from the
court by victorious factions, and of his return when his con-
querors fell out among themselves. Thus in 1427 he was solemnly
expelled by a coalition of the nobles, only to be recalled in the
following year. In 1431 he endeavoured to employ the restless
nobles in a war for the conquest of Granada. Some successes
were gained, but a consistent policy was impossible with a re-
bellious aristocracy and a king of indolent character. In 1445
the faction of the nobles allied with Alvaro's main enemies,
the Infantes de Aragon, were beaten at Olmedo, and the favourite,
who had been constable of Castile and count of Santesteban since
1423, became Grand Master of the military order of Santiago
by election of the Knights. His power appeared to be thoroughly
established. It was, however, based on the personal affection
of the king. The king's second \vife, Isabella of Portugal, was
offended at the immense influence of the constable, and urged
her husband to free himself from slavery to his favourite. In
1453 the king succumbed, Alvaro was arrested, tried and con-
demned by a process which was a mere parody of justice, and
executed at Valladolid on the 2nd of June 1453.
The Chronicle of Alvaro de Luna (Madrid, 1784), written by some
loyal follower who survived him, is a panegyric and largely a romance.
The other contemporary authority the Chronicle of John II. is
much less favourable to the constable. Don Jose Quintana has
summarized the two chronicles in his life of Luna in the Vidas de
Espanoles cttebres; Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles (Madrid,
1846-1880), vol. xix.
LUNA (mod. Luni), an ancient city of Etruria, Italy, 4^ m.
S.E. of the modern Sarzana. It was the frontier town of Etruria,
on the left bank of the river, Macra, the boundary in imperial
times between Etruria and Liguria. When the Romans first
appeared in these parts, however, the Ligurians were in possession
of the territory as far as Pisa. It derived its importance mainly
from its harbour, which was the gulf now known as the Gulf of
Spezia, and not merely the estuary of the Macra as some authors
have supposed. The town was apparently not established until
177 B.C., when a colony was founded here, though the harbour
is mentioned by Ennius, who sailed hence for Sardinia in 205 B.C.
under Manlius Torquatus. An inscription of 155 B.C., found
in the forum of Luna in 1857, was dedicated to M. Claudius
Marcellus in honour of his triumph over the Ligurians and
Apuani. It lost much of its importance under the Empire,
though traversed by the coast road (Via Aurelia), and it was
renowned for the marble from the neighbouring mountains of
Carrara, which bore the name of Luna marble. Pliny speaks of
the quarries as only recently discovered in his day. Good wine
was also produced. There are some remains of the Roman
period on the site, and a theatre and an amphitheatre may be
distinguished. No Etruscan remains have come to light.
O. Cuntz's investigations (Jahreshefte des Osterr. Arch. Instituts,
1904, 46) seem to lead to the conclusion that an ancient road
crossed the Apennines from it, following the line of the modern
road (mo're or less that of the modern railway from Sarzana
to Parma), and dividing near Pontremoli, one branch going to
Borgotaro, Veleia and Placentia, and the other over the Cisa
pass to Forum Novum (Fornovo) and Parma. The town was
destroyed by the Arabs in 1016, and the episcopal see transferred
to Sarzana in 1204.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 63. (T. As.)
LUNATION, the period of return of the moon (luna) to the
same position relative to the sun; for example, from full moon
to full moon. Its duration is 29-5305884 days.
LUNAVADA, a native state in India, in the Gujarat division
of Bombay. Area, 388 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 63,967, showing a
decrease of 28 % in the decade, due to famine. The chief, whose
title is maharana, is a Rajput of high lineage. Estimated revenue,
12,000; tribute, 1000. The capital is Lunavada town, said
to have been founded in 1434; pop. (1901) 10,277.
LUNCHEON, in present usage the name given to a meal be-
tween breakfast and tea or dinner. When dinner was taken at
an early hour, or when it is still the principal midday meal,
luncheon was and is still a light repast. The derivation of the
word has been obscured, chiefly owing to the attempted con-
nexion with " nuncheon," with which the word has nothing
to do etymologically. " Luncheon " is an extended form of
" lunch " (another form of " lump," as " hunch " is of " hump ").
Lunch and luncheon in the earliest meanings found are applied
to a thick piece of bread, bacon, meat, &c.
The word "nuncheon," or "nunchion," with which "luncheon"
has been frequently connected, appears as early as the 1410 century
in the form noneschenche. This meant a refreshment or distribution,
properly of drink, but also accompanied with some small quantity
of meat, taken in the early afternoon. The word means literally
" noon-drink," from none or noon, i.e. nona hora, the ninth hour,
originally 3 o'clock P.M., but later " midday " the church office
of "nones," and also the second meal of the day, having been
shifted back and schenchen, to pour out; cf. German schenken,
which means to retail drink and to give, present. Schenche is the
same as "shank," the shin-bone, and the sense development appears
to be shin-bone, pipe, hence tap for drawing liquor. See also Skeat,
Etymological Did. of English Language (1910), s.v. " nunchion."
LUND, TROELS FREDERIK (1840- ), Danish historian,
was born in Copenhagen on the 5th of September 1840. He
entered the university of Copenhagen in 1858. About the age
of thirty he took a post which brought before his notice the
treasures of the archives of Denmark. His first important work,
Historiske Skitser, did not appear until 1876, but after that time
his activity was stupendous. In 1879 was published the first
volume of his Danmarks og Norges Historic i Slutningen af del
xvi. Aarhundrede, a history of daily life in Denmark and Norway
at the close of the i6th century. Troels Lund was the pioneer
of the remarkable generation of young historians who came
forward in northern Europe about 1880, and he remained the
most original and conspicuous of them. Saying very little about
kings, armies and governments, he concentrates his attention
on the life, death, employments, pleasures and prejudices of
the ordinary men and women of the age with which he deals,
using to illustrate his theme a vast body of documents previously
neglected by the official historian. Lund was appointed historio-
grapher-royal to the king of Denmark and comptroller of the
Order of the Dannebrog. There was probably no living man to
whom the destruction of the archives, when Christiansborg Castle
was accidentally burned in 1884, was so acute a matter of distress.
But his favourite and peculiar province, the MSS. of the i6th
century, .was happily not involved in that calamity.
124
LUND LUNDY
LUND, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, in the district
(Ian) of Malmohus, 10 m. N.E. of Malmo by rail. Pop. (1900)
16,621. A university was founded here in 1668 by Charles XI.,
with faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy. The
number of students ranges from 600 to 800, and there are about
50 professors. Its .library of books and MSS. is entitled to
receive a copy of every work printed in Sweden. Important
buildings include the university hall (1882), the academic union
of the students (1851) containing an art museum; the astronomi-
cal observatory, built in 1866, though observations have been
carried on since 1760; the botanical museum, and ethnographical
and industrial art collections, illustrating life in southern Sweden
from early times. Each student belongs to one of twelve nations
(landskap), which mainly comprises students from a particular
part of the country. The Romanesque cathedral was founded
about the middle of the roth century. The crypt under the
raised transept and choir is one of the largest in the world, and
the church is one of the finest in Scandinavia. A statue of the
poet Esaias Tegner stands in the Tegners Plads, and the house
in which he lived from 1813 to 1826 is indicated by an inscribed
stone slab. The chief industries are sugar-refining, iron and
brick works, and the manufacture of furniture and gloves.
Lund (Londinum Gothorum), the "Lunda at Eyrarsund" of
Egil's Saga, was of importance in Egil's time (c. 920). It appears
that, if not actually a seaport, it was at least nearer the Sound
than now. In the middle of the nth century it was made a
bishopric, and in 1103 the seat of an archbishop who received
primatial rank over all Scandinavia in 1163, but in 1536 Lund
was reduced to a bishopric. Close to the town, at the hill of
Sliparabacke, the Danish kings used to receive the homage of the
princes of Skare, and a monument records a victory of Charles XI.
over the Danes (1676), which extinguished the Danish claim to
suzerainty over this district.
LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839), American philanthropist,
prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was born of Quaker
parentage, at Hardwick, Warren county, New Jersey, on the
4th of January 1789. As a boy he worked on his father's farm,
attending school for only brief periods, and in 1808-1812 he lived
at Wheeling, Virginia (now W. Va.), where he served an appren-
ticeship to a saddler, and where Wheeling being an important
headquarters of the inter-State slave trade he first became
deeply impressed with the iniquity of the institution of slavery,
and determined to devote his life to the cause of abolition. In
1815, while living at Saint Clairsville, Ohio, he organized an anti-
slavery association, known as the " Union Humane Society," which
within a few months had a membership of more than five hundred
men. For a short time he assisted Charles Osborne in editing
the Philanthropist; in 1819 he went to St Louis, Missouri, and
there in 1819-1820 took an active part in the slavery controversy;
and in 1821 he founded at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, an anti-slavery
paper, the Genius of Universal Emancipation. This periodical,
first a monthly and later a weekly, was published successively
in Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, the District of Columbia and
Pennsylvania, though it appeared irregularly, and at times, when
Lundy was away on lecturing tours, was issued from any office
that was accessible to him. From September 1829 until March
1830 Lundy was assisted in the editorship of the paper by
William Lloyd Garrison (q.v.). Besides travelling through many
states of the United States to deliver anti-slavery lectures,
Lundy visited Haiti twice in 1825 and 1829, the Wilberforce
colony of freedmen and refugee slaves in Canada in 1830-1831,
and in 1832 and again in 1833 /Texas, all these visits being made,
in part, to find a suitable place outside the United States to
which emancipated slaves might be sent. Between 1820 and
1830, according to a statement made by Lundy himself, he
travelled " more than 5000 m. on foot and 20,000 in other ways,
visited nineteen states of the Union, and held more than 200
public meetings." He was bitterly denounced by slaveholders
and also by such non-slaveholders as disapproved of all anti-
slavery agitation, and in January 1827 he was assaulted and
seriously injured by a slave-trader, Austin Woolfolk, whom he
had severely criticized in his paper. In 1836-1838 Lundy edited
in Philadelphia a new anti-slavery weekly, The National Enquirer,
which he had founded, and which under the editorship of John
G. Whittier, Lundy's successor, became The Pennsylvania-
Freeman. In 1838 Lundy removed to Lowell, La Salle county,
Illinois, where he printed several copies of the Genius of Universal
Emancipation. There, on the 22nd of August 1839, he died.
Lundy is said to have been the first to deliver anti-slavery
lectures in the United States.
See The Life, Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy (Phila-
delphia, 1847), compiled (by Thomas Earle) " under the direction
and on behalf of his children."
LUNDY, ROBERT (fl. 1689), governor of Londonderry.
Nothing is known of Lundy's parentage or early life; but he
had seen service in the foreign wars before 1688, when he was
at Dublin with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the regiment
of Lord Mountjoy. When the apprentices of Derry closed the
gates in the face of the earl of Antrim,- who was approaching
the city at the head of an Irish Catholic force in the interests
of James II., the viceroy Tyrconnel despatched Mountjoy to
pacify the Protestants. Mountjoy and his regiment were well
received in the north, and the citizens of Derry permitted him
to leave within their walls a small Protestant garrison under
the command of Lundy, who assumed the title of governor.
Popular feeling in Derry ran so strongly in favour of the prince
of Orange that Lundy quickly declared himself an adherent
of William; and he obtained from him a commission confirming
his appointment as governor. Whether Lundy was a deliberate
traitor to the cause he had embraced with explicit asseveration
of fidelity in a signed document, or whether, as Macaulay sug-
gests, he was only a cowardly poltroon, cannot certainly be
known. What is certain is that from the moment Londonderry
was menaced by the troops of King James, Lundy used all his
endeavours to paralyse the defence of the city. In April 1689
he was in command of a force of Protestants who encountered
some troops under Richard Hamilton at Strabane, when, instead
of holding his ground, he told his men that all -was lost and
ordered them to shift for themselves; he himself was the first
to take flight back to Derry. King James, then at Omagh on
his way to the north, similarly turned in flight towards Dublin
on hearing of the skirmish, but returned next day on receiving
the true account of the occurrence. On the i4th of April English
ships appeared in the Foyle with reinforcements for Lundy
under Colonel Cunningham. Lundy dissuaded Cunningham
from landing his regiments, representing that a defence of
Londonderry was hopeless; and that he himself intended to
withdraw secretly from the city. At the same time he sent to
the enemy's headquarters a promise to surrender the city at
the first summons. As soon as this became known to the citizens
Lundy's life was in danger, and he was vehemently accused of
treachery. When the enemy appeared before the walls Lundy
gave orders that there should be no firing. But all authority
had passed out of his hands. The people flew to arms under
the direction of Major Henry Baker and Captain Adam Murray,
who organized the famous defence in conjunction with the
Rev. George Walker (q.v.). Lundy, to avoid popular vengeance,
hid himself until nightfall, when by the connivance of Walker
and Murray he made his escape in disguise. He was appre-
hended in Scotland and sent to the Tower of London. He was
excluded from the Act of Indemnity in 1690, but his subsequent
fate is unknown.
See Lord Macaulay, History of England, vol. iii. (Albany edition
of complete works, London, 1898); Rev. George Walker, A True
Account of the Siege of Londonderry (London, 1680); J. Mackenzie,
Narrative of the Siege of Londonderry (London, 1690) ; John Hempton,
The Siege and History of Londonderry (Londonderry, 1861); Rev.
John Graham, A History of the Siege of Derry and Defence of
Enniskillen, 1688-9 (Dublin, 1829). (R. J. M.)
LUNDY, an English island at the entrance of the Bristol
Channel, 12 m. N.W. by N. of the nearest point on the mainland,
namely Hartland Point on the Devonshire coast. The nearest
ports are Clovelly and Bideford. The extreme length of the island
is 3 m. from N. to S., the mean breadth about half a mile, but
at the south the breadth is nearly i m. The area is about 1150
LUNEBURG LUNEVILLE
acres. The component rock is a hard granite, except at the south,
where slate occurs. This granite was used in the construction
of the Victoria Embankment, London. An extreme elevation
of about 450 ft. is found in the southern half of the island; the
northern sloping gently to the sea, but the greater part of the
coast is cliff-bound and very beautiful. The landing, at the
south-east, is sheltered by the small Rat Island, where the once
common black rat survives. There are a few prehistoric remains
on Lundy, and the foundations of an ancient chapel of St Hele'n.
There are also ruins, and the still inhabited keep, of Marisco
Castle, occupying a strong precipitous site on the south-east,
held in the reign of Henry II. by Sir Jordan de Marisco. The
Mariscos, in their inaccessible retreat, lived lawlessly until in
1242 Sir William Marisco was hanged for instigating an attempt
on the life of Henry III. In 1625 the island was reported to be
captured by Turkish pirates, and in 1633 by Spaniards. Later
it became an object of attack and a hiding place for French
privateers. The island, which is reckoned as extra-parochial,
has some cultivable land and heath pasture, and had a population
in IQOI of 94.
LUNEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, situated near the foot of a small hill named the
Kalkberg, on the navigable Ilmenau, 14 m. above its confluence
with the Elbe and 30 m. by rail S.E. of Hamburg by the main
line to Hanover. Pop. (1905) 26,751. Numerous handsome
medieval buildings testify to its former prosperity as a prominent
member of the Hanseatic league, and its many quaint houses
with high gables and overhanging eaves have gained for it the
appellation " the Nuremberg of the North." Portions of the
old walls survive, but the greater part of the former circum-
vallation has been converted into promenades and gardens,
outside which a modern town has sprung up. The finest of its
squares are the market-place and the so-called Sand. The
churches of St John, with five aisles and a spire 375 ft. in height;
of St Michael, containing the tombs of the former princes of
Liineburg, and of St Nicolas, with a huge nave and a lofty
spire, are fine Gothic edifices of the I4th and isth centuries.
The old town-hall in the market square is a huge pile, dating
originally from the i3th century, but with numerous additions.
It has an arcade with frescoes, restored by modern Munich
artists, and contains a magnificent hall the Fiirstensaal
richly decorated with wood-carving and stained : glass windows.
Galvanoplastic casts of the famous Liineburg silver plate, con-
sisting of 36 pieces which were acquired in 1874 by the Prussian
government for 33,000 and are now housed in the art museum
in Berlin, are exhibited here. Among other public edifices are
the old palace; the convent of St Michael (now converted into
a school and law court), and the Kaufhaus (merchants' hall).
There are a museum, a library of 36,000 volumes, classical and
commercial schools, and a teachers' seminary. Liineburg owes
its importance chiefly to the gypsum and lime quarries of the
Kalkberg, which afford the materials for its cement works, and
to the productive salt-spring at its base which has been known
and used since the loth century. Hence the ancient saying
which, grouping with these the commercial facilities afforded
by the bridge over the Ilmenau, ascribes the prosperity of Liine-
burg to its mons, fans, pans. Other industries are the making
of chemicals, ironware, soda and haircloth. There is a con-
siderable trade in French wines, for which Liineburg has for
centuries been one of the chief emporia in north Germany, and
also in grain and wool. Celebrated are its lampreys, Liine-
burger Bricken.
Liineburg existed in the days of Charlemagne, but it did not
gain importance until after the erection of a convent and a
castle on the Kalkberg in the loth century. After the destruc-
tion of Bardowiek, then the chief commercial centre of North
Germany, by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, in 1189, Liine-
burg inherited much of its trade and subsequently became one
of the principal towns of the Hanseatic league. Having belonged
to the extensive duchy of Saxony it was the capital of the duchy
of Brunswick-Liineburg from 1235 to 1369; later it belonged to
one or other of the branches of the family of Brunswick, being
involved in the quarrels, and giving its name to cadet lines,
of this house. From the junior line of Brunswick-Liineburg
the reigning family of Great Britain is descended. The re-
formed doctrines were introduced into the town in 1530 and
it suffered heavily during the Thirty Years' War. It reached
the height of its prosperity in the isth century, and in the lyth
century it was the depot for much of the merchandise exported
from Saxony and Bavaria to the mouth of the Elbe; then after
a period of decay the igth century witnessed a revival of its
prosperity. In 1813 the German war of liberation was begun
by an engagement with the French near Liineburg.
See W. F. Volger, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Luneburg (3 vols.,
Liineburg, 1872-1877); E. Bodemann, Die dlteren Zunfturkunden
der Stadt Luneburg (Hanover, 1883); O. Jurgens, Geschichte der Stadt
Luneburg (Luneburg, 1891); Des Propstes Jakob Schomaker Lune-
burger Chronik, edited by T. Meyer (Hanover, 1904); A. Wrede,
Die Einfiihrung der Reformation in Luneburg (Gottingen, 1887),
and W. Remecke,LuneburgsallestesStadtbuchuna Ver/asstungsregtster
(Hanover, 1903). For the history of the principality see von
Leuthe, Archiv fur Geschichte und Verfassung des Furstentums
Luneburg (Celle, 1854-1863).
LUNEBURGER HEIDE, a district of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hanover, lying between the Aller and the Elbe
and intersected by the railways Harburg-Hanover and Bremen-
Stendal. Its main character is that of a broad saddle-back,
running for 55 m. from S.E. to N.W. of a mean elevation of about
250 ft. and attaining its greatest height in the Wilseder Berg
(550 ft.) at its northern end. The soil is quartz sand and is
chiefly covered with heather and brushwood. In the north, and
in the deep valleys through which the streams descend to the
plain, there are extensive forests of oak, birch and beech, and
in the south, of fir and larch. Though the climate is raw and
good soil rare, the heath is not unfertile. Its main products
are sheep the celebrated Heidschnucken breed, potatoes,
bilberries, cranberries and honey. The district is also remarkable
for the numerous Hun barrows found scattered throughout its
whole extent.
See Rabe, Die Luneburger Heide und die Bewirthschaftung der
Heidhofe (Jena, 1900); Kniep, Fiihrer durch die Luneburger Heide
(Hanover, 1900); Linde, Die Luneburger Heide (Luneburg, 1905),
and Kiick, Das alte Bauernleben der Luneburger Heide (Leipzig, 1906).
LUNETTE (French diminutive of lune, moon), a crescent-
shaped, semi-circular object. The term is particularly applied
in architecture to a circular opening at the intersection of
vaulting by a smaller vault, as in a ceiling for the entrance of
light or in the lower stories of towers for the passage of bells.
It is also used of a panel space of semi-circular shape, filled by
a fresco or other decorative treatment. In fortification a
" lunette " was originally an earthwork of half-moon shape;
later it became a redan with short flanks, in trace somewhat
resembling a bastion standing by itself without curtains on
either side. The gorge was generally open.
LUNEVILLE, an industrial and garrison town of north-eastern
France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. E.S.E. of Nancy on the railway to
Strassburg. Pop. (1906) town, 19,199; commune, 24,266
(including troops). The town stands on the right bank of the
Meurthe between that river and its affluent the Vezouze, a little
above their confluence. Its chateau, designed early in the i8th
century by the royal architect Germain Boffrand, was the
favourite residence of Duke Leopold of Lorraine, where he
gathered round him an academy composed of eminent men of
the district. It is now a cavalry barracks, and the gardens
form a public promenade. Luneville is an important cavalry
station with a large riding school. The church of St Jacques
with its two domed towers dates from 1730-1745. There are
statues of General Count Antoine de Lasalle, and of the Conven-
tional Abb6 Henri Gr6goire. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect,
and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
It carries on cotton-spinning and the manufacture of railway
material, motor vehicles, porcelain, toys, hosiery, embroidery,
straw-hats and gloves. Trade is in grain, wine, tobacco, hops
and other agricultural produce.
The name of Lun6ville (Lunae villa) is perhaps derived from
126
LUNG LUPINE
an ancient cult of Diana, the moon goddess, a sacred fountain
and medals with the effigy of this goddess having been found at
Leormont, some 2 m. E. of the town. Luneville belonged to
Austrasia, and after various changes fell, in 1344, to the house
of Lorraine. A walled town in the middle ages, it suffered in
the Thirty Years' War and in the campaigns of Louis XIV.
from war, plague and famine. The town flourished again under
Dukes Leopold and Stanislas, on the death of the latter of whom,
which took place at Luneville, Lorraine was united to France
(1766). The treaty of Luneville between France and Austria
(1801) confirmed the former power in the possession of the left
bank of the Rhine.
LUNG, in anatomy, the name of each of the pair of organs
of respiration in man and other air-breathing animals, the
corresponding organs in fishes being the branchiae or gills (see
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). The word in Old English was lungen ;
it appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Lunge, Du.
long, Swed. lunga; the Teutonic root from which these are
derived meant " light," and the lungs were so-called from their
lightness. The word " lights " was formerly used as synonymous
with " lungs," but is now confined to the lungs of sheep, pigs
or cattle; it is etymologically connected with " lung," the
pre-Teutonic root being seen in Sansk. laghu, Gr. i\a.(j>p6s.
SURGERY OF THE LUNG AND PLEURA. When a person meets
with a severe injury to the chest, as from a wheel passing over him,
the ribs may be broken and driven into the lung. Air then entering
into the pleural space, the lung collapses, and breathing becomes so
difficult that death may ensue from asphyxia. Short of this, however,
there is a cough with the spitting of frothy, blood-stained mucus
or of bright red blood. All that can be done is to place the person
on his back, slightly propped up by pillows, and to combat syncope
by subcutaneous injections of ether and strychnia.
Empyema means the presence of an abscess between the lung and
the chest wall, i.e. in the pleural space; it is the result of a septic
inflammation of the pleura by the micro-organisms of pneumonia
or of typhoid fever, or by some other germs. As the abscess increases
in size, the lung is pushed towards the spine, and that side of the
chest gives a dull note on percussion. If much fluid collects the
heart may be pushed out of its place, and, the lung-space being
taken up, respiration is embarrassed. Having made sure of the
presence of an abscess by exploring with syringe and hollow needle,
the surgeon opens and drains it. The drainage is made more effectual
by removing an inch or so of one of the ribs, for, unless this is done,
there is a risk of the rubber drainage tube being compressed as the
ribs come closer together again.
The lung itself has sometimes to be operated on, as when it is the
seat of an hydatid cyst, or when it contains an abscess cavity which
cannot otherwise be drained, or when it becomes necessary to remove
a foreign body the exact situation of which has been revealed by the
X-rays. Portions of some of the ribs having been resected, the
pleural cavity is opened, and if the lung has not already become glued
to the chest-wall by inflammatory adhesions, it is stitched up to the
chest-wall, and in a few days, when adhesions have taken place, an
incision is safely made into the lung-tissue. See also RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM. (E. O.*)
LUNG, one of the four symbolical creatures of Chinese legend.
It is a dragon with a scaly snake-like body, long claws, horns,
a bristly face, and its back-bone armed with spikes. Originally
three-clawed, it has become, as the official dragon of the present
dynasty, a five-clawed beast. The form is embroidered on the
state robes of the emperor of China, and it is traditionally
connected with the dynasty's history and fortunes.
LUNGCHOW, a town in the province of Kwangsi, China, in
22 21' N., 106 45' E., near the Tongking frontier, and at the
junction of the Sung-chi and Kao-ping rivers. Pop. (estimate)
22,000. The town is prettily situated in a circular valley.
From a military point of view it is considered important, and
considerable bodies of troops are stationed here. It was selected
as the seat of frontier trade by the French convention of 1886,
and was opened in 1889. In 1898 the total value of its trade
amounted to only 20,000, but in 1904 the figures increased
to 56,692.
LUNGE, GEORG (1830- ), German chemist, was born at
Breslau on the isth of September 1839. He studied at Heidel-
berg (under R. W. Bunsen) and Breslau, graduating at the
latter university in 1859. Turning his attention to technical
chemistry, he became chemist at several works both in Germany
and England, and in 1876 he was appointed professor of technical
chemistry at Zurich polytechnic. Lunge's original contributions
cover a very wide field, dealing both with technical processes
and analysis. In addition, he was a voluminous writer, enriching
scientific literature with many standard works. His treatises
Coal Tar and Ammonia (5th ed. 1909; ist ed. 1867), Destination
des Steinkohlentheers) and Sulphuric Acid and Alkali (ist ed.
1878, 4th ed. 1909), established his position as the highest
authority on these subjects, while the Chemische-technische
Untersuchungs-Methoden (1899-1900; Eng. trans.), to which he
contributed, testified to his researches in technical analysis.
His jubilee was celebrated at Zurich on the isth of September
1909.
LUPERCALIA, a very ancient, possibly pre-Roman, pastoral
festival in honour of Lupercus. Its rites were under the super-
intendence of a corporation of priests called Luperci, 1 whose
institution is attributed either to the Arcadian Evander, or to
Romulus and Remus. In front of the Porta Romana, on the
western side of the Palatine hill, close to the Ficus Ruminalis
and the Casa Romuli, was the cave of Lupercus; in it, according
to the legend, the she-wolf had suckled the twins, and the bronze
wolf, which is still preserved in the Capitol, was placed in it in
296 B.C. But the festival itself, which was held on February 15th,
contains no reference to the Romulus legend, which is probably
later in origin, though earlier than the grecizing Evander legend.
The festival began with the sacrifice by the Luperci (or the
flamen dialis) of goats and a dog; after which two of the Luperci
were led to the altar, their foreheads were touched with a bloody
knife, and the blood wiped off with wool dipped in milk; then
the ritual required that the two young men should laugh. The
smearing of the forehead with blood probably refers to human
sacrifice originally practised at the festival. The sacrificial
feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs from the skins
of the victims and ran in two bands round the walls of the old
Palatine city, the line of which was marked with stones, striking
the people who crowded near. A blow from the thong prevented
sterility in women. These thongs were called februa, the festival
Februatio, and the day dies februatus (februare=to purify);
hence the name of the month February, the last of the old Roman
year. The object of the festival was, by expiation and purifica-
tion, to secure the fruitfulness of the land, the increase of the
flocks and the prosperity of the whole people. The Lupercal
(cave of Lupercus), which had fallen into a state of decay, was
rebuilt by Augustus; the celebration of the festival had been
maintained, as we know from the famous occurrence of it in
44 B.C. It survived until A.D. 494, when it was changed by
Gelasius into the feast of the Purification. Lupercus, in whose
honour the festival was held, is identified with Faunus or Inuus,
Evander (Evav&pos) , in the Greek legend being a translation of
Faunus (the " kindly "). The Luperci were divided into two
collegia, called Quinctiliani (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from
the gens Quinctilia (or Quinctia) 2 and Fabia; at the head of each
of these colleges was a magister. In 44 B.C. a third college,
Luperci Julii, was instituted in honour of Julius Caesar, the first
magister of which was Mark Antony. In imperial times the
members were usually of equestrian standing.
See Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 438;
W. Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 390 foil., and article
in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed. 1891).
LUPINE (Lupinus), in botany, a genus of about 100 species
of annual and perennial herbaceous plants of the tribe Genisteae,
of the order Leguminosae. Species with digitate leaves range
along the west side of America from British Columbia to northern
Chile, while a few occur in the Mediterranean regions. A few
others with entire leaves are found in Brazil and eastern North
America. The leaves are remarkable for " sleeping " in three
different ways. From being in the form of a horizontal star
by day, the leaflets either fall and form a hollow cone with their
1 Many derivations are suggested, but it seems most probable
that Luperci simply means ' wolves " (the last part of the word
exhibiting a similar formation to nov-erca), the name having its
origin in the primitive worship of the wolf as a wolf-god.
* Mommsen considers the Quinctia to be the older gens, and the
Quinctilia a later introduction from Alba.
LUPUS LURAY CAVERN
127
bases upwards (L. pilosus), or rise and the cone is inverted
(L. luleus), or else the shorter leaflets fall and the longer rise,
and so together form a vertical star as in many species; the
object in every case being to protect the surfaces of the leaflets
from radiation and consequent wetting with dew (Darwin,
Movements of Plants, p. 340). The flowers are of the usual
" papilionaceous " or pea-like form, blue, white, purple or
yellow, in long terminal spikes. The stamens are monadelphous
and bear dimorphic anthers. The species of which earliest
mention is made is probably L. Termis, which was cultivated
by the ancient Egyptians. It is wild in some parts of the
Mediterranean area and is extensively cultivated in Egypt.
Its seeds are eaten by the poor after being steeped in water to
remove their bitterness; the stems furnish fuel and charcoal
for gunpowder. The lupine of the ancient Greeks and Romans
was probably L. albus, which is still extensively cultivated
in Italy, Sicily and other Mediterranean countries for forage,
for ploughing in to enrich the land, and for its round flat seeds,
which form an article of food. Yellow lupine (L. luleus) and
blue lupine (L. angustifolius) are also cultivated on the European
continent as farm crops for green manuring.
Lupines are easily cultivated in moderately good garden soil;
they include annuals which are among the most ornamental and
most easily grown of summer flowering plants (sow in open borders
in April and May), and perennials, which are grown from seed or
propagated by dividing strong plants in March and April. Many of
the forms in cultivation are hybrid. One of the best known of the
perennial species is L. polyphyllus, a western North American species.
It grows from 3 to 6 ft. high, and has numerous varieties, including
a charming white-flowered one. The tree lupine (L. arboreus) is a
Californian bush, 2 to 4 ft. high, with fragrant yellow flowers. It is
only hardy in the most favoured parts of the kingdom.
LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS, Roman rhetorician, flourished
during the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of a treatise
on the figures of speech (2xi?M ara Xejs), abridged from a
similar work by the rhetorician Gorgias (of Athens, not the
well-known sophist of Leontini), the tutor of Cicero's son.
In its present form it is incomplete, as is clearly shown by the
express testimony of Quintilian (Instil, ix. 2, 103, 106) that
Lupus also dealt with figures of sense, rhetorical figures (2x^M<""a
Siavoias). The work is valuable chiefly as containing a number
of examples, well translated into Latin, from the lost works of
Greek rhetoricians. The author has been identified with the
Lupus mentioned in the Ovidian catalogue of poets (Ex Ponlo,
iv. 16), and was perhaps the son of the Publius Rutilius Lupus,
who was a strong supporter of Pompey.
Editions by D. Ruhnken (1768), F. Jacob (1837), C. Halm in
Rhetorcs latini minores (1863); see also monographs by G. Dzialas
(1860 and 1869), C. Schmidt (1865), J. Draheim (1874), Thilo Krieg
(1896).
LUPUS (Lat. lupus, wolf), a disease characterized by the
formation in the skin or mucous membrane of small tubercles
or nodules consisting of cell growth which has an inclination
to retrograde change, leading to ulceration and destruction of
the tissues, and, if it heals, to the subsequent formation of
permanent white scars. Lupus vulgaris is most commonly
seen in early life, and occurs chiefly on the face, about the nose,
cheeks or ears. But it may also affect the body or limbs. It
first shows itself as small, slightly prominent, nodules covered
with thin crusts or scabs. These may be absorbed and removed
at one point whilst spreading at another. Their disappearance
is followed by a permanent white cicatrix. The disease may be
superficial, in which case both the ulceration and the resulting
scar are slight (lupus non-exedens) ; or the ulcerative process
may be deep and extensive, destroying a large portion of the
nose or cheek, and leaving much disfigurement (lupus exedens).
A milder form, lupus erytkematosus, occurs on the nose and
adjacent portions of the cheeks in the form of red patches
covered with thin scales, underneath which are seen the widened
openings of the sebaceous ducts. With a longitudinal patch
on the nose and spreading symmetrical patches on each cheek
the appearance is usually that of a large butterfly. It is slow
in disappearing, but does not leave a scar. Lupus is more
frequently seen in women than in men; it is connected with a
tuberculous constitution. In the superficial variety the applica-
tion of soothing ointments when there is much redness, and
inear incisions, or scrapings with a sharp spoon, to destroy the
ncreased blood supply, are often serviceable. In the ordinary
r orm the local treatment is to remove the new tissue growth
jy solid points of caustic thrust into the tubercles to break
them up, or by scraping with a sharp spoon. The light-treatment
las been successfully applied in recent years. As medicines,
cod-liver oil, iron and arsenic are useful. (E. O.*)
LUQMAN, or LOKMAN, the name of two, if not of three (cf.
note to Terminal Essay in Sir Rd. Burton's translation of the
Arabian Nights), persons famous in Arabian tradition. The one
was of the family of 'Ad, and is said to have built the great dike
of Marib and to have received the gift of life as long as that of
seven vultures, each of which lived eighty years. The name of
the seventh vulture Lubad occurs in proverbial literature.
The name of the second Luqman, called " Luqman the Sage,"
occurs in the Koran (31, n). Two accounts of him are current
in Arabian literature. According to Mas'udi (i. no) he was a
Nubian freedman who lived in the time of David in the district
of Elah and Midian. According to some commentators on the
Koran (e.g., Baidawl) he was the son of Ba'ura, one of the sons
of Job's sister or maternal aunt. Derenbourg in his Fables
de Loqmdn le sage (1850) identifies Ba'ura with Beoi, and believes
the name Luqman to be a translation of Balaam. The grave
of Luqman was shown on the east coast of the lake of Tiberias,
also in Yemen (cf. Yaqut, vol. iii. p. 512).
The so-called Fables of Luqman are known to have existed in the
I3th century, but are not mentioned by any Arabian writer. They
were edited by Erpenius (Leiden, 1615) and have been reprinted
many times. For the relation of these to similar literature in other
lands, see J. Jacobs's edition of Caxton's Fables of Aesop, vol. i.
(London, 1889). The name of Luqrnan also occurs in many old
verses, anecdotes and proverbs; cf. G. Freytag's Arabum Proverbia
(Bonn, 1838-1843) and such Arabian writers as Tabari, Mas'udi,
Damiri and the Kttab al-Mu'ammarln (ed. by I. Goldziher, Leiden,
1899). (G. W. T.)
LURAY CAVERN, a large cave in Page county, Virginia,
U.S.A., 39 35' N. and 78 17' W., near the village of Luray,
on the Norfork & Western railway. The valley, here 10 m.
wide, extends from the Blue Ridge to the Massanutton Mountain.
The ridges lie in vast folds and wrinkles; and elevations in the
valley are often found to be pierced by erosion. Cave Hill,
300 ft. above the water-level, had long been an object of local
interest on account of its pits and oval hollows or sink-holes,
through one of which, on the I3th of August 1878, Andrew
J. Campbell and others entered, thus discovering the cavern
now described.
The Luray cavern does not date beyond the Tertiary period,
though carved from the Silurian limestone. At some period,
long subsequent to its original excavation, and after many
large stalactites had grown, it was completely filled with glacial
mud charged with acid, whereby the dripstone was eroded into
singularly grotesque shapes. After the mud had been mostly
removed by flowing water, these eroded forms remained amid
the new growths. To this contrast may be ascribed some of the
most striking scenes in the cave. The many and extraordinary
monuments of aqueous energy include massive columns wrenched
from their place in the ceiling and prostrate on the floor; the
Hollow Column, 40 ft. high and 30 ft. in diameter, standing erect,
but pierced by a tubular passage from top to bottom; the
Leaning Column nearly as large, undermined and tilting like
the campanile of Pisa; the Organ, a cluster of stalactites in the
chamber known as the Cathedral; besides a vast bed of dis-
integrated carbonates left by the whirling flood in its retreat
through the great space called the Elfin Ramble.
The stalactitic display exceeds that of any other cavern known.
The old material is yellow, brown or red; and its wavy surface
often shows layers like the gnarled grain of costly woods. The
new stalactites growing from the old, and made of hard carbonates
that had already once been used, are usually white as snow,
though often pink, blue or amber-coloured. The Kmpress
Column is a stalagmite 35 ft. high, rose-coloured, and elaborately
draped. The double column, named from Professors Henry and
Baird, is made of two fluted pillars side by side, the one 25 and
128
LURCH
the other 60 ft. high, a mass of snowy alabaster. Several
stalactites in the Giant Hall exceed 50 ft. in length. The smaller
pendants are innumerable; in the canopy above the Imperial
Spring it is estimated that 40,000 are visible at once.
The " cascades " are wonderful formations like foaming
cataracts caught in mid-air and transformed into milk-white or
amber alabaster. The Chalcedony Cascade displays a variety of
colours. Brand's Cascade, the finest of all, is 40 ft. high and 3o.ft.
wide, and is unsullied and wax-like white, each ripple and
braided rill seeming to have been polished.
The Swords of the Titans are monstrous blades, eight in
number, 50 ft. long, 3 to 8 ft. wide, hollow, i to 2 ft. thick, but
drawn down to an extremely thin edge, and filling the cavern
with tones like tolling bells when struck heavily by the hand.
Their origin and also that of certain so-called scarfs and blankets
is from carbonates deposited by water trickling down a sloping
and corrugated surface. Sixteen of these alabaster scarfs hang
side by side in Hovey's Balcony, three white and fine as crape
shawls, thirteen striated like agate with every shade of brown,
H C.M
A.FJ.
Luray Cavern.
1. The Vestibule.
2. Washington's Pillar.
3. Flower Garden.
4. Amphitheatre.
5. Natural Bridge.
6. Fish Market.
7. Crystal Spring.
8. Proserpine's Pillar.
9. The Spectral Column.
10. Hovey's Balcony.
n. Oberon's Grot.
Titania's Veil.
Saracen's Tent.
14. The Organ.
15. Tower of Babel.
Empress Column.
Hollow Column.
12.
13
16.
17-
18. Henry-Baird Column.
Scale 500 ft. to the inch.
19. Chalcedony Cascade.
20. Coral Spring.
21. The Dragon.
22. Bootjack Alley.
23. Scaly Column.
24. Lost Blanket.
25. Helen's Scarf.
26. Chapman's Lake.
27. Broaddus Lake.
28. Castles on the Rhine.
29. Imperial Spring.
30. The Skeleton.
31. The Twin Lakes.
32. The Engine Room.
33. Miller's Room.
34. Hawes Cabinet.
35. Specimen Avenue.
36. Proposed Exit.
and all perfectly translucent. Down the edge of each a tiny
rill glistens like silver, and this is the ever-plying shuttle that
weaves the fairy fabric.
Streams and true springs are absent, but there are hundreds of
basins, varying from i to 50 ft. in diameter, and from 6 in.
to 15 ft. in depth. The water in them is exquisitely pure,
except as it is impregnated by the carbonate of lime, which
often forms concretions, called according to their size, pearls,
eggs and snowballs. A large one is known as the cannon ball.
On fracture these spherical growths are found to be radiated in
structure.
Calcite crystals, drusy, feathery or fern-like, line the sides and
bottom of every water-filled cavity, and indeed constitute the sub-
stance of which they are made. Variations of level at different
periods are marked by rings, ridges and ruffled margins. These are
strongly marked about Broaddus Lake and the curved ramparts of
the Castles on the Rhine. Here also are polished stalagmites, a
rich buff slashed with white, and others, like huge mushrooms, with
a velvety coat of red, purple or olive-tinted crystals. In some of
the smaller basins it sometimes happens that, when the excess of
carbonate acid escapes rapidly, there is formed, besides the crystal
bed below, a film above, shot like a sheet of ice across the surface.
One pool 12 ft. wide is thus covered so as to show but a third of its
surface. The quantity of water in the cavern varies greatly at
different seasons. Hence some stalactites have their tips under
water long enough to allow tassels of crystals to grow on them,
which, in a drier season, are again coated over with stalactitic
matter; and thus singular distortions are occasioned. Contiguous
stalactites are often inwrapped thus till they assume an almost
globular form, through which by making a section the primary
tubes appear. Twig-like projections, to which the term helictite
has been applied by the present writer, are met with in certain
portions of the cave, and are interesting by their strange and un-
couth contortions. Their presence is due to lateral outgrowths of
crystals shooting from the side of a growing stalactite, or to deflec-
tions caused by currents of air, or to the existence of a diminutive
fungus peculiar to the locality and designated from its habitat
Mucor stalactitis. The Toy-Shop is an amusing collection of these
freaks of nature.
The dimensions of the various chambers included in Luray
Cavern cannot easily be stated, on account of the great irregu-
larity of their outlines. Their size may be seen from the diagram.
But it should be understood that there are several tiers of
galleries, and the vertical depth from the highest to the lowest
is 260 ft. The large tract of land owned by the Luray Caverns
Corporations covers all possible modes of entrance.
The waters of this cavern appear to be entirely destitute of life;
and the existing fauna comprises only a few bats, rats, mice,
spiders, flies and small centipedes. When the cave was first
entered, the floor was covered with thousands of tracks of
raccoons, wolves and bears most of them probably made
long ago, as impressions made in the tenacious clay that com-
poses most of the cavern floor would remain unchanged for
centuries. Layers of excrementitious matter appear, and also
many small bones, along with a few large ones, all of existing
species. The traces of human occupation are pieces of charcoal,
flints, moccasin tracks and a single skeleton embedded in stalag-
mite in one of the chasms, estimated, from the present rate of
stalagmitic growth, to have lain where found for not more than
five hundred years.
The temperature is uniformly 54 Fahr., coinciding with that
of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The air is very pure, and the
avenues are not uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the
public are now lighted by electric lamps. The registered number
of visitors in 1906 was 18,000. A unique and highly successful
experiment merits mention, by which the cool pure air of Luray
Cavern is forced through all the rooms of the Limair sanatorium
erected in 1901, by Mr T. C. Northcott, president of the Luray
Caverns Corporation, on the summit of Cave Hill. Tests made
for several successive years by means of culture media and sterile
plates, demonstrated the perfect bacteriologic purity of the air,
first drawn into the caverns through myriads of rocky crevices
that served as natural filters, then further cleansed by floating
over the transparent springs and pools, and finally supplied
to the inmates of the sanatorium.
For a full description see an article by Dr G. L. Hunner, of Johns
Hopkins University, in the Popular Science Monthly for April 1904.
(H. C. H.)
LURCH, a word with several meanings, the etymological
relationships of which are obscure. The chief uses which sur-
vive are (i) in the phrase " to leave in the lurch," to abandon
some one, to leave him in a position of great difficulty; (2) a
stagger, sudden leaning over, originally a nautical expression
of a sudden " list " made by a ship; (3) the name of a dog, the
" lurcher " used by poachers, properly a cross between a sheep-
dog or collie and a greyhound. In (i) " lurch " is the name of
a game, of which nothing is known (it is supposed to have
resembled backgammon), and also of a state of the score in various
games, in which the loser either scores nothing or is beaten by
very heavy points. In this sense the term is practically obsolete.
LURGAN LUSATIA
129
It was taken from Fr. lourche, connected with many German
forms, now only dialectical such as Lortsch, Lurtsch, Lorz, Lurz,
all for some kind of game, but also meaning left-hand, wrong,
which the New English Dictionary thinks is the origin of the
word, it being first used as a term in gambling. In (2) " lurch "
occurs first in the form " lee-lurches," sudden rolls a ship takes
to leeward in a heavy sea, which may be a corruption of " lee-
latch," defined in Smyth's Sailor's Word Book as dropping to lee-
ward of the course. In (3) " lurch " is probably another form
of " lurk," to lie in wait for, watch stealthily, hence to pilfer, steal.
LURGAN, a market -town of Co. Armagh, Ireland, well
situated on high ground overlooking Lough Neagh a few miles
to the north; 20 m. S.W. of Belfast by the Great Northern
railway. Pop. (1901) 11,782. The parish church of Shankill
(this parish including Lurgan) has a finely proportioned tower.
Contiguous to the town is Lurgan Castle, a fine modern Eliza-
bethan structure, the seat of Lord Lurgan. Lurgan is famed for
its diapers, and the linen trade is of the first importance, but
there are also tobacco factories and coach factories. It is
governed by an urban district council. Lurgan was founded by
William Brownlow, to whom a grant of the town was made by
James I. In 1619 it consisted of forty-two houses, all inhabited
by English settlers. It was burned by the insurgents in 1641,
and again by the troops of James II. After its restoration in
1690 a patent for a market and fair was obtained.
LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (1534-1572), Jewish mystic,
was born in Jerusalem. From his German descent he was sur-
named Ashkenazi (the German), and we find that epithet applied
to him in a recently discovered document of date 1559. In
that year Isaac Luria was living in Cairo and trading as a spice
merchant with his headquarters in Alexandria. He had come
to Egypt as a boy after his father's death, and was brought up
by his wealthy maternal uncle Mordecai Francis. The boy,
according to the legends which soon grew round his life, was a
" wonder-child," and early displayed marvellous capacity.
He married as a lad of fifteen, his bride being his cousin. For
some time he continued his studies; later on when engaged
in business there was no break in this respect. Two years after
his marriage he became possessed of a copy of the Kabbalistic
Bible " the Zohar of Moses de Leon (q.v.). In order to
meditate on the mystic lore he withdrew to a hut by the Nile,
returning home for the Sabbath. Luria afterwards gave to the
Sabbath a mystic beauty such as it had never before possessed.
Thus passed several years; he was still young, but his new mode
of life produced its effects on a man of his imagination and
saintly piety. He became a visionary. Elijah, who had been his
godfather in his babyhood, now paid him frequent visits, initiating
him into sublime truths. By night Luna's soul ascended to
heaven and conversed with celestial teachers who had once been
men of renown on earth.
In 1566 at earliest Luria removed to Safed. This Palestinian
town was in the i6th century the headquarters of the Kabbala.
A large circle of Talmudists lived there; at their head Joseph
Qaro, then over eighty years of age. Qaro's son married Luria's
daughter, and Qaro rejoiced at the connexion, for he had a high
opinion of Luria's learning. Mysticism is often the expression of
a revolt against authority, but in Luria's case mysticism was
not divorced from respect for tradition. After his arrival at
Safed Luria lived at most six years, and died in 1572. But these
years were momentous for Judaism. He established an extra-
ordinary reputation; his personality had a winning attractive-
ness; and he founded a school of mystics who powerfully affected
Judaism after the master's death. The Holy Spirit, we are told,
rested on him, drawn to him by the usual means of the mystics
self-flogging, ablutions and penance. He had wonderful gifts
of insight, and spoke to the birds. Miracles abounded. More
soberly true is the statement that he went on long walks with
enthusiastic disciples, whom he taught without books. Luria
himself wrote no mystical works; what we know of his doctrines
and habits comes chiefly from his Boswell, Hayim Vital.
There was little of originality in Luria's doctrines: the theory of
emanations, the double belief in the process of the Divine Essence
xvn. 5
as it were self-concentrating (Zimzum) and on the other hand as
expanding throughout creation; the philosophical " sceptism "
which regards God as unknowable but capable of direct intuition
by feeling these were all common elements of mystical thought.
Luria was an inspirer of saintly conduct rather than an innovator
in theories. Not beliefs, he said, but believers need rebirth. As he
rose in the morning he prayed: " O God, grant that throughout this
coming day I may be able to love my neighbour as myself." Never
would he retire to rest until he had fulfilled his definite engagements
to those who had served him. Luria and his school altered the very
look of the Jewish Prayer Book. Prayer was his main prop. By it
men became controllers of the earthly world and reached God.
He or his school introduced innumerable ritual customs, some of
them beautiful enough. On Sabbath he dressed in white, wearing
a four-fold garment to typify the four letters of the Divine Name.
The Sabbath was to him an actual cult. It was a day of the most
holy joy. Resuming the Talmudic idea of an Over-soul present in
every Israelite on the Sabbath, Luria and his school made play with
this Over-soul, fed it with spiritual and material dainties and evolved
an intricate maze of mystic ceremonial, still observed by countless
masses. Another strong point with Luria was penance. The con-
fessions of sin which he introduced descend to minute ritual details
and rise to the most exalted aspects of social and spiritual life.
He deprecated general confessions and demanded that the individual
must lay bare the recesses of his heart. Hayim Vital reports that
on his death-bed Luria said to his disciples: " Be at peace with one
another: bear with one another: and so be worthy ot my coming
again to reveal to you what no mortal ear has heard before." His
mystic ceremonial became a guide to religious practice, and though
with this there came in much meaningless and even bewildering
formalism, yet the example of his life and character was a lasting
inspiration to saintliness.
See S. Schecher, Studies in Judaism, second series, pp. 251 seq. ;
Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 210; E. Worman in Revue des Etudes
Juives, Ivii. 281. (I. A.)
LURISTAN, in the wider sense (as its name implies) the " Land
of the Lurs," namely that part of western Persia which is bounded
by Turkish territory on the west and extends for about 400 m.
N.W.-S.E. from Kermanshah to Pars with a breadth of 100 to
140 m. It is chiefly mountainous, being intersected by numerous
ranges running N.W.-S.E. The central range has many summits
which are almost within the line of perpetual snow, rising to
13,000 ft. and more, and in it are the sources of Persia's most
important rivers, as the Zayendeh-rud, Jarahi, Karun, Diz, Abi,
Kerkheh. Between the higher ranges are many fertile plains and
low hilly districts, well watered but comparatively little cultivated
in consequence of intertribal feuds. The Lurs are thought to
be aboriginal Persians with a mixture of Semitic blood. Their
language is a dialect of Persian and does not differ materially
from Kurdish. Outwardly they are Mussulmans of the Shiah
branch, but most of them show little veneration for either
Prophet or Koran, and the religion of some of them seems to be
a mixture of Ali-Illahism involving a belief in successive incarna-
tions combined with mysterious, ancient, heathen rites. The
northern part of Luristan, which was formerly known as Luri-
kuchik (little Luristan), is inhabited by the Feili Lurs and these
are divided into the Pishkuh (cis-montane) Lurs in the east and
Pushtkuh (ultra-montane) Lurs in the west adjoining Turkish
territory. They number about 350,000. Little Luristan was
governed by a race of independent princes of the Khurshidi
dynasty, and called atabegs, from 1155 to the beginning of the
1 7th century when the last atabeg, Shah Verdi Khan, was re-
moved by Shah Abbas I. and the government of the province
given to Husain Khan, the chief of a rival tribe, with the title
of vali in exchange for that of atabeg. The descendants of
Husain Khan have retained the title but now govern only the
Pushtkuh Lurs, to whom only the denomination of Feili is at
present applied. The southern part of Luristan was formerly
known as Lur i Buzurg (great Luristan) and is composed of the
Bakhtiari division of the Arabistan province and the districts of
the Mamasennis and Kuhgilus which belong to Fare. The
Bakhtiaris number about 200,000, the others 40,000. Great
Luristan was an independent state under the Fazlevieh
atabegs from 1160 until 1424, and its capital was Idaj, now
represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir 60 m. S.E. of
Shushter.
LUSATIA (Ger. Lausiiz), a name applied to two neighbouring
districts in Germany, Upper and Lower Lusatia, belonging now
130
LUSHAI HILLS LUSIGNAN
mainly to Prussia, but partly to Saxony. The name is taken
from the Lusitzi, a Slav tribe, who inhabited Lower Lusatia in
the gth and loth centuries.
In the earliest times Lower Lusatia reached from the Black
Elster to the Spree; its inhabitants, the Lusitzi, were conquered
by the German king, Henry the Fowler, and by the margrave
Gero in the loth century. Their land was formed into a separate
march, which for about three centuries was sometimes attached
to, and sometimes independent of, the margraviate of Meissen,
its rulers being occasionally called margraves of Lusatia. In 1303
it was purchased by the margrave of Brandenburg, and after
other changes it fell in 1368 into the hands of the king of Bohemia,
the emperor Charles IV., who already possessed Upper Lusatia.
During the Hussite wars its people remained loyal to the Roman
Catholic Church. In 1469 they recognized Matthias Corvinus,
king of Hungary, as their sovereign, but in 1490 they came again
under the rule of the Bohemian king.
The district now known as Upper Lusatia was occupied by a
Slav tribe, the Milzeni, who like the Lusitzi, were subdued by
Henry the Fowler early in the loth century. For about three
centuries it was called Baudissin (Bautzen), from the name of its
principal fortress. In the nth and 1 2th centuries it was connected
at different periods with Meissen, Poland and Bohemia. To-
wards 1160 the emperor Frederick I. granted it to Ladislas, king
of Bohemia, and under this ruler and his immediate successors
it was largely colonized by German immigrants. In 1253 it
passed to the margrave of Brandenburg, and about the same
time it was divided into an eastern and a western part, Baudissin
proper and Gorlitz. In 1319 the former was restored to Bohemia,
which also recovered Gorlitz in 1329. During the i4th century
the nobles and the townsmen began to take part in the govern-
ment, and about this time Upper Lusatia was known as the
district of the six towns (Sechsstddtelandes) , these being Bautzen,
Gorlitz, Zittau, Lobau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to
1396 Gorlitz was a separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the
emperor Charles IV., and, like Lower Lusatia, Upper Lusatia
owned the authority of Matthias Corvinus from 1469 to 1490,
both districts passing a little later with the kingdoms of Hungary
and Bohemia to the German king, Ferdinand I. The " six
towns " were severely punished for their share in the war of the
league of Schmalkalden, and about this time the reformed teach-
ing made very rapid progress in Lusatia, the majority of the
inhabitants becoming Protestants. The name of Lusatia
hitherto confined to Lower Lusatia, was soon applied to both
districts, the adjectives Upper and Lower being used to dis-
tinguish them. In 1620, early in the Thirty Years' War, the two
Lusatias were conquered by the elector of Saxony, John George I.,
who was allowed to keep them as the price of his assistance to the
emperor Ferdinand I. In 1635 by the treaty of Prague they were
definitely transferred from Bohemia to Saxony, although the
emperor as king of Bohemia retained a certain supremacy for
the purpose of guarding the rights and privileges of the Roman
Catholics. They suffered much during the wars of the i8th
century. By the peace of Vienna (1815) the whole of Lower
Lusatia and part of Upper Lusatia were transferred from Saxony
to Prussia.
The area of the part of Upper Lusatia retained by Saxony was
slightly increased in 1845; it is now about 960 sq. m. In 1900
Lower Lusatia contained 461,973 inhabitants, of whom 34,837
were Wends; the portion of Upper Lusatia belonging to Prussia
had 305,080 inhabitants, of whom 24,361 were Wends. There
were 405,173 inhabitants, including 28,234 Wends, in Saxon
Upper Lusatia. Laws relating to this district, after passing
through the Saxon parliament must be submitted to the Lusatian
diet at Bautzen. The chief towns of Upper Lusatia are Bautzen,
Zittau, Lobau, Kamenz, Gorlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and
Lauban; in Lower Lusatia they are Guben, Kottbus, Forst,
Lubben and Spremberg. The principal rivers are the Spree with
its tributaries, the Black Elster and the Neisse. Upper Lusatia
is generally mountainous and picturesque, Lower Lusatia is
flat and sandy. The chief industries are linen weaving, cloth
making and coal mining.
For the history of Lusatia see the eollections, Scriplores rerun
Lusaticarum antiqui el recentiores, edited by C. G. Hoffmann (4 vols.,
Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); and Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum (4
vols., Gorlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, Wettiner und
Wiitelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert (Dresden,
1894); T. Scheltz, Gesamtgeschichte der Ober- und Niederlausitz
Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Gorlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs, Ur-
kundenbuch zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz (Liibben,
1897); and J. A. E. Kohler, Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz (Gorlitz
1867).
LUSHAI HILLS, a mountainous district of Eastern Bengal
and Assam, south of Cachar, on the border between Assam and
Burma. Area, 7227 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 82,434. The hills are
for the most part covered with dense bamboo jungle and rank
undergrowth; but in the eastern portion, owing probably to a
smaller rainfall, open grass-covered slopes are found, with groves
of oak and pine interspersed with rhododendrons. These hills
are inhabited by the Lushais and cognate tribes, but the popula-
tion is extremely scanty. From the earliest known times the
original inhabitants were Kukis, and the Lushais were not heard
of until 1840, when they invaded the district from the north.
Their first attack upon British territory took place in November
1849, and after that date they proved one of the most troublesome
tribes on the north-east frontier of India; but operations in 1890
resulted in the complete pacification of the northern Lushai
villages, and in 1892 the eastern Lushais were reduced to order.
The management of the South Lushai hill country was transferred
from Bengal to Assam in 1898. To obtain more efficient control
over the country the district has been divided into eighteen
circles, each in charge of an interpreter, through whom all orders
are transmitted to the chiefs. The Welsh Presbyterian Mission
began work at Aijal in 1897, and the people have shown un-
expected readiness to accept education. According to the
census of 1901 the total number of Lushais in Assam was 63,452.
See Colonel T. H. Lewin, Wild Races of N.E. India (1870) ; Lushai
Hills Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1906).
LUSIGNAN, the name of a family which sprang from Poitou *
and distinguished itself by its connexion with the kingdom of
Jerusalem, and still more by its long tenure of the kingdom of
Cyprus (1192-1475). A Hugh de Lusignan appears in the ill-
fated crusade of noo-noi; another Hugh, the Brown, came
as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in 1164, and was taken prisoner
by Nureddin. In the last quarter of the I2th century the two
brothers Amalric and Guy, sons of Hugh the Brown, played a
considerable part in the history of the Latin East. About 1180
Amalric was constable of the kingdom of Jerusalem; and he
is said to have brought his handsome brother Guy to the notice
of Sibylla, the widowed heiress of the kingdom. Guy and
Sibylla were married in 1180; and Guy thus became heir pre-
sumptive of the kingdom, if the young Baldwin V., Sibylla's
son by her first marriage to William of Montferrat, should die
without issue. He acted as regent in 1183, but he showed some
incapacity in the struggle with Saladin, and was deprived of all
right of succession. In 1186, however, on the death of Baldwin
V., he succeeded in obtaining the crown, in spite of the opposi-
tion of Raymund of Tripoli. Next year he suffered a crushing
defeat at the battle of Hittin, and was taken prisoner by Saladin.
Released on parole in 1188, he at once broke his parole, and
began the siege of Acre. Difficulties, however, had arisen with
Conrad of Montferrat; and when Guy lost his wife Sibylla in
1190, and Conrad married Isabella, her sister, now heiress of
the kingdom, these difficulties culminated in Conrad's laying
claim to the crown. Guy found his cause espoused in 1191 by
the overlord of his house, Richard I. of England; but Conrad's
superior ability, and the support of the French crusaders, ulti-
mately carried the day, and in 1192 Richard himself abandoned
the pretensions of Guy, and recognized Conrad as king. Though
Conrad was almost immediately assassinated, the crown did not
1 A branch of the line continued in Poitou during the 1 3th century,
and ruled in LaMarche till 1303. Hugh de la Marche, whose betrothed
wife, Isabella of Angoulerae, King John of England seized (thus
bringing upon himself the loss of the greater part of his French
possessions), was a nephew of Guy of Lusignan. He ultimately
married Isabella, after the death of John, and had by her a number
of sons, half-brothers of Henry III. of England, who came over to
England, amongst other foreign favourites, during his reign.
LUSSIN LUSTRATION
return to Guy, but went to Henry of Champagne, who married
the widowed Isabella. Guy found some satisfaction for his loss
in buying from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he
reigned for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is
judged harshly by contemporary writers, as simplex and in-
sufflciens; but Dodu (in his Histoire des institutions du royaume
de Jerusalem) suggests that Guy was depreciated because the
kingdom had been lost in his reign, in much the same way as
Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had just been
won at his accession. Guy was a brave if not a particularly
able knight; and his instant attack on Acre after his release by
Saladin shows that he had the sentiment de ses devoirs.
He was succeeded in Cyprus by his brother Amalric, who
acquired the title of king of Cyprus from the emperor Henry VI.,
and became king of Jerusalem in 1197 by his marriage to Isa-
bella, after the death of Henry of Champagne (see AMALRIC II.).
Amalric was the founder of a dynasty of kings of Cyprus, which
lasted till 1475, while after 1269 his descendants regularly
enjoyed the title of kings of Jerusalem. The scions of the house
of Lusignan proved themselves the most sincere of crusaders.
They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had vindi-
cated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than
the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading
centres like Famagusta flourished vigorously; and they used
the resources of their kingdom, in conjunction with the Hospi-
tallers of Rhodes, to check the progress of the Mahommedans.
Among the most famous members of the house who ruled in
Cyprus three may be mentioned. The first is Hugh III. (the
Great), who was king from 1267 to 1285: to him, apparently,
St Thomas dedicated his De Regimine Principum; and it is in
his reign that the kingdom of Jerusalem becomes permanently
connected with that of Cyprus. The second is Hugh IV. (1324-
J359)> to whom Boccaccio dedicated one of his works, and who
set on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospi-
tallers, which resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344). The
last is Peter I., Hugh's second son and successor, who reigned
from 1359 to 1369, when he was assassinated as the result of a
conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his chancellor de Mezieres
represent the last flicker of the crusading spirit (see CRUSADES).
Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had succeeded in
putting a branch on the throne of Armenia. Five short-lived
kings of the house ruled in Armenia after 1342, " Latin exiles,"
as Stubbs says, " in the midst of several strange populations
all alike hostile." The kingdom of Armenia fell before the
sultan of Egypt, who took prisoner its last king Leo V. in 1375,
though the kings of Cyprus afterwards continued to bear the
title; the kingdom of Cyprus itself continued to exist under
the house of Lusignan for 100 years longer. The mother of the
last king, James III, (who died when he was two years old),
was a Venetian lady, Catarina Cornaro. She had been made a
daughter of the republic at the time of her marriage to the king
of Cyprus; and on the death of her child the republic first acted
as guardian for its daughter, and then, in 1489, obtained from
her the cession of the island.
See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, Histoire de I'tle de Chypre sous les
princes de la maison de Lusignan (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs,
Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900).
LUSSIN, a small island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Gulf of
Quarnero, forming together with the adjacent islands of Veglia
and Cherso an administrative district in the Austrian crownland
of Istria. Pop. (1900) 11,615. The island is 24 m. in length,
is of an average breadth of i -64 m., being little more than 300 yds.
wide at its narrowest point, and has an area of 29 sq. m. The
chief town and principal harbour is Lussinpiccolo (pop. 7207),
which is the most important trading centre in the Quarnero
group. The town has become a favourite winter resort, its
climate resembling that of Nice. To the south-east of it is
Lussingrande (pop. 2349), with an old Venetian palace and a
shipbuilding wharf. The island was first peopled at the end of
the i4th century. Its inhabitants are renowned seamen.
LUSTRATION, a term that includes all the methods of purifica-
tion and expiation among the Greeks and Romans. Among
the Greeks there are two ideas clearly distinguishable that
human nature must purify itself (KaBapaa) from guilt before
it is fit to enter into communion with God or even to associate
with men, and that guilt must be expiated voluntarily (iXa<7/^6j)
by certain processes which God has revealed, in order to avoid
the punishment that must otherwise overtake it. It is not
possible to make such a distinction among the Latin terms
lustratio, piacula, piamenta, caerimoniae, and even among the
Greeks it is not consistently observed. Guilt and impurity
arose in various ways; among the Greeks, besides the general
idea that man is always in need of purification, the species of
guilt most insisted on by religion are incurred by murder, by
touching a dead body, by sexual intercourse, and by seeing a
prodigy or sign of the divine will. The last three spring from
the idea that man had been without preparation and improperly
brought into communication with God, and was therefore guilty.
The first, which involves a really moral idea of guilt, is far more
important than the others in Hellenic religion. Among the
Romans we hear more of the last species of impurity; in general
the idea takes the form that after some great disaster the people
become convinced that guilt has been incurred and must be
expiated. The methods of purification consist in ceremonies
performed with water, fire, air or earth, or with a branch of a
sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and also in sacrifice and
other ceremonial. Before entering a temple the worshipper
dipped his hand in the vase of holy water (ftpippavrripiov, aqua
lustralis) which stood at the door; before a sacrifice bathing
was common; salt-water was more efficacious than fresh, and
the celebrants of the Eleusinian mysteries bathed in the sea
(aXaSt, HVO-TOLI); the water was more efficacious if a firebrand
from the altar were plunged in it. The torch, fire and sulphur
(ri> Oetov) were also powerful purifying agents. Purification by
air was most frequent in the Dionysiac mysteries; puppets
suspended and swinging in the air (oscilla) formed one way of
using the lustrative power of the air. Rubbing with sand and
salt was another method. The sacrifice chiefly used for purifica-
tion by the Greeks was a pig; among the Romans it was always,
except in the Lupercalia, a pig, a sheep and a bull (suovetaurilia).
In Athens a purificatory sacrifice and prayer was held before
every meeting of the ecclesia; the Maimacteria, 1 in honour of
Zeus Maimactes (the god of wrath), was an annual festival of
purification, and at the Thargelia two men (or a woman and a
man) were sacrificed on the seashore, their bodies burned and
the ashes thrown into the sea, to avert the wrath of Apollo. On
extraordinary occasions lustrations were performed for a whole
city. So Athens was purified by Epimenides after the Cylonian
massacre, and Delos in the Peloponnesian War (426 B.C.) to stop
the plague and appease the wrath of Apollo. In Rome, besides
such annual ceremonies as the Ambarvalia, Lupercalia, Cerialia,
Paganalia, &c., there was a lustration of the fleet before it sailed,
and of the army before it marched. Part of the ceremonial
always consisted in leading or carrying the victims round the
impure persons or things. After any disaster the luslratio
classium or exercitus was often again performed, so as to make
certain that the gods got all their due. The Amburbium, a
solemn procession of the people round the boundaries of Rome,
was a similar ceremonial performed for the whole city on
occasions of great danger or calamity; the Ambilustrium (so
called from the sacrificial victims being carried round the people
assembled on the Campus Martius) was the purificatory ceremony
which took place after the regular quinquennial census (lustrum)
of the Roman people.
See C. F. Hermann, Griechische Allerttimer, ii. ; G. F. Schomann,
ib. ii. ; P. Stengel, Die griechischen Kultusaltertumer (1898);
Marquardt, Rdmische Staatsverwaltung, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E.
von Lasaulx, Die Suhnopfer der Griechen und Rdmer (1841); J.
Donaldson, " On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of
the Greeks," in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xxvii.,
1876; and the articles by A. Bouche'-Leclercq in Daremberg and
Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites, and by W. Warde Fowler in
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891).
1 Maimacteria does not actually occur in ancient authorities a*
the name of a festival.
132
LUTE
LUTE (Arabic aTud, "the wood"; Fr. luth; Ital. Unto;
Span, laud; Ger. Laute; Dut. luit), an ancient stringed
musical instrument, derived in form as well as name from the
Arabs. The complete family consisted of the pandura, tanbur
or mandoline as treble, the lute as alto or tenor, the barbiton or
theorbo as bass, and the chitarrone as double bass. The Arab
instrument, with convex sound-body, pointing to the resonance
board or membrane having been originally placed upon a gourd,
was strung with silk and played with a plectrum of shell or quill.
It was adopted by the Arabs from Persia. Instruments with
vaulted backs are all undoubtedly of Eastern origin; the
distinct type, resembling the longitudinal section of a pear, is
more specially traced in ancient India, Persia and the countries
influenced by their civilization. This type of instrument in-
cludes many families which became known during the middle
ages of western Europe, being introduced into southern Europe
and Spain by the Moors, into southern Russia by the Persians
of the Sassanian period, into Greece from the confines of the
Byzantine Empire. As long as the strings were plucked by
fingers or plectrum the large pear-shaped instrument may be
identified as the archetype of the lute. When the bow, obtained
from Persia, was applied to the instrument by the Arabs, a fresh
family was formed, which was afterwards known in Europe
as rebab and later rebec. The largest member of the ancient
lute family the bass lute or theorbo has been identified with
the barbiton.
Until recently the existence of these ancient stringed instruments
was presumed on the evidence of the early medieval European instru-
ments and of the meagre writings extant, such as those of Farabl. 1
But a chain of plastic evidence can now be offered, beginning with
the Greek post-Mycenaean age (c. 1000 B.C.). A statuette of a female
musician playing upon a large lute with only an embryonic neck, on
which nevertheless the left hand is
stopping strings, was unearthed in
Egypt in a tomb of the XXth Dynasty
in the cemetery of Goshen by the
members of the British School of
Archaeology in Egypt, 2 under the
direction of Professor Flinders Petrie,
to whose courtesy we owe the photo-
graph (fig. l) here reproduced. "It is
difficult to form a conclusive opinion
as to the number of strings the artist
intended to represent, owing t6 the
decorative figures following the direc-
tion of the strings, but, judging from
the position of the right hand pluck-
ing a string, there may have been seven.
Among a number of terra-cotta figures
of musicians, brought to light during
the excavations in a Tell at Suza and
dating from the 8th century B.C., 1
although there is no instrument that
might be identified with the alto lute,
the treble lute or tanbur is represented
with a long, curved neck and a head
bent back to increase the tension, and
there is also an instrument having a
smaller and more elongated body than
the lute. On one of the friezes from
Afghanistan presented to the British
Museum by Major-General Cunningham, which formed the risers of
steps leading to the tope at Jumal Garhi, dating from the 1st century
A.D are represented scenes of music and dancing. Here the arche-
type of the lute appears several times; it had four strings, and
the head was bent back at right angles to the neck. In the 6th cen-
tury A.D illustrations of this early lute are no longer rare, more
especially on Persian silver-work of the Sassanian period 4 and in
FIG. i. Post-Mycenaean
terra-cotta figure, with
ancient lute (1000 B.C.)
from the cemetery at
Goshen.
1 See Latin translation by J. G. L. Kosegarten, Alii Ispahenensis
Liber . . . Arabice editur adjectaque translatione adnotationibusque
illustrates (Greifswald, 1840).
1 See Hyksos and Israelite Cities, by W. M. Flinders Petrie and
J. Garrow Duncan, 1906 (double volume), Brit. Sch. of Arch.
* J. de Morgan, Delegation en Perse (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pi. viii.
Nos. 8, 7 and 9.
4 See " The Treasures of the Oxus," catalogue of the Franks
Bequest to the British Museum by Ormonde M. Dalton (London,
!95). Pj; xxvi. No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, " Les antiquites
du nord," No. 608 ; also for further references, Kathleen Schlesinger,
" Precursors of the Violin Family," pt. ii. of The Instruments of the
Orchestra, pp. 407-408, and appendix B, pp. 492-493; and Gazette
archeologique (Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pi. x. and p. 70.
the paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples of Ajanta. 6 Several
representations of the barbiton are extant from the classical Roman
period.
The modern Egyptian 'ud is the direct descendant of the Arabic
lute, and, according to Lane, is strung with seven pairs of catgut
strings played by a plectrum. A specimen in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, given by the khedive, has four pairs only, which appears
to have been the old stringing of the instrument. When frets (cross-
lines dividing the neck or finger-board to show the fingering) are
employed they are of catgut disposed according to the Arabic scale
of seventeen intervals in the octave, consisting of twelve limmas.
an interval rather less than our equal semitone, and five commas!
which are very small but quite recognizable differences of pitch.
The lute family is separated from the guitars, also of Eastern
origin, by the formation of the sound body, which is in all lutes
pear-shaped, without the sides or ribs necessary to the structure of
the flat-backed guitar and cither. Observing this distinction, we
include with the lute the little Neapolitan mandoline of 2 ft. long
and the large double-necked Roman chitarrone, not infrequently
6 ft. long. Mandolines are partly strung with wire, and are played
with a plectrum, indispensable for metal or short strings. Perhaps
the earliest lutes were so played, but the large lutes and theorbos
strung with catgut have been invariably touched by the fingers only,
the length permitting this more sympathetic means of producing the
tone.
Praetorius,' writing when the lute was in universal favour,
mentions seven varieties distinguished by size and tuning. The
smallest would be larger than a mandoline, and the melody
string, the " chanterelle," often a single string, lower in pitch.
Praetorius calls this an octave lute, with the chanterelle C or D.
The two discant lutes have respectively B and A, the alto G, the
tenor E, the bass D, and the great octave bass G, an octave
below the alto lute which may be taken as the model lute culti-
vated by the amateurs of the time. The bass lutes were theorbos,
that is, double-necked lutes, as described below. The accord-
ance of an alto lute was fjj:
founded upon that of the original eight-stringed European lute, to
which the highest and lowest notes had, in course of time, been
added. A later addition was the
also on the [finger-
board, and bass strings, double or single, known as diapasons,
which, descending to the deep C of the violoncello, were not stopped
with the fingers. The diapasons were tuned as the key of the piece
of music required. Fig. 2 represents an Italian instrument made by
one of the most celebrated lute
makers, Venere of Padua, in 1600;
it is 3 ft. 6 in. high, and has six
pairs of unisons and eight single
diapasons. The finger-board,
divided into approximately equal
half tones by the frets, as a rule
eight in number, was often further
divided on the higher notes, for
ten, eleven, or, as in the woodcut,
even twelve, semitones. The head,
bearing the tuning pegs, was placed
at an obtuse or a right angle to the
neck, to increase the bearing of the
strings upon the nut, and be con-
venient for sudden requirements of
tuning during performance, the
trouble of keeping a lute in tune
being proverbial.
The lute was in general use during
the l6th and I7th centuries. In the
1 8th it declined; still J. S. Bach
wrote a " partita " for it. The latest
date we have met with of an en-
graved publication for the lute is
1760.
The large double-necked lute,
with two sets of- tuning pegs, the
lower for the finger-board, the
higher for the diapason strings, was
known as the theorbo; also, and
especially in England, as the arch-
lute; and, in a special form, the neck being then very long, as
the chitarrone. Theorbo and chitarrone appear together at the
close of the i6th century, and their introduction was synchronous
with the rise of accompanied monody in music, that is, of the oratorio
and the opera. Peri, Caccini and Monteverde used theorbos to
FIG. 2. Lute, by Venere
Padua.
6 By John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii. pi. 105, cave I. IO, e.
Syntagm. Music, pt. ii., " Organographie " (Wolfenbiittel, 1618),
pp. 30 and 58-61.
LUTHARDT- -LUTHER, MARTIN
accompany their newly-devised recitative, the invention of which
in Florence, from the impulse of the Renaissance, is well known.
The height of a theorbo varied from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft., the Paduan
being always the largest, excepting the Roman 6-ft. long chitarrone.
These large lutes had very deep notes, and doubtless great liberties
were allowed in tuning, but the strings on the finger-board followed
the lute accordance already given, or another quoted by Baron
(Untersuckung des Instruments der Lauten, Nuremberg, 1727) as the
old theorbo or " violway " (see Mace, Mustek's Monument, London,
1676).
h v
01
We find again both these accordances varied and transposed a tone
higher, perhaps with thinner strings, or to accommodate local differ-
ences of pitch. Praetorius recommends the chanterelles of theorbos
being tuned an octave lower on account of the great strain. By such
a change, another authority, the Englishman Thomas Mace, says, the
life and spruceness of airy lessons were quite lost. The theorbo or
archlute had at last to give way to the violoncello and double bass,
which are still used to accompany the " recitativo secco " in oratorios
and operas. Handel wrote a part for a theorbo in Esther (1720);
after that date it appears no more in orchestral scores, but remained
in private use until nearly the end of the century.
The lute and the organ share the distinction of being the first
instruments for which the oldest instrumental compositions we
possess were written. For the lute, however, they were not written
in our present notation, but in tablature, " lyrawise," a system by
which as many lines were drawn horizontally as there were pairs of
strings on the finger-board, the frets, distributed at intervals of a
semitone, being distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, repeated
from A, representing the open string, for each line. This was the
English and French manner; the Italian was by numbers instead of
letters. The signs of time were placed over the stave, and were not
repeated unless the mensural values changed. (A. J. H. ; K. S.)
LDTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST (1823-1902), German
Lutheran theologian, was born at Maroldsweisach, Bavaria, on
the 22nd of March 1823. He studied theology at Erlangen and
Berlin, and in 1856 became professor ordinarius of systematic
theology and New Testament exegesis at Leipzig. In 1865 he
was made a counsellor to the consistory, in 1871 canon of
Meissen cathedral, and in 1887 a privy councillor to the church.
He died at Leipzig on the 2ist of September 1902. A strictly
orthodox theologian, and a clear writer, though not a very
profound scholar, Luthardt became widely appreciated as the
author of apologetic lectures. These were collected under the
title Apologie des Christentums (vol. i., 1864, I4th ed. 1896;
vol. ii. 7th ed., 1001; vol. iii. 7th ed., 1898; vol. iv. 2nd ed.,
1880), a work of which the first three volumes have been trans-
lated into English. In 1868 he founded and edited the Allgemeine
evang.-lutherische Kirchenzeitung, with its supplement the
Theologisches Litteraturblatt, and in 1880 became editor of the
Zeitschrijt fiir kirchl. W issenschaft und kirchl. Leben.
His other works include Das Johanneische Evangelium . . .
erkldrt (1852-1853; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1875-1876), Offenbarung
Johannis erkldrt (1861), Lehre von den letzten Dingen (1861 ; 3rd ed.
1885); Kompendium der Dogmatik (1865; 9th ed., 1893), Geschichte
der christlichen Ethik (2 vols., 1888-1893), Gnadeund Wahrheit (1874),
Dot Wort des Lebens (1877) an d Gnade und Frieden (1880). His
autobiography was published with the title Erinnerungen aus
vergangenen Tagen (1889; and ed., 1891).
LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546), the great German religious
reformer, was born at Eisleben on the loth of November 1483.
His father, Hans Luther (Lyder, Luder, Ludher), a peasant from
the township of Mohra in Thuringia, after his marriage with
Margarethe Ziegler, had settled in Mansfeld, attracted by the
prospects of work in the mines there. The counts of Mansfeld,
who, many years before, had started the mining industry,
made a practice of building and letting out for hire small furnaces
for smelting the ore. Hans Luther soon leased one, then three.
In 1491 he became one of the four elected members of the village
council (vier Herren von der Gemeinde} ; and we are told that
the counts of Mansfeld held him in esteem. The boy grew up
amid the poor, coarse surroundings of the German peasant
life, imbibing its simple beliefs. He was taught that the Emperor
protected the poor people against the Turk, that the Church
was the " Pope's House," wherein the Bishop of Rome had all
the rights of the house-father. He shared the common super-
stitions of the time and some of them never left him.
Young Martin went to the village school at Mansfeld; to a
school at Magdeburg kept by the Brethren of the Common Lot;
then to the well-known St George's school at Eisenach. At
Magdeburg and Eisenach Luther was " a poor student," i.e.
a boy who was received into a hospice where he lived rent-free,
attended school without paying fees, and had the privilege of
begging for his bread at the house-doors of the town; in return
for which he sang as a chorister in the church to which the
school was attached. Luther was never a " wandering student " ;
his parents were too careful of their child to permit him to
lead the life of wandering licence which marked these pests of
medieval German scholastic life. At Eisenach he attracted the
notice of the wife of a wealthy merchant of Eisenach, whom his
biographers usually identify as Frau Cotta.
After three happy years at Eisenach, Luther entered the
university of Erfurt (1501), then the most famous in Germany.
Hans Luther had been prospering, and was more than ever
resolved to make his son a lawyer. Young Luther entered his
name on the matriculation book in letters which can still be
read " Martinus Ludher ex Mansfelt," a free student, no longer
embarrassed by great poverty. In Luther's time Erfurt was the
intellectual centre of Germany and its students were exposed
to a variety of influences which could not fail to stimulate young
men of mental ability.
Its theology was, of course, scholastic, but of what was then
called the modern type, the Scotist; its philosophy was the
nominalist system of William of Occam, whose great disciple,
Gabriel Biel (d. 1495), had been one of its most famous professors;
Nicholas de Lyra's (d. 1340) system of biblical interpretation
had been long taught there by a succession of able teachers;
Humanism had won an early entrance to the university; the
anti-clerical teaching of John of Wessel, who had himself taught
at Erfurt for fifteen years (1445-1460), had left its mark on
the place and was not forgotten. Hussite propagandists, even in
Luther's time, secretly visited the town and whispered among
the students their anti-clerical Christian socialism. Papal
legates to Germany seldom failed to visit the university and by
their magnificence bore witness to the majesty of the Roman
church.
A study of the scholastic philosophy was then the preliminary
training for a course of law, and Luther worked so hard at the
prescribed studies that he had little leisure, he said, for classical
learning. He attended none of the Humanist lectures, but he
read a good many of the Latin authors and also learned a little
Greek. He never was a member of the Humanist circle; he
was too much in earnest about religious questions and of too
practical a turn of mind. The young Humanists would have
gladly welcomed him into their select band. They dubbed him
the " philosopher," the " musician," recalled in after days his
fine social disposition, his skill in playing the lute, and his ready
power in debate. He took the various degrees in an unusually
brief time. He was bachelor in 1502 and master in 1505. His
father, proud of his son's steady application and success, sent
him the costly present of a Corpus Juris. He may have begun
to study law. Suddenly he plunged into the Erfurt Convent of
the Augustinian Eremites and after due noviciate became a monk.
The action was so unexpected that his contemporaries felt
bound to give all manner of explanations which have been
woven into accounts which are legendary. Nothing is known
about the cause of the sudden plunge but what Luther has
himself revealed. He has told us that he entered the monastery
because he doubted of himself, and that his action was sudden
because he knew that his father would have disapproved of his
intention.
The word " doubt " has made historians think of intellectual
difficulties of the " theological scepticism " taught by Occam
and Biel, of the disintegrating criticism of Humanism. But
there is no trace of any theological difficulties in Luther's mind
in the struggles which sent him into the convent and distracted
him there. He was driven to do what he did by the pressure
of a practical religious need, the desire to save his soul. The
fires of hell and the shades of purgatory, which are the constant
134
LUTHER, MARTIN
background of Dante's " Paradise," were present to Luther from
childhood.
Luther was the greatest religious genius which the i6th
century produced, and the roots of the movement in which he
was the central figure must be sought for in the popular religious
life of the last decades of the isth and opening decades of the
1 6th centuries a field which has been neglected by almost all
his biographers. When it is explored traces of at least five
different types of religious sentiment can be discovered. Pious
parents, whether among the burghers or peasants, seem to have
taught their children a simple evangelical faith. Martin Luther
and thousands of children like him were trained at home to know
the creed, the ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, and such
simple hymns as Ein Kindelein so lobelich, Nun bitten wir den
Heiligen Geist and Crist ist erstanden; and they were taught
to believe that God for Christ's sake freely pardons sin. They
learned that simple faith which Luther afterwards expounded
in his Small Catechism and called the Kinderlehre. When lads
trained like himself entered school and college they came in
contact with that religious revival which characterized the
last half of the 15th century. Fear seemed to brood over the
peoples of Western Europe. The plague devastated the badly
drained towns, new diseases spread death, the fear of the Turks
was permanent. All this went to feed revival, which, founded
on fear, refused to see in Jesus Christ anything but a stern judge,
and made the Virgin Mother and Anna the " grandmother "
the intercessors; which found consolation in pilgrimages from
shrine to shrine; which believed in crude miracles, and in the
thought that God could be best served within convent walls.
Luther's mind was caught in this current of feeling. He records
how it was burnt into him by pictures which filled his boyish
imagination. Jesus in the painted window of Mansfeld church,
stern of face, sword in hand, sitting on a rainbow, coming to
judge; an altarpiece at Magdeburg, in which a ship with its
crew, was sailing on to heaven, carrying no layman on board;
the deeds of St Elizabeth emblazoned on the window of St
George's parish church at Eisenach; the living pictures of a
young nobleman who had turned monk to save his soul, of a
monk, the holiest man Luther had ever known, who was aged
far beyond his years by his maceration; and many others of the
same kind.
Alongside this we can trace the growth of another religious
movement of a different kind. We can see a sturdy common-
sense religion taking possession of multitudes in Germany, which
insisted that laymen might rule in many departments supposed
to belong exclusively to the clergy. The jus episcopate which
Luther afterwards claimed for the secular authorities had been
practically exercised in Saxony and Brandenburg; cities and
districts had framed police regulations which set aside ecclesi-
astical decrees about holidays and begging; the supervision of
charity was passing from the hands of the church into those of
laymen; and religious confraternities which did not take their
guidance from the clergy were increasing. Lastly, the medieval
Brethren were engaged in printing and distributing tracts,
mystical, anti-clerical, sometimes socialist. All these influences
abounded as Luther was growing to manhood and laid their
marks upon him. It was the momentary power of the second
which drove him into the convent, and he selected the mon-
astic order which represented all that was best in the revival
of the latter half of the isth century the Augustinian
Eremites.
In the convent Luther set himself to find salvation. The last
word of that Scotist theology which ruled at the close of the
middle ages was that man must work out his own salvation, and
Luther tried to do so in the most approved later medieval fashion
by the strictest asceticism. He fasted and scourged himself; he
practised all the ordinary forms of maceration and invented
new ones, all to no purpose. His theological studies, part of the
convent education, told him that pardon could be had through
the Sacrament of Penance, and that the first part of the sacra-
ment was sorrow for sin. The older theology declared that such
sorrow must be based on love to God. Had he this love? God
always appeared to him as an implacable judge, threatening
punishment for breaking a law which it was impossible to keep.
He confessed to himself that he often hated this arbitrary Will
which Scotist theology called God. The later theology, taught
in the convent by John of Palz and John Nathin, said that
sorrow might be based on a meaner motive provided the Sacra-
ment of Penance was continually resorted to. Luther wearied
his superiors with his attendance at the confessional. He was
looked upon as a young saint, and his reputation extended
throughout the convents of his order. The young saint felt
himself to be no nearer the pardon of God; he thought that he
was " gallows-ripe." At last his superiors seemed to discover his
real difficulties. Partly by their help, partly by study of the
scriptures, he came to understand that God's pardon was to be
won by trusting to His promises. Thus after two years of in-
describable mental conflicts Luther found peace. The struggle
marked him for life. His victory gave him a sense of freedom,
and the feeling that life was given by God to be enjoyed. In all
external things he remained unchanged. He was a faithful son
of the medieval church, with its doctrines, ceremonies and
usages.
Soon after he had attained inward peace, Luther was ordained.
He continued his studies in theology, devoting himself to the
more " experimental " portions of Augustine, Bernard and
Gerson. He showed himself a good man of business and was
advanced in his order. In 1508 he was sent with some other
monks to Wittenberg to assist the small university which had
been opened there in 1502 by Frederick the Wise, elector of
Saxony. It was there that Luther began to preach, first in a
small chapel to the monks of his order; later taking the place
of one of the town's clergy who was in ill-health. From Witten-
berg he was sent by the chiefs of the German Augustinian
Eremites to Rome on a mission concerning the organization of
the order. He went up with the feelings of the medieval pilgrim
rather than with the intoxication of the ardent Humanist. On
his return (1512) he was sent by Staupitz, his vicar-general,
to Erfurt to take the necessary steps for higher graduation in
theology, in order to succeed Staupitz himself as professor of
theology in Wittenberg. He graduated as Doctor of the Holy
Scripture, took the Wittenberg doctor's oath to defend the
evangelical truth vigorously (mriliter), became a member of the
Wittenberg Senate, and three weeks later succeeded Staupitz
as professor of theology.
From the first Luther's lectures in theology differed from
those ordinarily given at the time. He had no opinions on
theological subjects at variance with the theology taught at
Erfurt and elsewhere. No one attributed any heretical views
to the young Wittenberg professor. He differed from others
because he looked at theology in a more practical way. He
thought it ought to be made useful to guide men to the grace of
God and to tell them how to persevere in a life of joyous obedience
to God and His commandments. His teaching was " experi-
mental " from the beginning. Besides he believed that he had
been specially set apart to lecture on the Holy Scriptures, and
he began by commenting on the Psalms and on the Epistles of
St Paul. He never knew much Hebrew and was not specially
strong in Greek; so he used the Vulgate in his prelections. He
had a huge widely printed volume on his desk, and wrote the
notes for his lectures on the margins and between the lines.
Some of the pages survive. They contain in the germ the leading
thoughts of what became Lutheran theology. At first he ex-
pressed himself in the phrases common to scholastic theology,
when these were found to be inadequate in words borrowed from
the mystical writers of the I4th and isth centuries, and then in
new phrases more appropriate to the circle of fresh thoughts.
Those new thoughts at first simply pushed aside the ordinary
theology taught in the schools without staying to criticize it.
Gradually, however, Luther began to find that there was some
real opposition between what he was teaching and the theology
he had been taught in the Erfurt convent. It appeared charac-
teristically enough on the practical and not on the speculative
side of theology in a sermon on Indulgences preached in July 1516.
LUTHER, MARTIN
135
Once begun the breach widened, until Luther could contrast
" our theology " with what was taught at Erfurt, and by Sep-
tember he began to write against the scholastic theology, to
clare that it was Pelagian at heart, that it repudiated the
\ugustinian doctrines of grace, and neglected to teach the
supreme value of that faith " which throws itself upon God."
These lectures and the teaching they contained soon made
a great impression. Students began to flock to the small obscure
university of Wittenberg, and the elector grew proud of the
teacher who was making his university famous. It was at this
interesting stage of his own religious career that he felt himself
compelled to stand forth in opposition to what he believed to
be a great religious scandal, and almost unconsciously to become
a Reformer.
Luther began his work as a Reformer by proposing to discuss
the true meaning of Indulgences. The occasion was an In-
dulgence proclaimed by Pope Leo X., farmed by the archbishop
of Mainz, and preached by John Tetzel, a Dominican monk and
a famed seller of Indulgences. Many of the German princes
had no great love for Indulgence sellers, and Frederick of Saxony
had prohibited Tetzel from entering his territories. But it was
easy to reach most parts of Electoral Saxony without actually
crossing the frontiers. The Red Cross of the Indulgence seller
had been set up at Zerbst and at Juterbogk, and people had gone
from Wittenberg to buy the Papal Tickets. Luther believed
that the sales were injurious to the morals of the townsmen; he
had heard reports of Tetzel's sermons; he had become wrathful
on reading the letter of recommendation of the archbishop;
and friends had urged him to interfere. He protested with a
characteristic combination of caution and courage. The church
of All Saints (the castle church) was closely connected with the
university of Wittenberg. Its doors were commonly used for
university proclamations. The Elector Frederick was a great
collector of relics and had stored them in his church. He had
procured an Indulgence for all who attended its services on
All Saints' Day, and crowds commonly gathered. Luther
nailed ninety-five theses on the church door on that day, the
ist of November 1517, when the crowd could see and read
them.
The proceeding was strictly academic. The matter discussed,
to judge by the writings of theologians, was somewhat obscure;
and Luther offered his theses as an attempt to make it clearer.
No one was supposed to be committed to every opinion he
advanced in such a way. But the theses posted somehow touched
heart and conscience in a way unusual in the common subjects
of academic disputation. Every one wanted to read them.
The University Press could not supply copies fast enough. They
were translated into German, and were known throughout
Germany in less than a fortnight. Within a month they had
been heard of all over western and southern Europe. Luther
himself was staggered at the way they were received. He said
he had never meant to determine, but to debate.
The theses were singularly unlike what might have been
expected from a professor of theology. They made no attempt
at theological definition, no pretence at logical arrangement;
they were anything but a brief programme of reformation. They
were simply ninety-five sledge-hammer blows directed against
the most flagrant ecclesiastical abuse of the age. They were
addressed to the " common " man and appealed to his common
sense of spiritual things.
The practice of offering, selling and buying Indulgences
(see INDULGENCE) was everywhere common in the beginning
of the 1 6th century. The beginnings go back more than a
thousand years before the time of Luther. In the earliest church
life, when Christians fell into sin, they were required to make
public confession before the congregation, to declare their sorrow,
and to vow to perform certain acts which were regarded as
evidence of the sincerity of their repentance. When the custom
of public confession before the congregation had changed to
private confession to the clergy, it became the confessor's duty
to impose these satisfactions. It was thought only right that
there should be some uniformity in dealing with repentant
sinners, and books appeared giving lists of sins and what were
supposed to be suitable satisfactions. When the sins confessed
were very heinous the satisfactions were correspondingly severe
and sometimes lasted over many years. About the 7th century
arose a custom of commuting or relaxing these imposed satisfac-
tions. A penance of several years fasting might be commuted
into saying so many prayers, or giving an arranged amount in
alms, or even into a money-fine. In the last case the analogy of
the Wergeld of the German tribal codes was commonly followed.
The usage generally took the form that any one who visited a
church, to which the Indulgence had been attached, on a day
named, and gave a contribution to its funds, had his penance
shortened by one-seventh, one-third or one-half, as might be
arranged. This was the origin of Indulgences properly so-called.
They were always mitigations of satisfactions or penances which
had been imposed by the church as outward signs of inward
sorrow, tests of fitness for pardon, and the needful precedents of
absolution. Luther uttered no protest against Indulgences
of this kind. He held that what the church had imposed the
church could remit.
This old and simple conception of Indulgences had been greatly
altered since the beginning of the I3th century. The institution
of penance had been raised to the dignity of a sacrament, and
this had changed both the place and the character of satisfactions.
Under the older conception the order had been Sorrow (Contritio),
Confession, Satisfaction (or due manifestation of sorrow in
ways prescribed) and Absolution. Under the newer theory
the order was Sorrow, Confession, Absolution, Satisfaction,
and both satisfaction and sorrow took new meanings. It was
held that Absolution removed guilt and freed from eternal
punishment, but that something had to be done to free the
penitent from temporal punishment whether in this life or in
purgatory. Satisfactions took the new meaning of the temporal
punishments due in this life and the substitute for the pains of
purgatory. The new thought of a treasury of merits (thesaurus
meritorum) introduced further changes. It was held that the
good deeds over and above what were needed for their own
salvation by the living or by the saints in heaven, together with
the inexhaustible merits of Christ, were all deposited in a treasury
out of which they could be taken by the pope and given by him
to the faithful. They could be added to the satisfactions actually
done by penitents. Thus Satisfactions became not merely signs
of sorrow but actual merits, which freed men from the need
to undergo the temporal pains here and in purgatory which their
sins had rendered them liable to. By an Indulgence merits
could be transferred from the storehouse to those who required
them. The change made in the character of Sorrow made
Indulgences all the more necessary for the indifferent penitent.
On the older theory Sorrow (Contritio) had for its one basis love
to God; but on the newer theory the starting-point might be
a less worthy king of sorrow (Attritio) which it was held would be
changed into the more worthy kind in the Sacrament of Penance.
The conclusion was naturally drawn that a process of penitence
which began with sorrow of the more unworthy kind needed a
larger amount of Satisfactions or penance than what began with
Contrition. Hence for the indifferent Christian, Attrition,
Confession and Indulgence became the three heads in the scheme
of the church of the later middle ages for his salvation. The one
thing which satisfied his conscience was the burdensome thing
he had to do, and that was to procure an Indulgence a matter
made increasingly easy for him as time went on.
This doctrine of Attrition had not the undivided support of the
theologians of the later medieval church ; but it was taught by the
Scotists and was naturally a favourite theme with the sellers of
Indulgences. Nor were all theologians at one upon the whole theory
of Indulgences. The majority of the best theologians held that
Indulgences had nothing to do with the pardoning of guilt, but
only with freeing from temporal penalties in this life or in purgatory.
But the common people did not discriminate, and believed that
when they bought an Indulgence they were purchasing pardon from
sin; and Luther placed himself in the position of the ordinary
Christian uninstructed in the niceties of theological distinctions.
His Ninety-five Theses made six different assertions about In-
dulgences and their efficacy :
136
LUTHER, MARTIN
i. An Indulgence is and can only be the remission of a merely
ecclesiastical penalty; the church can remit what the church has
imposed ; it cannot remit what God has imposed.
li. An Indulgence can never remit guilt ; the pope himself cannot
do such a thing; God has kept that in His own hand.
iii. It cannot remit the divine punishment for sin ; that also is in
the hands of God alone.
iv. It can have no efficacy for souls in Purgatory; penalties
imposed by the church can only refer to the living; death dissolves
them; what the pope can do for souls in Purgatory is by prayer,
not by jurisdiction or the power of the keys.
v. The Christian who has true repentance has already received
pardon from God altogether apart from an Indulgence, and does
not need one; Christ demands this true repentance from every one.
vi. The Treasury of Merits has never been properly denned; it
is hard to say what it is, and it is not properly understood by the
people; it cannot be the merits of Christ and of His saints, because
these act of themselves and quite apart from the intervention of the
pope; it can mean nothing more than that the pope, having the
power of the keys, can remit ecclesiastical penalties imposed by the
church ; the true Treasure-house of merits is the Holy Ghost of the
grace and glory of God.
The unexpected effect of the Theses was that the sale of
Indulgences began to decline rapidly, and the archbishop of
Mainz, disappointed in his hopes of revenue, sent a copy to Rome.
The pope thinking that the whole dispute was a monkish quarrel,
contented himself with asking the general of the Augustinian
Eremites to keep his monks quiet. This was not easy. Tetzel,
in conjunction with a friend, Conrad Wimpina, had published
a set of counter-theses. John Mayr of Eck, a noted contro-
versialist and professorof theology in the university of Ingolstadt,
scented the Hussite heresy in the Theses, and denounced them
in a tract entitled Obelisks. Luther at once answered in his
Asterisks. A controversy raged in Germany. Meanwhile, at
Rome, Silvester Mazzolini of Prierio, a Dominican monk and
Inquisitor, had been studying the Theses, was profoundly
dissatisfied with them, and wrote a Dialogue about the Power
of the Pope, against the presumptuous conclusions of Martin
Luther. This book reached Germany about the middle of
January 1518, and increased the tumult.
Luther's friends had been provokingly silent about the Theses;
but in April 1518, at the annual chapter of the Augustinian
Eremites held at Heidelberg, Luther heard his positions temper-
ately discussed, and found somewhat to his astonishment that his
views were not acceptable to all his fellow monks. On his return
to Wittenberg he began an answer to his opponents. He care-
fully considered his positions, found them unassailable, and
published his Resolutions, the most carefully written of all his
works. The book practically discarded all the ideas and practices
concerning Indulgences which had come into the medieval
church since the beginning of the I3th century, and all the
ingenious explanations of the scholastic theologians from
Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas downwards. The effect of
the controversy was a great decrease in the sale of Indulgences
in Germany, and the Papal Curia saw with alarm a prolific
source of revenue decaying. It was felt that Luther must be
silenced. He was accordingly summoned to Rome. To obey
would have meant death; to refuse in his own name would
have been contumacy. But the peremptory summons could be
construed as an attack on the university of Wittenberg, and both
the elector of Saxony and the emperor Maximilian so regarded
it. The result was that Pope Leo cancelled the summons, and
it was arranged that Luther should appear before the papal
Legate to the German Diet, Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajedtan',
at Augsburg. The interview was not very successful. At its
conclusion Luther wrote two appeals one from the pope ill-
informed to the pope well-informed, and the other to a General
Council. True to his habit of taking the German people into his
confidence, he wrote an account of his interview with the Legate,
and published it under the title of the Ada Augustana.
The publication greatly increased the sympathy of almost
all classes in Germany for Luther. They saw in him a pious man,
an esteemed professor, who had done nothing but propose a
discussion on the notoriously intricate subject of Indulgences,
peremptorily ordered to recant and to remain silent. The
elector Frederick shared the common feelings and resolved to
defend the man who had made his university so famous. His
action compelled the Roman Curia to pause. Germany was on
the eve, it was believed, of an election of a king of the Romans;
it was possible that an imperial election was not far distant;
Frederick was too important a personage to offend. So the
condemnation by the Cardinal-Legate was withdrawn for the
time, and the pope resolved to deal with the matter otherwise.
He selected one of his chamberlains, Charles von Miltitz, the
elector's private agent at Rome, and commissioned him to
deal with the matter as he best could. Miltitz received the
" golden rose " to give to Frederick, and was furnished with
several letters in all of which the pope spoke of Luther as a
"child of the devil." His holiness had probably forgotten the
fact when he addressed Luther some months later as " his dear
son."
When Miltitz arrived in Germany he discovered that the
movement was much more important than the Roman Curia had
imagined. He had not to deal with the opposition of a recalcitrant
monk, but with the awakening of a nation. He resolved to meet
with Tetzel and with Luther privately before he produced his
credentials. Tetzel he could not see; the man was afraid to leave
his convent; but he had lengthy interviews with Luther in the
house of Spalatin the chaplain and private secretary of the
elector Frederick. There he disowned the sermons of the pardon-
sellers, let it be seen that he did not approve of the action of the
Legate, and so prevailed with Luther that the latter promised to
write a submissive letter to the pope, to exhort people to rever-
ence the Roman See, to say that Indulgences were useful to remit
canonical penances, and to promise to write no more on the
matter unless he happened to be attacked. Luther did all this.
A reconciliation might have taken place had the Roman Curia
supported Miltitz. But the Curia did not support Miltitz,
and placed more faith in Eck, who was eager to extinguish
Luther in a public discussion.
Luther had been spending the time between his interview
with the Legate at Augsburg (Oct. 1518) and the Leipzig Dis-
putation (June 1519) in severe and disquieting studies. He
had found that all his opponents had pursued one line of argu-
ment: the power to issue an Indulgence is simply one case of
the universal papal jurisdiction; Indulgences are what the
pope proclaims them to be, and to attack them is to attack the
power of the pope; the pope represents the Roman church,
which is actually the universal church, and to oppose the pope
is to defy the whole church of Christ; whoever attacks such
a long-established system as that of Indulgences is a heretic.
Such was the argument. Luther felt himself confronted with
the pope's absolute supremacy in all ecclesiastical matters.
It was a plea whose full force he felt. The papal supremacy was
one of his oldest inherited beliefs. He re-examined his convictions
about justifying faith and whether they did lead to his declara-
tions about Indulgences. He could come to no other con-
clusion. It then became necessary to examine the papal claims.
He set himself to study the Decretals, and to his amazement
and indignation he found that they were full of frauds. It is
hard to say whether the discovery brought him more joy or more
grief. His letters show him half-exultant and half-terrified.
While he was in this state of mind he received Eck's challenge
to dispute with him at Leipzig on the papal supremacy.
This Leipzig Disputation was perhaps the most important
point in Luther's career. He met Eck in June 1519. It soon
appeared that the intention of that practised debater was to
force Luther into some admission which would justify opponents
in accusing him of holding the opinions of Huss, who had been
condemned by the great German Council of Constance. In
this he was eminently successful. Eck left Leipzig triumphant,
and Luther returned to Wittenberg much depressed. As usual
he wrote out and published an account of the Disputation,
which was an appeal to his fellow Germans. The result surpassed
his expectations. The Disputation made him see that his protest
against the abuses of Indulgences was no criticism of an ex-
crescence on the medieval ecclesiastical system, but an attack
on its centre of existence. He saw that he stood for the spiritual
LUTHER, MARTIN
1 37
priesthood of all believers and that medievalism in religion
neant that man cannot approach God without a priestly
oediator. The people also saw his position and rallied round
him; and the Humanists discerned in him a champion against the
old intolerance against which they had been revolting in vain.
Luther's depression fled. Sermons, pamphlets, letters from his
tireless pen flooded the land, and Luther began to be the leader
of a German revolt against Rome.
The year 1520 saw the publication of his three most important
vorks, all written at a time when he was fully convinced that
he had broken for ever with Rome. They were, On the Liberty
of a Christian Man, An Address to the Nobility of the German
Nation, and On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church of God
he three primary treatises, as they have been called.
Meanwhile at Rome the pope had entrusted Eck and Prierias
vith the preparation of a bull (Exurge Domine) against Luther
bull which followed the line of Eck's charges at Leipzig.
The reformer had been expecting it ever since the Disputation
at Leipzig, and had resolved to answer it by one striking act
which would impress the imagination of every man. He posted
up a notice inviting the Wittenberg students to witness the
burning of the bull (loth of December 1520). Rome had shot
its last ecclesiastical bolt. Nothing remained but an appeal
to the secular power, and this was at once prepared.
The emperor Maximilian had died suddenly (i2th January
1519), and for long Germany was disturbed with intrigues about
the succession the papal policy being specially tortuous.
The widely expressed desire for a German emperor secured the
unanimous election of Charles, the grandson of Maximilian
and the king of Spain. Never were a people more mistaken and
disappointed. The veins of Charles were full of German blood,
but he was his mother's son. It was the Spaniard, not the
German, who faced Luther at Worms.
Charles was crowned at Aachen, 23rd of October 1520, and
opened his first German diet at Worms, 22nd of January 1521.
The pope had selected two envoys to wait on the young emperor,
one of them, Jerome Aleander, being specially appointed to
secure the outlawry of Luther. The agenda of the diet contained
many things seriously affecting all Germany, but the one problem
which every one was thinking about was how Luther would be
dealt with. The Electoral College was divided. The archbishop
of Cologne, the elector of Brandenburg and his brother the
archbishop of Mainz were for instant outlawry, while the elector
of Saxony, who was resolved to protect Luther, had great
influence with the archbishop of Trier and the Count Palatine
of the Rhine.
Aleander had no difficulty in persuading Charles, while both
were still in the Netherlands, to put Luther under the ban
within his hereditary dominions, and the papal nuncio expected
that the decree would be extended to the whole German empire.
But Charles at first refused to deal summarily with Luther so
far as Germany was concerned. The emperor even wrote to the
elector of Saxony, asking him to bring Luther with him to the
diet for examination. Gradually he came to think that Luther
might be condemned without appearing. The members of the
diet were slow to come to any conclusion. At last they made
up their minds, and presented a memorial to the emperor
(igth of February 1521) in which they reminded him that no
imperial edict could be published against Luther without their
sanction, and proposed that he should be invited to Worms under
a safe-conduct and be there examined. They also suggested
that Luther should be heard upon the papal claims, and ended
by asking the emperor to deliver Germany from the papal
tyranny. The emperor agreed to summon Luther under a safe-
conduct, and that he should be heard; but he refused to mix
his case with that of grievances against Rome. He had no
sooner made the promise than he seems to have repented it.
He saw no need for Luther's appearance. He tried to get him
condemned unheard. An edict against Luther had been drafted
(iSth of February) which the diet refused to sanction. A few
days later a second edict was drafted which ordered the burning
of Luther's books. The diet again objected. Finally four days
after the safe-conduct had been despatched the emperor revised
this second edict, limited it to the seizure of Luther's books,
and published it on his own authority without consulting the
diet (loth March). After Luther had begun his journey, this
edict was posted up along his route in order to intimidate him ;
other means were taken to make him turn aside from Worms;
but he was resolved to go there and nothing daunted him. He
reached the town (i6th April) and was met by encouraging
crowds. He was summoned to appear before the diet on the
1 7th and measures were taken to prevent him doing more than
answering definite questions put to him. He was asked whether
certain books had been written by him and whether he was
prepared to maintain or to abjure what he had written. He
asked time to prepare an answer to the second question. The
diet was anxious to hear Luther, if the emperor was not, and his
request was granted. He thus defeated the plot to keep him
silent. On the i8th he made his second appearance and delivered
the speech, which electrified his audience. At the close he was
threatened by Spaniards in the diet. The Germans ringed him
round, and, with their hands raised high in the fashion of a
landsknecht who had struck a successful blow, passed out into
the street and escorted him to his lodgings. Next day (April
i gth) the emperor proposed to place Luther under the ban of
the empire and read to the assembly a brief statement of his
own views. The diet objected, and asked for a conference
between Luther and some selected members. Conferences were
held, but came to nothing. No compromise was possible between
the declaration that man's conscience could only be bound by
the Word of God and the emperor's belief in the infallibility of a
general council. The commission had to report that its efforts
had failed. Luther was ordered to leave Worms and to return
to Wittenberg. His safe-conduct was to expire twenty-one
days after the i6th of April. Then he was liable to be seized
and put to death as a pestilent heretic. There only remained
to draft and publish the edict containing the ban. Days passed
and it did not appear. Suddenly the startling news reached
Worms that Luther had disappeared, no one knew where. It
was reported that his body had been found in a silver-mine
pierced with a dagger. The news flew over Germany and
beyond it that he had been slain by papal emissaries. At Worms
the indignation of the populace was intense. The public buildings
were placarded during the night with an intimation that four
hundred knights had sworn not to leave Luther unavenged, and
the ominous words Bundschuh, Bundschuh, Bundschuh (the
watchword of peasant revolts) were written at the foot. The
combination suggested an alliance between the lesser knights
and the peasants, dreaded by all the ruling classes. The true
story of Luther's disappearance was not known until long after-
wards. After the failure of the conference the elector of
Saxony had commissioned two of the councillors to convey
Luther to a place of safety without telling him where it was.
Many weeks elapsed before Frederick himself learned that
Luther was safe in his own castle of the Wartburg. The dis-
appearance did not mean that Luther had ceased to be a leader
of men; but it marked the beginning of an organized national
opposition to Rome.
It was not till the 25th of May that the edict against Luther
was presented to a small number of members of the diet, after
the elector of Saxony and many important members had left
Worms. It threatened all Luther's sympathisers with extermina-
tion, and practically proclaimed an Albigensian war in Germany.
But few public documents prepared with so much care have
proved so futile. The latter half of 1521 saw the silent spread
of Lutheran opinions all over Germany. This was not un-
accompanied with dangers. Every movement for reform
carries within it the seeds of revolution, and Luther's was no
exception to the rule.
The revolution began in Wittenberg during Luther's seclusion
in the Wartburg. Andrew Boden of Carlstadt, a colleague of
Luther's in the university of Wittenberg, was strongly impressed
with the contradiction which he believed to exist between
evangelical teaching and the usages of medieval ecclesiastical
138
LUTHER, MARTIN
life. He denounced monastic vows, a distinctive dress for the
clergy, the thought of a propitiatory mass, and the presence of
images and pictures in the churches. Zwilling, a young Augus-
tinian Eremite, added his fiery denunciations. His preaching
stirred the commonalty. Turbulent crowds invaded two of the
churches and rioted inside. The excitement of the people was
increased by the arrival of three men known in history as the
Zwickau prophets. Melanchthon felt himself powerless to restrain
the tumult. The magistrates of the town were won over and
issued an ordinance which attempted to express in legislation
the new evangelical ideas. Duke George of Saxony, a resolute
opponent of the Reformation, threatened to make the diet
interfere. Luther became alarmed, and, not without a private
hint from the elector of Saxony, 1 left his retreat and appeared
among his townsmen. His presence and exertions restored
order, and the conservative reformation resumed its quiet course.
From this time onwards to the outbreak of the Peasants' War
(1525) Luther was the real leader of the German nation, and every-
thing seemed to promise a gradual reformation without tumult.
The Peasants' War ended this anticipation. From one point
of view this insurrection was simply the last, the most wide-
spreading and the most disastrous of these revolts, which had
been almost chronic in Germany during the later decades of the
1 5th and earlier years of the i6th century and which had been
almost continuous between 1503 and 1517. All the social and
economic causes which produced them were increasingly active
in 1524 and 1525. But it is undoubted that the religious revolt
intensified the rebellion of the lower classes. Luther's voice
awoke echoes he never dreamt of. The times were ripe for
revolution, and the message which spoke of a religious democracy
could not fail to suggest the social democracy also. In his
appeal to the Nobility of the German Nation he had stated with
severe precision the causes of social discontent. Himself a
peasant's son and acquainted with the grievances under which
the peasant lived, he had at various times formulated most
of the demands which afterwards figured conspicuously in the
Twelve Articles. The insurgents had good cause to regard him
as a sympathiser. But Luther, rightly or wrongly, believed
that of the two ways in which wrongs can be set right the
way of war and the path of peace the latter is the only sure
road in the long run. He did his best therefore to prevent the
rising and risked his life among the infuriated peasants as
readily as when he stood before the emperor and the diet.
When the rebellion was at its height and Thomas Mtinzer had
sent forth fiery proclamations urging the peasantry " not to let
the blood cool on their swords," Luther issued the pamphlet,
which casts a stain on his whole life, in which he hounds on the
ruling classes to suppress the insurgents with all violence. In
the end the rebellion, formidable as it seemed for a few months,
was crushed, and a heavier yoke was laid on the shoulders of the
unfortunate peasants.
This year, 1525, saw the parting of the ways in the movement
for reform. It ceased to be national and became ecclesiastical.
It divided into three separate parts. One, guided by Luther
himself, ended, after a long struggle with pope and emperor,
in the establishment of evangelical churches under the rule of
the secular authorities of the territories which adopted the
Lutheran Reformation. Another, remaining true to the prin-
ciples, doctrines, usages and hierarchy of the medieval church,
dreamt only of a purification of moral life, and saw its end
realised in the reforms of the council of Trent. The third,
gathering together the more revolutionary impulses, expanded
into that complex movement called Anabaptism which
spread over western Europe from England to Poland and
from Scandinavia to northern Italy, and endured a long and
sanguinary persecution at the hands of the civil authorities
in most European countries. Its strength and popularity,
especially among the artizan classes, have been very much
underrated by most historians.
1 Enders, Dr Martin Luther's Briefwechsel, iii. 292-295 ; von
Bezold, Zcitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte xx. 186 sqq.; Barge, Andreas
Bodenstein von Karlstadt, i. 432 sqq.
During the storm of the Peasants' War (i3th of June 1525)
Luther married Catherine von Bora, the daughter of a noble
but impoverished family belonging to Meissen. She had been
a Cistercian nun in the convent of Nimtzch near Grimma a
convent reserved for ladies of noble birth. Luther's writings,
circulating through Saxony, had penetrated the convent walls
and had convinced most of the inmates of the unlawfulness of
monastic vows. Catherine and eight companions resolved to
escape. Their relatives refused to aid them, and they applied
to Luther. He entrusted the business to Leonhard Koppe of
Torgau, and the rescue was safely carried out( 4th of April 1523).
The rescued nuns found places of refuge in the families of
Wittenberg burghers. The elector John of Saxony (who had
succeeded his brother Frederick) gave Luther the house which
had served as the Augustinian Convent. The family gathered
in this three-storeyed building, with its back windows looking
over the Elbe and its front door opening on a great garden, was
latterly Luther and his wife, their three sons and two daughters,
Magdelena von Bora, Catherine's aunt, two orphan nieces and a
grandniece. At the beginning of his married life Luther must
have been in straitened circumstances. He married a portionless
nun. On to 1532 his salary was two hundred gulden annually
(about 160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend was
increased to 240 with various payments in kind corn, wood,
malt, wine, &c. which meant a great deal more. The town
added occasional gifts to enable Luther to entertain the great
personages who came to consult him frequently. Princes made
him presents in money. This enabled Luther to purchase from
his wife's brother the small estate of Zulsdorf . Catherine, too,
was an excellent house-wife. She made the long-neglected
garden profitable; kept pigs and poultry; rented other gardens;
stocked a fishpond; farmed in a small way; and had her house
full of boarders. Luther had a high opinion of her intelligence;
she took rank among those consulted on ah 1 important occasions;
in one letter to her, seldom quoted, he gives the fairest statement
he ever made about the views of Zwingli on the Sacrament of
the Supper.
The diet of Speyer (1526) saw Germany divided into a Pro-
testant and a Romanist party. After much debate a compromise
was arrived at, which foreshadowed the religious peace of
Augsburg of 1555. It was resolved that the Word of God should
be preached without disturbance, that indemnity should be
given for past offences against the edict of Worms, and that
meanwhile each state should live religiously as it hoped to
answer for its conduct to God and the emperor. The Lutherans
interpreted this to mean the right to frame ecclesiastical regula-
tions for various principalities and to make changes in public
worship. Luther busied himself in simplifying the service, in
giving advice, anxiously sought for, about the best modes of
organising ecclesiastical affairs. In the diet held at Speyer
in 1529 a compact Roman Catholic majority faced a weak
Lutheran minority. The emperor declared through his com-
missioners that he abolished " by his imperial and absolute
authority" the clause in the ordinance of 1526 on which the
Lutherans had relied when they began to organize their territorial
churches. The majority of the diet supported the emperor
in this, and further proceeded to decree that no ecclesiastical
body was to be deprivedof itsrevenuesorauthority. Thismeant
that throughout all Germany medieval ecclesiastical rule was
to be upheld, and that none of the revenues of the medieval
church could be appropriated for Protestant uses. On this
a portion of the Protestant minority drafted a legal protest, in
which the signers declared that they meant to abide by the
decision of the diet of 1526 and refused to be bound by that of
1529. From this protest came the name Protestant.
A minority in such a case could only maintain their protest
if they were prepared to defend each other by force in case of an
attack. Three days after the protest had been read, many
of the protesting cities and states concluded " a secret and
particular treaty," and Philip of Hesse, the ablest statesmah
among the Protesters, saw the need for a general union of all
evangelical Christians in the empire. The difficulties in the way
LUTHER, MARTIN
139
were great. The Saxons and the Swiss, Luther and Zwingli,
were in fierce controversy about the true doctrine of the sacra-
ment of the Supper. Luther was a patriotic German who was
for ever bewailing the disintegration of the Fatherland; Zwingli
was full of plans for confederations of Swiss cantons with South
German cities, which could not fail to weaken the empire.
Luther had but little trust in the " common man "; Zwingli
was a thorough democrat. When Luther thought of the Swiss
reformer he muttered as Archbishop Parker did of John Knox
" God keep us from such visitations as Knox hath attempted in
Scotland; the people to be orderers of things." Above all
Luther had good grounds for believing that at the conference at
Memmingen friends of Zwingli had helped to organize a Peasants'
War and to link the social revolution to the religious awakening.
All these suspicions were in Luther's mind when he consented
very half-heartedly to meet Zwingli at a conference to be held
in Philip of Hesse's castle at Marburg. The debate proceeded
as such debates usually do. Zwingli attacked the weakest part
of Luther's theory the ubiquity of the body of Christ; and
Luther attacked Zwingli's exegesis of the words of the institution.
Neither sought to bring out their points of agreement. Yet the
conference did good; it showed that the Protestants were
agreed on all doctrinal points but one. If union was for the
present impossible, there were hopes for it in the future.
In 1530 the emperor Charles, resolved to crush the Reforma-
tion, himself presided at the diet. The Protestant divisions
were manifest. Three separate confessions were presented to
the emperor one from Zwingli, one by the theologians of the
four cities of Strassbourg, Constance, Lindau and Memmingen
(Confessio TelrapolUa.no) , and the Augsburg Confession, the future
symbol of the Lutheran church. The third was the most im-
portant, and the emperor seriously set himself to see whether it
might not be made the basis of a compromise. He found that
reconciliation was hopeless. Thereupon the diet resolved that
the edict of Worms was to be enforced against Luther and his
partizans; that the ecclesiastical jurisdictions were to be pre-
served; and that all the church property taken possession of by
the Lutheran princes was to be restored; and that in all cases of
dispute the last court of appeal was to be the Imperial Court of
Appeals. The last provision meant that the growing Protestant-
ism was to be fought by harrassing litigation nicht fechten
sondern rechten was the phrase.
Luther was not present at the diet nor at the negotiations.
He was still an outlaw according to imperial ideas. Melanchthon
took his place as leader.
The decision of the diet compelled the Protestant princes to
face the new and alarming situation. They met in conference in
mid-winter at the little town of Schmalkald, and laid the founda-
tions of what became the powerful Schmalkald League, which
effectually protected the Protestants of Germany until it was
broken up by the intrigues of the imperial party. From the time
of the formation of this league, Luther retired gradually from
the forefront of a reformation movement which had become
largely political, and busied himself with reforms in public
worship and suggestions for an organization of the polity of the
Evangelical church. In this work his natural conservatism is
apparent, and he contented himself with such changes as would
make room for the action of evangelical principles. He dis-
claimed the right of suggesting a common order of worship or a
uniform ecclesiastical polity; and Lutheran ritual and polity,
while presenting common features, did not follow one common
use. It may be said generally that while Luther insisted on a
service in the vernacular, including the singing of German
hymns, he considered it best to retain most of the ceremonies,
the vestments and the uses of lights on the altar, which had
existed in the unreformed church, while he was careful to explain
that their retention might be dispensed with if thought necessary.
To the popular mind the great distinction between the Lutheran
and the medieval church service, besides the use of the vernacular
and the supreme place assigned to preaching, was that the people
partook of the cup in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; and
the Lutheran service became popularly distinguished from the
Reformed because it retained, while the Reformed did away
with, most of the medieval ceremonies and vestments (see
LUTHERANS). The variations in the details of the polity of the
Lutheran churches were very numerous, but they all preserved
the same distinctive principles. Two conceptions lay at the
basis the thought of the spiritual priesthood of all believers
and the belief that the state was a divine ordinance, that the
magistracy might represent the whole body of believers and that
discipline and administration might be exercised through courts
constituted somewhat like the consistorial courts of the medieval
bishops, their members being appointed by the magistracy.
The last years of Luther's life were spent in incessant labour
disturbed by almost continuous ill-health. He was occupied in
trying to unite firmly together the whole evangelical movement ;
he laboured to give his countrymen a good system of schools;
he was on the watch to defeat any attempt of the Roman Curia
to regain its hold over Germany; and he was the confidential
adviser of a large number of the evangelical princes. Luther's
intimacy with his own elector, first John, then John Frederick,
helped to give him the place accorded to him by the princes.
The chiefs of the Houses of Anhalt and Luneburg, Duke Henry
of Saxony, Joachim II. of Brandenburg, Albert of Brandenburg
and the counts of Mansfeld, were among Luther's most devoted
supporters and most frequently sought his advice. Princely
correspondence was not always pleasant. It took its most dis-
agreeable form when Philip of Hesse besieged Luther with
requests to give his sanction to taking a second wife while his
first was still alive. Luther's weakness brought the second great
blot on his career. The document sanctioning the bigamy of the
landgrave was signed by Martin Bucer, Luther and Melanchthon,
and is a humiliating paper. It may be thus summarized.
According to the original commandment of God, marriage is
between one man and one woman, and this original precept has
been confirmed by our Lord; but sin brought it about that
first Lamech, then the heathen, and then Abraham, took more
than one wife, and this was permitted under the law. We are
now living under the Gospel, which does not give prescribed
rules for the external life and has not expressly prohibited
bigamy. The law of the land expresses the original command-
ment of God, and the plain duty of the pastorate is to denounce
bigamy. Nevertheless, the pastorate, in single cases of the direst
need and to prevent worse, may sanction bigamy in a purely
exceptional way. Such a bigamous marriage is a true marriage
in the sight of God (the necessity being proved), but it is not a
true marriage in the eye of public law and custom. Such a
marriage and the dispensation for it ought to be kept secret;
if it is made known, the dispensation becomes eo ipso invalid
and the marriage is mere concubinage. The principle which
underlies this extraordinary paper is probably the conception
that the Protestant church has the same dispensing power
which the medieval church claimed, but that it was to be exercised
altogether apart from fees of any kind.
In his later years Luther became more tolerant on the sacra-
mental question which divided him from the South German
cities, although he never departed from his strong opposition
to the supposed views of Zwingli himself. He consented to a
conference, which, as he was too ill to leave home, met at Witten-
berg (May-June 1536). After prolonged discussion the differ-
ences were narrowed to one point the presence of the body of
Christ extended in space in the sacrament of the Supper. It was
agreed in the Wittenberg Concord to leave this an open question.
Thus North and South Germany were united. It is possible that
had Luther lived longer his followers might have been united
with the Swiss. He repeatedly expressed an admiration for
Calvin's writings on the subject of the sacrament ; and Melanch-
thon believed that if the Swiss accepted Calvin's theory of the
Supper, the Wittenberg Concord could be extended to include
them. But the Consensus Tigurinus, which dates the adhesion
of the Swiss to the views of Calvin, was not signed until 1549,
when Luther was already dead.
Year by year Luther had been growing weaker, his attacks of
illness more frequent and his bodily pains more continuous.
140
LUTHERANS
Despite the entreaties of wife and elector he resolved to do
what he could to end some trifling dispute about inheritance
which threatened the peace of the House of Mansfeld. He left
Wittenberg in bitterly cold weather on the 23rd of January 1546,
and the journey was tedious and hazardous. He was accepted as
arbiter and his decision brought an end to the strife. He
preached in Eisleben (February 14) with all his old fervour;
but suddenly said quietly: " This and much more is to be said
about the Gospel; but I am too weak and we will close here."
These were his last words in the pulpit. On the i6th and i7th
the deeds of reconciliation were signed and Luther's work was
done. The end came swiftly. He was very ill on the evening
of the I7th; he died on the early morning of the i8th of February
1546 in his sixty-third year.
The elector of Saxony and Luther's family resolved that he
must be buried at Wittenberg, and on the 2oth the funeral pro-
cession began its long march. The counts of Mansfeld, the
magistrates of the city and all the burghers of Eisleben accom-
panied the coffin to the gates of their town. A company of fifty
light-armed troops commanded by the young counts of Mansfeld
headed the procession and went with it all the way to Witten-
berg. The following was temporarily swelled as it passed
through villages and towns. Delegates from the elector of
Saxony met it as it crossed the boundaries of the principality.
Luther was laid to rest in the Castle church on whose door he
had nailed the theses which had kindled the great conflagration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (a) For Luther's life as a whole: Melanchthon,
" Historia de vita et actis Lutheri " (Wittenberg, 1545), in the
Corpus Reformaiorum, vi. ; Mathesius, Historien von . . . Martini
Lutheri, Anfang, Lehre, Leben und Sterben (Prague, 1896) ; Myconius,
Historia. Reformationis 1517-1542 (Leipzig, 1718); Ratzeberger,
Geschichte iiber Luther und seine Zeit (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer,
Tagebuch iiber Dr Martin Luther gefiihrt von Dr Conrad Cordatus,
1537 (Halle, 1885); Forstemann, Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte
der evangelischen Kirchenreformation (Hamburg, 1842); Kolde,
Analecta Lutherana (Gotha, 1883); G. Losche, Analecta Lutherana
et Melanchthoniana (Gotha, 1892); G. Losche, Vollstdndige Refor-
mations-Acta und Documenta (Leipzig, 1720-1729); Enders, Dr
Martin Luther's Briefwechsel (5 vols., Frankfurt, 1884-1893);
J. Cochlaeus (Rom. Cath.), Commentarius de actis et scnptis M.
Lutheri, &c. (St Victor prope Moguntium). See also J. Kostlin,
Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften (2 vols., Berlin, 1889);
Th. Kolde, Martin Luther, Eine Biographic (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-
1893); A. Hausrath, Luther's Leben (2 vols., Berlin, 1904); Lindsay,
Luther and the German Reformation (Edinburgh, 1900); Cambridge
Modern History, ii. (Cambridge, 1903) ; History of the Reformation, \.
(Edinburgh, 1906).
(6) For special incidents: The Theses and their publication:
W. Kohler, Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutwnen, den Gegen-
schriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, Eck and Prierias, und den Antworten
Luthers darauf (Leipzig, 1903); Emil Reich, Select Documents
illustrating Medieval and Modern History (London, 1905) ; The
Leipzig Disputation: Seidemann, Die Leipziger Disputation im
Jahre 1519 (Dresden, 1843); Luther before the Diet of Worms:
Deutsche Reichstagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V. (Gotha, 1893-1901), ii.;
The Marburg Colloquy; Schirrmacher, Brief e und Aden zu der
Geschichte des Religionsgespr aches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichs-
tages zu Augsburg 1530 (Gotha, 1876); Hospinian, Historia Sacra-
mentaria, ii. I23&-I266; Ehrard, Das Dogma vom heuigen Abendmahl
und seine Geschichte, ii. (Frankfurt a M., 1846); The Augsburg
Confession : Schaff , The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches
(London, 1877), History of the Creeds of Christendom (London, 1877).
(T. M. L.)
LUTHERANS, the general title given to those Christians who
have adopted the principles of Martin Luther in his opposition
to the Roman Church, to the followers of Calvin, and to the
sectaries of the times of the Reformation. Their distinctive
name is the Evangelical, as opposed to the Reformed church.
Their dogmatic symbols are usually said to include nine separate
creeds which together form the Book of Concord (Liber Concordiae) .
Three belong to the Early Christian church the Apostles'
Creed, the Nicene Creed (in its Western form, i.e. with the
filioque), and the so-called Athanasian Creed; six come from
the 1 6th century the Augsburg Confession, the Apology for the
Augsburg Confession, the Schmalkald Articles, Luther's two
Catechisms, and the Form of Concord. But only the three
early creeds and the Augsburg Confession are recognized by
all Lutherans. Luther's Catechisms, especially the shorter
of the two, have been almost universally accepted, but the
Form of Concord was and is expressly rejected by many Lutheran
churches. The Augsburg Confession and Luther's Short Cate-
chism may therefore be said to contain the distinctive principles
which all Lutherans are bound to maintain, but, as the principal
controversies of the Lutheran church all arose after the publica-
tion of the Augsburg Confession and among those who had
accepted it, it does not contain all that is distinctively Lutheran.
Its universal acceptance is perhaps due to the fact that it exists
in two forms (the variata and the invariata) which vary slightly
in the way in which they state the doctrine of the sacrament
of the Supper. The variola edition was signed by Calvin, in the
meaning, he said, of its author Melanchthon.
After Luther's death the more rigid Lutherans declared it
to be their duty to preserve the status religionis in Germania
per Lulherum instauratus, and to watch over the depositum Jesu
Christi which he had committed to their charge. As Luther was
a much greater preacher than a systematic thinker, it was not
easy to say exactly what this deposit was, and controversies
resulted among the Lutheran theologians of the i6th century.
The Antinomian controversy was the earliest (1537-1560).
It arose from differences about the precise meaning of the word
" law " in Luther's distinction between law and gospel. Luther
limited the meaning of the word to mean a definite command
accompanied by threats, which counts on terror to produce
obedience. He declared that Christ was not under the dominion
of the law in this sense of the word, and that believers enter
the Christian life only when they transcend a rule of life which
counts on selfish motives for obedience. But law may mean
ethical rule, and the Antinomians so understood it, and inter-
preted Luther's declaration to mean that believers are not under
the dominion of the moral law. The controversy disturbed the
Lutheran church for more than twenty years.
The Arminian controversy in the Reformed church, the
Jansenist controversy in the Roman Catholic church, had their
parallel in three separate disputes among the Lutherans lasting
from 1550 to 1580. (i) George Major, discussing the relation
of good works to conversion, declared that such works were
both useful and necessary to holiness. He was attacked by
Flacius and Amsdorf, and after a long controversy, full of
ambiguities and lacking in the exhibition of guiding principles,
he was condemned because his statement savoured of Pelagian-
ism. (2) The same problem took a new form in the Synergist
controversy, which discussed the first impulse in conversion.
One party taught that while the first impulse must come from
the Holy Spirit the work might be compared to reviving a man
apparently dead. It was answered that the sinner was really
dead, and that the work of the Spirit was to give an actually
new life. The latter assertion was generally approved of. (3)
Then a fresh controversy was started by the assertion that sin
was part of the substance of man in his fallen condition. It
was answered that sin had not totally destroyed man's ethical
nature, and that grace changed what was morally insensitive
into what was morally sensitive, so that there could be a co-
operation between God's grace and man's will.
The controversy raised by Andrew Osiander was more im-
portant. He felt that Luther had omitted to make adequate
answer to an important practical question, how Christ's death
on the cross could be brought into such actual connexion with
every individual believer as to be the ground of his actual
justification. The medieval church had spanned the centuries
by supposing that Christ's death was continuous down through
the age in the sacrifice of the Mass; Protestant theology had
nothing equivalent. He proposed to supply the lack by the
theory that justification is a real work done in the individual
by the same Christ who died so many centuries ago. Redemption,
he said, was the result of the historical work of Christ; but
justification was the work of the living risen Christ, dwelling
within the believer and daily influencing him. Osiander's
theory did not win much support, but it was the starting-point
of two separate doctrines. In the Lutheran church, Striegel
taught that the principal effect of Christ's work on the cross
was to change the attitude of God towards the whole human
LUTHERANS
141
race, and that, in consequence, when men come into being and
have faith, they can take advantage of the change of attitude
effected by the past historical work of Christ. The Reformed
church, on the other hand, constructed their special doctrine
of the limited reference in the atonement.
The other controversies concerned mainly the doctrine of
the sacrament of the Supper, and Luther's theory of Con-
substantiation. This required a doctrine of Ubiquity, or the
omnipresence of the body of Christ extended in space, and
therefore of its presence in the communion elements. Calvin
had taught that the true way to regard substance was to think
of its power (vis), and that the presence of a substance was the
immediate application of its power. The presence of the body
of Christ in the sacramental elements did not need a presence
extended in space. Melanchthon and many Lutherans accepted
the theory of Calvin, and alleged that Luther before his death
had approved of it. Whereupon the more rigid Lutherans
accused their brethren of Crypto-Calvinism, and began contro-
versies which dealt with that charge and with a defence of the
idea of ubiquity.
The university of Jena, led by Matthias Flacius, was the
headquarters of the stricter Lutherans, while Wittenberg and
Leipzig were the centres of the Philippists or followers of
Melanchthon. Conferences only increased the differences.
The Lutheran church seemed in danger of falling to pieces.
This alarmed both parties. New conferences were held and
various articles of agreement were proposed, the most notable
being the Torgau Book (1576). In the end, the greater proportion
adopted the Book of Concord (1577), drafted chiefly by Jacob
Andreae of Tubingen, Martin Chemnitz of Brunswick and
Nicolas Selnecker of Leipzig. Its recognition was mainly due
to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. This Book of
Concord was accepted by the Lutheran churches of Sweden and
of Hungary in 1593 and 1597; but it was rejected by the
Lutheran churches of Denmark, of Hesse, of Anhalt, of Pomerania
and of several of the imperial cities. It was at first adopted and
then rejected by Brunswick, the Palatinate and Brandenburg.
The churches within Germany which refused the Book of Concord
became for the most part Calvinistic or Reformed. They
published, as was the fashion among the Reformed churches,
separate creeds for themselves, but almost all accepted the
Heidelberg Catechism. These differences in the German Pro-
testant churches of the second half of the i6th century are
reflected in the great American Lutheran church. The church
exists in three separate organizations. The General Synod of
the Evangelical Church of the United States, organized in 1820,
has no other creed than the Augsburg Confession, so liberally
interpreted as not to exclude Calvinists. The Synodical Con-
ference of North America, organized in 1872, compels its pastors
to subscribe to the whole of the nine creeds contained in the
Book of Concord. The General Council, a secession from the
General Synod, was organized in 1867, and accepts the " un-
altered " (invariala) Augsburg Confession in its original sense,
and the other Lutheran symbols as explanatory of the Augsburg
Confession.
The divided state of German Protestantism, resulting from
these theological differences, contributed in no small 'degree
to the disasters of the Thirty Years' War, and various attempts
were made to unite the two confessions. Conferences were held
at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645), Cassel (1661); but without
success. At length the union of the two churches was effected
by the force of the civil authorities in Prussia (1817), in Nassau
(1817), in Hesse (1823), in Anhalt-Dessau (1827) and elsewhere.
These unions for the most part aimed, not at incorporating the
two churches in doctrine and in worship, but at bringing churches
or congregations professing different confessions under one
government and discipline. They permitted each congregation
to use at pleasure the Augsburg Confession or the Heidelberg
Catechism. The enforced union in Prussia was combined with
the publication of a new liturgy intended for common use. This
led to secessions from the state church. These seceders were
at first treated with great harshness, but have won their
way to toleration, and form the Lutheran Free churches of
Germany.
The most important of these latter is the Evangelical Lutheran
church of Prussia, sometimes called the Old Lutherans. It
camq into being in 1817 and gradually gained the position of a
tolerated nonconformist church (1845 being the date of its
complete recognition by the state). At the 1005 census it
numbered 51,600 members under 75 pastors. Its affairs are
managed by an Oberkirchencollegium, with four ordained and
two lay members. The Evangelical Lutheran Immanuel Synod
came into being in 1864, and has a membership of 5300 with
13 ordained pastors. Its headquarters is Liegnitz. The In-
dependent Evangelical Lutheran church in the lands of Hesse
arose partly on account of the slumbering opposition to the
union of 1823 and more particularly in consequence of an attempt
made at a stricter union in 1874. It has a membership of about
1800. The renilente church of Lower Hesse has a membership
of 2400. The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Hanover
has a membership of 3050 under 10 ordained pastors. The
Hermannsburg Free Church has a membership of about 2000
under 2 pastors. The Evangelical Lutheran Community in
Baden has a membership of about 1 100 with 2 ordained pastors.
The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Saxony has a member-
ship of about 3780 with 1 5 ordained pastors. < These free churches
exist separate from the State Evangelical United Church (Evan-
gelische unirte Landskircke).
The general system of ecclesiastical government which prevails
among all Lutheran churches is called the consistorial. It
admits of great variety of detail under certain common features
of organization. It arose partly from the makeshift policy of
the times of the Reformation, and partly from Luther's strong
belief that the jus episcopate belonged in the last resort to the
civil authorities. It may be most generally described by saying
that the idea was taken from the consistorial courts through
which the medieval bishops managed the affairs of their dioceses.
Instead of the appointments to the membership of the con-
sistories being made by the bishops, they were made by the
supreme civil authority, whatever that might be. Richter, in
his Evangelische Kirchenordnungen des i6ten Jahrhunderts
(2 vols., 1846), has collected more than one hundred and eight
separate ecclesiastical constitutions, and his collection is con-
fessedly imperfect. The publication of a complete collection
by Emil Sehling was begun in 1902.
The liturgies of the Lutheran churches exhibit the same
diversities in details as appear in their constitutions. It may
be said in general that while Luther insisted that public worship
ought to be conducted in a language understood by the people,
and that all ideas and actions which were superstitious and
obscured the primary truth of the priesthood of all believers
should be expurged, he wished to retain as much as possible
of the public service of the medieval church. The external
features of the medieval churches were retained; but the minor
altars, the labernacula to contain the Host, and the light per-
manently burning before the altar, were done away with. The
ecclesiastical year with its fasts and festivals was retained in
large measure. In 1526 Luther published the German Mass and
order of Divine Service, which, without being slavishly copied,
served as a model for Lutheran communities. It retained the
altar, vestments and lights, but explained that they were not
essential and might be dispensed with. The peril attending the
misuse of pictures in churches was recognized, but it was believed
to be more than counterbalanced by the instruction given through
them when their presence was not abused. In short Luther
contented himself with setting forth general principles of divine
service, leaving them to be applied as his followers thought best.
The consequence was that there is no uniform Lutheran liturgy.
In his celebrated Codex Liturgicus Ecclesiae Luthcranae in
epitomen redactus (Leipzig, 1848), Daniel has used 98 different
liturgies and given specimens to show the differences which they
exhibit.
The divergences in ritual and organization, the principle
underlying all the various ecclesiastical unions, viz. to combine
142
LUTHER LEAGUE LUTTERWORTH
two different confessions under one common government, and,
resulting from it, the possibility of changing from one confession
to another, have all combined to free the state churches from any
rigid interpretation of their theological formulas. A liberal and
a conservative theology (rationalist and orthodox) exist side by
side within the churches, and while the latter clings to the
theology of the i6th century, the former ventures to raise doubts
about the truth of such a common and simple standard as the
Apostles' Creed. The extreme divergence in doctrinal position
is fostered by the fact that the theology taught in the univer-
sities is in a great measure divorced from the practical religious
life of the people, and the theological opinions uttered in the
theological literature of the country cannot be held to express
the thoughts of the members of the churches. In each state the
sovereign is still held to be the summus episcopus. He appoints
a minister of public worship, and through him nominates the
members of the governing body, the Oberkirchenrath or Con-
sislorium or Directorium. This council deals with the property,
patronage and all other ecclesiastical matters. But each parish
elects its own council for parochial affairs, which has a legal
status and deals with such matters as the ecclesiastical assess-
ments. Delegates from these parish councils form the Landes-
synode. In cases that call for consultation together, the Con-
sislorium and the Synod appoint committees to confer. In
Alsace-Lorraine about half of those entitled to vote appear at
the polls; but in other districts of Germany very little interest
is shown in the elections to the parish councils.
The income of the state churches is derived from four sources.
The state makes an annual provision for the stipends of the
clergy, for the maintenance of fabrics and for other ecclesiastical
needs. The endowments for church purposes, of which there
are many, and which are destined to the support of foreign
missions, clerical pensions, supply of books to the clergy, &c.
are administered by the supreme council. The voluntary
contributions of the people are all absorbed in the common
income of the national churches and are administered by the
supreme council. Each parish is legally entitled to levy ecclesi-
astical assessments for defined purposes.
Appointments to benefices are in the hands of the state
(sometimes with consent of parishes), of private patrons and
of local parish councils. The number of these benefices is always
increasing; and in 1897 they amounted to 16,400, or 300 more
than in 1890. The state appoints to 56% , private and municipal
patrons to 34%, and congregations to 10% of the whole.
Customs vary in different states; thus in Schleswig-Holstein
the state nominates but the parish elects; in Alsace-Lorraine
the directorium or supreme consistory appoints, but the
appointment must be confirmed by the viceroy; in Baden the
state offers the parish a selection from six names and then
appoints the one chosen.
The Lutheran state churches of Denmark, Sweden and Norway
have retained the episcopate. In all of them the king is recog-
nized to be the summus episcopus or supreme authority in all
ecclesiastical matters, but in Norway and Sweden his power is
somewhat limited by that of parliament. The king exercises
his ecclesiastical authority through a minister who super-
intends religion and education. The position and functions of
the bishops vary in the different countries. In all the rite of
ordination is in their hands. In Denmark they are the inspectors
of the clergy and of the schools. In Sweden they preside over
local consistories composed of clerical and lay members. The
episcopate in all three countries accommodates itself to some-
thing like the Lutheran consistorial system of ecclesiastical
government.
The two leading religions within Germany are the Evangelical
(Lutheran) and the Roman Catholic, including respectively 58
and 39% of the population. The proportions are continually
varying, owing to the new migratory habits of almost every
class of the population. Generally speaking, the Roman Catholics
are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Wiirttem-
burg; and the Evangelicals in the other districts of Germany,
especially in the large cities. There is a growing tendency to
mixed marriages, which are an important factor in religious
changes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Richter, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des
sechzehnten Jahrhunderts (Weimar, 1846); Sehling, Die evangelischen
Kirchenordnungen des idten Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1902, &c.);
Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts
(8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, Beitrage zur Kirchenver-
fassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik inbesondere des Prolestantismus,
i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in Ausgewahlte hi. Schriften, ii. (Gotha,
1875); Hofling, Grundsdtze der evangelischen- Lutherischen Kirchen-
verfassung (Erlangen, 1850, 3rd ed., 1853); Drews, Das kirchl.
Leben d. deutschen evangelischen Landeskirchen (Tubingen, 1902);
Erich Fprster, Die Enstehung der preussischen Landeskirchen unter
der Regierung Konig Friedrich WUhelms III,, i. (Tubingen, 1905);
Emil Sehling, Geschichte der protestantischen Kirchenverfassung
(Leipzig, 1907); articles in Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protest.
Theologie (3rd ed.), on Kirchenregiment, Kirchenrecht, Kirchen-
ordnung, Konsistorien, Episcopalsystem, Gemeinde, Kollegial-
system, Territorialsystem ; Schaff, History of the Creeds of Christen-
dom (London. 1877). (T. M. L.)
LUTHER LEAGUE, a religious association for young people
in the United States of America. It began with a local society
founded by delegates of six Lutheran church societies in New
York City in 1888. The first national convention was held at
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 3oth and 3ist of October 1895.
The basis of the league is the Augsburg Confession. Its member-
ship is open to " any society of whatever name connected with a
Lutheran congregation or a Lutheran institution of learning."
According to the constitution its objects are " to encourage
the formation of the young people's societies in all Lutheran
congregations in America, to urge their affiliation with their
respective state or territorial leagues, and with this league to
stimulate the various young people's societies to greater Christian
activity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the church." The
league publishes a monthly paper, The Luther League Review, in
Washington. According to its official report it had 70,000
members in 1906, which had increased to more than 100,000 in
1910.
LUTQN, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
or Luton parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 30 m.
N.W. by N. of London by the Midland railway, served also by a
branch of the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 36,404. It lies in a
narrow valley on the south flank of the Chiltern Hills, on the
upper part of the river Lea. The church of St Mary is mainly
Decorated, but has portions of Early English and Perpendicular
work. It has brasses and monuments of interest and a late
Decorated baptistery of stone, an ornate roofed structure,
octagonal in form. The font within it is Early English. Luton
is the principal seat in England of the straw-plait manufacture,
and larga quantities of hats and other straw goods have been
exported, though in recent years the industry has suffered from
increased foreign competition. The industry originated with the
colony of straw-plaiters transplanted by James I. from Scotland,
whither they had been brought from Lorraine by Queen Mary.
The town has also foundries, motor car works and other manu-
factures. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 3133 acres.
LUTSK (Polish, Luck}, a town of southern Russia, in the
government of Volhynia, on the Styr, 51 m. by rail N.W. of
Kovel. Pop. (1900) 17,701. It is supposed to have been founded
in the 7th century; in the nth century it was known as Luchesk,
and was the chief town of an independent principality. In the
iSth century it was the seat of a bishop and became wealthy, but
during the wars between Russia and Poland in the second half
of the i6th century, and especially after the extermination of
its 40,000 inhabitants, it lost its importance. In 1791 it was
taken by Russia. Its inhabitants, many of them Jews, live
mainly by shipping goods on the Styr. Among its buildings is a
16th-century castle. Lutsk is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop.
LUTTERWORTH, a market town in the Harborough parlia-
mentary division of Leicestershire, England; 90 m. N.N.W.
from London by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 1734.
It lies in a pleasant undulating country on the small river Swift,
an affluent of the Avon. The church of St Mary is a fine building,
LUTTRELL LUTZEN
mainly Decorated and Perpendicular, wherein are preserved
relics of John Wycliffe, who was rector here from 1374 until his
death in 1384. The exhumation and burning of his body in
1428, when the ashes were cast into the Swift, gave rise to the
saying that their distribution by the river to the ocean resembled
that of Wycliffe's doctrines over the world. Wycliffe is further
commemorated by a modern obelisk in the town. Trade is
principally agricultural.
LUTTRELL, HENRY (c. 1765-1851), English wit and writer of
society verse, was the illegitimate son of Henry Lawes Luttrell,
2nd earl of Carhampton (1743-1821), a grandson of Colonel
Henry Luttrell (c. 1655-1717), who served James II. in Ireland
in 1689 and 1690, and afterwards deserted him, being murdered
in Dublin in November 1717. Colonel Luttrell's son Simon
(1713-1787) was created earl of Carhampton in 1785, and the
latter's son was Henry Lawes Luttrell. Before succeeding to the
peerage, the 2nd earl, then Colonel Luttrell, had won notoriety
by opposing John Wilkes at the Middlesex election of 1769.
He was beaten at the poll, but the House of Commons declared
that he and not Wilkes had been elected. In 1796 he was made
commander of the forces in Ireland and in 1798 he became a
general. Being an Irish peer, Carhampton was able to sit in
the English parliament until his death in April 1821. The earl-
dom became extinct on the death of his brother John, the 3rd
earl, in 1829.
Henry Luttrell secured a seat in the Irish parliament in 1798
and a post in the Irish government, which he commuted for a
pension. Introduced into London society by the duchess of
Devonshire, his wit made him popular. Soon he began to write
verse, in which the foibles of fashionable people were outlined.
In 1820 he published his Advice to Julia, of which a second edition,
altered and amplified, appeared in 1823 as Letters to Julia in
Rhyme. This poem, suggested by the ode to Lydia in the first
book of Horace's Odes, was his most important work. His more
serious literary contemporaries nicknamed it " Letters of a
Dandy to a Dolly." In 1827 in Crockford House he wrote a satire
on the high play then in vogue. Byron characterized him as
" the best sayer of good things, and the most epigrammatic
conversationist I ever met "; Sir Walter Scott wrote of him as
" the great London wit," and Lady Blessington described him
as the one talker " who always makes me think." Luttrell died
in London on the igth of December 1851.
LUTTRINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, 6 m. S.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905)
11,829. It is the seat of various iron and other metal industries,
and has cloth and calico mills.
LUTZEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg
(pop. in 1905, 3981), chiefly famous as the scene of a great battle
fought on the 6/i6th of November 1632 between the Swedes,
under King Gustavus Adolphus, and the Imperialists, under
Wallenstein. On the 5/1 5th November, Gustavus, with some
20,000 men, advanced from Naumburg on the Saale to meet a
contingent of his German allies at Grimma, S.E. of Leipzig, but
becoming aware of the presence of Wallenstein's army near
Ltitzen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment
sent away under Pappenheim towards Halle, he turned towards
Liitzen. Wallenstein's posts at Weissenfels and Rippach pre-
vented him from fighting his main battle the same evening, and
the Swedes went into camp near Rippach, a little more than an
hour's march from Liitzen.
Wallenstein made ready to give battle on the following day
and recalled Pappenheim. The latter had taken a small castle,
the reduction of which was one of the objects of his expedition,
but his men had dispersed to plunder and could not be rallied
before the following morning. Gustavus had now to choose
between proceeding to Grimma and fighting Wallenstein on the
chance that Pappenheim had not rejoined. He chose the latter.
In the mist of the early morning Wallenstein's army was formed
in line of battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Liitzen.
Its left was not carried out as far as the Flossgraben in order
to leave room on that flank for Pappenheim. His infantry
was ai ranged in five huge oblongs, four of which (in lozenge
formation) formed the centre and one the right wing at Ltitzen.
These " battalias " had their angles strengthened in the old-
fashioned way that had prevailed since Marignan, with small
outstanding bodies of musketeers, so that they resembled
rectangular forts with bastions. On either side of this centre
was the cavalry in two long lines, while in front of the centre
and close to the right at Ltitzen were the two batteries of heavy
artillery. Ltitzen was set on fire as a precaution. Skirmishers
lined the bank and the ditch of the Leipzig road. The total
strength of the Imperial army was about 12,000 foot and 8000
horse.
Gustavus's hopes of an early decision were frustrated by the
fog, which delayed the approach and deployment of the Swedes.
It was 8 A.M. before all was ready. The royal army was in two
lines. The infantry in the centre was arrayed in the small and
handy battalions then peculiar to Gustavus's army, the horse
on either wing extended from opposite Liitzen to some distance
beyond Wallenstein's left, which Pappenheim was to extend
on his arrival. By the accident of the terrain, or perhaps,
following the experience of Breitenfeld (q.v.), by design, the
right of the Swedes was somewhat nearer to the enemy than
the left. In front, near the centre, were the heavy guns and
each infantry battalion had its own light artillery. The force
BATTLE OF LUTZEN
November i6th., 1632
Scale. 1:60,000
Barman Army ] [L>I
Swedish Armu
of infantry and cavalry on either side was about equal, the
Swedes had perhaps rather less cavalry and rather more infantry,
but their artillery was superior to Wallenstein's. Not until
ii was it possible to open fire, for want of a visible target, but
about noon, after a preliminary cannonade, Gustavus gave the
word to advance.
The king himself commanded the right wing, which had to
wait until small bodies of infantry detached for the purpose had
driven in the Imperialist skirmish line, and had then to cross
a ditch leading the horses. They were not charged by the
Imperialists at this moment, for Pappenheim had not yet
arrived, and the usual cavalry tactics of the day were founded
on the pistol and not on the sword and the charging horse.
Gaining at last room to form, the Swedes charged and routed
the first line of the Imperial cavalry but were stopped by the
heavy squadrons of cuirassiers in second line, and at that
moment Gustavus galloped away to the centre where events
had taken a serious turn. The Swedish centre (infantry) had
forced their way across the Leipzig road and engaged Wallen-
stein's living forts at close quarters. The " Blue " brigade
Gustavus's infantry wore distinctive colours overran the
144
LUTZOW LUXEMBURG, DUKE OF
battery of heavy guns, and the " Swedish " l and " Yellow "
brigades engaged the left face of the Imperialist lozenge with
success. But a gap opened between the right of the infantry
and the left of the cavalry and Wallenstein's second line squadrons
pressed into it. It was this which brought Gustavus from the
extreme right, and he was killed here in leading a counter charge.
On the extreme left, meanwhile, the " Green " brigade had
come to close quarters with Wallenstein's infantry and guns
about Liitzen, and the heavy artillery had gone forward to
close range between the ".Green " and the " Yellow " infantry.
But the news of Gustavus's death spread and the fire of the
assault died out. Wallenstein advanced in his turn, recaptured
his guns and drove the Swedes over the road.
But the fiery Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took up the
command and ordered a fresh advance. He was too good a
soldier to waste his reserves and only brought up a few units
of the second line to help the disordered brigades of the first.
Again the Imperialists were driven in and their guns recaptured,
this time all along the line. About three in the afternoon the
Swedes were slowly bearing back Wallenstein's stubborn infantry
when Pappenheim appeared. The famous cavalry leader had
brought on his mounted men ahead of the infantry and asking,
" Where is the king of Sweden?" charged at once in the direction
of the enemy's right. Wallenstein thus gained time to re-
establish his order, and once more the now exhausted brigades
of the Swedish first line were driven over the road. But Pappen-
heim fell in the moment of victory and his death disheartened
the Imperialists almost as much as the fall of Gustavus had
disheartened the Swedes. For the last time Bernhard, wounded
as he was, forced the Swedish army to the attack. The three
infantry brigades of his second line had not been engaged, 2
and as usual the last closed reserve, resolutely handled, carried
the day. Wallenstein's army gave way at all points and the
Swedes slept on the battlefield. The infantry of Pappenheim 's
corps did not appear on the field until the battle was over.
Of the losses on either side no accurate statement can be given,
but the Swedish " Green " and " Yellow " brigades are said to
have lost five-sixths of their numbers. Near the spot where
Gustavus fell a granite boulder was placed in position on the
day after the battle. A canopy of cast-iron was erected over
this " Schwedenstein " in 1832, and close by, a chapel, built
by Oskar Ekman, a citizen of Gothenburg (d. 1907), was dedicated
on the 6th of November 1907.
Liitzen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over
the Russians and Prussians on the 2nd of May 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS). This battle is often called Gross Gorschen.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The foregoing account of Gustavus's last victory
is founded chiefly upon Lieut.-Colonel Hon. E. Noel's Gustaf Adolf
(London, 1904) and a paper by the same officer in the Journal of the
United States Institution of India (Oct. 1908), which should be con-
sulted for further details.
LUTZOW, ADOLF, FREIHERR VON (1782-1834), Prussian
lieutenant-general, entered the army in 1795, an d eleven years
later as a lieutenant took part in the disastrous battle of Auer-
stadt. He achieved distinction in the siege of Colberg, as the
leader of a squadron of Schill's volunteers. In 1808, as a major,
he retired from the Prussian army, indignant at the humiliating
treaty of Tilsit. He took part in the heroic venture of his old
chief Schill in 1809; wounded at Dodendorf and left behind,
he thereby escaped the fate of his comrades. In 1811 he was
restored to the Prussian army as major, and at the outbreak
of the " war of liberation " received permission from Scharnhorst
to organize a " free corps " consisting of infantry, cavalry and
Tirolese marksmen, for operating in the French rear and rallying
the smaller governments into the ranks of the allies. This
corps played a marked part in the campaign of 1813. But
Liitzow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the wanderings
of the corps had little military influence. At Kitzen (near
Leipzig) the whole corps, warned too late of the armistice of
Poischwitz, was caught on the French side of the line of demarca-
1 So called as being the only brigade containing no foreign
elements in the army.
4 They had, however, found detachments to reinforce the first line.
tion and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Liitzow himself,
wounded, cut his way out with the survivors, and immediately
began reorganizing and recruiting. In the second part of the
campaign the corps served in more regular warfare under
Wallmoden. Liitzow and his men distinguished themselves
at Gadebusch (where Korner fell) and Gohrde (where Liitzow
himself, for the second time, received a severe wound at the
head of the cavalry). Sent next against Denmark, and later
employed at the siege of Jiilich, Liitzow in 1814 fell into the hands
of the French. After the peace of 1814 the corps was dissolved,
the infantry becoming the 25th Regiment, the cavalry the 6th
Ulans. At Ligny he led the 6th Ulans to the charge, but they
were broken by the French cavalry, and he finally remained in
the hands of the enemy, escaping, however, on the day of
Waterloo. Made colonel in this year, his subsequent promotions
were: major-general 1822, and lieutenant-general (on retire-
ment) 1830. He died in 1834. One of the last acts of his
life for which Liitzow is remembered is his challenge (which was
ignored) to Bliicher, who had been ridden down in the rout of
the 6th Ulans at Ligny, and had made, in his official report,
comments thereon, which their colonel considered disparaging.
See Koberstein in Preussisches Jahrbuch, vol. xxiii (Berlin, 1868),
and Preussisches Bilderbuch (Leipzig, 1889) ; K. von Liitzow, Adolf
Lutzows Freikorps (Berlin, 1884) ; Fr. von Tagwitz, Geschichte des
Liitzow'schen Freikorps (Berlin, 1892) ; and the histories of the
campaigns of 1813 and 1815.
LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-
BOUTEVILLE, DUKE or (1628-1695), marshal of France, the
comrade and successor of the great Conde, was born at Paris
on the 8th of January 1628. His father, the comte de Mont-
morency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his
birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt,
Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Cond6, took charge of
him and educated him with her son, the due d'Enghien. The
young Montmorency (or Bouteville as he was then called)
attached himself to his cousin, and shared his successes and
reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde. He returned
to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Conde, then much
attached to the duchesse de Chatillon, Montmorency's sister,
contrived the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest
heiress in France, Madeleine de Luxemburg-Piney, princesse
de Tingry and heiress of the Luxemburg dukedom (1661),
after which he was created due de Luxembourg and peer of
France. At the opening of the War of Devolution (1667-68),
Conde, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but
during the second campaign he served as Conde's lieutenant-
general in the conquest of Franche Comte. During the four
years of peace which followed Luxemburg cultivated the favour
of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high command against the Dutch.
He defeated the prince of Orange at Woerden and ravaged
Holland, and in 1673 made his famous retreat from Utrecht to
Maestricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit
which placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was
made captain of the gardes du corps, and in 1675 marshal of
France. In 1676 he was placed at the head of the army of the
Rhine, but failed to keep the duke of Lorraine out of Philipsburg;
in 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in 1678 he defeated the
prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis after the signa-
ture of the peace of Nijmwegen. His reputation was now high,
and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed
to involve him in the " affair of the poisons " (see LA VOISIN,
CATHERINE) and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his
Histoire de Louvois has shown that this quarrel is probably
apocryphal. There is no doubt that Luxemburg spent some
months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his release took up his
post at court as capitaine des gardes. When the war of 1690
broke out, the king and Louvois recognized that Luxemburg
was the only general fit to cope with the prince of Orange, and
he was put in command of the army of Flanders. On the ist
of July 1690 he won a great victory over the prince of Waldeck at
Fleurus. In the following year he commanded the army which
covered the king's siege of Mons and defeated William HI.
LUXEMBURG
of England at Leuze on September 18, 1691. Again in the
next campaign he covered the king's siege of Namur, and
defeated William at Steenkirk (q.v.) on June 5, 1692; and on
July 29, 1693, he won his greatest victory over his old adversary
at Neerwinden, after which he was called le tapissier de Notre
Dame from the number of captured colours that he sent to the
cathedral. He was received with enthusiasm at Paris by all
but the king, who looked coldly on a relative and adherent of
the Cond6s. St Simon describes in the first volume of his
Memoirs how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France
according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife
to be due de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place
him second on the roll. The affair is described with St Simon's
usual interest in the peerage, and was chiefly checked through
his assiduity. In the campaign of 1694, Luxemburg did little
in Flanders, except that he conducted a famous march from
Vignamont to Tournay in face of the enemy. On his return to
Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died on January 4, 1695.
In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit
priest Bourdaloue, who said on his death, " I have not lived his
life, but I would wish to die his death." Luxemburg's morals
were bad even in those times, and he had shown little sign of
religious conviction. But as a general he was Conde's grandest
pupil. Though slothful like Conde in the management of a
campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with happy
inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no
steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death
and Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military
history of the reign of Louis XIV., and] Catinat and Luxemburg,
though inferior to Cond6 and Turenne, were far superior to
Tallard and Villeroi. He was distinguished for a pungent wit.
One of his retorts referred to his deformity. " I never can
beat that cursed humpback," William was reputed to have said
of him. " How does he know I have a hump ? " retorted
Luxemburg, " he has never seen my back." He left four sons,
the youngest of whom was a marshal of France as Marechal
de Montmorency.
See, besides the various memoirs and histories of the time, Beau-
rain's Histoire militaire du due de Luxembourg (Hague and Paris,
1756); Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire du marechal due de Luxem-
bourg (Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, Dictionnaire des generaux
franc,ais (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts in
Desormeaux's Histoire de la maison de Montmorency (1764), vols. iv.
and v. Camille Rousset's Louvois and the recent biography of
Luxemburg by Count de Se'gur (1907) should also be studied.
LUXEMBURG, a district in the European low countries,
of which the eastern part forms the grand-duchy of Luxemburg,
and the western is the Belgian province of that name (for map,
see BELGIUM). The name is derived from the chief town.
Under the Romans the district was included in the province
of Belgica prima, afterwards forming part of the Prankish
kingdom of Austrasia and of the empire of Charlemagne. About
1060 it came under the rule of Conrad (d. 1086), who took the
title of count of Luxemburg. His descendants ruled the county,
first in the male and then in the female line, until the death of
the emperor Sigismund in 1437. Through the marriage of
Sigismund's daughter, Elizabeth, with the German king, Albert II.,
Luxemburg, which had been made a duchy in 1354, passed to
the house of Habsburg, but was seized in 1443 by Philip III.
the Good, duke of Burgundy, who based his claim upon a bargain
concluded with Sigismund's niece Elizabeth (d. 1451). Regained
by the Habsburgs in 1477 when Mary, daughter and heiress of
duke Charles the Bold, married the German king Maximilian I.,
the duchy passed to Philip II. of Spain in 1555, though subject
to the laws of the empire, of which it still formed part. After
a section had been ceded to France in 1659, the remainder was
given to the emperor Charles VI. by the treaty of Utrecht in
1713- It was conquered by France in 1795, and retained by
that power until the end of the Napoleonic wars. The congress
of Vienna (1814-1815) erected Luxemburg into a grand-duchy,
added part of the duchy of Bouillon to it, and assigned it to
William I., king of the Netherlands, in return for the German
territories of the house of Orange-Nassau, which Napoleon had
confiscated in 1806, and which were given by the congress to the
king of Prussia. In 1830 when the Belgian provinces separated
from Holland, an effort was made to include Luxemburg in the
new kingdom of the Belgians; but in November 1831 the powers
decided that part of the grand-duchy should be retained by
the king of Holland, who refused to accept this arrangement.
Consequently the whole of Luxemburg remained in the possession
of the Belgians until 1838, when the treaty of the igth of April,
concluded at the conference of London, enforced the partition
of 1831.
The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, the portion under the rule
of William I. retaining the name, was ruled by the kings of
Holland until the death of William III. in 1890. William's
daughter, Wilhelmina, succeeded to the throne of Holland,
but under the Salic law ' the grand-duchy passed to his kinsman,
Adolphus, duke of Nassau, who died in 1005, and was succeeded
by his son William (b. 1852).
By modifications of the treaty of Vienna the garrisoning of
the fortress of Luxemburg had passed into Prussian hands,
an arrangement wnich lasted until 1867. In the previous year
the German Confederation, to which the grand-duchy of Luxem-
burg had belonged since 1815, had been dissolved; but the
Prussians maintained their garrison in Luxemburg, which was
not included in the new North German Confederation, while
King William III. proposed to sell his rights over the grand-duchy
to France. The Prussians were irritated by this proposal, but
war was averted, and the question was referred to a conference
of the powers in London. The treaty of London, signed on the
nth of May 1867, decided that the Prussian garrison must be
withdrawn and the fortress dismantled, which was done in 1872.
At the same time the great powers guaranteed the neutrality
of the grand-duchy, and although a member of the German
Zollverein, Luxemburg now forms a sovereign and independent
state.
The GRAND-DUCHY lies S.E. of Belgium. Its area is 999 sq. m.,
with a population (1905) of 246,455. The people are nearly
all Catholics. The country is rich in iron ore. The hills in the
south of the duchy are a continuation of the Lorraine plateau,
and the northern districts are crossed in all directions by out-
runners from the Ardennes. The streams mostly join the Moselle,
which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and the Rhine
province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important
stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosieres in Belgian
Luxemburg, crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary
from the confluence of the Our till it joins the Moselle after a
course of 50 m., during which it receives the Wiltz, Attert,
Alzette, White and Black Ernz, &c. The soil of Luxemburg is
generally good; the southern districts are on the whole the most
fertile as well as the most populous. Building materials of all
sorts are obtained throughout the duchy. Besides the iron
furnaces, situated in the south near the Lorraine plateau, there
are tanneries, weaving and glove-making factories, paper-mills
for all sorts of paper, breweries and distilleries, and sugar refineries.
A German patois mixed with French words is spoken throughout
the country; but French, which is employed by the commercial
community, is also the common speech on the French and
Belgian frontiers. Though liberty of worship prevails, Roman
Catholicism is almost the sole form. The government is in the
hands of the grand-duke, who sanctions and promulgates the
laws. There is a council (staatsrat) of 15 members. There is a
chamber of deputies with 48 members elected by the cantons
(12 in number) for six years, half the body being elected every
three years. No law can be passed without the consent of the
chamber. Bills are introduced by the grand-duke, but the
house has also the right of initiative. A single battalion (150)
of volunteers composes the grand-ducal army. The gendarmerie
consists of about 150 men. There are cantonal courts and two
1 It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate
to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in
the case of the complete extinction of males. Thus Article xlii. of
the Nassau Pact of the 3Oth of June 1783 provides " that in the
event of the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the
daughter or nearest heiress of the last male."
146
LUXEMBURG LUXOR
district courts, one at Luxemburg, the other at Diekirch, and
a high court at Luxemburg. The bishopric of Luxemburg
holds its authority directly from the Holy See. From 13,000,000
to 17,000,000 francs is the annual amount of the state budget,
and the debt, consisting of loans contracted principally for the
construction of railways, of which there are about 350 m., is
12,000,000 francs.
Among towns next to the capital, Luxemburg, are Echternach
and Diekirch, both worthy of note for their blast furnaces.
Grevenmacher is the centre of a great wine district.
The PROVINCE or LUXEMBURG is the largest and least populous
of the nine provinces of Belgium. Its capital is Arlon, which lies
near the borders of the grand-duchy. A considerable part of
the province is forested and the state requires systematic re-
planting. Marble, granite and slate quarries are worked in
different districts. Successful attempts have been made to
introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered by
the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sure. The general elevation of
the country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which
form the prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range
from 1200 to 1500 ft. The highest point of the province is the
Baraque de Fraiture (1980 ft.), N.E. of La Roche. The woods
are well stocked with red and roe deer, wild boar, hares, rabbits,
pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area of the province is
1725 sq. m. The population was 225,963 in 1904.
The HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG was descended from Count Conrad
(d. 1086), and its fortunes were advanced through the election of
Count Henry IV. as German king in 1308 and his coronation as
emperor under the title of Henry VII. Henry's son was John, king
of Bohemia, who fell on the field of CrtJcy, and John's eldest son
was the emperor Charles IV., while another famous member of the
family was Baldwin, archbishop of Treves (1285-1354), who took an
active part in imperial affairs. Two of the sons of Charles IV.,
Wenceslaus and Sigismund, succeeded in turn to the imperial
throne, and one of his nephews, Jobst, margrave of Moravia, was
chosen German king in opposition to Sigismund in 1410. The
French branch of the Luxemburg family was descended from
Waleran (d. 1288), lord of Ligny and Roussy, a younger son of
Count Henry II. Waleran's great-grandson was Guy (d. 1371), who
married Matilda, sister and heiress of Guy V., count of Saint-Pol
(d. 1360), and was created count of Ligny in 1567. Guy's son,
Waleran (d. 1417), who became constable of France in 1412, had been
carried as a prisoner to England, and had married Matilda, daughter
of Thomas Holland, earl of Kent (d. 1360) and half-sister of King
Richard II. To avenge Richard's death he made a raid on the Isle
of Wight, and then took part in the civil wars in France. He left
no sons, and was succeeded by his nephew, Peter, count of Brienne
(d. 1433), who, like his brother Louis (d. 1443), cardinal archbishop
of Rouen and chancellor of France, was found on the side of the
English in their struggle against France. Another of Peter's brothers,
John (d. 1440), a stout supporter of England, was made governor of
Paris by Henry V. He sold Joan of Arc to the English. Peter's son
and successor, Louis, fought at first for England, but about 1440 he
entered the service of France and obtained the office of constable.
King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and he took refuge with
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke handed him
over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder branch of
his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and was
merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon- Venddme.
Louis's third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of Luxem-
burg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in >6o8.
A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of Luxemburg-
Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d. 1680),
married firstly Le<m d'Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly
Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by
her second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis 'Henry
de Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently,
members of the family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of
Luxemburg. The Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to
the fact that itjwas built on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-
Piney.
See N. van Werveke, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger
Landes (Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J- Schotter, Geschichte des Luxem-
burger Landes (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, Histoire de la
maison de Luxembourg (Paris, 1619).
LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or
town), the capital of the grand-duchy of the same name (see
above), situated on the Alzette, a tributary of the Sure. Pop.
(1905) 20,984. The situation is romantic, steep cliffs over-
hanging the winding river, and the principal portion of the
town with the palace and public buildings covering a central
plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen,
Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxem-
burg was considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar,
which it was supposed to resemble because many of its casemates
were cut into the rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal
viaducts carry the railway and the approach from the railway
station to the town. Since the place ceased to be a fortress the
population has more than doubled, and the Alzette is lined
with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hotel de Ville
dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The
church of Notre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael,
with parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of
Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, slain at Crecy. There are two
annual fete days, one in honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg,
patroness of the city, held on the Sunday before Ascension Day,
and the other the annual fair or Schobermesse (tent fair),
instituted in 1340 and held each year on the 24th of August.
LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the
department of H<tute-Sa6ne, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906)
5195. It is situated in a region of forests on the right bank of
the Breuchin. It has an abbey-church dating from the i3th
and I4th centuries, containing a curious 17th-century organ
loft in the form of an immense bracket supported by a colossal
figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (i6th and i8th centuries)
serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the isth
century and other buildings of the I7th century also remain.
There are several mansions and houses dating from various
periods from the I4th to the i6th century. The Maison Carree,
once the town hall, an interesting specimen of isth-century
architecture, was built by Perrin Jouffroy, father of Cardinal
Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at Luxeuil in 1412, built
the house with a graceful balcony and turret which faces the
Maison Carree. The Maison de la Bailie and the Maison Francois
I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont
Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for
its mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being
ferruginous, and the rest charged with chloride of sodium;
their temperatures range from 70 to 158 F. The water is
employed for drinking and for baths. The bathing establishment
contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities and there are
also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or
near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding,
the spinning and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and
the distilling of kirsch are carried on.
Luxeuil was the Roman Lixovium and contained many fine
buildings at the time of its destruction by the Huns under
Attila in 451. In 590 St Columban here founded a monastery,
afterwards one of the most famous in Franche Comte. In the
8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens; afterwards
rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans
in the gth century and pillaged on several occasions afterwards.
The abbey schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the
abbots had great influence; but their power was curtailed by
the emperor Charles V. and the abbey was suppressed at the
Revolution.
See H. Beaumont, tude hist, sur I'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790
(Lux. 1895); Grandmongin and A. Gamier, Hist, de la mile el des
thermes de Luxeuil (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates.
LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, " The Castles" (plur. of
kasr), a town of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m.
above Cairo by river and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census)
12,644. It is the centre for visitors to the ruins of and about
Thebes, and is frequented by travellers and invalids in the winter
season, several fine hotels having been built for their accom-
modation. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic churches,
and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The district is the
seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques.
, The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments
of Thebes (?..). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side
of the town and measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front.
There may have been an earlier temple here, but the present
structure, dedicated to the Theban triad of Ammon, Mut and
LUXORIUS LUZAN
Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great colonnade,
which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended for
the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to
be hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of
Amenophis IV. (Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete
work was taken in hand by Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The
axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.; a long paved road
bordered by recumbent rams led from the facade to the temples
of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and
Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive
court to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of
axis. He embellished the walls and pylons of his court with
scenes from his victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed
a number of colossal statues within it. In front of the pylon
Rameses set up colossi and a pair of obelisks (one of which was
taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected in the Place de la Concorde).
A few scenes and inscriptions were added by later kings, but the
above is practically the history of the temple until Alexander
the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief religious
festival of Thebes was that of " Southern Opi," the ancient name
of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the
sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water
to Luxor and back again; a representation of the festal scenes
is given on the walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built
churches within the temple. The greater part of the old village
of Luxor lay inside the courts: it was known also as Abu '1
Haggag from a Moslem saint of the 7th century, whose tomb-
mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a high heap of
d6bris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the buildings
and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the expro-
priation and clearances by the Service des Antiquites began in
1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the
ancient avenue.
See G. Daressy, Notice explicative des mines du temple de Louxor
(Cairo, 1893) ; Baedeker's Egypt. (F. LL. G.)
LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during
the reigns of the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and
Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He speaks of his poor circumstances,
but from the superscription clarissimus and spectabUis in one
MS., he seems to have held a high official position. About a
hundred epigrams by him in various metres (the elegiac pre-
dominating) have been preserved. They are after the manner of
Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with
the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows
the author to have been well acquainted with the legends and
antiquities of the classical period of Rome.
Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in
Journal of Philology, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in
the Anthologia Latma, edited by F. Bucheler and A. Riese (1894).
LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French
house. The family of Albert, which sprang from Thomas
Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de Boussargues, battli of Viviers and
Valence, and viguier of Bagnolsand Pont St Esprit in Languedoc,
acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of Indre-et-Loire) in the
i6th century. Honore d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur de Luynes,
was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of Henry IV.,
and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of artillery
in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons:
Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of
Louis XIII.; Honore (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who
married Charlotte Eugenie d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619,
and was created duke of Chaulnes in 1621; and Leon, seigneur
de Brantes, who became duke of Luxemburg-Piney by his
marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of Luxemburg.
By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse,
Marie de Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired
in 1655 the duchy of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis
Charles d'Albert, her son by her first husband; and from that
time the title of duke of Chevreuse and duke of Luynes was borne
by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes, which also inherited
the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of the descendants
of Honor6 d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of Luxem-
burg-Piney became extinct in 1697.
Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up
at court and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII.
The king shared his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced
him in favour. In 1615 he was appointed commander of the
Louvre and counsellor, and the following year grand falconer
of France. He used his influence over the king in the court
intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her
favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain
of the guard, arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassina-
tion (1617) and secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and
France. In the same year he was appointed captain of the
Bastille and lieutenant-general of Normandy, and married Marie
de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon. He employed
extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but
sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he
negotiated the treaty of Angouleme by which Marie de Medici
was accorded complete liberty. He was made governor of
Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising of nobles in 1620; and
in 1621, with slight military ability or achievement, was ap-
pointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power made him
a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini.
In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an
expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the
midst of the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the isth
of December 1621.
His brother Honor6 (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was
governor of Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended
his province successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste
d'Albert d'Ailly (1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became
marshal of France (1741). Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes
(1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was in the service of the
emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and ambassador
in France.
Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished
in letters and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690),
duke of Luynes, son of the constable, was an ascetic writer
and friend of the Jansenists; Paul d'Albert de Luynes (1703-
1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an astronomer; Michel
Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of Chaulnes, a
writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph
Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honor6 Theodore Paul
Joseph (1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology.
For the first duke see Recueil des pieces les plus curieuses qui ent
este faites pendant le regne du connestable M. de Luynes (2nd ed.,
1624); Le Vassor, Histoire de Louis XIII. (Paris, 1757); Griffet,
Histoire du regne de Louis XIII., roi de France el de Navarre (Paris,
I75 8 ); V. Cousin, " Le Due et conne'table de Luynes," in Journal
des savants (1861-1863) : B. Zeller, Etudes critiques sur le regne de
Louis XIII.: le connetable de Luynes, Montauban et la Valteline
(Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et Marie de
Medicis (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, Histoire de France, vi. J , 141-216
(Paris, 1905).
LUZAN CLARAHUNT DE SUELVES T 6URREA, IGNACIO
(1702-1754), Spanish critic and poet, was born at Saragossa on
the 28th of March 1702. His youth was passed under the care
of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he graduated in
philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took minor
orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and
took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously.
Business took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in
Madrid as a scholar with a tendency towards innovations in
literature. La Poitica, 6 Reglas de la poesia en general y de sus
principals especies (1737) proved that this impression was
correct. He at once took rank as the leader of the literary
reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the
respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to
the Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in
1750, was elected to the " Academia Poe'tica del Buen Gusto,"
where, on account of his travels, he was known by the sobriquet
of El Peregrine. He became master of the mint and treasurer of
the royal library. He died at Madrid, after a short illness, on
the 1 9th of May 1754. Luzan was not the pioneer of Franco-
Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most powerful
148
LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR LYALL, EDNA
exponent, and his Poetica is an admirable example of destructive
criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are indi-
cated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzan
is notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one ex-
hausted convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic
unities had not the saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and,
though he succeeded hi banishing the older dramatists from
the boards, he and his school failed to produce a single piece of
more than mediocre merit. His theories, derived chiefly from
Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their ingenuity
:annot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the partisans
of the national tradition.
LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in
the department of Hautes-Pyren6es, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail.
Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is beautifully situated at a height of
2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a remarkable church, built by the
Templars in the I2th and isth centuries and fortified later.
The crenelated ramparts with which it is surrounded, and the
tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep, give it the aspect
of a fortress; other interesting features are the Romanesque
north door and a chapel of the i6th century. The village of St
Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of
the Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing
Pont Napoleon (1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is
visited for its warm sulphurous springs. Discovered in the i6th
century, the waters came into vogue after 1820, in which year
they were visited by the duchesses of Angouleme and Berry.
There is much picturesque mountain scenery hi the vicinity;
12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is the
magnificent rock amphitheatre or cirque of Gavarnie, with its
cascade, one of the highest in Europe.
LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and
financier, was born of Jewish parents at Venice on the nth of
March 1841. After completing his studies in law at theuniversity
of Padua, he attracted the attention of the Austrian police by his
lectures on political economy, and was obliged to emigrate.
In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan Technical
Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of constitutional
law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university
of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized
in Italy the economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for
the establishment of a commercial college at Venice, and contri-
buted to the spread of people's banks on a basis of limited
liability throughout the country. In 1869 he was appointed by
Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of agriculture
and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government
control over commercial companies and promoted a state
inquiry into the conditions of industry. Though theoretically a
free trader, he was largely instrumental in creating the Italian
protective system. In 1877 he participated in the commercial
negotiations with France, in 1878 compiled the Italian customs
tariff, and subsequently took a leading part in the negotiations
of all the commercial treaties between Italy and other countries.
Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di Rudini cabinet
of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent clear-
ings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which
facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and
hastened the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second
Di Rudini cabinet as minister of the treasury, and by timely
legislation helped to save the bank of Naples from failure.
After his fall from office in June 1898, his principal achievement
was the negotiation of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty,
though, as deputy, journalist and professor, he continued to take
an active part in all political and economic manifestations.
He was again minister of the treasury from November 1903 to
March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for the third
time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership.
During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the
Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3!% to be
eventually lowered to 3!%, an operation which other ministers
had attempted without success; although the actual con-
version was not completed until after the fall of the cabinet of
which he formed part the merit is entirely his. In 1907 he was
president of the co-operative congress at Cremona.
See L. Carpi's Risorgimento Ilaliano, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which
contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti.
LUZZATTO, MOSES flAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist
and mystic, was born in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He
was influenced by Isaac Luria (q.v.) on the mystical side, and
on the poetical side by Italian drama of the school of Guarini
(q.v.). He attacked Leon of Modena's anti-Kabbalistic treatises,
and as a result of his conflict with the Venetian Rabbinate left
Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he maintained him-
self by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his popular
religious manual the Path of the Upright (Messilath Yesharim)
and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally settled
in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in
the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are:
the Tower of Victory (Migdal 'Oz) and Glory to the Upright
(Layesharim Tehittah). Both of these dramas, which were not
printed at the time but were widely circulated in manuscript, are
of the type which preceded the Shakespearean age they are
allegorical and all the characters are types. The beautiful
Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry, and the
Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses
Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto.
See Gratz, History of the Jews, v. ch. vii. ; I. Abrahams, Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, The Renascence
of Hebrew Literature, ch. i. (I. A.)
LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar,
was born at Trieste in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was
the most distinguished of the Italian Jewish scholars of the igth
century. The first Jew to suggest emendations to the text of the
Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah (1856-1867), and wrote a com-
mentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His grammatical works
were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to the
history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.)
and Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval
Hebrew hymnology and secular verse.
See Gratz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq. ; N.
Slouschz, The Renascence of Hebrew Literature, pp. 84-92; the
Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.)
LYALL, 'SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian
civil servant and man of letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall,
was born hi 1835, and educated at Eton and Haileybury. He
entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw service during
the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and with the
Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar
(1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and
Foreign departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western
Provinces (1882-1887), and member of the Council of India
(1888-1903). Among his writings, his Verses Written in India
(1889) attained considerable popularity, and in his Asiatic
Studies (1882 and 1899) he displays a deep insight into Indian
life and character. He wrote the Life of Lord Dufferin (1905),
and made numerous contributions to periodical literature.
LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (i8s7-
1903), English novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the
daughter of a barrister. Her parents died while she was a child,
and she was brought up at Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne,
where most of her life was spent, she was well known for her
philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of February 1903.
Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a combination
of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and religious spirit
of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to many
readers. Though her Won by Waiting (1879) had some success,
it was with Donovan (1882) and We Two (1884), in which the
persecuted atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Brad-
laugh, that she became widely popular. Other novels were
In the Golden Days (1885), a story of the Great Rebellion;
Knight Errant (1887); Autobiography of a Slander (1887); A
Hardy Norseman (1889); Derrick Vaughan, The Story of a
Novelist (1889); To Right the Wrong (1892); Doreen (1894), a
statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; The Autobiography
of a Truth (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the
LYALLPUR LYCANTHROPY
149
Armenian Relief Fund; In Spite of All (1901), which had origin-
ally been produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and The Bruges
Letters (1002), a book for children.
A Life by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of
her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903.
LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the
Punjab. It was constituted in 1904 to comprise the " Chenab
Colony," being the waste portion of the former Jhang district
that is now irrigated by the Lower Chenab canal. Area, 3075
sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by a section of the
North-western railway. The headquarters . are at Lyallpur
town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a
lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning
and pressing cotton.
See Chenab Colony Gazetteer (Lahore, 1904).
LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, Afaaioi' 6poj: mod. Diaphorti),
a mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said
to have been born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus
and his son Lycaon, who is said to have founded the ritual of
Zeus practised on its summit. This seems to have involved a
human sacrifice, and a feast in which the man who received the
portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon
had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of a
great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no
shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it
died within the year.
LYCANTHROPY (Gr. X6/s, wolf, AvOpuiros, man), a name
employed (i) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human
being to undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology
for a form of insanity in which the patient believes that he is
transformed into an animal and behaves accordingly.
I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to
metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used
of transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of
kynanthropy (KUUV, dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the
tiger is the commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan
the fox, in Africa the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion,
in South America the jaguar; but though there is a tendency
for the most important carnivorous animal of the area to take
the first place in stories and beliefs as to transformation, the less
important beasts of prey and even harmless animals like the deer
also figure among the wer-animals.
Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the
essential feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative
form or the double of a living human being, while the soul-animal
is the vehicle, temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead
human being. The vampire is sometimes regarded as an example
of lycanthropy; but it is in human form, sometimes only a head,
sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a living person,
at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave to prey
upon the living.
Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the animal-
metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed
together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is
somewhat capriciously applied. The transformation may be
voluntary or involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-
animal may be the man himself metamorphosed, it may be his
double whose activity leaves the real man to all appearance
unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes forth seeking whom
it may devour and leaving its body in a state of trance; or it
may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real
animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its
owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by
a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding
injury to the human being.
The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal meta-
morphosis, or of sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a
messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association
with such a familiar, are also attributed to the magician, male
and female, all the world over; and witch superstitions are
closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs,
the occasional involuntary character of lycanthropy being
almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the
phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in con-
nexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the nagual of
Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to
be drawn on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician
and the intimate association of the bush-soul or the nagual with
a human being are not termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will
be well to touch on both these beliefs here.
In North and Central America, and to some extent in West
Africa, Australia and other parts of the world, every male
acquires at puberty a tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in
some tribes of Indians the youth kills the animal of which he
dreams in his initiation fast; its daw, skin or feathers are put
into a little bag and become his " medicine " and must be care-
fully retained, for a " medicine " once lost can never be replaced.
In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by means
of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal
causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession
of a tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician.
In Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the
abodes of men; the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him,
which he kills by saying " O " four times; he then cuts out its
tongue and thereby secures the powers which he seeks. The
Malays believe that the office of pawang (priest) is only hereditary
if the soul of the dead priest, in the form of a tiger, passes into
the body of his son. While the familiar is often regarded as the
alternative form of the magician, the nagual or bush-soul is
commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human being.
Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa,
in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole
of the population of certain areas. The people of Banana are
said to change themselves by magical means, composed of human
embryos and other ingredients, but in their leopard form they
may do no hurt to mankind under pain of retaining for ever
the beast shape. In other cases the change is supposed to be
made for the purposes of evil magic and human victims are
not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of demarcation,
and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected with
nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with
metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as sug-
gested by J. F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu
belief that the magician's familiar is really a transformed human
being; when he finds a dead body on which he can work his
spells without fear of discovery, the wizard breathes a sort of
life into it, which enables it to move and speak, it being thought
that some dead wizard has taken possession of it. He then burns
a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts the tongue.
Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified body
into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter
being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's
servant and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however,
to inflict sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by
its master.
Lycanthropy in Europe. The wolf is the commonest form of the
wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes
its pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated
with the belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines,
gives an account of a disease which befell people in February; but
a pathological state seems to be meant.
Lycanthropy in Africa. In Abyssinia the power of transformation
is attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records
of pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited
with magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant
that the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the Ltfe of N.
Pearce (i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed trans-
formation which took place in his presence and almost before his
eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than
coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience.
The Wer-tiger of the East Indies. The Posp-Alfures of central
Celebes believe that man has three souls, the inosa, the antga and
the tanoana. The inosa is the vital principle; it can be detected
in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the_ great
natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The angga is the
intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes
to the under-world, and, unlike the inosa, which is believed to
be dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an
LYCAON
immaterial body. The tanoana is the divine in man and after death
returns to its lord, Ppewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep,
and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he
dreams. According to another account, the tanoana. is the sub-
stance by which man lives, thinks and acts; the tanoana of man,
plants and animals is of the same nature. A man's tanoana can be
strengthened by those of others; when the tanoana is long away or
destroyed the man dies. The tanoana seems to be the soul of which
lycanthropic feats are asserted.
Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's
" inside can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other
animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed lamboyo.
The exact relation of the lamboyo to the tanoana does not seem to be
settled ; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According
to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others
hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating
food left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same
pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes
a werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that wer-
wolfism can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must
be rubbed and pinched, just as when any other witch object has to
be extracted. The patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves
the body in the form of snakes and worms. There are certain marks
by which a werman can be recognized. His eyes are unsteady and
sometimes green with dark shadows underneath. He does not sleep
soundly and fireflies come out of his mouth. His lips remain red in
spite of betel chewing, and he has a long tongue. The Todjoers add
that his hair stands on end.
Some of the forms of the lamboyo are distinguishable from ordinary
animals by the fact that they run about among the houses ; the wer-
buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into an
ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman
does not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the
sorcerer, only sends out a messenger. The lamboyo attacks by prefer-
ence solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The
victim feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the lamboyo then assumes
human form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his
victim, scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver
and eats it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long
tongue and joins it together. When the victim comes to himself
again he has no idea that anything unusual has happened to him.
He goes home, but soon begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies,
but before his death he is able sometimes to name the werman to
whom he has fallen a victim.
From this account it might be inferred that the lamboyo was
identical with the tanoana; the absence of the lamboyo seems to
entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human
form. In other cases, however, the lamboyo seems to be analogous
to the familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how
a man once came to a house and asked the woman to give him a
rendezvous; it was night and she was asleep; the question was put
three times before the answer was given " in the tobacco plantation."
The husband was awake, and next day followed his wife, who was
irresistibly drawn thither. The werman came to meet her in human
form, although his body was engaged in building a new house, and
caused the woman to faint by stamping three times on the ground.
Thereupon the husband attacked the werman with a piece of wood,
and the latter to escape transformed himself into a leaf; this the
husband put into a piece of bamboo and fastened the ends so that he
could not escape. He then went back to the village and put the
bamboo in the fire. The werman said " Don't," and as soon as it
was burnt he fell dead.
In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to
be due to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by
her body. For, like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason,
wishes to revive his victim and comes in human form to carry off
the coffin. As soon as the woman was brought to life the husband
attacked the werwolf, who transformed himself into a piece of wood
and was burnt. The woman remained alive, but her murderer died
the same night.
According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman
is itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a
party were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions
heard a deer and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came
back and said he had been shot. Although no_marks were to be
seen he died a few days later.
In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The
power of, transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the
use of spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c.
Save when it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile
to man; in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night
and to guard the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the balams
(magicians) of Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal
form. Variants of this belief assert that the werman does not recog-
nize his friends unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as
a mendicant and transforms himself to take vengeance on those who
refuse him alms. Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for
them the tiger is friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies,
and a man is said to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just
vengeance.
Lycanthropy in South America. According to K. F. P. v. Martius
the kanaima is a human being who employs poison to carry out his
function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the kanaima
as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a
cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the
seventh child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a
wer-man or woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar
or pig.
II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described
as a kind of hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into con-
nexion with the form of it known as latah. It is characterized
by the patient's belief that he has been metamorphosed into an
animal, and is often accompanied by a craving for strange
articles of food, including the flesh of living beings or of corpses.
In the lower stages of culture the state of the patient is commonly
explained as due to possession, but where he leaves the neighbour-
hood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in ordinary
lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the
patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable
by their yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The
Garrows of India are said to tear their hair when they are seized
with the complaint, which is put down to the use of a drug
applied to the forehead; this recalls the stories of the witch's
salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is usually a woman ;
two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and the leopard
respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the fingers are
clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the patient,
when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all
fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion
or garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the anthropological side of the subject see
bibliography to WERWOLF ; also Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land
en Volkenkunde, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; Med. Zendelingsgenoot-
schap, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, Suggestion, p. 418; W. H. Brett,
Indians of British Guiana. For the pathological side, see Hack
Tuke, Diet, of Psychological Medicine, s.v. " Lycanthropy "; Diet,
des sciences medicales; Waldmeier, Autobiography, p. 64; A. J
Hayes, Source of Blue Nile, p. 286 seq. ; Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse kgl.
sdchsische Gesettschaft der Wiss. 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.)
LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical
first king of Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained
Zeus and set before him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed
away the dish in disgust and either killed the king and his sons
by lightning or turned them into wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8;
Ovid, Metam. i. 198). Some say that Lycaon slew and dished
up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. Protrept. ii. 36; Nonnus,
Dionys. xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to
have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence
of the sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon
sacrificed a child to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and
immediately after the sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This
gave rise to the story that a man was turned into a wolf at each
annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but recovered his human form
if he abstained from human flesh for ten years. The oldest
city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first
civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story
has been variously interpreted. According to Weizsacker, he
was an old Pelasgian or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human
sacrifice was offered, bearing a non-Hellenic name similar to
Xwcos, whence the story originated of his metamorphosis into a
wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the Hellenic Zeus, and
Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil spirit,
who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before
him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the
wolf-Zeus in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of
a wolf-tribe, who recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener
and others identify Lycaon with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light,
who slays his son Nyctimus (the dark) or is succeeded by him,
in allusion to the perpetual succession of night and day. Accord-
ing to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus accepted human
sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the myth that
Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e. participated
in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did all who
afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the
ceremony an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of
LYCAONIA LYCIA
which was to prevent the failure of the crops and to avert
pestilence (or to protect them and the flocks against the ravages
of wolves). Others (e.g. V. Be>ard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a
Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported into Arcadia by the
Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus Phyxios,
the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed blood.
Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once
worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and
in popular tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians,
who was supposed to have been punished for his insulting treat-
ment of Zeus. It is possible that the whole may be merely a
reminiscence of a superstition similar to the familiar werwolf
stories.
See articles by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's Lexikon and by G.
Fougeres (s.v. " Lykaia ") in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites; W. Immerwahr, Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens, I.
(1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, i. (1896), p. 40;
A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religton (1899); C. Pascal, Studii di
antichita e mitologia (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death
honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, Forschungen zur alien
Geschichte, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldkulte, ii.
(1905); G. Fougeres, Mantinee et FArcadie orientale (1898),
p. 202; V. Berard, De I'origine des cultes arcadiens (1894); H. D.
Muller, Mythologie der griechischen Stdmme, ii. (1861), p. 78; H.
Usener, Rheinisches Museum, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Gorres, Berliner
Studienfiir classische Philologie, x. i (1889), who regards the Lycaea
as a funeral festival connected with the changes of vegetation;
Vollgraf, De Ovidii mythopoeia; a concise statement of the various
forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, ii. p. 920,
n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, " Apollo Liceo," in Rivista
di storia antica, i. (1895) ; and Frazer's Pausanias, iv. p. 189.
Q- H. F.)
LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the
interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded
on the E. by Cappadocia, on the N. by Galatia, on the W. by
Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it extended to the chain of
Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country popularly
called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine
period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different
times. The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is
mentioned by Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on
his march through Asia. That author describes Iconium as
the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving
Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to Lystra in Lycaonia.
Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a part of the
province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the
Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries
are clearly distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by
authorities generally.
Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated
plains, affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the
present day sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown.
Amyntas, king of Galatia, to whom the district was for a time
subject, maintained there not less than three hundred flocks.
It forms part of the interior tableland of Asia Minor, and has
an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It suffers from want of water,
aggravated in some parts by abundance of salt in the soil, so
that the northern portion, extending from near Iconium to the
salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is almost wholly
barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium and
the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is produc-
tive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and
distributing the water, so that much land now barren was
formerly cultivated and supported a large number of cities.
The plain is interrupted by some minor groups of mountains,
of volcanic character, of which the Kara Dagh in the south, a
few miles north of Karaman, rises above 7000 ft., while the
Karadja Dagh, north-east of it, though of inferior elevation,
presents a striking range of volcanic cones. The mountains in
the north-west, near Iconium and Laodicea, are the termination
of the Sultan Dagh range, which traverses a large part of Phrygia.
The Lycaonians appear to have been in early times to a great
extent independent of the Persian empire, and were- like their
neighbours the Isauria ns a wild and lawless race of freebooters;
but their country was traversed by one of the great natural lines
of high road through Asia Minor, from Sardis and Ephesus to the
Cilician gates, and a few considerable towns grew up along or
near this line. The most important was Iconium, in the most
fertile spot in the country, of which it was always regarded by
the Romans as the capital, although ethnologically it was
Phrygian. It is still called Konia, and it was the capital of the
Seljuk Turkish empire for several centuries. A little farther
north, immediately on the frontier of Phrygia, stood Laodicea
(Ladik), called Combusta, to distinguish it from the Phrygian
city of that name; and in the south, near the foot of Mount
Taurus, was Laranda, now called Karaman, which has given
name to the province of Karamania. Derbe and Lystra, which
appear from the Acts of the Apostles to have been considerable
towns, were between Iconium and Laranda. There were many
other towns, which became bishoprics in Byzantine times.
Lycaonia was Christianized very early; and its ecclesiastical
system was more completely organized in its final form during
the 4th century than that of any other region of Asia Minor.
After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycaonia was given
by the Romans to Eumenes II., king of Pergamos. About 160
B.C. part of it, the " Tetrarchy of Lycaonia," was added to
Galatia; and in 129 B.C. the eastern half (usually called during
the following 200 years Lycaonia proper) was given to Cappa-
docia as an eleventh strategia. In the readjustment of the
Provinciae, 64 B.C., by Pompey after the Mithradatic wars, he
gave the northern part of the tetrarchy to Galatia and the
eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The re-
mainder was attached to Cilicia. Its administration and group-
ing changed often under the Romans. In A.D. 371 Lycaonia was
first formed into a separate province. It now forms part of the
Konia vilayet.
The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality
in the time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown.
The mention of the Lycaonian language in the Acts of the
Apostles (xiv. ii) shows that the native language was spoken by
the common people at Lystra about A.D. 50; and probably it
was only later and under Christian influence that Greek took its
place.
See Sir W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890),
Historical Commentary on Galatians (1809) and Cities of St Paul
(1907); also an article on the topography in the Jahreshefte des
Oesterr.Archaeolog. Instituts, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132.
(W. M. RA.)
LYCEUM, the latinized form of Gr. AvKtiov, the name of a
gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of
Apollo Lyceus ('AntfXXtti' Awceios) at Athens. Aristotle taught
here, and hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy.
The name had been used in many languages for places of instruc-
tion, &c. In France the term lycie is given to the secondary
schools which are administered by the state, in contradistinction
to the communal colleges.
LYCIA, in ancient geography, a district in the S.W. of Asia
Minor, occupying the coast between Caria and Pamphylia, and
extending inland as far as the ridge of Mt Taurus. The region
thus designated is a peninsula projecting southward from the
great mountain masses of the interior. It is for the most part a
rugged mountainous country, traversed by offshoots of the
Taurus range, which terminate on the coast in lofty promontories.
The coast, though less irregular than that of Caria, is indented by
a succession of bays the most marked of which is the Gulf of
Macri (anc. Glaucus Sinus) in the extreme west. A number of
smaller bays, and broken rocky headlands, with a few small
islets, constitute the coast-line thence to the S.E. promontory of
Lycia, formed by a long narrow tongue of rocky hill, known in
ancient times as the " Sacred Promontory " (Hiera Acra), with
three small adjacent islets, called the Chelidonian islands, which
was regarded by some ancient geographers as the commencement
of Mt. Taurus. Though the mountain ranges of Lycia are all
offshoots of Mt. Taurus, in ancient times several of them were
distinguished by separate names. Such were Daedala in the
west, adjoining the Gulf of Macri, Cragus on the sea-coast, west
of the valley of the Xanthus, Massicytus (10,000 ft.) nearly in
r
LYCIA
the centre of the region, and Solyma in the extreme east above
Phaselis (7800 ft.). The steep and rugged pass between Solyma
and the sea, called the Climax (" Ladder" ), was the only direct
communication between Lycia and Pamphylia.
The only two considerable rivers are: (i) the Xanthus, which
descends from the central mass of Mt Taurus, and flows through
a narrow valley till it reaches the city of the same name, below
which it forms a plain of some extent before reaching the sea, and
(2) the Limyrus, which enters the sea near Limyra. The small
alluvial plains at the mouths of these rivers are the only level
ground in Lycia, but the hills that rise thence towards the
mountains are covered with a rich arborescent vegetation. The
upper valleys and mountain sides afford good pasture for sheep,
and the main Taurus range encloses several extensive upland
basin-shaped valleys (vailas), which are characteristic of that
range throughout its extent (see ASIA MINOR).
The limits of Lycia towards the interior seem to have varied at
different times. The high and cold upland tract to the north-east,
called Milyas, was by some writers included in that province, though
it is naturally more connected with Pisidia. According to Artemi-
dorus (whose authority is followed by Strabo), the towns that
formed the Lycian league in the days of its integrity were twenty-
three in number; but Pliny states that Lycia once possessed seventy
towns, of which only twenty-six remained in his day. Recent re-
searches have fully confirmed the fact that the sea-coast and the
valleys were thickly studded with towns, many of which are proved
by existing remains to have been places of importance. By the aid
of inscriptions the position of the greater part of the cities mentioned
in ancient authors can be fixed. On the gulf of Glaucus, near the
frontiers of Caria, stood Telmessus, an important place, while a short
distance inland from it were the small towns of Daedala and Cady-
anda. At the entrance of the valley of the Xanthus were Patara,
Xanthus itsejf, and, a little higher up, Pinara on the west and Tlos
on the east side of the valley, while Araxa stood at the head of the
valley, at the foot of the pass leading into the interior. Myra, one
of the most important cities of Lycia, occupied the entrance of the
valley of the Andriacus; on the coast between this and the mouth
of the Xanthus stood Antiphellus, while in the interior at a short
distance were found Phellus, Cyaneae and Candyba. In the alluvial
plain formed by the rivers Arycandus and Limyrus stood Limyra,
and encircling the same bay the three small towns of Rhodiapolis,
Corydalla and Gagae. Arycanda commanded the upper valley of
the river of the same name. On the east coast stood Olympus, one
of the cities of the league, while Phaselis, a little farther north,
which was a much more important place, never belonged to the
Lycian league and appears always to have maintained an independent
position.
The cold upland district of the Milyas does not seem to have
contained any town of importance. Podalia appears to have been
its chief place. Between the Milyas and the Pamphylian Gulf was
the lofty mountain range of Solyma, which was supposed to derive
its name from the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer in con-
nexion with the Lycians and the story of Bellerophon. In the flank
of this mountain, near a place called Deliktash, was the celebrated
fiery source called the Chimaera, which gave rise to many fables.
It has been visited in modern times by Captain F. Beaufort, T. A. B.
Spratt and Edward Forbes, and other travellers, and is merely a
stream of inflammable gas issuing from crevices in the rocks, such
as are found in several places in the Apennines. No traces of recent
volcanic action exist in Lycia.
History. The name of the Lycians, Lukki, is first met with in
the Telel-Amarna tablets (1400 B.C.) and in the list of the
nations from the eastern Mediterranean who invaded Egypt in
the reign of Mineptah, the successor of Rameses II. At that
time they seem to have occupied the Cilician coast. Their
occupation of Lycia was probably later, and since the Lycian
inscriptions are not found far inland, we may conclude that they
entered the country from the sea. On the other hand the name
appears to be preserved in Lycaonia, where some bands of them
may have settled. According to Herodotus they called them-
selves Termilae, written Trmmile in the native inscriptions, and
he further states that the original inhabitants of the country
were the Milyans and Solymi, the Lycians being invaders from
Crete. In this tradition there is a reminiscence of the fact that
the Lycians had been sea-rovers before their settlement in Lycia.
The Lycian Sarpedon was believed to have taken part in the
Trojan war. The Lydians failed to subdue Lycia, but after the
fall of the Lydian empire it was conquered by Harpagus the
general of Cyrus, Xanthus or Arnna, the capital, being com-
pletely destroyed. While acknowledging the suzerainty of
Persia, however, the Lycians remained practically independent,
and for a time joined the Delian league. " The son of Harpagus "
on the obelisk of Xanthus boasts of having sacked numerous
cities in alliance with the Athenian goddess. The Lycians were
incorporated into the empire of Alexander and his successors,
but even after their conquest by the Romans, preserved their
federal institutions as late as the time of Augustus. According
to Strabo the principal towns in the league were Xanthus,
Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra and Tlos; each of these had
three votes in the general assembly, while the other towns had
only two or one. Taxation and the appointment of the Lyciarch
and other magistrates were vested in the assembly. Under
Claudius Lycia was formally annexed to the Roman empire, and
united with Pamphylia: Theodosius made it a separate province.
Antiquities. Few parts of Asia Minor were less known in
modern times than Lycia up to the ipth century. Captain
Beaufort was the first to visit several places on the sea-coast,
and the remarkable rock-hewn tombs of Telmessus had been
already described by Dr Clarke, but it was Sir Charles Fellows
who first discovered and drew attention to the extraordinary rich-
ness of the district in ancient remains, especially of a sepulchral
character. His visits to the country in 1838 and 1840 were
followed by an expedition sent by the British government in
1842 to transport to England the valuable monuments now in the
British Museum, while Admiral Spratt and Edward Forbes
explored the interior, and laid down its physical features on an
excellent map. The monuments thus brought to light are among
the most interesting of those discovered in Asia Minor, and prove
the existence of a distinct native architecture, especially in the
rock-cut tombs. But the theatres found in almost every town,
some of them of very large size, are sufficient to attest the per-
vading influence of Greek civilization; and this is confirmed by
the sculptures, which are for the most part wholly Greek. None
of them, indeed, can be ascribed to a very early period, and hardly
any trace can be found of the influence of Assyrian or other
Oriental art.
One of the most interesting results of these recent researches
has been the discovery of numerous inscriptions in the native
language of the country, and written in an alphabet peculiar to
Lycia. A few of these inscriptions are bilingual, in Greek and
Lycian, and the clue thus afforded to their interpretation has been
followed up, first by Daniel Sharpe and Moritz Schmidt, and in
more recent years by J. Imbert, W. Arkwright, V. Thomsen,
A. Torp, S. Bugge and E. Kalinka.
The alphabet was derived from the Doric alphabet of Rhodes,
but ten other characters were added to it to express vocalic and
other sounds not found in Greek. The attempts to connect the
language with the Indo-European family have been unsuccessful;
it belongs to a separate family of speech which we may term
" Asianic." Most of the inscriptions are sepulchral; by far the
longest and most important is that on an obelisk found at
Xanthus, which is a historical document, the concluding part of
it being in a peculiar dialect, supposed to be an older and poetical
form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube
(Trosobis) and Trqqiz or Trqqas.
Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut
tomb usually represented the house of the living, with an
elaborate facade, but in one or two instances, notably that of
the so-called Harpy-tomb, the facade is surmounted by a tall,
square tower, in the upper part of which is the sepulchral chamber.
Lycian sculpture followed closely the development of Greek
sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which the tombs are
adorned are of a high order of merit. The exquisite bas-reliefs
on a Lycian sarcophagus now in the museum of Constantinople
are among the finest surviving examples of classical art. The
bas-reliefs were usually coloured. For the coinage, see NUMIS-
MATICS, section "Asia Minor."
AUTHORITIES. C. Fellows, Journal in Asia Minor (1839) and
Discoveries in Lycia (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, Travels
in Lycia (1847) ; O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, Reisen im sudwest-
lichen Kleinasien (1884); E. Pstersen and F. von Luschan, Reisen
in Lykien (1889) ; O. Treuber, Geschichte der Lykier (1887) ; G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans I'antiquite, v. (1890); P.
LYCK LYCURGUS
Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache \
(1896); S. Bugge, Lykische Studien (from 1897), A. Torp, Lykische \
Beitrdge (from 1898); V. Thomsen, tudes lyciennes (1899); E. |
Kalinka and R. Heberdey, Tituli Asiae Minoris, i. (1901); see also
articles XANTHUS, MYRA, PATARA. (A. H. S.)
LYCK, or LYK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of East Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Konigsberg, and close to
the frontier of Poland, on a lake and river of the same name.
Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is the chief town of the region known as
Masuria. On an island in the lake is a castle formerly belonging
to the Teutonic order, and dating from 1273, now used as a
prison. There are iron-foundries, distilleries, breweries, tan-
neries, paper mills and flour mills, and a trade in grain and
cattle.
LYCOPHRON, Greek poet and grammarian, was born at
Chalcis in Euboea. He flourished at Alexandria in the time of
Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). According to Suidas, he
was the son of Socles, but was adopted by Lycus of Rhegium.
He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging the
comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his
labours composed a treatise On Comedy. His own compositions,
however, chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suidas gives the titles
of twenty, of which very few fragments have been preserved),
which secured him a place in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians.
One of his poems, Alexandra or Cassandra, containing 1474
iambic lines, has been preserved entire. It is in the form of a
prophecy uttered by Cassandra, and relates the later fortunes of
Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to events
of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends
with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia
and Europe in his world-wide empire. The style is so enigmatical
as to have procured for Lycophron, even among the ancients,
the title of "obscure" (ff/coTeuw) . The poem is evidently
intended to display the writer's knowledge of obscure names
and uncommon myths; it is full of unusual words of doubtful
meaning gathered from the older poets, and many long-winded
compounds coined by the author. It has none of the qualities
of poetry, and was probably written as a show-piece for the
Alexandrian school. It was very popular in the Byzantine
period, and was read and commented on very frequently; the
collection of scholia by Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable,
and the MSS. of the Cassandra are numerous. 1 A few well-turned
lines which have been preserved from Lycophron's tragedies
show a much better style; they are said to have been much
admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although the poet had
ridiculed him in a satyric drama. Lycophron is also said to have
been a skilful writer of anagrams.
Editio princeps (1513); J. Potter (1697, 1702); L. Sebastian!
(1803); L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-
1908"). vol. ii. containing the scholia. The most complete edition is
by C. von Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes,
1895). There are translations by F. Deheque. (1853) and Viscount
Royston (1806; a work of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-
Mollendorff, De Lycophronis Alexandra (1884); J. Konze, De Dic-
tione Lycophronis (1870). The commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes
have been edited by C. O. Muller (1811).
LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of the Lycopodiaceae, a
natural order of the Fern-allies (see PTERIDOPHYTA). They are
flowerless herbs, with an erect, prostrate or creeping widely-
branched stem, with small simple leaves which thickly cover
the stem and branches. The " fertile " leaves are arranged in
cones, and bear spore-cases (sporangia) in their axils, containing
spores of one kind only. The prothallium developed from the
spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and
bears the male and female organs (antheridia and archegonia).
There are about a hundred species widely distributed in tem-
perate and tropical climates; five occur in Britain on heaths and
moors, chiefly in mountainous districts, and are known as club-
*Two passages of the Cassandra, 1446-1450 and 1226-1282, in
which the career of the Roman people and their universal empire are
spoken of, could not possibly have been written by an Alexandrian
poet of 250 B.C. Hence it has been maintained by Niebuhr and
others that the poem was written by a later poet mentioned by
Tzetzes, but the opinion of Welcker that these paragraphs are a later
interpolation is generally considered more probable.
mosses. The commonest species, L. davatum, is also known as
stag-horn moss.
Gerard, in 1597, described two kinds of lycopodium (Herball,
P- 1373) under the names Muscus denticulatus and Muscus davatus
(L. davatum) as " Club Mosse or Woolfes Clawe Mosse," the names
being in Low Dutch, " Wolfs Clauwen," from the resemblance of the
club-like or claw-shaped shoots to the toes of a wolf, " whereupon we
first named it Lycopodion." Gerard also speaks of its emetic and
many other supposed virtues. L. Selago and L. catharticum (a native
of the Andes) have been said to be, at least when fresh, cathartic;
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. I. Lycopodium davatum.
A, Old prothallus. the specialized erect branches
B, Prothallus bearing a young bearing the strobile or cones.
sporophyte. H, Sporophyte bearing the single
G, Polian of a mature plant, sporangium on its upper
showing the creeping habit, surface,
the adventitious roots and J, Spore.
but, with the exception of the spores of L. davatum (" lycopodium
powder "), lycopodium as a drug has fallen into disuse. The powder
is used for rolling pills in, as a dusting powder for infants' sores, &c.
A tinctura lycopodii, containing one part of the powder to ten of
alcohol (ox %), has been given, in doses of 15 to 60 minims, in cases of
irritation and spasm of the bladder. The powder is highly inflam-
mable, and is used in pyrotechny and for artificial lightning on the
stage. If the hand be covered with the powder it cannot be wetted
on being plunged into water. Another use of lycopodium is for
dyeing; woollen cloth boiled with species of lycopodium, as L.
davatum, becomes blue when dipped in a bath of Brazil wood.
LYCOSURA (mod. Palaeokastro or Siderokastro) , a city of
Arcadia, reputed to be the most ancient city in Greece, and to
have been founded by Lycaon the son of Pelasgus. Its fame in
later times was chiefly associated with the temple of Despoena,
containing the colossal group made by Damophon of Messene,
of Despoena and Demeter seated, with Artemis and the Titan
Anytus standing beside them. The temple and considerable
remains of the group of sculpture were found in 1889. The date
of both has been a matter of dispute, Damophon being placed
at dates varying from the 4th century B.C. to the age of Hadrian.
But it has now been shown that he lived in the 2nd century B.C.
Remains of a portico, altars and other structures have also been
found.
See npoKTixt. rijj''Apx. 'Eroipioi (1896); G. Dickens, Annual of
British School at Athens, xii. and xiii.
LYCURGUS (Gr. \vKovpyos), in Greek history, the reputed
founder of the Spartan constitution. Plutarch opens his
154
LYCURGUS
biography of Lycurgus with these words: " About Lycurgus the
lawgiver it is not possible to make a single statement that is not
called in question. His genealogy, his travels, his death, above
all, his legislative and constitutional activity have been variously
recorded, and there is the greatest difference of opinion as to his
date. " Nor has modern historical criticism arrived at any certain
results. Many scholars, indeed, suppose him to be in reality a
god or hero, appealing to the existence of a temple and cult of
Lycurgus at Sparta as early as the time of Herodotus, (i. 66),
and to the words of the Delphic oracle (Herod, i. 65)
dXX' irt Kdi juoXXov Otov e\;ro/icu, a \VKoopyf.
If this be so, he is probably to be connected with the cult of
Apollo Lycius or with that of Zeus Lycaeus. But the majority
of modern historians agree in accepting Lycurgus as an historical
person, however widely they^may differ about his work.
According to the Spartan tradition preserved by Herodotus,
Lycurgus was a member of the Agiad house, son of Agis I. and
brother of Echestratus. On the death of the latter he became
regent and guardian of his nephew Labotas (Leobotes), who was
still a minor. Simonides, on the other hand, spoke of him as a
Eurypontid, son of Prytanis and brother of Eunomus, and later
the tradition prevailed which made him the son of Eunomus and
Dionassa, and half-brother of the king Polydectes, on whose
death he became guardian of the young king Charillus. Accord-
ing to Herodotus he introduced his reforms immediately on
becoming regent, but the story which afterwards became gener-
ally accepted and is elaborated by Plutarch represented him as
occupying for some time the position of regent, then spending
several years in travels, and on his return to Sparta carrying
through his legislation when Charillus was king. This latter
version helped to emphasize the disinterestedness of the lawgiver,
and also supplied a motive for his travels the jealousy of those
who accused him of trying to supplant his nephew on the throne.
He is said to have visited Crete, Egypt and Ionia, and some
versions even took him to Spain, Libya and India.
Various beliefs were held as to the source from which Lycurgus
derived his ideas of reform. Herodotus found the tradition
current among the Spartans that they were suggested to Lycurgus
by the similar Cretan institutions, but even in the sth century
there was a rival theory that he derived them from the Delphic
oracle. These two versions are united by Ephorus, who argued
that, though Lycurgus had really derived his system from Crete,
yet to give it a religious sanction he had persuaded the Delphic
priestess to express his views in oracular form.
The Reforms. Herodotus says that Lycurgus changed " all
the customs," that he created the military organization of
ivuftorlai. (enomolies), TpiijKoSts (triecades) and ffvffffiria. (syssitia),
and that he instituted the ephorate and the council of elders.
To him, further, are attributed the foundation of the apella
(the citizen assembly) , the prohibition of gold and silver currency,
the partition of the land (yfjs bvaSacrnfa) into equal lots, and, in
general, the characteristic Spartan training (ayuyi]). Some
of these statements are certainly false. The council of elders
and the assembly are not in any sense peculiar to Sparta, but are
present in the heroic government of Greece as depicted in the
Homeric poems. The ephors, again, are almost universally
held to be either an immemorial heritage of the Dorian stock or
and this seems more probable an addition to the Spartan con-
stitution made at a later date than can be assigned to Lycurgus.
Further, the tradition of the Lycurgan partition of the land is
open to grave objections. Grote pointed out (History of Greece,
pt. ii. ch. 6) that even from the earliest historical times we find
glaring inequalities of property at Sparta, and that the tradition
was apparently unknown to all the earlier Greek historians and
philosophers down to Plato and Aristotle: Isocrates (xii. 259)
expressly denied that a partition of land had ever taken place
in the Spartan state. Again, the tradition presupposes the
conquest by the Spartans of the whole, or at least the greater
part, of Laconia, yet Lycurgus must fall in the period when the
Spartans had not yet subjugated even the middle Eurotas plain,
in which their city lay. Finally, we can point to an adequate
explanation of the genesis of the tradition in the ideals of the
reformers of the latter part of the 3rd century, led by the kings
Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (q.v.). To them the cause of Sparta's
decline lay in the marked inequalities of wealth, and they looked
upon a redistribution of the land as the reform most urgently
needed. But it was characteristic of the Greeks to represent
the ideals of the present as the facts of the past, and so such a
story as that of the Lycurgan -yijj toafiaaijos may well have arisen
at this time. It is at least noteworthy that the plan of Agis to
give 4500 lots to Spartans and 15,000 to perioeci suspiciously
resembles that of Lycurgus, in whose case the numbers are said
to have been 9000 and 30,000 respectively. Lastly, the prohibi-
tion of gold and silver money cannot be attributed to Lycurgus,
for at so early a period coinage was yet unknown in Greece.
Lycurgus, then, did not create any of the main elements of the
Spartan constitution, though he may have regulated their
powers and defined their position. But tradition represented him
as finding Sparta the prey of disunion, weakness and lawlessness,
and leaving her united, strong and subject to the most stable
government which the Greek world had ever seen. Probably
Grote comes near to the truth when he says that Lycurgus
" is the founder of a warlike brotherhood rather than the law-
giver of a political community." To him we may attribute the
unification of the several component parts of the state, the strict
military organization and training which soon made the Spartan
hoplite the best soldier in Greece, and above all the elaborate
and rigid system of education which rested upon, and in turn
proved the strongest support of, that subordination of the
individual to the state which perhaps has had no parallel in the
history of the world.
Lycurgus's legislation is very variously dated, and it is not
possible either to harmonize the traditions or to decide with
confidence between them. B.Nlese (Hermes, xlii. 440 sqq.) assigns
him to the first half of the 7th century B.C. Aristotle read
Lycurgus's name, together with that of Iphitus, on the discus
at Olympia which bore the terms of the sacred truce, but even
if the genuineness of the document and the identity of this
Lycurgus with the Spartan reformer be granted, it is uncertain
whether the discus belongs to the so-called first Olympiad,
7 76 B.C., or to an earlier date. Most traditions place Lycurgus in
the gth century: Thucydides, whom Grote follows, dates his
reforms shortly before 804, Isocrates and Ephorus go back to 869,
and the chronographers are divided between 821, 828 and 834 B.C.
Finally, according to a tradition recorded by Xenophon (Resp.
Laced, x. 8), he was contemporary with the Heraclidae, in which
case he would belong to the loth century B.C.
AUTHORITIES. Our chief ancient authorities, besides Plutarch's
biography, are: Herodotus i. 65; Xenophon, Respublica Lacedae-
moniorum; Ephorus ap. Strabo x. 481, 482; Aristotle, Politics, ii. ;
Pausanias iii. and v. 4; and scattered passages in Plato, Isocrates,
Polybius, Diodorus, Polyaenus, &c. Of modern works the most im-
portant are: E. Meyer, Lykurgos von Sparta," in Forschungen zur
alien Geschichte (Halle, 1892), i. 211 sqq.; A. Kopstadt, De rerum
Laconicarum constitutions Lycurgeae origine et indole (Greifswald,
1849); H. K. Stein, Kritik der Oberlieferung uber den spartanischen
Gesetzgeber Lykurg (Glatz, 1882); S. Wide, " Bemerkungen zur
spartanischen Lykurglegende," in Skand. Archiv. i. (1891), 90 sqq.;
E. Nusselt, Das Lykurgproblem (Erlangen, 1898); H. Bazin, De
Lycurgo (Paris, 1885); C. Reuss, De Lycurgea quae fertur agrorum
divisione (Pforzheim, 1878); A. Busson, Lykurgos und die grosse
Rhetra (Innsbruck, 1887); H. Gelzer, "Lykurg und die delphische
Priesterschaft " in Rhein. Mus. xxviii. I sqq. ; F. Winicker, Stand der
Lykurgischen Frage (Graudenz, 1884); G. Attinger, Essai sur
Lycurgue et ses institutions (Neuchatel, 1892); the general Greek
histories, and the works on the Spartan constitution cited under
SPARTA. (M. N. T.)
LYCURGUS (c. 396-325 B.C.), one of the " ten " Attic orators.
Through his father, Lycophron, he belonged to the old Attic
priestly family of the Eteobutadae. He is said to have been
a pupil both of Plato and of Isocrates. His early career is
unknown, but after the real character of the struggle with
Philip of Macedon became manifest he was recognized, with
Demosthenes and Hypereides, as one of the chiefs of the national
party. He left the care of external relations to his colleagues,
and devoted himself to internal organization and finance. He
LYCURGUS LYDENBURG
155
managed the finances of Athens for twelve successive years
(338-326), at first directly as treasurer of the revenues (6 ri rjj
SuHKyaei) for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when
the actual office was forbidden him by law, through his son and
a nominal official chosen from his party. Part of one of the deeds
in which he rendered account of his term of office is still preserved
in an inscription. During this time he raised the public income
from 600 to 1200 talents yearly. He increased the navy, re-
paired the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the aKevodrjicr]
designed by the architect Philo. He was also appointed to
various other offices connected with the preservation and improve-
ment of the city. He was very strict in his superintendence of the
public morals, and passed a sumptuary law to restrain extrava-
gance. He did much to beautify the city; he reconstructed
the great Dionysiac theatre and the gymnasium in the Lyceum,
and erected the Panathenaic stadium on the Ilissus. He is
mentioned as the proposer of five laws, of which the most famous
was that statues of the three great tragedians should be erected
in the theatre, and that their works should be carefully edited
and preserved among the state archives. For his services he was
honoured with crowns, statues and a seat in the town hall;
and after his death his friend Stratocles drew up a decree (still
extant in pseudo-Plutarch, Vit. dec. oral. p. 851; see also
E. L. Hicks, Greek Historical Inscriptions, ist ed., No. 145),
ordering the erection of a statue of bronze to Lycurgus, and
granting the honours of the Prytaneum to his eldest son. He
was one of the orators whose surrender was demanded by
Alexander the Great, but the people refused to give him up.
He died while president of the theatre of Dionysus, and was
buried on the road leading to the Academy at the expense of the
state.
Lycurgus was a man of action; his orations, of which fifteen
were published, are criticized by the ancients for their awkward
arrangement, harshness of style, and the tendency to digressions
about mythology and history, although their noble spirit and
lofty morality are highly praised. The one extant example,
Against Leocraies, fully bears out this criticism. After the
battle of Chaeroneia (338), in spite of the decree which forbade
emigration under pain of death, Leocrates had fled from Athens.
On his return (probably about 332) he was impeached by
Lycurgus, but acquitted, the votes of the judges being equally
divided.
The speech has been frequently edited. Editio princeps (Aldine,
1513) ; F. G. Kiessling (1847) with M. H. E. Meier's commentary on
pseudo- Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus and the fragments of his speeches ;
C. Rehdantz (1876); T. Thalheim (1880); C. Scheibe (1885); F.
Blass (ed. major, 1889), with bibliography of editions and articles
(ed. minor, 1902); E. Sofer (Leipzig, 1905), with notes and introd.
There is an index to Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus by L. L.
Forman (Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Dun-bach,
L'Orateur Lycurgue (1890), contains a list of the most important
review articles on the financial and naval administration of Lycurgus
and on his public works; see also C. Droege, De Lycurgo publicarum
pecuniarum administratore (Minden, 1880). Several fragments of his
various laws have been preserved in inscriptions (Corpus inscrip-
tionum atticarum, ii. 162, 163, 173, 176, 180). On the history of the
period see authorities under DEMOSTHENES.
LYCURGUS, " THELocOTHETE " (1772-1851), Greek leader in
the War of Independence, was born in the island of Samos. He
was educated at Constantinople, received the usual training, and
followed the customary career of a Phanariot Greek. He
accompanied Constantino Ypsilanti when he was appointed
hospodar of Walachia, as secretary, and served Ypsilanti's
successor, Alexander Soutzos, as treasurer and chancellor
(Logothete). In 1802 he returned to Samos, and having become
suspected by the Turkish government was imprisoned. He fled
to Smyrna, when he was pardoned and released by the Turks.
When the War of Independence began he induced his country-
men to declare Samos independent, and was chosen ruler. His
share in the War of Independence is chiefly memorable because
he provoked the massacre of Chios in 1822. Lycurgus con-
ducted an expedition of 2500 to that island, which was held
by a Turkish garrison under Velna Pasha. His force was in-
sufficient, the time was ill-chosen, for a strong Turkish fleet was
at sea, and Lycurgus displayed utter incapacity as a military
leader. After these events, he was deposed by the Samians,
but recovered some influence and had a share in the defence of
Samos against the Turks in 1824. When the island was left
under the authority of Turkey by the protocol of the 3rd of
February 1830, he helped to obtain autonomy for the Samians.
He retired to Greece and died on the 22nd of May 1851.
See G. Finlay, History of the Creek Revolution (London, 1861).
LYDD, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
parliamentary division of Kent, England, 71$ m. S.E. by E.
of London by a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. (1901) 2675. It lies in the open lowland of
Dunge Marsh. To the south-east are the bare shingle banks
of the promontory of Dungeness. Its church of All Saints has
a beautiful Perpendicular tower with rich vaulting within.
The neighbourhood affords pasture for large flocks of sheep.
On the land known as the Rypes, in the neighbourhood, there
is a military camp, with artillery and rifle ranges; hence the
name given to the explosive " lyddite." The town is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 12,043
acres.
The first settlement at Lydd (Hlide, Lide, Lyde) was probably
due to its convenience as a fishing-station. After the Conquest
it became a seaport of some consequence and although now,
owing to the alteration of the coast, it stands nearly 3 m. inland
a number of its inhabitants are still fishermen. In 774 land in
Lydd was granted by Off a to the monks of Christ Church,
Canterbury, and the archbishop of Canterbury evidently held
the lordship of the town from an early date. At some time
before the reign of Edward I. Lydd was made a member of the
Cinque Port of Romney, and in 1290 was granted the same
liberties and free customs as the Cinque Ports on condition of
aiding the service of its head-port to the crown with one ship.
This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1365. The
corporation also possesses documents of 1154, 1399 and 1413,
granting to the archbishop's men of Lydd the privileges enjoyed
by the Cinque Ports and confirming all former privileges. Lydd
is called a borough in the Hundred Rolls. Its incorporation
under a bailiff, of which there is evidence in the isth century,
may have been due to the archbishop or to the court of Shepway,
but it was not incorporated by the crown until 1885, when, by a
charter under the Municipal Acts, the last bailiff was elected
the first mayor. In 1494 a grant was made to the bailiff, jurats
and commonalty of a yearly fair on the i2th of July and two
days following. A fair was held under this grant until 1874.
LYDENBURG, a town and district of the Transvaal, South
Africa. The town is 60 m. by rail N.N.E. of Belfast on the
Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. Pop. (1904) 1523. It is pictur-
esquely situated on the Spekboom tributary of the Olifants
river at an altitude of 4900 ft. Some 15 m. E. is the Mauchberg
(8725 ft.), the highest point in the Transvaal. The town is the
chief centre for the Lydenburg goldfields. Next to Lydenburg
the most important settlement in these goldfields is Pilgrim's
Rest, pop. (1904) 1188, 23 m. N.E. of Lydenburg. Lydenburg
(the town of suffering) was founded in 1846 by Boers who two
years previously had established themselves farther north at
Ohrigstad, which they abandoned on account of the fever
endemic there. Lydenburg at once became the capital of a
district (of the same name) which then embraced all the eastern
part of the Transvaal. In 1836 the Boers of Lydenburg separated
from their brethren and proclaimed an independent republic,
which was, however, incorporated with the South African
Republic in 1860. The discovery of gold near the town was
made in 1869, and in 1873 the first successful goldfield in the
Transvaal was opened here. It was not until 1910, however,
that Lydenburg was placed in railway communication with the
rest of the country. The present district of Lydenburg consists
of the north-east and central parts of the original district. In
the Lulu Mountains, a spur of the Drakensberg, and some 40 m.
N.W. of Lydenburg, was the stronghold of the Kaffir chief
Sikukuni, whose conflict with the Boers in 1876 was one of the
causes which led to the annexation of the Transvaal by Great
Britain in 1877. (See TRANSVAAL: History.)
i S 6
LYDFORD LYDGATE
LYDFORD, or LIDFORD, a village, once an important town,
in the western parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
near the western confines of Dartmoor, 27 m. N. of Plymouth
by the London & South-Western railway. From its Perpen-
dicular church of St Petrock fine views of the Dartmoor tors are
seen. The village stands on the small river Lyd, which traverses
a deep narrow chasm, crossed by a bridge of single span; and at
a little distance a tributary stream forms a cascade in an exquisite
glen. Close to the church are slight remains of the castle of
Lydford.
Lydford (Lideford) was one of the four Saxon boroughs of
Devon, and possessed a mint in the days of /Ethelred the Unready.
It first appears in recorded history in 997, when the Danes
made a plundering expedition up the Tamar and Tavy as far
as " Hlidaforda." In the reign of Edward the Confessor it
was the most populous centre in Devonshire after Exeter, but
the Domesday Survey relates that forty houses had been laid
waste since the Conquest, and the town never recovered its
former prosperity; the history from the isth century centres
round the castle, which is first mentioned in 1216, when it was
granted to William Briwere, and was shortly afterwards fixed
as the prison of the stannaries and the meeting-place of the
Forest Courts of Dartmoor. A gild at Lideford is mentioned
in 1180, and the pipe roll of 1195 records a grant for the re-
establishment of the market. In 1238 the borough, which had
hitherto been crown demesne, was bestowed by Henry III.
on Richard, earl of Cornwall, who in 1 268 obtained a grant of a
Wednesday market and a three days' fair at the feast of St
Petrock. The borough had a separate coroner and bailiff in
1275, but it was never incorporated by charter, and only once,
in 1300, returned members to parliament. Lydford prison is
described in 1512 as " one of the most hainous, contagious and
detestable places in the realm," and " Lydford Law " was a
by-word for injustice. At the time of the Commonwealth the
castle was entirely in ruins, but in the i8th century it was
restored and again used as a prison and as the meeting-place
of the manor and borough courts.
LYDGATE, JOHN (c. 1370-0. 1451), English poet, was born at
the village of Lydgate, some 6 or 7 m. from Newmarket. It is,
however, with the Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds
that he is chiefly associated. Probably he was educated at the
school attached to the monastery, and in his Testament he has
drawn a lively picture of himself as a typical orchard-robbing
boy, who had scant relish for matins, fought, and threw creed
( and paternoster at the cock. He was ordained sub-deacon in
' 1389, deacon in 1393, and priest in 1397. These dates are valuable
as enabling us to fix approximately the date of his birth, which
must have occurred somewhere about 1370. Lydgate passed
as a portent of learning, and, according to Bale, he pursued his
studies not only at both the English universities but in France
and Italy. Koeppel (see Laurents de Premierjait und John
Lydgates Bearbeilungen von Boccaccios De Casibus, Munich, 1885)
has thrown much doubt on this statement as regards Italy, but
Lydgate knew France and visited Paris in an official capacity
in 1426. Bale is also the authority for another assertion that
figures in what has been aptly termed the poet's " traditional
biography," viz. that Lydgate, on completing his own education,
kept school for the sons of noblemen and gentlemen. This
"traditional biography" prolongs his life to the year 1461,
but it is quite improbable that he lived many years after 1446,
when Abbot Curteys died and John Baret, treasurer of Bury,
signed an extant receipt for a pension which he shared with
Lydgate, and which continued to be paid till 1449. If it be true,
as Bishop Alcock of Ely affirms, that Lydgate wrote a poem on
the loss of France and Gascony, it seems necessary to suppose
that he lived two years longer, and thus indications point to the
year 1451, or thereabouts, as the date of his death.
Lydgate had a consuming passion for literature, and it was
probably that he might indulge this taste more fully that in
1434 he retired from the priorate of Hatfield Broadoak (or
Hat field Regis), to which he had been appointed in June 1423.
After 1390 but whilst he was still a young man he made the
acquaintance of Geoffrey Chaucer, with whose son Thomas
he was on terms of considerable intimacy. This friendship
appears to have decided Lydgate's career, and in his Troy-book
and elsewhere are reverent and touching tributes to his " master."
The passages in question do not exaggerate his obligations to
the " well of English." The themes of all his more ambitious
poems can be traced to Chaucerian sources. The Story of
Thebes, for instance, was doubtless suggested by the " romance "
which Cressida and her companions are represented as reading
when interrupted by Pandarus ( Troilus and Cressida, II. xii.-xvi.) .
The Falls oj Princes, again, is merely the Monk's Tale " writ
large."
Lydgate is a most voluminous writer. The Falls of Princes
alone comprises 7000 stanzas; and his authentic compositions
reach the enormous total of 150,000 lines. Cursed with such
immoderate fluency Lydgate could not sustain himself at the
highest level of artistic excellence; and, though imbued with a
sense of the essentials of poetry, and eager to prove himself in
its various manifestations, he stinted himself of the self -discipline
necessary to perfection of form. As the result the bulk of his
composition is wholly or comparatively rough-hewn. That he
was capable of better work than is suggested by his average
accomplishment is shown by two allegorical poems the
Complaint of the Black Knight and the Temple of Glass (once
attributed to Hawes). In these he reveals himself as a not
unworthy successor of Chaucer, and the pity of it is that he should
have squandered his powers in a futile attempt to create an
entire literature. For a couple of centuries Lydgate's reputation
equalled, if it did not surpass, that of his master. This was in
a sense only natural, since he was the real founder of the school
of which Stephen Hawes was a distinguished ornament, and
which " held the field " in English letters during the long and
dreary interval between Chaucer and Spenser. One of the most
obvious defects of this school is excessive attachment to poly-
syllabic terms. Lydgate is not quite so great a sinner in this
respect as are some of his successors, but his tendency cannot
be mistaken, and John Metham is amply justified in his censure
Eke John Lydgate, sometime monk of Bury,
His books indited with terms of rhetoric
And half-changed Latin, with conceits of poetry.
Pedantry was an inevitable effect of the early Renaissance.
French literature passed through the same phase, from which
indeed it was later in emerging; and the ultimate consequence
was the enrichment of both languages. It must be conceded
as no small merit in Lydgate that, in an age of experiment
he should have succeeded so often in hitting the right word.
Thomas Warton remarks on his lucidity. Since his writings are
read more easily than Chaucer's, the inference is plain that he
was more effectual as a maker of our present English. In spite
of that, Lydgate is characteristically medieval medieval in his
prolixity, his platitude, his want of judgment and his want of
taste; medieval also in his pessimism, his Mariolatry and his
horror of death. These attributes jarred on the sensitive Ritson,
who racked his brains for contumelious epithets such as " stupid
and disgusting," " cart-loads of rubbish," &c.; and during the
greater part of the i8th and igth centuries Lydgate's reputation
was at its lowest ebb. Recent criticism has been far more
impartial, and almost too much respect has been paid to his
attainments, especially in the matter of metre, though Lydgate
himself, with offensive lightheartedness, admits his poor crafts-
manship.
Lydgate's most doughty and learned apologist is Dr Schick, whose
preface to the Temple of Glass embodies practically all that is known
or conjectured concerning this author, including the chronological
order of his works. With the exception of the Damage and Destruc-
tion in Realms an account of Julius Caesar, his wars and his death
they are all in verse and extremely multifarious narrative, de-
votional hagiological, philosophical and scientific, allegorical and
moral, historical, satirical and occasional. The Troy-book, under-
taken at the command of Henry V., then prince of Wales, dates from
1412-1420; the Story of Thebes from 1420-1422; and the Falls of
Princes towards 1430. His latest work was Secreta Secretorum or
Secrets of Old Philosophers, rhymed extracts from a pseudo- Aristotelian
treatise. Lydgate certainly possessed extraordinary versatility,
LYDIA
1 S7
which enabled him to turn from elaborate epics to quite popular
poems like the Mumming at Hertford, A Ditty of Women's Horns and
London Lickpenny. The humour of this last is especially bright and
effective, but, unluckily for the author, the piece is believed to have
been retouched by some other hand. The longer efforts partake of
the nature of translations from sundry medieval compilations like
those of Guido di Colonna and Boccaccio, which are in Latin.
See publications of the Early English Text Society, especially the
Temple of Glass, edited by Dr Scnick; Koeppel's Lydgate's Story
of Thebes, eine Quellenuntersuchung (Munich, 1884), and the same
scholar's Laurents de Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von
BoccacCios De Casibus lUustrium Virorum (Munich, 1885); Walton's
History of English Poetry; Kit son's Bibliotheca Anglo-Poetica;
Furnivall's Political Poems (E. E. T. S.); and Sidney Lee's article
in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (F. J. S.)
LYDIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, the
boundaries of which it is difficult to fix, partly because they
varied at different epochs. The name is first found under the
form of Luddi in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Assur-
bani-pal, who received tribute from Gyges about 660 B.C. In
Homer we read only of Maeonians (//. ii. 865, v. 43, x. 431), and
the place of the Lydian capital Sardis is taken by Hyde (//. xx.
385), unless this was the name of the district in which Sardis
stood (see Strabo xiii. p. 626).' The earliest Greek writer who
mentions the name is Mimnermus of Colophon, in the 3yth
Olympiad. According to Herodotus (i. 7), the Meiones (called
Maeones by other writers) were named Lydians after Lydus, the
son of Attis, in the mythical epoch which preceded the rise of the
Heraclid dynasty. In historical times the Maeones were a tribe
inhabiting the district of the upper Hermus, where a town called
Maeonia existed (Pliny, N.H. v. 30; Hierocles, p. 670). The
Lydians must originally have been an allied tribe which bordered
upon them to the north-west, and occupied the plain of Sardis or
Magnesia at the foot of Tmolus and Sipylus. They were cut off
from the sea by the Greeks, who were in possession, not only of the
Bay of Smyrna, but also of the country north of Sipylus as far as
Temnus in the pass (boghaz), through which the Hermus forces its
way from the plain of Magnesia into its lower valley. 2 In a
Homeric epigram the ridge north of the Hermus, on which the
ruins of Temnus lie, is called Sardene. Northward the Lydians
extended at least as far as the Gygaean Lake (Lake Coloe, mod.
Mermereh), and the Sardene range (mod. Dumanli Dagh). The
plateau of the Bin Bir Tepe, on the southern shore of the Gygaean
Lake, was the chief burial-place of the inhabitants of Sardis, and
is still thickly studded with tumuli, among which is the " tomb
of Alyattes " (260 ft. high). Next to Sardis the chief city was
Magnesia ad Sipylum (q.v.), in the neighbourhood of which is the
famous seated figure of " Niobe " (//. xxiv. 614-617), cut out of the
rock, and probably intended to represent the goddess Cybele, to
which the Greeks attached their legend of Niobe. According to
Pliny (v. 31), Tantalis, afterwards swallowed up by earthquake
in the pool Sale or Saloe, was the ancient name of Sipylus and
" the capital of Maeonia " (Paus. vii. 24; Strabo xii. 579).
Under the Heraclid dynasty the limits of Lydia-must have been
already extended, since according to Strabo (xiii. 590), the
authority of Gyges reached as far as the Troad. Under the
Mermnads Lydia became a maritime as well as an inland power.
The Greek cities were conquered, and the coast of Ionia included
within the Lydian kingdom. The successes of Alyattes and of
Croesus finally changed the Lydian kingdom into a Lydian empire,
and all Asia Minor westward of the Halys, except Lycia, owned
the supremacy of Sardis. Lydia never again shrank back into
its original dimensions. After the Persian conquest the Maeander
was regarded as its southern boundary, and in the Roman
period it comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the
one side and Phrygia and the Aegean on the other.
Lydia proper was exceedingly fertile. The hill-sides were
clothed with vine and fir, and the rich broad plain of Hermus
produced large quantities of corn and saffron. The climate of
the plain was soft but healthy, though the country was subject
to frequent earthquakes. The Pactolus, which flowed from the
fountain of Tarne in the Tmolus mountains, through the centre
of Sardis, into the Hermus, was believed to be full of golden sand;
1 Pliny (v. 30) makes it the Maeonian name.
1 See Sir W. M. Ramsay in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, ii. 2.
and gold mines were worked in Tmolus itself, though by the time
of Strabo the proceeds had become so small as hardly to pay for
the expense of working them (Strabo xiii. 591). Maeonia on the
east contained the curious barren plateau known to the Greeks as
the Katakekaumene (" Burnt country "), once a centre of volcanic
disturbance. The Gygaean lake (where remains of pile dwellings
have been found) still abounds with carp.
Herodotus (i. 171) tells us that Lydus was a brother of Mysus
and Car. The statement is on the whole borne out by the few
Lydian, Mysian and Carian words that have been preserved, as
well as by the general character of the civilization prevailing
among the three nations. The race was probably a mixed one,
consisting of aborigines and Aryan immigrants. It was character-
ized by industry and a commercial spirit, and, before the Persian
conquest, by bravery. The religion of the Lydians resembled
that of the other civilized nations of Asia Minor. It was a nature
worship, which at times became wild and sensuous. By the side
of the supreme god Medeus stood the sun-god Attis, as in Phrygia
the chief object of the popular cult. He was at once the son and
bridegroom of Cybele (q.v.) or Cybebe, the mother of the gods,
whose image carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, was adored
on the cliffs of Sipylus (Paus. iii. 22). The cult may have been
brought westward by the Hittites who have left memorials of
themselves in the pseudo-Sesostris figures of Kara-bel (between
Sardis and Ephesus) as well as in the figure of the Mother-
goddess, the so-called Niobe. At Ephesus, where she was adored
under the form of a meteoric stone, she was identified with the
Greek Artemis (see also GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). Her
mural crown is first seen in the Hittite sculptures of Boghaz
Keui (see PTERIA and HITTITES) on the Halys. The priestesses
by whom she was served are depicted in early art as armed with
the double-headed axe, and the dances they performed in her
honour with shield and bow gave rise to the myths which saw in
them the Amazons, a nation of woman-warriors. The pre-
Hellenic cities of the coast Smyrna, Samorna (Ephesus),
Myrina, Cyme, Priene and Pitane were all of Amazonian origin,
and the first three of them have the same name as the Amazon
Myrina, whose tomb was pointed out in the Troad. The prosti-
tution whereby the Lydian girls gained their dowries (Herod, i.
93) was a religious exercise, as among the Semites, which marked
their devotion to the goddess Cybele. In the legend of Heracles,
Omphale takes the place of Cybele, and was perhaps her Lydian
title. Heracles is here the sun-god Attis in a new form; his
Lydian name is unknown, since E. Meyer has shown (Zeilsckr. d.
Morg. Gesell. xxxi. 4) that Sandon belongs not to Lydia but to
Cilicia. By the side of Attis stood Manes or Men, identified later
with the Moon-god.
According to the native historian Xanthus (460 B.C.) three
dynasties ruled in succession over Lydia. The first, that of the
Attiads, is mythical. It was headed by a god, and included
geographical personages like Lydus, Asies and Meles, or such
heroes of folk-lore as Cambletes, who devoured his wife. To this
mythical age belongs the colony which, according to Herodotus
(i. 94), Tyrsenus, the son of Attis, led to Etruria. Xanthus,
however, puts Torrhebus in the place of Tyrsenus, and makes
him the eponym of a district in Lydia. It is doubtful whether
Xanthus recognized the Greek legends which brought Pelops
from Lydia, or rather Maeonia, and made him the son of Tantalus.
The second dynasty was also of divine origin, but the names
which head it prove its connexion with the distant East. Its
founder, a descendant of Heracles and Omphale, was, Herodotus
tellsus(i. 7),asonof Ninus and grandson of Belus. The Assyrian
inscriptions have shown that the Assyrians had never crossed the
Halys, much less known the name of Lydia, before the age of
Assur-bani-pal, and consequently the theory which brought the
Heraclids from Nineveh must be given up. But the Hittites,
another Oriental people, deeply imbued with the elements of
Babylonian culture, had overrun Asia Minor and established
themselves on the shores of the Aegean before the reign of the
Egyptian king Rameses II.
The subject allies who then fight under their banners include
the Masu or Mysians and the Dardani of the Troad, while the
i 5 8
LYDUS LYELL, SIR CHARLES
Hittites have left memorials in Lydia. G. Dennis discovered an
inscription in Hittite hieroglyphics attached to the figure of
" Niobe " on Sipylus, and a similar inscription accompanies the
figure (in which Herodotus, ii. 106, wished to see Sesostris or
Rameses II.) in the pass of Karabel. We learn from Eusebius
that Sardis was first captured by the Cimmerii 1078 B.C.; and
since it was four centuries later before the real Cimmerii (q.v.)
appeared on the horizon of history, we may perhaps find in the
statement a tradition of the Hittite conquest. As the authority
of the Hittite satraps at Sardis began to decay the Heraclid
dynasty arose. According to Xanthus, Sadyattes and Lixus were
the successors of Tylon the son of Omphale. After lasting five
hundred and five years, the dynasty came to an end in the person
of Sadyattes, as he is called by Nicolas of Damascus, whose
account is doubtless derived from Xanthus. The name Can-
daules, given him by Herodotus, meant " dog strangler " and
was a title of the Lydian Hermes. Gyges (q.v.) put him to death
and established the dynasty of the Mermnads, 687 B.C. Gyges
initiated a new policy, that of making Lydia a maritime power;
but towards the middle of his reign the kingdom was overrun
by the Cimmerii. The lower town of Sardis was taken, and Gyges
sent tribute to Assur-bani-pal, as well as two Cimmerian chief-
tains he had himself captured in battle. A few years later
Gyges joined in the revolt against Assyria, and the Ionic and
Carian mercenaries he despatched to Egypt enabled Psam-
metichus to make himself independent. Assyria, however, was
soon avenged. The Cimmerian hordes returned, Gyges was
slain in battle (652 B.C.), and Ardys his son and successor returned
to his allegiance to Nineveh. The second capture of Sardis on
this occasion was alluded to by Calh'sthenes (Strabo xiii. 627).
Alyattes, the grandson of Ardys, finally succeeded in extirpating
the Cimmerii, as well as in taking Smyrna, and thus providing
his kingdom with a port. The trade and wealth of Lydia rapidly
increased, and the Greek towns fell one after the other before the
attacks of the Lydian kings. Alyattes's long reign of fifty-seven
years saw the foundation of the Lydian empire. All Asia Minor
west of the Halys acknowledged his sway, and the six years'
contest he carried on with the Medes was closed by the marriage
of his daughter Aryenis to Astyages. The Greek cities were
allowed to retain their own institutions and government on con-
dition of paying taxes and dues to the Lydian monarch, and
the proceeds of their commerce thus flowed into the imperial
exchequer. The result was that the king of Lydia became the
richest prince of his age. Alyattes was succeeded by Croesus
(q.v.) , who had probably already for some years shared the royal
power with his father, or perhaps grandfather, as V. Floigl thinks
(Geschichte des semitischen Alterthums, p. 20). He reigned alone
only fifteen years, Cyrus the Persian, after an indecisive battle
on the Halys, marching upon Sardis, and capturing both acropolis
and monarch (546 B.C.). The place where the acropolis was
entered was believed to have been overlooked by the mythical
Meles when he carried the lion round his fortress to make it
invulnerable; it was really a path opened by one of the landslips,
which have reduced the sandstone cliff of the acropolis to a mere
shell, and threaten to carry it altogether into the plain below.
The revolt of the Lydians under Pactyas, whom Cyrus had
appointed to collect the taxes, caused the Persian king to disarm
them, though we can hardly credit the statement that by this
measure their warlike spirit was crushed. Sardis now became
the western capital of the Persian empire, and its burning by
the Athenians was the indirect cause of the Persian War. After
Alexander the Great's death, Lydia passed to Antigonus; then
Achaeus made himself king at Sardis, but was defeated and put
to death by Antiochus. The country was presented by the
Romans to Eumenes, and subsequently formed part of the
proconsular province of Asia. By the time of Strabo (xiii.
631) its old language was entirely supplanted by Greek.
The Lydian empire may be described as the industrial power
of the ancient world. The Lydians were credited with being the
inventors, not only of games such as dice, huckle-bones and ball
(Herod, i. 94), but also of coined money. The oldest known coins are
the electrum coins of the earlier Mermnads (Madden, Coins of the
Jews, pp. 19-21), stamped on one side with a lion's head or the
figure of a king with bow and quiver; these were replaced by Croesus
with a coinage of pure gold and silver. To the latter monarch were
probably due the earliest gold coins of Ephesus (Head, Coinage of
Ephesus, p. 1 6). The electrum coins of Lydia were of two kinds, one
weighing 168-4 grains for the inland trade, and another of 224 grains
for the trade with Ionia. The standard was the silver mina of
Carchemish (as the Assyrians called it) which contained 8656 grains.
Originally derived by the Hittites from Babylonia, but modified by
themselves, this standard was passed on to the nations of Asia
Minor during the period of Hittite conquest, but was eventually
superseded by the Phoenician mina of 11,225 grains, and continued
to survive only in Cyprus and Cilicia (see also NUMISMATICS). The
inns, which the Lydians were said to have been the first to establish
(Herod, i. 94), were connected with their attention to commercial
Cursuits. Their literature has wholly perished. They were cele-
rated for their music and gymnastic exercises, and their art formed
a link between that of Asia Minor and that of Greece. R. Heberdey's
excavations at Ephesus since 1896, like those of D. G. Hogarth in 1905,
belong to the history of Greek and not native art. The ivory figures,
however, found by Hogarth on the level of the earliest temple of
Artemis show Asiatic influence, and resemble the so-called " Phoe-
nician " ivories from the palace of Sargon at Calah (Nimrud). For a
description of a pectoral of white gold, ornamented with the heads of
animals, human faces and the figure of a goddess, discovered in a
tomb on Tmolus, see Academy, January 15, 1881, p. 45. Lydian
sculpture was probably similar to that of the Phrygians. Phallic
emblems, for averting evil, were plentiful ; the summit of the tomb
of Alyattes is crowned with an enormous one of stone, about 9 ft. in
diameter. The tumulus itself is 281 yds. in diameter and about half
a mile in circumference. It has been partially excavated by G.
Spiegelthal and G. Dennis, and a sepulchral chamber discovered in
the middle, composed of large well-cut and highly polished blocks of
marble, the chamber being n ft. long, nearly 8 ft. broad and 7 ft.
high. Nothing was found in it except a few ashes and a broken vase
of Egyptian alabaster. The stone basement which, according to
Herodotus, formerly surrounded the mound has disappeared.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. von Olfers, Vber die lydischen Konigsgraber
bei Sardes (1858); H. Gelzer in the Kheinisches Museum (1874);
R. Schubert, Geschichte der Konige von Lydien (1884); G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I' art dans VantiquM, v. (1890) ; O. Radet,
La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades (1893); G.
Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 232-301 (1892) and Passing of the
Empires, pp. 339,388,603-621 (1900); J.KeilandA. von Premerstein,
Bericht uber eine Reise in Lydien (1908). (A. H. S.)
LYDUS ("THE LYDIAN"), JOANNES LAURENTIUS, Byzan-
tine writer on antiquarian subjects, was born at Philadelphia
in Lydia about A.D. 490. At an early age he set out to seek his
fortune in Constantinople, and held high court and state offices
under Anastasius and Justinian. In 552 he lost favour, and was
dismissed. The date of his death is not known, but he was
probably alive during the early years of Justin II. (reigned 565-
578). During his retirement he occupied himself in the compila-
tion of works on the antiquities of Rome, three of which have
been preserved: (i) DeOstentis (Ilepi 5io<njiJi>v), on the origin
and progress of the art of divination; (2) De Magistralibus
reipublicae Romanae (Hep! apx&v rijs 'Pupa'aav iroXtreios),
especially valuable for the administrative details of the time of
Justinian; (3) De Mensibus (Ilepi tirivuv), a history of the different
festivals of the year. The chief value of these books consists
in the fact that' the author made use of the works (now lost) of
old Roman writers on similar subjects. Lydus was also com-
missioned by Justinian to compose a panegyric on the emperor,
and a history of his successful campaign against Persia; but
these, as well as some poetical compositions, are lost.
Editions of (i) by C. Wachsmuth (1897), with full account of the
authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wunsch (1898-
1903); see also the essay by C. B. Hase (the first editor of the De
Ostentis) prefixed to I. Bekker's edition of Lydus (1837) in the Bonn
Corpus scriptorum hist. Byzantinae.
LYE (O. Eng. Hag, cf. Dutch loog, Ger. Lauge, from the root
meaning to wash, see in Lat. lavare, and Eng. " lather," froth of
soap and water, and " laundry "), the name given to the solution
of alkaline salts obtained by leaching or lixiviating wood ashes
with water, and sometimes to a solution of a caustic alkali.
Lixiviation (Lat. lixivium, lye, /*'*, ashes) is the action of separat-
ing, by the percolation of water, a soluble from an insoluble
substance. " Leaching," the native English term for this process,
is from " leach," to water, the root probably being the same as
in " lake."
LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875), British geologist, was
the eldest son of Charles Lyell of Kinnordy, Forfarshire, and
LYLY, JOHN
'59
was born on the I4th of November 1797, on the family estate in
Scotland. His father (1767-1849) was known both as a botanist
and as the translator of the Vita Numia and the Convilo of Dante:
the plant Lyellia was named after him. From his boyhood Lyell
had a strong inclination for natural history, especially ento-
mology, a taste which he cultivated at Hartley Lodge in the New
Forest, to which his family had removed soon after his birth.
In 1816 he entered Exeter College, Oxford, where the lectures
of Dr Buckland first drew his attention to geological study.
After taking his degree of B.A. in 1819 (M.A. in 1821) he entered
Lincoln's Inn, and in 1825, after a delay caused by chronic
weakness of the eyes, he was called to the bar, and went on the
western circuit for two years. During this time he was slowly
gravitating towards the life of a student of science. In 1819 he
had been elected a fellow of the Linnean and Geological Societies,
communicating his first paper, " On a Recent Formation of Fresh-
water Limestone in Forfarshire," to the latter society in 1822,
and acting as one of the honorary secretaries in 1823. In that
year he went to France, with introductions to Cuvier, Hum-
boldt and other men of science, and in 1824 made a geological
tour in Scotland in company with Dr Buckland. In 1826 he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, from which in later
years he received both the Copley and Royal medals; and in
1827 he finally abandoned the legal profession, and devoted
himself to geology.
At this time he had already begun to plan his chief work, The
Principles of Geology. The subsidiary title, " An Attempt to
Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference
to Causes now in Operation," gives the keynote of the task to
which Lyell devoted his life. A journey with Murchison in 1828
gave rise to joint papers on the volcanic district of Auvergne and
the Tertiary formations of Aix-en-Provence. After parting
with Murchison he studied the marine remains of the Italian
Tertiary Strata and then conceived the idea of dividing this
geological system into three or four groups, characterized by the
proportion of recent to extinct species of shells. To these groups,
after consulting Dr Whewell as to the best nomenclature, he
gave the names now universally adopted Eocene (dawn of
recent), Miocene (less of recent), and Pliocene (more of recent);
and with the assistance of G. P. Deshayes he drew up a table of
shells in illustration of this classification. The first volume of
the Principles of Geology appeared in 1830, and the second in
January 1832. Received at first with some opposition, so far as
its leading theory was concerned, the work had ultimately a
great success, and the two volumes had already reached a second
edition in 1833 when the third, dealing with the successive forma-
tions of the earth's crust, was added. Between 1830 and 1872
eleven editions of this work were published, each so much
enriched with new material and the results of riper thought as
to form a complete history of the progress of geology during
that interval. Only a few days before his death Sir Charles
finished revising the first volume of the i2th edition; the revision
of the second volume was completed by his nephew Mr (after-
wards Sir) Leonard Lyell; and the work appeared in 1876.
In August 1838 Lyell published the Elements of Geology,
which, from being originally an expansion of one section of the
Principles, became a standard work on stratigraphical and
palaeontological geology. This book went through six editions
in Lyell's lifetime (some intermediate editions being styled
Manual of Elementary Geology), and in 1871 a smaller work, the
Student's Elements of Geology, was based upon it. His third
great work, The Antiquity of Man, appeared in 1863, and ran
through three editions in one year. In this he gave a general
survey of the arguments for man's early appearance on the earth,
derived from the discoveries of flint implements in post-Pliocene
strata in the Somme valley and elsewhere; he discussed also
the deposits of the Glacial epoch, and in the same volume he
first gave in his adhesion to Darwin's theory of the origin of
species. A fourth edition appeared in 1873.
In 1831-1833 Lyell was professor of geology at King's College,
London, and delivered while there a course of lectures, which
became the foundation of the Elements of Geology. In 1832 he
married Mary (1800-1873) eldest daughter of Leonard Homer
(q.v.), and she became thenceforward associated with him in
all his work, and by her social qualities making his home a centre
of attraction. In 1834 he made an excursion to Denmark and
Sweden, the result of which was his Bakerian lecture to the
Royal Society " On the Proofs of the gradual Rising of Land
in certain Parts of Sweden." He also brought before the
Geological Society a paper " On the Cretaceous and Tertiary
Strata of Seeland and Moen." In 1835 he became president
of the Geological Society. In 1837 he was again in Norway
and Denmark, and in 1841 he spent a year in travelling through
the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia. This last journey,
together with a second one to America in 1845, resulted not only
in papers, but also in two works not exclusively geological,
Travels in North America (1845) and A Second Visit to the United
States (1849). During these journeys he estimated the rate of
recession of the falls of Niagara, the annual average accumulation
of alluvial matter in the delta of the Mississippi, and studied
those vegetable accumulations in the " Great Dismal Swamp "
of Virginia, which he afterwards used in illustrating the forma-
tion of beds of coal. He also studied the coal-formations in
Nova Scotia, and discovered in company with Dr (afterwards Sir
J. W.) Dawson (q.v.) of Montreal, the earliest known landshell,
Pupa vetusta, in the hollow stem of a Sigillaria. In bringing
a knowledge of European geology to bear upon the extended
formations of North America Lyell rendered immense service.
Having visited Madeira and Teneriffe in company with
G. Hartung, he accumulated much valuable evidence on the age
and deposition of lava-beds and the formation of volcanic cones.
He also revisited Sicily in 1858, when he made such observations
upon the structure of Etna as refuted the theory of " craters
of elevation " upheld by Von Buch and Elie de Beaumont (see
Phil. Trans., 1859).
Lyell was knighted in 1848, and was created a baronet in
1864, in which year he was president of the British Association
at Bath. He was elected corresponding member of the French
Institute and of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and
was created a knight of the Prussian Order of Merit.
During the later years of his life his sight, always weak, failed
him altogether. He died on the 22nd of February 1875, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey. Among his characteristics
were his great thirst for knowledge, his perfect fairness and
sound judgment; while the extreme freshness of his mind
enabled him to accept and appreciate the work of younger
men.
The LYELL MEDAL, established in 1875 under the will of Sir Charles
Lyell, is cast in bronze and is to be awarded annually (or from time
to time) by the Council of the Geological Society. The medallist may
be of any country or either sex. Not less than one-third of the
annual interest of a sum of 2000 is to be awarded with the medal ;
the remaining interest, known as the LYELL GEOLOGICAL FUND, is to
be given in one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for
the encouragement of geological science.
See Life, Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., edited by
his sister-in-law, Mrs Lyell (2 vols., 1881) ; Charles Lyell and Modern
Geology, by T. G. Bonney (1895). (H. B. Wo.)
LYLY (LILLY, or LYLIE), JOHN (1553-1606), English writer,
the famous author of Euphues, was born in Kent in 1553 or 1554.
At the age of sixteen, according to Wood, he became a student
of Magdalen College, Oxford, where in due time he proceeded
to his bachelor's and master's degrees (1573 and 1575), and from
whence we find him in 1574 applying to Lord Burghley " for
the queen's letters to Magdalen College to admit him fellow."
The fellowship, however, was not granted, and Lyly shortly
after left the university. He complains of what seems to have
been a sentence of rustication passed upon him at some period
in his academical career, in his address to the gentlemen scholars
of Oxford affixed to the second edition of the first part of Euphues,
but in the absence of any further evidence it is impossible to
fix either its date or its cause. If we are to believe Wood, he
never took kindly to the proper studies of the university. " For
so it was that his genius being naturally bent to the pleasant
paths of poetry (as if Apollo had given .to him a wreath of his
own bays without snatching or struggling) did in a manner
i6o
LYLY, JOHN
neglect academical studies, yet not so much but that he took
the degrees in arts, that of master being compleated 1575."
After he left Oxford, where he had already the reputation of " a
noted wit," Lyly seems to have attached himself to Lord Burgh-
ley. " This noble man," he writes in the " Glasse for Europe,"
in the second part of Euphues (1580), " I found so ready being
but a straunger to do me good, that neyther I ought to forget
him, neyther cease to pray for him, that as he hath the wisdom
of Nestor, so he may have the age, that having the policies of
Ulysses he may have his honor, worthy to lyve long, by whom
so many lyve in quiet, and not unworthy to be advaunced by
whose care so many have been preferred." Two years later
we possess a letter of Lyly to the treasurer, dated July 1582,
in which the writer protests against some accusation of dis-
honesty which had brought him into trouble with his patron,
and demands a personal interview for the purpose of clearing
his character. What the further relations beween them were
we have no means of knowing, but it is clear that neither from
Burghley nor from the queen did Lyly ever receive any sub-
stantial patronage. In 1578 he began his literary career by the
composition of Euphues, or the Anatomy of Wit, which was
licensed to Gabriel Cawood on the 2nd of December, 1578, and pub-
lished in the spring of 1 579. In the same year the author was incor-
porated M.A. at Cambridge, and possibly saw his hopes of court
advancement dashed by the appointment in July of Edmund
Tylney to the office of master of the revels, a post at which, as
he reminds the queen some years later, he had all along been
encouraged to " aim his courses." Euphues and his England
appeared in 1580, and, like the first part of the book, won im-
mediate popularity. For a time Lyly was the most successful
and fashionable of English writers. He was hailed as the author
of "a new English," as a " raffineur de PAnglois"; and, as
Edmund Blount, the editor of his plays, tells us in 1632, " that
beautie in court which could not parley Euphuism was as little
regarded as she which nowe there speakes not French." After
the publication of Euphues, however, Lyly seems to have entirely
deserted the novel form himself, which passed into the hands
of his imitators, and to have thrown himself almost exclusively
into play-writing, probably with a view to the mastership of
revels whenever a vacancy should occur. Eight plays by him
were probably acted before the queen by the children of the
Chapel Royal and the children of St Paul's between the years
1584 and 1589, one or two of them being repeated before a
popular audience at the Blackfriars Theatre. Their brisk
lively dialogue, classical colour and frequent allusions to persons
and events of the day maintained that popularity with the
court which Euphues had won. Lyly sat in parliament as
member for Hindon in 1589, for Aylesbury in 1593, for Appleby
in 1597 and for Aylesbury a second time in 1601. In 1589 Lyly
published a tract in the Martin Marprelate controversy, called
Pappe with an hatchet, alias a figge for my Godsonne; Or Crack
me this nut; Or a Country Cuffe, &C. 1 About the same time
we may probably date his first petition to Queen Elizabeth.
The two petitions, transcripts of which are extant among the
Harleian MSS., are undated, but in the first of them he speaks
of having been ten years hanging about the court in hope of
preferment, and in the second he extends the period to thirteen
years. It may be conjectured with great probability that the
ten years date from 1579, when Edmund Tylney -was appointed
master of the revels with a tacit understanding that Lyly was
to have the next reversion of the post. " I was entertained your
Majestie's servaunt by your own gratious favor," he says,
" strengthened with conditions that I should ayme all my
courses at the Revells (I dare not say with a promise, but with
a hopeful Item to the Revercion) for which these ten yeres I
have attended with an unwearyed patience." But in 1589
or 1590 the mastership of the revels was as far off as ever
Tylney in fact held the post for thirty-one years and that
1 The evidence for his authorship may be found in Gabriel Harvey's
Piercc's Supererogation (written November 1589, published 1593), in
Nash's Have with you to Saffron Walden (1596), and in various
allusions in Lyly's own plays. See Fairholt's Dramatic Works of
John Lilly, \. 20.
Lyly's petition brought him no compensation in other directions
may be inferred from the second petition of 1593. " Thirteen
yeres your highnes servant but yet nothing. Twenty freinds
that though they saye they will be sure, I finde them sure to be
slowe. A thousand hopes, but all nothing; a hundred promises
but yet nothing. Thus casting up the inventory of my friends,
hopes, promises and tymes, the summa totalis amounteth to just
nothing." What may have been Lyly's subsequent fortunes
at court we do not know. Edmund Blount says vaguely that
Elizabeth " graced and rewarded " him, but of this there is no
other evidence. After 1590 his works steadily declined in
influence and reputation; other stars were in possession of the
horizon; and so far as we know he died poor and neglected
in the early part of James I.'s reign. He was buried in London
at St Bartholomew the Less on the 2oth of November, 1606. He was
married, and we hear of two sons and a daughter.
Comedies. In 1632 Edmund Blount published " Six Court
Comedies," including Endymion (1591), Sappho and Phao (1584),
Alexander and Campaspe (1584), Midas (1592), Mother Bombie
(1594) and Gallathea (1592). To these should be added the
Woman in the Moone (Lyly's earliest play, to judge from a
passage in the prologue and therefore earlier than 1584, the date
of Alexander and Campaspe}, and Love's Metamorphosis, first
printed in 1601. Of these, all but the last are in prose. A
Warning for Faire Women (1599) and The Maid's Metamorphosis
(1600) have been attributed to Lyly, but on altogether insufficient
grounds. The first editions of all these plays were issued between
1584 and 1601, and the majority of them between 1584 and
1592, in what were Lyly's most successful and popular years.
His importance as a dramatist has been very differently esti-
mated. Lyly's dialogue is still a long way removed from the
dialogue of Shakespeare. But at the same time it is a great
advance in rapidity and resource upon anything which had gone
before it; it represents an important step in English dramatic
art. His nimbleness, and the wit which struggles with his
pedantry, found their full development in the dialogue of
Twelfth Night and Much Ado about Nothing, just as " Marlowe's
mighty line " led up to and was eclipsed by the majesty and
music of Shakespearian passion. One or two of the songs
introduced into his plays are justly famous and show a real
lyrical gift. Nor in estimating his dramatic position and his
effect upon his time must it be forgotten that his classical and
mythological plots, flavourless and dull as they would be to a
modern audience, were charged with interest to those courtly
hearers who saw in Midas Philip II., Elizabeth in Cynthia and
perhaps Leicester's unwelcome marriage with Lady Sheffield
in the love affair between Endymion and Tellus which brings
the former under Cynthia's displeasure. As a matter of fact
his reputation and popularity as a play-writer were considerable.
Gabriel Harvey dreaded lest Lyly should make a play upon their
quarrel; Meres, as is well known, places him among " the best
for comedy "; and Ben Jonson names him among those foremost
rivals who were " outshone " and outsung by Shakespeare.
Euphues. It was not, however, as a dramatist, but as the
author of Euphues, that Lyly made most mark upon the Eliza-
bethan world. His plays amused the court circle, but the
" new English " of his novel threatened to permanently change
the course of English style. The plot of Euphues is extremely
simple. The hero, whose name may very possibly have been
suggested by a passage in Ascham's Schoolmaster, is introduced
to us as still in bondage to the follies of youth, " preferring fancy
before friends, and this present humour before honour to come."
His travels bring him to Naples, where he falls in love with
Lucilla, the governor's light-minded daughter. Lucilla is
already pledged to Euphues's friend Philautus, but Euphues's
passion betrays his friendship, and the old lover finds himself
thrown over by both friend and mistress. Euphues himself,
however, is very soon forsaken for a more attractive suitor.
He and Philautus make up their quarrel, and Euphues writes
his friend " a cooling card," to be " applied to all lovers," which
is so severe upon the fair sex that Lyly feels it necessary to
balance it by a sort of apology addressed " to the grave matrons
LYLY, JOHN
161
and honest maidens of Italy." Euphues then leaves Naples
for his native Athens, where he gives himself up to study, of
which the first fruits are two long treatises the first, " Euphues
and his Ephoebus," a disquisition on the art of education
addressed to parents, and the second, " Euphues and Atheos,"
a discussion of the first principles of religion. The remainder
of the book is filled up with correspondence between Euphues
and his friends. We have letters from Euphues to Philautus
on the death of Lucilla, to another friend on the death of his
daughter, to one Botonio " to take his exile patiently," and to the
youth Aldus, remonstrating with him on his bad behaviour at
the university. Finally a pair of letters, the first from Livia
" at the emperour's court to Euphues at Athens," answered by
" Euphues to Livia," wind up the first part, and announce to us
Euphues's intention of visiting England. An address from
Lyly to Lord Delawarr is affixed, to which was added in the
second edition " An Address to the Gentlemen Scholars of
England."
Euphues aitd his England is rather longer than the first part.
Euphues and Philautus travel from Naples to England. They
arrive at Dover, halt for the night at Fidus's house at Canterbury,
and then proceed to London, where they make acquaintance
with Surius, a young English gentleman of great birth and
noble blood; Psellus, an Italian nobleman reputed " great in
magick "; Martius, an elderly Englishman; Camilla, a beautiful
English girl of insignificant family; Lady Flavia and her niece
Fraunces. After endless correspondence and conversation on
all kinds of topics, Euphues is recalled to Athens, and from there
corresponds with his friends. " Euphues' Glasse for Europe "
is a flattering description of England sent to Livia at Naples.
It is the most interesting portion of the book, and throws light
upon one or two points of Lyly's own biography. The author
naturally seized the opportunity for paying his inevitable
tribute to the queen, and pays it in his most exalted style.
" O fortunate England that hath such a queene, ungratefull
if thou praye not for hir, wicked if thou do not love Mr, miserable
if thou lose hir! " and so on. The book ends with Philautus's
announcement of his marriage to Fraunces, upon which Euphues
sends characteristic congratulations and retires, " tormented
in body and grieved ih mind," to the Mount of Silexedra, " where
I leave him to his musing or Muses."
Such is a brief outline of the book which for a time set the
fashion for English prose. Two editions of each part appeared
within the first year after publication, and thirteen editions
of both are enumerated up to 1636, after which, with the excep-
tion of a modernized version in 1718, Euphues was never reprinted
until 1868, when Dr Arber took it in hand. The reasons for its
popularity are not far to seek. As far as matter was concerned
it fell in with all the prevailing literary fashions. Its long
disquisitions on love, religion, exile, women or education, on
court life and country pleasures, handled all the most favourite
topics in the secularized speculation of the time; its foreign
background and travel talk pleased a society of which Lyly
himself said " trafic and travel hath woven the nature of all
nations into ours and made this land like arras full of device
which was broadcloth full of workmanship"; and, although
Lyly steered clear in it of the worst classical pedantries of the
day, the book was more than sufficiently steeped in classical
learning, and based upon classical material, to attract a literary
circle which was nothing if not humanist. A large proportion
of its matter indeed was drawn from classical sources. The
general tone of sententious moralizing may be traced to Plutarch,
from whom the treatise on education, " Euphues and his
Ephoebus," and that on exile, " Letter to Botonio to take his
exile patiently," are literally translated, as well as a number of
other shorter passages either taken direct from the Latin versions
or from some of the numerous English translations of Plutarch
then current. The innumerable illustrations based upon a kind
of pseudo natural history are largely taken from Pliny, while
the mythology is that of Virgil and Ovid.
It was not the matter of Euphues, however, so much as the style
which made it famous (see EUPHUISM). The source of Lyly's
xvii. 6
peculiar style has been traced by Dr Landmann (Der Euphuismus,
sein Wesen, seine Quelle, seine Geschichte, &c. Giessen, 1881) to
the influence of Don Antonio de Guevara, whose Libra Aureo de
Marco Aurelio (1529) a sort of historical romance based upon
Plutarch and upon Marcus Aurelius's Meditations, the object of
which was to produce a " mirror for princes," of the kind so
popular throughout the Renaissance became almost immedi-
ately popular in England. The first edition, or rather a French
version of it, was translated into English by Lord Berners in
1531, and published in 1534. Before 1560 twelve editions of
Lord Berners's translation had been printed, and before 1578
six different translators of this and later works of Guevara had
appeared. The translation, however, which had most influence
upon English literature was that by North, the well-known
translator of Plutarch, in 1557, called The Dial for Princes,
Compiled by the Reverend Father in God Don Antony of Guevara,
Byshop of Guadix, &<;., Englished out of the Frenche by Th. North.
The sententious and antithetical style of the Dial for Princes
is substantially that of Euphues, though Guevara on the whole
handles it better than his imitator, and has many passages of
real force and dignity. The general plan of the two books is also
much the same. In both the biography is merely a peg on
which to hang moral disquisitions and treatises. The use made
of letters is the same in both. Even the names of some of the
characters are similar. Thus Guevara's Lucilla is the flighty
daughter of Marcus Aurelius. Lyly's Lucilla is the flighty
daughter of Ferardo, governor of Naples; Guevara's Livia is
a lady at the court of Marcus Aurelius, Lyly's Livia is a lady at
the court " of the emperor," of whom no further description is
given. The gth, loth, nth and izth chapters of the Dial for
Princes suggested the discussion between Euphues and Atheos.
The letter from Euphues to Aldus is substantially the same
in subject and treatment as that from Marcus Aurelius to his
nephew Epesipo. Both Guevara and Lyly translated Plutarch's
work De educatione liberorum, Lyly, however, keeping closer
than the Spanish author to the original. The use made by Lyly
of the university of Athens was an anachronism in a novel in-
tended to describe his own time. He borrowed it, however, from
Guevara, in whose book a university of Athens was of course
entirely in place. The " cooling card for all fond lovers " and
the address to the ladies and gentlemen of Italy have their
counterparts among the miscellaneous letters by Guevara affixed
by North to the DM for Princes; and other instances of Lyly's
use of these letters, and of two other treatises by Guevara on
court and country life, could be pointed out.
Lyly was not the first to appropriate and develop the Guevar-
istic style. The earliest book in which it was fully adopted was
A petite Pallace of Pettie his Pleasure, by George Pettie, which
appeared in 1576, a production so closely akin to Euphues in tone
and style that it is difficult to believe it was not by Lyly. Lyly.
however, carried the style to its highest point, and made it the
dominant literary fashion. His principal followers in it were
Greene, Lodge and Nash, his principal opponent Sir Philip
Sidney; the Arcadia in fact supplanted Euphues, and the
Euphuistic taste proper may be said to have died out about
1 590 after a reign of some twelve years. According to Landmann,
Shakespeare's Love's Labour Lost is a caricature of the Italianate
and pedantic fashions of the day, not of the peculiar style of
Euphues. The only certain allusion in Shakespeare to the
characteristics of Lyly's famous book is to be found inHenrylV..
where Falstaff, playing the part of the king, says to Prince Hal,
" Harry, I do not only marvel where thou spendest thy time, but
also how thou art accompanied; for, though the camomile the
more it is trodden on the faster it grows, yet youth the more it is
wasted the sooner it wears." Here the pompous antithesis is
evidently meant to caricature the peculiar Euphuistic sentence of
court parlance. (M. A. W.)
See Lyly's Complete Works, ed. R. W. Bond (3 vols., 1902);
Euphues, from early editions, by Edward Arber (1868) ; A. W. Ward,
English Dramatic Literature, i. 151 ; J. P. Collier, History of Dramatic
Poetry, iii. 172 ;" John Lilly and Shakespeare," by C. C. Hense in the
Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakesp. Gcsettschaft, vols. vii. and viii. (1872,
1873); F. W. Fairholt, Dramatic Works of John Lilly (2 vols..
162
LYME REGIS LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION
1858); Shakespeare's Euphuism, by W. L. Rushton; H. Morley,
"Euphuism" in the Quarterly Review (1861); R. W. Bond,
" John Lyly, Novelist and Dramatist," in the Quarterly Review
JJan. 1896); J. A. Symonds, Shakespeare's Predecessors (1883);
. D. Wilson, John Lyly (Cambridge, 1905) ; A. Ainger, " Euphuism,"
in Lectures and Essays (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, John Lyly.
}. D. Wilson, John Lyly (Cambridge, 1905) ; A. Ainger, " Euphuism,"
in Lectures and Essays (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, John ~
Contribution d I'histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre (1910).
LYME REGIS, a market town and municipal borough and
watering-place in the western parliamentary division of Dorset-
shire, England, 151 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South
Western railway, the terminus of a light railway from Axminster.
Pop. (1001) 2095. It is situated at the mouth of a narrow combe
or valley opening upon a fine precipitous coast-line; there is a
sandy shore affording excellent bathing, and the country inland is
beautiful. The church of St Michael and All Angels is mainly
Perpendicular, but the tower (formerly central) and the portion
west of it are Norman. A guildhall and assembly rooms are the
chief public buildings. The principal industries are stone-
quarrying and the manufacture of cement. There is a curved
pier of ancient foundation known as the Cobb. The harbour,
with a small coasting trade, is under the authority of the corpora-
tion. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 1237 acres.
No evidence of settlement on the site of Lyme Regis exists
before that afforded by a grant, dated 774, purporting to be by
Cynewulf , king of the West-Saxons, of land here to the church of
Sherborne, and a similar grant by King ..Ethelstan to the church
of Glastonbury. In 1086 three manors of Lyme are mentioned:
that belonging to Sherborne abbey, which was granted at the
dissolution to Thomas Goodwin, who alienated it in the following
year; that belonging to Glastonbury, which seems to have
passed into lay lands during the middle ages, and that belonging
to William Belet. The last was acquired by the family of Bayeux,
from whom it passed by marriage to Elias de Rabayne, whose
nephew, Peter Baudrat, surrendered it to the crown in 1315-1316
when the king became lord of one moiety of the borough, hence-
forth known as Lyme Regis. Lyme ranked as a port in 1234, and
Edward I. in 1284 granted to the town a charter making it a free
borough, with a merchant gild, and in the same year the mayor
and bailiffs are mentioned. In the following January the bailiffs
were given freedom from pleading without the borough, freedom
from toll and privileges implying considerable foreign trade;
the importance of the port is also evident from the demand of
two ships for the king's service in 1311. In 1332-1333 Edward
III. granted Lyme to the burgesses at a fee-farm of 32 marks;
on the petition of the inhabitants, who were impoverished by
tempests and high tides, this was reduced to 100 shillings in
1410 and to 5 marks in 1481. In 1591 Elizabeth incorporated
Lyme, and further charters were obtained from James I.,
Charles II. and William III. Lyme returned two members to
parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the representation was
reduced to one. The borough was disfranchised in 1867. The
fairs granted in 1553 for the ist of February and the 2oth of
September are now held on altered dates. Trade with France in
wine and cloth was carried on as early as 1284, but was probably
much increased on the erection of the Cobb, first mentioned
in 1328 as built of timber and rock. Its medieval importance as
the only shelter between Portland Roads and the river Exe
caused the burgesses to receive grants of quayage for its mainten-
ance in 1335 and many subsequent years, while its convenience
probably did much to bring upon Lyme the unsuccessful siege
by Prince Maurice in 1644. In 1685 Lyme was the scene of the
landing of James, duke of Monmouth, in his attempt upon the
throne.
LYMINGTON, a municipal borough and seaport in the New
Forest parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 98 m.
S.W. from London by the London & South Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 4165. It lies on the estuary of the Lymington,
which opens into the Solent. The church of St Thomas a Becket
is an irregular structure, dating from the reign of Henry VI.,
but frequently restored. There is some coasting trade, and
yacht-building is carried on. Regular .passenger steamers serve
Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight. In summer the town is fre-
quented for sea-bathing. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 1515 acres.
There was a Roman camp near Lymington (Lentiuie, Lementon),
and Roman relics have been found, but there is no evidence that a
town existed here until after the Conquest. Lymington dates its
importance from the grant of the town to Richard de Redvers,
earl of Devon, in the reign of Henry I. No charter has been
found, but a judgment given under a writ of quo ivarranto in
1578 confirms to the burgesses freedom from toll, passage and
pontage, the tolls and stallage of the quay and the right to hold
two fairs privileges which they claimed under charters of
Baldwin de Redvers and Isabel de Fortibus, countess of Albe-
marle, in the i3th century, and Edward Courtenay, earl of
Devon, in 1405. The town was governed by the mayor and
burgesses until the corporation was reformed in 1835. A writ
for the election of a member to parliament was issued in the
reign of Edward III., but no return was made. From 1585 two
members were regularly returned; the number was reduced
to one in 1867, and in 1885 the representation was merged in
that of the county. Fairs on the I3th and I4th of May and the
2nd and 3rd of October, dating from the I3th century, are
still held. The Saturday market probably dates from the same
century. Lymington was made a port in the reign of Henry I.,
and its large shipping trade led to frequent disputes with South-
ampton as to the levying of duties. The case was tried in 1329
and decided against Lymington, but in 1750 the judgment was
reversed, and since then the petty customs have been regularly
paid. From an early date and for many centuries salt was the
staple manufacture of Lymington. The rise of the mineral salt-
works of Cheshire led to its decline in the i8th century, and later
the renewed importance of Southampton completed its decay.
See E. King, Borough and Parish of Lymington (London, 1879).
LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION. Lying close to the
blood-vessels of a limb or organ a further set of vessels may be
observed. They are very pale in colour, often almost trans-
parent and very thin-walled. Hence they are frequently difficult
to find and dissect. These are the lymphatic vessels, and they
are found to be returning a fluid from the tissues to the blood-
stream. When traced back to the tissues they are seen to divide
and ultimately to form minute anastomosing tubules, the lymph
capillaries. The capillaries finally terminate in the spaces
between the structures of the tissue, but whether their free ends
are closed or are in open communication with the tissue spaces
is still undecided. The study of their development shows that
they grow into the tissue as a closed system of minute tubes,
which indicates that in all probability they remain permanently
closed. If we trace the lymphatic vessels towards the thorax we find
that in some part of their course they terminate in structures
known as lymphatic glands. From these again fresh lymphatic
vessels arise which carry the fluid towards the main lymph-
vessel, the thoracic duct. This runs up the posterior wall of the
thorax close to the aorta, and fir-ally opens into the junction of
the internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The lymph-
vessels from the right side of the head and neck and from the
right arm open, however, into the right subclavian vein (see
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM below).
Chemical Constitution of Lymph. The lymph collected
from the thoracic duct during hunger is almost water clear and
yellowish in colour. Its specific gravity varies from 1015 to
1025. It tastes salt and has a faint odour. It is alkaline in
reaction, but is much less alkaline than blood-serum. Like blood
it clots, but clots badly, only forming a soft clot which quickly
contracts. The lymph collected from a lymphatic before it has
passed through a lymph gland contains a few leucocytes, and
though the number of lymphocytes is greater in the lymph after
it has flowed through a gland it is never very great. In normal
states there are no red blood corpuscles.
The total solids amount to 3-6 to 5-7%, the variations
depending upon the amount of protein present. The lymph
during hunger contains only a minute quantity of fat. Sugar
(dextrose) is present in the same concentration as in the blood.
The inorganic constituents are the same as in blood, but
LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION
163
apparently the amounts of Ca, Mg and P 2 O S are rather less than
in serum. Urea is present to the same amount as in blood.
If the lymph be collected after a meal, one important
alteration is to be found. It now contains an abundance of
fat in a very fine state of subdivision, if fat be present in the
food. The concentrations of protein and dextrose are not
altered during the absorption of these substances.
The Significance of Lymph. In considering the signi-
ficance and use of lymph we must note in the first place that it
forms an alternative medium for the removal of water, dissolved
materials, formed elements or particles away from the tissues.
All materials supplied to a tissue are brought to it by the blood,
and are discharged from the blood through the capillary wall.
They thus come to lie in the tissue spaces between the cells, and
from this supply of material in a dissolved state the cells take up
the food they require. In the opposite direction the cell dis-
charges its waste products into this same tissue fluid. The
removal of material from the tissue fluid may be effected either
by its being absorbed through the capillary wall into the blood-
stream, or by sending it into the lymphatic vessels and thus
away from the tissue. From this point of view the lymphatics
may be looked upon in a sense as a drainage system of the
tissues. Again, besides discharging fluid and dissolved material
into the tissue spaces, the blood may also discharge leucocytes,
and under many conditions this emigration of leucocytes may be
very extensive. These also may leave the tissue space by the
path of the lymph channels. Moreover, the tissues are at any
time liable to be injured, and the injury as well as damaging many
cells may cause rupture of capillaries (as in bruising) with escape
of red blood-cells into the tissue spaces. If this occurs we know
that the damaged cells are destroyed and their debris removed
either by digestion by leucocytes or by disintegration and
solution. The damage of a tissue also commonly involves an
infection of the damaged area with living micro-organisms, and
these are at once admitted to the tissue spaces. Hence we see
that the lymphatics may be provided as channels by which a
variety of substances can be removed from the tissue spaces.
The question at once arises, is the lymph channel at all times
open to receive the materials present in the tissue space? If
such be the case, lymph is simply tissue fluid, and anything
that modifies the constitution or amount of the tissue fluid
should in like proportion lead to a variation in the amount
and constitution of the lymph. But if the lymph capillary is
a closed tubule at its commencement this does not follow.
From these considerations we see that in the first instance
the whole problem of lymph formation is intimately bound up
with the study of the interchanges of material between the blood
and the various tissue cells. The exchange of material between
blood and tissue cell may possibly be determined in one or both
of two ways. Either it may result from changes taking place
within the tissue cell, or the tissue cell remaining passive material
may be sent to or withdrawn from it owing to a change occurring
either in the composition of the blood or to a change in the
circulation through the tissue. Let us take first the results
following increased activity of a tissue. We know that increased
activity of a tissue means increased chemical change within the
tissue and the production of new chemical bodies of small
molecular size (e.g. water, carbonic acid, &c.). The production of
these metabolites means the destruction of some of the tissue
substance, and to make good this loss the tissue must take a
further amount of material from the blood. We know that this
takes place, and moreover that the waste products resulting
from activity are ultimately removed. The question then
becomes: When does this restoration take place, and what is
the intermediate state of the tissue? We know that increased
activity is always accompanied by an increase in the blood-
supply, indicating a greater supply of nutritive material, though
it may be that the increased supply required at the actual time
of activity is oxygen only. Simultaneously the opportunity for
a more rapid removal of the waste products is provided. We
have to inquire then: Does this increased vascularity neces-
sarily mean an increased outpouring of water and dissolved
material into the tissues, for this might follow directly from the
greater filling of the capillaries, or from the increased attracting
power of the tissues to water (osmotic effect) due to the sudden
production of substances of small molecular size within the
tissue? The other possibility is that the increased volume of
blood sent to the tissue is for the sole purpose of giving it a more
rapid supply of oxygen, and that the ordinary normal blood-supply
would amply suffice for renewing the chemical material used up
during activity. Tissues undoubtedly vary among themselves
in the amount of water and other materials they take from the
blood when thrown into activity, and their behaviour in this
respect depends upon the work they are called upon to perform.
We must discriminate between the substance required by and
consumed by the tissue, the chemical food which on combustion
yields the energy by which the tissue performs work, and, on the
other hand, the substance taken from the blood and either with
or without further elaboration discharged from the tissue (as,
for instance, in the process of secretion). The tissue contains in
itself a store of food amply sufficient to enable it to continue
working for a long time after its blood-supply has been stopped,
and everything indicates that the supply of chemical energy to
the tissue may be slow or even withheld for a considerable time.
Hence we are led to conclude that the increased flow of blood
sent to a tissue when it is thrown into activity is first and fore-
most to give that tissue an increased oxygen supply; secondly,
to remove waste carbonic acid; thirdly, and only in the case of
some tissues, to provide water salts and other materials for the
outpouring of a secretion, as an instance of which we may take
the kidney as a type. Hence there is no need to suppose that an
extensive accumulation of fluid and dissolved substances takes
place within a tissue when it becomes active. This must be an
accumulation which would lead to an engorgement of the tissue
spaces and then to a discharge of fluid along the lymph channels.
To enable us to determine the various points just raised we must
know whether an increased blood-supply to a tissue necessarily
means an increased exudation of fluid into the tissue spaces,
and moreover we must study the exchange of fluid between a
tissue and the blood under as varied a series of conditions as
possible, subsequently examining whether exchange of fluid and
other substances between the tissue and the blood necessarily
determines quantitatively the amount of lymph flowing from
the tissue. Hence we will first study the exchanges between
the blood and a tissue, and then turn our attention to the
lymph-flow from the tissues.
The Exchanges of Fluids and dissolved Substances between
the Blood and the Tissues. Numerous experiments have
been performed in studying the conditions under which fluid
passes into the tissues and tissue spaces or in the reverse
direction into the blood. We may group them into (i)
conditions during which the total volume of circulating
fluid is increased or decreased; (2) conditions in which the
character of the blood is altered, e.g. it is made more watery
or its saline concentration is altered; (3) conditions in which
the blood-supply to the part is altered; (4) conditions in which
the physical character of the capillary wall is altered.
i. The total volume of blood in an animal has been increased
among other ways by the transfusion of the blood of one animal
directly into the veins of a second of the same species. It is
found that within a very short time a large percentage of the
plasma has been discharged from the blood-vessels. It has been
sent into the tissues, notably the muscles, and it may be noted
in passing without producing any increase in the lymph-flow
from these vessels. An analogous experiment, but one which
avoids the fallacy introduced by injecting a second animal's
blood, has been performed by driving all the blood out of one
hind limb by applying a rubber bandage tightly round it from
the foot upwards. This increases the volume of blood circulating
in the rest of the body, and again a rapid disappearance of the
fluid part of the blood from the vessels was observed the fluid
being mainly sent into the muscles, as was indicated by showing
that the specific gravity of the muscles fell during the experiment.
The experiments converse to these have also been studied.
164
LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION
Bleeding is very rapidly followed by a large inflow of fluid into
the circulating blood this fluid being derived from all the tissues,
and especially again from the muscles. Or again, when the
bandage from the limb in the above-cited experiment was
removed, the total capacity of the circulatory system was
thereby suddenly increased, and it was found that the total
volume of blood increased correspondingly, the increased volume
of fluid being drawn from the tissues and especially again from
the muscles. The rapidity with which this movement of fluid
into or out of the blood takes place is very striking. The ex-
planation usually offered is that the movement is effected by
changes in the capillary pressure due to the alteration in the
volume of blood circulating. While this seems feasible when the
volume of blood is increased, it does not offer a satisfactory
explanation of the rapid movement of fluid from the tissues
when the volume of the blood is decreased. One must therefore
look for yet further factors in this instance.
2. Let us next turn attention to the second of our three main
variations, viz. that in which the composition of the blood is
altered. It has long been known that the injection of water,
or of solutions of soluble bodies such as salts, urea, sugar, &c.,
leads to a very rapid exchange of water and salts between the
blood and the tissues. Thus if a solution less concentrated
than the blood be injected, the blood is thereby diluted, but
with very great rapidity water leaves the blood and is taken up
by the tissues. Again, if a strong sugar or salt solution be
injected, the first effect is a big discharge of water from the tissues
into the blood and the movement of fluid is effected with great
rapidity. In these instances a new physical factor is brought
into play, viz. that of osmosis. When a solution of lower osmotic
pressure than the blood is injected the osmotic pressure of the
blood falls temporarily below that of the tissues, and water is
therefore attracted to the tissues. The converse is the case
when a solution of osmotic pressure higher than the blood is
injected. This at first sight seems to be an all-sufficient ex-
planation of the results recorded, but difficulties arise when we
find that the tissues are not equally active in producing the
effects. Thus it is found that the muscles and skin act as the
chief water depot, while such tissues as the liver, intestines or
pancreas take a relatively small share in the exchange. Again,
when a strong sodium chloride solution is injected a considerable
part of the sodium chloride is soon found to have left the blood,
and it has been shown that the chloride depot is not identical
with the water depot. The lung, for instance, is found to take
up relatively far more of the'salt than other tissues. Simultane-
ously with the passage of the salt into the tissue an exchange of
water from the tissue into the blood can be observed, both
processes being carried out very rapidly. The result is that the
blood very quickly returns to a state in which its osmotic pressure
is only slightly raised; the tissue, on the other hand, loses water
and gains salt, and its osmotic pressure and specific gravity
therefore rises. Again, the tissues do not participate equally in
producing the final result, nor is the tissue which gives up the
largest amount of water necessarily that which gains the largest
amount of salt. The results following the injection of solutions
of other bodies of small molecular size, e.g. urea or sugar, are
quite analogous to those above described in the case of the non-
toxic salt solutions. Hence we see that the rate of exchange of
fluid and dissolved substance between a tissue and the blood can
be extremely rapid and that the exchange can take place in
either direction. We may also conclude that the main cause
of the exchange, and possibly the only one, is the osmotic action
set up by the solution injected, and that muscle tissue is partic-
larly active in the process.
Seeing that a very considerable amount of water or of dis-
solved substance can be taken up from the blood into a tissue,
the question next arises: Where is this material held, in the
tissue cell or in the tissue space? Immediately the water or
salt leaves the blood it reaches the tissue space, but unless the
process be extreme in amount it probably passes at once into
the tissue cell itself and is stored there. If the process is excessive
oedema is set up and fluid accumulates in the tissue space.
These, taken quite briefly, are some of the more important
conditions under which fluid exchanges take place. They are
selected here because of the extent and rapidity of the changes
effected.
3. The third factor which may bring about a change in the
amount of fluid sent to a tissue is a variation in the capillary
pressure. A rise in capillary pressure will, if filtration can occur
through the capillary wall, cause an increased exudation of fluid
from the blood. Thus the rise in general blood-pressure following
the injection of a salt solution could cause an increased filtration
into the tissues. Or again, the hydraemia following a salt in-
jection would favour an increased exudation because the blood
would be more readily filtrable. We, however, know very little
of the effect of changes in capillary pressure upon movement
of fluid into the tissue spaces and tissues, most of such observa-
tions being confined to a study of their effect upon lymph-flow.
We will therefore return to them in this connexion.
4. The remaining factor to be mentioned is a change in the
character of the capillary wall. It is well known that many
poisons can excite an increased exudation from the blood and
the tissue may become oedematous. Of such bodies we may
mention cantharidin and the lymphogogues of Class i (see later).
A like change is also probably the cause of the oedema of nephritis
and of heart disease. It has also been suggested that the capil-
laries of different organs show varying degrees of permeability,
a suggestion to which we will return later.
Lymph Formation. There are two theories current at the
present day offering explanations of the manner in which lymph
is formed. The first, which owes its inception to Ludwig, explains
lymph formation upon physical grounds. Thus according to
this theory the lymphatics are open capillary vessels at their
origin in the tissues along which the tissue fluid is driven. The
tissue fluid is discharged from the blood by filtration, and there-
fore its amount varies directly with the capillary pressure. The
amount of fluid movement also is further determined by osmotic
actions and by the permeability of the capillary wall.
The second theory first actively enunciated by Heidenhain
regards lymph formation as a secretory process of the capillary
wall, i.e. one in the discharge of which these cells perform work
and are not merely passive as in the former theory. As we shall
see, it is now probable that neither theory is completely correct.
In considering lymph formation we have to examine both
the total amount of lymph formed in the body and the variations
in amount leaving each separate organ under different conditions.
In most investigations the lymph was collected from the thoracic
duct, i.e. it was the lymph returned from all parts of the body
with the exception of the right arm and right side of the head and
neck. The collection of the lymph from organs is much more
difficult to effect, and hence has not, to the present, been so
extensively studied. We will consider first variations in the
amount of the thoracic duct lymph. Lymph is always flowing
along the thoracic duct, and if the body is at rest, it has been
shown that this lymph is coming practically entirely from the
intestines and liver, chiefly, moreover, from the liver. The
variations in the amount flowing under various conditions has
been extensively studied. We will discuss them under the follow-
ing headings: Changes brought about (a) by altered circulatory
conditions, (6) by the injection of -various substances, and (c) as
a result of throwing an organ into activity.
Ligature of the portal vein leads to an increased flow of duct
lymph. Ligature of the inferior vena cava above the diaphragm
also leads to a large increase in the flow of duct lymph. Ligature
of the aorta may result in either an increased or decreased
flow of direct lyrnph. One explanation of these results has been
offered from a study of the changes in capillary pressure set up
in the main organs involved. Thus, after ligature of the portal
vein the capillary pressure in the intestines rises, and it was
proved that the increase in thoracic duct lymph came from the
intestines. Ligaturing the inferior vena cava causes a big rise
n the pressure in the liver capillaries, the intestinal capillary
pressure remaining practically unaltered. Here it was proved
:hat the increase in lymph-flow came from the liver and was
LYMPH AND LYMPH FORMATION
165
more copious in amount than in the former instance. A further
difference is that this lymph is more concentrated, a feature
which always characterizes liver lymph. Ligature of the aorta
may or may not cause a rise in the liver capillary pressure, and
it has been shown that if the pressure rises there is an increased
lymph-flow from the liver and conversely. The increase of
lymph comes entirely in this instance also from the liver. It is
in fact but a special instance of the former experiment. From
these results it has been argued that lymph formation is simply
a filtration fundamentally, and the lymph-flow is determined
mainly by the capillary pressure. Variations in the quantity of
lymph issuing from different organs have been on this theory
ascribed to differences in the permeability of the capillaries of
the organs. Thus as liver lymph is richest in protein content
and is produced in greatest amount, it has been concluded
that the liver capillaries possess the highest permeability. The
intestines stand next in producing a concentrated lymph, and
their capillaries are therefore assumed to stand second as regards
permeability. Lastly, the lymph coming from limbs and other
organs is much poorer in solids and much less copious in amount.
Hence it is argued that their capillaries show the least perme-
ability. It is, however, very unsafe to compare the liver capil-
laries with those of other organs, since they are not in reality
capillaries but rather venous sinuses, and their relation to the
liver cells is characteristically different from that of ordinary
capillaries. If an animal is at rest, no lymph flows from the hind
limbs. To obtain a sample of limb lymph it is necessary to
massage the limb. If, however, the veins to the limb be liga-
tured, we obtain a flow of lymph. The ligature of course causes
a rise of the capillary pressure, and it has been argued that
this rise of pressure starts a nitration through the capillary wall
and hence a flow of lymph. But the stoppage of the blood-flow
also damages the capillary wall and tissue cells by asphyxiation,
and the resulting lymph-flow is in all probability the resultant
of many complex processes. This case is analogous to the pro-
duction of oedema in cases of heart disease where the circulation
is feeble and the oxygen supply to the parts deficient. The
results of these experiments form the main evidence in support
of the filtration theory of lymph formation. They were first
systematically studied by Heidenhain, to whom we owe so much
of our knowledge of lymph formation. He did not, however,
conclude that they established the filtration theory.
In continuing his observations Heidenhain next studied the
results following the injection of a number of substances into
the blood. He found many which on injection gave rise 'to an
increased lymph-flow from the thoracic duct, and arranged them
in two classes. As instances of lymphogogues of the first class
we may mention extract of mussels, leech extract, peptone,
extract of crayfish muscle, extract of strawberries, of raspberries
and many other like substances. Lymphogogues of the second
class comprise neutral salt solutions, urea, sugar, &c. Considering
the latter class first we may take as a type a solution of sodium
chloride. Injection of such a solution causes a large increase in
the lymph-flow, and it has been proved that the lymph comes
from the liver and intestines only chiefly from the former.
It is especially to be noted that there is no lymph-flow from the
limbs, and the same is true for all lymphogogues of this class.
As indicated above, the injection of a saline solution leads to a
large and rapidly effected transport of fluid from the blood into
muscle tissue, but though there is this large increase in tissue
fluid, no lymph flows from the tissue. This result very power-
fully disfavours the filtration theory of lymph formation. It
practically refutes the idea that lymph formation is solely de-
pendent upon such processes as filtration, osmosis and capillary
permeability only. It brings out quite clearly that the exchange
of fluid and dissolved salts, &c., between the blood and a tissue,
and the flow of lymph from that tissue, are two separate and
distinct processes, and especially that the first does not determine
the second. Also it is to be noted that the injection of a strong
salt solution also excites a flow of duct lymph, again arising from
the liver and intestines, but none from the limbs. In this in-
stance, as previously stated, the muscles of the limbs are losing
water, and so presumably are the liver and intestinal cells.
This independence of tissue-blood exchange and lymph-flow
is distinctly in favour of the view, which is rapidly gaining ground
from histological observations, that in all instances the lymphatics
commence in a tissue as closed capillary vessels.
Turning, in the next place, to the lymphogogues of the first
class, it has been proved that the origin of this increase of flow
is again from the liver. Very many of the substances of this
class are bodies which may when taken cause urticarial (nettle-
rash) eruptions, a state which is generally regarded as being due
to an action upon the capillary endothelium. Their action as
lymphogogues is also generally ascribed to an effect upon the
capillary wall rendering it according to some more permeable,
according to others leading to a direct secretory action on the
part of the endothelium. We also know that many of the bodies
of this class act upon the liver in other directions than in excit-
ing an increased lymph production. Thus they may cause an
increase in bile secretion, or, as in the case of peptone, the liver
cells may be excited to produce a new chemical material, in this
instance an antithrombin.
We have now to consider the effect of throwing an organ into
activity upon the lymph-flow from the organ. In all cases in
which it has been examined it is found that increased activity
is accompanied by increased lymph-flow. Thus, to take the
instance of the submaxillary gland, which at rest does not dis-
charge any lymph, stimulation of the chorda tympani is followed
by a flow of lymph accompanying the flow of saliva simul-
taneously excited. The stimulation of the nerve also produces
dilatation of the blood-vessels and therefore a rise in capillary
pressure. But that this vascular change is not the factor
determining the lymph-flow is proved by the administration of
a small dose of atropine, which arrests the secretion without
influencing the vascular reaction following chorda stimulation.
After the atropine no lymph-flow occurs on stimulating the
nerve. Many other instances of a similar kind might be ad-
duced. Thus, we have seen that peptone specifically excites
the liver cells and also causes an increased lymph-flow from the
liver; or, as a last instance, the injection of bile salt excites a
flow of bile and also excites a flow of lymph from the liver.
The supporters of the filtration theory have argued that as
activity of a tissue is necessarily accompanied by the discharge
of metabolites from the active tissue cells, and as these are of
small molecular size, they must set up an osmotic effect. Water
is therefore drawn into the tissue spaces, and this rise in fluid
content results mechanically in a flow of lymph from the organ.
The lymph simply drains away along the open lymphatics.
This argument, however, loses all its force when we recall the
fact that we may set up an enormous flow of fluid and salt into
a tissue and its tissue spaces without causing the least flow of
lymph. Further, there is no reason to suppose that the meta-
bolites discharged from a tissue during activity are produced in
large quantities. The chief metabolite is undoubtedly carbonic
acid, and this diffuses very rapidly and is quickly carried away
by the blood. If, moreover, as is probably the case, the lym-
phatics commence as closed capillaries, we have a further difficulty
in explaining how the fluid is driven through the lymphatic wall.
Either we must imagine the wall to be porous or there must be
a greater pressure outside than inside, and it is very difficult
to conceive how this is possible. As a general conclusion, then, it
seems much more probable that we are here dealing with a
secretory process, and that the active tissue produces some
substance or substances it may be carbonic acid which
throws the lymphatic capillary cells into activity.
To sum up in a few words the present state of our knowledge
as to lymph formation we may say that the exchange of water
and salts between the blood and the tissues is probably entirely
determined by processes of filtration and osmosis. Further, that
the physical condition of the capillary cells is frequently altered
by many chemical substances, and that in consequence it may
permit exudation into the tissue spaces much more freely.
In the next place, the flow of lymph from a tissue is not solely
determined by the amount of the tissue fluids. The lymph
i66
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
capillaries start as closed tubules, and the endothelial walls of
these tubules play an active part (secretory) in determining
when water and other substances shall be admitted into the
capillary and further determine the quantity of such discharge.
Apparently, too, these cells are specifically excited when the
tissue is thrown into activity, the exciting substance being a
metabolite from the active tissue. Leucocytes also are capable
of passing through or between the endothelial cells of the lymph
capillary. (T. G. Br.)
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. In anatomy, the lymphatic system
(Lat. lympha, clear water) comprises the lymphoid or adenoid
tissue so plentifully distributed about the body, especially in the
course of the alimentary canal (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES),
lymph spaces, lymphatic vessels of which the lacteals are modi-
fications, lymphatic glands, haemolymph glands, and the thoracic
and right lymphatic ducts by which the lymph (q.v.) finally reaches
the veins.
Lymph spaces are mere spaces in the connective tissue, which
usually have no special lining, though sometimes there is a layer
of endothelial cells like those of the lymphatic and blood vessels.
Most of these spaces are very small, but sometimes, as in the case
of the sub-epicranial space of the scalp, the capsule of Tenon in
the orbit, and the retropharyngeal space in the neck, they are
large and are adaptations to allow free movement. Opening from
these spaces, and also communicating with the serous membranes
by small .openings called stomata, 1 are the lymph capillaries (see
VASCULAR SYSTEM), which converge to the lymphatic vessels.
These resemble veins in having an internal layer of endothelium,
a middle unstriped muscular coat, and an external coat of
fibrous tissue, though in the smaller vessels the middle coat is
wanting. They have numerous endothelial valves, formed of
two crescentic segments allowing the lymph to pass toward the
root of the neck. When the vessels are engorged these valves are
marked by a constriction, and so the lymphatics have a beaded
appearance. The vessels divide and anastomose very freely,
and for this reason they do not, like the veins, increase in calibre
as they approach their destination. It is usual to divide the
lymphatic vessels into a superficial and a deep set; speaking
generally, the superficial ones are found near the course of the
superficial veins, while the deeper ones accompany the arteries.
Probably any single drop of lymph passes sooner or later through
one or more lymphatic glands, and so those vessels which are
approaching a gland are called afferent, while those leaving are
spoken of as efferent lymphatics. The lacteals are special
lymphatic vessels which carry the chyle from the intestine;
they begin in lymphatic spaces in the villi and round the
solitary and agminated glands, and pass into the mesentery,
where they come in contact with a large number of mesenleric
glands before reaching the receptaculum chyli.
The lymphatic glands are pink bodies situated in the course
of the lymphatic vessels, to which they act as filters. They
are generally oval in shape and about the size of a bean, but
sometimes, especially in the groin, they form irregular flattened
masses 2 in. long, while, at other times, they are so small as
almost to escape notice. They are usually found in groups.
Each gland has a fibrous capsule from which trabeculae pass
toward the centre, where they break up and interlace, forming a net-
work, and in this way a cortical and medullary region for each gland
is distinguished; the intervals are nearly filled by lymphoid tissue,
but close to the trabeculae is a lymph path or sinus, which is only
crossed by the reticular stroma of the lymphoid tissue, and this
probably acts as a mechanical sieve, entangling foreign particles;
as an example of this the bronchial glands are black from carbon
strained off in its passage from the lungs, while the axillary glands
in a tattooed arm are blue. The blood-vessels enter at one spot, the
hilum, and are distributed along the trabeculae. In addition to
their function as filters the lymphatic glands are probably one of the
sources from which the leucocytes are derived.
The exact position of the various groups of glands is very im-
portant from a medical point of view, but here it is only possible to
give a brief sketch which will be helped by reference to the ac-
companying diagram. In the head are found occipital and mastoid
glands (fig. 1,0), which drain the back of the scalp ; internal maxillary
1 It has recently been stated that stomata do not exist in the
peritoneum.
glands, in the zygomatic fossa, draining the orbit, palate, nose and
membranes of the brain; preauricular glands (fig. i, a), embedded
in the parotid, draining the side of the scalp, pinna, tympanum and
lower eyelid; and buccal glands, draining the cheek region. In the
neck are the superficial cervical glands (fig. 1,7), along the course of the
external jugular vein, draining the surface of the neck; the sub-
maxillary glands (fig. i, S), lying just above the salivary gland of the
same name and draining the front of the face and scalp; the sub-
mental glands (fig. I, e), Deneath the chin, draining the lower lip, as
well as sometimes the upper, and the front of the tongue; the
retropharyngeal glands, draining the naso-pharynx and tympanum ;
the pretracheal glands, draining the trachea and lower part of the
thyroid body; and the deep cervical glands, which are by far the
most important and form a great mass close to the internal jugular
vein; they receive afferent vessels from most of the glands already
mentioned and so are liable to be affected in any trouble of the head
or neck, especially of the deeper parts. Into them the lymphatics of
the brain pass directly. The lower part of this mass is sometimes
distinguished as a separate group
called the supra-clavicular glands,
which drain the back of the neck
and receive afferents from the
occipital and axillary glands. The
efferents from the deep cervical
glands join to form a common
vessel known as the jugular lym-
phatic trunk, and this usually opens
into the thoracic duct on the left
side and the right lymphatic duct
on the right.
In the thorax are found intercostal
glands (fig. 2, I.), near the vertebral
column draining the back of the
thoracic walls and pleura; internal
mammary glands, draining the front
of the same parts as well as the
inner part of the breast and the
upper part of the abdominal wall ;
diaphragmatic glands, draining that
structure and the convex surface
of the liver; anterior, middle, pos-
terior and superior mediastinal
glands, draining the contents of
those cavities. The bronchial glands,
draining the lungs, have already
been referred to.
In the abdomen and pelvis the
glands are usually grouped round
the large arteries and are divided
into visceral and parietal. Among
the visceral are the gastric glands,
draining the stomach (these are
divided into coronary, subpyloric FIG. i. Superficial Lymphatic
and retropyloric groups) ; the splenic Vessels and Glands.
glands at the hilum of the spleen, o, Preauricular.
draining that organ, the tail of the 0, Mastoid.
pancreas and the fundus of the y,
stomach; the hepatic glands in the i,
small omentum, draining the lower e,
surface and deep parts of the liver; f,
the pancreatic glands, behind the i/,
lesser sac of the peritoneum, drain- g,
ing the head and body of the i,
pancreas, the superior mesenteric K,
glands; from one to two hundred /,
in number, lying in the mesentery-
Superficial cervical.
Submaxillary.
Submental.
Infraclavicular.
Anterior axillary.
Supratrochlear.
Antecubital.
Inguinal.
Superficial femoral.
and receiving the lacteals; the ileo-caecal glands, draining the caecum,
one of which is known as the appendicular gland and drains the
vermiform appendix and right ovary ; the colic glands along the right
and middle colic arteries, draining the ascending and transverse
colon ; the inferior mesenteric glands in the course of that artery, drain-
ing the descending iliac and pelvic colons; the rectal glands, behind
the rectum, draining its upper part.
Among the parietal glands are the external iliac glands, divided into
a lateral and mesial set (see fig. 2, E.I.), and receiving the inguinal
efferent vessels and lymphatics from the bladder, prostate, cervix
uteri, upper part of the vagina, glans penis vel clitoridis and urethra.
The supra and infra-umbilical glands receive the deep lymphatics of
the abdominal wall, the former communicating with the liver, the
latter with the bladder. From the latter, vessels pass to the epi-
gastric gland lying in front of the termination of the external iliac
artery. The internal iliac glands (fig. 2, I. I.) are situated close to the
branches of this artery and drain the rectum, vagina, prostate,
urethra, buttock and perinaeum. Common iliac glands (fig. 2, C.I.)
lie around that artery and receive afferents from the external and
internal iliac glands as well as a few from the pelvic viscera. 2 The
1 For further details of the pelvic glands see " Seventh Report of
the Committee of Collective Investigation," Journ. Anat. and Phys.
xxxii. 164.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
167
aortic glands are grouped all round the length of the aorta, and are
divided into pre-, retro- and lateral aortic groups (fig. 2 P.A. and L),
all of which communicate freely. The upper preaortic glands are
massed round the coeliac axis, and receive anerents from the gastric,
hepatic, splenic and pancreatic glands; they are known as coeliac
glands. The lateral aortic glands drain the kidney, adrenal, testis,
ovary, fundus of uterus and lateral abdominal walls. In the upper
extremity a few small glands are sometimes found near the deep
arteries of the forearm. At the bend of the elbow are the ante-
cubital glands (fig. I X) and just above the internal condyle, one or
M
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text-boot of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. Deep -Lymphatic Glands and Vessels of the Thorax and
Abdomen (diagrammatic). Afferent vessels are represented by continuous
lines and efferent and interglandular vessels by dotted lines.
C. Common iliac glands.
C.I. Common intestinal trunk.
D.C. Deep cervical glands.
E.I. External iliac glands.
I. Intercostal glands and
vessels.
I.I. Internal iliac glands.
L. Lateral aortic glands.
M.
Mediastinal glands and
vessels. [vessels.
Pre-aortic glands and
Receptaculum chylii.
R.L.D. Right lymphatic duct.
S. Sacral glands.
S.A. Scalenus anticus muscle.
T.D. Thoracic duct.
P.A.
R.C.
two supra-trochlear glands (fig. I, 8). The axillary glands (fig. I, ij)
are perhaps the most practically important in the body. They are
divided into four sets: (i) external, along the axillary vessels,
draining the greater part of the arm; (2) anterior, behind the lower
border of the pectoralis major muscle, draining the surface of the
thorax including the breast and upper part of the abdomen; (3)
posterior along the subscapular artery, draining the back and side of
the trunk as low as the umbilical zone; (4) superior or infra-clavicular
glands (fig. I, f), receiving the efferents of the former groups as well
as lymphatics accompanying the cephalic vein. In the lower limb
all the superficial lymphatics pass up to the groin, where there are
two sets of glands arranged like a T. The superficial femoral glands
(fig. i, X) are the vertical ones, and are grouped round the internal
saphenous vein; they are very large, drain the surface of the leg,
and are usually in two parallel rows. The inguinal glands form the
cross bar of the T (fig. i,/e),and drain part of the buttock, the surface
of the abdomen below the umbilicus and the surface of the genital
organs. The deep lymphatics of the leg drain into the anttrior tibiat
gland on that artery, the popliteal glands in that space, and the deep
femoral glands surrounding the common femoral vein.
The thoracic duct begins as an irregular dilatation known as the
receptaculum chyli, opposite the first and second lumbar verte-
brae, which receives all the abdominal lymphatics as well as
those of the lower intercostal spaces. The duct runs up on the
right of the aorta through the posterior mediastinum and
then traverses the superior mediastinum to the left of the
oesophagus. At the root of the neck it receives the
lymphatics of the left arm and left side of the neck and
opens into the beginning of the left innominate vein, usually
by more than one opening.
The right lymphatic duct collects the lymphatics from the
right side of the neck and thorax, the right arm, right
lung, right side of the heart and upper surface of the liver;
it is often represented by several ducts which open separately
into the right innominate vein.
Haemolymph glands are structures which have only been
noticed since 1884. They differ from lymphatic glands in
their much greater vascularity. They assist the spleen in
the destruction of red blood corpuscles, and probably
explain or help to explain the fact that the spleen can be
removed without ill effects. In man they extend along
the vertebral column from the coeliac axis to the pelvis,
but are specially numerous close to the renal arteries.
T. Lewis suggests that lymphatic and haemolymph glands
should be classified in the following way:
' Haemal glands. J Simple.
( Specialized (Spleen).
Haemolymph _ fi. Blood and lymph
Glands. -I Haemal lymphatic I sinuses separate,
glands. 1 2. Blood lymph sinuses.
[3. Other combined forms.
L Lymphatic glands.
Details and references will be found in papers by T. Lewis,
/. Anal. & Phys. vol. xxxviii. p. 312; W. B. Drummond,
Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxiv. p. 198; A. S. Warthin,
Journ. Med. Research, 1901, p. 3, and H. Dayton, Am. Journ.
of Med. Sciences, 1904, p. 448. For further details of man's
lymphatic system see The Lymphatics by Delamere, Poiricr
and Cuneo, translated by C. H. Leaf (London, 1903).
Embryology. The lymphatic vessels are possibly developed
by the hollowing out of mesenchyme cells in the same way that
the arteries are; these cells subsequently coalesce and form
tubes (see VASCULAR SYSTEM). There is, however, a good
deal of evidence to show that they are originally offshoots of
the venous system, and that their permanent openings into
the veins are either their primary points of communication or
are secondarily acquired. The lymphatic and haemolymph
glands are probably formed by the proliferation of lympho-
cytes around networks of lymphatic vessels; the dividing
lymphocytes form the lymphoid tissue, and eventually the
network breaks up to form distinct glands into which blood
vessels penetrate. If the blood vessels enlarge more than the
lymphatic, haemolymph glands result, but if the lymphatic
vessels become predominant^ ordinary lymphatic glands are
formed. At an early stage in the embryo pig two thoracic
ducts are formed, one on either side of the aorta, and the
incomplete fusion of these may account for the division often
found in man's duct. In the embryo pig too there have
been found two pairs of lymph hearts for a short period.
See A. S_. Warthin, Journ. Med. Research, vol. vii. p. 435 ;
F. R. Sabin, Am. Journ. of Anat. i., 1902; and, for litera-
ture, Development of the Human Body, by J. P. McMurrich
(London, 1906), and Quain's Anatomy (vol. i., London, 1908).
Comparative Anatomy. A lymphatic system is recognized in
all the Cramata, and in the lower forms (fishes and Amphibia) it
consists chiefly of lymph spaces and sinuses in communication with
the coelom. In fishes, for instance, there is a large subvertebral
lymph sinus surrounding the aorta and another within the spinal
canal. In Amphibia t'ne subvertebral sinus is also found, and in the
Anura (frogs and toads) there is a great subcutaneous lymph sinus.
Lymph hearts are muscular dilatations of vessels and are found in
fishes, amphibians, reptiles and bird embryos, and drive the lymph
into the veins; they are not known in adult mammals.
In birds the thoracic duct is first recognized, and opens into both
right and left precaval veins, as it always does in some mammals.
In birds, however, some of the lymphatics open into the sacral
veins, and it is doubtful whether true lymphatic glands ever occur.
In birds and mammals lymphatic vessels become more definite and
numerous and are provided with valves.
r68
LYNCH
Haemolymph glands are present in mammals and birds, but have
not been seen lower in the scale, though S. Vincent and S. Harrison
point out the resemblance of the structure of the head kidney of
certain Teleostean fishes to them (Journ. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxi.
p. 176).
For further details see Comparative Anal, of Vertebrates, by R.
Wiedersheim (London, 1907). (F. G. P.)
Diseases of the Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands.
Lymphadenitis or inflammatory infection of the lymphatic glands,
is a condition characterized by hyperaemia of and exudation into
the gland, which becomes redder, firmer and larger than usual.
Three varieties may be distinguished : simple, suppurative and
tuberculous. The cause is always the absorption of some toxic or
infective material from the periphery. This may take place in
several of the acute infectious diseases, notably in scarlet fever,
mumps, diphtheria and German measles, or may be the result of
poisoned wounds. The lymphatic glands are also affected in con-
stitutional diseases such as syphilis. Simple lymphadenitis usually
subsides of its own accord, but if toxins are produced in the inflamed
area the enlargement is obvious and painful, while if pyogenic
organisms are absorbed the inflammation progresses to suppuration.
Tuberculous lymphadenitis (scrofula) is due to the infection of the
lymph glands by Koch's tubercle bacillus. This was formerly known
as " King's Evil," as it was believed that the touch of the royal hand
had power to cure it. It occurs most commonly in children and
young adults whose surroundings are unhealthy, and who are liable
to develop tuberculous disease from want of sufficient food and fresh
air. Some local -focus of irritation is usually present. The ways in
which the tubercle bacillus enters the body are much disputed, but
catarrh of the mucous membranes is regarded as a predisposing
factor, and the tonsils as a probable channel of infection. Any
lymphoid tissue in the body may be the seat of tuberculous disease,
but the glands of the neck are the most commonly involved. The
course of the disease is slow and may extend over a period of years.
The earliest manifestation is an enlargement of the gland. It is
possible in this stage for spontaneous healing to take place, but
usually the disease progresses to caseation, in which tuberculous
nodules are found diffused throughout the gland. Occasionally this
stage may end in calcification of the caseous matter, the gland shrink-
ing and becoming hard; but frequently suppuration follows from
liquefaction of the caseating material. Foci of pus occur throughout
the gland, causing destruction of the tissue, so that the gland may
become a single abscess cavity. If left to itself the abscess sooner or
later bursts at one or several points, leaving ulcerated openings
through which a variable amount of pus escapes. Temporary healing
may take place, to be again followed by further breaking down of the
gland. This condition, if untreated, may persist for years and may
finally give rise to a general tuberculosis. The treatment consists
mainly in improving the general health with good diet, fresh air
(particularly sea air), cod-fiver oil and iron, and the removal of all
sources of local irritation such as enlarged tonsils, adenoids, &c. Vac-
cination with tuberculin (TR) may be useful. Suppuration and ex-
tension of the disease require operative measures, and removal of
the glands en masse can now be done through so small an opening as
to leave only a very slight scar.
In Tabes mesenterica (tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands),
usually occurring in children, the glands of the mesentery and retro-
peritonaeum become enlarged, and either caseate or occasionally
suppurate. The disease may be primary or may be secondary to
tuberculous disease of the intestines or to pulmonary phthisis.
The patients are pale, wasted and anaemic, and the abdomen may
be enormously enlarged. There is usually moderate fever, and thin
watery diarrhoea. The caseating glands may liquefy and give rise
to an inflammatory attack which may simulate appendicitis. Limited
masses are amenable to surgical treatment and may be removed,
while in the earlier stages constitutional treatment gives good
results. Tuberculous peritonitis frequently supervenes on this
condition.
Lymphadenoma (Hodgkin's Disease), a disease which was first fully
described by Hodgkin in 1832, is characterized by a progressive
enlargement of the lymphatic glands all over the body, and generally
starts in the glands of the neck. The majority of cases occur in young
adults, and preponderate in the male sex. The first symptom is
usually enlargement of a gland in the neck, with generally progressive
growth of the glands in the submaxillary region and axilla. The
inguinal glands are early involved, and after a time the internal
lymph glands follow. The enlargements are at first painless, but
in the later stages symptoms are caused by pressure on the surround-
ing organs, and when the disease starts in the deeper structures the
first symptoms may be pain in the chest and cough, pain in the
abdomen, pain and oedema in the legs. The glands may increase
until they are as large as eggs, and later may become firmly adherent
one to another, forming large lobulated tumours. _ Increase of
growth in this manner in the neck may cause obstructive dyspnoea
and even death. In the majority of cases the spleen enlarges, and
in rare instances lymphoid tumours may be found on its surface.
Anaemia is common and is secondary in character; slight irregular
fever is present, and soon a great and progressive emaciation takes
place. The cases are of two types, the acute cases in which the en-
largements take place rapidly and death may occur in two to
three months, and the chronic cases in which the disease may remain
apparently stationary. In acute lymphadenoma the prognosis is
very unfavourable. Recovery sometimes takes place in the chronic
type of the disease. Early surgical intervention has in some cases
been followed by success. The application of X-rays is a valuable
method of treatment, superficial glands undergoing a rapid diminu-
tion in size. Of drugs arsenic is of the most service, and mercurial
inunction has been recommended by Dreschfeld. Organic extracts
have of late been used in the treatment of lymphadenoma.
Glandular Fever is an acute infectious fever, generally occurring in
epidemics, and was first described by E. Pfeiffer in 1889. It usually
affects childrenand has a tendency to run through all the children of
a family. The incubation period is said to be about 7 days. The
onset is sudden, with pain in the neck and limbs, headache, vomiting,
difficulty in swallowing and high temperature. On the second day, or
sometimes on the first, swelling of the cervical glands is noticed, and
later the posterior cervical, axillary and inguinal glands become
enlarged and tender. In about half the cases the spleen and liver
are enlarged and there is abdominal tenderness. West found the
mesenteric nodes enlarged in 37 cases. Nephritis is an occasional
complication, and constipation is very usual. The disease tends to
subside of itself, and the fever usually disappears after a few days ;
the glandular swellings may, however, persist from one to three
weeks. Considerable anaemia has been noticed to follow the illness.
Rest in bed while the glands are enlarged, and cod-liver oil and iron
to meet the anaemia, are the usual treatment.
Status lymphaticus (lymphatism) is a condition found in children
and some adults, characterized by an enlargement of the lymphoid
tissues throughout the body and more particularly by enlargement
of the thymus gland. There is a special lowering of the patient's
powers of resistance, and it has been said to account for a number of
cases of sudden death. In all cases of status lymphaticus the thymus
has been found enlarged. At birth the gland (according to Bovaird
and Nicoll) weighs about 6 grammes, and does not increase after
birth. In lympnatism it may weigh from 10 to 50 grammes. The
clinical features are indefinite, and the condition frequently passes
unrecognized during life. In most cases there is no hint of danger
until the fatal syncope sets in, which may be after any slight exertion
or shock, the patient becoming suddenly faint, gasping and cyanosed,
and the heart stopping altogether before the respirations have
ceased. The most trifling causes have brought on fatal issues, such as
a wet pack (Escherich) or a hypodermic injection, or even a sudden
plunge into water though the head is not immersed. The greater
number of deaths occur during the administration of anaesthetics,
which seem peculiarly dangerous to these subjects. When an attack
of syncope takes place no treatment is of any avail.
virchow, West and Goodhardt have described a form of asthma
in adults which they ascribe to a hypertrophied thymus gland and
term " thymic asthma."
Diseases of the Spleen. Physiological variations and abnormalities
and absence of the spleen are so rare as to require no comment. The
most usual pathological condition which gives rise to symptoms is
that of wandering spleen, which may or may not be secondary to a
wandering left kidney. It may produce symptoms of dragging and
discomfort, dyspepsia, vomiting and abdominal pain, and sometimes
jaundice (Treves), or the pedicle may become twisted, producing
extremely severe symptoms. The treatment is entirely surgical.
Abscess in the spleen occasionally occurs, usually in association with
infective endocarditis or with general pyaemia. The spleen may be
the seat of primary new growths, but these are rare, and only in a
small portion of cases does it share in the metastatic reproduction of
carcinoma. Infection of the spleen plays a prominent part in many
diseases, such as malaria, typhoid fever, lymphadenoma and
leucaemia.
Diseases of the thyroid gland (see GOITRE) and Addison's disease
(of the suprarenal glands) are treated separately. (H. L. H.)
LYNCH, PATRICK) (1825-1886) Chilean naval officer, was born
in Valparaiso on the i8th of December 1825, his father being
a wealthy Irish merchant resident in Chile, and his mother,
Carmen Solo de Saldiva, a descendant of one of the best-known
families in the country. Entering the navy in 1837, he took part
in the operations which led to the fall of the dictator, Santa Cruz.
Next, he sought a wider field, and saw active service in the China
War on board the British frigate " Calliope." He was mentioned
in despatches for bravery, and received the grade of midshipman
in the British service. Returning to Chile in 1847 he became
lieutenant, and seven years later he received the command of a
frigate, but was deprived of his command for refusing to receive
on board his ship political suspects under arrest. The Spanish
War saw him again employed, and he was successively maritime
prefect of Valparaiso, colonel of National Guards, and, finally,
captain and minister of marine in 1872. In the Chile-Peruvian
War a brilliant and destructive naval raid, led by him, was
LYNCHBURG LYNCH LAW
169
followed by the final campaign of Chorrillos and Miraflores (1880),
in which he led at first a brigade (as colonel) and afterwards
a division under Baquedano. His services at the battle of
Chorrillos led to his appointment to command the Army of
Occupation in Peru. This difficult post he filled with success,
but his action in putting the Peruvian president, Garcia Calderon,
under arrest excited considerable comment. His last act was
to invest Iglesias with supreme power in Peru, and he returned
to his own country in 1883. Promoted rear-admiral, he served
as Chilean Minister at Madrid for two years, and died at sea in
1886. Lynch is remembered as one of the foremost of Chile's
naval heroes.
LYNCHBURG, a city of Campbell county, Virginia, U.S.A.,
on the James river, about 125 m. W. by S. of Richmond. Pop.
(1900) 18,891, of whom 8254 were negroes; (1910) 29,494. It is
served by the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk
& Western railways. Its terraced hills command fine views of
mountain, valley and river scenery, extending westward to the
noble Peaks of Otter and lesser spurs of the Blue Ridge about
20 m. distant. On an elevation between Rivermont Avenue and
the James river are the buildings of Randolph-Macon Woman's
college (opened in 1893), which is conducted by a self-perpetuat-
ing board under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
South, and is one of the Randolph-Macon system of colleges and
academies (see ASHLAND, VA.). In Lynchburg, too, are the
Virginia Christian college (co-educational, 1903), and the
Virginia collegiate and industrial school for negroes. The city
has a public library, well-equipped hospitals, public parks and
the Rivermont Viaduct, noo ft. long and 140 ft. high. Lynch-
burg is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Tobacco
of a superior quality and large quantities of coal, iron ore and
granite are produced in the neighbourhood. Good water power
is furnished by the James river, and Lynchburg is one of the
principal manufacturing cities of the state. The boot and shoe
industry was established in 1900, and is much the most important.
In 1905 the city was the largest southern manufacturer of these
articles and one of the largest distributors in the country. The
factory products increased in value from $2,993,551 in igoo to
$4,965,435 in 1905, or 65-9%.
Lynchburg, named in honour of John Lynch, who inherited
a large tract of land here and in 1757 established a ferry across
the James, was established as a village by Act of Assembly' in
1786, was incorporated as a town in 1805, and became a city in
1852. During the Civil War it was an important base of supplies
for the Confederates; on the i6th of June 1864 it was invested
by Major-General David Hunter (1802-1886), but three days
later he was driven away by General Jubal A. Early. In 1908
the city's corporate limits were extended.
LYNCH LAW, a term loosely applied to various forms of
executing rough popular justice, or what is thought to be justice,
for the punishment of offenders by a summary procedure, ignor-
ing, or even contrary to, the strict forms of law. The word
lynching " originally signified a whipping for reformatory
purposes with more or less disregard for its legality " (Cutler), or
the infliction of minor punishments without recourse to law;
but during and after the Reconstruction Period in the United
States, it came to mean, generally, the summary infliction of
capital punishment. Lynch law is frequently prevalent in
sparsely settled or frontier districts where government is weak
and officers of the law too few and too powerless to enforce law
and preserve order. The practice has been common in all
countries when unsettled frontier conditions existed, or in periods
of threatened anarchy. In what are considered civilized countries
it is now found mainly in Russia, south-eastern Europe and in
America , but it is essentially and almost peculiarly an American
institution. The origin of the name is obscure; different writers
have attempted to trace it to Ireland, to England, to South
Carolina, to Pennsylvania and to Virginia. It is certain that the
name was first used in America, but it is not certain whether it
came from Lynch's Creek, South Carolina, where summary
justice was administered to outlaws, or from Virginia and
Pennsylvania, where men named Lynch were noted for dealing
out summary punishment to offenders. 1 In Europe early
examples of a similar phenomenon are found in the proceedings
of the Vehmgerichte in medieval Germany, and of Lydford law,
gibbet law or Halifax law, Cowper justice and Jeddart justice in
the thinly settled and border districts of Great Britain; and
since the term " lynch law " came into colloquial use, it is
loosely employed to cover any case in which a portion of the
community takes the execution of its ideas of justice into its
own hands, irrespective of the legal authorities.
In America during the i8th and igth centuries the population
expanded westward faster than well-developed civil institutions
could follow, and on the western frontier were always desperadoes
who lived by preying on the better classes. To suppress these
desperadoes, in the absence of strong legal institutions, resort was
continually made to lynch law. There was little necessity for it
until the settlement crossed the Alleghany Mountains, but the
following instances of lynching in the East may be mentioned:
(i) the mistreatment of Indians in New England and the Middle
Colonies in disregard of laws protecting them; (2) the custom
found in various colonies of administering summary justice to
wife-beaters, idlers and other obnoxious persons; (3) the acts of
the Regulators of North Carolina, 1767-1771; (4) the popular
tribunals of the Revolutionary period, when the disaffection
toward Great Britain weakened the authority of the civil
governments and the war replaced them by popular govern-
ments, at a time when the hostilities between " Patriots " and
" Tories " were an incentive to extra-legal violence. In the
South, lynching methods were long employed in dealing with
agitators, white and black, who were charged with endeavouring
to excite the slaves to insurrection or to crime against their
masters, and in dealing with anti-slavery agitators generally.
In the West, from the Alleghanies to the Golden Gate, the
pioneer settlers resorted to popular justice to get rid of bands
of outlaws, and to regulate society during that period when
laws were weak or confused, when the laws made in the East
did not suit western conditions, and when courts and officials
were scarce and distant. The Watauga settlements and the
" State " of Franklin furnished examples of lynch law procedure
almost reduced to organization. Men trained in the rough
school of the wilderness came to have more regard for quick,
ready-made, personal justice than for abstract justice and
statutes; they were educated to defend themselves, to look
to no law for protection or regulation; consequently they
became impatient of legal forms and lawyers' technicalities; an
appeal to statute law was looked upon with suspicion, and, if
some personal matter was involved, was likely to result in deadly
private feuds. Thus were formed the habits of thought and
action of the western pioneers. Lynch law, not civil law, cleared
the western forests, valleys and mountain passes of horse and
cattle thieves, and other robbers and outlaws, gamblers and
murderers. This was especially true of California and the
states of the far West. H. H. Bancroft, the historian of Popular
Tribunals, wrote in 1887 that " thus far in the history of these
Pacific States far more has been done toward righting wrongs
and administering justice outside the pale of law than within
it." However, the lack of regard for law fostered by the con-
ditions described led to a survival of the lynching habit after
the necessity for it passed away. In parts of the Southern states,
where the whites are few and greatly outnumbered by the
blacks, certain of the conditions of the West have prevailed,
and since emancipation released the blacks from restraint
many of the latter have been lawless and turbulent. The
Reconstruction, by giving to the blacks temporary political
supremacy, increased the friction between the races, and greatly
1 The usual explanation is that the name was derived from
Charles Lynch (1736-1796), a justice of the peace in Virginia after
1774, who in 1780, toward the close of the War of Independence,
greatly exceeded his powers in the punishment of Tories or Loyalists
detected in a conspiracy in the neighbourhood of his home in Bedford
county, Va. Lynch was a man of influence in his community, was
for many years a member of the Virginia legislature, was a member
of the famous Virginia Convention of 1776 and was later (in 1781) an
officer in the American army. See an article, " The Real Judge
Lynch," in the Atlantic Monthly, vol. Ixxxviii. (Boston, 1901).
170
deepened prejudice. The numerous protective societies of
whites, 1865-1876, culminating in the Ku Klux movement,
m^y be described as an application of lynch law. With the
increase of negro crimes came an increase of lynchings, due to
prejudice, to the fact that for some time after Reconstruction
the governments were relatively weak, especially in the districts
where the blacks outnumber the whites, to the fact that
negroes nearly always shield criminals of their own race
against the whites, and to the frequent occurrence of the crime
of rape by negro men upon white women.
Since 1882 the Chicago Tribune has collected statistics of
lynching, and some interesting facts may be deduced from these
tables. 1 During the twenty-two years from 1882 to 1903 in-
clusive, the total number of persons lynched in the United States
was 3337) tne number decreasing during the last decade; of
these 2385 were in the South and 752 in the North; of those
lynched in the East and West 602 were white and 75 black,
and of those in the South 567 were white and 1985 black. 2
Lynchings occur mostly during periods of idleness of the lower
classes; in the summer more are lynched for crimes against
the person and in the winter (in the West) for crimes against
property; the principal causes of lynching in the South are
murder and rape, in the North and West, murder and offences
against property; more blacks than whites were lynched
between 1882 and 1903, the numbers being 2060 negroes, of
whom 40 were women, and 1 169 whites, of whom 23 were women;
of the 707 blacks lynched for rape 675 were in the South; 783
blacks were lynched for murder, and 753 of these were in the
South; most of the lynchings of whites were in the West; the
lynching of negroes increased somewhat outside of the South
and decreased somewhat in the South. Lynching decreases
and disappears in a community as the population grows denser
and civil institutions grow stronger; as better communications
and good police make it harder to commit crime; and as public
sentiment is educated to demand legal rather than illegal and
irregular infliction of punishment for even the most horrible
of crimes.
See James E. Cutler, Lynch Law (New York, 1905), an ad-
mirable and unbiased discussion of the subject; H. H. Bancroft,
Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); C. H. Shinn,
Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government (New
York, 1885); and J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, Ku Klux Klan
(New York, 1905). (W. L. F.)
LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON (1772-
1863), lord chancellor of England, was born at Boston, Massa-
chusetts, in 1772. He was the son of John Singleton Copley,
the painter. He was educated at a private school and Cambridge
university, where he was second wrangler and fellow of Trinity.
Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804, he gained a consider-
able practice. In 1817 he was one of the counsel for Dr J.
Watson, tried for his share in the Spa Fields riot. On this
occasion Copley so distinguished himself as to attract the atten-
tion of Castlereagh and other Tory leaders, under whose patron-
age he entered parliament as member for Yarmouth in the Isle
of Wight. He afterwards sat for Ashburton, 1818-1826, and
for Cambridge university 1826-1827. H C was solicitor-general
in 1819, attorney-general in 1824, master of the rolls in 1826
and lord chancellor in 1827, with the title of Lord Lyndhurst.
Before being taken up by the Tories, Copley was a man of the
most advanced views, a republican and Jacobin; and his
accession to the Tories excited a good deal of comment, which
he bore with the greatest good humour. He gave a brilliant and
eloquent but by no means rancorous support to all the re-
actionary measures of his chief. The same year that he became
1 They have been corrected and somewhat modified by Dr. J. E.
Cutler, from whose book the figures above have been taken. Lynch-
ing as used in this connexion applies exclusively to the illegal in-
fliction of capital punishment.
2 For present purposes the former slave states (of 1860) constitute
the South; the West is composed of the territory west of the
Mississippi river, excluding Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas
and Oklahoma; the East includes those states east of the Mississippi
river not included in the Southern group; the East and the West
make up the North as here used that is, the former free states of
i860.
LYNDHURST LYNDSAY
solicitor-general he married the beautiful and clever widow of
Lieut.-Colonel Charles Thomas of the Coldstream Guards, and
began to take a conspicuous place in society, in which his noble
figure, his ready wit and his never-failing bonhomie made him
a distinguished favourite.
As solicitor-general he took a prominent part in the trial of
Queen Caroline. To the great Liberal measures which marked
the end of the reign of George IV. and the beginning of that
of William IV. he gave a vigorous opposition. He was lord
chief baron of the exchequer from 1831 to 1834. During the
Melbourne administration from 1835 to 1841 he figured con-
spicuously as an obstructionist in the House of Lords. In these
years it was a frequent practice with him, before each prorogation
of parliament, to entertain the House with a " review of the
session," in which he mercilessly attacked the Whig government.
His former adversary Lord Brougham, disgusted at his treatment
by the Whig leaders, soon became his most powerful ally in
opposition; and the two dominated the House of Lords.
Throughout all the Tory governments from 1827 Lyndhurst
held the chancellorship (1827-1830 and 1834-1835); and in
the Peel administration (1841-1846) he resumed that office for
the last time. As Peel never had much confidence in Lyndhurst ,
the latter did not exert so great an influence in the cabinet as
his position and experience entitled him to do. But he con-
tinued a loyal member of the party. As in regard to Catholic
emancipation, so in the agitation against the corn laws, he
opposed reform till his chief gave the signal for concession, and
then he cheerfully obeyed. After 1846 and the disintegration
of the Tory party consequent on Peel's adoption of free trade,
Lord Lyndhurst was not so assiduous in his attendance in
parliament. Yet he continued to an extreme old age to take
a lively interest in public affairs, and occasionally to astonish
the country by the power and brilliancy of his speeches. That
which he made in the House of Lords on the igth of June 1854,
on the war with Russia, made a sensation in Europe; and
throughout the Crimean War he was a strong advocate of the
energetic prosecution of hostilities. In 1859 he denounced with
his old energy the restless ambition of Napoleon III. When
released from office he came forward somewhat as the advocate
of liberal measures. His first wife had died in 1834, and in
August 1837 he had married Georgina, daughter of Lewis Gold-
smith. She was a Jewess; and it was therefore natural that
he strenuously supported the admission of Jews into parliament.
He also advocated women's rights in questions of divorce. At
the age of eighty-four he passed the autumn at Dieppe, " helping
to fly paper kites, and amusing himself by turns with the writings
of the Greek and Latin fathers on divorce and the amorous
novels of Eugene Sue." His last speech, marked by " his wonted
brilliancy and vigour," was delivered in the House of Lords at
the age of eighty-nine. He died in London on the I2th of
October 1863. He left no male issue and the title became
extinct.
See Lives of the Lord Chancellors of England, vol. viii. (Lords
Lyndhurst and Brougham) , by Lord Campbell ( 1 869) . Campbell was
a personal friend, but a political opponent. Brougham's Memoirs;
Greville Memoirs; Life of Lord Lyndhurst (1883) by Sir Theodore
Martin; J. B. Atlay, The Victorian Chancellors (1906).
LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID (c. ugo-c. 1555), Scottish poet, was
the son of David Lyndsay of the Mount, near Cupar-Fife, and
of Garmylton, near Haddington. His place of birth and his
school are undetermined. It is probable that his college life
was spent at St Andrews university, on the books of which
appears an entry "Da Lindesay " for the session 1508-1509.
He was engaged at court, first as an equerry, then as an " usher "
to the young Prince James, afterwards James V. In 1522 he
married Janet Douglas, a court seamstress, and seven years
later was appointed Lyon King of Arms, and knighted. He
was several times engaged in diplomatic business (twice on
embassies abroad to the Netherlands and France), and he was,
in virtue of his heraldic office, a general master of ceremonies.
After the death of James V., in 1542, he continued to sit in
parliament as commissioner for Cupar-Fife; and in 1548 he
LYNEDOCH, BARON
171
was member of a mission to Denmark which obtained certain
privileges for Scottish merchants. There is reason to believe
that he died in or about 1555.
Most of Lyndsay's literary work, by which he secured great
reputation in his own day and by which he still lives, was written
during the period of prosperity at court. In this respect he is
unlike his predecessor Gavin Douglas (<?.*.), who forsook literature
when he became a politician. The explanation of the difference
is partly to be found in the fact that Lyndsay's muse was more
occasional and satirical, and that the time was suitable to the
exercise of his special gifts. It is more difficult to explain how
he enjoyed a freedom of speech which is without parallel even
in more secure times. He chastised all classes, from his royal
master to the most simple. There is no evidence that he abjured
Catholicism; yet his leading purpose was the exposure of its
errors and abuses. His aid was readily accepted by the reforming
party, and by their use of his work he shared with their leaders
throughout many generations a reputation which is almost
exclusively political and ecclesiastical.
Lyndsay's longer poems are The Dreme (1134 lines), The
Testament and Complaynt of the Papynago (1190 lines), The
Testament of Squyer Meldrum (1859 lines), Ane Dialog betwix
Experience and ane Courteour of the Miserabyll Estait of the
World (6333 lines), and Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis
(over 4000 lines) . These represent , with reasonable completeness,
the range of Lyndsay's literary talent. No single poem can give
him a chief place, though here and there, especially in the last,
he gives hints of the highest competence. Yet the corporate
effect of these pieces is to secure for him the allowance of more
than mere intellectual vigour and common sense. There is in
his craftsmanship, in his readiness to apply the traditional
methods to contemporary requirements, something of that
accomplishment which makes even the second-rate man of letters
interesting.
Lyndsay, the last of the Makars, is not behind his fellow-poets
in acknowledgment to Chaucer. As piously as they, he repro-
duces the master's forms; but in him the sentiment and outlook
have suffered change. His nearest approach to Chaucer is in
The Testament of Squyer Meldrum, which recalls the sketch of
the "young squire"; but the reminiscence is verbal rather than
spiritual. Elsewhere his memory serves him less happily, as
when he describes the array of the lamented Queen Magdalene
in the words which Chaucer had applied to the eyes of his
wanton Friar. So too, in the Dreme, the allegorical tradition
survives only in the form. " Remembrance " conducts the poet
over the old-world itinerary, but only to lead him to specula-
tion on Scotland's woes and to an " Exhortatioun to the Kingis
Grace " to bring relief. The tenor is well expressed in the motto
from the Vulgate " Prophetias nolite spernere. Omnia autem
probate: quod bonum est tenete." This didactic habit is freely
exercised in the long Dialog (sometimes called the Monarche),
a universal history of the medieval type, in which the falls of
princes by corruption supply an object lesson to the unreformed
church of his day. The Satyre is more direct in its attack on
ecclesiastical abuse; and its dramatic form permits more
lively treatment. This piece is of great historical interest, being
the only extant example of a complete Scottish morality. It
is in respect of literary quality Lyndsay's best work, and in
dramatic construction and delineation of character it holds a
high place in this genre. The farcical interludes (in places too
coarse for modern taste) supply many touches of genuine comedy;
and throughout the play there are passages, as in the speeches of
Veritie in the First Part and of Dame Chastitie in the " Interlude
of the Sowtar and the Taylor," in which word and line are happily
conceived. The Testament of the Papyngo (popinjay), drawn in
the familiar medieval manner, is another tract for the time,
full of admonition to court and clergy. Of his shorter pieces,
The Complaynt and Public! Confessions of the Kingis A uld Hound,
callit Bagsche, directit to Bawtie, the Kingis best belovit Dog, and
his companyeonis, and the Answer to the Kingis Flyting have a
like pulpit resonance. The former is interesting as a forerunner
of Burns's device in the " Twa Dogs." The Deploratioun of the
Deith of Queen Magdalene is in the extravagant style of com-
memoration illustrated in Dunbar's Elegy on the Lord Aubigny.
The Justing betwix James Watsoun and Jhone Barbour is a
contribution to the popular taste for boisterous fun, in spirit,
if not in form, akin to the Christis Kirk on the Grene series;
and indirectly, with Dunbar's Turnament and Of ane Blak-Moir,
a burlesque of the courtly tourney. Lyndsay approaches Dunbar
in his satire The Supplicatioun in contemptioun of syde taillis
(" wide " trains of the ladies), which recalls the older poet's
realistic lines on the filthy condition of the city streets. In
Lyndsay's Descriptioun of Pedder Coffeis (pedlars) we have an
early example of the studies in vulgar life which are so plentiful
in later Scottish literature. In Kitteis Confessioun he -returns,
but in more sprightly mood, to his attack on the church.
In Lyndsay we have the first literary expression in Scotland
of the Renaissance. His interest lies on the theological side
of the revival; he is in no sense a humanist, and he is indifferent
to the artistic claims of the movement. Still he appeals to the
principle which is fundamental to all. He demands first-hand
impression. He feels that men must get their lesson direct,
not from intermediaries who understand the originals no more
" than they do the ravyng of the rukis." Hence his persistent
plea for the vernacular, nowhere more directly put than in the
Dialog, in the " Exclamatioun to the Redar, toucheyng the
wrytting of the vulgare and maternall language." Though he' is
concerned only in the theological and ecclesiastical application
of this, he undoubtedly stimulated the use of the vernacular
in a Scotland which in all literary matters beyond the concern
of the irresponsible poet still used the lingua franca of Europe.
A complete edition of Lyndsay's poetical works was published by
David Laing in 3 yols. in 1879. This was anticipated during the
process of preparation by a cheaper edition (slightly expurgated) by
the same editor in 1871 (2 vols.). The E.E.T.S. issued the first
part of a complete edition in 1865 (ed. F. Hall). Five parts have
appeared, four edited by F. Hall, the fifth by J. A. H. Murray. For
the bibliography see Laing "s 3 vol. edition, u.s. iii. pp. 222 et seq.,
and the E.E.T.S. edition passim. See also the editions by Pmkerton
(1792), Sibbald (1803), and Chalmers (1806); and the critical ac-
counts in Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature (1898), Gregory
Smith's Transition Period (1900), and J. H. Millar's Literary History
of Scotland (1903). A professional work prepared by Lyndsay in the
Lyon Office, entitled the Register of Scottish Arms (now preserved in
MS. in the Advocates' Library), was printed in 1821 and reprinted in
1878. It remains the most authoritative document on Scottish
heraldry. (G. G. S.)
LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, IST BARON (1748-1843),
British general, was the son of Thomas Graeme, laird of Bal-
gowan, and was born on the igth of October 1748. He was
educated by private tutors, among whom was James Macpherson
(q.v.), and was a gentleman commoner of Christ Church, Oxford,
between 1766 and 1768. He then travelled on the continent of
Europe, and in 1772 unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary
seat in Perthshire. In 1774 he married a daughter of the ninth
Lord Cathcart, and took a house in the Leicestershire hunting
country. After a few years, owing to the state of his wife's
health, Graham was compelled to live mainly in the south of
Europe, though while at home he was a prominent sportsman
and agriculturist. In 1787 he bought the small estate of Lyne-
doch or Lednock, a few miles from Perth. In 1791 his wife died
in the Mediterranean, off Hyeres. Graham tried to find dis-
traction in renewed travels, and during his wanderings fell in
with Lord Hood's fleet on its way to Toulon. He joined it as a
volunteer, served on Lord Mulgrave's staff during the British
occupation of Toulon, and returned, after the failure of the ex-
pedition, to Scotland, where he organized a regiment of infantry,
the goth Foot, Perthshire Volunteers (now 2nd Battalion Scottish
Rifles). Graham's men were the first regiment in the army to be
equipped and trained wholly as light infantry, though they were
not officially recognized as such for many years. In the same
year (1794) Graham became member of parliament, in the Whig
interest, for the county of Perth. He saw some active service in
1795 in " conjunct expeditions " of the army and navy, and in
1796, being then a brevet colonel, he was appointed British com-
missioner at the headquarters of the Austrian army in Italy. He
took part in the operations against Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut
172
LYNN LYNX
up in Mantua with WUrmser's army, escaped in disguise, and
after many adventures reached the relieving army of Alvinzi
just before the battle of Rivoli. On returning to his regiment he
served in more " conjunct " expeditions, in one of which, at
Messina, he co-operated with Nelson, and in 1799 he was sent as
brigadier-general to invest the fortress of Valetta, Malta. He
blockaded the place for two years, and though Major-General
Pigot arrived shortly before the close of the blockade and
assumed command, the conquest of Malta stands almost wholly
to the credit of Graham and his naval colleague Sir Alexander
Ball. In 1801 Graham proceeded to Egypt, where his regiment
was engaged in Abercromby's expedition, but arrived too late
to take part in any fighting. He took the opportunity afforded
by the peace of Amiens to visit Turkey, Austria, Germany and
France, and only resumed command of his regiment in 1804.
When the latter was ordered to the West Indies he devoted
himself to his duties as a member of parliament. He sat for
Perthshire until 1807, when he was defeated, as he was again
in 1812. Graham was with Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in
Spain 1808-1809, an d was present at his death at the battle of
Corunna. In 1809 he became a major-general, and after taking
part in the disastrous Walcheren expedition he was promoted
lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810).
In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under
General la Pefia (see PENINSULAR WAR), he took the offensive,
and won the brilliant action of Barossa (sth of March). The
victory was made barren of result by the timidity of the Spanish
generals. The latter nevertheless claimed more than their share
of the credit, and Graham answered them with spirit. One of
the Spanish officers he called out, fought and disarmed, and after
refusing with contempt the offer of a Spanish dukedom, he
resigned his command in the south and joined Wellington in
Portugal. His seniority as lieutenant-general made him second
in command of Wellington's army. He took part in the siege of
Ciudad Rodrigo, and commanded a wing of the army in the siege
of Badajoz and the advance to Salamanca. In July 1812, his
eyesight becoming seriously impaired, he went home, but re-
joined in time to lead the detached wing of the army in the wide-
ranging manoeuvre which culminated in the battle of Vittoria.
Graham was next entrusted with the investment and siege of
San Sebastian, which after a desperate defence fell on the 9th of
September 1813. He then went home, but in 1814 accepted the
command of a corps to be despatched against Antwerp. His
assault on Bergen op Zoom was, however, disastrously repulsed
(3rd of February 1814).
At the peace Graham retired from active military employment.
He was created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of
the United Kingdom, but refused the offered pension of 2000
a year. In 1813 he proposed the formation of a military club
in London, and though Lord St Vincent considered such an
assemblage of officers to be unconstitutional, Wellington sup-
ported it and the officers of the army and navy at large received
the idea with enthusiasm. Lynedoch's portrait, by Sir T.
Lawrence, is in possession of this club, the (Senior) United
Service. In his latter years he resumed the habits of his youth,
travelling all over Europe, hunting with the Pytchley so long as
he was able to sit his horse, actively concerned hi politics and
voting consistently for liberal measures. At the age of ninety-
two he hastened from Switzerland to Edinburgh to receive
Queen Victoria when she visited Scotland after her marriage.
He died in London on the i8th of December 1843. He had been
made a full general in 1821, and at the time of his death was a
G.C.B., Colonel of the ist (Royal Scots) regiment, and governor
of Dumbarton Castle.
See biographies by John Murray Graham (2nd ed., Edinburgh,
1877) and Captain A. M. Delavoye (London, 1880); also the latter's
History of the goth (Perthshire Volunteers) (London, 1880), Philip-
parts' Royal Military Calendar (1820), ii. 147, and Gentleman's
Magazine, new series, xxi. 197.
LYNN, a city and seaport of Essex county, Massachusetts,
9 m. N.E. of Boston, on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay.
Pop. (1900) 68,513, of whom 17,742 were foreign-born (6609
being English Canadians, 5306 Irish, 1527 English and 1280
French Canadians), and 784 were negroes; (1910 census)
89,336. It is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston,
Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by an interurban electric
railway, and has an area of 10-85 S Q- m - The business part is
built near the shore on low, level ground, and the residential
sections are on the higher levels. Lynn Woods, a beautiful park,
covers more than 2000 acres. On the shore, which has a fine
boulevard, is a state bath house. The city has a handsome city
hall, a free public library, founded in 1862, a soldiers' monument
and two hospitals. Lynn is primarily a manufacturing city.
The first smelting works in New England were established here
in 1643. More important and earlier was the manufacture of
boots and shoes, an industry introduced in 1636 by Philip Kert-
land, a Buckingham man; a corporation of shoemakers existed
here in 1651, whose papers were lost in 1765. There were many
court orders in the seventeenth century to butchers, tanners,
bootmakers and cordwainers; and the business was made
more important by John Adam Dagyr (d. 1808), a Welshman
who came here in 1750 and whose work was equal to the best in
England. In 1767 the output was 80,000 pairs; in 1795 about
300,000 pairs of women's shoes were made by 600 journeymen
and 200 master workmen. The product of women's shoes had
become famous in 1764, and about 1783 the use of morocco had
been introduced by Ebenezer Breed. In 1900 and 1905 Lynn
was second only to Brockton among the cities of the United
States in the value of boots and shoes manufactured, and out-
ranked Brockton in the three allied industries, the manufacture
of boots and shoes, of cut stock and of findings. In the value of its
total manufactured product Lynn ranked second to Boston in
the state in 1905, having been fifth in 1900; the total number of
factories in 1905 was 431; their capital was $23,139,185; their
employees numbered 21,540; and their product was valued at
$55>3,23 (as compared with $39,347,493 in 1900). Patent
medicines and compounds and the manufacture of electrical
machinery are prominent industries. The Lynn factories of the
General Electric Company had in 1906 an annual product worth
between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000. The foreign export of
manufactured products is estimated at $5,000,000 a year.
Lynn was founded in 1629 and was called Saugus until 1637,
when the present name was adopted, from Lynn Regis, Norfolk,
the home of the Rev. Samuel Whiting (1597-1679), pastor at
Lynn from 1636 until his death. From Lynn Reading was
separated in 1644, Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in 1815, and, after
the incorporation of the city of Lynn in 1850, Swampscott in
1852, and in 1853 Nahant, S. of Lynn, on a picturesque peninsula
and now a fashionable summer resort.
See James R. Newhall, History of Lynn (Lynn, 1883), and H. K.
Sanderson, Lynn in the Revolution (1910).
LYNTON and LYNMOUTH, two seaside villages in the Barn-
staple parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the
Bristol Channel; 17 m. E. of Ilfracombe, served by the Lynton
light railway, which joins the South Western and Great Western
lines at Barnstaple. Both are favoured as summer resorts.
Lynmouth stands where two small streams, the East Lyn and
West Lyn, flow down deep and well-wooded valleys to the sea.
Lynton is on the cliff-edge, 430 ft. above. A lift connects the
villages. The 1 ' .industries are fishing and a small coasting trade.
Not far off are the Doone Valley, part of the vale of the East Lyn,
here called Badgeworthy water, once the stronghold of a notorious
band of robbers and famous through R. D. Blackmore's novel
Lorna Doone; Watersmeet, where two streams, the Tavy and
Walkham, join amid wild and beautiful scenery; and the
Valley of Rocks, a narrow glen strewn with immense boulders.
Lynton is an urban district, with a population (1901) of 1641.
LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. \vy!-, probably connected with Xeuoo-eiv,
to see), a genus of mammals of the family Felidae, by some
naturalists regarded only as a subgenus or section of the typical
genus Felis (see CARNIVORA) . As an English word(lynx)the name
is used of any animal of this group. It is not certain to which
of these, if to any of them, the Greek name Xfryfc was especially
applied, though it was more probably the caracal (q.v.) than any
LYON, MARY M. LYON, N.
173
of the northern species. The so-called lynxes of Bacchus were
generally represented as resembling leopards rather than any of
the species now known by the name. Various fabulous properties
were attributed to the animal, whatever it was, by the ancients,
that of extraordinary powers of vision, including ability to see
through opaque substances, being one; whence the epithet
" lynx-eyed," which has survived to the present day.
Lynxes are found in the northern and temperate regions of
both the Old and New World; they are smaller than leopards,
and larger than true wild cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail,
ears tufted at the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when contracted.
Their fur is generally long and soft, and always longish upon
the cheeks. Their colour is light brown or grey, and generally
spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the feet are
more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. The
skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the other
cats. Their habits are exactly those of the other wild cats. Their
food consists of any mammals or birds which they can overpower.
They commit extensive ravages upon sheep and poultry. They
generally frequent rocky places and forests, being active climbers,
and passing much of their time among the branches of the trees.
Their skins are of considerable value in the fur trade. The
northern lynx (L. lynx or L. borealis) of Scandinavia, Russia,
From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot's Monograph of the Felidae.
European Lynx.
northern Asia, and till lately the forest regions of central Europe,
has not inhabited Britain during the historic period, but its
remains have been found in cave deposits of Pleistocene age.
Dr W. T. Blanford says that the characters on which E. Blyth
relied in separating the Tibetan lynx (L. isabellinus) from the
European species are probably due to the nature of its habitat
among rocks, and that he himself could find no constant character
justifying separation. The pardine lynx (L. pardinus) from
southern Europe is a very handsome species; its fur is rufous
above and white beneath.
Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly
has been described as the Canadian lynx (L, canadensis) ; the
bay lynx (L. ruftts), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south
to Mexico, with spotted and streaked varieties L. macttlatus
in Texas and southern California, and L.fasciatus in Washington
and Oregon. The first three were regarded by St George Mivart
as local races of the northern lynx. A fifth form, the plateau
lynx (L. baileyi), was described by Dr C. H. Merriam in 1890 , but
the differences between it and the bay lynx are slight and
unimportant.
LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American educationalist,
was born on the 28th of February 1797 on a farm near Buckland,
Franklin county, Massachusetts. She began to teach when she
was seventeen, and in 1817, with the earnings from her spinning
and weaving, she went to Sanderson Academy, Ashfield. She
supported herself there, at Amherst Academy, where she spent
one term, and at the girls' school in Byfield, established in 1819
by Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in 1821, by
teaching in district schools and by conducting informal normal
schools. In 1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson
Academy, and then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant's Adams
Female Academy, in Londonderry (now Deny), N.H. This
school had only summer sessions, and Miss Lyon spent her
winters in teaching, especially at Buckland and at Ashfield,
and in studying chemistry and natural science with Edward
Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 sne taught in Miss Grant's
school, which in 1828 had been removed to Ipswich, and for two
years managed the school in Miss Grant's absence. In 1828-1830
she had kept up her winter " normal " school at Buckland,
and this was the beginning of her greater plan, " a permanent
institution consecrated to the training of young women for
usefulness . . . designed to furnish every advantage which the
state of education in this country will allow ... to put within
reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that
none can find better." She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock,
and her own mystical enthusiasm and practical common sense
secured for her plan ready financial support. In 1835 a site
was selected near the village of South Hadley and Mount Holyoke;
in 1836 the school was incorporated as Mount Holyoke Female
Seminary; and on the 8th of November 1837 it opened with
Mary Lyon as principal, and, as assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell,
afterwards well known as Mrs J. P. Cowles of Ipswich Academy.
Miss Lyon died at Mount Holyoke on the sth of March 1849,
having served nearly twelve years as principal of the seminary,
on a salary of $200 a year. From her work at Holyoke sprang
modern higher education for women in America.
See Edward Hitchcock, Life and Labors of Mary Lyon (1851);
B. B. Gilchrist, Life of Mary Lyon (Boston, 1910).
LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was born
in Ashford, Connecticut, on the I4th of July 1818, and graduated
at West Point in 1841. He was engaged in the Seminole War and
the war with Mexico, won the brevet of captain for his gallantry
at Contreras and Churubusco, and was wounded in the assault
on the city of Mexico. In 1 850, while serving in California, he con-
ducted a successful expedition against the Indians. He was
promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the
East, when he became an ardent opponent of " States' Rights "
and slavery. He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the
eve of the Civil War. In Missouri not only was sentiment divided,
but the two factions were eager to resoVt to force long before they
were in the other border states. Lyon took an active part in
organizing the Union party in Missouri, though greatly hampered,
at first by the Federal government which feared to provoke
hostilities, and afterwards by the military commander of the
department, General W. S. Harney. On Haraey's removal in
April 1 86 1, Lyon promptly assumed the command, called upon
Illinois to send him troops, and mustered the Missouri contingent
into the United States' service. He broke up the militia camp at
St Louis established by the secessionist governor of Missouri, Clai-
borne F. Jackson, and but for the express prohibition of Harney,
who had resumed the command, would have proceeded at once to
active hostilities. In all this Lyon had co-operated closely with
Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from President Lincoln
the definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of Lyon to
command the Department of the West, with the rank of brigadier-
general. On Lyon's refusal to accede to the Secessionists' proposal
that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in earnest,
and Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the
central part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where
a Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border.
The two forces came to action at Wilson's Creek on the loth of
August 1 86 1. The Union forces, heavily outnumbered, were
defeated, and Lyon himself was killed while striving to rally
his troops. He bequeathed almost all he possessed, some
$30,000, to the war funds of the national government.
LYONNESSE LYONS
See A. Woodward, Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon (Hartford,
1862); James Peckham, Life of Lyon (New York, 1866); and T. L.
Snead, The Fight for Missouri (New York, 1886). Also Last Political
Writings of General Nathaniel Lyon (New York, 1862).
LYONNESSE, LYONESSE, LEONNOYS or LEONAIS, a legendary
country off the south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is
the scene of many incidents in the Arthurian romances, and
especially in the romances of Tristram and Iseult. It also plays
an important part in purely Cornish tradition and folklore.
Early English chronicles, such as the Chronicon e chronicis of
Florence of Worcester, who died in 1118, described minutely and
without a suggestion of disbelief the flourishing state of Lyon-
nesse, and its sudden disappearance beneath the sea. The
legend may be a greatly exaggerated version of some actual
subsidence of inhabited land. There is also a very ancient local
tradition, apparently independent of the story of Lyonnesse,
that the Scilly Islands formed part of the Cornish mainland
within historical times.
See Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis, &c., ed.
B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849).
LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858), British
admiral, was born at Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire,
on the zist of November 1790. He entered the navy, and served
in the Mediterranean, and afterwards in the East Indies, where in
1810 he won promotion by distinguished bravery. He became
post-captain in 1814, and in 1826 commanded the "Blonde"
frigate at the blockade of Navarino, and took part with the
French in the capture of Kasteo Morea. Shortly before his ship
was paid off in 1835 he was knighted. From 1840 till 1853 Lyons
was employed on the diplomatic service, being successively
minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden. On the outbreak
of the war with Russia he was appointed second in command of
the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas, whom
he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of the
inshore squadron he had the direction of the landing of the troops
in the Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy and
despatch. According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the " intimate
counsels " of Lord Raglan in regard to the most momentous
questions of the war, and toiled, with a " painful consuming
passion," to achieve the object of the campaign. His principal
actual achievements in battle were two the support he rendered
with his guns to the French at the Alma in attacking the left
flank of the Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took with
his ship the " Agamemnon " in the first bombardment of the
forts of Sebastopol; but his constant vigilance, his multifarious
activity, and his suggestions and counsels were much more
advantageous to the allied^ cause than his specific exploits. In
1855 he was created vice-admiral; in June 1856 he was raised
to the peerage with the title of Baron Lyons of Christchurch.
He died on the 23rd of November 1858.
See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R.N., Life of Lord Lyons (1898).
LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, IST EARL
(1817-1887), British diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born
at Lymington on the 26th of April 1817. He entered the
diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was British minister at
Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil War, the
extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of the
Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer "Trent"
devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople,
he succeeded Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the
war of 1870 he used his best efforts as a mediator, and accom-
panied the provisional government to Tours. He continued to
hold his post with universal acceptance until November 1887. He
died on the sth of December 1887, when the title became extinct.
LYONS (Fr. Lyon), a city of eastern France, capital of the
department of Rh6ne, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W.
of Marseilles on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town,
430,186; commune, 472,114. Lyons, which in France is second
only to Paris in commercial and military importance, is situated
at the confluence of the Rhone and the Sa6ne at an altitude of
540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers, both flowing south,
are separated on the north by the hill on which lies the populous
working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue of
land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed
is over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed
lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la Re-
publique, the rue de l'H6tel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo.
Where it enters Lyons the Saone has on its right the faubourg of
Vaise and on its left that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to
the top of the hill of Cioix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank
is bordered by the scarped heights of Fourviere, St Irenee x
Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only for the quays and one
or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of the city. The
river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft. above
it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries,
and has at its summit the famous church of Notre-Dame de
Fourviere, the resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually.
On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of
Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town : the
Terreaux, containing the h6tel de ville, and the chief commercial
establishments; the wealthy residential quarter, centring round
the Place Bellecour, one of the finest squares in France; and the
Perrache. The Rhone and Sa6ne formerly met on the site of this
quarter, till, in the i8th century, the sculptor Perrache reclaimed
it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the principal railway
station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi, the most
extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here,
too, are the docks of the Sa&ne, factories, the arsenal, gas-works
and prisons. The Rhone, less confined than the Sa6ne, flows
swiftly in a wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring
by pebbly islets. On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping
upwards to Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux,
Bellecour and Pen-ache; on the left it has a low-lying plain,
occupied by the Pare de la Tete d'Or and the quarters of Brot-
teaux and Guillotiere. The park, together with its lake, com-
prises some 285 acres, and contains a zoological collection,
botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the finest greenhouses
in France, with unique collections of orchids, palm-trees and
Cycadaceae. It is defended from the Rhone by the Quai de la
Tele d'Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separ-
ates it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential
quarter. Guillotiere to the south consists largely of workmen's
dwellings, bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east
extend the manufacturing suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat.
The population, displaced by the demolition of the lofty old
houses and the widening of the streets on the peninsula, migrates
to the left bank of the Rhone, the extension of the city into the
plain of Dauphin6 being unhindered.
The Rhone and the Sa6ne are bordered by fine quays and
crossed by 24 bridges n over the Rhone, 12 over the Sa6ne,
and i at the confluence. Of these the Pont du Change over
the Sa6ne and the Pont de la Guillotiere over the Rhone have
replaced medieval bridges, the latter of the two preserving a
portion of the old structure.
Of the ancient buildings Notre-Dame de Fourviere is the most
celebrated. The name originally applied to a small chapel built
in the gth century on the site of the old forum (Jorum p-.t.,,.
veins) from which it takes its name. It has been often Buildings
rebuilt, the chief feature being a modern Romanesque
tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In
1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token of the gratitude of
the city for having escaped occupation by the Germafl troops.
The building, finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles
flanked at each exterior corner by a turret and terminating in
an apse. The facade, the lower half of which is a lofty portico
supported on four granite columns, is richly decorated on its
upper half with statuary and sculpture. Marble and mosaic
have been lavishly used in the ornamentation of the interior and
of the crypt. Round the apse runs a gallery from which, accord-
ing to an old custom, a benediction is pronounced upon the town
annually on the Sth of September. From this gallery a mag-
nificent view of the city and the surrounding country can be
obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourviere rises the cathedral
of St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture
in France. Begun in the i2th century, to the end of which the
LYONS
175
transept and choir belong, it was not finished till the
century, the gable and flanking towers of the west front being
completed in 1480. A triple portal surmounted by a line of
arcades and a rose window gives entrance to the church. Two
additional towers, that to the north containing one of the largest
bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept. The
nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the ijth and I4th
centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis
or of Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of
Flamboyant Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand
two crosses preserved since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the
union then agreed upon between the Greek and Latin churches.
Adjoining St Jean is the ancient Manecanterie or singers' house,
much mutilated and frequently restored, but still preserving
graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St Martin d'Ainay,
on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating from the
beginning of the 6th century and subsequently attached to a
Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in the loth and nth centuries
and restored in modern times, and is composed of a nave with four
aisles, a transept and choir terminating in three semicircular
apses ornamented with paintings by Hippolyte Flandrin, a
native of Lyons. The church is surmounted by two towers, one
in the middle of the west front, the other at the crossing; the
four columns supporting the latter are said to have come from
an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the izth century, a high altar
decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved confes-
sional are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in
the heart of the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the
crypt in which St Pothinus officiated still exists. The present
church is a Gothic edifice of the isth century, with the exception
of the porch, constructed by Philibert Delorme, a native of
Lyons, in the i6th century. The Church of St Paul (i2th and
iSth centuries), situated on the right bank of the Sa6ne, pre-
serves an octagonal central tower and other portions of Roman-
esque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel
of the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the isth and ipth centuries.
With the exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings
of the faculties, which are in the Guillotiere quarter, and the law
court, the colonnade of which overlooks the Sa6ne from its right
bank, the chief civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des
Terreaux. The east side of this square (so called from the
terreaux or earth with which the canal formerly connecting the
Rhone and the Sa6ne hereabouts was filled) is formed by the
hotel de ville (i7th century), the east facade of which, towards
the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south side of the
square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the lyth century
as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of
fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture, archaeology
and natural history, and the library of science, arts and industry.
The museums are second in importance only to those of Paris.
The collection of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions,
contains the bronze tablets discovered in 1528, on which is
engraved a portion of a speech delivered in A.D. 48, by the
emperor Claudius, advocating the admission of citizens of
Gallia Comata to the Roman senate. The " Ascension," a
masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection,
in which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special
gallery contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are
numbered Antoine Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de
Chavannes. In the Rue de la Republique, between the Place de
la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers, each of which contains
one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the Palais du
Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings of
Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground
floor round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys
accommodate the commercial tribunal, the council of trade
arbitration, the chamber of commerce and the Musfe historique
des Tissus, in which the history of the weaving industry is
illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the buildings of the
Iyc6e on the right bank of the Rhone are the municipal library
and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial
globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes.
The Hotel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the
beginning of the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of
the chief charitable establishments in the city. The present
building dates from the i8th century; its facade, fronting the
west quay of the Rhone for over 1000 ft., was begun according
to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the Pantheon at Paris.
The Hospice de la Charite and the military hospital are on the
same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de
1'Antiquaille, at Fourviere, occupies the site of the palace of the
praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla
were born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000
beds. Lyons has many other benevolent institutions, and is
also the centre of the operations of the Socie'tS de la Propagation
de la Foi. The chief monuments are the equestrian statue of
Louis XIV. in the Place Bellecour, the monuments of President
Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the physicist Andre-Marie Ampere, and
those in honour of the Republic and in memory of the citizens of
the department who fell in the war of 1870-71. The most note-
worthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the
leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way
to the ocean.
There are Roman remains baths, tombs and the relics of a
theatre in the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saone.
Three ancient aqueducts on the Fourviere level, from Mont-
romant, Mont d'Or and Mont Pilat, can still be traced. Magnifi-
cent remains of the latter work may be seen at St Iren6e and
Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhone of a subterranean
canal conveying the water of the river to a naumachia (lake for
mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of
the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains
an important centre in the general system of communication
owing to its position on the natural highway from north to
south-eastern France. The Sa6ne above the town and the Rhone
below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The main line
of the Parjs-Lyon-M6diterranee railway runs first through the
station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Sa6ne, and thence to
that of Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next
in importance, that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux
quarter, and the line of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d'Aoste
has a terminus at Guillotiere; both these lines link up with
the Paris-Lyon main line. The railway to Montbrison starts
from the terminus of St Paul in Fourviere and that to Bourg.
Trevoux and the Dombes region from the station of Croix-Rousse.
A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a terminus
at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways,
cable tramways (ficelles) run to the summits of the eminences of
Croix-Rousse, Fourviere and St Just.
Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of
France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The
immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a
modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is a
group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position
at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts, not
of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the Sa6ne.
Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still kept up in
the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and Caluire, situated
on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to connect the northern
extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The main line of
defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of which is more
than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the
city 6} m. This naturally divides into four sections. In Defence.
the eastern plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal
sites have been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu,
Meyzieux, D6cines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the
lower to the upper reaches of the Rhone. The northern (or north
eastern) section, between the Rhone and the Sa6ne, has forts Neyron
ind Vancia as its principal defences; these and their subsidiary
batteries derive some additional support from the forts Montessuy
and Caluire mentioned above. On the north-west side there is a
strong group of works disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort
Verdun and annexes, is on the high plateau of Mont d'Or pointing
northward, and the faces, represented by forts Fr6ta and Paillet, are
lower down on the spurs of the ridge, facing north-east and north-
west respectively. The south-western section comprises three
principal groups, Bruisson, C6te-Lorette and Montcorin-Champ-
villard, the last-named crossing its fire over the Lower Rhone with
Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting battery was built near Chapoly in
1895 to close the gap between the north-western and south-western
176
LYONS, COUNCILS OF
sections and to command the westward approaches by the valley of
Charbonnieres.
Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an
archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that
of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court
of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two
boards of trade arbitration (conseils de prud' hommes) . It is the
centre of an academie (educational division) and has a university
with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy.
There are also Catholic faculties (facultes libres) of law, theology,
science and letters, three lycees, training colleges for teachers and
numerous minor educational establishments. There are besides
many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the school
of fine arts which was founded in the i8th century to train competent
designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done much for
painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of drawing,
agriculture, music, commerce (ecole superieure de commerce), weaving,
tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and the ecoles La
Martiniere for free instruction in science and art as applied to
industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was the first
of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of comparative
physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the Academie des
Sciences, Belles Lettres el Arts (founded in 1700), Lyons possesses
societies of agriculture, natural history, geography, horticulture, &c.
Its trade in silk and silk goods has formed the basis of the prosperity
of Lyons for several centuries. Derived from Italy, this industry
lad strv rapidly developed, thanks to the monopoly granted to the
dt d c ' tv m '45 by Charles VII. and to the patronage of
' Francis I., Henry II. and Henry IV. From time to time
new kinds of fabrics were invented silk stuffs woofed with
wool or with gold and silver threads, shawls, watered silks, poplins,
velvets, satinades, moires,.&c. In the beginning of the lo.th century
J. M. Jacquard introduced his famous loom by which a single work-
man was enabled to produce elaborate fabrics as easily as the
plainest web, and by changing the "cartoons " to make the most
different textures on the same looms. In the I7th century the silk
manufacture employed at Lyons, 9000 to 12,000 looms. After the
revocation of the edict of Nantes the number sank to 3000 or 4000;
but after the Reign of Terror was past it rose again about 1801 to
12,000. Towards the middle of the 10th century the weaving
branch of the industry began to desert Lyons for the surrounding
districts. The city remains the business centre for the trade and
carries on dyeing, printing and other accessory processes. Lyons
disputes with Milan the position of the leading silk market of Europe.
In 1905 the special office (la Condition des soies) which determines
the weight of the silk examined over 4700 tons of silk. France
furnished barely one-tenth of this quantity, two-thirds came from
China and Japan, the rest from Italy and the Levant. The traders
of Lyons re-export seven-twelfths of these silks, the industries of the
town employing the remainder. An almost equal quantity of cotton,
wool and waste-silk threads is mixed with the silk. A few thousand
hand-looms are still worked in the town, more especially producing
the richest materials, 50,000 or 55,000 in the surrounding districts,
and some 33,000 machine looms in the suburbs and neighbouring
departments. Allied industries such as dyeing, finishing and print-
ing, employ 12,000 workers. Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend
upon the silk industry. In 1905 the total value of the manufacture
was 15,710,000, the chief items being pure silk textures (plain)
3,336,000; textures of silk mixed with other materials 3,180,000;
silk and foulards 1,152,000; muslins 3,800,000, this product
having increased from 100,000 in 1894. Speaking roughly the raw
material represents half the value, and the value of the labour the
remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of Lyons finds a
market in France. Great Britain imported them to the value of
over 6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over 1,600,000,
notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and the
manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet
the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and
vegetable colouring matters are produced and there is besides a large
output of glue, gelatine, superphosphates and phosphorus, all made
from bones and hides, of picric, tartaric, sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids, sulphates of iron and copper, and pharmaceutical and other
chemical products.
Lyons does a large trade in metals, iron, steel and copper, and
utilizes them in the manufacture of iron buildings, framework,
bridges, machinery, railway material, scales, metal cables, pins and
needles, copper-founding and the making of clocks and bronzes.
Gold and silver-working is of importance, especially for embroidery
and articles used in religious ceremonies. Other industries are those
of printing, the manufacture of glass goods, of tobacco (by the state),
the preparation of hides and skins (occupying 20,000 workmen), those
connected with the miller's trade, the manufacture of various forms
of dried flour-paste (macaroni, vermicelli, &c.), brewing, hat-making,
the manufacture of chocolate, and the pork-butcher's industry.
Apart from the dealings in silk and silk goods, trade is in cloth, coal
and charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and
chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859)
which has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway.
Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Credit
Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of 200,000,000 annually
in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas
companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia,
the latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries.
History. The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at
the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone were the Segusians?
In 59 B.C. some Greek refugees from the banks of the Herault,
having obtained permission of the natives to establish themselves
beside the Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic
name Lugudunum (q.v.) or Lugdunum; and in 43 B.C. Lucius
Munatius Plancus brought a Roman colony to Fourvieres from
Vienne. This settlement soon acquired importance, and was
made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great roads.
Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre,
gave it a senate and made it the seat of an annual assembly
of deputies from the sixty cities of Gallia Comata. At the same
time the place became the Gallic centre for the worship of Rome
and the emperor. Under the emperors the colony of Forum
Vetus and the municipium of Lugdunum were united, receiving
the jus senalus. The town was burnt in A.D. 59 and afterwards
rebuilt in a much finer style with money given by Nero; it was
also adorned by Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus. The martyrdom
of Pothinus and Blandina occurred under Marcus Aurelius
(A.D. 177), and some years later a still more savage persecution
of the Christians took place under Septimius Severus, in which
Irenaeus, according to some authors, perished.
After having been ravaged by the barbarians and abandoned
by the empire, Lyons in 478 became capital of the kingdom
of the Burgundians. It afterwards fell into the hands of the
Franks, and suffered severely from the Saracens, but revived
under .Charlemagne, and after the death of Charles the Bald
became part of the kingdom of Provence. From 1032 it was a
fief of the emperor of Germany. Subsequently the authority
over the town was a subject of dispute between the archbishops
of Lyons and the counts of Forez; but the supremacy of the
French kings was established under Philip the Fair in 1312. The
citizens were constituted into a commune ruled by freely elected
consuls (1320). In the I3th century two ecclesiastical councils
were held at Lyons one in 1245, presided over by Innocent IV.,
at which the emperor Frederick II. was deposed; the second,
the oecumenical, under the presidency of Gregory X., in 1274,
at which five hundred bishops met. Pope Clement V. was
crowned here in 1305, and his successor, John XXII., elected
in 1316. The Protestants obtained possession of the place
in 1562; their acts of violence were fiercely avenged in 1572
after the St Bartholomew massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons
sided with the League; but it pronounced in favour of Henry IV.
The executions of Henri d'Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of
Francois de Thou, who had plotted to overthrow Richelieu,
took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In 1793 the
Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against the
Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the
republic under General Kellermann after enduring a siege of
seven weeks (October 10). Terrible chastisement ensued: the
name of Lyons was changed to that of Ville-affranchie; the
demolition of its buildings was set about on a wholesale scale;
and vast numbers of the proscribed, whom the scaffold had
spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed
its old name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in
their turn were drowned in large numbers in the Rhone. Napoleon
rebuilt the Place Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made
the bridge of Tilsit over the Sa6ne between Bellecour and
the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was occupied by the
Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the scene
of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856
disastrous floods laid waste portions of the city. International
exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion
being marked by the assassination of President Carnot.
See S. Charlety, Histoire de Lyon (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart,
L'Ouvrier en soie. Monographic du tisseur lyonnais (Lyon, 1899);
A. Vachet, A travers les rues de Lyon (Lyon, 1902) ; A. Steyert,
Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez,
Beaujolais (3 vols., Lyon, 1895-1899).
LYONS, COUNCILS OF. The first Council of Lyons (the
thirteenth general council) met at the summons of Pope Innocent
LYRA LYRE
177
IV. in June and July of 1245, to deliberate on the conflict
between Church and emperor, on the assistance to be granted
to the Holy Land and the Eastern empire, on measures of
protection against the Tatars, and on the suppression of heresy.
Among the tasks of the council mentioned in the writs of con-
vocation, the most important, in the eyes of the pope, was that
it should lend him effectual aid in his labours to overthrow the
emperor Frederick II.; and, with this object in view, he had
described the synod as a general council. Since its numbers
were not far in excess of 150 bishops and archbishops, and the
great majority of these came from France, Italy and Spain;
while the schismatic Greeks and the other countries especially
Germany, whose interests were so deeply involved were but
weakly represented; the ambassador of Frederick, Thaddaeus
of Suessa, contested its oecumenicity in the assembly itself.
The condemnation of the emperor was a foregone conclusion.
The articles of indictment described him as the " prince of
tyranny, the destroyer of ecclesiastical dogma, the annihilator
of the faith, the master of cruelty," and so forth; while the
grossest calumnies were treated as approved facts. The objec-
tions of the ambassador, that the accused had not been regularly
cited, that the pope was plaintiff and judge in one, and that
therefore the whole process was anomalous, achieved as little
success as his appeal to the future pontiff and to a truly oecumeni-
cal council. The representatives of the kings of England and
France were equally unfortunate in their claim for a prorogation
of the decision. On the iyth of July the verdict was pronounced
by Innocent IV., excommunicating Frederick and dethroning
him on the grounds of perjury, sacrilege, heresy and felony.
All oaths of fealty sworn to him were pronounced null and void,
and the German princes were commanded to proceed with the
election of a new sovereign. In addition the council enacted
decrees against the growing irregularities in the Church, and
passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive
the struggle for the Holy Land.
See Mansi, Cottectio concttiorum, torn, xxiii.; Huillard-Breholles,
Historia diplomatica Frederici II., 6 torn. (Paris, 1852-1861); Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126; Fr. W.
Schirrmacher, Kaiser Friederich der Zweite (4 vols., Gottingen, 1859-
1865); H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, ed. 3, vol. ix.
(1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. " Innocenz IV. ; A. Folz, Kaiser Friedrich
II. u. Papst Innocenz IV. (Strassburg, 1905).
The second Council of Lyons (the fourteenth general council)
met from the ;th of May to the i7th of July 1274, under the
presidency of Pope Gregory X., and was designed to resolve
three problems: to terminate the Greek schism, to decree a
new Crusade, and to counteract the moral corruption among
clerics and laity. The council entered on its third task at a
very late period, with the result that the requisite time for an
adequate deliberation was not available. Nevertheless, on the
ist of November, Gregory was enabled to publish thirty-one
constitutions, which may be taken to represent the fruits of
the synod and its labours. The most important of the enact-
ments passed is that regulating the papal election. It pre-
scribed that the new election conducted by the college of cardinals
should be held in conclave (?..), and its duration abridged by
progressive simplification of the cardinal's diet. The motive
for this decision, which has maintained its ground in ecclesi-
astical law, was given by the circumstances which followed the
death of Clement IV. (1268). The pope felt a peculiar interest
in the Holy Land, from which he was recalled by his elevation
to the pontifical throne. He succeeded in bringing influential
interests to work in the cause; but his scheme of a great enter-
prise backed by the whole force of the West came to nothing,
for the day of the Crusades was past. His projected Crusade
was interwoven with his endeavours to end the schism; and
the political straits of the emperor Michael Palaeologus in
Constantinople came to the aid of these aspirations. To ensure
his safety against the attacks of King Charles of Sicily, who
had pledged himself to assist the ex-emperor Baldwin in his
reconquest of the Latin empire, Michael was required to own
the supremacy of the pope in the spiritual domain; while
Gregory, in return, would restrain the Sicilian monarch from his
bellicose policy with regard to the Eastern empire. The ambas-
sadors of the emperor appeared at the council with letters
acknowledging the Roman pontiff and the confession of faith
previously dispatched from the eternal city, and submitted
similarly-worded declarations from the heads of the Byzantine
Church. One member of the embassy, the Logothete Georgius
Acropolites, was authorized by the emperor to take an oath
in his name, renouncing the schism. In short, the subjection
of the East to the Roman see was completed in the most binding
forms, and the long-desired union seemed at last assured.
Gregory himself did not live to discover its illusory character.
The Council of Lyons was, moreover, of importance for the
German dynastic struggle: for Gregory took the first public
step in favour of Count Rudolph of Habsburg, the king-elect,
by receiving his deputy and denying an audience to the delegate
of the rival claimant, King Alphonso of Castile.
See Mansi, Cottectio conciliorum, torn. xxiv. ; Hefele, Conciiien-
geschichte, vol. vi. ed. 2 (1890), p. 1 19 sqq. Also C. Mirbt, in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklop. f. protestantische Theologie, vol. vii. (1899), p.
122, s.v. " Gregor X." (C. M.)
LYRA (" The Harp "), in astronomy, a constellation in the
northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century
B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 10
stars in this constellation; Tycho Brahe n and Hevelius 17.
a Lyrae or Vega, is the second brightest star in the northern
hemisphere, and notable for the whiteness of its light, which
is about 100 times that of the sun. The name " vega " is a
remnant of an Arabic phrase meaning " falling eagle," " Altair,"
or a Aquttae, is the similar remnant of " flying eagle." e Lyrae
is a multiple star, separated by the naked eye or by a small
telescope into two stars; these are each resolved into two stars
by a 3* telescope, while a more powerful instrument (4') reveals
three smaller stars between the two pairs. /3 Lyrae and R.
Lyrae are short period variables. There is the famous ring or
annular nebula, M . 57 Lyrae, in the middle of which is a very
faint star, which is readily revealed by photography; and also
the meteoric swarm named the Lyrids, which appear in April
and have their radiant in this constellation (see METEOK).
LYRE (Gr. Xvpa), an ancient stringed musical instrument.
The recitations of the Greeks were accompanied by it. Yet
the lyre was not of Greek origin; no root in the language has
been discovered for Xi>pa, although the special names bestowed
upon varieties of the instrument are Hellenic. We have to seek
in Asia the birthplace of the genus, and to infer its introduction
into Greece through Thrace or Lydia. The historic heroes
and improvers of the lyre were of the Aeolian or Ionian colonies,
or the adjacent coast bordering on the Lydian empire, while
the mythic masters, Orpheus, Musaeus and Thamyris, were
Thracians. Notwithstanding the Hermes tradition of the
invention of the lyre in Egypt, the Egyptians seem to have
adopted it from Assyria or Babylonia.
To define the lyre, it is necessary clearly to separate it from
the allied harp and guitar. In its primal form the lyre differs
from the harp, of which the earliest, simplest notion is found in
the bow and bowstring. While the guitar (and lute) can be
traced back to the typical " nefer " of the fourth Egyptian
dynasty, the fretted finger-board of which, permitting the
production of different notes by the shortening of the string,
is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the flute
with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or
Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body
or sound-chest (rrxtiov). From this sound-chest are raised two
arms (irrixeu), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both
outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a
crossbar or yoke (fvybv, fvyu^a, or, from its having once been a
reed, tcdXajuos). Another crossbar 1/adXas. vro\vpu>v), fixed on
the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations
of the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the
player; but, as the strings did not differ much in length, more
weight may have been gained for the deeper notes by thicker
strings, as in the violin and similar modern instruments, or they
were turned with slacker tension. The strings were of gut (x<>P&7.
i 7 8
LYRE
whence chord). They were stretched between the yoke and
bridge, or to a tailpiece below the bridge. There were two ways
of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to pegs which might
be turned (KoXXa/3oi, /coXXoires) ; the other was to change the
place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both expedients
were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether 17 xopSoro-
vos meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where
the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the
yoke were known as Ktpara, horns.
The number of strings varied at different epochs, and possibly
in different localities four, seven and ten having been favourite
numbers. They were used without a finger-board, no Greek
description or representation having ever been met with that
can be construed as referring to one. Nor was a bow possible,
the flat sound-board being an insuperable impediment. The
plectrum, however (TT\rJKTpov), was in constant use. It was
held in the right hand to set the upper strings in vibration
(KpK&.v, Kpoveiv T<3 v\T]K.T pui) ; at other times it hung from
the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the
lower strings (\!/a\\ea>).
With Greek authors the lyre has several distinct names;
but we are unable to connect these with anything like certainty
to the varieties of the instrument. Chelys
(xXus, " tortoise ") may mean the smallest
lyre, which, borne by one arm or supported
by the knees, offered in the sound-chest a
decided resemblance to that familiar animal.
That there was a difference between lyre
and cithara (tuBbpa) is certain, Plato and
other writers separating them. Hermes and
Apollo had an altar at Olympia in common
because the former had invented the lyre
and the latter the cithara. The lyre and
chelys on the one hand, and the cithara
and phorminx on the other, were similar
FIG. i. Chelys or near jy identical. Apollo is said to have
va'se in'the Brkish carried a 8 olden Phorminx. (A. J. H.)
Museum, where also There are three lines of evidence that
are fragments of establish the difference between the lyre
such an instrument, an d cithara: (i) There are certain vase
P aintin 8 s in whic h the name Mvw accom -
panies the drawing of the instrument,
as, for instance, in fig. 2 where the tortoise-shell lyre is
obviously represented. 1 (2) In all legends accounting for the
invention of the lyre, the shell or body of the tortoise is in-
variably mentioned as forming the back of the instrument,
whereas the tortoise has never been connected with the cithara.
(3) The lyre is emphatically distinguished as the most suitable
instrument for the musical training of young
men and maidens and as the instrument of
the amateur, whereas the cithara was the
instrument of citharoedus or citharista, pro-
fessional performers at the Pythian Games,
at ceremonies and festivals, the former using
his instrument to accompany epic recitations
and odes, the latter for purely instrumental
music. The costume worn by citharoedus
and citharista was exceedingly rich and quite
distinct from any other. 2 i
We find the lyre represented among scenes
of domestic life, in lessons, receptions, at
' '
Gerhard, A user I.
triech. Vascnoilder.
shelT'Lyre From^a ban q uets and in mythological scenes; it is
; n found in the hands of women no less than
men, and the costume of the performer
Greek vase
Munich.
is invariably that of an ordinary citizen. Lyres were of
many sizes and varied in outline according to period and
nationality.
We therefore possess irrefutable evidence of identification
in both cases, all of which tallies exactly. Examination of the
1 See Ed. Gerhard, Auserlesene griech. VasenbUder, part iii.
(Berlin, 1847), pi. 236 and p. 157.
1 See Aristotle, Polit. v. 6. 5.
construction of the instruments thus indentified reveals the fact
that both possessed characteristics which have persisted through-
out the middle ages to the present day in various instruments
evolved from these two archetypes. The principal feature of
both lyre and cithara was the peculiar method of construction
adopted in the sound-chest, which may be said to have been
almost independent of the outline. In the lyre the sound-chest
consisted of a vaulted back, in imitation of the tortoise, over
which was directly glued a flat sound-board of wood or parch-
ment. In the cithara (q.v.) the sound-chest was shallower, and
the back and front were invariably connected by sides or ribs.
These two methods of constructing the sound-chests of stringed
instruments were typical, and to one or the other may be referred
every stringed instrument with a neck which can be traced
during the middle ages in miniatures, early printed books, on
monuments and other works of art. (K. S.)
Passing by the story of the discovery of the lyre from a vibrating
tortoise-shell by Hermes, we will glance at the real lyres of Egypt
and Semitic Asia. The Egyptian lyre is unmistakably Semitic.
The oldest representation that has been discovered is in one of the
tombs of Beni Hassan, the date of the painting being in the Xllth
Dynasty, that is, shortly before the invasion of " the shepherd kings "
(the Hyksos). In this painting, which both Rosellini and Lepsius
have reproduced, an undoubted Semite carries a seven or eight-
stringed lyre, or rather cithara in transition, similar to the rotla of
the middle ages. The instrument has a four-cornered body and an
irregular four-cornered frame above it, and the player carries it
horizontally from his breast, just as a modern Nubian would his
kissar. He plays as he walks, using both hands, a plectrum being in
the right. Practical knowledge of these ancient instruments may be
gained through two remarkable specimens preserved in the museums
of Berlin (fig. 3) and Leiden (see CITHARA). During the rule of the
Hyksos the lyre became naturalized in Egypt, and in the i8th
dynasty it is frequently (
depicted, and with finer
grace of form. In the
I9th and 2Oth dynasties
the lyre is sometimes still
more slender, or is quite
unsymmetrical and very
strong, the horns sur-
mounted by heads of
animals as in the Berlin
one, which has horses'
heads at those extremi-
ties. Prokeschcopiedone
in the ruins of Wadi
Haifa, splendid in blue
and gold, with a serpent
wound round it. The
Egyptians always strung
their lyres fan-shaped, F 'G- 3- Egyptian Cithara now at Berlin,
like the modern Nubian kissar. Their paintings show three to
eight or nine strings, but the painters accuracy may not be
unimpeachable; the Berlin instrument had fifteen. The three-
stringed lyre typified the three seasons of the Egyptian year the
water, the green and the harvest; the seven, the planetary system
from the moon to Saturn. The Greeks had the same notion of the
harmony of the spheres.
There is no evidence as to what the stringing of the Greek lyre
was in the heroic age. Plutarch says that Olympus and Terpander
used but three strings to accompany their recitation. As the four
strings led to seven and eight by doubling the tetrachord, so the
trichord is connected with the hexachord or six-stringed lyre de-
picted on so many archaic Greek vases. We cannot insist on the
accuracy of this representation, the vase painters being little mindful
of the complete expression of details; yet we may suppose their
tendency would be rather to imitate than to invent a number.
It was their constant practice to represent the strings as being
damped by the fingers of the left hand of the player, after having
been struck by the plectrum which he held in the right hand. Before
the Greek civilization had assumed its historic form, there was likely
to be great freedom and independence of different localities in the
matter of lyre stringing, which is corroborated by the antique use of
the chromatic (half-tone) and enharmonic (quarter- tone) tunings,
pointing to an early exuberance, and perhaps also to an Asiatic bias
towards refinements of intonation, from which came the xpoot,
the hues of tuning, old Greek modifications of tetrachords entirely
disused in the classic period. The common scale of Olympus
P
remained, a double trichord which had served as the scaffolding
for the enharmonic varieties.
LYRE-BIRD
179
We may regard the Olympus scale, however, as consisting of two
tetrachords, eliding one interval in each, for the tetrachord, or series
of four notes, was very early adopted as the fundamental principle
of Greek music, and its origin in the lyre itself appears sure. The
basis of the tetrachord is the employment of the thumb and first
three fingers of the left hand to twang as many strings, the little
finger not being used on account of natural weakness. As a succession
of three whole tones would form the disagreeable and untunable
interval of a tritonus, two whole tones and a half-tone were tuned,
fixing the tetrachord in the consonant interval of the perfect fourth.
This succession of four notes being in the grasp of the hand was
called av\\a.0Ti, just as in language a group of letters incapable of
further reduction is called syllable. In the combination of two
syllables or tetrachords the modern diatonic scales resemble the
Greek so-called disjunct scale, but the Greeks knew nothing of our
categorical distinctions of major and minor. We might call the
octave Greek scale minor, according to our descending minor form,
were not the keynote in the middle the thumb note of the deeper
tetrachord. The upper tetrachord, whether starting from the key-
note (conjunct) or from the note above (disjunct), was of exactly the
same form as the lower, the position of the semitones being identical.
The semitone was a limma (Xwia), rather less than the semitone of
our modern equal temperament, the Greeks tuning both the whole
tones in the tetrachord by the same ratio ol 8:9, which made the
major third a dissonance, or rather would have done so had they
combined them in what we call harmony. In melodious sequence the
Greek tetrachord is decidedly more agreeable to the ear than the
corresponding series of our equal temperament. And although our
scales are derived from combined tetrachords, in any system of
tuning that we employ, be it just, mean-tone, or equal, they are less
logical than the conjunct or disjunct systems accepted by the Greeks.
But modern harmony is not compatible with them, and could not
have arisen on the Greek melodic lines.
The conjunct scale of seven notes
attributed to Terpander, was long the norm for stringing and tuning
the lyre. When the disjunct scale
the octave scale attributed to Pythagoras, was admitted, to preserve
the time-honoured seven strings one note had to be omitted; it was
therefore customary to omit the C, which in Greek practice was a
dissonance. The Greek names for the strings of seven and eight
stringed lyres, the first note being highest in pitch and nearest the
player, were as follows: Nete, Paranete, Paramese; Mese, Lichanos,
Parhypate, Hypale; or Nete, Paranete, Trite, Paramese; Mese,
Lichanos, Parhypate, Hypate the last four from Mese to Hypate
being the finger tetrachord, the others touched with the plectrum.
The highest string in pitch was called the last, yirjj; the lowest
in pitch was called the highest, iiTdrt), because it was, in theory at
least, the longest string. The keynote and thumb string was M"J,
middle; the next lower was Mxaros, the first finger or lick-finger
string; TPITIJ, the third, being in the plectrum division, was also
known as <5o, sharp, perhaps from the dissonant quality to which
we have referred as the cause of its omission. The plectrum and
finger tetrachords together were Sunraauv, through all: in the dis-
junct scale, an octave.
In transcribing the Greek notes into our notation, the absolute
pitch cannot be represented; the relative positions of the semitones
are alone determined. We have already quoted the scale of Pytha-
goras, the Dorian or true Greek succession :
Shifting the semitone one degree upwards in each tetrachord, we
have the Phrygian
Another degree gives the Lydian
which would be our major scale of E were not the keynote A. The
names imply an Asiatic origin. We need not here pursue further the
much-debated question of Greek scales and their derivation; it
will suffice to remark that the outside notes of the tetrachords were
fixed in their tuning as perfect fourths the inner strings being, as
stated, in diatonic sequence, or when chromatic two half-tones were
tuned, when enharmonic two quarter-tones, leaving respectively the
wide intervals of a minor and major third, and both impure, to com-
plete the tetrachord. (A. I. H.)
See the article by Theodore Reinach in Darembere and Saglio,
Antiquites grecques et romaines; Wilhelm Johnsen, Die Lyra, ein
Beitrag zur griechischen Kunstgeschichte (Berlin, 1876); Hortense
Panum, " Harfe und Lyra in Nord Europa," Intern. Mus. Ges., Sbd.
vii. i, pp. 1-40 (Leipzig, 1905); A. J. Hipkins, " Dorian and
Phrygian, reconsidered from a non-harmonic point of view," in
Intern. Mus Ges. (Leipzig. 1903), iv. 3.
LYRE-BIRD, the name by which one of the most remarkable
birds of Australia is commonly known, the Menura superba or
M. novae-hollandiae of ornithologists. It was first observed in
1798 in New South Wales, and though called by its finders a
" pheasant "- -from its long tail the more learned of the colony
seem to have regarded it as a bird-of-Paradise. 1 A specimen
having reached England in 1799, it was described by General
Davies as forming a new genus of birds, in the Linnean Society's
Transactions (vi. p. 207, pi. xxii.), no attempt, however, being
made to fix its systematic place. In 1802 L. P. Vieillot figured
and described it in a supplement to his Oiseaux Doris as a bird-
of-Paradise (ii. pp. 30 seq., pis. 14-1 6) , from drawings by Sydenham
Edwards, sent him by Parkinson, the manager of the Leverian
Museum. The first to describe any portion of its anatomy was
T. C. Eyton, who in 1841 (Ann. Nat. History, vii. pp. 49-53)
perceived that it was a Passerine bird and that it presented some
points of affinity to the South American genus Pteroptochus.
In 1867 Huxley stated that he was disposed to divide his very
natural assemblage the Coracomorphae (essentially identical
with Eyton's Insessores) into two groups, " one containing
Menura, and the other all the other genera which have yet been
examined " (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867, p. 472) a still further step
in advance. 2 In 1875 A. Newton put forth the opinion in his
article on birds, in the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia, that
Menura had an ally in another Australian form, Atrichia (see
SCRUB-BIRD), which he had found to present peculiarities
hitherto unsuspected, and he regarded them as standing by
themselves, though each constituting a distinct family. This
opinion was partially adopted in the following year by A. H.
Garrod, who (Proc. Zool. Society, 1876, p. 518) formally placed
these two genera together in his group of Abnormal Acromyodian
Oscines under the name of Menurinae; omithologists now
generally recognize at once the alliance and distinctness of the
families Menuridae and Atrichiidae, and place them together to
form the group Suboscines of the Diacromyodian Passeres.
Since the appearance in 1865 of J. Gould's Handbook to the
Birds of Australia, little important information has been pub-
lished concerning the habits of this form, and the account therein
given must be drawn upon for what here follows. Of all birds,
says that author, the Menura is the most shy and hard to procure.
He has been among the rocky and thick " brushes " its usual
haunts hearing its loud and liquid call-notes for days together
without getting sight of one. Those who wish to see it must
advance only while it is singing or scratching up the earth and
leaves; and to watch its actions they must keep perfectly still.
The best way of procuring an example seems to be by hunting it
with dogs, when it will spring upon a branch to the height of 10 ft.
and afford an easy shot ere it has time to ascend farther or
escape as it does by leaps. Natives are said to hunt it by fixing
on their heads the erected tail of a cock-bird, which alone is
allowed to be seen above the brushwood. The greater part of
its time is said to be passed upon the ground, and seldom are
more than a pair to be found in company. One of the habits of
the cock is to form small round hillocks, which he constantly
visits during the day, mounting upon them and displaying his
tail by erecting it over his head, drooping his wings, scratching
and pecking at the soil, and uttering various cries some his
own natural notes, others an imitation of those of other animals.
The tail, his most characteristic feature, only attains perfection
in the bird's third or fourth year, and then not until the month
of June, remaining until October, when the feathers are shed to be
renewed the following season. The food consists of insects,
especially beetles and myriapods, as well as snails. The nest is
1 Collins, Account of New South Wales, ii. 87-92 (London, 1802).
1 Owing to the imperfection of the specimen at his disposal,
Huxley's brief description of the bones of the head in Menura is not
absolutely correct. A full description of them, with elaborate
figures, is given by Parker in the same Society's Transactions (ix.
306-309, pi. Ivi. figs. 1-5).
i8o
LYRICAL POETRY
placed near to or on the ground, at the base of a rock or foot of
a tree, and is closely woven of fine but strong roots or other fibres,
and lined with feathers, around all which is heaped a mass, in
shape of an oven, of sticks, grass, moss and leaves, so as to project
over and shelter the interior structure, while an opening in the
side affords entrance and exit. Only one egg is laid, and this of
rather large size in proportion to the bird, of a purplish-grey
colour, suffused and blotched with dark purplish-brown.
Incubation is believed to begin in July or August, and the
young is hatched about a month later. It is at first covered with
dark down, and appears to remain for some weeks in the nest.
It is greatly to be hoped that so remarkable a form as the lyre-
bird, the nearly sole survivor apparently of a very ancient race
of beings, will not be allowed to become extinct its almost
certain fate so far as can be judged without many more observa-
tions of its manners being made. Several examples of Menura
have been brought alive to Europe, and some have long survived
in captivity.
Three species of Menura have been indicated the old M.
superba, the lyre-bird proper, which inhabits New South Wales,
the southern part of Queensland, and
perhaps some parts of Victoria; M.
victoriae, separated from the former by
Gould (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1862, p. 23),
and said to take its place near Mel-
bourne; and M. alberti, first described
by C. L. Bonaparte (Consp. Avium, i.
215) on Gould's authority, and, though
discovered on the Richmond river in New
South Wales, having apparently a more
.northern range than the other two. All
6 those have the apparent bulk of a hen
pheasant, but are really much smaller,
and their general plumage is of a sooty
brown, relieved by rufous on the chin,
throat, some of the wing-feathers and the
tail-coverts. The wings, consisting of
twenty-one remiges, are rather short and
rounded; the legs 1 and feet very strong,
with long, nearly straight claws. In
the immature and female the tail is
somewhat long, though affording no very remarkable char-
acter, except the possession of sixteen rectrices; but in the
fully-plumaged male of M. superba and M. vicloriae it is
developed in the extraordinary fashion that gives the bird its
common English name. The two exterior feathers (fig. i, a, b)
have the outer web very narrow, the inner very broad, and they
FIG. i.
FIG. 2. FIG. 3.
curve at first outwards, then somewhat inwards, and near the
tip outwards again, bending round forwards so as to present a
lyre-like form. But this is not all; their broad inner web,
which is of a lively chestnut colour, is apparently notched at
regular intervals by spaces that, according to the angle at which
they are viewed, seem either black or transparent; and this
effect is, on examination, found to be due to the barbs at those
1 The metatarsals are very remarkable in form, as already noticed
by Eyton (loc. cit.), and their tendons strongly ossified.
spaces being destitute of barbules. The middle pair of feathers
(fig. 2, a, b) is nearly as abnormal. These have no outer web,
and the inner web very narrow; near their base they cross each
other, and then diverge, bending round forwards near their tip.
The remaining twelve feathers (fig. 3) except near the base are
very thinly furnished with barbs, about \ in. apart, and those
they possess, on their greater part, though long and flowing,
bear no barbules, and hence have a hair-like appearance. The
shafts of all are exceedingly strong. In the male of M. alberti
the tail is not only not lyriform, but the exterior rectrices are
shorter than the rest. (A.N.)
LYRICAL POETRY, a general term for all poetry which is, or
can be supposed to be, susceptible of being sung to the accom-
paniment of a musical instrument. In the earliest times it may
be said that all poetry was of its essence lyrical. The primeval
oracles were chanted in verse, and the Orphic and Bacchic
Mysteries, which were celebrated at Eleusis and elsewhere,
combined, it is certain, metre with music. Homer and Hesiod
are each of them represented with a lyre, 'yet if any poetry can
be described as non-lyrical, it is surely the archaic hexameter of
the Iliad and the Erga. These poems were styled epic, in direct
contradistinction to the lyric of Pindar and Bacchylides. But
inexactly, since it is plain that they were recited, with a plain
accompaniment on a stringed instrument. However, the distinc-
tion between epical and lyrical, between rd eirrj, what was said,
and rd ju^Xij, what was sung, is accepted, and neither Homer nor
Hesiod is among the lyrists. This distinction, however, is often
without a difference, as for example, in the case of the so-called
Hymns of Homer, epical in form but wholly lyrical in character.
Hegel, who has gone minutely into this question in his Esthelik,
contends that when poetry is objective it is epical, and when it is
subjective it is lyrical. This is to ignore the metrical form of the
poem, and to deal with its character only. It would constrain
us to regard Wordsworth's Excursion as a lyric, and Tennyson's
Revenge (where the subject is treated exactly as one of the
Homeridae would have treated an Ionian myth) as an epic.
This is impossible, and recalls us to the importance of taking the
form into consideration. But, with this warning, the definition
of Hegel is valuable. It is, as he insists, the personal thought, or
passion, or inspiration, which gives its character to lyrical poetry.
The lyric has the function of revealing, in terms of pure art,
the secrets of the inner life, its hopes, its fantastic joys, its
sorrows, its delirium. It is easier to exclude the dramatic species
from lyric than to banish the epic. There are large sections of
drama which it is inconceivable should be set to music, or sung,
or even given in recitative. The tragedies of Racine, for ex-
ample, are composed of the purest poetry, but they are essen-
tially non-lyrical, although lyrical portions are here and there
attached to them. The intensity of feeling and the melody of
verse in Othello does not make that work an example of lyrical
poetry, and this is even more acutely true of Le Misanthrope,
which is, nevertheless, a poem. The tendency of modern drama
is to divide itself further and further from lyric, but in early ages
the two kinds were indissoluble. Tragedy was goat-song, and the
earliest specimens of it were mainly composed of choruses. As
Prof. G. G. Murray says, in the Suppliants of Aeschylus, the
characters " are singing for two-thirds of the play," accompanied
by tumultuous music. This primitive feature has gradually
been worn away; the chorus grew less and less prominent, and
disappeared; the very verse-ornament of drama tends to vanish,
and we have plays essentially so poetical as those of Ibsen and
Maeterlinck written from end to end in bare prose.
To return again to Greece, there was an early distinction, soon
accentuated, between the poetry chanted by a choir of singers,
and the song which expressed the sentiments of a single poet.
The latter, the /icXos or song proper, had reached a height of
technical perfection in " the Isles of Greece, where burning
Sappho loved and sung," as early as the yth century B.C. That
poetess, and her contemporary Alcaeus, divide the laurels of the
pure Greek song of Dorian inspiration. By their side, and later,
flourished the great poets who set words to music for choirs,
Alcman, Arion, Stesichorus, Simonides and Ibycus, who lead us
LYSANDER
181
at the close of the sth century to Bacchylides and Pindar, in
whom the magnificent tradition of the dithyrambic odes reached
its highest splendour of development. The practice of Pindar
and Sappho, we may say, has directed the course of lyrical poetry
ever since, and will, unquestionably, continue to do so. They
discovered how, with the maximum of art, to pour forth strains
of personal magic and music, whether in a public or a private
way. The ecstasy, the uplifted magnificence, of lyrical poetry
could go no higher than it did in the unmatched harmonies of
these old Greek poets, but it could fill a- much wider field and be
expressed with vastly greater variety. It did so in their own
age. The gnomic verses of Theognis were certainly sung; so
were the satires of Archilochus and the romantic reveries of
Mimnermus.
At the Renaissance, when the traditions of ancient life were
taken up eagerly, and hastily comprehended, it was thought
proper to divide poetry into a diversity of classes. The earliest
English critic who enters into a discussion of the laws of prosody,
William Webbe, lays it down, in 1586, that in verse " the most
usual kinds are four, the heroic, elegiac, iambic and lyric."
Similar confusion of terms was common among the critics of the
i Sth and i6th centuries, and led to considerable error. It is
plain that a border ballad is heroic, and may yet be lyrical; here
the word " heroic " stands for " epic." It is plain that whether
a poem is lyrical or not had nothing to do with the question
whether it is composed in an iambic measure. Finally, it is
undoubted that the early Greek " elegies " were sung to an
accompaniment on the flute, whether they were warlike, like
those of Tyrtaeus, or philosophical and amatory like those of
Theognis. But (see ELEGY) the present significance of " elegy,"
and this has been the case ever since late classical times, is
funereal; in modern parlance an elegy is a dirge. Whether the
great Alexandrian dirges, like those of Bion and of Moschus, on
which our elegiacal tradition is founded, were actually sung to an
accompaniment or not may be doubted; they seem too long, too
elaborate, and too ornate for that. But, at any rate, they were
composed on the convention that they would be sung, and it is
conceivable that music might have been wedded to the most
complex of these Alexandrian elegies. Accordingly, although
Lycidas and Adonais are not habitually " set to music," there is
no reason why they should not be so set, and their rounded and
limited although extensive form links them with the song, not
with the epic. There are many odes of Swinburne's for which it
would be more difficult to write music than for his Aveatque Vale.
In fact, in spite of its solemn and lugubrious regularity, the
formal elegy or dirge is no more nor less than an ode, and is
therefore entirely lyrical.
More difficulty is met with in the case of the sonnet, for
although no piece of verse, when it is inspired by subjective
passion, fits more closely with Hegel's definition of what lyrical
poetry should be, yet the rhythmical complication of the sonnet,
and its rigorous uniformity, seem particularly ill-fitted to inter-
pretation on a lyre. When F. M. degli Azzi put the book of
Genesis (1700) into sonnets, and Isaac de Benserade the Meta-
morphoses of Ovid (1676) into rondeaux, these eccentric and
laborious versifiers produced what was epical rather than lyrical
poetry, if poetry it was at all. But the sonnet a* Shakespeare,
Wordsworth and even Petrarch used it was a cry from the heart,
a subjective confession, and although there is perhaps no evi-
dence that a sonnet was ever set to music with success, yet there
is no reason why that might not be done without destroying its
sonnet-character.
Jouffroy was perhaps the first aesthetician to see quite clearly
that lyrical poetry is, really, nothing more than another name
for poetry itself, that it indud'es all the personal and enthusiastic
part of what lives and breathes in the art of verse, so that the
divisions of pedantic criticism are of no real avail to us in its
consideration. We recognize a narrative or epical poetry; we
recognize drama; in both of these, when the individual inspira-
tion is strong, there is much that trembles on the verge of the
lyrical. But outside what is pure epic and pure drama, all, or
almost all, is lyrical. We say almost all, because the difficulty
arises of knowing where to place descriptive and didactic poetry.
The Seasons of Thomson, for instance, a poem of high merit and
lasting importance in the history of literature where is that to
be placed? What is to be said of the Essay on Man? In
primitive times, the former would have been classed under epic,
the second would have been composed in the supple iambic
trimeter which so closely resembled daily speech, and would not
have been sharply distinguished from prose. Perhaps this
classification would still serve, were it not for the element of
versification, which makes a sharp line of demarcation between
poetic art and prose. This complexity of form, rhythmical and
stanzaic, takes much of the place which was taken in antiquity
by such music as Terpander is supposed to have supplied. In a
perfect lyric by a modern writer the instrument is the metrical
form, to which the words have to adapt themselves. There is
perhaps no writer who has ever lived in whose work this pheno-
menon may be more fruitfully studied than it may be in the songs
and lyrics of Shelley. The temper of such pieces as " Arethusa "
and " The Cloud " is indicated by a form hardly more ambitious
than a guitar; Hellas is full of passages which suggest the harp;
in his songs Shelley touches the lute or viol de gamba, while in
the great odes to the " West Wind " and to " Liberty " we listen
to a verse-form which reminds us by its volume of the organ
itself. On the whole subject of the nature of lyric poetry no
commentary can be more useful to the student than an examina-
tion of the lyrics of Shelley in relation to those of the song-
writers of ancient Greece.
See Hegel, Die Phdnomenologie des Geistes (1807) ; T. S. Jouffroy,
Cours d'esthetique (1843); W. Christ, Metrik der Griechen und
Romer, 2te. Aufl. (1879). (E. G.)
LYSANOER (Gr. AvaavSpos) , son of Aristocritus, Spartan
admiral and diplomatist. Aelia'n ( Var. Hist. xii. 43) and Phylar-
chus (ap. Athen. vi. 271 e) say that he was a mothax. i.e. the son
of a helot mother (see HELOTS), but this tradition is at least
doubtful; according to Plutarch he was a Heraclid, though not
of either royal family. We do not know how he rose to eminence :
he first appears as admiral of the Spartan navy in 407 B.C. The
story of his influence with Cyrus the Younger, his naval victory off
Notium, his quarrel with his successor Callicratidas in 406, his
appointment as eTrioroXeus in 405, his decisive victory at Aegos-
potami, and his share in the siege and capitulation of Athens
belong to the history of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). By 404
he was the most powerful man in the Greek world and set about
completing the task of building up a Spartan empire in which
he should be supreme in fact if not in name. Everywhere
democracies were replaced by oligarchies directed by bodies
of ten men (decarchies, 6e/capxieu) under the control of Spartan
governors (harmosts, dp/iooTo!). But Lysander's boundless in-
fluence and ambition, and the superhuman honours paid him,
roused the jealousy of the kings and the ephors, and, on being
accused by the Persian satrap Pharnabazus, he was recalled to
Sparta. Soon afterwards he was sent to Athens with an army
to aid the oligarchs, but Pausanias, one of the kings, followed
him and brought about a restoration of democracy. On the death
of Agis II., Lysander secured the succession of Agesilaus (?..),
whom he hoped to find amenable to his influence. But in this
he was disappointed. Though chosen to accompany the king to
Asia as one of his thirty advisers (ofyi/JovXoi), he was kept in-
active and his influence was broken by studied affronts, and
finally he was sent at his own request as envoy to the Hellespont.
He soon returned to Sparta to mature plans for overthrowing
the hereditary kingship and substituting an elective monarchy
open to all Heraclids, or even, according to another version, to
all Spartiates. But his alleged attempts to bribe the oracles were
fruitless, and his schemes were cut short by the outbreak of war
with Thebes in 305. Lysander invaded Boeotia from the west,
receiving the submission of Orchomenus and sacking Lebadea,
but the enemy intercepted his despatch to Pausanias, who had
meanwhile entered Boeotia from the south, containing plans for
a joint attack upon Haliartus. The town was at once strongly
garrisoned, and when Lysander marched against it he was defeated
and slain. He was buried in the territory of Panopeus, the
182
LYSANIAS LYSIAS
nearest Phocian city. An able commander and an adroit
diplomatist, Lysander was fired by the ambition to make
Sparta supreme in Greece and himself in Sparta. To this end
he shrank from no treachery or cruelty; yet, like Agesilaus,
he was totally free from the characteristic Spartan vice of
avarice, and died, as he had lived, a poor man.
See the biographies by Plutarch and Nepos; Xen. Hellenica,
i. 5-iii. 5; Diod. Sic. xiii. 70 sqq., 104 sqq., xiv. 3, 10,13,81 ; Lysias xii.
60 sqq.; Justin v. 5-7; Polyaenus i. 45, vii. 19; Pausanias iii., ix. 32,
5-10, x. 9, 7-11; C. A. Gehlert, Vita Lysandri (Bautzen, 1874); W.
Vischer, Alkibiades und Lysandros (Basel, 1845); O. H. J. Nitzsch,
De Lysandro (Bonn, 1847) ; and the Greek histories in general.
(M. N. T.)
LYSANIAS, tetrarch of Abilene (see ABILA), according to
Luke iii. i, in the time of John the Baptist. The only Lysanias
mentioned in profane history as exercising authority in this
district was executed in 36 B.C. by M. Antonius (Mark Antony).
This Lysanias was the son of Ptolemy Mennaeus, the ruler of an
independent state, of which Abilene formed only a small portion.
According to Josephus (Ant. xix. 5, i) the emperor Claudius
in A.D. 42 confirmed Agrippa I. in the possession of " Abila of
Lysanias " already bestowed upon him by Caligula, elsewhere
described as " Abila, which had formed the tetrarchy of
Lysanias." It is argued that this cannot refer to the Lysanias
executed by M. Antonius, since his paternal inheritance, even
allowing for some curtailment by Pompey, must have been of
far greater extent. It is therefore assumed by some authorities
that the Lysanias in Luke (A.D. 28-29) is a younger Lysanias,
tetrarch of Abilene only, one of the districts into which the
original kingdom was split up after the death of Lysanias I.
This younger Lysanias may have been a son of the latter, and
identical with, or the father of, the Claudian Lysanias. On the
other hand, Josephus knows nothing of a younger Lysanias,
and it is suggested by others that he really does refer to Lysanias I.
The explanation given by M. Krenkel (Josephus und Lucas,
Leipzig, 1894, p. 97) is that Josephus does not mean to imply
that Abila was the only possession of Lysanias, and that he calls
it the tetrarchy or kingdom of Lysanias because it was the last
remnant of the domain of Lysanias which remained under direct
Roman administration until the time of Agrippa. The expression
was borrowed from Josephus by Luke, who wrongly imagined
that Lysanias I. had ruled almost up to the time of the bestowal
of his tetrarchy upon Agrippa, and therefore to the days of John
the Baptist. Two inscriptions are adduced as evidence for
the existence of a younger Lysanias Bockh, C.I.G. 4521 and
4523. The former is inconclusive, and in the latter the reading
k.va[a.vu>v] is entirely conjectural; the name might equally well
be Lysimachus or Lysias.
See E. Schiirer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes (3rd ed., IQ 01 ). '
p. 712; and (especially on the inscriptional evidence) E. Kenan,
1 M6moire sur la dynastic des Lysanias d'Abilene " in Memoires de
I'inslilut imperial de France (xxvi., 1870) ; also P. W. Schmiedel in
the Encyclopaedia Biblica, s.v.
LYSIAS, Attic orator, was born, according to Dionysius of
Halicarnassus and the author of the life ascribed to Plutarch,
in 459 B.C. This date was evidently obtained by reckoning back
from the foundation of Thurii (444 B.C.), since there was a tradi-
tion that Lysias had gone thither at the age of fifteen. Modern
critics would place his birth later, between 444 and 436 B.C.,
because, in Plato's Republic, of which the scene is laid about
430 B.C., Cephalus, the father of Lysias, is among the dramatis
personae, and the emigration of Lysias to Thurii was said to
have followed his father's death. The latter statement, however,
rests only on the Plutarchic life; nor can Plato's dialogue be
safely urged as a minutely accurate authority. The higher date
assigned by the ancient writers agrees better with the tradition
that Lysias reached, or passed, the age of eighty. 1 Cephalus,
his father, was a native of Syracuse, and on the invitation of
Pericles had settled at Athens. The opening scene of Plato's
Republic is laid at the house of his eldest son, Polemarchus, in
Peiraeus. The tone of the picture warrants the inference that
1 [W. Christ, Gesch. der griech. Litt., gives the date of birth as
about 450.]
the Sicilian family were well known to Plato, and that their
houses must often have been hospitable to such gatherings.
At Thurii, the colony newly planted on the Tarentine Gulf
(see PERICLES), the boy may have seen Herodotus, now a man in
middle life, and a friendship may have grown up between
them. There, too, Lysias is said to have commenced his studies
in rhetoric doubtless under a master of the Sicilian school-
possibly, as tradition said, under Tisias, the pupil of Corax, whose
name is associated with the first attempt to formulate rhetoric as
an art. In 413 B.C. the'Athenian armament in Sicily was anni-
hilated. The desire to link famous names is illustrated by the
ancient ascription to Lysias of a rhetorical exercise purporting
to be a speech in which the captive general Nicias appealed
for mercy to the Sicilians. The terrible blow to Athens quickened
the energies of an anti-Athenian faction at Thurii. Lysias and
his elder brother Polemarchus, with three hundred other persons,
were " accused of Atticizing." They were driven from Thurii
and settled at Athens (412 B.C.).
Lysias and Polemarchus were rich men, having inherited
property from their father; and Lysias claims that, though
merely resident aliens, they discharged public services with
a liberality which shamed many of those who enjoyed the
franchise (In Eratosth. 20). The fact that they owned house
property shows that they were classed as i<roTXets, i.e. foreigners
who paid only the same tax as citizens, being exempt from the
special tax (JJ&TOIKIOV) on resident aliens. Polemarchus occupied
a house in Athens itself, Lysias another in the Peiraeus, near
which was their shield manufactory, employing a hundred
and twenty skilled slaves. In 404 the Thirty Tyrants were
established at Athens under the protection of a Spartan garrison.
One of their earliest measures was an attack upon the resident
aliens, who were represented as disaffected to the new govern-
ment. Lysias and Polemarchus were on a list of ten singled
out to be the first victims. Polemarchus was arrested, and
compelled to drink hemlock. Lysias had a narrow escape,
with the help of a large bribe. He slipped by a back-door out of
the house in which he was a prisoner, and took boat to Megara.
It appears that he had rendered valuable services to the exiles
during the reign of the tyrants, and in 403 Thrasybulus proposed
that these services should be recognized by the bestowal of the
citizenship. The Boule, however, had not yet been reconstituted,
and hence the measure could not be introduced to the ecclesia
by the requisite " preliminary resolution " (irpo/3ou\u/ia).
On this ground it was successfully opposed.
During his later years Lysias now probably a comparatively
poor man owing to the rapacity of the tyrants and his own
generosity to the Athenian exiles appears as a hard-working
member of a new profession that of writing speeches to be
delivered in the law-courts. The thirty-four extant are but a
small fraction. From 403 to about 380 B.C. his industry must
have been incessant. The notices of his personal life in these
years are scanty. In 403 he came forward as the accuser of
Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants. This was his only
direct contact with Athenian politics. The story that he wrote
a defence for Socrates, which the latter declined to use, probably
arose from a confusion. Several years after the death of Socrates
the sophist Polycrates composed a declamation against him,
to which Lysias replied. A more authentic tradition represents
Lysias as having spoken his own Olympiacus at the Olympic
festival of 388 B.C., to which Dionysius I. of Syracuse had sent
a magnificent embassy. Tents embroidered with gold were
pitched within the sacred enclosure; and the wealth of Dionysius
was vividly shown by the number of chariots which he had
entered. Lysias lifted up his voice to denounce Dionysius as,
next to Artaxerxes, the worst enemy of Hellas, and to impress
upon the assembled Greeks that one of their foremost duties
was to deliver Sicily from a hateful oppression. The latest
work of Lysias which we can date (a fragment of a speech
For Pherenicus) belongs to 381 or 380 B.C. He probably died
in or soon after 380 B.C.
Lysias was a man of kindly and genial nature, warm in
friendship, loyal to country, with a keen perception of character.
LYSIAS
183
and a fine though strictly controlled sense of humour. The
literary tact which is so remarkable in the extant speeches
is that of a singularly flexible intelligence, always obedient
to an instinct of gracefulness. He owes his distinctive place to
the power of concealing his art. It was obviously desirable
that a speech written for delivery by a client should be suitable
to his age, station and circumstances. Lysias was the first to
make this adaptation really artistic. His skill can be best
appreciated if we turn from the easy flow of his graceful language
to the majestic emphasis of Antiphon, or to the self-revealing
art of Isaeus. Translated into terms of ancient criticism, he
became the model of the " plain style " ( tox^os Xo-P^^P, wxf'7,
XITT), a$eXi7s Xeis: genus tenue or subtile). Greek and then
Roman critics distinguished three styles of rhetorical composi-
tion the " grand " (or " elaborate "), the " plain " and the
" middle," the " plain " being nearest to the language of daily life.
Greek rhetoric began in the " grand " style; then Lysias set an
exquisite pattern of the "plain"; and Demosthenes might be
considered as having effected an almost ideal compromise.
The vocabulary of Lysias is pure and simple. Most of the
rhetorical " figures " are sparingly used -except such as consist
in the parallelism or opposition of clauses. The taste of the day
not yet emancipated from the influence of the Sicilian rhetoric
probably demanded a large use of antithesis. Lysias excels
in vivid description; he has also a happy knack of marking
the speaker's character by light touches. The structure of his
sentences varies a good deal according to the dignity of the
subject. He has equal command over the " periodic " style
UaTtorpa/^uti'ij Xe) and the non-periodic or " continuous "
(tipoijJtvri, 8ia\t\vniiH]). His disposition of his subject-matter
is always simple. The speech has usually four parts introduc-
tion (Trpooifuov) , narrative of facts (diriyriffis) , proofs (Trio-rets),
which may be either external, as from witnesses, or internal,
derived from argument on the facts, and, lastly, conclusion
(rt\o7os). It is in the introduction and the narrative that
Lysias is seen at his best. In his greatest extant speech that
Against Eratosthenes and also in the fragmentary Olympiacus,
he has pathos and fire; but these were not characteristic
qualities of his work. In Cicero's judgment (De Oral. iii. 7, 28)
Demosthenes was peculiarly distinguished by force (vis), Aeschines
by resonance (sonitus), Hypereides by acuteness (acumen),
Isocrates by sweetness (suamlas); the distinction which he
assigns to Lysias is sublilitas, an Attic refinement which, -as
he elsewhere says (Brutus, 16, 64) is often joined to an admirable
vigour (lacerti). Nor was it oratory alone to which Lysias
rendered service; his work had an important effect on all sub-
sequent Greek prose, by showing how perfect elegance could be
joined to plainness. Here, in his artistic use of familiar idiom,
he might fairly be called the Euripides of Attic prose. And his
style has an additional charm for modern readers, because it is
employed in describing scenes from the everyday life of Athens. 1
Thirty-four speeches (three fragmentary) have come down under
the name of Lysias; one hundred and twenty-seven more, now lost,
are known from smaller fragments or from titles. In the Augustan
age four hundred and twenty-five works bore his name, of which
more than two hundred were allowed as genuine by the critics.
Our thirty-four works may be classified as follows:
A. EPIDEICTIC. I. Olympiacus, xxxiii. 388 B.C.; 2.Epitaphius,\\.
(purporting to have been spoken during the Corinthian War;
certainly spurious), perhaps composed about 380-340 B.C. (" soon
after 387," Blass).
B. DELIBERATIVE. Plea for the Constitution, xxxiv., 403 B.C.
C. FORENSIC, IN PUBLIC CAUSES. I. Relating to Offences directly
against the State (ypa4>al &rntoalo> dSunjMArui') ; such as treason, mal-
versation in office, embezzlement of public moneys. I. For Poly-
stratus, xx., 407 B.C. ; 2. Defence on a Charge of Taking Bribes, xxi.,
402 B.C. ; 3. Against Ergocles, xxviii., 389 B.C. ; 4. Against Epicrates,
xxvii., 380 B.C.; 5. Against Nicomachus, xxx., 399 B.C.; 6. Against
the Corndealers, xxii., 386 B.C. (?) II. Cause relating to Unconstitu-
tional Procedure (ypcufrii vapavtitur). Cn the Property of the Brother
of Nicias, xviii.,395B.c. III. Causes relating to Claims for Money with-
held from the State (&Troypcut>cLi). i. For the Soldier, ix. (probably not
by Lysias, but by an imitator, writing for a real cause), 394 B.C. (?) ;
2. On the Property of Aristophanes, xix., 387 B.C.; 3. Against Philo-
l See further Jebb, The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus,
i. 142-316.
crates, xxix., 389 B.C. IV. Causes relating to a Scrutiny
especially the Scrutiny, by the Senate, of Officials Designate, i.
Against Evandrus, xxvi., 382 B.C.; 2. For Mantitheus, xvi., 392 B.C.;
3. Against Philon, xxxi., between 404 and 395 B.C.; 4. Defence on a
Charge of Seeking to Abolish the Democracy, xxv., 401 B.C.; 5. For
the Invalid, xxiv., 402 B.C. (?) V. Causes relating to Military Offences
(ypcufial XiiroToloi>, darpaTeiaj). I. Against Alcibiades, I. and II.
(xiv., xv.), 395 B.C. VI. Causes relating to Murder or Intent to
Murder (ypiut>al <t>6mv,Tpal>iJia.Tos in irpovolat). I. Against Eratosthenes,
xii., 403 B.C.; 2. Against Agoratus.xiii., 399 B.C. ; 3. On the Murder
of Eratosthenes, i. (date uncertain); 4. Against Simon, iii., 393 B.C.;
5. On Wounding with Intent, iv. (date uncertain). VII. Causes re-
latingto Impiety (ypcut>aliur(0eias). i. Against Andocides, vi. (certainly
spurious, but perhaps contemporary) ; 2. For Callias, v. (date un-
certain); 3. On the Sacred Olive, vii., not before 395 B.C.
D. FORENSIC, IN PRIVATE CAUSES. I. Action for Libel (kij
Koxrj-yopfas). AgainstTheomnestus, x., 384-383 B.C. (the so-called second
speech, xi., is merely an epitome of the first). II. Action by a Ward
against a Guardian (8j 'cirtTpoinjs) . Against Diogeiton, xxxii.,4OOB.c.
III. Trial of a Claim to Property (Hia&uuurla). On the property of
Eraton, xvii., 397 B.C. IV. Answer to a Special Plea (jrpojraperypa^c).
Against Pancleon, xxiii. (date uncertain).
E. MISCELLANEOUS. i. To his Companions, a Complaint of
Slanders, viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The cpwruc&s in Plato's
Phaedrus, pp. 230 -234. This has generally been regarded as Plato's
own work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by
those who observe (i) the elaborate preparations made in the
dialogue for a recital of the kpurwlK which shall be verbally exact,
and (2) the closeness of the criticism made upon it. If the satirist
were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism would
have little point. Lysias is the earliest writer who is known to have
composed tpairiKol; it is as representing both rhetoric and a false
?POJS that he is the object of attack in the Phaedrus.
F. FRAGMENTS. Three hundred and fifty-five of these are collected
by Sauppe, Oratores Attici, ii. 170-216. Two hundred and fifty-two of
them represent one hundred and twenty-seven speeches of known
title; and of six the fragments are comparatively large. Of these,
the fragmentary speech For Pherenicus belongs to 381 or 380 B.C.,
and is thus the latest known work of Lysias. 2
In literary and historical interest, the first place among the extant
speeches of Lysias belongs to that Against Eratosthenes (403 B.C.),
one of the Thirty Tyrants, whom Lysias arraigns as the murderer of
his brother Polemarchus. The speech js an eloquent and vivid
picture of the reign of terror which the Thirty established at Athens;
the concluding appeal, to both parties among the citizens, is specially
powerful. Next in importance is the speech Against Agoratus
(399 B.C.), one of our chief authorities for the internal history of
Athens during the months which immediatejy followed the defeat
at Aegospotami. The Olympiacus (388 B.C.) is a brilliant fragment,
expressing the spirit of the festival at Olympia, and exhorting Greeks
to unite against their common foes. The Plea for the Constitution
(403 B.C.) is interesting for the manner in which it argues that the
wellbeing of Athens now stripped of empire is bound up with the
maintenance of democratic principles. The speech For Mantitheus
(392 B.C.) is a graceful and animated portrait of a young Athenian
Zinrtdj, making a spirited defence of his honour against the charge of
disloyalty. The defence For the Invalid is a humorous character-
sketch. The speech Against Pancleon illustrates the intimate relations
between Athens and Plataea, while it gives us some picturesque
glimpses of Athenian town life. The defence of the person who had
been charged with destroying a moria, or sacred olive, places us amidst
the country life of Attica. And the speech Against Theomnestus
deserves attention for its curious evidence of the way in which the
ordinary vocabulary of Athens had changed between 600 and 400 B.C.
All MSS. of Lysias yet collated have been derived, as H. Sauppe
first showed, from the Codex Palatinus X. (Heidelberg). The next
most valuable MS. is the Laurentianus C (isth century), which
I. Bekker chiefly followed. Speaking generally, we may say that
these two MSS. are the only two which carry much weight where the
text is seriously corrupt. In Oratt. i.-ix. Bekker occasionally con-
sulted eleven other MSS., most of which contain only the above nine
speeches: viz., Marciani F, G, I, K (Venice); Laurentiani D, E
(Florence); VaticaniM.N; ParisiniU, V; UrbinasO.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editio princeps, Aldus (Venice, 1513); by I.
Bekker (1823) and W. S. Dobson (1828) in Oratores Attici; C.
Scheibe (1852) and T. Thalheim (1901, Teubner series, with biblio-
graphy); C. G. Cobet (dth ed., by j. J. Hartman, 1905); with
variorum notes, by J. J. Reiske (1772). Editions of select speeches
by J. H. Bremi (1845); R. Rauchenstein (1848, revised by C. Fuhr,
1880-1881); H. Frohberger (1866-1871); H. van Herwerden (1863);
A. Weidner (1888); E. S. Shuckburgh (1882); A. Westermann
and W. Binder (1887-1890); G. P. Bristol (1892), M. H. Morgan
(1895), C. D. Adams (1905), all three published in America. There is
a special lexicon to Lysias by D. H. Holmes (Bonn, 1895). See also
Jebb's Attic Orators (1893) and Selections from the Attic Orators (2nd
* [Some remains of the speech against Theozotides have been
found in the Hibeh papyri; see W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work
in Classical Studies (1907)].
1 84
LYSIMACHUS LYTHAM
ed., 1888) and F. Blass, Die Attische Beredsamkeit (2nd cd., 1887-
1898); W. L. Devries, Ethopoiia. A rhetorical study of the types of
character in the orations of Lysias (Baltimore, 1892). (R. C. J.; X.)
LYSIMACHUS (c. 355-281 B.C.), Macedonian general, son
of Agathocles, was a citizen of Pella in Macedonia. During
Alexander's Persian campaigns he was one of his immediate
bodyguard and distinguished himself in India. After Alexander's
death he was appointed to the government of Thrace and the
Chersonese. For a long time he was chiefly occupied with
fighting against the Odrysian king Seuthes. In 315 he joined
Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus against Antigonus, who,
however, diverted his attention by stirring up Thracian and
Scythian tribes against him. In 309, he founded Lysimachia
in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the Cher-
sonese with the mainland. He followed the example of Antigonus
in taking the title of king. In 302 when the second alliance
between Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus was made, Lysi-
machus, reinforced by troops from Cassander, entered Asia
Minor, where he met with little resistance. On the approach
of Antigonus he retired into winter quarters near Heraclea,
marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess.
Seleucus joined him in 301, and at the battle of Ipsus Antigonus
was slain. His dominions were divided among the victors,
Lysimachus receiving the greater part of Asia Minor. Feeling
that Seleucus was becoming dangerously great, he now alh'ed
himself with Ptolemy, marrying his daughter Arsinoe. Amastris,
who had divorced herself from him, returned to Heraclea. When
Antigonus's son Demetrius renewed hostilities (297), during his
absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia Minor,
but in 294 concluded a peace whereby Demetrius was recognized
as ruler of Macedonia. He tried to carry his power beyond
the Danube, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the Getae,
who, however, set him free on amicable terms. Demetrius
subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to retire in consequence
of a rising in Boeotia, and an attack from Pyrrhus of Epirus.
In 288 Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia,
and drove Demetrius out of the country. Pyrrhus was at first
allowed to remain in possession of Macedonia with the title
of king, but in 285 he was expelled by Lysimachus. Domestic
troubles embittered the last years of Lysimachus's life. Amas-
tris had been murdered by her two sons; Lysimachus treacher-
ously put them to death. On his return Arsinoe asked the gift
of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised
to free the city. In 284 Arsinoe, desirous of gaining the succes-
sion for her sons in preference to Agathocles (the eldest son
of Lysimachus), intrigued against him with the help of her
brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; they accused him of conspiring
with Seleucus to seize the throne, and he was put to death. This
atrocious deed of Lysimachus aroused great indignation. Many
of the cities of Asia revolted, and his most trusted friends
deserted him. The widow of Agathocles fled to Seleucus, who
at once invaded the territory of Lysimachus in Asia. Lysi-
machus crossed the Hellespont, and in 281 a decisive battle
took place at the plain of Corus (Corupedion) in Lydia. Lysi-
machus was killed; after some days his body, watched by a
faithful dog, was found on the field, and given up to his son
Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia.
See Arrian, Anab. v. 13, vi. 28; Justin xv. 3, 4, xvii. i; Quintus
Curtius v. 3, x. 30; Diod. Sic. xviii. 3; Polybius v. 67; Plutarch,
Demetrius, 31. 52, Pyrrhus, 12; Appian, Syriaca, 62; Thirlwall,
History of Greece, vol. viii. (1847); J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alex-
ander's Empire; Droysen, Hellenismus (2nd ed., 1877); A. Holm,
Griechische Geschichte, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, Gesch. a. griech. u.
maked. Staaten, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899) ; J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch.
vol. iii. (1904); Hiinerwadel, Forschungen zur Gesch. des Konigs
Lysimachus (1900); Possenti, II Re Lisimaco di Tracia (1901);
Ghione, Note sul regno di Lisimaco (Atti d. real. Accad. di Torino,
xxxix.); and MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. (E. R. B.)
LYSIPPUS, Greek sculptor, was head of the school of Argos
and Sicyon in the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedon.
His works are said to have numbered 1500, some of them colossal.
Some accounts make him the continuer of the school of Poly-
clitus; some represent him as self-taught. The matter in
which he especially innovated was the proportions of the male
human body; he made the head smaller than his predecessors,
the body more slender and hard, so as to give the impression of
greater height. He also took great pains with hair and other
details. Pliny (N.H. 34, 61) and other writers mention many
of his statues. Among the gods he seems to have produced new
and striking types of Zeus (probably of the Otricoli class), of
Poseidon (compare the Poseidon of the Lateran, standing with
raised foot), of the Sun-god and others; many of these were
colossal figures in bronze. Among heroes he was specially
attracted by the mighty physique of Hercules. The Hercules
Farnese of Naples, though signed by Glycon of Athens, and a
later and exaggerated transcript, owes something, including
the motive of rest after labour, to Lysippus. Lysippus made
many statues of Alexander the Great, and so satisfied his patron,
no doubt by idealizing him, that he became the court sculptor
of the king, from whom and from whose generals he received
many commissions. The extant portraits of Alexander vary
greatly, and it is impossible to determine which among them go
back to Lysippus. The remarkable head from Alexandria
(Plate II. fig. 56, in GREEK ART) has as good a claim as any.
As head of the great athletic school of Peloponnese Lysippus
naturally sculptured many athletes; a figure by him of a man
scraping himself with a strigil was a great favourite of the
Romans in the time of Tiberius (Pliny, N.H. 34, 61); and
this has been usually regarded as the original copied in the
Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (GREEK ART, Plate VI. fig. 79).
If so, the copyist has modernized his copy, for some features
of the Apoxyomenus belong to the Hellenistic age. With more
certainty we may see a copy of an athlete by Lysippus in the
statue of Agias found at Delphi (GREEK ART, Plate V. fig. 74),
which is proved by inscriptions to be a replica in marble of a
bronze statue set up by Lysippus in Thessaly. And when the
Agias and the Apoxyomenus are set side by side their differences
are so striking that it is difficult to attribute them to the same
author, though they may belong to the same school. (P. G.)
LYSIS OF TARENTUM (d. c. 390 B.C.), Greek philosopher.
His life is obscure, but it is generally accepted, that in the
persecution of the Pythagoreans at Crotona and Metapontum
he escaped and went to Thebes, where he came under the
influence of Philolaus. The friend and companion of Pythagoras,
he has been credited with many of the works usually attributed
to Pythagoras himself. Diogenes Laertius viii. 6 gives him
three, and Mullach even assigns to him the Golden Verses. But
it is generally held that these verses are a collection of lines by
many authors rather than the work of one man.
LYSISTRATUS, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C.,
brother of Lysippus of Sicyon. We are told by Pliny (Nat.-
Hist. 35, 153) that he followed a strongly realistic line, being
the first sculptor to take impressions of human faces in plaster.
LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS (1793-1847), Anglican divine and
hymn-writer, was born near Kelso on the ist of June 1793,
and was educated at Enniskillen school and at Trinity College,
Dublin. He took orders in 1815, and for some time held a
curacy near Wexford. Owing to infirm health he came to
England, and after several changes settled, in 1823, in the
parish of Brixham. In 1844 his health finally gave way; and
he died at Nice on the 2oth of November 1847.
Lyte's first work was Tales in Verse illustrative of Several of the
Petitions in the Lord's Prayer (1826), which was written at Lymington
and was commended by Wilson in the Nodes Ambrosianae. He next
published (1833) a volume of Poems, chiefly Religious, and in 1834 a
little collection of psalms and hymns entitled The Spirit of the
Psalms. After his death, a volume of Remains with a memoir was
published, and the poems contained in this, with those in Poems,
chiefly Religious, were afterwards issued in one volume (1868). His
best known hymns are "Abide with me! fast falls the eventide ";
" Jesus, I my cross have taken "; " Praise, my soul, the King of
Heaven "; and " Pleasant are Thy courts above."
LYTHAM, an urban district and watering-place in the Black-
pool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the
north shore of the estuary of the Kibble, 13^ m. W. of Preston
by a joint line of the London & North Western and Lancashire
& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 7185. It has a pier, a
LYTTELTON, G. L.--LYTTON, IST BARON
185
pleasant promenade and drive along the shore, and other
appointments of a seaside resort, but it is less wholly devoted
to holiday visitors than Blackpool, which lies 8 m. N.W. A
Benedictine cell was founded here at the close of the izth
century by the lord of the manor, Richard Fitz-Roger.
LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON, IST BARON (1709-
1773), English statesman and man of letters, born at Hagley,
Worcestershire, was a descendant of the great jurist Sir Thomas
Littleton (q.v.). He was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton,
4th bart. (d. 1751), who at the revolution of 1688 and during
the following reign was one of the ablest Whig debaters of the
House of Commons. 1 Lyttelton was educated at Eton and
Oxford, and in 1728 set out on the grand tour, spending con-
siderable periods at Paris and Rome. On his return to England
he sat in parliament for Okehampton, Devonshire, beginning
public life in the same year with Pitt. From 1744 to 1754 he
held the office of a lord commissioner of the treasury. In 1755
he succeeded Legge as chancellor of the exchequer, but in 1756
he quitted office, being raised to the peerage as Baron Lyttelton,
of Frankley, in the county of Worcester. In the political crisis
of 1765, before the formation of the Rockingham administration,
it was suggested that he might be placed at the head of the
treasury, but he declined to take part in any such scheme. The
closing years of his life were devoted chiefly to literary pursuits.
He died on the 22nd of August 1773.
Lyttelton's earliest publication (1735), Letters from a Persian in
England to his Friend at Ispahan, appeared anonymously. Much
greater celebrity was achieved by his Observations on the Conversion
and Apostleship of St Paul, also anonymous, published in 1747. It
takes the form of a letter to Gilbert West, and is designed to show
that St Paul's conversion is of itself a sufficient demonstration of the
divine character of Christianity. Dr Johnson regarded the work as
one " to which infidelity has never been able to fabricate a specious
answer." Lord Lyttelton's Dialogues of the Dead, a creditable per-
formance, though hardly rivalling either Lucian or Landor, appeared
in 1760. His History of Henry II. (1767-1771), the fruit of twenty
years' labour, is not now cited as an authority, but is painstaking and
fair. Lyttelton was also a writer of verse; his Monody on his wife's
death has been praised by Gray for its elegiac tenderness, and his
Prologue to the Coriolanus of his friend Thomson shows genuine
feeling. He was also the author of the well-known stanza in the
Castle of Indolence, in which the poet himself is described. A com-
plete collection of the Works of Lord Lyttelton was published by his
nephew, G. E. Ayscough in 1774.
His son THOMAS (1744-1779), who succeeded as 2nd baron,
played some part in the political life of his time, but his loose
and prodigal habits were notorious, and he is known, in dis-
tinction to his father " the good lord, " as the wicked Lord
Lyttelton. He left no lawful issue, and the barony became
extinct; but it was revived in 1794 in the person of his uncle
WILLIAM HENRY, ist baron of the new creation (1724-1808),
who was governor of S. Carolina and later of Jamaica, and
ambassador to Portugal. The new barony went after him to his
two sons. The 3rd baron (1782-1837) was succeeded by his son
GEORGE WILLIAM LYTTELTON, 4th baron (1817-1876), who was
a fine scholar, and brother-in-law of W. E. Gladstone, having
married Miss Mary Glynne. He did important work in educa-
tional and poor law reform. He had eight sons, of whom the
eldest, CHARLES GEORGE (b. 1842), became 5th baron, and in
1 Sir Thomas (or Thomas de) Littleton, the jurist, had three sons,
William, Richard and Thomas. From the first, William, was
descended Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 1st bart. of Frankley (1596-
1650), whose sons were Sir Henry, 2nd bart. (d. 1693). and Sir Charles,
3rd bart. (1629-1716), governor of Jamaica. The latter's son was
Sir Thomas, 4th bart., above mentioned, who was also the father of
Charles Lyttelton ( 1 7 1 4-1 768) , bishop of Carlisle, and president of the
Society of Antiquaries. The male descendants of the second,
Richard, died out with Sir Edward Littleton, bart., of Pillaton,
Staffordshire, in 1812, but the latter's grandnephew, Edward John
Walhouse (1791-1863) of Hatherton, took the estates by will and
also the name of Littleton, and was created 1st Baron Hatherton in
'835; he was chief secretary for Ireland (1833-1834). From
Thomas, the third son, was descended, in one line, Edward, Lord
Littleton, of Munslow (1589-1645), recorder of London, chief justice
of the common pleas, and eventually lord keeper; and in another
line, the baronets of Stoke St Milborough, Shropshire, of whom the
best known and last was Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd bart. (1647-
1710), speaker of the House of Commons (1698-1700), and treasurer
of the navy.
1889 succeeded, by the death of the 3rd duke of Buckingham
and Chandos, to the viscounty of COBHAM, in which title the
barony of Lyttelton is now merged. Other distinguished sons
were Arthur Temple Lyttelton (d. 1903), warden of Selwyn
College, Cambridge, and bishop-suffragan of Southampton;
Edward Lyttelton (b. 1855), headmaster of Haileybury (1800-
1905) and then of Eton; and Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857), secre-
tary of state for the colonies (1903-1906). It was a family of
well-known cricketers, Alfred being in his day the best wicket-
keeper in England as well as a fine tennis player.
For the 1st baron see Sir R. Phillimore's Memoirs and Corre-
spondence of Lord Lyttelton, 1734-1773 (2 vols., 1845).
LYTTELTON, a borough of New Zealand, the port of Christ-
church (q.v.) on the E. coast of South Island, on an inlet on the
north-western side of Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It
is surrounded by abrupt hills rising to 1600 ft., through which
a railway communicates with Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a
tunnel if m. long. Great breakwaters protect the harbour,
which has an area of 1 10 acres, with a low-tide depth of 20 to
27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of 6000 tons.
The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury is
exported, frozen or preserved. Lyttelton, formerly called Port
Cooper and Port Victoria, was the original settlement in this
district (1850).
LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON, BULWER-
LYTTON, IST BARON (1803-1873), English novelist and politician,
the youngest son of General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon
Hall and Wood Balling, Norfolk, was born in London on the
25th of May 1803. He had two brothers, William (1799-1877)
and Henry (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Balling (q.v.). Bulwer's
father died when the boy was four years old. His mother,
Elizabeth Barbara, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of
Knebworth, Hertfordshire, after her husband's death settled in
London. Bulwer, who was delicate and neurotic, gave evidence
of precocious talent and was sent to various boarding schools,
where he was always discontented, until in the establishment of
a Mr Wallington at Ealing he found in his master a sympathetic
and admiring listener. Mr Wallington induced him to publish,
at the age of fifteen, an immature volume entitled Ishmael and
other Poems. About this time Bulwer fell in love, and became
extremely morbid under enforced separation from the young lady,
who was induced by her father to marry another man. She died
about the time that Bulwer went to Cambridge, and he declared
that her loss affected all his after-life. In 1822 he entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, but removed shortly afterwards to
Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's medal for English
verse with a poem on " Sculpture." In the following year he
took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small
volume of poems, Weeds and Wild Flowers, in which the influence
of Byron was easily traceable. In 1827 he published O'Neill, or
the Rebel, a romance, in heroic couplets, of patriotic struggle
in Ireland, and in 1831 a metrical satire, The Siamese Twins.
These juvenilia he afterwards ignored.
Meanwhile he had begun to take his place in society, being
already known as a dandy of considerable pretensions, who had
acted as second in a duel and experienced the fashionable
round of flirtation and intrigue. He purchased a commission in
the army, only to sell it again without undergoing any service,
and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his mother's wishes,
Rosina Boyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty, niece and
adopted daughter of General Sir John Boyle. She was a brilliant
but passionate girl, and upon his marriage .with her, Bulwer's
mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him.
He had 200 a year from his father, and less than 100 a year
with his wife, and found it necessary to set to work in earnest.
In the year of his marriage he published Falkland, a novel
which was only a moderate success, but in 1828 he attracted
general attention with Pelham, a novel for which he had gathered
material during a visit to Paris in 1825. This story, with its
intimate study of the dandyism of the age, was immediately
popular, and gossip was busy in identifying the characters of the
romance with the leading men of the time. la the same year he
i86
LYTTON, IST EARL OF
published The Disowned, following it up with Devereux (1829),
Paid Clifford (1830), Eugene Aram (1832) and Godolphin (1833).
All these novels were designed with a didactic purpose, some-
what upon the German model. To embody the leading features
of a period, to show how a criminal may be reformed by the
development of his own character, to explain the secrets of failure
and success in life, these were the avowed objects of his art,
and there were not wanting critics ready to call in question his
sincerity and his morality. Magazine controversy followed, in
which Bulwer was induced to take a part, and about the same
time he began to make a mark in politics. He became a follower
of Bentham, and in 1831 was elected member for St Ives in
Huntingdon. During this period of feverish activity his relations
with his wife grew less and less satisfactory. At first she had
cause to complain that he neglected her in the pursuit of literary
reputation; later on his disregard became rather active than
passive. After a series of distressing differences they decided
to live apart, and were legally separated in 1836. Three years
later his wife published a novel called Cheveley, or the Man of
Honour, in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured, and in June
1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate
for Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly
denounced him. She was consequently placed under restraint as
insane, but liberated a few weeks later. For years she continued
her attacks upon her husband's character, and outlived him by
nine years, dying at Upper Sydenham in March 1882. There is
little doubt that her passionate imagination gravely exaggerated
the tale of her wrongs, though Bulwer was certainly no model
for husbands. It was a case of two undisciplined natures in
domestic bondage, and the consequences of their union were as
inevitable as they were unfortunate.
Bulwer, meanwhile, was full of activity, both literary and
political. After representing St Ives, he was returned for Lincoln
in 1832, and sat in parliament for that city for nine years. He
spoke in favour of the Reform Bill, and took the leading part in
securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the
newspaper stamp duties. His pamphlet, issued when the Whigs
were dismissed from office in 1834, and entitled " A Letter to a
Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis," was immensely influential,
and Lord Melbourne offered him a lordship of the admiralty,
which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an
author. At this time, indeed, his pen was indefatigable. Godol-
phin was followed by The Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834), a graceful
fantasy, too German in sentiment to be quite successful in Eng-
land, and then in The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) and Rienzi
(1835) he reached the height of his popularity. He took great
pains with these stories, and despite their lurid colouring and
mannered over-emphasis, they undoubtedly indicate the high-
water mark of his talent. Their reception was enthusiastic, and
Ernest Maltravers (1837) an d Alice, or the Mysteries (1838) were
hardly less successful. At the same time he had been plunging
into journalism. In 1831 he undertook the editorship of the
New Monthly, which, however, he resigned in the following year,
but in 1841, the year in which he published Night and Morning,
he started the Monthly Chronicle, a semi-scientific magazine, for
which he wrote Zicci, an unfinished first draft afterwards ex-
panded into Zanoni (1842). As though this multifarious fecundity
were not sufficient, he had also been busy in the field of dramatic
literature. In 1838 he produced The Lady of Lyons, a play which
Macready made a great success at Covent Garden: in 1839
Richelieu and The Sea Captain, and in 1840 Money. All, except
The Sea Captain, were successful, and this solitary failure he
revived in 1869 under the title of The Rightful Heir. Of the
others it may be said that, though they abound in examples of
strained sentiment and false taste, they have nevertheless a
certain theatrical flair, which has enabled them to survive a
whole library of stage literature of greater sincerity and truer
feeling. The Lady of Lyons and Money have long held the stage,
and to the last-named, at least, some of the most talented of
modern comedians have given new life and probability.
In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was
created a baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate
in 1843 added Lytton to his surname, under the terms of his
mother's will. From 1841 to 1852 he had no seat in parliament,
and spent much of his time in continental travel. His literary
activity waned somewhat, but was still remarkably alert for a
man who had already done so much. In 1843 he issued The
Last of the Barons, which many critics have considered the most
historically sound and generally effective of all his romances;
in 1847 Lucretia, or the Children of the Night, and in 1848 Harold,
the last of the Saxon Kings. In the intervals between these
heavier productions he had thrown off a volume of poems in
1842, another of translations from Schiller in 1844, and a satire
called The New Timon in 1846, in which Tennyson, who had just
received a Civil List pension, was bitterly lampooned as " school
miss Alfred," with other unedifying amenities; Tennyson
retorted with some verses in which he addressed Bulwer-Lytton
as " you band-box." These poetic excursions were followed by
his most ambitious work in metre, a romantic epic entitled King
Arthur, of which he expected much, and he was greatly dis-
appointed by its apathetic reception. Having experienced some
rather acid criticism, questioning the morality of his novels, he
next essayed a form of fiction which he was determined should
leave no loophole to suspicion, and in The Caxtons (1849), pub-
lished at first anonymously, gave further proof of his versatility
and resource. My Novel (1853) and What will he do with it?
were designed to prolong the same strain.
In 1852 he entered the political field anew, and in the con-
servative interest. He had differed from the policy of Lord John
Russell over the corn laws, and now separated finally from the
liberals. He stood for Hertfordshire and was elected, holding
the seat till 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron
Lytton of Knebworth. His eloquence gave him the ear of the
House of Commons, and he often spoke with influence and
authority. In 1858 he was appointed secretary for the colonies.
In the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. His
last novels were A Strange Story (1862), a mystical romance
with spiritualistic tendencies; The Coming Race (1871), The
Parisians (1873) both unacknowledged at the time of his
death; and Kenelm Chillingly, which was in course of publication
in Blackwood's Magazine when Lytton died at Torquay on the
i8th of January 1873. The last three of his stories were classed
by his son, the 2nd Lord Lytton, as a trilogy, animated by a
common purpose, to exhibit the influence of modern ideas upon
character and conduct.
Bulwer-Lytton's attitude towards life was theatrical, the
language of his sentiments was artificial and over-decorated, and
the tone of his work was often so flamboyant as to give an im-
pression of false taste and judgment. Nevertheless, he built up
each of his stories upon a deliberate and careful framework:
he was assiduous according to his lights in historical research;
and conscientious in the details of workmanship. As the
fashion of his day has become obsolete the immediate appeal of
his work has diminished. It will always, however, retain its
interest, not only for the merits of certain individual novels,
but as a mirror of the prevailing intellectual movement of the
first half of the igth century.
See T. H. S. Escott, Edward Bulwer, ist Baron Lytton of Kneb-
worth (1910). (A. WA.)
LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON, IST EARL
OF (1831-1891), English diplomatist and poet, was the only son
of the ist Baron Lytton. He was born in Hertford Street,
Mayfair, on the 8th of November 1831. Robert Lytton and his
sister were brought up as children principally by a Miss Green.
In 1840 the boy was sent to a school at Twickenham, in 1842
to another at Brighton, and in 1845 to Harrow. From his
earliest childhood Lytton read voraciously and wrote copiously,
quickly developing a genuine and intense love of literature and a
remarkable facility of expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and
studied for a year at Bonn with an English tutor, and on his
return with another tutor in England. In 1850 he entered the
diplomatic service as unpaid attache to his uncle, Sir Henry
Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance
LYTTON, IST EARL OF
187
in the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appoint-
ments being: as second secretary 1852, Florence; 1854,
Paris; 1857, The Hague; 1859, Vienna; as first secretary or
secretary of legation 1863, Copenhagen; 1864, Athens;
1865, Lisbon; 1868, Madrid; 1868, Vienna; 1873, Paris;
as minister 1875, Lisbon. In 1887 he was appointed to succeed
Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris, and held that. office until his
death in 1891. This rapid promotion from one European court
to another indicates the esteem in which Lytton was held by
successive foreign secretaries. In 1864, immediately before
taking up his appointment at Athens, he married Edith, daughter
of Edward Villiers, brother of the earl of Clarendon, and in 1873,
upon the death of his father, he succeeded to the peerage and the
estate of Knebworth in Hertfordshire.
Early in 1875 Lord Lytton declined an offer of appointment
as governor of Madras, and in November of that year he was
nominated governor-general of India by Disraeli. The moment
was critical in the history of India. In Central Asia the
advance of Russia had continued so steadily and so rapidly that
Shere Ah', the amir of Afghanistan, had determined to seek
safety as the vassal of the tsar. Lytton went out to India with
express instructions from the British government to recover the
friendship of the amir if possible, and if not so to arrange matters
on the north-west frontier as to be able to be indifferent to his
hostility. For eighteen months Lytton and his council made
every effort to conciliate the friendship of the amir, but when
a Russian agent was established at Kabul, while the mission of
Sir Neville Chamberlain was forcibly denied entrance into the
amir's dominions, no choice was left between acknowledging
the right of a subsidized ally of Great Britain to place himself
within Russian control and depriving Tiim of the office which he
owed to British patronage and assistance. The inevitable war
began in November 1878, and by the dose of that year the forces
prepared by Lytton for that purpose had achieved their task
with extraordinary accuracy and economy. Shere Ali fled from
Kabul, and shortly afterwards died, and once more it fell to the
Indian government to make provision for the future of Afghani-
stan. By the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 Yakub Khan,
a son of Shere Ali, was recognized as amir, the main conditions
agreed upon being that the districts of Kuram, Pishin and Sibi
should be " assigned " to British administration, and the Khyber
and other passes be under British control; that there should be
a permanent British Resident at Kabul, and that the amir should
be subsidized in an amount to be afterwards determined upon.
The endeavour of the Indian government was to leave the internal
administration of Afghanistan as little affected as possible,
but considerable risk was run in trusting so much, and especially
the safety of a British envoy, to the power and the goodwill of
Yakub Khan. Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British envoy -entered
Kabul at the end of July, and was, with his staff, massacred
in the rising which took place on the 3rd of September. The
war of 1879-80 immediately began, with the occupation of
Kandahar by Stewart and the advance upon Kabul by Roberts,
and the military operations which followed were not concluded
when Lytton resigned his office in April 1880.
A complete account of Lyt ton's viceroyalty, and a lucid
exposition of the principles of his government and the main
outlines of his policy, may be found in Lord Lylton's Indian
Administration, by his daughter, Lady Betty Balfour (London,
1899). The frontier policy which he adopted, after the method
of a friendly and united Afghanistan under Yakub Khan had
been tried and had failed, was that the Afghan kingdom should be
destroyed. The province of Kandahar was to be occupied by
Great Britain, and administered by a vassal chief, Shere Ali Khan,
who was appointed " Wali " with a solemn guarantee of British
support (unconditionally withdrawn by the government succeed-
ing Lytton's). The other points of the Indian frontier were to
be made as secure as possible, and the provinces of Kabul and
Herat were to be left absolutely to their own devices. In con-
sequence of what had been said of Lytton by the leaders of the
parliamentary opposition in England, it was impossible for him
to retain his office under a government formed by them, and he
accordingly resigned at the same time as the Beaconsfield
ministry. This part of his policy was thereupon revoked. Abdur
Rahman, proving himself the strongest of the claimants to the
throne left vacant by Yakub Khan's deposition, became amir
as the subsidized ally of the Indian government.
The two most considerable events of Lytton's viceroyalty,
besides the Afghan wars, were the assumption by Queen Victoria
of the title of empress of India on the ist of January 1877, and
the famine which prevailed in various parts of India in 1876-78.
He satisfied himself that periodical famines must be expected
in Indian history, and that constant preparation during years
of comparative prosperity was the only condition whereby
their destructi veness could be modified. Accordingly he obtained
the appointment of the famine commission of 1878, to inquire,
upon lines laid down by him, into available means of mitigation.
Their report, made in 1880, is the foundation of the later system
of irrigation, development of communications, and " famine
insurance." The equalization and reduction of the salt duty
were effected, and the abolition of the cotton duty commenced,
during Lytton's term of office, and the system of Indian finance
profoundly modified by decentralization and the regulation
of provincial responsibility, in all which matters Lytton
enthusiastically supported Sir John Strachey, the financial
member of his council.
Upon Lytton's resignation in 1880 an earldom was conferred
upon him in recognition of his services as viceroy. He lived at
Knebworth until 1887, in which year he was appointed to succeed
Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris. He died at Paris on the
24th of November 1891, of a clot of blood in the heart, when
apparently recovering from a serious illness. He was succeeded
by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl.
Lytton is probably better known as a poet under the pen-
name of " Owen Meredith " than as a statesman. The list
of his published works is as follows: Clylemnestra, and other
Poems, 1855; The ' Wanderer, 1858; Lucile, 1860; Serbski
Pesme, or National Songs of Serria, 1861, Tannhauser (in
collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; Chronicles and
Characters, 1867; Orval, or The Fool of Time, 1868; Fables
in Song (2 vols.), 1874; Glenaverti, or The Metamorphoses, 1885;
After Paradise, or the Legends of Exile, and other Poems, 1887;
Marah, 1892; King Poppy, 1892. The two last-mentioned
volumes were published posthumously. A few previously
unpublished pieces are included in a volume of Selections pub-
lished, with an introduction by Lady Betty Balfour, in 1894.
His metrical style was easy and copious, but not precise. It
often gives the impression of having been produced with facility,
because the flow of his thought carried him along, and of not
having undergone prolonged or minute polish. It was frequently
suggestive of the work of other poets, especially in his earlier
productions. The friend who wrote the inscription for the
monument to be erected to him at St Paul's described him as
" a poet of many styles, each the expression of his habitual
thoughts." Lucile, a novel in verse, presents a romantic style
and considerable wit; and Glenaveril, which also contains
many passages of great beauty and much poetic thought, has
much of the same narrative character. Besides his volumes
of poetry, Lytton published in 1883 two volumes of a biography
of his father. The second of these contains the beginning of the
elder Lytton's unfinished novel, Greville, and his life is brought
down only to the year 1832, when he was twenty-six years of
age, so that the completion of the book upon the same scale
would have required at least four more volumes. The executrix
of Lytton's mother chose to consider that the publication was
injurious to that lady's memory, and issued a volume purporting
to contain Bulwer-Lyt ton's letters to his wife. This Lytton
suppressed by injunction, thereby procuring a fresh exposition
of the law that the copyright in letters remains in the writer
or his representatives, though the property in them belongs
to the recipient. Lytton's appointment to the Parisian embassy
caused the biography of his father to be finally laid aside.
The Personal and Literary Letters of Robert, ist Earl of Lytton, have
been edited by Lady Betty Balfour (1906). (H. S*.)
i88
M MABILLON
MThe thirteenth letter of the Phoenician and Greek
alphabets, the twelfth of the Latin, and the thirteenth
of the languages of western Europe. Written origin-
ally from right to left, it took the form *\ which sur-
vivies in its earliest representations in Greek. The greater length
of the first limb of m is characteristic of the earliest forms. From
this form, written from left to right, the Latin abbreviation M'
for the praenomen Manius is supposed to have developed, the
apostrophe representing the fifth stroke of the original letter.
In the early Greek alphabets the four-stroke M with legs of
equal length represents not m but s; m when written with four
strokes is /A. The five-stroke forms, however, are confined
practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from the last named the
Romans received it along with the rest of their alphabet. The
Phoenician name of the symbol was mem, the Greek name /iO is
formed on the analogy of the name for n. M represents the
bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is com-
monly a stable sound, but many languages, e.g. Greek, Ger-
manic and Celtic, change it when final into -n, its dental
correlative. It appears more frequently as an initial sound in
Greek and Latin than in the other languages of the same stock,
because in these i before m (as also before / and n) disappeared at
the beginning of words. The sounds m and b are closely related,
the only difference being that, in pronouncing m, the nasal pas-
sage is not closed, thus allowing the sound to be prolonged,
while b is an instantaneous or explosive sound. In various
languages b is inserted between m and a following consonant,
as in the Gr. nearHifipia " mid-day," or the English " number,"
Fr. nombre from Lat. numerus. The sound m can in unaccented
syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel,
e.g. the Enghlish -word fathom comes from an Anglo-Saxon faf m,
where the m was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic
principle, which has important results in the history of language,
see under N.) (P. Gi.)
MAAS, JOSEPH (1847-1886), English tenor singer, was born
at Dartford, and became a chorister in Rochester Cathedral.
He went to study singing in Milan in 1869; in February 1871 he
made his first success by taking Sims Reeves's place at a concert
in London. In 1878 he became principal tenor in Carl Rosa's
company, his beautiful voice and finished style more than com-
pensating for his poor acting. He died "in London on the i6th
of January 1886.
MAASIN, a town on the S.W. coast of the island of Leyte,
Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Maasin River. Pop.
(1903), 21,638. Maasin is an important port for hemp and
copra. The well-built town occupies a narrow coastal plain.
The river valleys in the vicinity produce cotton, pepper, tobacco,
rice, Indian corn and fruit. Native cloths and pottery are
manufactured. Maasin is the only place on the west coast of
Leyte where a court of justice is held. The language is Visayan.
MAASSLUIS, a river port of Holland, in the province of South
Holland, on the New Waterway, 10 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam.
Pop. (1903), 8011. It rose into importance as a fishing harbour
towards the end of the i6th century, and its prosperity rapidly
increased after the opening of the New Waterway (the Maas
ship canal) from Rotterdam to the sea. The fort erected here
in 1572 by Philip of Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, was captured
by the Spanish in 1573.
MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT, a frontier town and the
capital of the province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank
of the Maas at the influx of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E.
of Li6ge in Belgium. Pop. (1904), 36,146. A small portion of
the town, known as Wyk, lies on the right bank. A stone
bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden structure as early
as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong fortress,
Maastricht is still a considerable garrison town, but its ramparts
were dismantled in 1871-1878. The town-hall, built by Pieter
Post and completed in 1683, contains some interesting pictures
and tapestry. The old town-hall (Oud Stadhuis), a Gothic
building of the isth century, is now used as a museum of
antiquities. The church of St Servatius is said to have been
founded by Bishop Monulphus in the 6th century, thus being
the oldest church in Holland; according to one account it
was rebuilt and enlarged as early as the time of Charlemagne.
The crypt with the tomb of the patron saint dates from the
original building. The varied character of its late Romanesque
and later Gothic architecture bears evidence of the frequency
with which the church has been restored and altered. Over
the porch is the fine emperor's hall, and the church has a
marble statue of Charlemagne. The church of Our Lady, a
late Romanesque building, has two ancient crypts and a 13th-
century choir of exceptional beauty, but the nave suffered
severely from a restoration in 1764. The present Gothic
building of St Martin (in Wyk) was erected in 1859; the
original church is said by tradition to have occupied the site
of an old heathen temple. The Protestant St Janskerk, a
Gothic building of the I3th and isth centuries, with a fine
tower, was formerly the baptistery of the cathedral. The
various hospitals, the poor-house, the orphanage and most of
the other charitable foundations are Roman Catholic institutions.
Maastricht contains the provincial archives, a library and
geological collections. Though mainly indebted for its com-
mercial prosperity to its position on the river, the town did
not begin to reap the full advantages of its situation till the
opening of the railways between 1853 and 1865. At first a
trade was carried on in wine, colonial wares, alcoholic liquors
and salt; there are now manufactures of earthenware, glass and
crystal, arms, paper, woollens, tools, lead, copper and zinc work,
as well as breweries, and tobacco and cigar factories, and a trade
in corn and butter.
A short distance south of Maastricht are the great sandstone
quarries of Pietersberg, which were worked from the time of the
Romans to near the end of the igth century; the result is one of
the most extraordinary subterranean labyrinths in the world,
estimated to cover an area 15 m. by 9 m. In the time of the
Spanish wars these underground passages served to hide the
peasants and their cattle.
Maastricht was originally the trajectus superior (upper ford)
of the Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721.
Having formed part of the Prankish realm, it was ruled after
1204 jointly by the dukes of Brabant and the prince-bishops
of Liege. In 1579 it was besieged by the Spaniards under the
duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a heroic
resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and
1794-
MABILLON, JOHN (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the
Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS), was the son of a
peasant near Reims. In 1653 he became a monk in the abbey
of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at St Germain-des-
Pres in Paris, the great literary workshop of the Maurists, where
he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under d'Achery,
with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the
Benedictine Saints. In Mabillon's Prefaces (reprinted separately)
these lives were for the first time made to illustrate the ecclesi-
astical and civil history of the early middle ages. Mabillon's
masterpiece was the De re diplomatica (1681; and a supplement,
1704) in which were first laid down the principles for determining
the authenticity and date of medieval charters and manuscripts.
It practically created the science of Latin palaeography, and
is still the standard work on the subject. In 1685-1686 Mabillon
visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and books for
the King's Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon
to defend against de Ranee, the abbot of La Trappe, the legiti-
macy for monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists de-
voted themselves: this called forth Mabillon's Traite des etudes
monastiques and his Reflexions sur la reponse de M. I'abbf de la
MABINOGION MABUSE
189
Trappe (1691-1692), works embodying the ideas and programme
of the Maurists for ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced
in all some twenty folio volumes and as many of lesser size, nearly
all works of monumental erudition (the chief are named in the
article MAURISTS). A very competent judge declared that,
" he knew well the 7th, 8th, oth, icth and nth centuries, but
nothing earlier or later." Mabillon never allowed his studies
to interfere with his life as a monk ; he was noted for his regular
attendance at the choral recitation of the office and the other
duties of the monastic life, and for his deep personal religion,
as well as for a special charm of character. He died on the 26th
of December 1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal
Benedictine Annals.
The chief authority for his life is the Abre^i de la vie de D. J. M.
(also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Rumart (1709). See also,
for a full summary of his works, Tassin, Hist. liMraire de la congr.
de St Maur (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best are
those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Baumer (1892) the former
to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may
be found in the Downside Review (1893). (E. C. B.)
MABINOGION (plural of Welsh mabinogi, from mabinog,
a bard's apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven
Welsh prose tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published
(1838) by Lady Charlotte Guest, but applied in the Red Book
to four only. (See CELT: Welsh Literature.)
MABUSE, JAN (d. 1532), the name adopted (from his birth-
place, Maubeuge) by the Flemish painter JENNI GOSART, or
JENNYN VAN HENNEGOUWE (Hainault), as he called himself
when he matriculated in the gild of St Luke, at Antwerp, in 1503.
We know nothing of his early life, but his works tell us that he
stood in his first period under the influence of artists to whom
plastic models were familiar; and this leads to the belief that he
spent his youth on the French border rather than on the banks
of the Scheldt. Without the subtlety or power of Van der
Weyden, he had this much in common with the great master of
Tournai and Brussels, that his compositions were usually framed
in architectural backgrounds. But whilst Mabuse thus early
betrays his dependence on the masters of the French frontier,
he also confesses admiration for the great painters who first
gave lustre to Antwerp; and in the large altar-pieces of Castle
Howard and Scawby he combines in a quaint and not unskilful
medley the sentiment of Memling, the bright and decided con-
trasts of pigment peculiar to coloured reliefs, the cornered and
packed drapery familiar to Van der Weyden, and the bold but
Socratic cast of face remarkable in the works of Quentin Matsys.
At Scawby he illustrates the legend of the count of Toulouse,
who parted with his wordly goods to assume the frock of a
hermit. At Castle Howard he represents the Adoration of the
Kings, and throws together some thirty figures on an architectural
background, varied in detail, massive in shape and fanciful in
ornament. He surprises us by pompous costume and flaring
contrasts of tone. His figures, like pieces on a chess-board,
are often rigid and conventional. The landscape which shows
through the colonnades is adorned with towers and steeples in
the minute fashion of Van der Weyden. After a residence of a
few years at Antwerp, Mabuse took service with Philip, bastard
of Philip the Good, at that time lord of Somerdyk and admiral
of Zeeland. One of his pictures had already become celebrated
a Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of the
monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy
ordered Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middel-
burg; and the value which was then set on the picture is apparent
from the fact that Diirer came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to
see it. In 1568 the altar-piece perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse
accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his Italian mission; and by
this accident an important revolution was effected in the art of
the Netherlands. Mabuse appears to have chiefly studied in
Italy the cold and polished works of the Leonardesques. He not
only brought home a new style, but he also introduced the fashion
of travelling to Italy; and from that time till the age of Rubens
and Van Dyck it was considered proper that all Flemish painters
should visit the peninsula. The Flemings grafted Italian
mannerisms on their own stock; and the cross turned out so
unfortunately that for a century Flemish art lost all trace of
originality.
In the summer of 1509 Philip returned to the Netherlands,
and, retiring to his seat of Suytburg in Zeeland, surrendered
himself to the pleasures of planning decorations for his castle
and ordering pictures of Mabuse and Jacob of Barbari. Being
in constant communication with the court of Margaret of Austria
at Malines, he gave the artists in his employ fair chances of pro-
motion. Barbari was made court painter to the regent, whilst
Mabuse received less important commissions. Records prove
that Mabuse painted a portrait of Leonora of Portugal, and
other small pieces, for Charles V. in 1516. But his only signed
pictures of this period are the Neptune and Amphitrite of 1516
at Berlin, and the Madonna, with a portrait of Jean Carondelet
of 1517, at the Louvre, in both of which we clearly discern that
Vasari only spoke by hearsay of the progress made by Mabuse in
" the true method of producing pictures full of nude figures and
poesies." It is difficult to find anything more coarse or misshapen
than the Amphitrite, unless we except the grotesque and un-
gainly drayman who figures for Neptune. In later forms of the
same subject the Adam and Eve at Hampton Court, or its
feebler replica at Berlin we observe more nudity, combined
with realism of the commonest type. Happily, Mabuse was
capable of higher efforts. His St Li^ke painting the portrait of
the Virgin in Sanct Veil at Prague, a variety of the same subject
in the Belvedere at Vienna, the Madonna of the Baring collection
in London, or the numerous repetitions of Christ and the scoffers
(Ghent and Antwerp), all prove that travel had left many of
Mabuse's fundamental peculiarities unaltered. His figures still
retain the character of stone; his architecture is as rich and
varied, his tones are as strong as ever. But bright contrasts of
gaudy tints are replaced by soberer greys; and a cold haze, the
sfumato of the Milanese, pervades the surfaces. It is but seldom
that these features fail to obtrude. When they least show, the
master displays a brilliant palette combined with smooth surface
and incisive outlines. In this form the Madonnas of Munich
and Vienna (1527), the likeness of a girl weighing gold pieces
(Berlin), and the portraits of the children of the king of Denmark
at Hampton Court, are fair specimens of his skill. As early as
1523, when Christian II. of Denmark came to Belgium, he asked
Mabuse to paint the likenesses of his dwarfs. In 1 5 28 he requested
the artist to furnish to Jean de Hare the design for his queen
Isabella's tomb in the abbey of St Pierre near Ghent. It was no
doubt at this time that Mabuse completed the portraits of John,
Dorothy and Christine, children of Christian II., which came into
the collection of Henry VIII. No doubt, also, these portraits
are identical with those of three children at Hampton Court,
which were long known and often copied as likenesses of Prince
Arthur, Prince Henry and Princess Margaret of England. One
of the copies at Wilton, inscribed with the forged name of " Hans
Holbein, ye father," and the false date of 1495, has often been
cited as a proof that Mabuse came to England in the reign of
Henry VII. ; but the statement rests on no foundation whatever.
At the period when these portraits were executed Mabuse lived
at Middelburg. But he dwelt at intervals elsewhere. When
Philip of Burgundy became bishop of Utrecht, and settled at
Duerstede, near Wyck, in 1517, he was accompanied by Mabuse,
who helped to decorate the new palace of his master. At
Philip's death, in 1524, Mabuse designed and erected his tomb
in the church of Wyck. He finally retired to Middelburg, where
he took service with Philip's brother, Adolph, lord of Veeren.
Van Mander's biography accuses Mabuse of habitual drunkenness;
yet it describes the splendid appearance of the artist as, dressed
in gold brocade, he accompanied Lucas of Leyden on a pleasure
trip to Ghent, Malines and Antwerp in 1527. The works of
Mabuse are those of a hardworking and patient artist; the num-
ber of his still extant pictures practically demonstrates that he
was not a debauchee. The marriage of his daughter with the
painter Henry Van der Heyden of Louvain proves that he had
a home, and did not live habitually in taverns, as Van Mander
suggests. His death at Antwerp, on the ist of October 1532, is
recorded in the portrait engraved by Jerome Cock. (J. A. C.)
MACABEBE MACAIRE
HACABEBE, a town of the province of Pampanga, island of
Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Pampanga Grande river,
about to m. above its mouth and about 25 m. N.W. of Manila.
Pop. (1903), after the annexation of San Miguel, 21,481. The
language is Pampango. Many of the male inhabitants serve
in the U.S. Army as scouts. Macabebe's principal industries
are the cultivation of rice and sugar cane, the distilling of nipa
alcohol, and the weaving of hemp and cotton fabrics.
MACABRE, a term applied to a certain type of artistic or
literary composition, characterized by a grim and ghastly humour,
with an insistence on the details and trappings of death. Such a
quality, deliberately adopted, is hardly to be found in ancient
Greek and Latin writers, though there are traces of it in Apuleius
and the author of the Satyricon. The outstanding instances in
English literature are John Webster and Cyril Tourneur, with
E. A. Poe and R. L. Stevenson. The word has gained its sig-
nificance from its use in French, la danse macabre, for that alle-
gorical representation, in painting, sculpture and tapestry,
of the ever-present and universal power of death, known in
English as the " Dance of Death," and in German as Totentanz.
The typical form which the allegory takes is that of a series of
pictures, sculptured or painted, in which Death appears, either
as a dancing skeleton or as a shrunken corpse wrapped in grave-
clothes to persons representing every age and condition of life,
and leads them all in a dance to the grave. Of the numerous
examples painted or sculptured on the walls of cloisters or church-
yards through medieval Europe few remain except in woodcuts
and engravings. Thus the famous series at Basel, originally
at the Klingenthal, a nunnery in Little Basel, dated from the
beginning of the i4th century. In the middle of the isth cen-
tury this was moved to the churchyard of the Predigerkloster
at Basel, and was restored, probably by Hans Kluber, in 1568;
the fall of the wall in 1805 reduced it to fragments, and only
drawings of it remain. A Dance of Death in its simplest form
still survives in the Marienkirche at Lubeck in a isth-century
painting on the walls of a chapel. Here there are twenty-four
figures in couples, between each is a dancing Death linking the
groups by outstretched hands, the whole ring being led by a
Death playing on a pipe. At Dresden there is a sculptured life-
size series in the old Neustadter Kirchhoff, removed here from
the palace of Duke George in 1701 after a fire. At Rouen in
the aitre (atrium) or cloister of St Maclou there also remains a
sculptured danse macabre. There was a celebrated fresco of
the subject in the cloister of Old St Paul's in London, and another
in the now destroyed Hungerford Chapel at Salisbury, of which
a single woodcut, " Death and the Gallant," alone remains.
Of the many engraved reproductions, the most celebrated is the
series drawn by Holbein. Here the long ring of connected
dancing couples is necessarily abandoned, and the Dance of
Death becomes rather a series of imagines mortis.
Concerning the origin of this allegory in painting and sculpture
there has been much dispute. It certainly seems to be as early
as the uth century, and has often been attributed to the over-
powering consciousness of the presence of death due to the Black
Death and the miseries of the Hundred Years' War. It has also
been attributed to a form of the Morality, a dramatic dialogue
between Death and his victims in every station of life, ending in a
dance off the stage (see Du Cange, Gloss., s.v. " Machabaeorum
chora"). The origin of the peculiar form the allegory has taken
has also been found, somewhat needlessly and remotely, in the
dancing skeletons on late Roman sarcophagi and mural paintings
at Cumae or Pompeii, and a false connexion has been traced with
the " Triumph of Death," attributed to Orcagna, in the Campo
Santo at Pisa.
The etymology of the word macabre is itself most obscure.
According to Gaston Paris (Romania, xxiv., 131; 1895) it first
occurs in life form macabre in Jean le Fevre's Respit de la mart
(1376), " Je lis de Macabre la danse," and he takes this accented
form to be the true one, and traces it in the name of the first
painter of the subject. The more usual explanation is based
on the Latin name, Machabaeorum chora. The seven tortured
brothers, with their mother and Eleazar (2 Mace, vi., vii.) were
prominent figures on this hypothesis in the supposed dramatic
dialogues. Other connexions have been suggested, as for example
with St Macarius, or Macaire, the hermit, who, according to
Vasari, is to be identified with the figure pointing to the decaying
corpses in the Pisan "Triumph of Death," or with an Arabic
word magbarah, " cemetery."
See Peignot, Recherckes sur les danses des marts (1826); Douce,
Dissertation on the Dance of Death (1833); Massmann, Lilteratur der
Tolentdnze (1840); J. Charlier de Gerson, La Danse macabre des
Sles Innocents de Paris (1874); .Seelmann, Die Totentdnze des
Mittelalters (1893).
McADAM, JOHN LOUDON (1756-1836), Scottish inventor,
who gave his name to the system of road-making known as
" macadamizing," was born at Ayr, Scotland, on the 2ist of
September 1756, being descended on his father's side from the
clan of the McGregors. While at school he constructed a model
road-section. In 1770 he went to New York, entering the
counting-house of a merchant uncle. He returned to Scotland
with a considerable fortune in 1783, and purchased an estate at
Sauhrie, Ayrshire. Among other public offices he held that of
road trustee. The highways of Great Britain were at this time
in a very bad condition, and McAdam at once began to consider
how to effect reforms. At his own expense he began at Sauhrie,
despite much opposition, a series of experiments in road-making.
In 1798 he removed to Falmouth, where he had received a
government appointment, and continued his experiments there.
His general conclusion was that roads should be constructed of
broken stone (see ROADS). In 1815, having been appointed
surveyor-general of the Bristol roads, he. was able to put his
theories into practice. In 1819 he published a Practical Essay
on the Scientific Repair and Preservation of Roads, followed, in
1820, by the Present State of Road-making. As the result of a
parliamentary inquiry in 1823 into the whole question of road-
making, his views were adopted by the public authorities, and
in 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of roads. In pur-
suing his investigations he had travelled over thirty thousand
miles of road and expended over 5000. Parliament recouped
him for his expenses and gave him a handsome gratuity, but he
declined a proffered knighthood. He died at Moffat, Dumfries-
shire, on the 26th of November 1836.
MACAIRE, a French chanson de geste. Macaire (i 2th century)
and La reine Sibille (uth century) are two versions of the story
of the false accusation brought against the queen of Charlemagne ,
called Blanchefleur in Macaire and Sibille in the later poem.
Macaire is only preserved in the Franco- Venetian geste of Charle-
magne (Bibl. St Mark MS. fr. xiii.). La Reine Sibille only exists
in fragments, but the tale is given in the chronicle of Alberic
Trium Fontium and in a prose version. Macaire is the product
of the fusion of two legends: that of the unjustly repudiated
wife and that of the dog who detects the murderer of his master.
For the former motive see GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT. The
second is found in Plutarch, Script, moral., ed. Didot ii. (1186),
where a dog, like Aubri's hound, stayed three days without
food by the body of its master, and subsequently attacked the
murderers, thus leading to their discovery. The duel between
Macaire and the dog is paralleled by an interpolation by Giraldus
CambrensisinaMS.oftheflezammwof Saint Ambrose. Aubri's
hound received the name of the " dog of Montargis," because a
representation of the story was painted on a chimney-piece in
the chateau of Montargis in the isth century. The tale was
early divorced from Carolingian tradition, and Jean de la Taille,
in his Discours notable des duels (Paris, 1607), places the incident
under Charles V.
See Macaire (Paris, 1866), ed. Guessard in the series of Anc.
poetesdelaFrance;P. Paris in Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxm. (1873);
L Gautier, Epopees franc.aises, vol. iii. (2nd ed., 1880) ; G. Pans, Hist,
poet, de Charlemagne (1865): M. J. G. Isola, Storie nerbonest, vol. i.
(Bologna, 1877); F. Wolf, Uber die beiden . . . Volksbucher von der
K. Sibille u. Huon de Bordeaux (Vienna, 1857) and Uber dieneueslen
Leistungen der Franzosen (Vienna, 1833). The Dog of Montargis:
or, The Forest of Bondy, imitated from the play of G. de Pixerecourt,
was played at Covent Garden (Sept. 30, 1814). .
" Robert Macaire " was the name given to the modern villain
in the Auberge des Adrets (1823), a melodrama in which Fr&ienck
McALESTER MACAO
191
Lemaitre made his reputation. The type was sensibly modified in
Robert Macaire (1834), a sequel written by Lemaitre in collaboration
with Benjamin Antier, and well-known on the English stage as
Macaire. R. L. Stevenson and W. E. Henley used the same type in
their play Macaire.
McALESTER, a city and the county-seat of Pittsburg county,
Oklahoma, about no m. E.S.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900),
3479; (1907) 8144 (1681 negroes and 105 Indians); (1910)
12,954. McAlester is served by the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways and is an
important railway junction; it is connected with theneighbouring
mining district by an electric line. There are undeveloped iron
deposits and rich coal-mines in the surrounding country, and
coke-making is the principal manufacturing industry of the
city. There is a fine Scottish Rite Masons' consistory and temple
in McAlester. The city owns its waterworks. The vicinity
was first settled in 1885. The city of South McAlester was
incorporated in 1899, and in 1906 it annexed the town of
McAlester and adopted its name.
MACALPINE (or MACCABEUS), JOHN (d. 1557), Protestant
theologian, was born in Scotland about the beginning of the
1 6th century, and graduated at some Scottish university. From
1532 to 1534 he was prior of the Dominican convent of Perth;
but having in the latter year been summoned with Alexander
Ales (q.v.) and others to answer for heresy before the bishop
of Ross, he fled to England, where he was granted letters of
denization on the 7th of April 1537, and married Agnes Macheson,
a fellow-exile for religion; her sister Elizabeth became the wife
of Miles Coverdale. The reaction of 1539 made England a
doubtful refuge, and on the 25th of November 1540 Macalpine
matriculated at the university of Wittenberg. He had already
graduated B.A. at Cologne, and in 1542 proceeded to his doctorate
at Wittenberg. In that year, being now known as Maccabeus,
he accepted Christian III.'s offer of the chair of theology at the
university of Copenhagen, which had been endowed out of the
spoils of the Church. Melanchthon spoke well of Macalpine, and
with Peter Plade (Palladius), who had also studied at Wittenberg,
Macalpine took a prominent part in building up the Lutheran
Church of Denmark. A joint exposure by Plade and Macalpine
of Osiander's errors was published in 1552 and reprinted at
Leipzig and Copenhagen in 1768; and Macalpine was one of the
four translators of Luther's German Bible into Danish. He
also encouraged Sir David Lindsay, who visited him in 1548, to
publish his Monarchic, and persuaded Christian III. to inter-
cede with Queen Mary Tudor on behalf of Coverdale and
invite him to Denmark. Macalpine died at Copenhagen on
the 6th of December 1557.
See Diet. Nat. Biog. and authorities there cited ; Corpus reforma-
torum, iii. (1066), iv. 771, 793; Foerstemann, Album academiae
vitebergensis (1841), p. 186, and Liber decanorum (1838), p. 32;
Rockwell, Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp (1904), pp. 114-
116; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (1537), :. 1103 (12); (1542),
pp. 46,218. (A. F. P.)
MACAO (A-Ma-ngao, "Harbour of the goddess A-Ma";
Port. Macau), a Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in
22 N., 132 E. Pop. (1896), Chinese, 74,568; Portuguese, 3898;
other nationalities, 161 total, 78,627. It consists of a tongue of
land 2| m. in length and less than i m. in breadth, running
S.S.W. from the island of Hiang Shang (Port. An$am) on the
western side of the estuary of the Canton River. Bold and rocky
hills about 300 ft. high occupy both extremities of the peninsula,
the picturesque city, with its flat-roofed houses painted blue,
green and red, lying in the undulating ground between. The
forts are effective additions to the general view, but do not add
much to the strength of the place. Along the east side of the
peninsula runs the Praya Grande, or Great Quay, the chief
promenade in Macao, on which stand the governor's palace,
the administrative offices, the consulates and the leading
commercial establishments. The church of St Paul (1594-1602),
the seat of the Jesuit college in the I7th century, was destroyed
by fire in 1835. The Hospital da Misericordia (1569) was rebuilt
in 1640. The Camoens grotto, where the exiled poet found
leisure to celebrate the achievements of his ungrateful country,
lies in a secluded spot to the north of the town, which has been
partly left in its native wildness strewn with huge granite
boulders and partly transformed into a fine botanical garden.
During the south-west (summer) monsoon great quantities
(67 in.) of rain fall, especially in July and August. The mean
temperature is 74-3 F.; in July, the hottest month, the
temperature is 84-2; in February, the coldest, it is 59. On
the whole the climate is moist. Hurricanes are frequent. Of
the Portuguese inhabitants more than three-fourths are natives
of Macao a race very inferior in point of physique to their
European ancestors. Macao is connected with Hong-Kong by
a daily steamer. Being open to the south-west sea breezes, it
is a favourite place of resort from the oppressive heat of Hong-
Kong. It is ruled by a governor, and, along with Timor (East
Indies), constitutes a bishopric, to which belong also the
Portuguese Christians in Malacca and Singapore. Though
most of the land is under garden cultivation, the mass of the
people is dependent more or less directly on mercantile pursuits;
for, while the exclusive policy both of Chinese and Portuguese
which prevented Macao becoming a free port till 1845-1846
allowed what was once the great emporium of European
commerce in eastern Asia to be outstripped by its younger and
more liberal rivals, the local, though not the foreign, trade of
the place is still of very considerable extent. Since the middle
of the I9th century, indeed, much of it has run in the most
questionable channels; the nefarious coolie traffic gradually
increased in extent and in cruelty from about 1848 till it was
prohibited in 1874, and much of the actual trade is more or less
of the nature of smuggling. The commodities otherwise mostly
dealt in are opium, tea, rice, oil, raw cotton, fish and silk.
The total value of exports and imports was in 1876-1877 upwards
of 1,536,000. In 1880 it had increased to 2,259,250, and in
1898 to 3,771,615. Commercial intercourse is most intimate
with Hong-Kong, Canton, Batavia and Goa. The preparation
and packing of tea is the principal industry in the town. In
fishing a large number of boats and men are employed.
In 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to erect factories on
the peninsula, and in 1573 the Chinese built across the isthmus
the wall which still cuts off the barbarian from the rest of the
island. Jesuit missionaries established themselves on the spot ;
and in 1580 Gregory XIII. constituted a bishopric of Macao.
A senate was organized in 1583, and in 1628 Jeronimo de Silveira
became first royal governor of Macao. Still the Portuguese
remained largely under the control of the Chinese, who had
never surrendered their territorial rights and maintained their
authority by means of mandarins these insisting that even
European criminals should be placed in their hands. Ferreira
do Amaral, the Portuguese governor, put an end to this state of
things in 1849, and left the Chinese officials no more authority
in the peninsula than the representatives of other foreign
nations; and, though his antagonists procured his assassination
(Aug. 22), his successors succeeded in carrying out his policy.
Although Macao is de facto a colonial possession of Portugal,
the Chinese government persistently refused to recognize the
claim of the Portuguese to territorial rights, alleging that they
were merely lessees or tenants at will, and until 1849 the Portu-
guese paid to the Chinese an annual rent of 71 per annum.
This diplomatic difficulty prevented the conclusion of a commer-
cial treaty between China and Portugal for a long time, but an
arrangement for a treaty was come to in 1887 on the following
basis: (i) China confirmed perpetual occupation and govern-
ment of Macao and its dependencies by Portugal; (2) Portugal
engaged never to alienate Macao and its dependencies without
the consent of China; (3) Portugal engaged to co-operate in
opium revenue work at Macao in the same way as Great
Britain at Hong-Kong. The formal treaty was signed in the
same year, and arrangements were made whereby the Chinese
imperial customs were able to collect duties on vessels trading
with Macao in the same way as they had already arranged for
their collection at the British colony of Hong-Kong. For a
short time in 1802, and again in 1808, Macao was occupied by
the English as a precaution against seizure by the French.
192
MACAQUE MACARSC A
MACAQUE, a name of French origin denoting the monkeys
of the mainly Asiatic genus Macacus, of which one species, the
Barbary ape, inhabits North Africa and the rock of Gibraltar.
Displaying great variability in the length of the tail, which is
reduced to a mere tubercle in the Barbary ape, alone representing
the subgenus Inuus, macaques are heavily-built monkeys, with
longer muzzles than their compatriots the langurs (see PRIMATES),
and large naked callosities on the buttocks. They range all
over India and Ceylon, thence northward to Tibet, and east-
wards to China, Japan, Formosa, Borneo, Sumatra and Java;
while by some naturalists the black ape of Celebes (Cynopilhecus
niger) is included in the same genus. Mention of some of the
more important species, typifying distinct sub-generic groups,
made in the article PRIMATES. Like most other monkeys,
macaques go about in large troops, each headed by an old
male. They feed on seeds, fruits, insects, lizards, &c. ; and while
some of the species are largely terrestrial, the Barbary ape is
wholly so. Docile and easily tamed when young, old males of
many of the species become exceedingly morose and savage in
captivity. (R. L.*)
MACARONI (from dialectic Ital. maccare, to bruise or crush),
a preparation of a glutinous wheat originally peculiar to Italy,
where it is an article of food of national importance. The same
substance in different forms is also known as vermicelli, pasta or
Italian pastes, spaghetti, taglioni, fanti, &c. These substances
are prepared from the hard, semi-translucent varieties of wheat
which are largely cultivated in the south of Europe, Algeria and
other warm regions, and distinguished by the Italians as grano
duro or grano da semolina. These wheats are much richer in
gluten and other nitrogenous compounds than the soft or tender
wheats of more northern regions, and their preparations are
more easily preserved. The various preparations are met with
as fine thin threads (vermicelli), thin sticks and pipes (spaghetti,
macaroni), small lozenges, stars, disks, ellipses, &c. (pastes).
These various forms are prepared in a uniform manner from a
granular product of hard wheat, which, under the name of
semolina or middlings, is a commercial article. The semolina
is thoroughly mixed with boiling water and incorporated
in a kneading machine, such as is used in bakeries, into a stiff
paste or dough. It is then further kneaded by passing frequently
between rollers or under edge runners, till a homogeneous mass
has been produced which is placed in a strong steam-jacketed
cylinder, the lower end of which is closed with a thick disk
pierced with openings corresponding with the diameter or section
of the article to be made. Into this cylinder an accurately
fitting plunger or piston is introduced and subjected to very
great pressure, which causes the stiff dough to squeeze out through
the openings in the disk in continuous threads, sticks or pipes,
as the case may be. Vermicelli is cut off in short bundles and
laid on trays to dry, while macaroni is dried by hanging it in
longer lengths over wooden rods in stoves or heated apartments
through which currents of air are driven. It is only genuine
macaroni, rich in gluten, which can be dried in this manner;
spurious fabrications will not bear their own weight, and must,
therefore, be laid out flat to be dried. In making pastes the
cylinder is closed with a disk pierced with holes having the sec-
tional form of the pastes, and a set of knives revolving close against
the external surface of the disk cut off the paste in thin sections
as it exudes from each opening. True macaroni can be dis-
tinguished by observing the flattened mark of the rod over
which it has been dried within the bend of the tubes; it has a soft
yellowish colour, is rough in texture, elastic and hard, and
breaks with a smooth glassy fracture. In boiling it swells up to
double its original size without becoming pasty or adhesive. It
can be kept any length of time without alteration or deteriora-
tion; and it is on that account, in many circumstances, a most
convenient as well as a highly nutritious and healthful article of
food.
MACARONICS, a species of burlesque poetry, hi which words
from a modern vernacular, with Latin endings, are introduced
into Latin verse, so as to produce a ridiculous effect. Sometimes
Greek is used instead of Latin. Tisi degli Odassi issued a Carmen
macaronicum de Patavinis in 1490. The real founder of the
practice, however, was Teofilo Folengo (1491-1544), whose mock-
heroic Liber Macaronices appeared in 1517. Folengo (q.v.) was
a Benedictine monk, who escaped from his monastery and wan-
dered through Italy, living a dissolute life, and supporting
himself by his absurd verses, which he described as an attempt to
produce in h'terature something like macaroni, a gross, rude and
rustic mixture of flour, cheese and butter. He wrote under the
pseudonym of Merlinus Coccaius, and his poem is an elaborate
burlesque epic, in twenty-five books, or macaronea; it is an
extraordinary medley of chivalrous feats, ridiculous and squalid
adventures, and satirical allegory. Its'effect upon the mind of
Rabelais was so extraordinary that no examination of Pantagruel
can be complete without a reference to it (cf. Gargantua, i. 19).
It was immediately imitated in Italy by a number of minor
poets; and in France a writer whose real name was Antoine de la
Sable, but who called himself Antonius de Arena (d. 1544),
published at Avignon in 1573 a Meygra enlrepriza, which was
a burlesque account of Charles V.'s disastrous campaign in
Provence. Folengo in Italy and Arena in France are considered
as the macaronic classics. In the 1 7th century, Joannes Caecilius
Frey (1580-1631) published a Recitus iieritabilis, on a skirmish
between the vine-growers of Rueil and the bowmen of Paris.
Great popularity was achieved later still by an anonymous
macaronic, entitled Funestissimus trepassus Micheli Morini,
who died by falling off the branch of an elm-tree:
De branche in brancham degringolat, et faciens pouf
Ex ormo cadit, et clunes obvertit Olympo.
Moliere employed macaronic verse in the ceremonial scene with
the doctors in Le Malade imaginaire. Works in macaronic
prose are rarer. An Anti-Clopinus by Antony Hotman may be
mentioned and the amusing Epistolae obscurorum virorum (1515).
Macaronic prose was not unknown as an artifice of serious
oratory, and abounds (e.g.) in the sermons of Michel Menot
(1440-1518), who says of the prodigal son, Emit sibi pvlcheras
caligas d'ecarlate, bien tirees.
The use of true macaronics has never been frequent in Great
Britain, where the only prominent example of it is the Polemo-
Middinia ascribed to William Drummond of Hawthornden.
This short epic was probably composed early in the i7th cen-
tury, but was not published until 1684. The Polemo-Middinia
follows the example set by Arena, and describes with burlesque
solemnity a quarrel between two villages on the Firth of Forth.
Drummond shows great ingenuity in the tacking on of Latin
terminations to his Lowland Scots vernacular:
Lifeguardamque sibi saevas vocat improba lassas,
Maggaeam, magis doctam milkare cowaeas,
Et doctam sweepare flooras, et sternere beddas,
Quaeque novit spinnare, et longas ducere threedas.
There is a certain macaronic character about many poems of
Skelton and Dunbar, as well as the famous Barnabae ilinerarium
(1638) of Richard Brathwait (1588-1673), but these cannot be
considered legitimate specimens of the type as laid down by
Folengo.
See Ch. Nodier, Du Langage factice appete macaronique (1834) ;
Genthe, Histoire de la poesie macaronique (1831). (E. G.)
MACARSC A (Serbo-Croatian, Makarska), the chief town of
an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria; situated oppo-
site to the island of Brazza, about 32m. S.E. of Spalato. Pop.
(1900), of town 1805; of commune, 11,016, chiefly Serbo-Croa-
tian. Macarsca is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers,
and has a brisk trade in wine, grain and fruit. Under the name
of Mocrum, Macarsca was a thriving Roman city, and a bishopric
until 639, when it was destroyed by the Avars. In the loth
century it is mentioned 'by Constantine Porphyrogenitus as a
city of the pagan Narentines. Its bishopric was revived in
1320, but the bishops resided at Almissa. In 1481 the city was
purchased from the duke of Herzegovina by Venice; in 1499
it was conquered by the Turks; and in 1646, after a successful
revolt, it again welcomed the sovereignty of Venice. The see
of Macarsca was merged in that of Spalato in 1830.
MACARTNEY MACAULAY
193
MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY, EARL (1737-1806),
was descended from an old Scottish family, the Macartneys of
Aiuhinleck, who had settled in 1649 at Lissanoure, Antrim,
Ireland, where he was born on the i4th of May 1737. After
graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1759, he became a
student of the Temple, London. Through Stephen Fox, elder
brother of C. J. Fox, he was taken up by Lord Holland.
Appointed envoy extraordinary to Russia in 1764, he succeeded
in negotiating an alliance between England and that country.
After occupying a seat in the English parliament, he was in
1769 returned for Antrim in the Irish parliament, in order to
discharge the duties of chief secretary for Ireland. On resigning
this office he was knighted. In 1775 he became governor of
the Caribbee Islands (being created an Irish baron in 1776),
and in 1780 governor of Madras, but he declined the governor-
generalship of India, and returned to England in 1786. After
being created Earl Macartney in the Irish peerage (1792), he
was appointed the first envoy of Britain to China. On his
return from a confidential mission to Italy (1795) he was raised
to the English peerage as a baron in 1796, and in the end of the
same year was appointed governor of the newly acquired terri-
tory of the Cape of Good Hope, where he remained till ill health
compelled him to resign in November 1798. He diedat Chiswick,
Middlesex, on the 3ist of May 1806, the title becoming extinct,
and his property, after the death of his widow (daughter of the
3rd earl of Bute), going to his niece, whose son took the name.
An account of Macartney's embassy to China, by Sir George
Staunton, was published in 1797, and has been frequently reprinted.
The Life and Writings of Lord Macartney, by Sir John Barrow,
appeared in 1807. See Mrs Helen Macartney Robbins's biography,
The First English Ambassador to China (1908), based on previously
unpublished materials in possession of the family.
MACASSAR (MAKASSAR, MANGKASAR), the capital of a district
of the same name in the island of Celebes, Dutch East Indies,
and the chief town of the Dutch government of Celebes. Pop.
17,925 (940 Europeans, 2618 Chinese, 168 Arabs). It stands on
the west coast of the southern peninsula of the island, near the
southern extremity of the Macassar Strait, which separates
Celebes from Borneo. Macassar consists of the Dutch town and
port, known as Vlaardingen, and the Malay town which lies
inland. Macassar's trade amounts to about i,25o,oooannually,
and consists mainly of coffee, trepang, copra, gums, spices and
valuable timber.
For the Macassar people and for the Strait, see CELEBES. " Macas-
sar oil " is a trade name, not geographical : see ANTIMACASSAR.
MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON
(1800-1859), English historian, essayist and politician, was born
at Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, on the zsth of October 1800.
His father, Zachary Macaulay (1768-1838), had been governor
of Sierra Leone, and was in 1800 secretary to the chartered com-
pany which had founded that colony; an ardent philanthropist,
he did much to secure the abolition of the slave trade, and he
edited the abolitionist organ, the Christian Observer, for many
years. Happy in his home, the son at a very early age gave
proof of a determined bent towards literature. Before he was
eight years of age he had written a Compendium of Universal
History, which gave a tolerably connected view of the leading
events from the creation to 1800, and a romance in the style of
Scott, in three cantos, called The Battle of Cheviot. A little
later he composed a long poem on the history of Olaus Magnus,
and a vast pile of blank verse entitled Fingal, a Poem in Twelve
Books. After being at a private school, in October 1818 young
Macaulay went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he after-
wards became a fellow. He gained in 1824 a college prize for
an essay on the character of William III. He also won a prize
for Latin declamation and a Craven scholarship, and wrote the
prize poems of 1819 and 1821.
In 1826 Macaulay was called to the bar and joined the northern
circuit. But he soon gave up even the pretence of reading law,
and spent many more hours under the gallery of the house of
commons than in the court. His first attempt at a public
speech, made at an anti-slavery meeting in 1824, was described
by the Edinburgh Review as " a display of eloquence of rare
xvn. 7
and matured excellence." His first considerable appearance
in print was in No. i of Knight's Quarterly Magazine, a
periodical which enjoyed a short but brilliant existence, and
which was largely supported by Eton and Cambridge. In
August 1825 began Macaulay's connexion with the periodical
which was to prove the field of his literary reputation. The
Edinburgh Review was at this time at the height of its power,
not only as an organ of the growing opinion which leant towards
reform, but as a literary tribunal from which there was no
appeal. His essay on Milton (Aug. 1825), so crude that the
author afterwards said that " it contained scarcely a paragraph
such as his matured judgment approved," created for him at
once a literary reputation which suffered no diminution to the
last, a reputation which he established and confirmed, but
which it would have been hardly possible to make more
conspicuous. The publisher John Murray declared that it
would be worth the copyright of Childe Harold to have Macaulay
on the staff of the Quarterly Review; and Robert Hall, the
orator, writhing with pain, and wellnigh worn out with disease,
was discovered lying on the floor employed in learning by aid
of grammar and dictionary enough Italian to enable him to
verify the parallel between Milton and Dante.
This sudden blaze of popularity, kindled by a single essay,
is partly to be explained by the dearth of literary criticism in
England at that epoch. For, though a higher note had already
been sounded by Hazlitt and Coleridge, it had not yet taken hold
of the public mind, which was still satisfied with the feeble
appreciations of the Retrospective Review, or the dashing and
damnatory improvisation of Wilson in Blackwood or Jeffrey in
the Edinburgh. Still, allowance being made for the barbarous
partisanship of the established critical tribunals of the period,
it seems surprising that a social success so signal should have been
the consequence of a single article. The explanation is that the
writer of the article on Milton was, unlike most authors, also a
brilliant conversationalist. There has never been a period when
an amusing talker has not been in great demand at London
tables; but when Macaulay made his d6but witty conversation
was studied and cultivated as it has ceased to be in the more
busy age which has succeeded. At the university Macaulay
had been recognized as pre-eminent for inexhaustible talk and
genial companionship among a circle of such brilliant young men
as Charles Austin, Romilly, Praed and Villiers. He now dis-
played these gifts on a wider theatre. Launched on the best
that London had to give in the way of society, Macaulay accepted
and enjoyed with all the zest of youth and a vigorous nature the
opportunities opened for him. He was courted and admired by
the most distinguished personages of the day. He was admitted
at Holland House, where Lady Holland listened to him with
deference, and scolded him with a circumspection which was in
itself a compliment. Samuel Rogers spoke of him with friend-
liness and to him with affection. He was treated with almost
fatherly kindness by " Conversation " Sharp.
Thus distinguished, and justifiably conscious of his great
powers, Macaulay began to aspire to a political career. But
the shadow of pecuniary trouble early began to fall upon his
path. When he went to college his father believed himself to
be worth 100,000. But commercial disaster overtook the house
of Babington & Macaulay, and the son now saw himself com-
pelled to work for his livelihood. His Trinity fellowship of 300
a year became of great consequence to him, but it expired in
1831; he could make at most 200 a year by writing; and a
commissionership of bankruptcy, which was given him by Lord
Lyndhurst in 1828, and which brought him in about 400 a year,
was swept away, without compensation, by the ministry which
came into power in 1830. Macaulay was reduced to such straits
that he had to sell his Cambridge gold medal.
In February 1830 the doors of the House of Commons were
opened to him through what was then called a " pocket borough."
Lord Lansdowne, who had been struck by two articles on James
Mill and the Utilitarians, which appeared in the Edinburgh
Review in 1829, offered the author the seat at Calne. The offer
was accompanied by the express assurance that the patron
194-
MACAULAY
had no wish to interfere with Macaulay's freedom of voting. He
thus entered parliament at one of the most exciting moments of
English domestic history, when the compact phalanx of reac-
tionary administration which for nearly fifty years had com-
manded a crushing majority in the Commons was on the point
of being broken by the growing strength of the party of reform.
Macaulay made his maiden speech on the .5th of April 1830, on
the second reading of the Bill for the Removal of Jewish Disabili-
ties. In July the king died and parliament was dissolved; the
revolution took place in Paris. Macaulay, who was again
returned for Calne, visited Paris, eagerly enjoying a first taste
of foreign travel. On the ist of March 1831 the Reform Bill
was introduced, and on the second night of the debate Macaulay
made the first of his reform speeches. It was, like all his speeches,
a success. Sir Robert Peel said of it that " portions were as
beautiful as anything I have ever heard or read."
Encouraged by this first success, Macaulay now threw himself
with ardour into the life of the House of Commons, while at the
same time he continued to enjoy to the full the social opportuni-
ties which his literary and political celebrity had placed within
his reach. He dined out almost nightly, and spent many of his
Sundays at the suburban villas of the Whig leaders, while he
continued to supply the Edinburgh Review with articles. On the
triumph of Earl Grey's cabinet, and the passing of the Reform
Act in June 1832, Macaulay, whose eloquence had signalized
every stage of the conflict, became one of the commissioners of
the board of control, and applied himself to the study of Indian
affairs. Giving his days to India and his nights to the House of
Commons, he could only devote a few hours to literary composi-
tion by rising at five when the business of the house had allowed
of his getting to bed in time on the previous evening. Between
September 1831 and December 1833 he furnished the Review
with eight important articles, besides writing his ballad on the
Armada.
In the first Reform Parliament, January 1833, Macaulay took
his seat as one of the two members for Leeds, which up to that
date had been unrepresented in the House of Commons. He
replied to O'Connell in the debate on the address, meeting the
great agitator face to face, with high, but not intemperate,
defiance. In July he defended the Government of India Bill
in a speech of great power, and he was instrumental in getting
the bill through committee without unnecessary friction. When
the abolition of slavery came before the house as a practical
question, Macaulay had the prospect of having to surrender
office or to vote for a modified abolition, viz. twelve years'
apprenticeship, which was proposed by the ministry, but con-
demned by the abolitionists. He was prepared to make the
sacrifice of place rather than be unfaithful to the cause to which
his father had devoted his life. He placed his resignation in
Lord Althorp's hands, and spoke against the ministerial proposal.
But the sense of the house was so strongly expressed as unfavour-
able that, finding they would be beaten if they persisted, the
ministry gave way, and reduced apprenticeship to seven years,
a compromise which the abolition party accepted; and Macaulay
remained at the board of control.
While he was thus growing in reputation, and advancing his
public credit, the fortunes of the family were sinking, and it
became evident that his sisters would have no provision except
such as their brother might be enabled to make for them.
Macaulay had but two sources of income, both of them precari-
ous office and his pen. As to office, the Whigs could not have
expected at that time to retain power for a whole 'generation;
and, even while they did so, Macaulay's resolution that he would
always give an independent vote made it possible that he might
at any moment find himself in disagreement with his colleagues,
and have to quit his place. As to literature, he wrote to Lord
Lansdowne (1833), "it has been hitherto merely my relaxation;
I have never considered it as the means of support. I have
chosen my own topics, taken my own time, and dictated my own
terms. The thought of becoming a bookseller's hack, of spurring
a jaded fancy to reluctant exertion, of filling sheets with trash
merely that sheets may be filled, of bearing from publishers
and editors what Dryden bore from Tonson and what Mackintosh
bore from Lardner, is horrible to me." Macaulay was thus
prepared to accept the offer of a seat in the supreme council of
India, created by the new India Act. The salary of the office
was fixed at 10,000, out of which he calculated to be able to
save 30,000 in five years. His sister Hannah accepted his
proposal to accompany him, and in February 1834 the brother
and sister sailed for Calcutta.
Macaulay's appointment to India occurred at the critical
moment when the government of the company was being
superseded by government by the Crown. His knowledge of
India was, when he landed, but superficial. But at this juncture
there was more need of statesmanship directed by general
liberal principles than of a practical knowledge of the details
of Indian administration. Macaulay's presence in the council
was of great value; his minutes are models of good judgment
and practical sagacity. The part he took in India has been
described as " the application of sound liberal principles to a
government which had till then been jealous, close and repres-
sive." He vindicated the liberty of the press; he maintained the
equality of Europeans and natives before the law; and as presi-
dent of the committee of public instruction he inaugurated the
system of national education.
A clause in the India Act 1833 occasioned the appointment of
a commission to inquire into the jurisprudence of the Eastern
dependency. Macaulay was appointed president of that com-
mission. The draft of a penal code which he submitted became,
after a revision of many years, and by the labour of many
experienced lawyers, the Indian criminal code. Of this code
Sir James Stephen said that " it reproduces in a concise and even
beautiful form the spirit of the law of England, in a compass
which by comparison with the original may be regarded as almost
absurdly small. The Indian penal code is to the English criminal
law what a manufactured article ready for use is to the materials
out of which it is made. It is to the French code penal, and to
the German code of 1871, what a finished picture is to a sketch.
It is simpler and better expressed than Livingston's code for
Louisiana; and its practical success has been complete."
Macaulay's enlightened views and measures drew down on
him, however, the abuse and ill-will of Anglo-Indian society.
Fortunately for himself he was enabled to maintain a tranquil
indifference to political detraction by withdrawing his thoughts
into a sphere remote from the opposition and enmity by which
he was surrounded. Even amid the excitement of his early
parliamentary successes literature had balanced politics in his
thoughts and interests. Now in his exile he began to feel more
strongly each year the attraction of European letters and Euro-
pean history. He wrote to his friend Ellis: " I have gone back
to Greek literature with a passion astonishing to myself. I have
never felt anything like it. I was enraptured with Italian
during the six months which I gave up to it; and I was little less
pleased with Spanish. But when I went back to the Greek I
felt as if I had never known before what intellectual enjoyment
was." In thirteen months he read through, some of them twice,
a large part of the Greek and Latin classics. The fascination
of these studies produced their inevitable effect upon his view
of political life. He began to wonder what strange infatuation
leads men who can do something better to squander their intel-
lect, their health and energy, on such subjects as those which most
statesmen are engaged in pursuing. He was already, he says,
" more than half determined to abandon politics and give myself
wholly to letters, to undertake some great historical work, which
may be at once the business and the amusement of my life, and
to leave the pleasures of pestiferous rooms, sleepless nights, and
diseased stomachs to Roebuck and to Praed."
In 1838 Macaulay and his sister Hannah, who had married
Charles Trevelyan in 1834, returned to England. He at once
entered parliament as member for Edinburgh. In 1839 he
became secretary at war, with a seat in the cabinet in Lord Mel-
bourne's ministry. His acceptance of office diverted him for a
time from prosecuting the plan he had already formed of a great
historical work. But in less than two years the Melbourne
MACAULAY
ministry fell. In 1842 appeared his Lays of Ancient Rome, and
in the next year he collected and published his Essays. He
returned to office in 1846, in Lord John Russell's administration,
as paymaster-general. His duties were very light, and the con-
tact with official life and the obligations of parliamentary attend-
ance were even of benefit to him while he was engaged upon
his History. In the sessionsof 1846- 1847 he spoke only five times,
and at the general election of July 1847 he lost his seat for Edin-
burgh. The balance of Macaulay's faculties had now passed
to the side of literature. At an earlier date he had relished
crowds and the excitement of ever new faces; as years went
forward, and absorption in the work of composition took off the
edge of his spirits, he recoiled from publicity. He began to
regard the prospect of business as worry, and had no longer the
nerve to brace himself to the social efforts required of one who
represents a large constituency.
Macaulay retired into private life, not only without regret,
but with a sense of relief. He gradually withdrew from general
society, feeling the bore of big dinners and country-house visits,
but he still enjoyed close and constant intercourse with a circle
of the most eminent men that London then contained. At that
time social breakfasts were in vogue. Macaulay himself pre-
ferred this to any other form of entertainment. Of these brilliant
reunions nothing has been preserved beyond the names of the
men who formed them Rogers, Hallam, Sydney Smith, Lord
Carlisle, Lord Stanhope, Nassau Senior, Charles Greville, Milman,
Panizzi, G. C. Lewis, Van de Weyer. His biographer thus
describes Macaulay's appearance and bearing in conversation:
" Sitting bolt upright, his hands resting on the arms of his chair,
or folded over the handle of his walking-stick, knitting his eye-
brows if the subject was one which had to be thought out as he
went along, or brightening from the forehead downwards when
a burst of humour was coming, his massive features and honest
glance suited well with the manly sagacious sentiments which he
set forth in his sonorous voice and in his racy and intelligible
language. To get at his meaning people had never the need to
think twice, and they certainly had seldom the time."
But, great as was his enjoyment of literary society and books,
they only formed his recreation. In these years he was working
with unflagging industry at the composition of his History.
His composition was slow, his corrections both of matter and
style endless; he spared no pains to ascertain the facts. He
sacrificed to the prosecution of his task a political career, House
of Commons fame, the allurements of society. The first two
volumes of the History of England appeared in December 1848.
The success was in every way complete beyond expectation.
The sale of edition after edition, both in England and the United
States, was enormous.
In 1852, when his party returned to office, he refused a seat
in the cabinet, but he could not bring himself to decline the com-
pliment of a voluntary amende which the city of Edinburgh
paid him in returning him at the head of the poll at the general
election in July of that year. He had hardly accepted the
summons to return to parliamentary life before fatal weakness
betrayed itself in deranged action of the heart; from this time
forward till his death his strength continued steadily to sink.
The process carried with it dejection of spirits as its inevitable
attendant. The thought oppressed him that the great work
to which he had devoted himself would remain a fragment.
Once again, in June 1853, he spoke in parliament, and with
effect, against the exclusion of the master of the rolls from the
House of Commons, and at a later date in defence of competition
for the Indian civil service. But he was aware that it was a
grievous waste of his small stock of force, and that he made
these efforts at the cost of more valuable work.
In November 1855 vols. iii. and iv. of the History appeared
and obtained a vast circulation. Within a generation of its
first appearance upwards of 140,000 copies of the History were
printed and sold in the United Kingdom alone; and in the
United States the sales were on a correspondingly large scale.
The History was translated into German, Polish, Danish, Swedish,
Hungarian, Russian, Bohemian, Italian, French, Dutch and
Spanish. Flattering marks of respect were heaped upon the
author by foreign academies. His pecuniary profits were (for
that time) on a scale commensurate with the reputation of the
book: the cheque he received for 20,000 has become a landmark
in literary history.
In May 1856 he quitted the Albany, in which he had passed
fifteen happy years, and went to live at Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, then, before it was enlarged, a tiny bachelor's dwelling,
but with a lawn whose unbroken slope of verdure gave it the air
of a considerable country house. In the following year (1857)
he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Macaulay
of Rothley. " It was," says Lady Trevelyan, " one of the few
things that everybody approved; he enjoyed it himself, as he did
everything, simply and cordially." It was a novelty in English
life to see eminence which was neither that of territorial opulence
nor of political or military services recognized and rewarded by
elevation to the peerage.
But Macaulay's health, which had begun to give way in 1852,
was every year visibly failing. In May 1858 he went to Cam-
bridge for the purpose of being sworn in as high steward of the
borough, to which office he had been elected on the death of Earl
Fitzwilliam. When his health was given at a public breakfast
in the town-hall he was obliged to excuse himself from speaking.
In the upper house he never spoke. Absorbed in the prosecu-
tion of his historical work, he had grown indifferent to the party
politics of his own day. Gradually he had to acquiesce in the
conviction that, though his intellectual powers remained unim-
paired, his physical energies would not carry him through the
reign of Anne; and, though he brought down the narrative to the
death of William III., the last half-volume wants the finish and
completeness of the earlier portions. The winter of 1859 told
on him, and he died on the 28th of December. On the gth of
January 1860 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, in Poets'
Corner, near the statue of Addison.
Lord Macaulay never married. A man of warm domestic
affections, he found their satisfaction in the attachment and close
sympathy of his sister Hannah, the wife of Sir Charles Trevelyan.
Her children were to him as his own. Macaulay was a steadfast
friend, and no act inconsistent with the strictest honour and in-
tegrity was ever imputed to him. When a poor man, and when
salary was of consequence to him, he twice resigned office rather
than make compliances for which he would not have been
severely blamed. In 1847, when his seat in parliament was at
stake, he would not be persuaded to humour, to temporize, even
to conciliate. He had a keen relish for the good things of life,
and desired fortune as the means of obtaining them; but there
was nothing mercenary or selfish in his nature. When he had
raised himself to opulence, he gave away with an open hand,
not seldom rashly. His very last act was to write a letter to a
poor curate enclosing a cheque for 25. The purity of his morals
was not associated with any tendency to cant.
The lives of men of letters are often records of sorrow or
suffering. The life of Macaulay was eminently happy. Till the
closing years (1857-1859), he enjoyed life with the full zest of
healthy faculty, happy in social intercourse, happy in the solitude
of his study, and equally divided between the two. For the
last fifteen years of his life he lived for literature. His writings
were remunerative to him far beyond the ordinary measure, yet
he never wrote for money. He lived in his historical researches;
his whole heart and interest were unreservedly given to the men
and the times of whom he read and wrote. His command of
literature was imperial. Beginning with a good classical
foundation, he made himself familiar with the imaginative, and
then with the historical, remains of Greece and Rome. He went
on to add the literature of his own country, of France, of Italy,
of Spain. He learnt Dutch enough for the purposes of his his-
tory. He read German, but for the literature of the northern
nations he had no taste, and of the erudite labours of the
Germans he had little knowledge and formed an inadequate
estimate. The range of his survey of human things had other
limitations more considerable still. All philosophical speculation
was alien to his mind; nor did he seem aware of the degree in
196
MACAW
which such speculation had influenced the progress of humanity.
A large the largest part of ecclesiastical history lay outside
1iis historical view. Of art he confessed himself ignorant, and
even refused a request to furnish a critique on Swift's poetry to
the Edinburgh Review. Lessing's Laocoon, or Goethe's criticism
on Hamlet, " filled " him " with wonder and despair."
Of the marvellous discoveries of science which were succeeding
each other day by day he took no note; his pages contain no
reference to them. It has been told already how he recoiled
from the mathematical studies of his university. These de-
ductions made, the circuit of his knowledge still remains very
wide as extensive perhaps as any human brain is competent
to embrace. His literary outfit was as complete as has ever been
possessed by any English writer; and, if it wants the illumination
of philosophy, it has an equivalent resource in a practical
acquaintance with affairs, with administration, with the interior
of cabinets, and the humour of popular assemblies. Nor
was the knowledge merely stored in his memory; it was always
at his command. Whatever his subject, he pours over it his
stream of illustration, drawn from the records of all ages and
countries. His Essays are not merely instructive as history;
they are, like Milton's blank verse, freighted with the spoils of
all the ages. As an historian Macaulay has not escaped the
charge of partisanship. He was a Whig; and in writing the
history of the rise and triumph of Whig principles in the latter
half of the iyth century he identified himself with the cause.
But the charge of partiality, as urged against Macaulay, means
more than that he wrote the history of the Whig revolution from
the point of view of those who made it. When he is describing
the merits of friends and the faults of enemies his pen knows
no moderation. He has a constant tendency to glaring colours,
to strong effects, and will always be striking violent blows. He
is not merely exuberant but excessive. There is an overweening
confidence about his tone; he expresses himself in trenchant
phrases, which are like challenges to an opponent to stand
up and deny them. His propositions have no qualifications.
Uninstructed readers like this assurance, as they like a physician
who has no doubt about their case. But a sense of distrust grows
upon the more circumspect reader as he follows page after page
of Macaulay's categorical affirmations about matters which our
own experience of life teaches us to be of a contingent nature.
We inevitably think of a saying attributed to Lord Melbourne:
" I wish I were as cocksure of any one thing as Macaulay is of
everything." Macaulay's was the mind of the advocate, not of
the philosopher; it was the mind of Bossuet, which admits no
doubts or reserves itself and tolerates none in others, and as such
was disqualified from that equitable balancing of evidence which
is the primary function of the historian.
Macaulay, the historian no less than the politician, is, however,
always on the side of justice, fairness for the weak against the
strong, the oppressed against the oppressor. But though a
Liberal in practical politics, he had not the reformer's tempera-
ment. The world as it is was good enough for him. The glories
of wealth, rank, honours, literary fame, the elements of vulgar
happiness, made up his ideal of life. A successful man himself,
every personage and every cause is judged by its success. " The
brilliant Macaulay," says Emerson, " who expresses the tone of
the English governing classes of the day, explicitly teaches that
' good ' means good to eat, good to wear, material commodity."
Macaulay is in accord with the average sentiment of orthodox
and stereotyped humanity on the relative values of the objects
and motives of human endeavour. And this commonplace
materialism is one of the secrets of his popularity, and one
of the qualities which guarantee that that popularity will be
enduring. (M. P.)
Macaulay's whole works were collected in 1866 by his sister, Lady
Trevelyan, in 8 vols. The first four volumes are occupied by the
History; the next three contain the Essays, and the Lives which
he contributed to the Encyclopaedia Britannica. In vol. viii. are
collected his Speeches, the Lays of Ancient Rome, and some mis-
cellaneous pieces. The " life " by Dean Milman, printed in vol. viii.
of the edition of 1858-1862, is prefixejl to the " People's Edition "
(4 vols., 1863-1864). Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. published a
complete edition, the " Albany," in 12 vols., in 1898. There are
numerous editions of the Critical and Historical Essays, separately
and collectively; they were edited in 1903 by F. C. Montagu.
The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay (2 vols., 1876), by his
nephew, Sir George Otto Trevelyan, is one of the best biographies
in the English language. The life (1882) in the " English Men of
Letters " series was written by J. Cotter Morison. For further
criticism, see Hepworth Dixon.in his Life of Penn (1841) ; John Paget,
The New Examen: Inquiry into Macaulay's History (1861) and
Paradoxes and Puzzles (1874); Walter Bagehot, in the National
Review (Jan. 1856), reprinted in his Literary Studies (1879); James
Spedding, Evenings with a Reviewer (1881), discussing his essay on
Bacon; SirL.Stephen, Hours in a Library, vol. ii. (1892) ; Lord Morley,
Critical Miscellanies (1877), vol. ii. ; Lord Avebury, Essays and
Addresses (1903) ; Thum, Anmerkungen zu Macaulay's History of
England (Heilbronn, 1882). A bibliography of German criticism
of Macaulay is given in G. Korting's Grd. der engl. Literatur (4th
ed., Miinster, 1905).
MACAW, or, as formerly spelt, MACCAW, the name given to
some fifteen or more species of large, long-tailed birds of the
parrot-family, natives of the neotropical region, and forming a
very well-known and easily recognized genus Ara, and to the
four species of Brazilian Hyacinthine macaws of the genera
Anodorhynchus and Cyanopsittacus. Most of the macaws are
remarkable for their gaudy plumage, which exhibits the brightest
scarlet, yellow, blue and green in varying proportion and often
in violent contrast, while a white visage often adds a very pecu-
liar and expressive character. 1 With one exception the known
species of Ara inhabit the mainland of America from Paraguay
to Mexico, being especially abundant in Bolivia, where no fewer
than seven of them (or nearly one half) have been found (Proc.
Zool. Soc., 1879, p. 634). The single extra-continental species,
A . tricolor, is one of the most brilliantly coloured, and is peculiar
to Cuba, where, according to Gundlach (Ornitologia Cubana,
p. 126), its numbers are rapidly decreasing so that there is every
chance of its becoming extinct. 2
Of the best known species of the group, the blue-and-yellow
macaw, A. ararauna, has an extensive range in South America
from Guiana in the east to Colombia in the west, and southwards
to Paraguay. Of large size, it is to be seen in almost every
zoological garden, and it is very frequently kept alive in
private houses, for its temper is pretty good, and it will become
strongly attached to those who tend it. Its richly coloured
plumage, sufficiently indicated by its common English name,
supplies feathers eagerly sought by salmon-fishers for the making
of artificial flies. The red-and-blue macaw, A. macao, is even
larger and more gorgeously clothed, for, besides the colours
expressed in its ordinary appellation, yellow and green enter into
its adornment. It inhabits Central as well as South America as
far as Bolivia, and is also a common bird in captivity, though
perhaps less often seen than the foregoing. The red-and-
yellow species, A. chloroptera, ranging from Panama to Brazil,
is smaller, or at least has a shorter tail, and is not quite so usually
met with in menageries. The red-and-green, A. militaris,
smaller again than the last, is not unfrequent in confinement,
and presents the colours of the name it bears. This has the
most northerly extension of habitat, occurring in Mexico and
thence southwards to Bolivia. In A. manilata and A. nobilis
the prevailing colour is green and blue. The Hyacinthine
macaws A. hyacinthinus, A. leari, A. glaucus and Cyanopsittacus
spixi are almost entirely blue.
The macaws live well in captivity, either chained to a perch
or kept in large aviaries in which their strong flight is noticeable.
The note of these birds is harsh and screaming. The sexes are
1 This serves to separate the macaws from the long-tailed para-
keets of the New World (Conurus), to which they are very nearly
allied.
8 There is some reason to think that Jamaica may have formerly
possessed a macaw (though no example is known to exist), and if so
it was most likely a peculiar species. Sloane (Voyage, ii. 297),
after describing what he calls the " great maccaw " (A. ararauna),
which he had seen in captivity in that island, mentions the " small
maccaw " as being very common in the woods there, and P. H.
Gosse (Birds of Jamaica, p. 260) gives, on the authority of Robin-
son, a local naturalist of the last century, the description of a bird
which cannot be reconciled with any species now known, though it
must have evidently been allied to the Cuban A . tricolor.
MACBETH MACCABEES
197
alike; the lustreless white eggs are laid in hollow trees, usually
two at a time. The birds are gregarious but apparently
monogamous. (A. N.)
MACBETH, king of Scotland (d. 1058), was the son of Find-
laech, mormaer or hereditary ruler of Moreb (Moray and Ross),
who had been murdered by his nephews in 1020. He probably
became mormaer on the death of Malcolm, one of the murderers,
in 1029, and he may have been one of the chiefs (the Maclbaethe
of the Saxon Chronicle) who submitted to Canute in 1031.
Marianus records that in 1040 Duncan, the grandson and suc-
cessor of Malcolm king of Scotland, wasslain by Macbeth. Duncan
had shortly before suffered a severe defeat at the hands of
Thorfinn, the Norwegian earl of Orkney and Caithness, and it was
perhaps this event which tempted Macbeth to seize the throne.
As far as is known he had no claim to the crown except through
his wife Gruach, who appears to have been a member of the
royal family. Macbeth was apparently a generous benefactor
to the Church, and is said to have made a pilgrimage to Rome in
1050. According to S. Berchan his reign was a time of pro-
sperity for Scotland. The records of the period, however, are
extremely meagre, and much obscurity prevails, especially as
to his relations with the powerful earl Thorfinn. More than one
attempt was made by members of the Scottish royal family
to recover the throne; in 1045 by Crinan, the lay abbot of
Dunkeld, son-in-law of Malcolm II., and in 1054 by Duncan's
son Malcolm with the assistance of Siward the powerful earl of
Northumbria, himself a connexion of the ousted dynasty. Three
years later in 1057 Malcolm and Siward again invaded Scotland
and the campaign ended with the defeat and death of Macbeth,
who was slain at Lumphanan. Macbeth is, of course, chiefly
famous as the central figure of Shakespeare's great tragedy.
See W. F. Skene, Chronicles of the Picts and Scots (1867) and
Celtic Scotland (1876) ; Sir John Rhys, Celtic Britain (1904).
MACCABEES, the name (in the plural) of a distinguished
Jewish family dominant in Jerusalem in the 2nd century B.C.
According to i Mace. ii. 4, the name Maccabaeus (Gr. MaK/ca-
/3alos-? Heb.* "3i?9) was originally the distinctive surname of
Judas, third son of the Jewish priest Mattathias, who struck
the first blow for religious liberty during the persecution
under Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes). Subsequently, however, it
obtained a wider significance, having been applied first to
the kinsmen of Judas, then to his adherents, and ultimately
to all champions of religion in the Greek period. Thus
the mother of the seven brethren, whose martyrdom is
related in 2 Mace, vi., vii., is called by early Christian writers
" the mother of the Maccabees." The name is used still more
loosely in the titles of the so-called Third, Fourth and Fifth
Books of Maccabees. It is now customary to apply it only
to the sons and descendants of Mattathias. As, however,
according to Josephus (Ant. xii. 6. i), this brave priest's great-
great-grandfather was called gasman (i.e. " rich " = magnate;
cf. Ps. Ixviii. 31 [32]), the family is more correctly designated
by the name of Hasmonaeans or Asmoneans (?..). This name
Jewish authors naturally prefer to that of Maccabees; they
also style i and 2 Mace. "Books of the Hasmonaeans."
If Maccabee (maqqabi) is the original form of the name,
the most probable derivation is from the Aramaic maqqaba
(Heb. n^g?, Judg. iv. 21, &c.) = " hammer." The surname
"hammerer" might have been applied to Judas either as a
distinctive title pure and simple or symbolically as in the
parallel case of Edward I., "Scotorum \malleus." Even if
maqqaba does denote the ordinary workman's hammer, and not
the great smith's hammer which would more fitly symbolize the
impetuosity of Judas, this is not a fatal objection. The doubled
k of the Greek form is decisive against (i) the theory that the
name Maccabee was made up of the initials of the opening
words of Exod. xv. n; (2) the derivation from 'j^j = "extin-
guisher" (cf. Isa. xliii. 17), based by Curtiss (The Name
Machabee, Leipzig, 1876) on the Latin spelling Machabaeus =
MaKKojSaloj, which Jerome probably adopted in accordance
with the usage of the times.
The Maccabaean revolt was caused by the attempt of
Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes), king of Syria (175-164 B.C.), to force
Hellenism upon Judaea (see SELEUCID DYNASTY; HELLENISH).
Ever since the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek habits
and ideas had been widely adopted in Palestine. Over the
higher classes especially Hellenism had cast its spell. This called
forth the organized opposition of the Hasidim (= " the pious "),
who constituted themselves champions of the Law. Joshua,
who headed the Hellenistic faction, graecized bis name into
Jason, contrived to have the high-priesthood taken from his
brother Onias III., and conferred upon himself, and set up a
gymnasium hard by the Temple. After three years' tenure of
office Jason was supplanted by the Benjamite Menelaus, who
disowned Judaism entirely. Antiochus punished an outburst
of strife between the rivals by plundering the Temple and
slaying many of the inhabitants (170 B.C.). Two years later
Jerusalem was devastated by his general Apollonius, and a
Syrian garrison occupied the citadel (Akra). The Jews were
ordered under pain of death to substitute for their own ob-
servances the Pagan rites prescribed for the empire generally.
In December 168 sacrifice was offered to Zeus upon an idol
altar (" the abomination of desolation," Dan. x. 27) erected
over the great altar of burnt-offering. But Antiochus had
miscalculated, and by his extreme measures unwittingly saved
Judaism from its internal foes. Many hellenizers rallied round
those who were minded to die rather than abjure their religion.
The issue of an important edict ordaining the erection of heathen
altars in every township of Palestine, and the appointment
of officers to deal with recusants, brought matters to a crisis.
At Modin, Mattathias, an aged priest, not only refused to offer
the first sacrifice, but slew an apostate Jew who was about
to step into the breach. He also killed the king's commissioner
and pulled down the altar. Having thus given the signal
for rebellion, he then with his five sons took to the mountains.
In view of the ruthless slaughter of a thousand Sabbatarians
in the wilderness, Mattathias and his friends decided to resist
attack even on the sabbath. Many, including the Hasidim,
thereupon flocked to his standard, and set themselves to revive
Jewish rites and to uproot Paganism from the land. In 166
Mattathias died, after charging his sons to give their lives
for their ancestral faith, and nominating Judas Maccabaeus
as their leader in the holy campaign.
The military genius of Judas made this the most stirring
chapter in Israelitish history. In quick succession he over-
threw the Syrian generals Apollonius, Seron and Gorgias,
and after the regent Lysias had shared the same fate at his
hands he restored the Temple worship (165). These exploits
dismayed his opponents and kindled the enthusiasm of his
friends. When, however, Lysias returned in force to renew
the contest, Judas had to fall back upon the Temple mount,
and escaped defeat only because the Syrian leader was obliged
to hasten back to Antioch in order to prevent a rival from
seizing the regency. Under these circumstances Lysias un-
expectedly guaranteed to the Jews their religious freedom
(162). But though they had thus gained their end, the struggle
did not cease; it merely assumed a new phase. The Hasidim
indeed were satisfied, and declined to fight longer, but the
Maccabees determined not to desist until their nation was
politically as well as religiously free. In 161 Judas defeated
Nicanor at Adasa, but within a few weeks thereafter, in a
heroic struggle against superior numbers under Bacchides
at Elasa, he was himself cut off. Even this, however, did not
prove fatal to the cause which Judas had espoused. If in his
brother Jonathan it did not possess so brilliant a soldier, it
had in him an astute diplomatist who knew how to exploit the
internal troubles of Syria. In the contest between Demetrius I.
and Alexander Balas for the throne, Jonathan supported the
latter, who in 153 nominated him high priest, and conferred
on him the order of " King's Friend," besides other honours.
After the accession of Demetrius II. (145) Jonathan contrived
to win his favour, and helped him to crush a rebellion in Antioch
on condition that the Syrian garrisons should be withdrawn
198
MACCABEES, BOOKS OF
from Judaea. When, however, Demetrius failed to keep his
word, Jonathan transferred his allegiance to Antiochus VI., whom
Tryphon had crowned as king. After subjugating the territory
between Jerusalem and Damascus, he routed the generals
of Demetrius on the plain of Hazor. But as the Macca-
bees had now in the name of the Syrians cleared the Syrians
out of Palestine, Tryphon's jealousy was aroused, and he
resolved to be rid of Jonathan, who, with all his cunning,
walked into a trap at Ptolemais, was made prisoner and ulti-
mately slain (143). The leadership now devolved upon Simon,
the last survivor of the sons of Mattathias. He soon got the
better of Tryphon, who vainly tried to reach Jerusalem. Allying
himself to Demetrius, Simon succeeded in negotiating a
treaty whereby the political independence of Judaea was at
length secured. The garrison in the Akra having been starved
into submission, Simon triumphantly entered that fortress
in May 142. In the following year he was by popular decree
invested with absolute powers, being appointed leader, high
priest and ethnarch. As these offices were declared hereditary
in his family, he became the founder of the Hasmonaean dynasty.
The first year of his reign (Seleucid year 170 = 143-142 B.C.)
was made the beginning of a new era, and the issue of a Jewish
coinage betokened the independence of his sovereignty. Under
Simon's administration the country enjoyed signal prosperity.
Its internal resources were assiduously developed; trade,
agriculture, civic justice and religion were fostered; while at
no epoch in its post-exilic history did Israel enjoy an equal
measure of social happiness (i Mace. xiv. 4 seq.). Simon's
beneficent activities came, however, to a sudden and tragic
end. In 135 he and two of his sons were murdered by Ptolemy
his son-in-law, who had an eye to the supreme power. But
Simon's third son, John Hyrcanus, warned in time, succeeded
in asserting his rights as hereditary head of the state. All
the sons of Mattathias had now died for the sake of " The
Law "; and the result of their work, so valorously prosecuted
for over thirty years, was a new-born enthusiasm in Israel
for the ancestral faith. The Maccabaean struggle thus gave
fresh life to the Jewish nation.
After the death of Antiochus VII. Sidetes in 128 left him a
free hand, Hyrcanus (135-105) soon carved out for himself
a large and prosperous kingdom, which, however, was rent
by internal discord owing to the antagonism developed between
the rival parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Hyrcanus
was succeeded by his son Aristobulus, whose reign of but one
year was followed by that of his brother, the warlike Alex-
ander Jannaeus (104-78). The new king's Sadducean pro-
clivities rendered him odious to the populace, which rose in
revolt, but only to bring upon itself a savage revenge. The
accession of his widow Salome Alexandra (78-69) witnessed
a complete reversal of the policy pursued by Jannaeus, for she
chose to rule in accordance with the ideals of the Pharisees.
Her elder son, Hyrcanus II., a pliable weakling, was appointed
high priest; her younger son, the energetic Aristobulus, who
chafed at his exclusion from office, seized some twenty strong-
holds and with an army bore down upon Jerusalem. At this
crisis Alexandra died, and Hyrcanus agreed to retire in favour
of his masterful brother. A new and disturbing element now
entered into Jewish politics in the person of the Idumaean
Antipater, who for selfish ends deliberately made mischief
between the brothers. An appeal to M. Aemilius Scaurus,
who in 65 came into Syria as the legate of Pompey, led to the
interference of the Romans, the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey,
and the vassalage of the Jews (q.v.). Hyrcanus II. was appointed
high priest and ethnarch, without the title of king (63). Re-
peated but fruitless attempts were made by the Hasmonaeans
and their patriotic supporters to throw off the Roman yoke.
In 47 Antipater, who curried favour with Rome, was made
procurator of Judaea, and his sons Phasael and Herod governors
of Jerusalem and Galilee respectively. Six years later the
Idumaean brothers were appointed tetrarchs of Judaea. At
length, in 40, the Parthians set up as king Antigonus, sole
surviving son of Aristobulus. Thereupon Phasael committed
suicide in prison, but Herod effected his escape and with the
help of the Romans seated himself on the throne of Judaea
(37 B.C.). Through the execution of Antigonus by M. Antonius
(Mark Antony) the same year the Hasmonaean dynasty became
extinct.
LITERATURE. I and 2 Mace, and Josephus are the main sources
for the Maccabaean history. For references in classical authors
see E. Schurer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes (1901, p 106 seq.).
Besides the numerous modern histories of Israel (e.g. those by
Derenbourg, Ewald, Stanley, Stade, Renan, Schurer, Kent, Well-
hausen, Guthe), see also Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881), H. Weiss's
Judas Makkabaeus (1897), and the articles in the Ency. Bib., Has-
tings's Diet. Bible, the Jewish Encyclopedia. Among more popular
sketches are Moss's From Malachi to Matthew (1893) ; Streanes The
Age of the Maccabees (1898); Morrison's The Jews under Roman Rule
(" Story of the Nations ' series) ; W. Fairweather's From the Exile to
the Advent (1901); E. R. Sevan's Jerusalem under the High Priests
(1904) ; F. Henderson's The Age of the Maccabees (1907) ; also articles
JEWS; SELEUCID DYNASTY. (W. F.*)
MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, the name given to several Apocry-
phal books of the Old Testament. The Vulgate contains two
books of Maccabees which were declared canonical by the
council of Trent (1546) and found a place among the Apocrypha
of the English Bible. Three other books of this name are
extant. Book iii. is included in the Septuagint but not in the
Vulgate. Book iv. is embraced in the Alexandrian, Sinaitic,
and other MSS. of the Septuagint, as well as in some MSS. of
Josephus. A " Fifth " book is contained in the Ambrosian
Peshitta, but it seems to be merely a Syriac reproduction of
the sixth book of Josephus's history of the Jewish War. None
of the books of Maccabees are contained in the Vatican (B);
all of them are found in a Syriac recension.
1 Maccabees was originally written in Hebrew, but is pre-
served only in a Greek translation. Origen gives a trans-
literation of "its Semitic title," 1 and Jerome says distinctly:
" The First Book of Maccabees I found in Hebrew." The
frequent Hebraisms which mark the Greek translation, as well
as the fact that some obscure passages in the Greek text are
best accounted for as mistranslations from the Hebrew, afford
internal evidence of the truth of this testimony. There are
good reasons for regarding the book as a unity, although some
scholars (Destinon, followed by Wellhausen) consider the
concluding chapters (xiii.-xvi.) a later addition unknown to
Josephus, who, however, seems to have already used the Greek.
It probably dates from about the beginning of the first century
B.C. 2
As it supplies a detailed and accurate record of the forty
years from the accession of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon (175-135 B.C.), without doubt the most stirring
chapter in Jewish history, the book is one of the most precious
historical sources we possess. In its careful chronology, based
upon the Seleucid era, in the minuteness of its geographical
knowledge, in the frankness with which it records defeat as
well as victory, on the restraint with which it speaks of the
enemies of the Jews, in its command of details, it bears on
its face the stamp of genuineness. Not that it is wholly free
from error or exaggeration, but its mistakes are due merely to
defective knowledge of the outside world, and its overstate-
ments, virtually confined to the matter of numbers, proceed
from a patriotic desire to magnify Jewish victories. While
the author presumably had some written sources at his disposal, 3
his narrative is probably for the most part founded upon
personal knowledge and recollection of the events recorded,
and upon such first-hand information as, living in the second
'Sap/S^ Sa/Sai-aieX (Sarbeth Sabanaiel). No satisfactory explana-
tion of this title has yet been given from the Hebrew (see the com-
mentaries). The book may, however, have been known to Origen
only in an Aramaic translation, in which case, according to the
happy conjecture of Dalman (Gramm. 6) the two words may have
represented the Aramaic 'KJIDBTI .ra tsa (" book of the Hasmonaean
house").
2 If the book is a unity, ch. xvi. 23 implies that it was written after
the death of Hyrcanus which occurred in 105 B.C. On the other hand
the friendly references to Rome in ch. viii. show that it must have
been written before the siege of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B.C.
3 Cf. ix. 22, xi. 37, xiv. 18, 27.
MACCABEES, BOOKS OF
generation after, he would still be in a position to obtain. His
sole aim is honestly to relate what he knew of the glorious
struggles of his nation.
Although written in the style of the historical books of the
old Testament, the work is characterized by a religious reticence
which avoids even the use of the divine name, and by the
virtual absence of the Messianic hope. The observance of the
law is strongly urged, and the cessation of prophecy deplored
(iv. 46; xiv. 41). There is no allusion either to the immortality
of the soul or to the resurrection of the dead. The rewards
to which the dying Mattathias points his sons are all for this
life. Many scholars are of opinion that the unknown author
was a Sadducee, 1 but all that can be said with certainty is
that he was a Palestinian Jew devotedly attached to the national
cause.
Until the council of Trent i Maccabees had only " ecclesiastical "
rank, and although not accepted as. canonical by the Protestant
churches, it has always been held in high estimation. Luther says
" it closely resembles the rest of the books of Holy Scripture, and
would not be unworthy to be enumerated with them."
2 Maccabees, the epitome of a larger work in five books by
one Jason of Cyrene, deals with the same history as its pre-
decessor, except that it begins at a point one year earlier (176
B.C.), and stops short at the death of Nicanor (161 B.C.), thus
covering a period of only fifteen years. First of all 2 the writer
describes the futile attempt of Heliodorus to rob the Temple,
and the malicious intrigues of the Benjamite Simon against
the worthy high priest Onias III. (iii. i-iv. 6). As throwing
light upon the situation prior to the Maccabaean revolt this
section of the book is of especial value. Chapters iv. 7-vii. 42
contain a more detailed narrative of the events recorded in
i Mace. i. 10-64. The remainder of the book runs parallel
to i Mace, iii.-vii.
Originally written in excellent Greek, from a pronouncedly
Pharisaic standpoint, it was possibly directed against the
Hasmonaean dynasty. It shows no sympathy with the priestly
class. Both in trustworthiness and in style it is inferior to
i Mace. Besides being highly coloured, the narrative does not
observe strict chronological sequence. Instead of the sober
annalistic style of the earlier historian we have a work marked
by hyperbole, inflated rhetoric and homiletic reflection. Bitter
invective is heaped upon the national enemies, and strong
predilection is shown for the marvellous. The fullness and
inaccuracy of detail which are a feature of the book suggest
that Jason's information was derived from the recollections
of eye-witnesses orally communicated. In spite of its obvious
defects, however, it forms a useful supplement to the first
book.
The writer's interests are religious rather than historical.
In i Mace, there is a keen sense of the part to be played
by the Jews themselves, of the necessity of employing their
own skill and valour; here they are made to rely rather upon
divine intervention. Fantastic apparitions of angelic and
supernatural beings, gorgeously arrayed and mostly upon
horseback, are frequently introduced. In general, the views
reflected in the book are those of the Pharisees. The ungodly
will be punished mercilessly, and in exact correspondence to
their sins. 3 The chastisements of erring Jews are of short
duration, and intended to recall them to duty. If the faithful
suffer martyrdom, it is in order to serve as an example to others,
and they shall be compensated by being raised up " unto an
eternal renewal of life." The eschatology of 2 Mace, is singu-
larly advanced, for it combines the doctrine of a resurrection
with that of immortality. It is worthy of note that the
Roman Church finds support in this book for its teaching with
1 See especially Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel,
206 seq.
1 Prefixed to the book are two spurious letters from Palestinian
Jews (i., ii. 18), having no real connexion with it, or even with one
another, further than that they both urge Egyptian Jews to observe
the Feast of the Dedication. Between these and the main narrative
is inserted the writer's own preface, in which he explains the source
and aim of his work (ii. 10-32).
iv. 38, 42; v. 9 seq.; ix. 5-18.
199
reference to prayers for the dead and purgatory (xii. 43 seq.).
An allusion to Jeremiah as " he who prayeth much for the
people and the holy city " (rv. 14) it likewise appeals to as
favouring its views respecting the intercession of the saints.
Neither of Jason's work, nor of the epitomizer's, can the
precise date be determined. The changed relations with Rome
(viii. 10, 36) prove, however, that the latter was written later
than i Mace.; and it is equally clear that it was composed
before the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 70.
The account given of the martyrs in chs. vi. and vii. led to frequent
allusions to this book in early patristic literature. Only Augustine,
however, was minded to give it the canonical rank to which it has
been raised by the Roman Church. Luther judged of it as unfavour-
ably as he judged of I Mace, favourably, and even " wished it had
never existed.'
3 Maccabees, although purporting to be an historical narra-
tive, is really an animated, if somewhat vapid, piece of fiction
written in Greek somewhere between too B.C. and A.D. yo, 4 and
apparently preserved only in part. 6 It has no connexion with
the Hasmonaeans, but is a story of the deliverance experienced
by the Egyptian Jews from impending martyrdom at the hands
of Ptolemy IV. Philopator, who reigned in the century previous
to the Maccabaean rising (222-205 B.C.). The title is of later
origin, and rendered possible only by the generalization of the
name Maccabee so as to embrace all who suffered for the ances-
tral faith. Josephus refers the legend on which it is based to
the time of Ptolemy VII. Physcon (146-117 B.C.). Some scholars
(Ewald, Reuss, Hausrath) think that what the story really
points to is the persecution under Caligula, but in that case
Ptolemy would naturally have been represented as claiming
divine honours. No other source informs us of a visit to Jerusa-
lem, or of a persecution of the Jews, on the part of Philopator.
Possibly, however, the story may be founded on some historical
situation regarding which we have no definite knowledge. The
purpose of the writer was evidently to cheer his Egyptian
brethren during some persecution at Alexandria. Although
the book was favourably regarded in the Syrian, it was appar-
ently unknown to the Latin Church. Among the Jews' it was
virtually ignored.
Briefly, the tale is as follows: After the battle of Raphia (217
B.C.), Ptolemy IV. Philopator insisted on entering the sanctuary
at Jerusalem, but was struck down by the Almighty in answer to the
prayers of the horrified Jews. On his return to Egypt he revenged
himself by curtailing the religious liberty of the Alexandrian Jews,
and by depriving of their civic rights all who refused to worship
Bacchus. Exasperated by their loyalty to their religion, the king
ordered all the Jews in Egypt to be imprisoned in the hippodrome
of Alexandria. Clerks were told off to prepare a list of the prisoners'
names, but after forty days constant toil they had exhausted their
writing materials without finishing their task. Ptolemy further
commanded that 500 elephants should be intoxicated and let loose
upon the occupants of the racecourse. Only an accident prevented
the carrying out of this design ; the king had slept until it was past
the time for his principal meal. On the following day, in virtue of
a divinely induced forgetfulness, Ptolemy recollected nothing but
the loyalty of the Jews to his throne. The same evening, neverthe-
less, he repeated his order for their destruction. Accordingly, on
the morning of the third day, when the king attended to see his
4 The date of composition can be only approximately determined.
As the writer is acquainted with the Greek additions to Daniel (vi. 6),
the first century B.C. forms the superior limit ; and as the book found
favour in the Eastern Church, the first century A.D. forms the inferior
limit.
6 Apart from its abrupt commencement, the references in i. 2 to
" the plot " as something already specified, and in ii. 25 to the king's
" before-mentioned " companions, of whom, however, nothing is
said ih the previous section of the book, point to the loss of at least
an introductory chapter.
* The statements with reference to the war between Antiochus
the Great and Ptolemy Philopator are in general agreement with
those of the classical historians, and to this extent the tale may be
said to have an historical setting. By Grimm (EM. 3), the observ-
ance of the two yearly festivals (vi. 26; vii. 19), and the existence
of the synagogue at Ptolemais when the book was written, are viewed
as the witness of tradition to the fact of some great deliverance.
Fritzsche has well pointed out, however (art. Makkabaer " in
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexiton) that in the hands of Jewish writers of the
period nearly every event of consequence has a festival attached
to it.
200
MAcCARTHY, D. F. MCCARTHY, J.
commands executed, things had reached a crisis. The Jews prayed
to the Lord for mercy, and two angels appeared from heaven, to the
confusion of the royal troops, who were trampled down by the ele-
phants. Ptolemy now vented his wrath upon his counsellors,
liberated the Jews, and feasted them for seven days. They deter-
mined that these should be kept as festal days henceforth in com-
memoration of their deliverance. The provincial governors were
enjoined to take the Jews under their protection, and leave was given
to the latter to slay those of their kinsmen who had deserted the
faith. They further celebrated their deliverance at Ptolemais,
where they built a synagogue, and they reached their various abodes
to find themselves not only reinstated in their possessions, but raised
in the esteem of the Egyptians.
4 Maccabees differs essentially from the other books of this
name. While it does not itself aim at being a history, it makes
striking use of Jewish history for purposes of edification. It
bears, moreover, a distinctly philosophical character, and takes
the form of a " tractate " or discourse, addressed to Jews only, 1
upon " the supremacy of pious reason over the passions." 2 The
material is well arranged and systematically handled. In the
prologue (i. 1-12) the writer explains the aim and scope of his
work. Then follows the first main division (i. i3~iii. 18), in
which he treats philosophically the proposition that reason is
the mistress of the passions, inquiring what is meant by " reason"
and what by " passion," as well as how many kinds of passion
there are, and whether reason rules them all. The conclusion
reached is that with the exception of forgetfulness and ignorance
all the affections are under the lordship of reason, or at all events
of pious reason. To follow the dictates of pious reason in op-
position to natural inclination is to have learned the secret of
victory over the passions. In the second part of the book
(iii. lo-xviii. 5) the writer goes on to prove his thesis from Jewish
history, dwelling in particular upon the noble stand made against
the tyranny of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes by the priest Eleazar,
the seven brothers and their mother all of whom chose torture
and death rather than apostatize from the faith. Finally he
appeals to his readers to emulate these acts of piety (xvii. 7-
xviii. 24). In his gruesome descriptions of physical sufferings the
author offends against good taste even more than the writer of
2 Mace., while both contrast very unfavourably in this respect
with the sober reserve of the gospel narratives.
The book is written in a cultured, if somewhat rhetorical,
Greek style, and is unmistakably coloured by the Stoic philosophy.
The four cardinal virtues are represented as forms of wisdom,
which again is inseparable from the Mosaic law. That the writer
owes no slavish adherence to any philosophical system is plain
from his independent treatment of the affections. Although
influenced by Hellenism, he is a loyal Jew, earnestly desirous
that all who profess the same faith should adhere to it in spite
of either Greek allurements or barbaric persecution. It is not to
reason as such, but only to pious reason (i.e. to reason enlightened
and controlled by the divine law) , that he attributes lordship over
the passions. While in his zeal for legalism he virtually adopts
the standpoint of Pharisaism, he is at one with Jewish Hellenism
in substituting belief in the soul's immortality for the doctrine
of a bodily resurrection.
The name of the author is unknown. He was, however,
clearly a Hellenistic Jew, probably resident in Alexandria or
Asia Minor. In the early Church the work was commonly
ascribed to Josephus and incorporated with his writings. But
apart from the fact that it is found also in several MSS. of the
Septuagint, the language and style of the book are incompatible
with his authorship. So also is the circumstance that 2 Mace.,
which forms the basis of 4 Mace., was unknown to Josephus.
Moreover, several unhistorical statements (such as, e.g. that
Seleucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus Epiphanes, iv. 15)
1 Even if with Freudenthal we regard the work as a homily actually
delivered to a Jewish congregation and there are difficulties in the
way of this theory, particularly the absence of a Biblical text it
was clearly intended for publication. It is essentially a book in the
form of a discourse, whether it was ever orally delivered or not. So
Deissmann in Kautzsch, Die Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des A. T. ii. 151.
2 Hence the title sometimes given to it : airroicp&Topos Xo^to-juoG
(" On the supremacy of reason '). It is also styled Ma*Kaj3a(uj> 6',
militate against the view that Josephus was the author. The
date of composition cannot be definitely fixed. It is, however,
safe to say that the book must have been written later than
2 Mace., and (in view of the acceptance it met with in the
Christian Church) prior to the destruction of Jerusalem. Most
likely it is a product of the Herodian period.
5 Maccabees. Writing in 1566 Sixtus Senensis mentions
having seen at Lyons a manuscript of a so-called " Fifth Book
of Maccabees " in the library of Santas Pagninus, which was soon
afterwards destroyed by fire. It began with the words: " After
the murder of Simon, John his son became high priest in his
stead." Sixtus conjectures that it may have been a Greek
translation of the " chronicles " of John Hyrcanus, alluded to
in i Mace. xvi. 24. He acknowledges that it is a history of
Hyrcanus practically on the lines of Josephus, but concludes
from its Hebraistic style that it was not from that writer's pen.
The probability, however, is that it was " simply a reproduction
of Josephus, the style being changed perhaps for a purpose "
(Schurer).
The Arabic " Book of Maccabees " contained in the Paris and
London Polyglotts, and purporting to be a history of the Jews
from the affair of Heliodorus (186 B.C.) to the close of Herod's
reign, is historically worthless, being nothing but a compilation
from i and 2 Mace, and Josephus. In the one chapter (xii.)
where the writer ventures to detach himself from these works
he commits glaring historical blunders. The book was written
in somewhat Hebraistic Greek subsequent to A.D. 70. In
Cotton's English translation of The Five Books of Maccabees it
is this book that is reckoned the " Fifth."
The best modern editions of the Greek text of the four books of
Maccabees are those of O. F. Fritzsche (1871) and H. B. Swete
(Cambridge Septuagint, vol. iii., 1894). C. J. Ball's The Variorum
Apocrypha will be found specially useful by those who cannot con-
veniently consult the Greek. The best modern commentary is that
of C. L.W.Grimm (1853-1857). C.F. Keil's commentary on i and 2
Mace, is very largely indebted to Grimm. More recently there have
appeared commentaries by E. C. Bissell on i , 2 and 3 Mace, in Lange-
Schaff's commentary, 1880 the whole Apocrypha being embraced
in one volume, and much of the material being transferred from
Grimm ; G. Rawlinson on i and 2 Mace, in the Speaker's Commentary
1888 (containing much useful matter, but marred by too frequent
inaccuracy) ; O. Zockler, on i, 2 and 3 Mace., 1891 (slight and unsatis-
factory) ; W. Fairweatner and J. S. Black on i Mace, in the Cam-
bridge Bible for Schools (1897); E. Kautzsch on i and 3 Mace., A.
Kamphausen on 2 Mace, and A. Deissmann on 4 Mace, in Die
Apok. u. Pseudepigr. des Alt. Test., 1898 (a most serviceable work for
the student of apocryphal literature). Brief but useful introductions
to all the four books of Maccabees are given in E. Schurer's Geschichte
des Judischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (3rd ed., 1898-1901;
Eng. tr. of earlier edition, 1886-1890). (W. F.*)
MACCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE (1817-1882), Irish poet,
was born in Dublin on the 26th of May 1817, and educated there
and at Maynooth. His earlier verses appeared in The Dublin
Satirist, and in 1843 he became a regular contributor of political
verse to the recently founded Nation. He also took an active
part in the Irish political associations. In 1846 he edited The
Poets and Dramatists of Ireland and the Book of Irish Ballads.
His collected Ballads, Poems and Lyrics (1850), including trans-
lations from nearly all the modern languages, took immensely
with his countrymen on account of their patriotic ring. This
was followed by The Bellfounder (1857), Under-glimpses and other
poems (1857) and The Early Life of Shelley (1871). In 1853 he
began a number of translations from the Spanish of Calderon's
dramas, which won for him a medal from the Royal Spanish
Academy. He had already been granted a civil list pension
for his literary services. He died in Ireland on the 7th of April
1882.
M'CARTHY, JUSTIN (1830- ), Irish politician, historian
and novelist, was born in Cork on the 22nd of November 1830,
and was educated at a school in that town. He began his career
as a journalist, at the age of eighteen, in Cork. From 1853 to
1859 he was in Liverpool, on the staff of tiieNorthern Daily Times,
during which period he married (in March 1855) Miss Charlotte
Allman. In 1860 he removed to London, as parliamentary
reporter to the Morning Star, of which he became editor in 1864.
McCHEYNE McCLELLAN
201
He gave up his post in 1868, and, after a lecturing tour in the
United States, joined the staff of the Daily News as leader-writer
in 1870. In this capacity he became one of the most useful and
respected upholders of the Liberal politics of the time. He
lectured again in America in 1870-1871, and again in 1886-1887.
He represented Co. Longford in Parliament as a Liberal and
Home Ruler from 1879 to 1885; North Longford, 1885-1886;
Londonderry, 1886-1892 ; and North Longford from 1892 to 1900.
He was chairman of the Anti-Parnellites from the fall of C. S.
Parnell in 1890 until January 1896; but his Nationalism was of
a temperate and orderly kind, and though his personal distinc-
tion singled him out for the chairmanship during the party
dissensions of this period, he was in no active sense the political
leader. His real bent was towards literature. His earliest
publications were novels, some of which, such as A Fair Saxon
(1873), Dear Lady Disdain (1875), Miss Misanthrope (1878),
Donna Quixote (1879), attained considerable popularity. His
most important work is his History of Our Own Times (vols. i.-iv.,
1879-1880; vol. v., 1 897), which treats of the period between Queen
Victoria's accession and her diamond jubilee. Easily and de-
lightfully written, and on the whole eminently sane and moderate,
these volumes form a brilliant piece of narrative from a Liberal
standpoint. He also began a History of the Four Georges (1884-
1901), of which the latter half was written by his son, Justin
Huntly M'Carthy (b. 1860), himself the author of various
clever novels, plays, poetical pieces and short histories. Justin
M'Carthy, amongst other works, wrote biographies of Sir Robert
Peel (1891), Pope Leo XIII. (1896) and W. E. Gladstone (1898);
Modern England (1898); The Reign of Queen Anne (1902) and
Reminiscences (2 vols., 1899).
McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY (1813-1843), Scottish
divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 2ist of May 1813, was
educated at the University and at the Divinity Hall of his native
city, and held pastorates at Larbert, near Falkirk, and Dundee.
A mission of inquiry among the Jews throughout Europe and in
Palestine, and a religious revival at his church in Dundee, made
him feel that he was being called to evangelistic rather than to
pastoral work, but before he could carry out bis plans he died,
on the 25th of March 1843. McCheyne, though wielding remark-
able influence in his lifetime, was still more powerful afterwards,
through his Memoirs and Remains, edited by Andrew Bonar,
which ran into far over a hundred English editions. Some of his
hymns, e.g. " When this passing world is done," are well known.
See his Life, by J. C. Smith (1910).
McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON (1826-1885), American
soldier, was born in Philadelphia on the 3rd of December 1826.
After passing two years (1840-1842) in the university of Penn-
sylvania, he entered the United States military academy, from
which he graduated with high honours in July 1846. Sent as
a lieutenant of engineers to the Mexican War, he took part in
the battles under General Scott, and by his gallantry won the
brevets of first-lieutenant at Contreras-Churubusco and captain
at Chapultepec ; he was afterwards detailed as assistant-instructor
at West Point, and employed in explorations in the South- West
and in Oregon. Promoted in 1855 captain of cavalry, he served
on a military commission sent to Europe to study European
armies and especially the war in the Crimea. On his return he
furnished an able and interesting report, republished (1861)
under the title of Armies of Europe. In 1856 hedesigned a saddle,
which was afterwards well known as the McClellan. Resigning
his commission in 1857, McClellan became successively chief
engineer and vice-president of the Illinois Central railroad (1857-
1860), general superintendent of the Mississippi & Ohio railroad,
and, a little later, president of the eastern branch of the same,
with his residence in Cincinnati. When the Civil War broke out
he was, in April 1861, made major-general of three months'
militia by the governor of Ohio; but General Scott's favour at
Washington promoted him rapidly (May 14) to the rank of
major-general, U.S.A., in command of the department of the
Ohio. Pursuant to orders, on the 26th of May, McClellan sent
a small force across the Ohio river to Philippi, dispersed the
Confederates there early in June, and immensely aided the Union
cause in that region by rapid and brilliant military successes,
gained in the short space of eight days. These operations,
though comparatively trivial as the Civil War developed,
brought great results, in permanently dividing old Virginia by the
creation of the state of k West Virginia, and in presenting the
first sharp, short and wholly successful campaign of the war.
Soon after the first Bull Run disaster he was summoned to
Washington, and the Union hailed him as chieftain and preserver.
Only thirty-four years old, and with military fame and promotion
premature and quite in excess of positive experience, he reached
the capital late in July and assumed command there. At first
all was deference and compliance with his wishes. In November
Scott retired that the young general might control the operations
of the whole Union army. McClellan proved himself extra-
ordinarily able as an organizer and trainer of soldiers. During
the autumn, winter and spring he created the famous Army
of the Potomac, which in victory and defeat retained to the end
the impress of McClellan's work. But he soon showed petulance
towards the civil authorities, from whom he came to differ con-
cerning the political ends in view; and he now found severe
critics, who doubted his capacity for directing an offensive war;
but the government yielded to his plans for an oblique, instead
of a direct, movement upon Richmond and the opposing army.
At the . moment of starting he was relieved as general-in-
chief. By the 5th of April a great army was safely transported
to Fortress Monroe, and other troops were sent later, though
a large force was (much against his will) retained to cover Wash-
ington. McClellan laid slow siege to Yorktown, not breaking
the thin line first opposed to him, but giving Johnston full time
to reinforce and then evacuate the position. McClellan followed
up the Confederate rearguard and approached Richmond, using
White House on the Pamunkey as a base of supplies; this entailed
a division of his forces on either bank of the Chickahominy. At
Fair Oaks (Seven Pines) was fought on the 3ist of May a bloody
battle, ending the following day in a Confederate repulse.
Johnston being severely wounded, Lee came to command on
the Southern side. After a pause in the operations McClellan
felt himself ready to attack at the moment when Lee, leaving
a bare handful of men in the Richmond lines, despatched two-
thirds of his entire force to the north of the Chickahominy to
strike McClellan's isolated right wing. McClellan himself made
little progress, and the troops beyond the Chickahominy were
defeated after a strenuous defence ; whereupon McClellan planned ,
and during the celebrated Seven Days' Battle triumphantly
executed, a change of base to the James river. But the result
was strategically a failure, and General Halleck, who was now
general-in-chief, ordered the army to reinforce General Pope in
central Virginia. The order was obeyed reluctantly.
Pope's disastrous defeats brought McClellan a new opportunity
to retrieve his fame. Again in command of the Army of the
Potomac, he was sent with all available forces to oppose
Lee, who had crossed the Potomac into Maryland early in Sep-
tember. McClellan advanced slowly and carefully, reorganizing
his army as he went. The battle of South Mountain placed him
in a position to attack Lee, and a few days later was fought the
great battle of Antietam, in which Lee was worsted. But the Con-
federates safely recrossed the Potomac, and McClellan showed
his former faults in a tardy pursuit. On the eve of an aggressive
movement, which he was at last about to make, he was super-
seded by Burnside (Nov. 7). McClellan was never again
ordered to active command, and the political elements opposed
to the general policy of Lincoln's administration chose him as
presidential candidate in 1864, on a platform which denounced
the war as a failure and proposed negotiating with the South for
peace. McClellan, while accepting his candidacy, repudiated
the platform, like a soldier and patriot. At the polls on the 8th
of November Lincoln was triumphantly re-elected president.
McClellan had previously resigned his commission in the army,
and soon afterwards went to Europe, where he remained until
1868. Upon his return he took up his residence in New York
City, where (1868-1869) he was engaged in superintending the
construction of an experimental floating battery. In 1870-1872
202
McCLERNAND MACCLESFIELD, EARL OF
he was engineer-in-chief of the city's department of docks.
With Orange, N.J., as his next principal residence, he became
governor of New Jersey (1878-1881). During his term he effected
great reforms in the administration of the state and in the militia.
He was offered, but declined, a second nomination. During his
last years he made several tours of Europe, visited the East, and
wrote much for the magazines. He also prepared monographs
upon the Civil War, defending his own action. He died suddenly
of heart-disease on the 2gth of October 1885 at Orange.
McClellan was a clear and able writer and effective speaker,
and his Own Story, edited by a friend and published soon after
his death, discloses an honourable character, sensitive to reproach,
and conscientious, even morbidly so, in his patriotism. He
carried himself well in civil life and was of irreproachable private
conduct. During the Civil War, however, he was promoted too
early and rapidly for his own good, and the strong personal
magnetism he inspired while so young developed qualities in-
jurious to a full measure of success and usefulness, despite his
great opportunities. The reasons for his final displacement in
1862 were both civil and military, and the president had been
forbearing with him. As a soldier he possessed to an extra-
ordinary degree the enthusiastic affection of his men. With
the army that he had created the mere rumour of his presence
was often a spur to the greatest exertions. That he was slow,
and perhaps too tender-hearted, in handling armed masses for
action may be admitted, and though admirable for defensive
war and a safe strategist, he showed himself unfitted to take the
highly essential initiative, both because of temperament and his
habitual exaggeration of obstacles and opposing numbers. But
he met and checked the armies of the Confederacy when they
frere at their best and strongest, and his work laid the founda-
tions of ultimate success.
His son, GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN (b. 1865), graduated in
1886 at Princeton (from which he received the degree of LL.D. in
1905), and became a newspaper reporter and editor in New York
City. He identified himself with the Tammany Hall organization,
and in 1889-1892 was treasurer of the New York and Brooklyn
Bridge under the city government. In 1892 he was admitted
to the bar, and was elected to the board of aldermen, of which
he was president in 1893 and 1894. In 1895-1903 he was a
Democratic representative in Congress; in 1903 he was elected
mayor of New York City on the Tammany ticket, defeating
mayor Seth Low, the "Fusion" candidate; and in 1905 he was
re-elected for -a four-year term, defeating William M. Ivins
(Republican) and William R. Hearst (Independence League).
He published The Oligarchy of Venice (1904).
Besides the report mentioned above, General McClellan wrote a
Bayonet Exercise (1852); Report on Pacific Railroad Surveys (1854);
Report on the Organization, &c., of the Army of the Potomac (1864), a
government publication which he himself republished with the addi-
tion of a memoir of the West Virginian campaign. He also wrote
a series of articles on the Russo-Turkish War for The North A merican
Review. See memoir prefaced to McClellan 's Own Story, and Michie,
General McClellan (" Great Commanders " series).
McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER (1812-1900), American
soldier and lawyer, was born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky,
on the 30th of May 1812. He was admitted to the bar in
Shawneetown, Illinois, in 1832; in the same year served as a
volunteer in the Black Hawk War, and in 1835 founded the
Shawneetown Democrat, which he thereafter edited. As a
Democrat he served in 1836 and in 1840-1843 in the Illinois
House of Representatives, and in 1843-1851 and in 1859-1861 was
a representative in Congress, where in his first term he vigorously
opposed the Wilmot proviso, but in his second term was a strong
Unionist and introduced the resolution of the isth of July 1861,
pledging money and men to the national government. He
resigned from congress, raised in Illinois the " McClernand
Brigade," and was commissioned (May 17, 1861) brigadier-
general of volunteers. He was second in command at the battle
of Belmont (Missouri) in November 1861, and commanded the
right wing at Fort Donelson. On the 2ist of March he became a
major-general of volunteers. At Shiloh he commanded a division,
which was practically a reserve to Sherman's. In October 1861
Stanton, secretary of war, ordered him north to raise troops
for the expedition against Vicksburg; and early in January
1864, at Milliken's Bend, McClernand, who had been placed in
command of one of the four corps of Grant's army, superseded
Sherman as the leader of the force that was to move down the
Mississippi. On the nth of January he took Arkansas Post.
On the 1 7th, Grant, after receiving the opinion of Admiral Foote
and General Sherman that McClernand was unfit, united a part
of his own troops with those of McClernand and assumed com-
mand in person, and three days later ordered McClernand back
to Milliken's Bend. During the rest of this Vicksburg campaign
there was much friction between McClernand and his colleagues;
he undoubtedly intrigued for the removal of Grant; it was
Grant's opinion that at Champion's Hill (May 16) he was
dilatory; and because a congratulatory order to his corps was
published in the press (contrary to an order of the department
and another of Grant) he was relieved of his command on the
i8th of June, and was replaced by General E. O. C. Ord. Presi-
dent Lincoln, who saw the importance of conciliating a leader
of the Illinois War-Democrats, restored him to his command in
1864, but McClernand resigned in November of that year. He
was district judge of the Sangamon (Illinois) District in 1870-
1873, and was president of the National Democratic Convention
in 1876. He died in Springfield, Illinois, on the 2oth of Septem-
ber 1900.
His son, EDWARD JOHN MCCLERNAND (b. 1848), graduated
at the U.S. Military Academy in 1870. He served on the frontier
against the Indians, notably in the capture of Chief Joseph in
October 1877, became lieutenant-colonel and assistant adjutant-
general of volunteers in 1898, and served in Cuba in 1898-99.
He was then ordered to the Philippines, where he commanded
various districts, and from April 1900 to May 1901, when he was
mustered out of the volunteer service, was acting military
governor.
MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD, IST EARL OF (c. 1618-
1694), eldest son of Sir Charles Gerard, was a member of an old
Lancashire family, his great-grandfather having been Sir Gilbert
Gerard (d. 1593) of Ince, in that county, one of the most dis-
tinguished judges in the reign of Elizabeth. His mother was
Penelope Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire. Charles Gerard was
educated abroad, and in the Low Countries learnt soldiering, in
which he showed himself proficient when on the outbreak of the
Civil War in England he raised a troop of horse for the king's ser-
vice. Gerard commanded a brigade with distinction at Edgehill,
and gained further honours at the first battle of Newbury
and at Newark in 1644, for which service he was appointed to
the chief command in South Wales. Here his operations in
1644 and 1645 were completely successful in reducing the Parlia-
mentarians to subjection; but the severity with which he ravaged
the country made him personally so unpopular that when, after
the defeat at Naseby in June 1645, the king endeavoured to raise
fresh forces in Wales, he was compelled to remove Gerard from
the local command. Gerard was, however, retained in command
of the king's guard during Charles's march from Wales to Oxford,
and thence to Hereford and Chester in August 1645; an d having
been severely wounded at Rowton Heath on the 23rd of Septem-
ber, he reached Newark with Charles on the 4th of October. On
the 8th of November 1645 he was created Baron Gerard of
Brandon in the county of Suffolk; but about the same time he
appears to have forfeited Charles's favour by having attached
himself to the party of Prince Rupert, with whom after the
surrender of Oxford Gerard probably went abroad. He remained
on the Continent throughout the whole period of the Common-
wealth, sometimes in personal attendance on Charles II., at
others serving in the wars under Turenne, and constantly en-
gaged in plots and intrigues. For one of these, an alleged
design on the life of Cromwell, his cousin Colonel John Gerard
was executed in the Tower in July 1654. At the Restoration
Gerard rode at the head of the king's life-guards in his triumphal
entry into London; his forfeited estates were restored, and he
received lucrative offices and pensions. In 1668 he retired from
the command of the king's guard to make room for the duke of
MACCLESFIELD
203
Monmouth, receiving, according to Pepys, the sum of 12,000
as solatium. On the 23rd of July 1679 Gerard was created earl
of Macclesfield and Viscount Brandon. A few months later he
entered into relations with Monmouth, and co-operated with
Shaftesbury in protesting against the rejection of the Exclusion
Bill. In September 1685, a proclamation having been issued
for his arrest, Macclesfield escaped abroad, and was outlawed.
He returned with William of Orange in 1688, and commanded
his body-guard in the march from Devonshire to London. By
William he was made a privy councillor, and lord lieutenant of
Wales and three western counties. Macclesfield died on the 7th
of January 1694. By his French wife he left two sons and two
daughters.
His eldest son CHARLES, 2nd earl of Macclesfield (c. 1650-
1701), was born in France and was naturalized in England by
act of parliament in 1677. Like his father he was concerned in
the intrigues of the duke of Monmouth; in 1685 he was sentenced
to death for being a party to the Rye House plot, but was
pardoned by the king. In 1689 he was elected member of parlia-
ment for Lancashire, which he represented till 1694, when he
succeeded to his father's peerage. Having become a major-
general in the same year, Macclesfield saw some service abroad;
and in 1701 he was selected first commissioner for the investiture
of the elector of Hanover (afterwards King George I.) with the
order of the Garter, on which occasion he also was charged to
present a copy of the Act of Settlement to the dowager electress
Sophia. He died on the 5th of November 1701, leaving no
legitimate children.
In March 1698 Macclesfield was divorced from his wife Anna,
daughter of Sir Richard Mason of Sutton, by act of parliament,
the first occasion on which a divorce was so granted without
a previous decree of an ecclesiastical court. The countess was
the mother of two children, who were known by the name of
Savage, and whose reputed father was Richard Savage, 4th Earl
Rivers (d. 1712). The poet Richard Savage (<?..) claimed that
he was the younger of these children. The divorced countess
married Colonel Henry Brett about the year 1700, and died at
the age of eighty-five in 1753. Her daughter Anna Margaretta
Brett was a mistress of George I. The 2nd earl of Macclesfield
was succeeded by his brother Fitton Gerard, 3rd earl (c. 1665-
1702), on whose death without heirs the title became extinct
in December 1702.
In 1721 the title of earl of Macclesfield was revived in favour
of THOMAS PARKER (c. 1666-1732). The son of Thomas Parker,
an attorney at Leek, young Parker was a student at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and became a barrister in 1691. In 1705
he was elected member of parliament for Derby, and having
gained some reputation in his profession, he took a leading part
in the proceedings against Sacheverell in 1710. In the same
year he was appointed lord chief justice of the queen's bench,
but he refused to become lord chancellor in the following year;
however he accepted this office in 1718, two years after he had
been made Baron Parker of Macclesfield by George I., who held
him in high esteem. In 1721 he was created Viscount Parker
and earl of Macclesfield, but when serious charges of corruption
were brought against him he resigned his position as lord chan-
cellor in 1725. In the same year Macclesfield was impeached,
and although he made a very able defence he was found guilty
by the House of Lords. His sentence was a fine of 30,000 and
imprisonment until this was paid. He was confined in the
Tower of London for six weeks, and after his release he took no
further part in public affairs. The earl, who built a grammar
school at Leek, died in London on the 28th of April 1732.
Macclesfield's only son, GEORGE, (c. 1697-1764) 2nd earl of
Macclesfield of this line, was celebrated as an astronomer.
As Viscount Parker he was member of parliament for Walling-
ford from 1722 to 1727, but his interests were not in politics.
In 1722 he became a fellow of the Royal Society, and he spent
most of his time in astronomical observations at his Oxfordshire
seat, Shirburn Castle, which had been bought by his father in
1716; here he built an observatory and a chemical laboratory.
The earl was very prominent in effecting the change from the old
to the new style of dates, which came into operation in 1752.
His action in this matter, however, was somewhat unpopular,
as the opinion was fairly general that he had robbed the people
of eleven days. From 1752 until his death on the I7th of ^larch
1764 Macclesfield was president of the Royal Society, and
he made some observations on the great earthquake of 1755.
His successor was his son Thomas (1723-1795), from whom the
present earl is descended.
For the earls of the Gerard family see Lord Clarendon, History of
the Rebellion, ed. by W. D. Macray ; E. B. G. Warburton, Memoirs
of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (3 vols., 1849) ; State Papers of John
Thurloe (j vols., 1742); T. R. Phillips, Memoirs of the Civil War in
Wales and the Marches, 1642-49 (2 vols., 1874) ; and the duke of Man-
chester, Court and Society from Elizabeth to Anne (2 vols., 1864).
For Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, see Lord Campbell, Lives of the
Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal (1845-1869).
MACCLESFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Macclesfield parliamentary division of Cheshire, England,
166 m. N.W. by N. of London, on the London & North- Western,
North Staffordshire and Great Central railways. Pop. (1901),
34,624. It lies on and above the small river Bollin, the valley
of which is flanked by high ground to east and west, the eastern
hills rising sharply to heights above 1000 ft. The bleak upland
country retains its ancient name of Macclesfield Forest. The
church of St Michael, standing high, was founded by Eleanor,
queen of Edward I., in 1278, and in 1740 was partly rebuilt and
greatly enlarged. The lofty steeple by which its massive tower
was formerly surmounted was battered down by the Parlia-
mentary forces during the Civil War. Connected with the
church there are two chapels, one of which, Rivers Chapel,
belonged to a college of secular priests founded in 1501 by Thomas
Savage, afterwards archbishop of York. Both the church and
chapels contain several ancient monuments. The free grammar
school, originally founded in 1502 by Sir John Percival, was
refounded in 1552 by Edward VI., and a commercial school was
erected in 1840 out of its funds. The county lunatic asylum
is situated here. The town-hall is a handsome modern building
with a Grecian frontage on two sides. Originally the trade of
Macclesfield was principally in twist and silk buttons, but this
has developed into the manufacture of all kinds of silk. Besides
this staple trade, there are various textile manufactures and
extensive breweries; while stone and slate quarries, as well as
coal-mines, are worked in the neighbourhood. Recreation
grounds include Victoria Park and Peel Park, in which are
preserved the old market cross and stocks. Water communica-
tion is provided by the Macclesfield canal. The borough is under
a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 3214 acres.
The populous suburb of SUTTON, extending S.S.E. of the town,
is partly included in the borough.
Previous to the Conquest, Macclesfield (Makesfeld, Macker-
feld, Macclesfeld, Meulefeld, Maxfield) was held by Edwin, earl
of Mercia, and at the time of the Domesday Survey it formed a
part of the lands of the earl of Chester. The entry speaks of
seven hedged enclosures, and there is evidence of fortification
in the I3th century, to which the names Jordangate, Chestergate
and Wallgate still bear witness. In the isth century Henry
Stafford, duke of Buckingham, had a fortified manor-house here,
traces of which remain. There is a tradition, supported by a
reference on a plea roll, that Randle, earl of Chester (1181-1232)
made Macclesfield a free borough, but the earliest charter extant
is that granted by Edward, prince of Wales and earl of Chester,
in 1261, constituting Macclesfield a free borough with a merchant
gild, and according certain privileges in the royal forest of Mac-
clesfield to the burgesses. This charter was confirmed by
Edward III. in 1334, by Richard II. in 1389, by Edward IV. in
1466 and by Elizabeth in 1564. In 1595 Elizabeth issued a new
charter to the town, confirmed by James I. in 1605 and Charles II.
in 1666, laying down a formal borough constitution under a
mayor, 2 aldermen, 24 capital burgesses and a high steward. In
1684 Charles II. issued a new charter, under which the borough
was governed until the Municipal Reform Act 1835. The earliest
mention of a market is in a grant by James I. to Charles, prince
of Wales and earl of Chester, in 1617. In the charter of 1666 a
204
M'CLINTOCK, SIR F. L. M'CLURE
market is included among the privileges confirmed to the borough
as those which had been granted in 1605, or by any previous
kings and queens of England. The charter of Elizabeth in 1 595
granted an annual fair in June, and this was supplemented by
Charles II. in 1684 by a grant of fairs in April and September.
Except during the three winter months fairs are now held
monthly, the chief being " Barnaby " in June, when the town
keeps a week's holiday. Macclesfield borough sent two members
to parliament in 1832 for the first time. In 1880 it was dis-
franchised for bribery, and in 1885 the borough was merged in
the county division of Macclesfield. The manufacture of silk-
covered buttons began in the i6th century, and flourished until
the early i8th. The first silk mill was erected about 1755, and
silk manufacture on a large scale was introduced about 1790.
The manufacture of cotton began in Macclesfield about 1785.
See J. Corry, History of Macclesfield (1817).
M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD (1819-1907), British
naval officer and Arctic explorer, was born at Dundalk, Ireland,
on the 8th of July 1819, of a family of Scottish origin. In 1831
he entered the royal navy, joining the " Samarang " frigate,
Captain Charles Paget. In 1843 he passed his examination for
lieutenancy and joined the " Gorgon " steamship, Captain
Charles Hotham, which was driven ashore at Montevideo and
salved, a feat of seamanship on the part of her captain and officers
which attracted much attention. Hitherto, and until 1847,
M'Clintock's service was almost wholly on the American coasts,
but in 1848 he joined the Arctic expedition under Sir James Ross
in search of Sir John Franklin's ships, as second lieutenant of
the " Enterprise." In the second search expedition (1850) he
was first lieutenant of the " Assistance," and in the third (1854)
he commanded the " Intrepid." On all these expeditions
M'Clintock carried out brilliant sleigh journeys, and gained
recognition as one of the highest authorities on Arctic travel.
The direction which the search should follow had at last been
learnt from the Eskimo, and M'Clintock accepted the command
of the expedition on board the " Fox," fitted out by Lady
Franklin in 1857, which succeeded in its object in 1859 (see
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN). For this expedition M'Clintock had
obtained leave of absence, but the time occupied was afterwards
counted in his service. He was knighted and received many other
honours on his return. Active service now occupied him in
various tasks, including the important one of sounding in the
north Atlantic, in connexion with a scheme for a north Atlantic
cable route, until 1868. In that year he became naval aide-de-
camp to Queen Victoria. In 1865 he had been elected a fellow
of the Royal Society. He unsuccessfully contested a seat in
parliament for the borough of Drogheda, where he made the
acquaintance of Annette Elizabeth, daughter of R. F. Dunlop
of Monasterboice; he married her in 1870. He became vice-
admiral in 1877, and commander-in-chief on the West Indian
and North American station in 1879. In 1882 he was elected
an Elder Brother of Trinity House, and served actively in that
capacity. In 1891 he was created K.C.B. He was one of the
principal advisers in the preparations for the Antarctic voyage
of the " Discovery " under Captain Scott. His book, The Voyage
of the " Fox " in the Arctic Seas, was first published in 1859,
and passed through several editions. He died on the I7th of
November 1907.
See Sir C. R. Markham, Life of Admiral Sir Leopold M'Clintock
(1909).
McCLINTOCK, JOHN (1814-1870), American Methodist
Episcopal theologian and educationalist, was born in Phila-
delphia on the 27th of October 1814. He graduated at the
university of Pennsylvania in 1835, and was assistant professor
of mathematics (1836-1837), professor of mathematics (1837-
1840), and professor of Latin and Greek (1840-1848) in Dickinson
College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He opposed the Mexican War
and slavery, and in 1847 was arrested on the charge of instigating
a riot, which resulted in the rescue of several fugitive slaves;
his trial, in which he was acquitted, attracted wide attention.
In 1848-1856 he edited The Methodist Quarterly Ranew (after
1885 The Methodist Review); from 1857 to 1860 he was pastor
of St Paul's (Methodist Episcopal) Church, New York City;
and in 1860-1864 he had charge of the American chapel in Paris,
and there and in London did much to turn public opinion in
favour of the Northern States. In 1865-1866 he was chairman
of the central committee for the celebration of the centenary
of American Methodism. He retired from the regular ministry
in 1865, but preached in New Brunswick, New Jersey, until
the spring of 1867, and in that year, at the wish of its founder,
Daniel Drew, became president of the newly established Drew
theological seminary at Madison, New Jersey, where he died
on the 4th of March 1870. A great preacher, orator and teacher,
and a remarkably versatile scholar, McClintock by his editorial
and educational work probably did more than any other man
to raise the intellectual tone of American Methodism, and, par-
ticularly, of the American Methodist clergy. He introduced to
his denomination the scholarly methods of the new German
theology of the day not alone by his translation with Charles E.
Blumenthal of Neander's Life of Christ (1847), and of Bungener's
History of the Council of Trent (1855), but by his great project,
McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological
and Ecclesiastical Literature (10 vols., 1867-1881; Supplement,
2 vols., 1885-1887), in the editing of which he was associated with
Dr James Strong (1822-1894), professor of exegetical theology
in the Drew Theological Seminary from 1868 to 1893, and the
sole editor of the last six volumes of the Cyclopaedia and of
the supplement. With George Richard Crooks (1822-1897), his
colleague at Dickinson College and in 1880-1897 professor of
historical theology at Drew Seminary, McClintock edited several
elementary textbooks in Latin and Greek (of which some were
republished in Spanish), based on the pedagogical principle of
" imitation and constant repetition." Among McClintock's
other publications are: Sketches of Eminent Methodist Ministers
(1863); an edition of Richard Watson's Theological Institutes
(1851); and The Life and Letters of Rev. Stephen Olin (1854).
See G. R. Crooks, Life and Letters of the Rev. Dr John McClintock
(New York, 1876).
McCLOSKEY, JOHN (1810-1885), American cardinal, was
born in Brooklyn, New York, on the 2oth of March 1810. He
graduated at Mt St Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, in
1827, studied theology there, was ordained a priest in 1834, and
in 1837, after two years in the college of the Propaganda at Rome,
became rector of St Joseph's, New York City, a charge to which
he returned in 1842 after one year's presidency of St John's
College (afterwards Fordham University), Fordham, New York,
then just opened. In 1844 he was .consecrated bishop of
Axieren in partibus, and was made coadjutor to Bishop Hughes
of New York with the right of succession; in 1847 he became
bishop of the newly created see of Albany; and in 1864 he
succeeded to the archdiocese of New York, then including New
York, New Jersey, and New England. In April 1875 he was
invested as a cardinal, with the title of Sancta Maria supra
Minervam, being the first American citizen to receive this
dignity. He attended the conclave of 1878, but was too late
to vote for the new pope. In May 1879 he dedicated St Patrick's
Cathedral in New York City, whose corner-stone had been laid
by Archbishop Hughes in 1858. Archbishop Corrigan became
his coadjutor in 1880 because of the failure of McCloskey's
always delicate health. The fiftieth anniversary of his ordi-
nation to the priesthood was celebrated in 1884. He died in
New York City on the roth of October 1885. He was a scholar,
a preacher, and a man of affairs, temperamentally quiet and
dignified; and his administration* differed radically from that
of Archbishop Hughes; he was conciliatory rather than polemic
and controversial, and not only built up the Roman Catholic
Church materially, but greatly changed the tone of public
opinion in his diocese toward the Church.
M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER (1807-1873),
English Arctic explorer, born at Wexford, in Ireland, on the
28th of January 1807, was the posthumous son of one of Aber-
crombie's captains and spent his childhood under the care of
his godfather, General Le Mesurier, governor of Alderney, by
MAcCOLL MAcCORMAC
205
whom he was educated for the army. He entered the navy,
however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experi-
ence of Arctic exploration as mate of the " Terror " in the
expedition (1836-1837) commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir)
George Back. On his return he obtained his commission as
lieutenant, and from 1838 to 1839 served on the Canadian lakes,
being subsequently attached to the North American and West
Indian naval stations, where he remained till 1846. Two
years later he joined the Franklin search expedition (1848-1849)
under Sir J. C. Ross as first lieutenant of the " Enterprise,"
and on the return of this expedition was given the command of
the " Investigator " in the new search expedition (1850-1854)
which was sent out by way of Bering Strait to co-operate with
another from the north-west. In the course of this voyage he
achieved the distinction of completing (1850) the work connected
with the disco very of a North- West Passage (see POLAR REGIONS) .
On his return to England, M'Clure was awarded gold medals
by the English and French geographical societies, was knighted
and promoted to post-rank, his commission being dated back
four years in recognition of his special services. From 1856 to
1 86 1 he served in Eastern waters, commanding the division of
the naval brigade before Canton in 1858, for which he received
a C.B.in the following year. His latter years were spent in a
quiet country life; he attained the rank of rear-admiral in
1867, and of vice-admiral in 1873.
See Admiral Sherard Osborn, The Discovery of a North-West Passage
(1856).
MACCOLL, MALCOLM (c. 1838-1907), British clergyman and
publicist, was the son of a Scottish farmer. He was educated at
Trinity College, Glenalmond, for the Scotch Episcopal ministry,
and after further study at the university of Naples was ordained
in 1*59, and entered on a succession of curacies in the Church of
England, in London and at Addington, Bucks. He quickly
became known as a political and ecclesiastical controversialist,
wielding an active pen in support of W. E. Gladstone, who
rewarded him with the living of St George's, Botolph Lane,
in 1871, and with a canonry of Ripon in 1884. The living was
practically a sinecure, and he devoted himself to political
pamphleteering and newspaper correspondence, the result of
extensive European travel, a wide acquaintance with the
leading personages of the day, strong views on ecclesiastical sub-
jects from a high-church standpoint, and particularly on the
politics of the Eastern Question and Mahommedanism. He
took a leading part in ventilating the Bulgarian and Armenian
" atrocities," and his combative personality was constantly
to the fore in support of the campaigns of Gladstonian Liberal-
ism. He died in London on the 5th of April 1907.
McCOMBIE, WILLIAM (1805-1880), Scottish agriculturist,
was born at Tillyfour, Aberdeenshire, where he founded the
herd of black-polled cattle with which his name is associated.
He was the first tenant farmer to represent a Scottish consti-
tuency, and was returned to parliament, unopposed, as Liberal
member for the western division of Aberdeen in 1868. He died
unmarried in February 1880. His work Cattle and Cattle-
breeders' (1867) passed into a fourth edition in 1886.
McCOOK, ALEXANDER MCDOWELL (1831-1903), American
soldier, was born in Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 22nd of
April 1831. He graduated at the U. S. military academy in 1852,
served against the Apaches and Utes in New Mexico in 1853-57,
was assistant instructor of infantry tactics at the military
academy in 1858-1861, and in April 1861 became colonel of the
ist Ohio Volunteers. He served in the first battle of Bull Run;
commanded a brigade in Kentucky in the winter of 1861, a
division in Tennessee and Mississippi early in 1862, and the
ist Corps in Kentucky in October of the same year; was in
command of Nashville in November and December of that year;
and was then engaged in Tennessee until after the battle of
Chickamauga, after which he saw no active service at the front
during the Civil War. He was promoted to be brigadier-
general of volunteers in September 1861, and to be major-general
of volunteers in July 1862, earned the brevet of lieutenant-colonel
in the regular army at the capture of Nashville, Tennessee,
that of colonel at Shiloh, and that of brigadier-general at
Perryville, and in March 1865 was breveted major-general
for his services during the war. In February-May 1865 he
commanded the district of Eastern Arkansas. He resigned
from the volunteer service in October 1865, was commissioned
lieutenant-colonel of the 26th Infantry in March 1867, served
in Texas, mostly in garrison duty, until 1874, and in 1886-1890
(except for brief terms of absence) commanded Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas, and the infantry and cavalry school there. He
became a brigadier-general in 1890, and a major-general in 1894;
retired in 1895; and in 1898-1899 served on a commission to
investigate the United States department of war as administered
during the war with Spain.
His father, DANIEL McCooK (1798-1863), killed at Buffing-
ton's Island during General John H. Morgan's raid in Ohio, and
seven of his eight brothers (three of whom were killed in battle)
all served in the Civil War; this family and that of JOHN
McCooK (1806-1865), Daniel's brother, a physician, who served
as a volunteer surgeon in the Civil War, are known as the
" fighting McCooks " four of John's sons served in the Union
army and one in the Union navy.
JOHN JAMES McCooK (b. 1845), the youngest brother of
Alexander McDowell McCook, served in the West and after-
wards in the army of the Potomac, was wounded at Shady
Grove, Virginia, in 1864, and in 1865 was breveted lieutenant-
colonel of volunteers; he graduated at Kenyon College in 1866,
subsequently practised law in New York City, where he became
head of the firm Alexander & Green; was a prominent member
of the Presbyterian Church, and was a member of the prosecuting
committee in the Briggs heresy trial in 1892-1893.
His cousin, ANSON GEORGE McCooK (b. 1835), son of John,
was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1861, served throughout the
Civil War in the Union Army, and was breveted brigadier-
general of volunteers; he was a Republican representative in
Congress from New York in 1877-1883; and in 1884-1893 was
secretary of the United States Senate.
Another son of John McCook, EDWARD MOODY McCooK
(1833-1909), was an efficient cavalry officer in the Union army,
was breveted brigadier-general in the regular army and major-
general of volunteers in 1865, was United States minister to
Hawaii in 1866-1869, an d was governor of Colorado Territory
in 1869-1873, and in 1874-1875.
His brother, HENRY CHRISTOPHER McCooK (b. 1837), was
first lieutenant and afterwards chaplain of the 4ist Illinois,
was long pastor of the Tabernacle Presbyterian Church in Phila-
delphia, and was president of the American Presbyterian
Historical Society, but is best known for his popular and excel-
lent works on entomology, which include: The Mound-making
Ants of the Alleghanies (1877); The Natural History of the
Agricultural Ants of Texas (1879); Tenants of an Old Farm
(1884) ; American Spiders and their Spinning-work (3 vols., 1880
1893), Nature's Craftsmen (1907) and Ant Communities (1909).
Another brother, JOHN JAMES McCooK (b. 1843), a cousin
of the lawyer of the same name, was a 2nd lieutenant of volun-
teers in the Union army in 1861; graduated at Trinity College,
Hartford, Connecticut, in 1863, and at the Berkeley divinity
school in 1866; entered the Protestant Episcopal ministry in
1867, and in 1869 became rector of St John's, East Hartford,
Connecticut; became professor of modern languages in Trinity
College, Hartford, in 1883; in 1895-1897 was president of the
board of directors of the Connecticut reformatory; and wrote
on prison reform and kindred topics.
MACCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1836-1901), Irish
surgeon, was born at Belfast on the I7th of January 1836,
being the son of Dr Henry MacCormac. He studied medicine
and surgery at Belfast, Dublin and Paris, and graduated in
arts, medicine and surgery at the Queen's University of Ireland,
in which he afterwards became an examiner in surgery. He
began practice in Belfast, where he became surgeon to the
General Hospital, but left it for London on his marriage in 1861
to Miss Katherine M. Charters. In the Franco-German War of
1870 he was surgeon-in-chief to the Anglo-American Ambulance,
206
McCORMICK M'CRIE
and was present at Sedan; and he also went through the Turco-
Servian War of 1876. He became in this way an authority on
gun-shot wounds, and besides being highly successful as a surgeon
was very popular in society, his magnificent physique and Irish
temperament making him a notable and attractive personality.
In 1 88 1 he was appointed assistant-surgeon at St Thomas's
Hospital, London, and for twenty years continued his work
there as surgeon, lecturer and consulting surgeon. In 1881 he
acted as honorary secretary-general of the International Medical
Congress in London, and was knighted for his services. In
1883 he was elected member of the council of the College of
Surgeons, and in 1887 a member of the court of examiners; in
1893 he delivered the Bradshaw lecture, and in 1896 was elected
president, being re-elected to this office in 1897, 1898,1899, and
1900 (the centenary year of the college), an unprecedented
record. In 1897 he was created a baronet, and appointed
surgeon-in-ordinary to the prince of Wales. In 1899 he was
Hunterian Orator. In the same year he volunteered to go out
to South Africa as consulting surgeon to the forces, and from
November 1899 to April 1900 he saw much active service both
in Cape Colony and Natal, his assistance being cordially ac-
knowledged on his return. In 1901 he was appointed honorary
serjeant-surgeon to the king. But during 1898 he had suffered
from a prolonged illness, and he had perhaps put too much
strain on his strength, for on the 4th of December 1901 he died
somewhat suddenly at Bath. Besides treatises on Surgical
Operations and Antiseptic Surgery, and numerous contributions
to the medical journals, MacCormac was the author of Work
under the Red Cross and of an interesting volume commemorat-
ing the centenary of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1900.
The latter contains biographical notices of all the masters and
presidents up to that date.
McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL (1809-1884), American inventor
of grain-harvesting machinery, was born at Walnut Grove, in
what is now Roane county, W. Va., U.S.A., on the 1 5th of February
1809. His father was a farmer who had invented numerous
labour-saving devices for farmwork, but after repeated efforts
had failed in his attempts to construct a successful grain-cutting
machine. In 1831, Cyrus, then twenty-two years old, took
up the -problem, and after careful study constructed a machine
which was successfully employed in the late harvest of 1831 and
patented in 1834. The McCormick reaper after further im-
provements proved a complete success; and in 1847 the inventor
removed to Chicago, where he established large works for manu-
facturing his agricultural machines. William H. Seward has
said of McCormick's invention, that owing to it " the line of
civilization moves westward thirty miles each year." Numerous
prizes and medals were awarded for his reaper, and he was
elected a corresponding member of the French Academy of
Sciences, "as having done more for the cause of agriculture
than any other living man." He died in Chicago on the i3th
of May 1884.
See Herbert N. Casson, Cyrus Hall McCormick: his Life and Work
(Chicago, 1909).
McCOSH, JAMES (1811-1894), Scottish philosophical writer,
was born of a Covenanting family in Ayrshire, on the ist of
April 1811. He studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh, receiving
at the latter university his M.A., at the suggestion of Sir William
Hamilton, for an essay on the Stoic philosophy. He became
a minister of the Established Church of Scotland, first at Arbroath
and then at Brechin, and took part in the Free Church movement
of 1843. In 1852 he was appointed professor of logic and meta-
physics in Queen's College, Belfast; and in 1868 was chosen
president and professor of philosophy of the college of New
Jersey, at Princeton, He resigned the presidency in 1888,
but continued as lecturer on philosophy till his death on
the i6th of November 1894. He was most successful in college
administration, a good lecturer and an effective preacher. His
general philosophical attitude and method were Hamiltonian;
he insisted on severing religious and philosophical data from
merely physical, and though he added little to original thought,
he clearly restated and vigorously used the conclusions of
others. In his controversial writings he often failed to under-
stand the real significance of the views which he attacked, and
much of his criticism is superficial.
His chief works are: Method of Divine Government, Physical and
Moral (Edinburgh, 1850, $th ed., 1856, and frequently republished
in New York) ; Tht Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation
(Edinburgh, 1855; new editions, New York, 1867-1880); Intuitions
of the Mind inductively investigated (London and New York, 1860;
3rd rev. ed., 1872); An Examination of Mr J. S. Mill's Philosophy
(London and New York, 1866; enlarged 1871, several eds.); Philo-
sophical Papers containing (l) " Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's
Logic," (2) " Reply to Mr Mill's third edition," and (3) " Present
State of Moral Philosophy in Britain;" Religious Aspects of Evolution
(New York, 1888, 2nd ed., 1890). Foracomplete list of his writings
see J. H. Dulles, McCosh Bibliography (Princeton, 1895).
McCOY, SIR FREDERICK (1823-1899), British palaeontolo-
gist, the son of Dr Simon McCoy, was born in Dublin in 1823,
and was educated in that city for the medical profession. His
interests, however, became early centred in natural history,
and especially in geology, and at the age of eighteen he published
a Catalogue of Organic Remains compiled from specimens
exhibited in the Rotunda at Dublin (1841). He assisted Sir
R. J. Griffith (q.v.) by studying the fossils of the carboniferous
and silurian rocks of Ireland, and they prepared a joint Synopsis
of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland (1846). In 1846 Sedgwick
secured his services, and for at least four years he devoted
himself to the determination and arrangement of the fossils
in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge. Sedgwick wrote
of him as " an excellent naturalist, an incomparable and most
philosophical palaeontologist, and one of the steadiest and
quickest workmen that ever undertook the arrangement of a
museum" (Life and Letters of Sedgwick, ii. 194). Together
they prepared the important and now classic work entitled
A Synopsis of the Classification of the British Palaeozoic
Rocks, with a Systematic Description of the British Palaeozoic
Fossils in the Geological Museum of the University of Cambridge
(1855). Meanwhile McCoy in 1850 had been appointed pro-
fessor of geology in Queen's College, Belfast, and in 1854 he
accepted the newly founded professorship of natural science in
the university of Melbourne. There he lectured for upwards
of thirty years; he established the National Museum of Natural
History and Geology in Melbourne, of which he was director;
and becoming associated with the geological survey of Victoria
as palaeontologist, he issued a series of decades entitled Pro-
dromus of the Palaeontology of Victoria. He also issued the
Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria. To local societies he
contributed many papers, and he continued his active scientific
work for fifty-eight years his last contribution, " Note on a new
Australian Pterygotus," being printedin the Geological Magazine
for May 1899. He was elected F.R.S. in 1880, and was one
of the first to receive the Hon. D.Sc. from the university of
Cambridge. In 1886 he was made C.M.G., and in 1891 K.C.M.G.
He died in Melbourne on the i6th of May 1899.
Obituary (with bibliography) in Geol. Mag. 1899, p. 283.
M'CRIE, THOMAS (1772-1835), Scottish historian and divine,
was born at Duns in Berwickshire in November 1772. He
studied in Edinburgh University, and in 1796 he was ordained
minister of the Second Associate Congregation, Edinburgh In
1806, however, with some others M'Crie seceded from the
" general associate synod," and formed the " constitutional
associate presbytery," afterwards merged in the " original
seceders." He was consequently deposed by the associate
synod, and his congregation withdrew with him and built
another place of worship in which he officiated until his death.
M'Crie devoted himself to investigations into the history,
constitution and polity of the churches of the Reformation;
and the first-fruits of his study were given to the public in
November 181 1 as The Life of John Knox, containing Illustrations
of the History of the Reformation in Scotland, which procured
:or the author the degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University,
an honour conferred then for the first time upon a Scottish
dissenting minister. This work, of great learning and value,
exercised an important influence on public opinion at the time.
MACCULLAGH M'CULLOCH
207
At the solicitation of his friend Andrew Thomson, M'Crie
became a contributor to The Edinburgh Christian Instructor,
and in 1817 he subjected some of Sir W. Scott's works to a
criticism which took the form of a vindication of the Covenanters.
Preserving the continuity of his historical studies, he followed
up his first work with The Life of Andrew Melville (1819). In
1827 he published a History of the Progress and Suppression
of the Reformation in Italy, and in 1829 a History of the Progress
and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain.
His latest literary undertaking was a life of John Calvin.
Only three chapters were completed when the writer died on
the sth of August 1835, leaving four sons and one daughter.
See Thomas M'Crie (1797-1875), Life of T. M'Crie (1840), and
Hugh Miller, My Schools and Schoolmasters (1869).
MACCULLAGH, JAMES (1800-1847), Irish mathematician
and physicist, was born in 1809, near Strabane, Ireland. After
a brilliant career at Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected
fellow in 1832. From 1832 to 1843 he held the chair of mathe-
matics; and during his tenure of this post he improved in a
most marked manner the position of his university as a mathe-
matical centre. In 1843 he was transferred to the chair of
natural philosophy. Overwork, mainly on subjects beyond
the natural range of his powers, induced mental disease; and
he died by his own hand in October 1847.
His Works were published in 1880. Their distinguishing feature
is the geometry which has rarely been applied either to pure space
problems or to known physical questions such as the rotation of a
rigid solid or the properties of Fresnel's wave-surface with such
singular elegance; in this respect his work takes rank with that of
Louis Poinsot. One specially remarkable geometrical discovery of
MacCullagh's is that of the " modular generation of surfaces of the
second degree "; and a noteworthy contribution to physical optics
is his " theorem of the polar plane." But his methods, which, in
less known subjects, were almost entirely tentative, were altogether
inadequate to the solution of the more profound physical problems
to which his attention was mainly devoted, such as the theory of
double refraction, &c. See G. G. Stokes's " Report on Double
Refraction " (B. A. Report, 1862).
MACCULLOCH, HORATIO (1805-1867), Scottish landscape
painter, was born in Glasgow. He studied for a year under
John Knox, a Glasgow landscapist of some repute, was then
engaged at Cumnock, painting the ornamental lids of snuff-
boxes, and afterwards employed in Edinburgh by Lizars, the
engraver, to colour the illustrations in Selby's British Birds and
similar works. Meanwhile he was working unweariedly from
nature, greatly influenced in his early practice by the water-
colours of H. W. Williams. Returning to Glasgow in some four
or five years, he was employed on several large pictures for the
decoration of a public hall in St George's Place, and he did a
little as a theatrical scene-painter. About this time he was
greatly impressed with a picture by Thomson of Duddingston.
Gradually MacCulloch asserted his individuality, and formed his
own style on a close study of nature; his works form an inter-
esting link between the old world of Scottish landscape and the
new. In 1829 MacCulloch first figured in the Royal Scottish
Academy's exhibition, and year by year, till his death on the
24th of June 1867, he was a regular exhibitor. In 1838 he was
elected a member of the Scottish Academy. The subjects of
his numerous landscapes were taken almost exclusively from
Scottish scenery.
Several works by MacCulloch were engraved by William Miller and
William Forrest, and a volume of photographs from his landscapes,
with an excellent biographical notice of the artist by Alexander
Fraser, R.S.A., was published in Edinburgh in 1872.
McCULLOCH, HUGH (1808-1895), American financier, was
born at Kennebunk, Maine, on the 7th of December 1808. He
was educated at Bowdoin College, studied law in Boston, and
in 1833 began practice at Fort Wayne, Indiana. He was cashier
and manager of the Fort Wayne branch of the old state bank
of Indiana from 1835 to 1857, and president of the new state
bank from 1857 to 1863. Notwithstanding his opposition to
the National Banking Act of 1862, he was selected by Secretary
Chase as comptroller of the currency in 1863 to put the new
system into operation. His work was so successful that he was
appointed secretary of the treasury by President Lincoln in
1865, and was continued in office by President Johnson until the
close of his administration in 1869. In his first annual report,
issued on the 4th of December 1865, he strongly urged the
retirement of the legal tenders or greenbacks as a preliminary
to the resumption of specie payments. In accordance with this
suggestion an act was passed, on the izth of March 1866, author-
izing the retirement of not more than $10,000,000 in six months
and not more than $4,000,000 per month thereafter, but it met
with strong opposition and was repealed on the 4th of February
1868, after only $48,000,000 had been retired. He was much
disappointed by the decision of the United States Supreme
Court upholding the constitutionality of the legal tenders (12
Wallace 457). Soon after the close of his term of office McCulloch
went to England, and spent six years (1870-1876) as a member
of the banking firm of Jay Cooke, McCulloch & Co. From
October 1884 until the close of President Arthur's term of office
in March 1885 he was again secretary of the treasury. He died
at his home near Washington, D.C., on the 24th of May 1895.
The chief authority for the life of McCulloch is his own book, Men
and Measures of Half a Century (New York, 1888).
M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES (1810-1893), Australian statesman,
was born in Glasgow. He entered the house of Dennistoun
Brothers, became a partner, and went to Melbourne to open a
branch. In 1854, shortly after his arrival in Victoria, he was
appointed a nominee member of the Legislative Council, and in
the first Legislative Assembly under the new constitution was
returned for the electorate of the Wimmera. In 1857 he was
appointed minister of trade and customs in the second ministry
of Haines, which lasted till 1858, and subsequently he became
treasurer in the Nicholson administration, which held office
from October 1859 to November 1860. In June 1862 the third
O'Shanassy ministry was defeated by a combination between
a section of its supporters led by M'Culloch and the opposition
proper under Heales, and M'Culloch became premier and chief
secretary. Hitherto he had been regarded as a supporter of
the landed, squatting and importing interests, but the coalition
ministry introduced a number of measures which at the time
were regarded by the propertied classes in the colony as revolu-
tionary. In addition to passing a Land Bill, which extended
the principle of free selection and deferred payments, the ministry
announced their intention of reducing the duties on the export
of gold and the import duties upon tea and sugar, and of supply-
ing the deficiency by the imposition of duties ranging from 5 to
10% upon a number of articles which entered into competition
with the local industries, thus introducing protection. The
mercantile community took alarm at the proposal, and at the
general election of 1864 the ministerial policy was warmly
opposed. But a majority was returned in its favour, and a new
tariff was carried through the popular branch of the legislature.
There was no probability of its being assented to by the Council,
whieh, under the constitution, had the power of rejecting,
although it could not amend, any money Bill. The government
therefore decided upon tacking the tariff to the Appropriation
Bill, and compelling the Council either to agree to the new fiscal
proposals or to refuse to pay the public creditors and the civil
servants. The Council accepted the challenge, and rejected
the Appropriation Bill. But M'Culloch and his colleagues
would not give way. They continued to collect the new duties
under the authority of the Assembly, and took advantage of a
clause in the Audit Act which directed the governor to sign the
necessary warrants for the payment of any sum awarded by
verdicts in the supreme court in favour of persons who had sued
the government. M'Culloch borrowed 40,000 from the London
Chartered Bank, of which he was a director, to meet pressing
payments, and the bank at his instigation sued the government
for the amount of the advance. The attorney-general at once
accepted judgment, and the governor, who had placed himself
unreservedly in the hands of his ministers, signed the necessary
warrant, and the Treasury repaid to the bank the amount of its
advance, plus interest and costs. In the next session the tariff
was again sent up to the Council, which promptly rejected it,
208
MACCULLOCH M'CULLOCH
whereupon the ministry dissolved the assembly and appealed
to the country. The result of the general election was to
increase M'Culloch's majority, and the tariff was again sent to
the Council, only to be again rejected. M'Culloch resigned, but
no member of the opposition was willing to form a ministry,
and he resumed office. Eventually a conference between the
two houses was held, and the Council passed the tariff, after a
few modifications in it had been agreed to by the Assembly.
Just at the moment that peace was restored, the governor,
Sir Charles Darling, was recalled by the home government, on
the ground that he had displayed partisanship by assisting
M'Culloch's government and their majority in the Assembly to
coerce the Council. In order to show their gratitude to the dis-
missed governor, the Assembly decided to grant a sum of 20,000
to Lady Darling. The home government intimated that Sir
Charles Darling must retire from the Colonial service if this gift
were accepted by his wife, but M'Culloch included the money in
the annual Appropriation Bill, with the result that it was re-
jected by the Council. The new governor, Viscount Canterbury,
was less complaisant than^iis predecessor, but after an unsuc-
cessful attempt to obtain other advisers, he agreed to recommend
the Council to pass the Appropriation Bill with the 20,000 grant
included. The Upper House declined to adopt this course, and
again rejected the Bill. A long and bitter struggle between
the two Chambers ended in another general election in 1868,
which still further increased the ministerial majority; but Lord
Canterbury, in obedience to instructions from the colonial office,
declined to do anything to facilitate the passage of the Darling
grant. M'Culloch resigned, and after protracted negotiations
Sir Charles Sladen formed from the minority in the Assembly a
ministry which only lasted two months. The deadlock seemed
likely to become more stringent than ever, when a communica-
tion was received from Sir Charles Darling, that neither he nor
his wife could receive anything like a donation from the people
of Victoria. The attempt to pass the grant was therefore aban-
doned, and in July 1868 M'Culloch resumed office with different
colleagues, but resigned in the following year, when he was
knighted. He formed a third ministry in 1870. During this
third administration he passed a measure through both Houses
which secured a life annuity of 1000 per annum to Lady Darling.
Additional taxation being necessary, Sir James M'Culloch was
urged by his protectionist supporters to increase the import
duties, but he refused, and proposed to provide for the deficit
by levying a tax upon town, suburban and country property.
This proposal was defeated in the Assembly; Sir James resigned
in June 1871, and was appointed agent-general for Victoria in
London. He held that appointment till 1873, was created
K.C.M.G. in 1874, returned to the colony the same year, and
in 1875 formed his fourth and last ministry, which kept power
till May 1877, when his party was defeated at the general elec-
tion. During his eighteen months of office he had to encounter
a persistent opposition from Berry and his followers, *who
systematically obstructed the business of the Assembly, on the
ground that the acting-governor, Sir William Stawell, had
improperly refused a dissolution. Sir James M'Culloch, to
counteract this obstruction, invented the closure, which was
afterwards introduced with some modifications into the house
of commons. After his defeat in 1877 Sir James retired from
public life and returned to England, where he died on the 3oth
of January 1893 at Ewell, Surrey. He. was twice married first,
in 1841, to Susan, daughter of the Rev. James Renwick, of
Muirton, Scotland; secondly, in 1867, to Margaret, daughter
of William Inglis, of Walflat, Dumbartonshire. He left, the
house of Dennistoun Brothers in 1862, and founded a new firm
at Melbourne in conjunction with Leishman, Inglis & Co. of
London, under the title of M'Culloch, Sellars & Co. He held
several important commercial positions, and was president of
the Melbourne Chamber of Commerce. (G. C. L.)
MACCULLOCH, JOHN (1773-1833), Scottish geologist, de-
scended from the Maccullochs of Nether Ardwell in Galloway,
was born in Guernsey, on the 6th of 'October 1773, his mother
being a native of that island. Having displayed remarkable
powers as a boy, he was sent to study medicine in the university
of Edinburgh, where he qualified as M.D. in 1793, and then
entered the army as assistant surgeon. Attaching himself to
the artillery, he became chemist to the board of ordnance (1803).
He still continued, however, to practise for a time as a physician,
and during the years 1807-1811 he resided at Blackheath. In
1811 he communicated his first papers to the Geological Society.
They were devoted to an elucidation of the geological structure
of Guernsey, of the Channel Islands, and of Heligoland. The
evidence they afforded of his capacity, and the fact that he
already had received a scientific appointment, probably led to
his being selected in the same year to make some geological and
mineralogical investigations in Scotland. He was asked to
report upon stones adapted for use in powder-mills, upon the
suitability of the chief Scottish mountains for a repetition of
the pendulum experiments previously conducted by Maskelyne
and Playfair at Schiehallion, and on the deviations of the
plumb-line along the meridian of the Trigonometrical Survey.
In the course of the explorations necessary for the purposes of
these reports he made extensive observations on the geology
and mineralogy of Scotland. He formed also a collection of
the mineral productions and rocks of that country, which he
presented to the Geological Society in 1814. In that year he
was appointed geologist to the Trigonometrical Survey; and in
1816-1817 he was president of the Geological Society. Com-
paratively little had been done in the investigation of Scottish
geology, and finding the field so full of promise, he devoted
himself to its cultivation with great ardour. ,One of his most
important labours was the examination of the whole range of
islands along the west of Scotland, at that time not easily
visited, and presenting many obstacles to a scientific explorer.
The results of this survey appeared (1819) in the form of his
Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the Isle
of Man (2 vols. 8vo, with an atlas of plates in 410), which forms
one of the classical treatises on British geology. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1820. He continued to write papers, chiefly on the
rocks and minerals of Scotland, and had at last gathered so
large an amount of information that the government was pre-
vailed upon in the year 1826 to employ him in the preparation
of a geological map of Scotland. From that date up to the time
of his death he returned each summer to Scotland and traversed
every district of the kingdom, inserting the geological features
upon Arrowsmith's map, the only one then available for his
purpose. He completed the field-work in 1832, and in 1834 his
map and memoir were ready for publication, but these were not
issued until 1836, the year after he died. Among his other
works the following may be mentioned: A Geological Classifi-
cation of Rocks with Descriptive Synopses of the Species and
Varieties, comprising the Elements of Practical Geology (1821);
The Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, in a series of letters
to Sir Walter Scott (4 vols. 1824); A System of Geology, with a
Theory of the Earth and an Examination of its Connexion with the
Sacred Records (2 vols. 1831). During a visit to Cornwall he
was killed by being dragged along in the wheel of his carriage,
on the 2ist of August 1835.
In penning an obituary notice, C. Lyell in 1836 (Proc. Geol. Soc.
" 357) acknowledged with gratitude" that he had "received
more instruction from Macculloch's labours in geology than from
those of any living writer."
M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY (1780-1864), British economist
and statistician, was born on the ist of March 1789 at Whithorn
in Wigtownshire. His family belonged to the class of " states-
men," or small landed proprietors. He was for some time
employed at Edinburgh as a clerk in the office of a writer to
the signet. But, the Scotsman newspaper having been estab-
lished at the beginning of 1817, M'Culloch sent a contribution
to the fourth number, the merit of which was at once recognized ;
he soon became connected with the management of the paper,
and during 1818 and 1819 acted as editor. Most of his articles
related to questions of political economy, and he delivered
lectures in Edinburgh on that science. He now also began to
write on subjects of the same class in the Edinburgh Review,
McCULLOUGH MACDONALD, G.
209
his first contribution being an article on Ricardo's Principles
of Political Economy in 1818. Within the next few years he
gave both public lectures and private instruction in London
on political economy. In 1823 he was chosen to fill the lecture-
ship established by subscription in honour of the memory of
Ricardo. A movement was set on foot in 1825 by Jeffrey and
others to induce the government to found in the university of
Edinburgh a chair of political economy, separate from that of
moral philosophy, the intention being to obtain the appointment
for M'Culloch. This project fell to the ground; but in 1828 he
was made professor of political economy in London University.
He then fixed his residence permanently in London, where he
continued his literary work, being now one of the regular writers
in the Edinburgh Review. In 1838 he was appointed comptroller
of the stationery office; the duties of this position, which he
held till his death, he discharged -with conscientious fidelity,
and introduced important reforms in the management of the
department. Sir Robert Peel, in recognition of the services he
had rendered to political science, conferred on him a literary
pension of 20x3 per annum. He was elected a foreign associate
of the Institute of France (Acadtmie des sciences morales el
poliliques). He died in London, after a short illness, on the nth
of November 1864, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. To
his personal character and social qualities very favourable
testimony was borne by those who knew him best. In general
politics he always remained a Whig pure and simple; though he
was in intimate relations with James Mill and his circle, he
never shared the Radical opinions of that group.
M'Culloch cannot be regarded as an original thinker on political
economy. He did not contribute any new ideas to that science, or
introduce any noteworthy correction of the views, either as to
method or doctrine, generally accepted by the dominant school of
his day. But the work he did must be pronounced, in relation to
the wants of his time, a very valuable one. His name will probably
be less permanently associated with anything he has written on
economic science, strictly so called, than with his great statistical
and other compilations. His Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial
Navigation (1832) and his Statistical Account of the British Empire
(1837) remain imposing monuments of his extensive and varied
knowledge and his indefatigable industry. Another useful work
of reference, also the fruit of wide erudition and much labour, is his
Literature of Political Economy (1845). Though weak on the side
of the foreign literature of the science, it is very valuable as a
critical and biographical guide to British writers.
McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD (1837-1885), American
actor, was born in Coleraine, Ireland, on the and of November
1837. He went to America at the age of sixteen, and made his
first appearance on the stage at the Arch Street Theatre, Phila-
delphia, in 1857. In support of Edwin Forrest and Edwin
Booth he played second roles in Shakespearian and other
tragedies, and Forrest left him by will all his prompt books.
Virginius was his greatest success, although even in this part
and as Othello he was coldly received in England (1881). In
1884 he broke down physically and mentally, and he died in
an asylum at Philadelphia on the 8th of November 1885.
MACCUNN, HAMISH (1868- ), Scottish musical com-
poser, was born at Greenock, the son of a shipowner, and was
educated at the Royal College of Music. His first success was
with the overture Land of the Mountain and Flood in 1887 at
the Crystal Palace, and this was followed by other composi-
tions, with a characteristic Scottish colouring. From 1888 to
1894 he was a professor at the Royal College of Music, and this
latter year saw both his marriage to a daughter of John Pettie,
R.A., and the production of his opera Jeanie Deans at Edin-
burgh. He was for some years conductor to the Carl Rosa
Opera company, and subsequently to other companies. His
opera Diarmid was produced at Covent Garden in 1897, and his
other music includes cantatas, overtures, part-songs, instru-
mental pieces, and songs, all markedly Scottish in type.
MACDONALD, FLORA (1722-1790), Jacobite heroine, was
the daughter of Ranald Macdonald of Milton in the island of
South Uist in the Hebrides, and his wife Marion the daughter
of Angus Macdonald, minister of South Uist. Her father died
when she was a child, and her mother was abducted and
married by Hugh Macdonald of Armadale. She was brought
up under the care of the chief of her clan, Macdonald of
Clanranald, and was partly educated in Edinburgh. In June
1746 she was living in Benbecula in the Hebrides when
Prince Charles Edward (q.v.) took refuge there after the
battle of Culloden. The prince's companion, Captain O'Neill,
sought her help. The island was held for the government by
the local militia, but the secret sympathies of the Macdonalds
were with the Jacobite cause. After some hesitation Flora
promised to help. At a later period she told the duke of
Cumberland, son of George III. and commander-in-chief in
Scotland, that she acted from charity and would have helped
him also if he had been defeated and in distress, a statement
which need not be accepted as quite literally true. The
commander of the militia in the island, a Macdonald, who was
probably admitted into the secret, gave her a pass to the main-
land for herself, a manservant, an Irish spinning maid, Betty
Burke, and a boat's crew of six men. The prince was disguised
as Betty Burke. After a first repulse at Waternish, the party
landed at Portree. The prince was hidden in a cave while
Flora Macdonald found help for him in the neighbourhood, and
was finally able to escape. He had left Benbecula on the 27th of
June. The talk of the boatmen brought suspicion on Flora
Macdonald, and she was arrested and brought to London.
After a short imprisonment in the Tower, she was allowed to
live outside of it, under the guard of a " messenger " or gaoler.
When the Act of Indemnity was passed in 1747 she was left at
liberty. Her courage and loyalty had gained her general
sympathy, which was increased by her good manners and gentle
character. Dr Johnson, who saw her in 1773, describes her as
" a woman of soft features, gentle manners and elegant pres-
ence." In 1750 she married Allen Macdonald of Kingsburgh,
and in 1773 they emigrated to America. In the War of Inde-
pendence he served the British government and was taken
prisoner. In 1779 his wife returned home in a merchant ship
which was attacked by a privateer. She refused to leave the
deck during the action, and was wounded in the arm. She died
on the sth of March 1790. There is a statue to her memory
in Inverness. Flora Macdonald had a large family of sons,
who mostly entered the army or navy, and two daughters.
See A. C. Ewald, Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward (1886).
The so-called Autobiography of Flora Macdonald, published by her
grand-daughter F. F. Walde (1870) is of small value.
MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905), Scottish novelist and
poet, was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire. His father, a farmer,
was one of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, and a direct descendant
of one of the families that suffered in the massacre.
Macdonald's youth was passed in his native town, under the
immediate influence of the Congregational Church, and in an
atmosphere strongly impregnated with Calvinism. He took
his . degree at Aberdeen University, and migrated thence to
London, studying at Highbury College for the Congregational
ministry. In 1850 he was appointed pastor of Trinity Congre-
gational Church, Arundel, and, after resigning his cure there,
was engaged in ministerial work in Manchester. His health,
however, was unequal to the strain, and after a short sojourn
in Algiers he settled in London and adopted the profession of
literature. In 1856 he published his first book, Within and
Without, a dramatic poem; following it in 1857 with a volume
of Poems, and in 1858 by the delightful " faerie romance "
Phantasies. His first conspicuous success was achieved in 1862
with David Elginbrod, the forerunner of a number of popular
novels, which include Alec Forbes of Howglen (1865), Annals
of a Quiet Neighbourhood (1866), Robert Falconer (1868), Malcolm
(1875), The Marquis of Lassie (1877), and Donal Grant (1883).
He was for a time editor of Good Words for the Young, and lec-
tured successfully in Americain 1872-1873. He wrote admirable
stories for the young, and published some volumes of sermons.
In 1877 he was given a civil list pension. He died on the i8th
of September 1905.
Both as preacher and as lecturer on literary topics George
Macdonald's sincerity and moral enthusiasm exercised great
210 MACDONALD, SIR H. A. MACDONALD, J. E. J. A.
influence upon thoughtful minds. His verse is homely and
direct, and marked by religious fervour and simplicity. As a
portrayer of Scottish peasant-life in fiction he was the precursor
of a large school, which has benefited by his example and sur-
passed its original leader in popularity. The religious tone of
his novels is relieved by tolerance and a broad spirit of humour,
and the simpler emotions of humble life are sympathetically
treated.
MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD (1852-1903),
British soldier, was born of humble parentage at Muir of Allan-
Grange, Ross-shire, Scotland, in 1852. As a boy he was employed
in a draper's shop at Dingwall, but in 1870 he enlisted in the
92nd (Gordon) Highlanders. He rose rapidly through the non-
commissioned ranks, and had already been a colour-sergeant
for some years when, in the Afghan War of 1879, he dis-
tinguished himself in the presence of the enemy so much as
to be promoted to commissioned rank, his advancement being
equally acceptable to his brother officers and popular with the
rank and file. As a subaltern he served in the first Boer War
of 1880-81, and at Majuba, where he was made prisoner, his
bravery was so conspicuous that General Joubert gave him
back his sword. In 1885 he served under Sir Evelyn Wood
in the reorganization of the Egyptian army, and he took part
in the Nile Expedition of that year. In 1888 he became a
regimental captain in the British service, but continued to
serve in the Egyptian army, being particularly occupied with
the training of the Sudanese battalions. In 1889 he received
the D.S.O. for his conduct at Toski and in 1891, after the
action at Tokar, he was promoted substantive major. In
1896 he commanded a brigade of the Egyptian army in the
Dongola Expedition, and during the following campaigns he
distinguished himself in every engagement, above all in the
final battle of Omdurman (1898) at the crisis of which Mac-
donald's Sudanese brigade, manoeuvring as a unit with the
coolness and precision of the parade ground, repulsed the most
determined attack of the Mahdists. After this great service
Macdonald's name became famous in England and Scotland,
the popular sobriquet of " Fighting Mac " testifying the
interest aroused in the public mind by his career and his soldierly
personality. He was promoted colonel in the army and ap-
pointed an aide-de-camp to the queen, and in 1899 he was
promoted major-general and appointed to a command in India.
In December 1899 he was called to South Africa to command the
Highland Brigade, which had just suffered very heavily and had
lost its commander, Major-General A. G. Wauchope, in the
battle of Magersfontein. He commanded the brigade through-
out Lord Roberts's Paardeberg, Bloemfontein and Pretoria
operations, and in 1901 he was made a K.C. B. In 1902 he
was appointed to command the troops in Ceylon, but early in
the following year (March 25, 1903) he committed suicide
in Paris. A memorial to this brilliant soldier, in the form of
a tower 100 ft.' high, was erected at Dingwall and completed
in 1907.
MACDONALD, JACQUES ETIENNE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE
(1765-1840), duke of Taranto and marshal of France, was born
at Sedan on the i7th of November 1765. His father came of an
old Jacobite family, which had followed James II. to France,
and was a near relative of the celebrated Flora Macdonald.
In 1785 Macdonald joined the legion raised to support the
revolutionary party in Holland against the Prussians, and
after it was disbanded he received a commission in the regiment
of Dillon. On the breaking out of the Revolution, the regiment
of Dillon remained eminently loyal, with the exception of
Macdonald, who was in love with Mile Jacob, whose father
was enthusiastic for the doctrines of the Revolution. Directly
after his marriage he was appointed aide-de-camp to General
Dumouriez. He distinguished himself at Jemmapes, and was
promoted colonel in 1793. He refused to desert to the Austrians
with Dumouriez, and as a reward was made general of brigade,
and appointed to command the leading brigade in Pichegru's
invasion of Holland. His knowledge of the country proved
most useful, and he was instrumental in the capture of the
Dutch fleet by French hussars. In 1797, having been made
general of division, he served first in the army of the Rhine and
then in that of Italy. When he reached Italy, the peace of
Campo Formio had been signed, and Bonaparte had returned
to France; but, under the direction of Berthiei, Macdonald
first occupied Rome, of which he was made governor, and then
in conjunction with Championnet he defeated General Mack,
and revolutionized the kingdom of Naples under the title of the
Parthenopaean Republic. When Suvarov invaded northern Italy,
and was winning back the conquests of Bonaparte, Macdonald
collected all the troops in the peninsula and moved northwards.
With but 30,000 men he attacked, at the Trebbia, Suvarov with
50,000, and after three days' fighting, during which he held
the Russians at bay, and gave time for Moreau to come up,
he retired in good order to Genoa. After this gallant behaviour
he was made governor of Versailles, and acquiesced, if he did
not co-operate, in the events of the i8th Brumaire. In 1800
he received the command of the army in Switzerland which
was to maintain the communications between the armies of
Germany and of Italy. He carried out his orders to the letter,
and at last, in the winter of 1800-1, he was ordered to march
over the Spliigen Pass. This achievement is fully described
by Mathieu Dumas, who was chief of his staff, and is at least
as noteworthy as Bonaparte's famous passage of the St Bernard
before Marengo, though followed by no such successful battle.
On his return to Paris Macdonald married the widow of
General Joubert, and was appointed French plenipotentiary in
Denmark. Returning in 1805 he associated himself with Moreau
and incurred the dislike of Napoleon, who did not include him
in his first creation of marshals. Till 1809 he remained without
employment, but in that year Napoleon gave him the command
of a corps and the duties of military adviser to the young prince
Eugene Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. He led the army from
Italy till its junction with Napoleon, and at Wagram commanded
the celebrated column of attack which broke the Austrian cent re
and won the victory. Napoleon made him marshal of France
on the field of battle, and presently created him duke of Taranto.
In 1810 he served in Spain, and in 1812 he commanded the left
wing of the grand army for the invasion of Russia. In 1813,
after sharing in the battles of Liitzen and Bautzen, he was
ordered to invade Silesia, where Blucher defeated him with
great loss at the Katzbach (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). After
the terrible battle of Leipzig he was ordered with Prince Ponia-
towski to cover the evacuation of Leipzig; after the blowing
up of the bridge, he managed to swim the Elster, while Ponia-
towksi was drowned. During the defensive campaign of 1814
Macdonald again distinguished himself; he was one of the
marshals sent by Napoleon to take his abdication in favour
of his son to Paris. When all were deserting their old master,
Macdonald remained faithful to him. He was directed by
Napoleon to give in his adherence to the new regime, and was
presented by him with the sabre of Murad Bey for his fidelity.
At the Restoration he was made a peer of France and knight
grand cross of the order of St Louis; he remained faithful to
the new order of things during the Hundred Days. In 1815
he became chancellor of the Legion of Honour (a post he held
till 1831), in 1816 major-general of the royal bodyguard, and he
took a great part in the discussions in the House of Peers, voting
consistently as a moderate Liberal. In 1823 he married Mile
de Bourgony, by whom he had a son, Alexander, who succeeded
on his death in 1840 as duke of Taranto. From 1830 his
life was spent in retirement at his country place Courcelles-
le-Roi (Seine et Oise), where he died on the 7th of September
1840.
Macdonald had none of that military genius which dis-
tinguished Davout, Massena and Lannes, nor of that military
science conspicuous in Marmont and St Cyr, but nevertheless
his campaign in Switzerland gives him a rank far superior to
such mere generals of division as Oudinot and Dupont. This
capacity for independent command made Napoleon, in spite
of his defeats at the Trebbia and the Katzbach, trust him
with large commands till the end of his career. As a man, his
MACDONALD, SIR J. A
211
character cannot be spoken of too highly; no stain of cruelty
or faithlessness rests on him.
Macdonald was especially fortunate in the accounts of his military
exploits, Mathieu Dumas and S6gur having been on his staff in
Switzerland. See Dumas, tenements militaires ; and Segur's rare
tract, Lettre sur la campagne du Gin&ral Macdonald dans les Grisons
en 1800 et 1801 (1802), and loge (18^2). His memoirs were pub-
lished in 1892 (Eng. trans., Recollections of Marshal Macdonald),
but are brief and wanting in balance.
MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER (1815-1891), first
premier of the dominion of Canada, was born in Glasgow on the
nth of January 1815, the third child of Hugh Macdonald
(d. 1841), a native of Sutherlandshire. The family emigrated
to Canada in 1820, settling first at Kingston, Ontario. At the
age of fifteen Macdonald entered a law office; he was called to
the bar in 1836, and began practice in Kingston, with immediate
success. Macdonald entered upon his active career at a critical
period in the history of Canada, and the circumstances of the time
were calculated to stimulate political thought. It was the year
before the rebellion of 1837; the condition of the whole country
was very unsettled; and it seemed well-nigh impossible to recon-
cile differences arising from racial and political antagonisms.
During the rebellion young Macdonald volunteered for active
service, but his military career never went farther than drilling
and marching. The mission of Lord Durham; the publication
of his famous report; the union of the two Canadas; the ad-
ministrations of Lord Sydenham, Sir Charles Bagot, and Sir
Charles Metcalfe, filled the years immediately succeeding 1837
with intense political interest, and in their results have pro-
foundly influenced the constitution of the British Empire.
Macdonald made his first acquaintance with public business
as an alderman of Kingston. In 1844 Sir Charles Metcalfe, in
his contest with the Reform party led by Baldwin and
Lafontaine, appealed to the electors, and Macdonald was elected
to the provincial assembly as Conservative member for Kingston.
A sentence in his first address to the electors strikes the domi-
nant note of his public career: " I therefore need scarcely
state my firm belief that the prosperity of Canada depends upon
its permanent connexion with the mother country, and that I
shall resist to the utmost any attempt (from whatever quarter
it may come) which may tend to weaken that union." He took
his seat on the 28th of November as a supporter of the Draper
government. During the first three or four years he spoke
little, but devoted himself with assiduity to mastering parlia-
mentary forms and the business of the house. His capacity
soon attracted attention, and in 1847 he was made receiver-
general with a seat in the executive council, an office soon
exchanged for the more important one of commissioner of
Crown-lands. Although the government of which he thus
became a member held office for only ten months, being placed
in a hopeless minority on making an appeal to the country,
Macdonald from this time forward took a position of constantly
increasing weight in his party.
One of the first acts of the Reform government which succeeded
that of which Macdonald was a member was to pass the Rebellion
Losses Bill, made famous in colonial history by the fact that it
brought to a crucial test the principle of responsible government.
The assent of Lord Elgin to the bill provoked in Montreal a riot
which ended in the burning of the houses of parliament, and so
great was the indignation of the hitherto ultra-loyal Conser-
vative party that many of its most prominent members signed
a document favouring annexation to the United States; Mac-
donald on the other hand took steps, in conjunction with others,
to form a British-American league, having for its object the
confederation of all the provinces, the strengthening of the
connexion with the mother country, and the adoption of a
national commercial policy. He remained in opposition from
1848 till 1854, holding together under difficult circumstances an
unpopular, party with which he was not entirely in sympathy.
The two great political issues of the time were the secularization
of the clergy reserves in Ontario, and the abolition of seigniorial
tenure in Quebec. Both of these reforms Macdonald long opposed,
but when successive elections had proved that they were sup-
ported by public opinion, he brought about a coalition of Conser-
vatives and moderate reformers for the purpose of carrying them.
Out of this coalition was gradually developed the Liberal-
conservative party, of which until his death Macdonald con-
tinued to be the most considerable figure, and which for more
than forty years largely moulded the history of Canada. From
1854 to 1857 he was attorney-general of Upper Canada, and
then, on the retirement of Colonel Tache, he became prime
minister. This first coalition had now accomplished its tempo-
rary purpose, but so closely were parties divided at this period,
that the defeat and reinstatement of governments followed
each other in rapid succession.
The experiment of applying responsible government on party
lines to the two Canadian provinces at last seemed to have come
to a deadlock. Two general elections and the defeat of four
ministries within three years had done nothing to solve the
difficulties of the situation. At this critical period a proposal
was made for a coalition of parties in order to carry out a
broad scheme of British- American confederation. The im-
mediate proposal is said to have come from George Brown;
the large political idea had long been advocated by Macdonald
and Alexander Gait in Upper Canada by Joseph Howe and
others in the maritime provinces. The close of the American
Civil War, the Fenian raids across the American border, and
the dangers incident to the international situation, gave a de-
cisive impulse to the movement. Macdonald, at the head of
a representative delegation from Ontario and Quebec, met the
public men of the maritime provinces in conference at Charlotte-
town in 1864, and the outline of confederation then agreed
upon was filled out in detail at a conference held at Quebec soon
afterwards. The actual framing of the British North America
Act, into which the resolutions of these two conferences were
consolidated, was carried out at the Westminster Palace Hotel
in London, during December 1866 and January 1867, by dele-
gates from all the provinces working in co-operation with the
law officers of the Crown, under the presidency of Lord
Carnarvon, then secretary of state for the colonies. Macdonald
took the leading part in all these discussions, and he thus
naturally became the first premier of the Dominion. He was
made a K.C.B. in recognition of his services to the empire.
The difficulties of organizing the new Dominion, the questions
arising from diverse claims and the various conditions of the
country, called for infinite tact and resource on the part of the
premier. Federal rights were to be safeguarded against the
provincial governments, always jealous of their -privileges.
The people of Nova Scotia in particular, dissatisfied with the
way in which their province had been drawn into the Union,
maintained a fierce opposition to the Ottawa government,
until their leader, Joseph Howe, fearing an armed rising, came
to an agreement with Macdonald and accepted a seat in his
cabinet. The establishment of a supreme court also occupied
the attention of Sir John, who had a strong sense of the necessity
of maintaining the purity and dignity of the judicial office.
The act creating this court was finally passed during the
administration of Alexander Mackenzie. The pledge made at
confederation with regard to the building of the Intercolonial
railway to connect the maritime provinces with those of the
St Lawrence was fulfilled. The North-West Territories were
secured as a part of confederated Canada by the purchase of
the rights of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the establishment
of Manitoba as a province in 1870. Canada's interests were
protected during the negotiations which ended in the treaty
of Washington in 1871, and in which Sir John took a leading
part as one of the British delegates. In this year British
Columbia entered the confederation, one of the provisions of
union being that a transcontinental railroad should be built
within ten years. This was declared by the opposition to be
impossible. It was possible only to a leader of indomitable
will. Charges of bribery against the government in connexion
with the contract for the building of this line led to the resig-
nation of the cabinet in 1874, and for four years Sir John
was in opposition. But he was by no means inactive. During
212
MACDONALD, J. S. MACDONALD, L.
the summer of 1876 he travelled through Ontario addressing the
people on the subject of a commercial system looking to the
protection of native industries. This was the celebrated
" National Policy," which had been in his thoughts as long ago
as the formation of the British-American League in 1850. The
government of Alexander Mackenzie refused to consider a
protection policy, and determined to adhere to Free Trade,
with a tariff for revenue only. On these strongly defined
issues the two parties appealed to the people in 1878. The
Liberal party was almost swept away, and Sir John, on his
return to power, put his policy into effect with a thoroughness
that commanded the admiration even of his opponents, who,
after long resistance, adopted it on their accession to office in
1896. He also undertook the immediate construction of the
Canadian Pacific railway, which had been postponed by the
former government. The line was begun late in 1880, and
finished in November 1885 an achievement which Sir John
ranked among his greatest triumphs. " The faith of Sir John,"
says one of his biographers, " did more to build the road than
the money of Mount-Stephen."
During the remaining years of his life his efforts at adminis-
tration were directed mainly towards the organization and
development of the great North-West. From 1878 until his
death in 1891 Sir John retained his position as premier of
Canada, and his history is practically that of Canada (q.v.).
For forty-six years of a stormy political life he remained true
to the cardinal policy that he had announced to the electors
of Kingston in 1844. " A British subject I was born; a British
subject I will die," says his last political manifesto to the people
of the Dominion. At his advanced age the anxiety and excite-
ment of the contested election of 1891 proved too great. On
the 2gth of May he suffered a stroke of paralysis, which caused
his death eight days later (June 6).
The career of Sir John Macdonald must be considered in
connexion with the political history of Canada and the con-
ditions of its government during the latter half of the igth
century. Trained in a school where the principles of responsible
government were still in an embryonic state, where the adroit
management of coalitions and cabals was essential to the life
of a political party, and where plots and counterplots were
looked upon as a regular part of the political game, he acquired
a dexterity and skill in managing men that finally gave him
an almost autocratic power among his political followers. But
great personal qualities supplemented his political dexterity
and sagacity. A strong will enabled him to overcome the
passionate temper which marked his youth, and later in his
career a habit of intemperance, which he at first shared with
many public men of his time. He was a man of strong ambi-
tions, but these were curbed by a shrewd foresight, which led
him for a long time to submit to the nominal leadership of
other and smaller men. Politics he made his business, and
to this he devoted all his energies. He had the gift of living
for the work in hand without feeling the distraction of other
interests. He had a singular faculty for reading the minds and
the motives of men, and to this insight he perhaps owed the
power of adaptability (called by his opponents shiftiness) which
characterized his whole career. To this power the successful
guidance of the Dominion through its critical formative period
must be ascribed. Few political leaders have ever had such
a number of antagonistic elements to reconcile as presented
themselves in the first Canadian parliament after confederation.
The man who could manage to rule a congeries of jealous
factions, including Irish Catholics and Orangemen, French and
English anti-federationists and agitators for independence,
Conservatives and Reformers, careful economists and prodigal
expansionists, was manifestly a man of unusual power, superior
to small prejudices, and without strong bias towards any creed
or section. Such a man Macdonald proved himself to be. His
personality stands out at this period as the central power in
which each faction chiefly reposed trust, and under which it
could join hands with the others in the service of the state.
His singleness of purpose, personal independence and indomit-
able energy enabled him to achieve triumphs that to others
seemed impossible. His methods cannot always be defended,
and were explained by himself, only on grounds of necessity
and the character of the electorate with which he had to deal.
After the " Pacific scandal " of 1874 the leader of the opposite
party declared that " John A." (as he was generally called)
" has fallen, never to rise again." Yet he not only cleared his
own character from the charges laid against him, but succeeded
four years later in achieving his most signal party triumph.
His natural urbanity allowed him to rule without seeming to
rule. When baffled in minor objects he gave way with a good-
natured flexibility which brought upon him at times charges of
inconsistency. Yet Canada has seen statesmen of more con-
tracted view insist on such small points, fall, and drag down
their party with them. He lived at a time when the exigencies
of state seemed to require the peculiar 'talents which he possessed.
Entering politics at the dreariest and least profitable stage in
Canadian history, he took the foremost part in the movement
which made of Canada a nation; he guided that nation through
the nebulous stages of its existence, and left it united, strong
and vigorous, a monument to his patriotic and far-sighted
statesmanship. His statue adorns the squares of the principal
Canadian towns. In the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral a memo-
rial has rightly been placed to him as a statesman, not merely
of Canada, but of the empire. In unveiling that memorial
Lord Rosebery fitly epitomized the meaning of his life and work
when he said: " We recognize only this, that Sir John Mac-
donald had grasped the central idea that the British Empire
is the greatest secular agency for good now known to mankind;
that that was the secret of his success; and that he determined
to die under it, and strove that Canada should live under it."
Macdonald became a member of the Imperial Privy Council in
1879, and in 1884 he received the Grand Cross of the Bath.
His first wife was his cousin, Miss Isabella Clark, who died in
1858, leaving one surviving son, the Hon. Hugh John Mac-
donald, at one time premier of the province of Manitoba. By
his second marriage, to Miss Bernard in 1867, Macdonald left
an only daughter. On his death in 1891 his widow was created
Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe.
The authorized and fullest biography of Sir John A. Macdonald
is one written by his private secretary, Joseph Pope. Others have
been written by his nephew, Colonel J. Pennington Macpherson, and
by J. E. Collins. A bright and amusing anecdotal life has been com-
piled by E. D. Biggar. A condensed biography by G. R. Parkin
forms one of the " Makers of Canada " series (Toronto, 1907; new
ed., 1909). (G. R. P.)
MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD (1812-1872), Canadian
statesman, was born at St Raphael, Glengarry county, Ontario,
on the I2th of December 1812. He was admitted to the bar
in 1840, and settled in Cornwall. In the same year he married
Miss Waggaman, the daughter of an American senator from
Louisiana. In 1841 he was elected to^the Canadian parliament
for Glengarry, which seat he held for sixteen years. In 1842 he
joined the Reformers in the cry for constitutional government,
and from 1852 to 1854 was Speaker of the house. He was
always uncertain in his party allegiance, and often attacked
George Brown, the Liberal leader. Indeed, he well described
himself as ,"the Ishmael of parliament." In 1862 he was
called on by Lord Monck, the governor-general, to form a
ministry, which by manifold shifts held office till February
1864. In the debates on federation he opposed the measure,
but on its passage was in 1867 entrusted by the Conservatives
with the task of organizing the provincial government of Ontario.
He ruled the province with economy and efficiency, but was
defeated in December 1871 by the Liberals, resigned the premier-
ship, and died on the ist of June 1872.
MACDONALD, LAWRENCE (1799-1878), British sculptor,
was born at Findo-Gask, Perthshire, Scotland. In early life
he served as a mason's apprentice. Having shown an aptitude
for stone carving, he became an art student at the Trustees'
Academy, Edinburgh. By the help of friends he was enabled
to visit Rome, where together with other artists he helped to
found the British Academy of Arts. He returned to Edinburgh
MACDONELL MACDONOUGH
213
in 1826. In 1829 he was elected a member of the Scottish
Academy. From 1832 until his death his home was in Rome.
Among his ideal works may be mentioned " Ulysses and his
Dog Argos," " Andromeda chained to the Rock," " Eurydice,"
" Hyacinth," a " Siren," and a " Bacchante."
MACDONELL, JAMES (1841-1879), British journalist, was
born at Dyce, Aberdeenshire. In 1858, after his father's
death, he became clerk in a merchant's office. He began
writing in the Aberdeen Free Press; in 1862 he was appointed
to the staff of the Daily Review at Edinburgh, and at twenty-
two he became editor of the Northern Daily Express. In 1865
he went to London to accept a position on the staff of the
Daily Telegraph, which he retained until 1875, being special
correspondent in France in 1870 and 1871. In 1873 he became
a leader-writer on The Times. He died in London on the 2nd
of March 1879. His posthumous France since the First Empire,
though incomplete, gave a clever and accurate account of
the French politics of his time.
MACDONNELL (or MACDONELL), ALESTAIR (i.e. Alexander)
RUADH (c. 1725-1761), chief of Glengarry, a Scottish Jacobite
who has been identified by Andrew Lang as the secret agent
" Pickle," who acted as a spy on Prince Charles Edward after
1750. The family were a branch of the clan Macdonald, but
spelt their name Macdonnell or Macdonell. His father was
John, 1 2th chief of Glengarry, a violent and brutal man, who
is said to have starved his first wife, Alestair's mother, to
death on an island in the Hebrides. Alestair ran away to
France while a mere boy in 1738, and there entered the Royal
Scots, a regiment in the French service. In 1743 he commanded
a company in it, and in 1744 was sent to Scotland as a Jaco-
bite agent. In January 1745 he was sent back with messages,
and was in France when Prince Charles Edward landed in
Scotland. Late in 1745 he was captured at sea while bringing
a picquet of the Royal Scots to help the prince. He remained
a prisoner in the Tower for twenty-two months, and when
released went abroad. In 1744 his father had made a transfer
to him of the family estates, which were ruined. Alestair,
who still affected to be a Jacobite, lived for a time in great
poverty. In 1749 he was in London, and there is good reason
to believe that he then offered his services as a spy to the British
government, with which he communicated under the name
of Pickle. His information enabled British ministers to keep
a close watch on the prince and on the Jacobite conspiracies.
Though he was denounced by a Mrs Cameron, whose husband
he betrayed to death in 1752, he never lost the confidence of
the Jacobite leaders. On the death of his father, in 1754, he
succeeded to the estates, and proved himself a greedy land-
lord. He died on the 23rd of December 1761.
See Andrew Lang, Pickle the Spy (1897) and The Companions of
Pickle (1898).
MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY (c. 1505-1590), Scoto-Irish
chieftain, son of Alexander Macdonnell, lord of Islay and
Kintyre (Cantire), was born at Ballycastle, Co. Antrim. From
an ancestor who about a hundred years earlier had married
Margaret Bisset, heiress of the district on the Antrim coast
known as the Glynns (or Glens), he inherited a claim to the
lordship of that territory; and he was one of the most powerful
of the Scottish settlers in Ulster whom the English government
in the i6th century found difficulty in bringing into subjection.
Many attempts were made to drive them out of Ireland, in
one of which, about 1550, Sorley Boy Macdonnell was taken
prisoner and conveyed to Dublin Castle, where, however,
his confinement was brief. The chief rivals of the Macdonnells
were the Mac Quillins who dominated the northern portion
of Antrim, known as the Route, and whose stronghold was
Dunluce Castle, near the mouth of the Bush. Sorley Boy
Macdonnell took an active part in the tribal warfare between
his own clan and the Mac Quillins; and in 1558, when the
latter had been to a great extent overcome, his elder brother
James committed to him the lordship of the Route, his hold
on which he made good by decisively defeating the Mac Quillins
in Glenshesk. Sorley Boy was now too powerful and turbulent
to be neglected by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers, who
were also being troubled by his great contemporary, Shane
O'Neill; and the history of Ulster for .the next twenty years
consists for the most part of alternating conflict and alliance
between Macdonnells and O'Neills, and attempts on the part
of the English government to subdue them both. With this
object Elizabeth aimed at fomenting the rivalry between the
two clans; and she came to terms sometimes with the one and
sometimes with the other. Sorley Boy's wife was an illegiti-
mate half-sister of Shane O'Neill; but this did not deter him
from leaguing himself with the government against the O'Neills,
if by so doing he could obtain a formal recognition of his title
to the lands of which he was in actual possession. In 1562
Shane O'Neill paid his celebrated visit to London, where he
obtained recognition by Elizabeth of his claims as head of
the O'Neills; and on his return to Ireland he attacked the
Macdonnells, ostensibly in the English interest. He defeated
Sorley Boy near Coleraine in the summer of 1564; in 1565 he
invaded the Glynns, and at Ballycastle won a decisive victory,
in which James Macdonnell and Sorley Boy were taken prisoners.
James soon afterwards died, but Sorley Boy remained O'Neill's
captive till 1567, when Shane was murdered by the Macdonnells
at Cushendun (see O'NEILL). Sorley Boy then went to Scotland
to enlist support, and he spent the next few years in striving
to frustrate the schemes of Sir Thomas Smith, and later of
the earl of Essex, for colonizing Ulster with English settlers.
Sorley Boy was willing to come to terms with the govern-
ment provided his claims to his lands were allowed, but Essex
determined to reduce him to unconditional submission. John
Norris was ordered to proceed by sea from Carrickfergus to
Rathlin Island, where Sorley Boy's children and valuables,
together with the families of his principal retainers, had been
lodged for safety; and while the chieftain was himself at Bally-
castle, within sight of the island, the women and children were
massacred by the English. Sorley Boy retaliated by a success-
ful raid on Carrickfergus and by re-establishing his power
in the Glynns and the Route, which the Mac Quillins made
ineffectual attempts to recover. Macdonnell's position was
still further strengthened by an alliance with Turlough Luineach
O'Neill, and by a formidable immigration of followers from the
Scottish islands. In 1584 Sir John Perrot determined to
make a further effort to subdue the turbulent chieftain. After
another expedition to Scotland seeking help, Sorley Boy landed
at Cushendun in January 1585, and his followers regained
possession of Dunluce Castle. In these circumstances Sir
John Perrot opened negotiations with Sorley Boy, who in the
summer of 1586 repaired to Dublin and made submission to
Elizabeth's representative. He obtained a grant to himself
and his heirs of all the Route country between the rivers Bann
and Bush, with certain other lands to the east, and was made
constable of Dunluce Castle. For the rest of his life Sorley
Boy gave no trouble to the English government. He died in
1590, and was buried in Bonamairgy Abbey, at Ballycastle.
He is said to have married when over eighty years of age, as
his second wife, a daughter of Turlough Luineach O'Neill, a
kinswoman of his first wife; and two of his five daughters
married members of the O'Neill family. Sorley Boy had
several sons by his first marriage, one of whom, Randal, was
created earl of Antrim (q.v.), and was ancestor of the present
holder of that title.
See G. Hill, An Historical Account of the Macdonnells of Antrim
(London, 1873) ; Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 yols.,
London, 1885-1890); Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS. i., ii.,
(6 vols., 1867-1873); Donald Gregory, History of the Western High-
lands and Isles of Scotland 1403-1625 (London, 1881); Sir T. T.
Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865). (R. J. M.)
MACDONOUGH, THOMAS (1786-1825), American sailor,
was born in the state of Delaware, his father being an officer
of the Continental Army, and entered the United States navy
in 1800. During his long service as a lieutenant he took part
in the bombardment of Tripoli, and on a subsequent occasion
showed great firmness in resisting the seizure of a seaman as
214
MAcDOWELL MACE
an alleged deserter from the British navy, his ship at the time
lying under the guns of Gibraltar. When war with England
broke out, in 1812, he was ordered to cruise in the lakes between
Canada and the United States, with his headquarters on lake
Champlain. He was instrumental in saving New York and
Vermont from invasion by his brilliant victory of lake Cham-
plain gained, on the nth of September 1814, with a flotilla
of 14 vessels carrying 86 guns, over Captain George Downie's
1 6 vessels and 92 guns. For this important achievement New
York and Vermont granted him estates, whilst Congress gave
him a gold medal.
MACDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER (1861-1908), Ameri-
can musical composer, was born in New York City on the
i8th of December 1861. His father, an Irishman of Belfast,
had emigrated to America shortly before the boy's birth. He
had a varied education in music, first under Spanish-American
teachers, and then in Europe, at Paris (Debussy being a fellow
pupil), Stuttgart, Wiesbaden and Weimar, where he was chiefly
influenced by Joachim, Raff and Liszt. From 1879 to 1887
he lived in Germany, teaching and studying, and also appearing
as solo pianist at important concerts. In 1884 he married
Marian Nevins, of New York. In 1888 he returned to America,
and settled in Boston till in 1896 he was made professor of
music at Columbia University, New York. He resigned this
post in 1904, and in 1905 overwork and insomnia resulted in
a complete cerebral collapse. He died on the 24th of January
1908. MacDowell's work gives him perhaps the highest place
among American composers. Deeply influenced by modern
French models and by German romanticism, full of poetry
and " atmosphere," and founded on the " programme, " idea of
composition, it is essentially creative in the spirit of a searcher
after delicate truths of artistic expression. His employment
of touches of American folk-song, suggested by Indian themes,
is characteristic. This is notably the case with his orchestral
Indian Suite (1896) and Woodland Sketches for the piano.
His first concerto, in A minor, for piano and orchestra, and
first pianoforte suite, were performed at Weimar in 1882.
His works include orchestral suites and " poems," songs,
choruses, and various pieces for pianoforte, his own instrument;
they are numbered from op. 9 to op. 62, his first eight numbered
works being destroyed by him.
See Lawrence Gilman, Edward MacDowell (1906).
MCDOWELL, IRVIN (1818-1885), American soldier, was
born in Columbus, Ohio, on the isth of October 1818. He
was educated in France, and graduated at the U. S. military
academy in 1838. From 1841 to 1845 he was instructor, and
later adjutant, at West Point. He won the brevet of captain
in the Mexican War, at the battle of Buena Vista, and served
as adjutant-general, chiefly at Washington, until 1861, being pro-
moted major in 1856. In 1858-1859 he visited Europe. Whilst
occupied in mustering volunteers at the capital, he was made
brigadier-general in May 1861, and placed in command during
the premature Virginian campaign of July, which ended in
the defeat at Bull Run. Under McClellan he became a corps
commander and major-general of volunteers (March 1862).
When the Peninsular campaign began McDowell's corps was
detained against McClellan's wishes, sent away to join in the
fruitless chase of " Stonewall " Jackson in the Shenandoah
Valley, and eventually came under the command of General
Pope, taking part in the disastrous campaign of Second Bull Run.
Involved in Pope's disgrace, McDowell was relieved of duty in
the field (Sept. 1862), and served on the Pacific coast 1864-68.
He became, on Meade's death in November 1872, major-general
of regulars (a rank which he already held by brevet), and com-
manded successively the department of the east, the division of
the south, and the division of the Pacific until his retirement in
1882. The latter years of his life were spent in California,
and he died at San Francisco on the 4th of May 1885. As a
commander he was uniformly unfortunate. Undoubtedly he
was a faithful, unselfish and energetic soldier, in patriotic
sympathy with the administration, and capable of great achieve-
ments. It was his misfortune to be associated with the first
great disaster to the Union cause, to play the part of D'Erlon
at Quatre-Bras between the armies of Banks and McClellan,
and finally to be involved in the catastrophe of Pope's campaign.
That he was perhaps too ready to accept great risks at the
instance of his superiors is the only just criticism to which
his military character was open.
MACDUFF, a police burgh and seaport of Banffshire, Scot-
land. Pop. (1901), 3431. It lies on the right bank of the
mouth of the Deveron, i m. E. of Banff and 505 m. N.W. of
Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway. The site
was originally occupied by the fishing village of Doune, but
after its purchase by the ist earl of Fife, about 1732, the name
was altered to Macduff by the 2nd earl, who also procured for
it in 1783 a royal charter constituting it a burgh. In honour
of the occasion he rebuilt the market cross, in front of the
parish church. The harbour, safer and more accessible than
that of Banff, was constructed by the duke of Fife, and
transferred to the burgh in 1898. The inhabitants are chiefly
employed in the herring fishery, but there is some boat-building,
besides rope-and-sail making, manure works, saw-mills and
oilcake mills. A stone bridge across the Deveron communi-
cates with Banff. Good bathing facilities, a bracing climate
and a mineral well attract numerous visitors to Macduff every
summer. The burgh unites with Banff, Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie,
Kintore and Peterhead (the Elgin burghs) in returning one
member to parliament.
McDUFFIE, GEORGE (1788-18^1), American political leader,
was born in Columbia county, Georgia. He was admitted to the
bar in 1814, and served in the South Carolina General Assembly
in 1818-1821, and in the national House of Representatives in
1821-1834. In 1821 he published a pamphlet in which strict
construction and states' rights were strongly denounced; yet
in 1832 there were few more uncompromising nullificationists.
The change seems to have been gradual, and to have been
determined in part by the influence of John C. Calhoun. When,
after 1824, the old Democratic-Republican party split into
factions, he followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren
in opposing the Panama Congress and the policy of making
Federal appropriations for internal improvements. He did
not hesitate, however, to differ from Jackson on the two chief
issues of his administration: the Bank and nullification. In
1832 he was a prominent member of the South Carolina Nullifi-
cation Convention, and drafted its address to the people of the
United States. He served as governor in 1834-1836, during
which time he helped to reorganize South Carolina College.
From January 1843 unt i' January 1846 he was a member of
the United States Senate. The leading Democratic measures
of those years all received his hearty support. McDuffie, like
Calhoun, became an eloquent champion of state sovereignty;
but while Calhoun emphasized state action as the only means
of redressing a grievance, McDuffie paid more attention to the
grievance itself. Influenced in large measure by Thomas
Cooper, he made it his special work to convince the people
of the South that the downfall of protection was essential
to their material progress. His argument that it is the pro-
ducer who really pays the duty of imports has been called the
economic basis of nullification. He died at Cherry Hill, Sumter
district, South Carolina, on the nth of March 1851.
MACE (Fr. masse, O. Fr. mace, connected with Lat. mateola, a
mallet), originally a weapon of offence, made of iron, steel or
latten, capable of breaking through the strongest armour. 1 The
earliest ceremonial maces, as they afterwards became, though at
first intended to protect the king's person, were those borne by
the serjeants-at-arms, a royal body-guard established in France
by Philip II., and in England probably by Richard I. By the
I4th century a tendency towards a more decorative Serjeant's
mace, encased with precious metals, is noticeable. The history
of the civic mace (carried by the serjeants-at-mace) begins about
1 The mace was carried in battle by medieval bishops (Odo of
Bayeux is represented on the Bayeux tapestry as wielding one)
instead of the sword, so as to conform to the canonical rule which
forbade priests to shed blood. [ED.]
MACE
215
the middle of the i3th century, though no examples of that
period are in existence to-day. Ornamented civic maces were
considered an infringement of one of the privileges of the king's
Serjeants, who, according to the Commons' petition in 1344, were
alone deemed worthy of having maces enriched with costly
metals. This privilege was, however, granted to the Serjeants of
London, and later to those of York (in 1396), Norwich (in 1403/4)
From Jewitt and Hope's Corporation Plate and Insignia (1895), by permission of
Bemrose & Co.
FIG. I. Group of War Maces of the 15th and i6th centuries.
and Chester (in 1506). Maces covered with silver are known to
have been used at Exeter in 1387/8; two were bought at Norwich
in 1435, and others for Launceston in 1467/8. Several other
cities and towns had silver maces in the next century, and in the
1 6th they were almost universally used. Early in the is
century the flanged end of the mace, i.e. the head of the war mace,
was borne uppermost, and the small button with the royal arms
in the base. By the beginning of the Tudor period, however,
these blade-like flanges, originally made for offence, degenerated
into mere ornaments, while the greater importance of the end
with the royal arms (afterwards enriched with a cresting) resulted
in the reversal of the position. The custom of carrying the
flanged end upward did not die out at once: a few maces were
made to carry both ways, such as the beautiful pair of Winch-
combe silver maces, dating from the end of the isth century.
The Guildford mace is one of the finest of the fifteen specimens
of the i sth century. The flanged ends of the maces of this period
were often beautifully pierced and decorated. These flanges gradu-
ally became smaller, and later (in the i6th and early i7th cen-
turies) developed into pretty projecting scroll-brackets and other
ornaments, which remained in vogue till about 1640. The next
development in the embellishment of the shaft was the reappear-
ance of these small scroll-brackets on the top, immediately under
the head of the mace. They disappear altogether from the foot
in the last half of the'i 7th century, and are found only under the
heads, or, in rarer instances, on a knob on the shaft. The silver
mace-heads were mostly plain, with a cresting of leaves or flowers
n the isth and i6th centuries. In the reign of James I. they
jegan to be engraved and decorated with heraldic devices, &c.
As the custom of having Serjeants'
maces ceased (about 1650), the large
maces, borne before the mayor or
aailiffs, came into general use. Thomas
Maundy was the chief maker of maces
during the Commonwealth. He made
the mace for the House of Commons in
1649, which is the one at present in use
there, though without the original
head with the non-regal symbols, the
latter having been replaced by one
with regal symbols at the Restoration.
There are two maces in the House of
Lords, the earliest dating from the reign
of William III. The dates of the eight
large and massive silver-gilt maces of the
serjeants-at-arms, kept in the jewel-house
at the Tower of London, are as follows:
two of Charles II., two of James II.,
three of William and Mary, and one of
Queen Anne (the cypher of George I. was
subsequently added to the latter). All
the foregoing are of the type which was
almost universally adopted, with slight
differences, at the Restoration. The
civic maces of the i8th century follow
this type, with some modifications in
shape and ornamentation. The historic
English silver maces of the i8th century
include the one -of 1753 at Norfolk,
Virginia, and that of 1756 of the state
of South Carolina, both in the United
States of America; two, made in 1753
and 1787, at Jamaica; that of 1791
belonging to the colony of Grenada, and
the Speaker's mace at Barbados, dating
from 1812; and the silver mace of the
old Irish House of Commons, 1765-1766,
now in the possession of Lord Massereene
and Ferrard.
Among other maces, more correctly
described as staves, in use at the present
time, are those carried before ecclesias-
tical dignitaries and clergy in cathedrals
and parish churches and the maces of
the universities. At Oxford there are
three of the second half of the i6th
century and six of 1723-1724, while at
Cambridge there are three of 1626 and
one of 1628, but altered at the Common-
wealth and again at the Restoration.
The silver mace with crystal globe of
the lord high treasurer of Scotland, at
Holyrood Palace, was made about 1690 From jewitt and Hope's
by Francis Garthorne. The remarkable SSS^oSsfb? permission
mace or sceptre of the lord mayor of of Bemrose&Co.
London is of crystal and gold and Fl(J 2 _ Mace of the
set with pearls; the head dates from House of Commons,
the isth century, while the mounts of
the shaft are early medieval. A mace
of an unusual form is that of the Tower ward of London, which
has a head resembling the White Tower in the Tower of
London, and which was made in the reign of Charles II.
The beautiful mace of the Cork gilds, made by Robert Goble
of Cork in 1696 for the associated gilds, of which he had been
master, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, where there is
also a large silver mace of the middle of the i8th century, with
the arms of Pope Benedict XIV., which is said to have been
used at the coronation of Napoleon as king of Italy at Milan
in 1805.
2l6
MACEDO MACEDONIA
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Jewitt and Hope, Corporation Plate and Insignia
of Office, &c. (2 vols., 1895); J. R. Garstin, Irish State and Civic
Maces, &c. (1898); J. Paton, Scottish History and Life (1902); J. H.
Buck, Old Plate (1903), pp. 124-140; Cripps, Old English Plate (gth
ed., 1906), pp. 394-404; E. Alfred Jones, Old Plate at the Tower of
London (1908); ed., "Some Historic Silver Maces," Burlington
Magazine (Dec. 1908). (E. A. J.)
MACEDO, JOSfi AGOSTINHO DE (1761-1831), Portuguese
poet and prose writer, was born at Beja of plebeian family, and
studied Latin and rhetoric with the Oratorians in Lisbon. He
became professed as an Augustinian in 1778, but owing to his
turbulent character he spent a great part of his time in prison,
and was constantly being transferred from one convent to an-
other, finally giving up the monastic habit to live licentiously in
the capital. In 1 792 he was unfrocked, but by the aid of powerful
friends he obtained a papal brief which secularized him and per-
mitted him to retain his ecclesiastical status. Taking to journal-
ism and preaching he now made for himself a substantial living
and a unique position. In a short time he was recognized as the
leading pulpit orator of the day, and in 1802 he became one of the
royal preachers. Macedo was the first to introduce from abroad
and to cultivate didactic and descriptive poetry, the best example
of which is his notable transcendental poem Meditation (1813).
His colossal egotism made him attempt to supersede Camoens as
Portugal's greatest poet, and in 1814 he produced Oriente, an
insipid epic notwithstanding its correct and vigorous verse,
dealing with the same subject as the Lusiads Gama's discovery
of the sea route to India. This amended paraphrase met with a
cold reception, whereupon Macedo published his Censura dos
Lusiadas, containing a minute examination and virulent indict-
ment of Camoens. Macedo founded and wrote for a large number
of journals, and the tone and temper of these and his political
pamphlets induced his leading biographer to name him the" chief
libeller " of Portugal, though at the time his jocular and satirical
style gained him popular favour. An extreme adherent of
absolutism, he expended all his brilliant powers of invective
against the Constitutionalists, and advocated a general massacre
of the opponents of the Miguelite r6gime. Notwithstanding his
priestly office and old age, he continued his aggressive journalistic
campaign, until his own party, feeling that he was damaging the
cause by his excesses, threatened him with proceedings, which
caused him in 1829 to resign the post of censor of books for the
Ordinary, to which he had been appointed in 1824. Though
his ingratitude was proverbial, and his moral character of the
worst, when he died in 1831 he left behind him many friends, a
host of admirers, and a great but ephemeral literary reputation.
His ambition to rank as the king of letters led to his famous
conflict with Bocage (q.v.), whose poem Pena de Talido was per-
haps the hardest blow Macedo ever received. His malignity
reached its height in a satirical poem in six cantos, Os Burros
(1812-1814), in which he pilloried by name men and women of all
grades of society, living and dead, with the utmost licence of
expression. His translation of the Odes of Horace, and his dra-
matic attempts, are only of value as evidence of the extraordinary
versatility of the man, but his treatise, if his it be, A Demonstration
of the Existence of God, at least proves his possession of very high
mental powers. As a poet, his odes on Wellington and the
emperor Alexander show true inspiration, and the poems of the
same nature in his Lyra anacreontica, addressed to his mistress,
have considerable merit.
See Memorias para la vida intima de Josi Agostinho de Macedo
(ed. Th. Braga, 1899) ; Cartas e opusculos (1900) ; Censuras d diversas
obras (1901). (E. PR.)
MACEDONIA, the name generally given to that portion of
European Turkey which is bounded on the N. by the Kara-
Dagh mountain range and the frontier of Bulgaria, on the E.
by the river Mesta, on the S. by the Aegean Sea and the frontier
of Greece, and on the W. by an ill-defined line coinciding with
the mountain chains of Shar (ancient Scardus) Grammus and
Pindus. The Macedonia of antiquity was originally confined
to the inland region west of the Axius, between that river and the
Scardus range, and did not include the northern portion, known
as Paeonia, or the coast-land, which, with the eastern districts,
was inhabited by Thracian tribes; the people of the country
were not Hellenic. In modern Macedonia are included the
vilayet of Salonica (Turk. Selanik), the eastern and greater por-
tion of the vilayet of Monastir (sanjaks of Monastir, Servia
[Turk. Selfije], and part of that of Kortcha), and the south-
eastern portion of the vilayet of Kossovo (sanjak of Uskiib).
The greater part of Macedonia is inhabited by a Slavonic
population, mainly Bulgarian in its characteristics; the coast-line
and the southern districts west of the Gulf of Salonica by
Greeks, while Turkish, Vlach and Albanian settlements exist
sporadically, or in groups, in many parts of the country.
Geographical Features. The coast-line is broken by the remarkable
peninsula of Chalcidice, with its three promontories of Athos
(ancient Acte), Longus (Sithonia) and Cassandra (Pallene). The
country is divided into two almost equal portions by the river
Vardar (Axius), the valley of which has always constituted the
principal route from Central Europe to the Aegean. Rising in the
Shar mountains near Gostivar (Bulgarian Kostovo), the Vardar,
flowing to the N.E., drains the rich elevated plain of Tetovo (Turk.
Kalkandelen) and, turning to the S.E. at the foot of Mt Liubotrn,
traverses the town and plain of Uskub, leaving to the left the high
plateau of Ovchepolye (" the sheep-plain "); then flowing through
the town of Veles, it receives on its right, near the ruins of the ancient
Stobi, the waters of its principal tributary, the Tcherna (Erigon),
which drains the basin of Monastir and the mountainous region of
Morichovo, and after passing through the picturesque gorge of
Demir-Kapu (the Iron Gate) finds its way to the Gulf of Salonica
through the alluvial tract known as the Campania, extending to the
west of that town. The other important rivers are the Struma
(Strymon) and Mesta (Nestus) to the east, running almost parallel
to the Vardar, and the Bistritza in the south, all falling into the
Aegean. (The Black Drin, issuing from Lake Ochrida and flowing
N.W. to the Adriatic, is for the greater part of its course an Albanian
river.) The Struma, which rises in Mt Vitosha in Bulgaria, runs
through a narrow defile till, within a short distance of the sea, it
expands into Lake Tachino, and falls into the Aegean near the site
of the ancient Amphipolis. The Mesta, rising in the Rhodope range,
drains the valley of Razlog and forms a delta at its entrance into the
Aegean opposite the island of Thasos. The Bistritza, which has its
source in the eastern slope of Mt Grammus, receives early in its
course the outflow from Lake Castoria on the left; it flows to the
S.E. towards the frontier of Greece, where its course is arrested by
the Cambunian mountains; then turning sharply to the N.E., and
passing through the districts of Serfije and Verria, it reaches the
Campania and enters the Gulf of Salonica at a point a few miles to
the S.W. of the mouth of the Vardar. The valleys of most of tke
rivers and their tributaries broaden here and there into fertile upland
basins, which were formerly lakes. Of these the extensive plateau
of Monastir, the ancient plain of Pelagonia, about 1500 ft. above
the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Uskub,
Kotchan6, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish
other examples. The principal lakes are Ochrida (Lychnitis) on the
confines of Albania; Prespa, separated from Ochrida by theGalinitza
mountains, and supposed to be connected with it by a subterranean
channel; Castoria, to the S.E. of Prespa; Ostrovo, midway between
Prespa and the Vardar; Tachino (Cercinitis) on the lower course of
the Struma; Beshik (Bolbe), separating the Chalcidian peninsula
from the mainland, and Doiran (probably Prasias), beneath the
southern declivity of the Belasitza mountains; the smaller lakes of
Amatovo and Venije are in the alluvial plain on either side of the
lower Vardar. Lake Ochrida (q.v.) finds egress into the Black Drin
(Drilon) at Struga, where there are productive fisheries. The
lacustrine habitations of the Paeonians on Lake Prasias described
by Herodotus (v. 16) find a modern counterpart in the huts of the
fishing population on Lake Doiran. The surface of the country is
generally mountainous; the various mountain-groups present little
uniformity in their geographical contour. The great chain of
Rhodope, continued to the N.W. by the Rilska and Osogovska
Planina, forms a natural boundary on the north; the principal
summit, Musalla (9031 ft.), is just over the Bulgarian frontier. The
adjoining Dospat range culminates in Belmeken (8562 ft.), also just
over the Bulgarian frontier. Between the upper courses of the
Mesta and Struma is the Perim Dagh or Pirin Planina (Orbelos) with
Elin (8794 ft.), continued to the south by the Bozo Dagh (6081 ft.) ;
still further south, overlooking the bay of Kayala, are the Bunar Dagh
and Mt Pangaeus, famous in antiquity for its gold and silver mines.
Between the Struma and the Vardar are the Belasitza, Krusha and
other ranges. West of the Vardar is the lofty Shar chain (Scardus)
overlooking the plain of Tetovo and terminating at its eastern
extremity in the pyramidal Liubotrn (according to some authorities,
10,007 ft., and consequently the highest mountain in the Peninsula;
according to others 8989, 8856, or 8200 ft.). The Shar range, with
the Kara Dagh to the east, forms the natural boundary of Macedonia
on the N.W. ; this is prolonged on the west by the Yaina-Bistra and
Yablanitza mountains with several summits exceeding 7000 ft. in
height, the Odonishta Planina overlooking Lake Ochrida on the west,
MACEDONIA
217
the Morova Planina, the Grammus range, and Pindus with Smolika
(8546 ft.). The series of heights is broken by the valleys of the
Black Drin and Devol, which flow to the Adriatic. Between the
Vardar and the plain of Monastir the Nija range culminates in
Kaimakchalan (8255 ft.); south-west of Monastir is Mt Peristeri
a 720 ft.) overlooking Lake Prespa on the east ; on the west is the
alinitza range separating it from Lake Ochrida. Between Lake
Ostrovo and the lower Bistritza are the Bermius and Kitarion
ranges with Doxa (5240 ft.) and Turla (about 3280 ft.). South of
the Bistritza are the Cambunian mountains forming the boundary
of Thessaly and terminating to the east in the imposing mass of
Elymbos, or Olympus (9794 ft.). Lastly, Mt Atnos, at the ex-
tremity of the peninsula of that name, reaches the height of 6350 ft.
The general aspect of the country is bare and desolate, especially
in the neighbourhood of the principal routes;_the trees have been
destroyed, and large tracts of land remain uncultivated. Magnificent
forests, however, still clothe the slopes of Rhodope, Pirin ana Pindus.
The well-wooded and cultivated districts of Grevena and Castoria,
which are mainly inhabited by a Vlach population, are remarkably
beautiful, and the scenery around Lakes Ochrida and Prespa is
exceedingly picturesque. For the principal geological formations
see BALKAN PENINSULA.
The climate is severe; the spring is often rainy, and the melted
snows from the encircling mountains produce inundations in the
plains. The natural products are in general similar to those of
southern Bulgaria and Servia the fig, olive and orange, however,
appear on the shores of the Aegean and in the sheltered valleys of
the southern region. The best tobacco in Europe is grown in the
Drama and Kavala districts; rice and cotton are cultivated in the
southern plains.
Population. The population of Macedonia may perhaps be
estimated at 2,200,000. About 1,300,000 are Christians of various
churches and nationalities; more than 800,000 are Mahommedans,
and about 75,000 are Jews. Of the Christians, the great majority
profess the Eastern Orthodox faith, owning allegiance either to
the Greek patriarchate or the Bulgarian exarchate. Among the
Orthodox Christians are reckoned some 4000 Turks. The small
Catholic minority is composed chiefly of Uniate Bulgarians (about
3600), occupying the districts of Kukush and Doiran; there are also
some 2000 Bulgarian Protestants, principally inhabiting the valley
of Razlog. The Mahommedan population is mainly composed of
Turks (about 500,000). In addition to these there are some 130,000
Bulgars, 120,000 Albanians, 35,000 gipsies and 14,000 Greeks,
together with a smaller number of Vlachs, Jews and Circassians,
who profess the creed of Islam. The untrustworthy Turkish
statistics take religion, not nationality, as the basis of classification.
All Moslems are included in the millet, or nation, of Islam. The
Rdm, or Roman (i.e. Greek) millet comprises all those who acknow-
ledge the authority of the Oecumenical patriarch, and consequently
includes, in addition to the Greeks, the Servians, the Vlachs, and a
certain number of Bulgarians; the Bulgar millet comprises the
Bulgarians who accept the rule of the exarchate; the other millets
are the Katolik (Catholics), Ermeni (Gregorian Armenians), Musevi
(Jews) and Prodesdan (Protestants). The population of Macedonia,
at all times scanty, has undoubtedly diminished in recent years.
There has been a continual outflow of the Christian population in
the direction of Bulgaria, Servia and Greece, and a corresponding
emigration of the Turkish peasantry to Asia Minor. Many of the
smaller villages are being abandoned by their inhabitants, who
migrate for safety to the more considerable towns usually situated
at some point where a mountain pass descends to the outskirts of
the plains. In the agricultural districts the Christian peasants, or
rayas, are either small proprietors or cultivate holdings on the
estates of Turkish landowners. The upland districts are thinly
inhabited by a nomad pastoral population.
Towns. The principal towns are Salonica (pop. in 1910, about
130,000), Monastir (60,000), each the capital of a vilayet, and
Usktib (32,000), capital of the vilayet of Kossovo. In the Salonica
vilayet are Serres (28,000), pleasantly situated in a fertile valley near
Lake Tachino; Nevrokop (6200), Mehomia (5000), and Bansko
(6500), in the valley of the Upper Mesta; Drama (9000), at the foot
of the Bozo Dagh, with its port Kavala (9500); Djumaia (6440),
Melnik (4300) and Demir Hissar (5840) in the valley of the Struma,
with Strumnitza (10,160) and Petrich (7100) in the valley of its
tributary, the Strumnitza; Veles (Turk. Kopriilu) on the Vardar
(19,700); Doiran (6780) and Kukush (775) ! and, to the west of
the Vardar, Verria (Slav. Ber, anc. Beroea, Turk. Karaferia, 10,500),
Yenije'- Vardar (9599) and Vodena (anc. Edessa,^q.v., 11,000). In
the portion of the Kossovo vilayet included in Macedonia are
Kalkandelen (Slav. Tetovo, 19,200), Kumanovo (14,500) and Shtip
(Turk. Istib, 21,000). In the Monastir vilayet are Prilep (24,000)
at the northern end of the Pelagonian plain, Krushevo (9350)
mainly inhabited by Vlachs, Resen (4450) north of Lake Prespa
Fiorina (Slav. Lerin, 9824); Ochrida (14,860), with a picturesque
fortress of Tsar Samuel, and Struga (4570), both on the north shore
of Lake Ochrida; Dibra (Slav. Debr) on the confines of Albania
(15,500), Castoria (Slav. Kostur), on the lake of that name (6190)
and Kozhand (6100). (Dibra, Kavala, Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica
Serres, Uskiib and Vodena are described in separate articles.)
Races. Macedonia is the principal theatre of the struggle of
nationalities in Eastern Europe. All the races which dispute
the reversion of the Turkish possessions in Europe Tfte Turtt
are represented within its borders. The Macedonian
probably may therefore he described as the quintessence of the
Near Eastern Question. The Turks, the ruling race, form less
than a quarter of the entire population, and their numbers are
steadily declining. The first Turkish immigration from Asia
Minor took place under the Byzantine emperors before the con-
quest of the country. The first purely Turkish town, Yenije-
Vardar, was founded on the ruins of Vardar in 1362. After the
capture of Salonica (1430), a strong Turkish population was set-
tled in the city, and similar colonies were founded in Monastir,
Ochrida, Serres, Drama and other important places. In many
of these towns half or more of the population is still Turkish.
A series of military colonies were subsequently established at
various points of strategic importance along the principal lines
of communication. Before 1360 large numbers of nomad
shepherds, or Yuruks, from the district of Konia, in Asia Minor,
had settled in the country; their descendants are still known as
Konariotes. Further immigration from this region took place
from time to time up to the middle of the i8th century. After
the establishment of the feudal system in 1397 many of the
Seljuk noble families came over from Asia Minor; their descen-
dants may be recognized among the beys or Moslem landowners
in southern Macedonia. At the beginning of the i8th century
the Turkish population was very considerable, but since that time
it has continuously decreased. A low birth-rate, the exhaustion
of the male population by military service, and great mortality
from epidemics, against which Moslem fatalism takes no pre-
cautions, have brought about a decline which has latterly been
hastened by emigration. On the other hand, there has been a
considerable Moslem immigration from Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria
and Greece, but the newcomers, mohajirs, do not form a per-
manent colonizing element. The Turkish rural population is
found in three principal groups: the most easterly extends from
the Mesta to Drama, Pravishta and Orfano, reaching the sea-
coast on either side of Kavala, which is partly Turkish, partly
Greek. The second, or central, group begins on the sea-coast,
a little west of the mouth of the Strymon, where a Greek popula-
tion intervenes, and extends to the north-west along the Kara-
Dagh and Belasitza ranges in the direction of Strumnitza, Veles,
Shtip and Radovisht. The third, or southern, group is centred
around Kailar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake
Ostrovo to Selfij6 (Servia). The second and third groups are
mainly composed of Konariot shepherds. Besides these fairly
compact settlements there are numerous isolated Turkish
colonies in various parts of the country. The Turkish rural
population is quiet, sober and orderly, presenting some of the
best characteristics of the race. The urban population, on the
other hand, has become much demoralized, while the official
classes, under the rule of Abdul Hamid II. and his predecessors,
were corrupt and avaricious, and seemed to have parted with
all scruple in their dealings with the Christian peasantry. The
Turks, though still numerically and politically strong, fall behind
the other nationalities in point of intellectual culture, and the
contrast is daily becoming more marked owing to the educational
activity of the Christians.
The Greek and Vlach populations are not always easily dis-
tinguished, as a considerable proportion of the Vlachs have
been hellenized. Both show a remarkable aptitude
for commerce; the Greeks have maintained their
language and religion, and the Vlachs their religion,
with greater tenacity than any of the other races. From the date
of the Ottoman conquest until comparatively recent times, the
Greeks occupied an exceptional position in Macedonia, as else-
where in the Turkish Empire, owing to the privileges conferred
on the patriarchate of Constantinople, and the influence subse-
quently acquired by the great Phanariot families. All the Christian
population belonged to the Greek millet and called itself Greek ; the
bishops and higher clergy were exclusively Greek ; Greek was the
language of the upper classes, of commerce, literature and
2l8
MACEDONIA
religion, and Greek alone was taught in the schools. Thesupremacy
of the patriarchate was consummated by the suppression of the
autocephalous Slavonic churches of Ipek in 1766 and Ochrida
in 1767. In the latter half of the i8th century Greek ascendancy
in Macedonia was at its zenith; its decline began with the War
of Independence, the establishment of the Hellenic kingdom, and
the extinction of the Phanariot power in Constantinople. The
patriarchate, nevertheless, maintained its exclusive jurisdiction
over all the Orthodox population till 1870, when the Bulgarian
exarchate was established, and the Greek clergy continued to
labour with undiminished zeal for the spread of Hellenism.
Notwithstanding their venality and intolerance, their merits as
the only diffusers of culture and enlightenment in the past
should not be overlooked. The process of hellenization made
greater progress in the towns than in the rural districts of the
interior, where the non-Hellenic populations preserved their
languages, which alone saved the several nationalities from ex-
tinction. The typical Greek, with his superior education, his
love of politics and commerce, and his distaste for laborious
occupations, has always been a dweller in cities. In Salonica,
Serres, Kavala, Castoria, and other towns in southern Macedonia
the Hellenic element is strong; in the northern towns it is insig-
nificant, except at Melnik, which is almost exclusively Greek.
The Greek rural population extends from the Thessalian fron-
tier to Castoria and Verria (Beroea); it occupies the whole
Chalcidian peninsula and both banks of the lower Strymon from
Serres to the sea, and from Nigrita on the west to Pravishta on
the east; there are also numerous Greek villages in the Kavala
district. The Mahommedan Greeks, known as Valachides,
occupy a considerable tract in the upper Bistritza valley near
Grevena and Liapsista. The purely Greek population of Mace-
donia may possibly be estimated at a quarter of a million. The
Vlachs, or Rumans, who call themselves Aromuni or Aromdni
(i.e. Romans), are also known as Kutzovlachs and Tzintzars:
the last two appellations are, in fact, nicknames, " Kutzovlach "
meaning " lame Vlach," while " Tzintzar " denotes their in-
ability to pronounce the Rumanian cincf (five). The Vlachs are
styled by some writers " Macedo-Rumans," in contradistinction
to the " Daco-Rumans," who inhabit the country north of the
Danube. They are, in all probability, the descendants of the
Thracian branch of the aboriginal Thraco-Illyrian population
of the Balkan Peninsula, the Illyrians being represented by the
Albanians. This early native population, which was apparently
hellenized to some extent under the Macedonian empire, seems
to have been latinized in the period succeeding the Roman
conquest, and probably received a considerable infusion of
Italian blood. The Vlachs are for the most part either highland
shepherds or wandering owners of horses and mules. Their
settlements are scattered all over the mountains of Macedonia:
some of these consist of permanent dwellings, others of huts
occupied only in the summer. The compactest groups are found
in the Pindus and Agrapha mountains (extending into Albania
and Thessaly), in the neighbourhood of Monastir, Grevena and
Castoria, and in the district of Meglen. The Vlachs who settle
in the lowland districts are excellent husbandmen. The urban
population is considerable; the Vlachs of Salonica, Monastir,
Serres and other large towns are, for the most part, descended
from refugees from Moschopolis, once the principal centre of
Macedonian commerce. The towns of Metzovo, on the confines
of Albania, and Klisura, in the Bistritza valley, are almost
exclusively Vlach. The urban and most of the rural Vlachs are
bilingual, speaking Greek as well as Rumanian; a great number
of the former have been completely hellenized, partly in conse-
quence of mixed marriages, and many of the wealthiest commer-
cial families of Vlach origin are now devoted to the Greek cause.
The Vlachs of Macedonia possibly number 90,000, of whom only
some 3000 are Mahommedans. The Macedonian dialect of the
Rumanian language differs mainly from that spoken north of
the Danube in its vocabulary and certain phonetic peculiarities;
it contains a number of Greek works which are often replaced
in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin synonyms.
The Albanians, called by the Turks and Slavs Arnauts, by
the Greeks 'Ap/3avTreu, and by themselves Shkyipetar, have
always been the scourge of western Macedonia. After the
first Turkish invasion of Albania many of the chiefs fhe
or beys adopted Mahommedanism, but the conver- Albanians,
sion of the great bulk of the people took place in the clrcas -
i6th and i7th centuries. Professing the creed of satts ' &c -
the dominant power and entitled to bear arms, the Albanians
were enabled to push forward their limits at the. expense of the
defenceless population around them, and their encroachments
have continued to the present day. They have not only
advanced themselves, but have driven to the eastward numbers
of their Christian compatriots and a great portion of the once-
prosperous Vlach population of Albania. Albanian revolts and
disturbances have been frequent along the western confines of
Macedonia, especially in the neighbourhood of Dibra: the
Slavonic peasants have been the principal sufferers from these
troubles, while the Porte, in pursuance of the " Islamic policy "
adopted by the sultan Abdul Hamid II., dealt tenderly with the
recalcitrant believers. In southern Macedonia the Albanians
of the Tosk race extend over the upper Bistritza valley as far
west as Castoria, and reach the southern and western shores of
Lakes Prespa and Ochrida: they are also numerous in the neigh-
bourhood of Monastir. In northern Macedonia the Albanians
are of the Gheg stock: they have advanced in large numbers
over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and Uskiib, driving the
Slavonic population before them. The total number of Alba-
nians in Macedonia may be estimated at about 1 20,000, of whom
some 10,000 are Christians (chiefly orthodox Tosks). The
Circassians, who occupy some villages in the neighbourhood of
Serres, now scarcely number 3000: their predatory instincts
may be compared with those of the Albanians. The Jews had
colonies in Macedonia in the time of St Paul, but no trace remains
of these early settlements. The Jews now found in the country
descend from refugees who fled from Spain during the persecu-
tions at the end of the isth century: they speak a dialect of
Spanish, which they write with Hebrew characters. They form
a flourishing community at Salonica, which numbers more
than half the population: their colonies at Monastir, Serres and
other towns are poor. A small proportion of the Jews, known
as Deunmi by the Turks, have embraced Mahommedanism.
With the exception of the southern and western districts
already specified, the principal towns, and certain isolated tracts,
the whole of Macedonia is inhabited by a race or The
races speaking a Slavonic dialect. If language is Slavonic
adopted as a test, the great bulk of the rural popula- p P ula " oa -
tion must be described as Slavonic. The Slavs first crossed the
Danube at the beginning of the 3rd century, but their great
immigration took place in the 6th and 7th centuries. They
overran the entire peninsula, driving the Greeks to the shores of
the Aegean, the Albanians into the Mirdite country, and the
latinized population of Macedonia into the highland districts,
such as Pindus, Agrapha and Olympus. The Slavs, a primitive
agricultural and pastoral people, were often unsuccessful in
their attacks on the fortified towns, which remained centres of
Hellenism. In the outlying parts of the peninsula they were
absorbed, or eventually driven back, by the original populations,
but in the central region they probably assimilated a considerable
proportion of the latinized races. The western portions of the
peninsula were occupied by Serb and Slovene tribes: the Slavs
of the eastern and central portions were conquered at the end of
the 7th century by the Bulgarians, a Ugro-Finnish horde, who
established a despotic political organization, but being less
numerous than the subjected race were eventually absorbed by
it. The Mongolian physical type, which prevails in the districts
between the Balkans and the Danube, is also found in central
Macedonia, and may be recognized as far west as Ochrida and
Dibra. In general, however, the Macedonian Slavs differ some-
what both in appearance and character from their neighbours
beyond the Bulgarian and Servian frontiers: the peculiar type
which they present is probably due to a considerable admixture of
Vlach, Hellenic, Albanian and Turkish blood, and to the influence
of the surrounding races. Almost all independent authorities,
MACEDONIA
219
however, agree that the bulk of the Slavonic population of Mace-
donia is Bulgarian. The principal indication is furnished by the
language, which, though resembling Servian in some respects
(e.g. the case-endings, which are occasionally retained), presents
most of the characteristic features of Bulgarian (see BULGARIA:
Language). Among these may be mentioned the suffix-article,
the nasal vowels (retained in the neighbourhood of Salonica and
Castoria, but modified elsewhere as in Bulgarian), the retention of
/ (e.g. vulk " wolf," bel " white "; Servian vuk, beo), and the loss
of the infinitive. There are at least four Slavonic dialects in
Macedonia, but the suffix-article, though varying in form, is a
constant feature in all. The Slavs of western Macedonia are of a
lively, enterprising character, and share the commercial aptitude
of the Vlachs: those of the eastern and southern regions are a
quiet, sober, hardworking agricultural race, more obviously
homogeneous with the population of Bulgaria. In upper Mace-
donia large family communities, resembling the Servian and
Bulgarian zadruga, are commonly found: they sometimes number
over 50 members. The whole Slavonic population of Macedonia
may be estimated at about 1,150,000, of whom about 1,000,000
are Christians of the Orthodox faith. The majority of these own
allegiance to the Bulgarian exarchate, but a certain minority
still remains faithful to the Greek patriarchate. The Moslem
Bulgarians form a considerable element: they are found prin-
cipally in the valley of the upper Mesta and the Rhodope district,
where they are known as Pomaks or " helpers," i.e. auxiliaries
to the Turkish army.
The Racial Propaganda. The embittered struggle of the rival
nationalities in Macedonia dates from the middle of the loth
century. Until that period the Greeks, owing to their superior
culture and their privileged position, exercised an exclusive in-
fluence over the whole population professing the Orthodox
faith. All Macedonia was either Moslem or Orthodox Christian,
without distinction of nationalities, the Catholic or Protestant
millets being inconsiderable. The first opposition to Greek
ecclesiastical ascendancy came from the Bulgarians. The Bul-
garian literary revival, which took place in the earlier part of the
1 9th century, was the precursor of the ecclesiastical and national
movement which resulted in the establishment of the exarchate
in 1870 (see BULGARIA). In the course of the struggle some of
the Bulgarian leaders entered into negotiations with Rome; a
Bulgarian Uniate church was recognized by the Porte, and the
pope nominated a bishop, who, however, was mysteriously
deported to Russia a few days after his consecration (1861).
The first exarch, who was elected in 1871, was excommunicated
with all his followers by the patriarch, and a considerable number
of Bulgarians in Macedonia the so-called " Bulgarophone
Greeks " fearing the reproach of schism, or influenced by other
considerations, refrained from acknowledging the new spiritual
power. Many of the recently converted uniates, on the other
hand, offered their allegiance to the exarch. The firman of the
28th of February 1870 specified a number of districts within the
present boundaries of Bulgaria and Servia, as well as in Macedonia,
to which Bulgarian bishops might be appointed; other districts
might be subjected to the exarchate should two-thirds of the
inhabitants so desire. In virtue of the latter provision the dis-
tricts of Veles, Ochrida and Uskiib declared for the exarchate,
but the Turkish government refrained from sanctioning the
nomination of Bulgarian bishops to these dioceses. It was not
till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stamboloff, the Bul-
garian prime minister, whose demands were supported by the
Triple Alliance and Great Britain, issued the berat, or exequatur,
for Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Uskiib; the sees of Veles
and Nevrokop received Bulgarian prelates in 1894, and those of
Monastir, Strumnitza and Dibra in 1898. The Bulgarian posi-
tion was further strengthened in the latter year by the establish-
ment of " commercial agents " representing the principality at
Salonica, Uskiib, Monastir and Serres. During this period
(1891-1898) the Bulgarian propaganda, entirely controlled by
the spiritual power and conducted within the bounds of legality,
made rapid and surprising progress. Subsequently the inter-
ference of the Macedonian committee at Sofia, in which the
advocates of physical force predominated, and the rivalry of fac-
tions did much to injure the movement ; the hostility of the Porte
was provoked and the sympathy of the powers alienated by a
series of assassinations and other crimes. According to the official
figures, the Bulgarian schools, which in 1893 were 554, with
30,267 pupils and 853 teachers, in 1900 numbered 785 (including
5 gymnasia and 58 secondary schools), with 39,892 pupils and
1250 teachers. A great number of the schools were closed by
the Turkish authorities after the insurrection of 1003 and many
had not been reopened in 1909; the teachers were imprisoned or
had fled into exile.
The Rumanian movement comes next to the Bulgarian in
order of time. The Vlachs had shown greater susceptibility to
Greek influence than any of the other non-Hellenic populations
of Macedonia, and, though efforts to create a Rumanian propa-
ganda were made as early as 1855, it was not till after the union
of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1861 that any
indications of a national sentiment appeared amongst them. In
1 886 the principal apostle of the Rumanian cause, a priest named
Apostol Margaritis, founded a gymnasium at Monastir, and the
movement, countenanced by the Porte, supported by the French
Catholic missions, and to some extent encouraged by Austria,
has made no inconsiderable progress since that time. There
are now about forty Rumanian schools in Macedonia, including
two gymnasia, and large sums are devoted to their maintenance
by the ministry of education at Bucharest, which also provides
qualified teachers. The Rumanian and Servian movements
are at a disadvantage compared with the Bulgarian, owing to
their want of a separate ecclesiastical organization, the orthodox
Vlachs and Serbs in Turkey owning allegiance to the Greek
patriarchate. The governments of Bucharest and Belgrade
therefore endeavoured to obtain the recognition of Vlach and
Servian millets, demanding respectively the establishment of
a Rumanian bishopric at Monastir and the restoration of the
patriarchate of Ipek with the appointment of a Servian metro-
politan at Uskiib. The Vlach millet was recognized by the
Porte by irade on the 23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the
Servians, whose active interference in Macedonia is of compara-
tively recent date, have not been realized. Previously to 1878
the hopes of the Servians were centred on Bosnia, Herzegovina
and the vilayet of Kossovo; but when the Berlin Treaty assigned
Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, the national aspirations
were directed to Macedonia, the Slavonic population of which
was declared to be Servian. The strained relations existing
between Russia and Bulgaria from 1886 to 1895 were to the
advantage of the Servian propaganda, which after 1800 made
remarkable progress. Great expenditure has been incurred by
the Servian government in the opening and maintenance of
schools. At the beginning of 1899 there were stated to be 178
Servian schools in the vilayets of Uskiib, Salonica and Monastir
(including fifteen gymnasia), with 321 teachers and 7200 pupils.
The Albanian movement is still in an inceptive stage; owing
to the persistent prohibition of Albanian schools by the Turks,
a literary propaganda, the usual precursor of a national revival,
was rendered impossible till the outbreak of the Young Turk
revolution in July 1908.' ^After that date numerous schools
were founded and an Albanian committee, meeting in November
1908, fixed the national alphabet and decided on the adoption
of the Latin character. The educational movement is most
conspicuous among the Tosks, or southern Albanians. Notwith-
standing the encroachments of their rivals, the impoverishment
of the patriarchate, and the injury inflicted on their cause by
the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the Greeks still maintain a large
number of schools; according to statistics prepared at Athens
there were in 1901, 927 Greek schools in the vilayets of Salonica
and Monastir (including five gymnasia), with 1397 teachers and
57,607 pupils. The great educational activity displayed by
the proselytizing movements in Macedonia, while tending to the
artificial creation of parties, daily widens the contrast between the
progressive Christian and the backward Moslem populations.
Antiquities. Macedonia, like the neighbouring Balkan countries,
still awaited exploration at the beginning of the 2Oth century, and
220
MACEDONIA
little had been learned of the earlier development of civilization in
these regions. The ancient indigenous population has left many
traces of its presence in the tumuli which occur on the plains, and
more especially along the valley of the Vardar. The unquiet state
of the country went far to prevent any systematic investigation of
these remains; excavations, however, were made by Korte and
Franke at Niausta and near Salonica (see Kretschner, Einleitung in
die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache, pp. 176, 421), and fragments of
primitive pottery, with peculiar characteristics, were found by
Perdrizet at Tchepelje, on the left bank of Lake Tachino. The oldest
archaeological monuments of Macedonia are its coins, for which the
mines of Crenides (the later Philippi), at the foot of Mt Pangaeus,
of Chalcidice, of the island of Thasos, and of the mountains between
Lake Prasias and the ancient Macedonian kingdom (Herod, v. 17),
furnished abundance of metal. From the reign of Alexander I.,
in the epoch of the Persian wars (502-479 B.C.), the Macedonian
dynasty issued silver coins of a purely Greek style. The Thracian
communities around Mt Pangaeus also produced a variety of coins,
especially at the beginning of the 5th century. The great octo-
drachms of this period were perhaps struck for the purpose of paying
tribute to the Persians when the country between the Strymon and
the Nestos was in their possession; most of the specimens have
been found in Asia Minor. These large pieces present many charac-
teristics of the Ionian style; it is evident that the Thracians derived
the arts of minting and engraving from the neighbouring Thasos,
itself a colony from the Ionian Paros. The monarchs of Pella were
enthusiastic admirers of Hellenic culture, and their court was
doubtless frequented by Greek sculptors as well as men of letters,
such as Herodotus and Euripides. At Pella has been found a
funerary stele of the late 5th or early 4th century representing a
Macedonian hetaerus a beautiful specimen of the best Greek art,
now preserved in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople.
To the Hellenic period belong the vaulted tombs under tumuli dis-
covered at Pella, Pydna, Palatitza, and other places; the dead were
laid in marble couches ornamented with sculptures, like those of the
so-called sarcophagus of Alexander at Constantinople. These tombs
doubtless received the remains of the Macedonian nobles and hetaeri :
in one of them a fresco representing a conflict between a horseman
and a warrior on foot has been brought to light by Kinch. Similarly
constructed places of sepulture have been found at Eretria and else-
where in Greece. At Palatitza the ruins of a remarkable structure,
perhaps a palace, have been laid bare by Heuzey and Daumet.
Unlike Greece, where each independent city had its acropolis, Mace-
donia offers few remnants of ancient fortification ; most of the country
towns appear to have been nothing more than open market-centres.
The most interesting ruins in the country are those of the Roman and
Byzantine epochs, especially those at Salonica (?..). The Byzan-
tine fortifications and aqueduct of Kavala are also remarkable.
At Verria (Beroea) may be seen some Christian remains, at Melnik
a palace of the age of the Comneni, at Serres a fortress built by the
Servian tsar Stephen Dushan (1336-1356). The remainsat Filibejik
(Philippi) are principally of the Roman and Byzantine periods;
the numerous ex voto rock-tablets of the acropolis are especially
interesting. The Roman inscriptions found in Macedonia are mainly
funerary, but include several ephebic lists. The funerary tablets
afford convincing proof of the persistence of the Thracian element,
notwithstanding hellenization and latinization ; many of them, for
instance, represent the well-known Thracian horseman hunting the
wild boar. The monastic communities on the promontory of Athos
(q.v.), with their treasures of Byzantine art and their rich collections
of manuscripts, are of the highest antiquarian interest.
History. For the history of ancient Macedonia see MACE-
DONIAN EMPIRE.' After its subjugation by the Romans the
country was divided into four districts separated by rigid
political and social limitations. Before long it was constituted
a province, which in the time of Augustus was assigned to the
senate. Thenceforward it followed the fortunes of the Roman
empire, and, after the partition of that dominion, of its eastern
branch. Its Thraco-Illyrian inhabitants had already been
largely latinized when Constantine the Great made Byzantium
the imperial residence in A.D. 330; they called themselves Romans
and spoke Latin. Towards the close of the 4th century the
country was devastated by the Goths and Avars, whose incur-
sions possessed no lasting significance. It was otherwise with
the great Slavonic immigration, which took place at intervals
from the 3rd to the 7th century. An important ethnographic
change was brought about, and the greater part of Mace-
donia was colonized by the invaders (see BALKAN PENINSULA).
The Slavs were in their turn conquered by the Bulgarians
(see BULGARIA: History) whose chief Krum (802-815) included
central Macedonia in his dominions. The Byzantines retained
the southern regions and Salonica, which temporarily fell into
the hands of the Saracens in 904. With the exception of the
1 Also Alexander, Perdiccas, Philip, &c.
maritime districts, the whole of Macedonia formed a portion
of the empire of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon (893-927); the
Bulgarian power declined after his death, but was Byzantine
revived in western Macedonia under the Shishman *ad
dynasty at Ochrida; Tsar Samuel (976-1014), the third Bul f arl * a
ruler of that family, included in his dominions Uskiib, '
Veles, Vodena and Melnik. After his defeat by the emperor
Basil II. in 1014 Greek domination was established for a century
and a half. The Byzantine emperors endeavoured to confirm
their positions by Asiatic colonization; Turkish immigrants,
afterwards known as Vardariotes, the first of their race who
appeared in Macedonia, were settled in the neighbourhood of
Salonica in the 9th century; colonies of Uzes, Petchenegs and
Kumans were introduced at various periods from the nth to the
i3th century. While Greeks and Bulgarians disputed the mas-
tery of Macedonia the Vlachs, in the loth century, established
an independent state in the Pindus region, which, afterwards
known as Great Walachia, continued to exist till the beginning
of the i4th century. In 1185 southern Macedonia was exposed
to a raid of the Normans under William of Sicily, who captured
Salonica and massacred its inhabitants. After the taking of
Constantinople in 1204 by the Franks of the fourth crusade, the
Latin empire of Romania was formed and the feudal kingdom
of Thessalonica was bestowed on Boniface, marquis of Mont-
ferrat; this was overthrown in 1222 by Theodore, despot of
Epirus, a descendant of the imperial house of the Comneni, who
styled himself emperor of Thessalonica and for some years ruled
over all Macedonia. He was defeated and captured by the
Bulgarians in 1 230 and the remnant of his possessions, to which
his son John succeeded, was absorbed in the empire of Nicaea
in 1 234. Bulgarian rule was now once more established in Mace-
donia under the powerful monarch Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241)
whose dynasty, of Vlach origin, had been founded at Trnovo
in 1186 after a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars against the
Greeks. A period of decadence followed the extinction of the
Asen dynasty in 1257; the Bulgarian power was overthrown by
the Servians at Velbuzhd (1330), and Macedonia was included
in the realm of the great Servian tsar Dushan (1331-1355) who
fixed his capital at Uskiib. Dushan's empire fell to pieces after
his death, and the anarchy which followed prepared the way for
the advance of the Turks, to whom not only contending
factions at Constantinople but Servian and Bulgarian princes
alike made overtures.
Macedonia and Thrace were soon desolated by Turkish raids ;
when it was too late the Slavonic states combined against the
invaders, but their forces, under the Servian tsar
Lazar, were routed at Kossovo in 1389 by the sultan
Murad I. Salonica and Larissa were captured in
1395 by Murad's son Bayezid, whose victory over Sigismund
of Hungary at Nicopolis in 1396 sealed the fate of the
peninsula. The towns in the Struma valley were yielded to
the Turks by John VII. Palaeologus in 1424; Salonica was
taken for the last time in 1428 by Murad II. and its inhabi-
tants were massacred. Large tracts of land were distributed
among the Ottoman chiefs; a system of feudal tenure was
developed by Mahommed II. (1451-1481), each fief furnishing a
certain number of armed warriors. The Christian peasant
owners remained on the lands assigned to the Moslem feudal
lords, to whom they paid a tithe. The condition of the subject
population was deplorable from the first, and became worse
during the period of anarchy which coincided with the decadence
of the central power in the I7th and i8th centuries; in the latter
half of the 1 7th century efforts to improve it were made by the
grand viziers Mehemet and Mustafa of the eminent house of
Koprttlu. The country was policed by the janissaries (q.v.).
Numbers of the peasant proprietors were ultimately reduced to
serfdom, working as labourers on the farms or tchifliks of the
Moslem beys. Towards the end of the i8th century many of the
local governors became practically independent; western Mace-
donia fell under the sway of Ali Pasha of lannina; at Serres
Ismail Bey maintained an army of 10,000 men and exercised a
beneficent despotism. For more than two centuries Albanian
MACEDONIA
221
incursions, often resulting in permanent settlements, added to
the troubles of the Christian population. The reforms embodied
in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhane (1839) and in the Hatt-i-humayun
(1856), in both of which the perfect equality of races and religions
was proclaimed, remained a dead letter; the first " Law of the
Vilayets " (1864), reforming the local administration, brought
no relief, while depriving the Christian communities of certain
rights which they had hitherto possessed.
In 1876 a conference of the powers at Constantinople proposed
the reorganization of the Bulgarian provinces of Turkey in two
vilayets under Christian governors-general aided by
popular assemblies. The " western " vilayet, of
tioa. which Sofia was to be the capital, included northern,
Treaties of central and western Macedonia, extending south as
Md iterUn." far a 8 Castoria - The fry* de rlglement elaborated
by the conference was rejected by the Turkish
parliament convoked under the constitution proclaimed en the
23rd of December 1876; the constitution, which was little more
than a device for eluding European intervention, was shortly
afterwards suspended. Under the treaty of San Stefano (March
3, 1878) the whole of Macedonia, except Salonica and the
Chalcidic peninsula, was included in the newly formed princi-
pality of Bulgaria; this arrangement was reversed by the Treaty
of Berlin (July 13) which left Macedonia under Turkish adminis-
tration but provided (Art. xxiii.) for the introduction of reforms
analogous to those of the Cretan Organic Statute of 1868.
These reforms were to be drawn up by special commissions, on
which the native element should be largely represented, and the
opinion of the European commission for eastern Rumelia was to be
taken before their promulgation. The Porte, however, prepared
a project of its own, and the commission, taking this as a basis,
drew up the elaborate " Law of the Vilayets " (Aug. 23, 1880).
The law never received the sultan's sanction, and European
diplomacy proved unequal to the task of securing its adoption.
The Berlin Treaty, by its artificial division of the Bulgarian
race, created the difficult and perplexing "Macedonian Question."
The The population handed back to Turkish rule never
Jfaeedontenacquiesced in its fate; its discontent was aggravated
Question. jjy tne d e pi ora ble misgovernment which characterized
the reign of Abdul Hamid II., and its efforts to assert itself,
stimulated by the sympathy of the enfranchised portion of the
race, provoked rival movements on the part of the other Chris-
tian nationalities, each receiving encouragement and material
aid from the adjacent and kindred states. Some insignificant
risings took place in Macedonia after the signature of the Berlin
Treaty, but in the interval between 1878 and 1893 the population
remained comparatively tranquil, awaiting the fulfilment of the
promised reforms.
In 1893, however, a number of secret revolutionary societies
(druzhestvo) were set on foot in Macedonia, and in 1894 similar
Bulgarian bodies were organized as legal corporations in Bul-
Conspira- garia. The fall of Stamboloff in that year and the
** reconciliation of Bulgaria with Russia encouraged
the revolutionaries in the mistaken belief that Russia would
take steps to revive the provisions of the San Stefano treaty.
In 1895 the " Supreme Macedo-Adrianopolitan Committee "
(Vrkhoven Makedoni-Odrinski Komitet) was formed at Sofia
and forthwith despatched armed bands into northern Macedonia;
the town of Melnik was occupied for a short time by the revolu-
tionaries under Boris Sarafoff , but the enterprise ended in failure.
Dispirited by this result, the " Vrkhovists," as the revolutionaries
in Bulgaria were generally styled, refrained from any serious
effort for the next five years; the movement was paralysed by
dissensions among the chiefs, and rival parties were formed under
Sarafoff and General Tzoncheff. Meanwhile the " Centralist "
or local Macedonian societies were welded by two remarkable
men, Damian Grueff and Gotz6 Delcheff, into a formidable power
known as the " Internal Organization," founded in 1893, which
maintained its own police, held its own tribunals, assessed and
collected contributions, and otherwise exercised an imperium in
imperio throughout the country, which was divided into rayons
or districts, and subdivided into departments and communes,
each with its special staff of functionaries. The Internal Organ-
ization, as a rule, avoided co-operation with the revolutionaries
in Bulgaria; it aimed at the attainment of Macedonian autonomy,
and at first endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to enlist the
sympathies of the Greeks and Servians for the programme of
" Macedonia for the Macedonians."
The principle of autonomy was suspected at Athens and
Belgrade as calculated to ensure Bulgarian predominance and
to delay or preclude the ultimate partition of the Greek
country. At Athens, especially, the progress of the Action.
Bulgarian movement was viewed with much alarm; it was
feared that Macedonia would be lost to Hellenism, and in 1896
the Ethniki Hetaerea (see GREECE and CRETE) sent numerous
bands into the southern districts of the country. The Hetaerea
aimed at bringing about a war between Greece and Turkey, and
the outbreak of trouble in Crete enabled it to accomplish its
purpose. During the Greco-Turkish War (q.v.) Macedonia
remained quiet, Bulgaria and Servia refraining from interference
under pressure from Austria, Russia and the other great powers.
The reverses of the Greeks were to the advantage of the Bul-
garian movement, which continued to gain strength, but after
the discovery of a hidden dep6t of arms at Vinitza in 1897 the
Turkish authorities changed their attitude towards the Bulgarian
element; extreme and often barbarous methods of repression
were adopted, and arms were distributed among the Moslem
population. The capture of an American missionary, Miss
Stone, by a Bulgarian band under Sandansky in the autumn of
1901 proved a windfall to the revolutionaries, who expended her
ransom of Ti6,ooo in the purchase of arms and ammunition.
In 1902 the Servians, after a prolonged conflict with the Greeks,
succeeded with Russian aid in obtaining the nomination of Mgr.
Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Uskiib. Troubles la
Contemporaneously with a series of Russo-Bulgarian 19O2: later-
celebrations in the Shipka pass in September of that v ** "'
, . . . thervwers.
year, an effort was made to provoke a rising in the
Monastir district by Colonel Yankoff, the lieutenant of General
Tzoncheff; in November a number of bands entered the Razlog
district under the general's personal direction. These movements,
which were not supported by the Internal Organization, ended
in failure, and merciless repression followed. The state of the
country now became such as to necessitate the intervention of
the powers, and the Austrian and Russian governments, which
had acted in concert since April 1897, drew up an elaborate
scheme of reforms. The Porte, as usual, endeavoured to fore-
stall foreign interference by producing a project of its own,
which was promulgated in November 1902, and Hilmi Pasha
was appointed Inspector General of the Rumelian vilayets and
charged with its application. The two powers, however, per-
severed in their intention and on the 2ist of February 1903
presented to the Porte an identic memorandum proposing a
series of reforms in the administration, police and finance,
including the employment of " foreign specialists " for the
reorganization of the gendarmerie.
At the same time the Bulgarian government, under pressure
from Russia, arrested the revolutionary leaders in the principality,
suppressed the committees, and confiscated their
funds. The Internal Organization, however, was be-
yond reach, and preparations for an insurrection went
rapidly forward. In March a serious Albanian revolt I9a3 '
complicated the situation. At the end of April a number of
dynamite outrages took place at Salonica; public opinion in
Europe turned against the revolutionaries and the Turks seized
the opportunity to wreak a terrible vengeance on the Bulgarian
population. On the 2nd of August, the feast of St Elias, a general
insurrection broke out in the Monastir vilayet, followed by
sporadic revolts in other districts. The insurgents achieved
some temporary successes and occupied the towns of Krushevo,
Klisura and Neveska, but by the end of September their resist-
ance was overcome; more than 100 villages were burned by the
troops and bashi-bazouks, 8400 houses were destroyed and 60,000
peasants remained homeless in the mountains at the approach of
wister.
222
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
The Austrian and Russian governments then drew up a
further series of reforms known as the " Miirzsteg programme "
The (Oct. 9, 1903) to which the Porte assented in prin-
"Mlinsteg ciple, though many difficulties were raised over
Pro ~ n details. Two officials, an Austrian and a Russian,
me ' styled " civil agents " and charged with the super-
vision of the local authorities in the application of reforms,
were placed by the side of the inspector-general while the
reorganization of the gendarmerie was entrusted to a foreign
general in the Turkish service aided by a certain number of
officers from the armies of the great powers. The latter task
was entrusted to the Italian General de Giorgis (April 1904),
the country being divided into sections under the supervision
of the officers of each power. The reforms proved a failure,
mainly owing to the tacit opposition of the Turkish authori-
ties, the insufficient powers attributed to the European
officials, the racial feuds and the deplorable financial situation.
In 1905 the powers agreed on the establishment of a financial
commission on which the representatives of Great Britain,
France, Germany and Italy would sit as colleagues of the civil
agents. The Porte offered an obstinate resistance to the
project and only yielded (Dec. 5) when the fleets of the powers
appeared near the Dardanelles. Some improvement was now
effected in the financial administration, but the general state of
the country continued to grow worse; large funds were collected
abroad by the committees at Athens, which despatched numerous
bands largely composed of Cretans into the southern districts,
the Servians displayed renewed activity in the north, while the
Bulgarians offered a dogged resistance to all their foes.
The Austro-Russian entente came to an end in the beginning
of 1908 owing to the Austrian project of connecting the Bosnian
The"Revai and Macedonian railway systems, and Great Britain
Pro- and Russia now took the foremost place in the
gramme." demand for reforms. After a meeting between King
Edward VII. and the emperor Nicholas II. at Reval in the early
summer of 1908 an Anglo-Russian scheme, known as the " Reval
programme," was announced; the project aimed at more effective
European supervision and dealt especially with the administra-
tion of justice. Its appearance was almost immediately followed
by the military revolt of the Young Turk or constitutional party,
which began in the Monastir district under two junior officers,
Enver Bey and Niazi Bey, in July. The restoration of the con-
stitution of 1876 was proclaimed (July 24, 1908), and the powers,
anticipating the spontaneous adoption of reforms on the part of
regenerated Turkey, decided to suspend the Reval programme
and to withdraw their military officers from Macedonia.
See Lejean, Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Europe (Gotha, 1861) ;
Hahn, Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik (Vienna, 1868); Yastrebon,
Obichai i pesni turetskikh Serbov (St Petersburg, 1886); " Ofeicoff "
(Shopoff), La, Macedoine au point de vue ethnographique, historique el
philologique (Philippopolis, l888);Gopchevitch, MakedonienundA.lt-
Serbien (Vienna, 1889); Verkovitch, Topografichesko-ethnographiche-
skii ocherk Makedonii (St Petersburg, 1889); Burada, Cercetari
despre scoalele Romanesci din Turcia (Bucharest, 1890); Tomaschek,
Die heutigen Bewohner Macedoniens (Sonderabdruck aus den
Verhandlungen des IX. D. Geographen-Tages in Wien, 1891)
(Berlin, 1891) ; Die alien Thrdker (Vienna, 1893) ; Berard, La Turquie
et I'Hellenisme contempprain, (Paris, 1893); La Macedoine (Paris,
1900) ; Shopoff, Iz zhivota i polozhenieto na Bulgarite v vilayetite
(Philippopolis, 1894); Weigand, Die Aromunen (Leipzig, 1895);
Die nationalen Bestrebungen der Balkanvolker (Leipzig, 1898);
Nikolaides, La Macedoine (Berlin, 1899);. "Odysseus," Turkey in
Europe (London, 1900); Kunchoff, Makedonia: etnografia i statistika
(Sofia, 1900); La Macedoine et la Vilayet d'Andrinople (Sofia, 1904),
anonymous; L. Villari, The Balkan Question (London, 1905); H. N.
Brailsford, Macedonia: its Races and their Future (London, 1906);
J. Cvijic, Grundlinien der Geographie und Geologie von Mazedonien
und Altserbien (Gotha, 1908). For the antiquities, see Texier and
Pullan, Byzantine Architecture (London, 1864); Heuzey and Daumet,
Mission archeologique en Macedoine (Paris, 1865); Duchesne and
Bayet, Memoire sur une mission en Macedoine et au Mont Athos
(Paris, 1876) ; Barclay V. Head, Catalogue of Greek Coins; Macedonia
(London, 1879) ; Kinch, L' Arc de triomphe de Salonique (Paris, 1890) ;
Beretnung om en archaeologisk Reise i Makedonien (Copenhagen,
1893); Mommsen, Suppl. to vol. iii. Corpus inscript. latinarum
(Berlin, 1893); Perdrizet, Articles on Macedonian archaeology and
epigraphy in Bulletin de correspondence hellenique, since 1894.
(J. D. B.)
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, the name generally given to the
empire founded by Alexander the Great of Macedon in the
countries now represented by Greece and European Turkey,
Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, Persia and eastwards as far as northern
India. 1 The present article contains a general account of the
empire in its various aspects. It falls naturally into two main
divisions: I. The reign of Alexander. II. The period of his
successors, the " Diadochi " and their dynasties.
I. The Reign of Alexander. At the beginning of the 4th
century B.C. two types of political association confronted each
other in the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean, /. Greets
the Persian monarchy with its huge agglomeration aad
of subject peoples, and the Greek city-state. Each
had a different principle of strength. The Persian monarchy was
strong in its size, in the mere amount of men and treasure it could
dispose of under a single hand; the Greek state was strong in its
morale, in the energy and discipline of its soldiery. But the
smallness of the single city-states and their unwillingness to
combine prevented this superiority in quality from telling
destructively upon the bulk of the Persian empire. The future
belonged to any power that could combine the advantages of
both systems, could make a state larger than the Greek polis,
and animated by a spirit equal to that of the Greek soldier. This
was achieved by the kings of Macedonia. The work, begun by
his predecessors, of consolidating the kingdom internally and
making its army a fighting-machine of high power was com-
pleted by the genius of Philip II. (350-336 B.C.), who at the same
time by war and diplomacy brought the Greek states of the
Balkan peninsula generally to recognize his single predominance.
At the synod of Corinth (338) Philip was solemnly declared the
captain-general (crTpaTrryos avroKparup) of the Hellenes against
the Great King. The attack on Persia was delayed by the
assassination of Philip in 336, and it needed some fighting before
the young Alexander had made his position secure in Macedonia
and Greece. The recognition as captain-general he had obtained
at another synod in Corinth, by an imposing military demonstra-
tion in Greece immediately upon his accession. Then came the
invasion of the Persian empire by Alexander in 334 at the head
of an army composed both of Macedonians and contingents from
the allied Greek states. Before this force the Persian monarchy
went down, and when Alexander died eleven years later (323) a
Macedonian empire which covered all the territory of the old
Persian empire, and even more, was a realized fact.
The empire outside of Macedonia itself consisted of 22 provinces.
In Europe, (i) Thra.ce', in Asia Minor, (2) Phrygiaonthe Hellespont,
(3) Lydia, (4) Caria, (5) Lycia and Pamphylia, (6) Great 2 . Extent of
Phrygia, (7) Paphlagonia and Cappadocia; between th e Empire.
the Taurus and Iran, (8) Cilicia, (9) Syria, (10) Mesopo-
tamia, (n) Babylonia, (12) Susiana; in Africa, (13) Egypt; in Iran,
(14) Persis, (15) Media, (16) Parthia and Hyrcania, (17) Bactria and
Sogdiana, (18) Areia and Drangiana, (19) Carmania, (20) Arachosia
and Gedrosia; lastly the Indian provinces, (21) the Paropanisidae (the
Kabul valley), and (22) the province assigned to Pithpn, the son of
Agenor, upon the Indus (J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch.lll. [iu], p. 236 seq. ;
for the Indian provinces cf. B. Niese, Gesch. der griech. und maked.
Staaten, I. p. 500 seq.). Hardly provinces proper, but rather client
principalities, were the two native kingdoms to which Alexander had
left the conquered land beyond the Indus the kingdoms of Taxiles
and Porus.
The conquered empire presented Alexander with a system of
government ready-made, which it was natural for the new masters
to take over. For the Asiatic provinces and Egypt, the old
Persian name of satrapy (see SATRAP) was still re- 3. System
tained, but the governor seems to have been styled oioovern-
officially in Greek strategos, although the term satrap "
certainly continued current in common parlance. The gover-
nors appointed by Alexander were, in the west of the empire,
exclusively Macedonians; in the east, members of the Old Persian
nobility were still among the satraps at Alexander's death,
Atropates in Media, Phrataphernes in Parthia and Hyrcania,
1 For the events which brought this empire into being see
ALEXANDER THE GREAT. For the detailed accounts of the separate
dynasties into which it' was divided after Alexander's death, see
SELEUCID DYNASTY, ANTIGONUS, PERGAMUM, &c., and for its effect
on the spread of Hellenic culture see HELLENISM.
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
223
and Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes in the Paropanisidae.
Alexander had at first trusted Persian grandees more freely in
this capacity; in Babylonia, Bactria, Carmania, Susiana he had
set Persian governors, till the ingrained Oriental tradition of
misgovernment so declared itself that to the three latter provinces
certainly Macedonians had been appointed before his death.
Otherwise the only eastern satrapy whose governor was not a
Macedonian, was Areia, under Stasanor, a Cypriote Greek. In
the case of certain provinces, possibly in the empire generally,
Alexander established a double control. The financial admini-
stration was entrusted to separate officials; we hear of such in
Lydia (Arr. i. 17, 7), Babylonia (id. iii. 16, 4), and notably in
Egypt (id. iii. 5, 4). Higher financial controllers seem to have
been over groups of provinces (Philoxenus over Asia Minor, Arr.
i. 17, 7; see Beloch, Gr. Gesch. III. [i] p. 14), and Harpalus over
the whole finances of the empire, with his seat in Babylon. Again
the garrisons in the chief cities, such as Sardis, Babylon, Memphis
Pelusium and Susa, were under commands distinct from those
of the provinces. The old Greek cities of the motherland were
not formally subjects of the empire, but sovereign states, which
assembled at Corinth as members of a great alliance, in which
the Macedonian king was included as a member and held the
office of captain-general. The Greek cities of Asia Minor stood
to him in a similar relation, though not included in the Corinthian
alliance, but in federations of their own (Kaerst, Gesch. d.
hellenist. Zeitalt. i. 261 seq.). Their territory was not part of the
king's country (Inscr. in the Brit. Mus. No. 400). Of course, in
fact, the power of the king was so vastly superior that the Greek
cities were in reality subject to his dictation, even in so intimate
a matter as the readmission of their exiles, and might be obliged
to receive his garrisons. Within the empire itself, the various
communities were allowed, subject to the interference of the king
or his officials, to manage their own affairs. Alexander is said
to have granted the Lydians to be " free " and " to use the laws
of the ancient Lydians," whatever exactly these expressions
may mean (Arr. i. 17, 4). So too in Egypt, the native monarchs
were left as the local authorities (Arr. iii. 5, 4). Especially to
the gods of the conquered people Alexander showed respect. In
Egypt and in Babylon he appeared as the restorer of the native
religions to honour after the unsympathetic rule of the Persians.
The temple of Marduk in Babylon which had fallen began to rise
again at his command. It is possible that he offered sacrifice
to Yahweh in Jerusalem. In Persia, the native aristocracy
retained their power, and the Macedonian governor adopted
Persian dress and manners (Diod. xix. 48, 5; Arr. vi. 30). A
new factor introduced by Alexander was the foundation of Greek
cities at all critical points of intercourse in the conquered lands.
These, no doubt, possessed municipal autonomy with the ordinary
organization of the Greek state ; to what extent they were formally
and regularly controlled by the provincial authorities we do not
know; Pithon, the satrap of the Indian province is specially
described as sent "in colonias in Indis conditas" (Just. xiii.
4, 21). The empire included large tracts of mountain or desert,
inhabited by tribes, which the Persian government had never
subdued. The subjugation of such districts could only be by a
system of effective military occupation and would be a work of
time; but Alexander made a beginning by punitive expeditions,
as occasion offered, calculated to reduce the free tribes to tempo-
rary quiet ; we hear of such expeditions in the case of the Pisidians,
the tribes of the Lebanon, the Uxii (in Khuzistan), the Tapyri (in
the Elburz), the hill-peoples of Bajaor and Swat, the Cossaei
(in Kurdistan) ; an expedition against the Arabs was in prepara-
tion when Alexander died.
See A. Kohler, Reichsverwaltung u. Politik Alexanders des Grossen
in Klio, v. 303 seq. (1905).
Alexander, who set out as king of t he Macedonians and captain-
general of the Hellenes, assumed after the death of Darius the
4. Court, c h aracter of the Oriental great king. He adopted
the Persian garb (Plutarch, de fort. Al. i. 8) in-
cluding a head-dress, the diadema, which was suggested by
that of the Achaemenian king (Just. xii. 3, 8). We hear
also of a sceptre as part of his insignia (Diod. xviii. 27, i).
The pomps and ceremonies which were traditional in the East
were to be continued. To the Greeks and Macedonians such a
regime was abhorrent, and the opposition roused by Alexander's
attempt to introduce among them the practice of proskynesis
(prostration before the royal presence), was bitter and effectual.
The title of chiliarch, by which the Greeks had described the
great king's chief minister, in accordance with the Persian title
which described him as " commander of a thousand," i.e. of the
royal body-guard, was conferred by Alexander upon his friend
Hephaestion. The Greek Chares held the position of chief usher
(i<ra77Xeis). Another Greek, Eumenes of Cardia, was chief
secretary (dpxi7paju/iaiis). The figure of the eunuch, so long
characteristic of the Oriental court, was as prominent as ever
(e.g. Bagoas, Plut. Alex. 67, &c.; cf. Arr. vii. 24).
Alexander, however, who impressed his contemporaries by
his sexual continence, kept no harem of the old s<5rt. The
number of his wives did not go beyond two, and the second, the
daughter of Darius, he did not take till a year before his death.
In closest contact with the king's person were the seven, or
latterly eight, body-guards, <rwjuaTO<uXa(c, Macedonians of high
rank, including Ptolemy and Lysimachus, the future kings of
Egypt, and Thrace (Arr. vi. 28, 4). The institution, which the
Macedonian court before Alexander had borrowed from Persia,
of a corps of pages composed of the young sons of the nobility
(iraidts /^aoiXaot or /SaatXiKot) continued to hold an important
place in the system of the court and in Alexander's campaigns
(see Arr. iv. 13, i; Curt. viii. 6, 6; Suid. /faoiXeioi iraTSes; cf.
the 7rai5s of Eumenes, Diod. xix. 28, 3).
See Spiecker, Der Hofund die Hofordnung Alex. d. Grossen (1904).
The army of Alexander was an instrument which he inherited
from his father Philip. Its core was composed of the Macedonian
peasantry who served on foot in heavy armour (" the s ^ {
root-companions ")r(ffraipoi). They formed the phalanx,
and were divided into 6 brigades (rdfttj), probably on the territorial
system. Their distinctive arm was the great Macedonian pike
(sarissa), some 14 ft. long, of further reach than the ordinary Greek
spear. They were normally drawn up in more open order than the
heavy Greek phalanx, and possessed thereby a mobility and elasticity
in which the latter was fatally deficient. Reckoning 1,500 to each
brigade, we got a total for the phalanx of 9,000 men. Of higher rank
than the pezetaeri were the royal foot-guards (0a<riAo2 inra<rrl<rrai),
some 3,000 in number, more lightly armed, and distinguished (at any
rate at the time of Alexander's death) by silver shields. Of these
1,000 constituted the royal corps (r6 071)^0 r<J @a.ai\utw). The Mace-
donian cavalry was recruited from a higher grade of society than the
infantry, the petite noblesse of the nation. They bore by old custom
the name of the king's Companions (iratpoi), and were distributed
into 8 territorial squadrons (IXoi) of probably some 250 men each,
making a normal total of 2,000. In the cavalry also the most
privileged squadron bore the name of the agema. The ruder peoples
which were neighbors to the Macedonians (Paeonians, Agrianes,
Thracians) furnished contingents of light cavalry and javelineers
(Axon-ioToU). From the Thessalians the Macedonian king, as overlord,
drew some thousand excellent troopers. The rest of Alexander's
army was composed of Greeks, not formally his subjects. These
served partly as mercenaries, partly in contingents contributed
by the states in virtue of their alliance. According to Diodorus
(xvii. 17, 3) at the time of Alexander's passage into Asia, the mer-
cenaries numbered 5,000, and the troops of the alliance 7,000 foot
and 600 horse. All these numbers take no account of the troops
left behind in Macedonia, 12,000 foot and 1,500 horse, according to
Diodorus. When Alexander was lord of Asia, innovations followed
in the army. Already in 330 at Persepolis, the command went forth
that 30,000 young Asiatics were to be trained as Macedonian soldiers
(the epigoni, Arr. vii., 6, i). Contingents of the fine Bactrian
cavalry followed Alexander into India. Persian nobles were admitted
into the agema of the Macedonian cavalry. A far more radical re-
modelling of the army was undertaken at Babylon in 323, by which the
old phalanx system was to be given up for one in which the unit was
to be composed of Macedonians with pikes and Asiatics with missile
arms in combination a change calculated to be momentous both
from a military point of view in the coming wars, and from a political,
in the close fusion of Europeans and Asiatics. The death of Alexan-
der interrupted the scheme, and his successors reverted to the
older system. In the wars of Alexander the phalanx was never
the most active arm; Alexander delivered his telling attacks with
his cavalry, whereas the slow-moving phalanx held rather the posi-
tion of a reserve, and was brought up to complete a victory when
the cavalry charges had already taken effect. Apart from the
pitched battles, the warfare of Alexander was largely hill-fighting,
in which the hypaspistae took the principal part, and the contingents
of light-armed hillmen from the Balkan region did excellent service.
224
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
For Alexander's army and tactics, beside the regular histories
(Droysen, Niese, Beloch, Kaerst), see D. G. Hogarth, Journal of
Philol., xvii. I seq. (corrected at some points in his Philip and Alex-
ander).
The modifications in the army system were closely connectec
with Alexander's general policy, in which the fusion of Greeks
6. Fusion of and Asiatics held so prominent a place. He hac
Greeks and himself, as we have seen, assumed to some extent
Asiatics. the guige of a p ers j an kj ng Tne Macedonian
Peucestas received special marks of his favour for adopting the
Persian dress. The most striking declaration of his ideals was
the marriage feast at Susa in 324, when a large number of the
Macedonian nobles were induced to marry Persian princesses,
and the rank and file were encouraged by special rewards to take
Eastern wives. We are told that among the schemes registered
in the state papers and disclosed after Alexander's death was
one for transplanting large bodies of Asiatics into Europe and
Europeans into Asia, for blending the peoples of the empire by
intermarriage into a single whole (Diod. xviii. 4, 4). How far
did Alexander intend that in such a fusion Hellenic culture should
retain its pre-eminence? How far could it have done so, had
the scheme been realized? It is not impossible that the question
may yet be raised again whether the Eurasian after all is the heir
of the ages.
High above all the medley of kindreds and tongues, un-
trammelled by national traditions, for he had outgrown the
r DMae com P ass f anv one nation, invested with the
Honours. 8l orv of achievements in which the old bounds of
the possible seemed to fall away, stood in 324 the
man Alexander. Was he a man? The question was explicitly
suggested by the report that the Egyptian priest in the Oasis
had hailed him in the god's name as the son of Ammon. The
Egyptians had, of course, ascribed deity by old custom to their
kings, and were ready enough to add Alexander to the list. The
Persians, on the other hand, had a different conception of the
godhead, and we have no proof that from them Alexander either
required or received divine honours. From the Greeks he cer-
tainly received such honours; the ambassadors from the Greek
states came in 323 with the character of theori, as if approaching
a deity (Arr. vii. 23, 2). It has been supposed that in offering
such worship the Greeks showed the effect of " Oriental "
influence, but indeed we have not to look outside the Greek circle
of ideas to explain it. As early as Aeschylus (Supp. 991) the
proffering of divine honours was a form of expression for intense
feelings of reverence or gratitude towards men which naturally
suggested itself as a figure of speech in Aeschylus, but the figure
had been translated into action before Alexander not in the well-
known case of Lysander only (cf. the case of Dion, Plut. Dio, 29).
Among the educated Greeks rationalistic views of the old
mythology had become so current that they could assimilate
Alexander to Dionysus without supposing him to be super-
natural, and to this temper the divine honours were a mere form,
an elaborate sort of flattery. Did Alexander merely receive such
honours? Or did he claim them himself? It would seem that
he did. Many of the assertions as to his action in this line do
not stand the light of criticism (see Hogarth, Eng. Hist. Rev. ii.,
1887, p. 317 seq.; Niese, Historische Zeitschrift, Ixxix., 1897, p. i,
seq.); even the explicit statement in Arrian as to Alexander
and the Arabians is given as a mere report; but we have well-
authenticated utterances of Attic orators when the question of
the cult of Alexander came up for debate, which seem to prove
that an intimation of the king's pleasure had been conveyed to
Athens.
A new life entered the lands conquered by Alexander. Human
intercourse was increased and quickened to a degree not before
A Inter- known. Commercial enterprise now found open
course and roads between the Aegean and India; the new
ily ' Greek cities made stations in what had been for
the earlier Greek traders unknown lands; an immense quantity
of precious metal had been put into circulation which
the Persian kings had kept locked up in their treasuries
(cf. Athen. vi. 231 e). At the same time Alexander himself made
it a principal concern to win fresh geographical knowledge, to
open new ways. The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the
Euphrates was intended to link India by a waterway with the
Mediterranean lands. So too Heraclides was sent to explore
the Caspian; the survey, and possible circumnavigation, of the
Arabian coasts was the last enterprise which occupied Alexander.
The improvement of waterways in the interior of the empire was
not neglected, the Babylonian canal system was repaired, the
obstructions in the Tigris removed. A canal was attempted
across the Mimas promontory (Plin. N.H. v. 116). The reports
of the /377juart<TT<u, Baeton and Diognetus, who accompanied
the march of Alexander's army, gave an exacter knowledge of
the geographical conformation of the empire, and were accessible
for later investigators (Susemihl, Gesch. d. griech. Lilt., I. p. 544).
Greek natural science was enriched with a mass of new mate-
rial from the observations of the philosophers who went with
Alexander through the strange lands (H. Bretzl, Botanische
Forschungen d. Alexanderzuges, 1903); whilst on the other hand
attempts were made to acclimatize the plants of the motherland
in the foreign soil (Theophr., Hist. Plant, iv. 4, i).
The accession of Alexander brought about a change in the mone-
tary system of the kingdom. Philip's bimetallic system, which had
attempted artificially to fix the value of silver in spite a r
of the great depreciation of gold consequent upon the Coln t e -
working of the Pangaean mines, was abandoned. Alexander's
gold coinage, indeed (possibly not struck till after the invasion of
Asia), follows in weight that of Philip's staters; but he seems at
once to have adopted for his silver coins (of a smaller denomination
than the tetradrachm) the Euboic-Attic standard, instead of the
Phoenician, which had been Philip's. With the conquest of Asia,
Alexander conceived the plan of issuing a uniform coinage for the
empire. Gold had fallen still further from the diffusion of the Per-
sian treasure, and Alexander struck in both metals on the Attic
standard, leaving their relation to adjust itself by the state of the
market. This imperial coinage was designed to break down the
monetary predominance of Athens (Beloch, Gr. Gesch. iii. [i.], 42).
None of the coins with Alexander's own image can be shown to' have
been issued during his reign; the traditional gods of the Greeks
still admitted no living man to share their prerogative in this sphere.
Athena and Nike alone figured upon Alexander's gold ; Heracles and
Zeus upon his silver.
See L. Muller, Numismatique d'Alexandre le Grand (1850- also
NUMISMATICS: I. " Greek Coins, Macedonian."
II. After Alexander. The external fortunes of the Macedonian
Empire after Alexander's death must be briefly traced before its
inner developments be touched upon. 1 There was, at , Htstory
first, when Alexander suddenly died in 323, no overt otthe
disruption of the empire. The dispute between "Succes-
the Macedonian infantry and the cavalry (i.e. the sor *-"
commonalty and the nobles) was as to the person who should
be chosen to be the king, although it is true that either candidate,
the half-witted son of Philip II., Philip Arrhidaeus, or the pos-
thumous son of Alexander by Roxana, opened the prospect of a
long regency exercised by one or more of the Macedonian lords.
The compromise, by which both the candidates should be kings
together, was, of course, succeeded by a struggle for power
among those who wished to rule in their name. The resettle-
ment of dignities made in Babylon in 323, while it left the eastern
commands practically undisturbed as well as that of Antipater
in Europe, placed Perdiccas (whether as regent or as chiliarch) in
possession of the kings' persons, and this was a position which
:he other Macedonian lords could not suffer. Hence the first
intestine war among the Macedonians, in which Antipater,
Antigonus, the atrap of Phrygia, and Ptolemy, the satrap of
Egypt, were allied against Perdiccas, who was ultimately mur-
dered in 321 on the Egyptian frontier (see PERDICCAS [4],
EUMENES). A second settlement, made at Triparadisus in
Syria in 321, constituted Antipater regent and increased the
power of Antigonus in Asia. When Antipater died, in 319, a
second war broke out, the wrecks of the party of Perdiccas, led
>y Eumenes, combining with Polyperchon, the new regent, and
ater on (318) with the eastern satraps who were in arms against
iMthon, the satrap of Media. Cassander, the son of Antipater,
disappointed of the regency, had joined the party of Antigonus.
.n 316 Antigonus had defeated and killed Eumenes and made
limself supreme from the Aegean to Iran, and Cassander had
1 For details see separate articles on the chief generals.
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
225
ousted Polyperchon from Macedonia. But now a third war
began, the old associates of Antigonus, alarmed by his over-
grown power, combining against him Cassander, Ptolemy,
Lysimachus, the governor of Thrace, and Seleucus, who had fled
before Antigonus from his satrapy of Babylonia. From 315 to
301 the war of Antigonus against these four went on, with one
short truce in 311. Antigonus never succeeded in reaching
Macedonia, although his son Demetrius won Athens and Megara
in 307 and again (304-302) wrested almost all Greece from
Cassander; nor did Antigonus succeed in expelling Ptolemy from
Egypt, although he led an army to its frontier in 306; and after
the battle of Gaza in 3i2,*in which Ptolemy and Seleucus defeated
Demetrius, he had to see Seleucus not only recover Babylonia
but bring all the eastern provinces under his authority as far as
India. Meanwhile the struggle changed its character in an
important respect. King Philip had been murdered by Olympias
in 317; the young Alexander by Cassander in 310; Heracles, the
illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, by Polyperchon in 309.
Thus the old royal house became extinct in the male line, and in
306 Antigonus assumed the title of king. His four adversaries
answered this challenge by immediately doing the same. Even
in appearance the empire was no longer a unity. In 301 the
coalition triumphed over Antigonus in the battle of Ipsus (in
Phrygia) and he himself was slain. Of the four kings who now
divided the Macedonian Empire amongst them, two were not
destined to found durable dynasties, while the house of Antigonus,
represented by Demetrius, was after all to do so. The house of
Antipater came to an end in the male line in 294, when Demetrius
killed the son of Cassander and established himself on the throne
of Macedonia. He was however expelled by Lysimachus and
Pyrrhus in 288; and in 285 Lysimachus took possession of all the
European part of the Macedonian Empire. Except indeed for
Egypt and Palestine under Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus
now divided the empire between them, with the Taurus in Asia
Minor for their frontier. These two survivors of the forty years'
conflict soon entered upon the crowning fight, and in 281
Lysimachus fell in the battle of Corupedion (in Lydia), leaving
Seleucus virtually master of the empire. Seleucus' assassination
by Ptolemy Ceraunus in the same year brought back confusion.
Ptolemy Ceraunus (the son of the first Ptolemy, and half-
brother of the reigning king of Egypt) seized the Macedonian
throne, whilst Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, succeeded in hold-
ing together the Asiatic dominions of his father. The confusion
was aggravated by the incursion of the Gauls into the Balkan
Peninsula in 279; Ptolemy Ceraunus perished, and a period of
complete anarchy succeeded in Macedonia. In 276 Antigonus
Gonatas, the son of Demetrius, after inflicting a crushing defeat
on the Gauls near Lysimachia, at last won Macedonia definitively
for his house. Three solid kingdoms had thus emerged from all
the fighting since Alexander's death: the kingdom of the
Antigonids in the original land of the race, the kingdom of the
Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the Seleucids, extending from
the Aegean to India. For the next 100 years these are the three
great powers of the eastern Mediterranean. But already parts
of the empire of Alexander had passed from Macedonian rule
altogether. In Asia Minor, Philetaerus a Greek of Tios (Tieium)
in Paphlagonia, had established himself in a position of practical
independence at Pergamum, and his nephew, Attalus, was the
father of the line of kings who reigned in Pergamum till 133
antagonistic to the Seleucid house, till in 189 they took over the
Seleucid possessions west of the 'Taurus. In Bithynia a native
dynasty assumed the style of kings in 297. In Cappadocia two
Persian houses, relics of the old aristocracy of Achaemenian days
had carved out principalities, one of which became the kingdom
of Pontus and the other the kingdom of Cappadocia (in the
narrower sense); the former regarding Mithradates (281-266)
as its founder, the latter being the creation of the second Ariar-
athes (?302-?28i). Armenia, never effectively conquered by
the Macedonians, was left in the hands of native princes, tribu-
tary only when the Seleucid court was strong enough to compel.
In India, Seleucus had in 302 ceded large districts on the west
of the Indus to Chandragupta, who had arisen to found a
xvii. 8
native empire which annexed the Macedonian provinces in the
Panjab.
Whilst the Antigonid kingdom remained practically whole till
the Roman conquest ended it in 168 B.C., and the house of
Ptolemy ruled in Egypt till the death of Cleopatra in 30 B.C., the
Seleucid Empire perished by a slow process of disruption. The
eastern provinces of Iran went in 240 or thereabouts, when the
Greek Diodotus made himself an independent king in Bactria(?.c.)
and Sogdiana, and Tiridates, brother of Arsaces, a " Scythian "
chieftain, conquered Parthia (so Arrian, but see PARTHIA).
Armenia was finally lost in 190, when Artaxias founded a new
native dynasty there. Native princes probably ruled in Persis
before 166, though the district was at least nominally subject
to Antiochus IV. Epiphanes till his death in 164 (see PERSIS).
In southern Syria, which had been won by the house of Seleucus
from the house of Ptolemy in 198, the independent Jewish
principality was set up in 143. About the same time Media was
totally relinquished to the Parthians. Babylonia was Parthian
from 129. Before 88 the Parthians had conquered Mesopotamia.
Commagene was independent underaking,MithradatesCalh'nicus,
in the earlier part of the last century B.C. Syria itself in the last
days of the Seleucid dynasty is seen to be breaking up into
petty principalities, Greek or native. From 83 to 69 is the
transient episode of Armenian conquest, and in 64 the last
shadow of Seleucid rule vanished, when Syria was made a
Roman province by Pompey. From this time Rome formally
entered upon the heritage of Alexander as far as the Euphrates,
but many of the dynasties which had arisen in the days of Mace-
donian supremacy were allowed to go on for a time as client
states. One of them, the royal house of Commagene, not
deposed by the Romans till A.D. 72, had Seleucid blood in its
veins through the marriage of a Seleucid princess with Mithra-
dates Callinicus, and regarded itself as being a continuation of
the Seleucid dynasty. Its kings bore the name of Antiochus,
and were as proud of their Macedonian, as of their Persian,
descent (see the Inscription of Nimrud Dagh, Michel, No. 735).
The Macedonians of Alexander were not mistaken in seeing
an essential transformation of their national monarchy when
Alexander adopted the guise of an Oriental great 2 . constku-
king. Transplanted into this foreign soil, the tioa of the
monarchy became an absolute despotism, unchecked Macedonian
by a proud territorial nobility and a hardy peasantry Kla * dom -
on familiar terms with their king. The principle which Seleucus
is reported to have enunciated, that the king's command was the
supreme law (App. Syr. 61), was literally the principle of the new
Hellenistic monarchies in the East. But the rights belonging
to the Macedonian army as Alexander inherited it did not al-
together disappear. Like the old Roman people, the Macedonian
people under arms had acted especially in the transference of the
royal authority, conferring or confirming the right of the new
chief, and in cases of the capital trials of Macedonians. In the
latter respect the army came regularly into function under
Alexander, and in the wars which followed his death (Diod. xviii.
4. 3; 36, 7; 37,2, 39, 2; xix. 61,3), and in Macedonia; although
the power of life and death came de facto into the hands of the
Antigonid king, the old right of the army to act as judge was
not legally abrogated, and friction was sometimes caused by its
assertion (Polyb. v. 27, 5). The right of the army to confer the
royal power was still symbolized in the popular acclamation
required on the accession of a new king, and at Alexandria in
troubled times we hear of " the people " making its will effective
in filling the throne, although it is here hard to distinguish mob-
rule from the exercise of a legitimate function. Thus the people
put Euergetes II. on the throne when Philometor was captured
(Polyb. xxix. 23, 4); the people compelled Cleopatra III. to
choose Soter II. as her associate (Just, xxxiv. 3, 2). In Syria,
the usurper Tryphon bases his right upon an election by the
" people " (Just, xxxvi. I, 7) or" the army " (Jos. Anl. xiii. 219).
Where it is a case of delegating some part of the supreme au-
thority, as when Seleucus I. made his son Antiochus king for
the eastern provinces, we find the army convoked to ratify the
appointment (App. Syr. 61). So too the people is spoken of as
226
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
appointing the guardians of a king during his minority (Just,
xxxiv. 3, 6). Nor was the power of the army a fiction. The
Hellenistic monarchies rested, as all government in the last
resort must, upon the loyalty of those who wielded the brute
force of the state, and however unlimited the powers of the
king might be in theory, he could not alienate the goodwill of
the army with impunity. The right of primogeniture in suc-
cession was recognized as a general principle; a woman, however,
might succeed only so long as there were no male agnates.
Illegitimate children had no rights of succession. In disturbed
times, of course, right yielded to might or to practical necessities.
The practice by which the king associated a son with himself,
as secondary king, dates from the very beginning of the kingdoms
of the Successors; Antigonus on assuming the diadem in 306
caused Demetrius also to bear the title of king. Some ten years
later Seleucus appointed Antiochus as king for the eastern
provinces. Thenceforth the practice is a common one. But
the cases of it fall into two classes. Sometimes the subordinate
or joint kingship implies real functions. In the Seleucid king-
dom the territorial expanse of the realm made the creation of a
distinct subordinate government for part of it a [measure of
practical convenience. Sometimes the joint-king is merely
titular, an infant of tender years, as for instance Antiochus
Eupator, the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, or Ptolemy Eupator,
the son of Ptolemy Philometor. The object here is to secure
the succession in the event of the supreme king's dying whilst
his heir is an infant. The king's government was carried on
by officials appointed by him and responsible to him alone.
Government at the same time, as an Oriental despotism under-
stands it, often has little in view but the gathering in of the
tribute and compulsion of the subjects to personal service in the
army or in royal works, and if satisfied in these respects will leave
much independence to the local authorities. In the loosely-knit
Seleucid realm it is plain that a great deal more independence
was left to the various communities, cities or native tribes,
than in Egypt, where the conditions made a bureaucratic system
so easy to carry through. In their outlying possessions the
Ptolemies may have suffered as much local independence as the
Seleucids; the internal government of Jerusalem, for instance,
was left to the high priests. In so far as the older Greek cities
fell within their sphere of power, the successors of Alexander
were forced to the same ambiguous policy as Alexander had been,
between recognizing the cities' unabated claim to sovereign
independence and the necessity of attaching them securely. In
Asia Minor, the " enslavement " and liberation of cities alternated
with the circumstances of the hour, while the kings all through
professed themselves the champions of Hellenic freedom, and
were ready on occasion to display munificence toward the city
temples or in public works, such as might reconcile republicans
to a position of dependence. Antiochus III. went so far as to
write on one occasion to the subject Greek cities that if any royal
mandate clashed with the civic laws it was to be disregarded
(Plut. Imp. et due. apophth.). But it was the old cry of the
" autonomy of the Hellenes," raised by Smyrna and Lampsacus,
which ultimately brought Antiochus III. into collision with
Rome. How anxious the Pergamene kings, with their ardent
Hellenism, were to avoid offence is shown by the elaborate forms
by which, in their own capital, they sought to give their real
control the appearance of popular freedom (Cardinali, Regno di
Pergamo, p. 2d seq.). A similar problem confronted the Antigonid
dynasty in the cities of Greece itself, for to maintain a predomi-
nant influence in Greece was a ground-principle of their policy.
Demetrius had presented himself in 307 as the liberator, and
driven the Macedonian garrison from the Peiraeus; but his own
garrisons held Athens thirteen years later, when he was king of
Macedonia, and the Antigonid dynasty clung to the points of
vantage in Greece, especially Chalcis and Corinth, till their
garrisons were finally expelled by the Romans in the name of
Hellenic liberty.
The new movement of commerce initiated by the conquest
of Alexander continued under his successors, though the break-
up of the Macedonian Empire in Asia in the 3rd century and the
distractions of the Seleucid court must have withheld many
advantages from the Greek merchants which a strong central
government might have afforded them. It was along , _
the great trade-routes between India and the West
that the main stream of riches flowed then as in later centuries.
One of these routes was by sea to south-west Arabia (Yemen) , and
thence up the Red Sea to Alexandria. This was the route con-
trolled and developed by the Ptolemaic kings. Between Yemen
and India the traffic till Roman times was mainly in the hands
of Arabians or Indians; between Alexandria and Yemen it was
carried by Greeks (Strabo ii. 118). The west coast of the Red
Sea was dotted with commercial stations of royal foundation
from Arsinoe north of Suez to Arsinoe in the south near the
straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. From Berenice on the Red Sea a
land-route struck across to the Nile at Coptos; this route the
kings furnished with watering stations. That there might also
be a waterway between Alexandria and the Red Sea, they cut
a canal between the Delta and the northern Arsinoe. It was
Alexandria into which this stream of traffic poured and made
it the commercial metropolis of the world. We hear of direct
diplomatic intercourse between the courts of Alexandria and
Pataliputra, i.e. Patna (Plin. vi. 58). An alternative route
went from the Indian ports to the Persian Gulf, and thence found
the Mediterranean by caravan across Arabia from the country
of Gerrha to Gaza; and to control it was no doubt a motive in
the long struggle of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid houses for
Palestine, as well as in the attempt of Antiochus III. to subjugate
the Gerrhaeans. Or from the Persian Gulf wares might be taken
up the Euphrates and carried across to Antioch; this route lay
altogether in the Seleucid sphere. With Iran Antioch was
connected most directly by the road which crossed the Euphrates
at the Zeugma and went through Edessa and Antioch-Nisibis
to the Tigris. The trade from India which went down the Oxus
and then to the Caspian does not seem to have been consider-
able (Tarn, Journ. of Hell. Stud. xxi. 10 seq.). From Antioch to
the Aegean the land high-road went across Asia Minor by the
Cilician Gates and the Phrygian Apamea.
Of the financial organization of the Macedonian kingdoms
we know practically nothing, except in the case of Egypt. Here
the papyri and ostraca have put a large material
at our disposal, but the circumstances in Egypt 1
were too peculiar for us to generalize upon these data as to the
Seleucid and Antigonid realms. That the Seleucid kings drew
in a principal part of their revenues from tribute levied upon the
various native races, distributed in their village communities
as tillers of the soil goes without saying. 2 In districts left in the
hands of native chiefs these chiefs would themselves exploit
their villages and pay the Seleucid court and tribute. To exact
tribute from Greek cities was invidious, but both Antigonid and
Seleucid kings often did so (Antigonid, Diog. Laert. II., 140;
Plut. Dem. 27; Seleucid, Michel, No. 37; Polyb. xxi. 43, 2).
Sometimes, no doubt, this tribute was demanded under a fairer
name, as the contribution of any ally (<7wrats, not $6pos), like
the raXaTifoi levied by Antiochus I. (Michel, No. 37; cf. Polyb.
xxii. 27, 2). The royal domains, again, and royal monopolies,
such as salt-mines, were a source of revenue. 3 As to indirect
taxes, like customs and harbour dues, while their existence is
a matter of course (cf. Polyb. v. 89, 8), their scale, nature and
amount is quite unknown to us. Whatever the financial system
1 For Ptolemaic Egypt, see PTOLEMIES and EGYPT.
1 A tenth of the produce is su t gested to have been the normal tax
by what the Romans found ootaining in the Attalid kingdom.
The references given by Beloch (Griech. Gesch. iii. [L], p. 343) to prove
it for the Seleucid kingdom are questionable. Beloch refers (l) to
the letter of Demetrius II. to Lasthenes in which 01 Senarai KCU rd
rtXtj are mentioned, I Mace. II, 35 (Beloch, by an oversight, refers to
the paraphrase of the documents in Joseph. Ant. xiii. 4, 126 seq.,
in which the mention of the SeKaral is omitted!). The authenticity
of this document is, however, very doubtful. He refers (2) to Dit-
tenb. 171 (ist ed.), line 101 ; but here the tax seems to be, not an
imperial one, but one paid to the city of Smyrna.
* The salt monopoly is mentioned in i Mace. 10, 29; II, 35, a
suspected source, but supported in this detail by the analogy of
Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome. For domains in Antigonid, Attalid
and Bithynian realms, see Cic. De leg. agr. ii. 19, 50.
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
227
of the Antigonid and Seleucid kingdoms may have been, it is clear
that they were far from enjoying the affluence of the Ptolemaic.
During the first Seleucid reigns indeed the revenues of Asia may
have filled its treasuries (see Just. xvii. 2, 13), but Antiochus III.
already at his accession found them depleted (Polyb. v. 50, i),
aiul from his reign financial embarrassment, coupled with
extravagant expenditure, was here the usual condition of things.
Perseus, the last of the Antigonid house, amassed a substantial
treasure for the expenses of the supreme struggle with Rome
(Polyb. xviii. 35, 4; Liv. xlv, 40), but it was by means of almost
miserly economies.
Special officials were naturally attached to the service of the
finances. Over the whole department in the Seleucid realm
there presided a single chief (6 rt T&V TtpoaoSuv, App. Syr. 45).
How far the financial administration was removed from the
competence of the provincial governors, as it seems to have been
in Alexander's system, we cannot say. Seleucus at any rate, as
satrap of Babylonia, controlled the finances of the province (Diod.
xix. 55, 3), and so, in the Ptolemaic system, did the governor of
Cyprus (Polyb. xxvii. 13). The fact that provincial officials
tiri iruv irpo<r6d<i3v (in Eriza, Bull. corr. hell. xv. 556) are found does
not prove anything, since it leaves open the question of their
being subordinate to the governor.
With the exception of Ptolemaic Egypt, the Macedonian
kingdoms followed in their coinage that of Alexander. Money
S Coimrt was ^ or a ' On 8 while largely struck with Alexander's
own image and superscription; the gold and silver
coined in the names of Antigonid and Seleucid kings and
by the minor principalities of Asia, kept to the Attic standard
which Alexander had established. Only in Egypt Ptolemy I.
adopted, at first the Rhodian, and afterwards the Phoenician,
standard, and on this latter standard the Ptolemaic money was
struck during the subsequent centuries. Money was also struck
in their own name by the cities in the several dynasties' spheres
of power, but in most cases only bronze or small silver for local
use. Corinth, however, was allowed to go on striking staters
under Antigonus Gonatas; Ephesus, Cos and the greater cities
of Phoenicia retained their right of coinage under Seleucid or
Ptolemaic supremacy.
In language and manners the courts of Alexander's successors
were Greek. Even the Macedonian dialect, which it was con-
sidered proper for the kings to use on occasion, was often for-
gotten (Plut. Ant. 27). The Oriental features which
Court. Alexander had introduced were not copied. There was
no proskynesis (or certainly not in the case of Greeks
and Macedonians), and the king did not wear an Oriental dress.
The symbol of royalty, it is true, the diadem, was suggested by the
head-band of the old Persian kings (Just. xii. 3, 8); but, whereas,
that had been an imposing erection, the Hellenistic diadem was a
simple riband. The king's state dress was the same in principle
as that worn by the Macedonian or Thessalian horsemen, as the
uniform of his own cavalry officers. Its features were the broad-
brimmed hat (kausia), the cloak (chlamys) and the high-laced
boots (krepldes) (Plut. Ant. 54; Frontinus, iii. 2, n). These, in
the case of the king, would be of richer material, colour and
adornment. The diadem could be worn round the kausia; the
chlamys offered scope for gorgeous embroidery; and the boots
might be crimson felt (see the description of Demetrius' chlamys
and boots, Plut. Dem. 41). There were other traces in the
Hellenistic courts of the old Macedonian tradition besides in
dress. One was the honour given to prowess in the chase (Polyb.
xxii. 3, .8; Diod. xxxiv. 34). Another was the fashion for the
king to hold wassail with his courtiers, in which he unbent to an
extent scandalous to the Greeks, dancing or indulging in routs
and practical jokes. 1
The prominent part taken by the women of the royal house
was a Macedonian characteristic. The history of these kingdoms
furnishes a long list of queens and princesses who were ambitious
1 Antiochus Epiphanes was an extreme case. For the Antigonid
court see Diog. Laert. vii. 13; Plut. Aral. 17; for the Seleucid,
Athen. iy. issb; v. 2iia; for the Ptolemaic, Diog. L. vii. 177;
Athen. vi. 2460; Plut. Cleom. 33; Just. xxx. I.
and masterful politicians, of which the great Cleopatra is the
last and the most famous. The kings after Alexander, with
the exception of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Pyrrhus, are not
found to have more than one legitimate wife at a time, although
they show unstinted freedom in divorce and the number of
their mistresses. The custom of marriages between brothers
and sisters, agreeable to old Persian as to old Egyptian ethics,
was instituted in Egypt by the second Ptolemy when he married
his full sister Arsinoe Philadelphus. It was henceforth common,
though not invariable, among the Ptolemies. At the Seleucid
court there seems to be an instance of it in 195, when the heir-
apparent, Antiochus, married his sister Laodice. The style of
" sister " was given in both courts to the queen, even when she
was not the king's sister in reality (Strack, Dynastie, Nos. 38,
40, 43; Archiv. f. Papyr, i. 205). The "Friends" of the
king are often mentioned. It is usual for him to confer with a
council (<rvve5piov) of his " Friends " before important decisions,
administrative, military or judicial (e.g. Polyb. v. 16, 5; 22, 8).
They form a definite body about the king's person (4>L\uv
ainn-ay^a, Polyb. xxxi. 3, 7; cf. ol <t>l\oi in contrast with
eu Swdjueis, id. v. 50, 9), admission into which depends upon
his favour alone, and is accorded, not only to his subjects, but
to aliens, such as the Greek refugee politicians (e.g. Hegesianax,
Athen. iv. issb; Hannibal and the Aetolian Thoas take part in
the councils of Antiochus III). A similar body, with a title
corresponding to <tXoi, is found in ancient Egypt (Erman,
Ancient Egypt, Eng. trans., p. 72) and in Persia (Spiegel. Eran.
All. iii. 626); but some such support is so obviously required
by the necessities of a despot's position that we need not
suppose it derived from any particular precedent. The Friends
(at any rate under the later Seleucid and Ptolemaic reigns) were
distinguished by a special dress and badge of gold analogous
to the stars and crosses of modern orders. The dress was of
crimson (iropQvpa); this and the badges were the king's gift,
and except by royal grant neither crimson nor gold might,
apparently, be worn at court (i Mace. 10, 20; 62; 89; u, 58;
Athen. v. 21 ib). The order of Friends was organized in a
hierarchy of ranks, which were multiplied as time went on.
In Egypt we find them classified as avyyeveis, o^bn^oi TOIS
ffvyytvfcriv, apxwwjiaro<iiXaKes, irparroi <#Xoi, <>tXot (in the nar-
rower sense) , SidSoxoi. For the Seleucid kingdom ffvyyevtis, irpuroi
4>i\oi and </>i\oi are mentioned. These classes do not appear in
Egypt before the 2nd century; Strack conjectures that they
were created in imitation of the Seleucid court. We have no
direct evidence as to the institutions of the Seleucid court in
the 3rd century. Certain fMfunv^&MB of Antiochus I. are
mentioned, but we do not know whether the name was not
then used in its natural sense (Strack, Rhein. Mus. LV.j 1900,
p. 161 seq.; Wilamowitz, Archiv f. Pap. I., p. 225; Beloch, Gr.
Gesch. iii (i), p. 391). As to Macedonia, whatever may have
been the constitution of the court, it is implied that it offered
in its externals a sober plainness in comparison with the vain
display and ceremonious frivolities of Antioch and Alexandria
(Polyb. xvi, 22, 5; Plut. Cleom. 31; Aral, 15). The position
of a Friend did not carry with it necessarily any functions;
it was in itself purely honorary. The ministers and high
officials were, on the other hand, regularly invested with one
or other of the ranks specified. The chief of these ministers
is denoted 6 fcrl T&V TrpaynaTuv, and he corresponds to the
vizier of the later East. All departments of government are
under his supervision, and he regularly holds the highest rank
of a kinsman. When the king is a minor, he acts as guardian
or regent (ivlrpairos). Over different departments of state
we find a state secretary (brurrckoy p&fos or wro^urjjm'nrypA^os:
Seleucid, Polyb. xxxi, 3, 16; Ptolemaic, Strack, Inschriften 103)
and a minister of finance (& eai T&V irpoao&uv in the Seleucid
kingdom; App. Syr. 45; Sioiieiirtp in Egypt, Lumbroso, Econ.
Pol. p. 339). Under each of these great heads of departments
was a host of lower officials, those, for instance, who held to the
province a relation analogous to that of the head of the depart-
ment of the realm. Such a provincial authority is described as
ri T&V icpoabduv in the inscription of Eriza (Bull. corr. hell.
228
MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
xv. 556). Beside the officials concerned with the work of
government we have those of the royal household: (i) the chief-
physician, dpxtarpos (for the Seleucid see App. Syr. 59; Polyb. v.
56, i; Michel, No. 1158; for the Pontic, Bull. corr. hell. vii.
354 seq.); (2) the chief-huntsman, apxutvvrnos (Dittenb. Orient.
Grace. 99) ; (3) the maitre-d'hotel apxtStarpos (Dittenb. Orient.
Grace. 169) (4) the lord of the queen's bedchamber, 6 eirl TOV
noirSivos TI)S /ScwriXurffj/s (Dittenb. Orient. Grace. 256). As in
the older Oriental courts, the high positions were often filled
by eunuchs (e.g. Craterus, in last mentioned inscription).
It was customary, as in Persia and in old Macedonia, for
the great men of the realm to send their children to court to
be brought up with the children of the royal house. Those who
had been so brought up with the king were styled his avvr po<t>oi
(for the Seleucid, Polyb. v. 82, 8 and xxxi. 21, 2; Bull. corr. hell.
i. 285; 2 Mace. ix. 29; for the Ptolemaic triiirpo^oi TraLSurKai,
of the queen, Polyb. xv. 33, n; for the Pontic, Bull. corr. hell.
vii. 355; for the Pergamene. Polyb. xxxii. 27, 10, &c.; for
the Herodian, Acts 13). It is perfectly gratuitous to suppose
with Deissmann that " the fundamental meaning had given
place to the general meaning of intimate friend." With this
custom we may perhaps bring into connexion the office of
rpo^tus (Polyb. xxxi. 20, 3; Michel, No. 1158). As under
Alexander, so under his successors, we find a corps of fla<n\uiol
ircuSes. They appear as a corps, 600 strong, in a triumphal
procession at Antioch (Polyb. xxxi. 3, 17; cf. v. 82, 13; Antigonid,
Livy, xlv. 6; cf. Curtius, viii. 6, 6).
All the Hellenistic courts felt it a great part of prestige to be
filled with the light of Hellenic culture. A distinguished philo-
sopher or man of letters would find them bidding
7. Hellenic , ,. ...
Culture. * or ms presence, and most of the great names are
associated with one or other of the contemporary
kings. Antigonus Gonatas, bluff soldier-spirit that he was, heard
the Stoic philosophers gladly, and, though he failed to induce
Zeno to come to Macedonia, persuaded Zeno's disciple, Persaeus
of Citium, to enter his service. Nor was it philosophers only
who made his court illustrious, but poets like Aratus. The
Ptolemaic court, with the museum attached to it, is so pro-
minent in the literary and scientific history of the age that it is
unnecessary to give a list of the philosophers, the men of letters
and science, who at one time or other ate at King Ptolemy's
table. One may notice that the first Ptolemy himself made a
contribution of some value to historical literature in his account
of Alexander's campaigns; the fourth Ptolemy not only insti-
tuted a cult of Homer but himself published tragedies; and
even Ptolemy Euergetes II. issued a book of memoirs. The
Pergamene court was in no degree behind the Ptolemaic in its
literary and artistic zeal. The notable school of sculpture
connected with it is treated elsewhere (see GREEK ART); to its
literary school we probably owe in great part the preservation
of the masterpieces of Attic prose (Susemihl I., p. 4), and two
of its kings (Eumenes I. and Attalus III.) were themselves
authors. The Seleucid court did not rival either of the last
named in brilliance of culture; and yet some names of distinction
were associated with it. Under Antiochus I. Aratus carried
out a recension of the Odyssey, and Berossus composed a Baby-
lonian history in Greek; under Antiochus III. Euphorion was
made keeper of the library at Antioch. Antiochus IV., of course,
the enthusiastic Hellenist, filled Antioch with Greek artists
and gave a royal welcome to Athenian philosophers. Even
in the degenerate days of the dynasty, Antiochus Grypus, who
had been brought up at Athens, aspired to shine as a poet. The
values recognized in the great Hellenistic courts and the Greek
world generally imposed their authority upon the dynasties
of barbarian origin. The Cappadocian court admitted the full
stream of Hellenistic culture under Ariarathes V. (Diod. xxxi.
19, 8). One of the kings called Nicomedes in Bithynia offered
immense sums to acquire the Aphrodite of Praxiteles from the
Cnidians (Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 21), and to a king Nicomedes the
geographical poem of the Pseudo-Scymnus is dedicated. Even
Iranian kings in the last century B.C. found pleasure in com-
posing, or listening to, Greek tragedies, and Herod the Great
kept Greek men of letters beside him and had spasmodic
ambitions to make his mark as an orator or author (Nicol.
Dam. frag. 4; F.H.G. III. p. 350).
The offering of divine honours to the king, which we saw
begin under Alexander, became stereotyped in the institutions
of the succeeding Hellenistic kingdoms. Alexander
himself was after his death the object of various /j o
local cults, like that which centred in the shrine near
Ery thrae (Strabo, xiv. 644) . His successors in the first years after
his death recognized him officially as a divinity, except Antipater
(Suidas, s.v. AvriwaTpos), and coins began to be issued with his
image. At Alexandria the state cult of him seems to have been
instituted by the second Ptolemy, when his body was laid in the
Sema (Otto, Priester u. Tempel, i. 139 seq.). The successors
themselves received divine honours. Such worship might be the
spontaneous homage of a particular Greek community, like that
offered to Antigonus by Scepsis in 311 (Journ. of Hell. Stud.
xix- 335 seq.), the Antigonus and Demetrius by Athens in 307,
to Ptolemy I. by the Rhodians in 304, or by Cassandrea to
Cassander, as the city's founder (Ditt. 2nd ed. 178); or it
might be organized and maintained by royal authority. The
first proved instance of a cult of the latter kind is that instituted
at Alexandria by the second Ptolemy for his father soon after
the latter's death in 283/2, in which, some time after, 279/8,
he associated his mother Berenice also, the two being worshipped
together as Oeol (wrijpes (Theoc. xvii. 121 seq.). Antiochus I.
followed the Ptolemaic precedent by instituting at Seleucia-
in-Pieria a cult for his father as Seleucus Zeus Nicator. So
far we can point to no instance of a cult of the living sovereign
(though the cities might institute such locally) being estab-
lished by the court for the realm. This step was taken in
Egypt after the death of Arsinoe Philadelphus (271) when
she and her still-living brother-husband, Ptolemy II., began
to be worshipped together as 6tol o5X<ot. After this the
cult of the reigning king and queen was regularly maintained
in Greek Egypt, side by side with that of the dead Ptolemies.
Under Antiochus II. (261-246) a document shows us a cult
of the reigning king in full working for the Seleucid realm,
with a high priest in each province, appointed by the king
himself; the document declares that the Queen Laodice is
now to be associated with the king. The official surname of
Antiochus II., Theos, suggests that he himself had here been
the innovator. Thenceforward, in the Hellenistic kingdoms
of the East the worship of the living sovereign became the
rule, although it appears to have been regarded as given in
anticipation of an apotheosis which did not become actual
till death. In the Pergamene kingdom at any rate, though
the living king was worshipped with sacrifice, the title Otos
was only given to those who were dead (Cardinali, Regno di
Pergamo, p. 153). The Antigonid dynasty, simpler and saner
in its manners, had no official cult of this sort. The divine
honours offered on occasion by the Greek cities were the
independent acts of the cities.
SeePlut. Aral. 45; Cleom. 16; Kornemann, " ZurGesch. d. antiken
Herrscherkulte " in Beitrdge z. alt. Gesch. i. 51 sqq.; Otto, Priester u.
Tempel, pp. 138 seq.
There does not seem any clear proof that the surnames which
the Hellenistic kings in Asia and Egypt bore were necessarily con-
nected with the cult, even if they were used to describe g.Suraames.
the various kings in religious ceremonies. Some had
doubtless a religious colour, Theos, Epiphanes, Soter; others a
dynastic, Philopator, Philometor, Philadelphus. Under what circum-
stances, and by whose selection, the surname was attached to a king,
is obscure. It is noteworthy that while modern books commonly
speak of the surnames as assumed, the explanations given by our
ancient authorities almost invariably suppose them to be given as
marks of homage or gratitude (English Historical Review, xvi. 629
(1901). The official surnames must not, of course, be confused with
the popular nicknames which were naturally not recognized by the
court, e.g. Ceraunus (" Thunder "), Hierax (" Hawk "), Physcon
(" Pot-belly "), Lathyrus (" Chick-pea ").
The armies of Alexander's successors were still in the main prin-
ciples of their organization similar to the army with which Alexander
had conquered Asia. During the years immediately ro _ Armies.
after Alexander the very Macedonians who had fought
under Alexander were ranged against each other under the banners
MACEDONIUS
229
j;
of the several chiefs. The most noted corps of veterans, Argyr-
aspidcs (i.e. the royal Hypaspistae) played a great part in the first
wars of the successors, and covered themselves with infamy by their
betrayal of Eumenes. As the soldiers of Alexander died off, fresh
levies of home-born Macedonians could be raised only by the chief
who held the motherland. The other chiefs had to supply themselves
with Macedonians from the numerous colonies planted before the
break-up of the empire in Asia or Egypt, and from such Macedonians
they continued for the next two centuries to form their phalanx.
The breed at least if the statement which Livy puts into the mouth
of a Roman general can be relied on-^-degenerated greatly under
Asiatic and Egyptian skies (Liv. xxxviii. 17, 10); but still old names
like that of pezetaeri attached to the phalangites (Plut. Tib. 17),
and they still wielded the national sarissa. The latter weapon in
the interval between Alexander and the time of Polybius had been
increased to a length of 21 ft. (Polyb. xviii. 12), a proportion incon-
sistent with any degree of mobility; once more indeed the phalanx
of the 2nd century seems to have become a body effective by
sheer weight only and disordered by unevenness of ground. The
Antigonid kings were never able from Macedonian levies to put in
the field a phalanx of more than 20,000 at the utmost (Liv. xlii. 51) ;
Antigonus Uoson takes with him to Greece (in 222) one of 10,000 only.
The phalanx of Antiochus III. at Raphia numbered 20,000, and
Ptolemy Philopator was able at the same time to form one of 25,000
men (Polyb. v. 4). As these phalangites are distinguished both from
the Greek mercenaries and the native Egyptian levies, it looks
(although such a fact would be staggering) as if more Macedonians
could be raised for military service in Egypt than in Macedonia
itself (but see Beloch, p. 353). The royal foot-guards are still described
in Macedonia in 171 as the agema (Polyb. v. 25, i; 27, 3; Liv. xlii.
i), when they number 2000; at the Ptolemaic court in 217 the agema
.jad numbered 3000 (Polyb. v. 65, 2) ; and a similar corps of hyp-
aspistae is indicated in the Seleucid army (Polyb. vii. 16,2 ; xvi. 18, 7).
So too the old name of " Companions " was kept up in the Seleucid
kingdom for the Macedonian cavalry (see Polyb. v. 53, 4, &c.), and
divisions of rank in it are still indicated by the terms agema and
royal squadron (/Joo-iXoci) IXij, see Bevan, House of Seleucus, ii. 288).
The Antigonid and Seleucid courts had much valuable material at
hand for their armies in the barbarian races under their sway. The
Balkan hill-peoples of Illyrian or Thracian stock, the hill-peoples of
Asia Minor and Iran, the chivalry of Media and Bactria, the mounted
bowmen of the Caspian steppes, the camel-riders of the Arabian
desert, could all be turned to account. Iranian troops seem to
have been employed on a large scale by the earlier Seleucids. At
Raphia, Antiochus III. had 10,000 men drawn from the provinces,
armed and drilled as Macedonians, and another corps of Iranians num-
bering 5000 under a native commander (Polyb. v. 79). The experi-
ment of arming the native Egyptians on a large scale does not seem
to have been made before the campaign of 217, when Ptolemy IV.
formed corps of the Macedonian pattern from Egyptians and
Libyans (cf. Polyb. v. 107, 2; Ptolemy I. had employed Egyptians
in the army, though chiefly as carriers, Diod. xix. 80, 4). From
this time native rebellions in Egypt are recurrent. To the troops
drawn from their own dominions the mercenaries which the kings
procured from abroad were an important supplement. These were
mainly the bands of Greek condottieri, and even for their home-born
troops Greek officers of renown were often engaged. The other
class of mercenaries were Gauls, and from the time of the Gallic in-
vasion of Asia Minor in 279 Gauls or Galatians were a regular con-
stituent in all armies. They were a weapon apt to be dangerous
to the employer, but the terror they inspired was such that every
potentate sought to get hold of them. The elephants which Alexan-
der brought back from India were used in the armies of his successors,
and in 302 Seleucus procured a new supply. Thenceforward ele-
phants, either brought fresh from India or bred in the royal stables
at Apamea, regularly figured in the Seleucid armies. The Ptolemies
supplied themselves with this arm from the southern coasts of the
Red Sea, where they established stations for the capture and shipping
of elephants, but the African variety was held inferior to the Indian.
Scythed chariots such as had figured in the old Persian armies were
still used by the Greek masters of Asia (Seleucus I., Diod. xx. 113, 4;
Molon, Polyb. v. 53, 10; Antiochus III., Liv. xxxvii. 41), at any rate
till the battle of Magnesia. The Hellenistic armies were distinguished
by their external magnificence. They made a greater display of
brilliant metal and gorgeous colour than the Roman armies, for
instance. The description given by Justin of the army which Antio-
chus Sidetes took to the East in 130 B.C., boot-nails and bridles of
gold, gives an idea of their standard of splendour (Just, xxxviii. 10, i ;
cf. Polyb. xxxi. 3; Plut. Eum. 14; id. Aemil. 18; id. Sulla, 16).
Dunng the 3rd century B.C. Egypt was the greatest sea power ol
the eastern Mediterranean, and maintained a large fleet (the figures
in App. Prooem, 10 are not trustworthy, see Beloch III. [i.], 364).
Its control of the Aegean was, however, contested not without success
by the Antigonids, who won the two great sea-fights of Cos (c. 256)
and Andros (227), and wrested the overlordship of the Cyclades fronr
the Ptolemies. Of the numbers and constitution of the Antigonic
fleet we know nothing. 1 At the Seleucid court in 222 the admira"
(mdapxoj) appears as a person of high consideration (Polyb. v. 43, i)
1 For the Antigonid va.tia.pxm or admiral, see Polyb. xvi. 6.
n his war with Rome Antiochus III. had 107 decked battleships on
the sea at one time. By the Peace of Apamea (188) the Seleucid
navy was abolished; Antiochus undertook to keep no more than
10 ships of war.
For the Hellenistic armies and fleets see A. Bauer in L. von
Vluller's Handbuch, vol. iv. ; Delbruck, Gesch. d. Kriegskunst (1900).
To their native subjects the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings
were always foreigners. It was considered wonderful in the last
leopatra that she learnt to speak Egyptian (Plut. n Tnat .
4.nton. 27). Natives were employed, as we have meat of
seen, in the army, and Iranians are found under the Subject
'eleucids holding high commands, e.g. Aspasianus the fle P / -
VIede (Polyb. v. 79, 7), Aribazus, governor of Cilicia (Flinders
Petrie, Papyri, II., No. 45), Aribazus, governor of Sardis
Polyb. vii. 17, 9), and Omanes (Michel, No. 19, 1. 104). Native
cults the Hellenistic kings thought it good policy to patronize.
Antiochus I. began rebuilding the temple of Nebo at Borsippa
Keilinschr. Bibl. iii. 2, 136 seq.) Antiochus III. bestowed favours
on the Temple at Jerusalem. Even if the documents in Joseph.
Arch. xii. 138 seq. are spurious, their general view of the rela-
tion of Antiochus III. and Jerusalem is probably true. Even
small local worships, like that of the village of Baetocaece,
might secure royal patronage (C.I.G. No. 4474). Of course,
inancial straits might drive the kings to lay hands on
temple-treasures, as Antiochus III. and Antiochus IV. did, but
hat was a measure of emergency.
The Macedonian kingdoms, strained by continual wars,
Increasingly divided against themselves, falling often under
:he sway of prodigals and debauchees, were far /2 slgnl .
from realizing the Hellenic idea of sound govern- fiance of
ment as against the crude barbaric despotisms of Macedonian
the older East. Yet, in spite of all corruption, ideas Rule '
of the intelligent development of the subject lands, visions
of the Hellenic king, as the Greek thinkers had come to picture
aim, haunted the Macedonian rulers, and perhaps fitfully,
in the intervals of war or carousal, prompted some degree of
action. Treatises " Concerning Kingship " were produced as
a regular thing by philosophers, and kings who claimed the
fine flower of Hellenism, could not but peruse them. Strabo
regards the loss of the eastern provinces to the Parthians as
their passage under a government of lower type, beyond the
sphere of Hellenic eTri/ieytia (Strabo xi. 509). In the organiza-
tion of the administrative machinery of these kingdoms, the
higher power of the Hellene to adapt and combine had been
operative; they were organisms of a richer, more complex
type than the East had hitherto known. It was thus that
when Rome became a world-empire, it found to some extent
the forms of government ready made, and took over from
the Hellenistic monarchies a tradition which it handed on to
the later world.
AUTHORITIES. For the general history of the Macedonian king-
doms, see Droysen,HistoirederHellenisme (the French translation by
Bouch6-Leclercq, 1883-1885, represents the work in its final revision) ;
A. Holm, History of Greece, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, Geschichte der
griechischenundmakedonischenStooten (1893-1903) ;Kaerst,GeA. des
hellenist. Zeiialters, vol. i. ( 1901 ). A masterly conspectus of the general
character of the Hellenistic kingdoms in their political, economic and
social character, their artistic and intellectual culture is given by
Beloch, Griech. Gesch. iii. (i.), 260-556; see also Kaerst, Studien zur
Entwickelune d. Monarchic; E. Breccia, // Diritto dinaslico nelle
monarchic dei successori d'Alessandro Afagno (1903). Popular
sketches of the history, enlightened by special knowledge and a
wide outlook, are given by I. P. Mahaffy, Alexander's Empire
('\Storiesof the Nations Series ' ) ; Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's
Empire (1905); The Silver Age of the Greek World (1906). See also
HELLENISM; PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY. (E. R. B.)
MACEDONIUS, (i) bishop of Constantinople in succession to
Eusebius of Nicomedia, was elected by the Arian bishops in 341,
while the orthodox party elected Paul, whom Eusebius had
superseded. The partisans of the two rivals involved the city
in a tumultuous broil, and were not quelled until the emperor
Constantius II. banished Paul. Macedonius was recognized
as patriarch in 342. Compelled by the intervention of Constans
in 348 to resign the patriarchate in favour of his former oppo-
nent, he was reinstalled in 350. He then took vengeance on
his opponents by a general persecution of the adherents of the
230
MACEIO McGEE
Nicene Creed. In 359, on the division of the Arian party into
Acacians (or pure Arians) and semi-Arians or Homoiousians,
Macedonius adhered to the latter, and in consequence was
expelled from his see by the council of Constantinople in 360.
He now became avowed leader of the sect of Pneumatomachi,
Macedonians or Marathonians, whose distinctive tenet was
that the Holy Spirit is but a being similar to the angels, sub-
ordinate to and in the service of the Father and the Son, the
relation between whom did not admit of a third. He did not
long survive his deposition.
See the Church Histories of Socrates and Sozomen ; Art. in Diet.
Chr. Biog.; F. Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyk.; H. M. Gwatkin,
Arianism.
MACEDONIUS, (2) bishop of Mopsuestia, was present at
the councils of Nicaea and Philippopolis, and inclined to the
reactionary party who thought the Athanasians had gone
too far.
MACEDONIUS, (3) bishop of Constantinople (fl. 510), a
strict Chalcedonian who vainly opposed the fanaticism of
the monophysite Severus and was deposed in 513.
MACEIO or MACAYO, a city and port of Brazil and capital of
the state of Alagfias, about 125 m. S.S.W. of Pernambuco, in
lat. 9 39' 35" S., long. 35 44' 36* W. Pop. including a large
rural district and several villages (1890), 31,498; (1908, estimate),
33,000. The city stands at the foot of low bluffs, about a mile
from the shore line. The water-side village of Jaragua, the
port of Maceio, is practically a suburb of the city. South
of the port is the shallow entrance to the Lagoa do Norte,
or Lagoa Mundahu, a salt-water lake extending inland for
some miles. Maceio is attractively situated in the midst of large
plantations of coco-nut and dende palms, though the broad
sandy beach in front and the open sun-burned plain behind give
a barren character to its surroundings. The heat is moderated
by the S.E. trade winds, and the city is considered healthful.
The public buildings are mostly constructed of broken stone
and mortar, plastered outside and covered with red tiles,
but the common dwellings are generally constructed of tapia
rough trellis-work walls filled in with mud. A light tramway
connects the city and port, and a railway the Alagoas Central
connects the two with various interior towns. The port is
formed by a stone reef running parallel with and a half-mile
from the shore line, within which vessels of light draft find
a safe anchorage, except from southerly gales. Ocean-going
steamers anchor outside the reef. The exports consist princi-
pally of sugar, cotton, and rum (aguardiente), Maceio dates
from 1815 when a small settlement there was created a " villa."
In 1839 it became the provincial capital and was made a city
by the provincial assembly.
McENTEE, JERVIS (1828-1891), American artist, was born
at Rondout, New York, on the i4th of July 1828, and was
a pupil of Frederick E. Church. He was made an associate
of the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1860, and
a full academician in 1861. In 1869 he visited Europe, painting
much in Italy. He was identified with the Hudson River
School, and excelled in pictures of autumn scenery. He died
at Rondout,N.Y., on the 27th of January 1891.
MACER, AEMILIUS, of Verona, Roman didactic poet, author
of two poems, one on birds (Ornithogonia) , the other on the anti-
dotes against the poison of serpents (Theriaca), imitated from
the Greek poet Nicander of Colophon. According to Jerome,
he died in 16 B.C. It is possible that he wrote also a botanical
work. The extant hexameter poem De viribus (or virtutibus)
herbarum, ascribed to Macer, is a medieval production by Odo
Magdunensis, a French physician. Aemilius Macer must be
distinguished from the Macer called Iliacus in the Ovidian cata-
logue of poets, the author of an epic poem on the events preceding
the opening of the Iliad. The fact of his being addressed by Ovid
in one of the epistles Ex Ponto shows that he was alive long after
Aemilius Macer. He had been identified with the son or grandson
of Theophanes of Mytilene, the intimate friend of Pompey.
See Ovid, Tristia, iv. 10, 43; Quintilian, Instil, x. I, 56, 87;
R. Unger, De Macro Nicandri imitatore (Friedland, 1845); C. P.
Schulze in Rheinisches Museum (1898), liii. p. 541 ; for Macer Iliacus
see Ovid, Ex Ponto, ii. 10, 13, iv. 16, 6; Amores, ii. 18.
MACERATA, a city of the Marches, Italy, the chief town of
the province of Macerata and a bishop's see, 44 m. by rail S. of
Ancona. Pop. (1901), 6, 176 (town), 22,473 (commune). Crown-
ing a hill 919 ft. above sea-level, with a picturesque mass of
buildings enclosed by walls and towers, Macerata looks out over
the Adriatic. The cathedral is modern, but some of the churches
and palaces are not without interest. Besides the university,
agricultural school and industrial institute, Macerata has a
communal library founded by Leo XII., containing a small but
choice collection of early pictures, and in the municipal buildings,
a collection of antiquities from Helvia Ricina. There is an enor-
mous amphitheatre or sferisterio for pallone, a ball game which is
very popular in the district. The industries comprise the'making
of bricks, matches, terra-cotta and chemicals.
Macerata, as well as Recanati, was founded by the inhabitants
of Ricina after the destruction of their city by Alaric in 408.
During the Lombard period it was a flourishing town; but it was
raised from comparative insignificance by Nicholas IV. to be the
seat of the governors of the March. It was enclosed in the I3th
century by a new line of walls more than 25 m. in circuit; and
in the troubles of the next two hundred years it had frequent
occasion to learn their value. For the most part it remained
faithful to the popes, and in return it was rewarded by a multi-
tude of privileges. Though in 1797 the inhabitants opened their
gates to the French, two years afterwards, when the country
people took refuge within the walls, the city was taken by storm
and delivered to pillage. The bishopric of Macerata dates from
the suppression of the see of Recanati (1320).
MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER (1813-1887),
English composer, was born in London on the 2nd of March
1813, and entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1829. A
symphony by him was played at an Academy concert in 1830;
for the opening of the Queen's Theatre in Tottenham Street,
under the management of his father, in 1831, he wrote an over-
ture. His Chevy Chase overture, the orchestral work by which
he is perhaps best known, was written as early as 1836, and in a
single night. On leaving the Academy in 1836, Macfarren was
for about a year a music teacher in the Isle of Man, and wrote
two unsuccessful operas. In 1837 he was appointed a professor
at the Academy, and wrote his Romeo and Juliet overture. In
the following year he brought out The Devil's Opera, one of his
best works. In 1845 he became conductor at Covent Garden,
producing the Antigone with Mendelssohn's music; his opera on
Don Quixote was produced under Bunn at Drury Lane in 1846;
his subsequent operas include Charles II. (1849), Robin Hood
(1860), She Stoops to Conquer (1864), and Hehellyn (1864). A
gradual failure of his eyesight, which had been defective from
boyhood, resulted in total blindness in 1865, but he overcame
the difficulties by employing an amanuensis in composition, and
made hardly a break in the course of his work. He was made
principal of the Royal Academy of Music in succession to Stern-
dale Bennett in February 1875, and in March of the same year
professor of music in Cambridge University. Shortly before
this he had begun a series of oratorios: St John the Baptist
(Bristol, 1873); Resurrection (Birmingham, 1876); Joseph (Leeds,
1877); and King David (Leeds, 1883). In spite of their solid
workmanship, and the skill with which the ideas are treated, it is
difficult to hear or read them through without smiling at some
of the touches of quite unconscious humour often resulting from
the way in which the Biblical narratives have been, as it were,
dramatized. He delivered many lectures of great and lasting
value, and his theoretical works, such as the Rudiments of
Harmony, and the treatise on counterpoint, will probably be
remembered longer than many of his compositions. He was
knighted in 1883, and died suddenly in London on the 3ist of
October 1887.
An excellent memoir by H. C. Banister appeared in 1891.
McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY (1825-1868), Irish-Canadian
politician and writer, second son of James Me Gee, a coast-guard,
McGIFFERT MACGILLIVRAY
231
was born at Carlingford, Co. Louth, on the i3th of April 1825.
He early showed a remarkable aptitude for oratory. At the
age of thirteen he delivered a speech at Wexford, and when four
years later he emigrated to America he quickly gained a reputa-
tion as a writer and public speaker in the city of Boston. He
thus attracted the attention of O'Connell, and before he was
twenty years of age he returned to London to become parlia-
mentary correspondent of the Freeman's Journal, and shortly
afterwards London correspondent of the Nation, to which he
also contributed a number of poems. He married in 1847 Mary
Theresa Caffry, by whom he had two children. In 1846 he be-
came one of the moving spirits in the " Young Ireland " party,
and in promoting the objects of that organization he contributed
two volumes to the " Library of Ireland." On the failure of the
movement in 1848 McGee escaped in the disguise of a priest to
the United States, where between 1848 and 1853 he established
two newspapers, the New York Nation and the American Celt.
His writings at first were exceedingly bitter and anti-English ; but
as years passed he realized that a greater measure of political
freedom was possible under the British constitution than under
the American. He had now become well-known as an author,
and as a lecturer of unusual ability. In 1857 McGee, driven from
the United States by the scurrilous attacks of the extreme
Irish revolutionaries, took up his abode in Canada, and was
admitted to the bar of the province of Lower Canada in 1861. At
the general election in 1858 he was returned to parliament as the
member for Montreal, and for four years he was regarded as a
powerful factor in the house. On the formation of the Sand-
field- Macdonald-Sicotte administration in 1862 he accepted the
office of president of the council. When the cabinet was recon-
structed a year later the Irish were left without representation,
and McGee sought re-election as a member of the opposite party.
In 1864 he was appointed minister of agriculture in the adminis-
tration of Sir E. P. Tache, and he served the country in that
capacity until his death. He actively supported the policy of
federation and was elected a member of the first Dominion parlia-
ment in 1867. On the 7th of April 1868, after having delivered
a notable speech in the house, he was shot by an assassin as he
was about to enter his house at Ottawa. His utterances against
the Fenian invasion are believed to have been the cause of the
crime for which P. J. Whelan was executed. McGee's loss was
keenly felt by all classes, and within a few weeks of his death
parliament granted an annuity to his widow and children.
McGee had great faith in the future of Canada as a part of the
empire. Speaking at St John, N.B., in 1863, he said: " There
are before the public men of British America at this moment
but two courses: either to drift with the tide of democracy,
or to seize the golden moment and fix for ever the monarchical
character of our institutions. I invite every fellow colonist
who agrees with me to unite our efforts that we may give our
province the aspect of an empire, in order to exercise the influ-
ence abroad and at home of a state, and to originate a history
which the world will not willingly let die." Sir Charles Gavan
Duffy considered that as a poet McGee was not inferior to Davis,
and that as an orator he possessed powers rarer than those of
T. F Meagher.
McGee's principal works are: A Popular History of Ireland
(2 vols., New York, 1862; I vol., London, 1860); Irish Writers of the
Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1846); Historical Sketches of O'Connell
and his Friends (Boston, 1844) ; Memoirs of the Life and Conquests of
Art McMurrogh, King of Leinster (Dublin, 1847); Memoir of C. G.
Duffy (Dublin, 1849) ; A History of the Irish Settlers in North America
(Boston, 1851); History of the Attempts to establish the Protestant
Reformation in Ireland (Boston, 1853); Life of Edward Maginn,
Coadjutor Bishop of Derry (New York, 1857); Catholic History of
North America (Boston, 1854); Canadian Ballads and Occasional
Pieces (New York, 1858); Notes on Federal Governments Past and
Present (Montreal, 1865); Speeches and Addresses, chiefly on the
Subject of the British American Union (London, 1865) ; Poems, edited
by Mrs M. A. Sadleir with introductory memoir (New York, 1869).
N Fennings Taylor, The Hon. Thomas D'Arcy McGee (Montreal,
1867); J. K. Foran, Thomas D'Arcy McGee as an Empire Builder
(Ottawa, 1004); H. I. O'C. French, A Sketch of the Life of the
Hon. T. D. McGee (Montreal); Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American
Biography, iv. 116; N. F. Dvin's Irishman in Canada (1887); C. G.
Duffy, Four Years of Irish History (1883) ; Alfred Webb, Compendium
of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878). (A. G. D.)
HcGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN (1861- ), American
theologian, was born in Sauquoit, New York, on the 4th of March
1 86 1, the son of a Presbyterian clergyman of Scotch descent.
He graduated at Western Reserve College in 1882 and at Union
theological seminary in 1885, studied in Germany (especially
under Harnack) in 1885-1887, and in Italy and France in 1888,
and in that year received the degree of doctor of philosophy at
Marburg. He was instructor (1888-1890) and professor (1890-
1893) of church history at Lane theological seminary, and in 1893
became Washburn professor of church history in Union theologi-
cal seminary, succeeding Dr Philip Schaff. His published work,
except occasional critical studies in philosophy, dealt with
church history and the history of dogma. His best known publi-
cation is a History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age (1897).
This book, by its independent criticism and departures from
traditionalism, aroused the opposition of the General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church; though the charges brought against
McGiffert were dismissed by the Presbytery of New York, to
which they had been referred, a trial for heresy seemed inevitable,
and McGiffert, in 1900, retired from the Presbyterian ministry
and entered the Congregational Church, although he retained
his position in Union theological seminary. Among his other
publications are: A Dialogue between a Christian and a Jew
(1888); a translation (with introduction and notes) of Eusebius's
Church History (1890); and The Apostles' Creed (1902), in which
he attempted to prove that the old Roman creed was formulated
as a protest against the dualism of Marcion and his denial of the
reality of Jesus's life on earth.
McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1730-1793), American
Indian chief, was born near the site of the present Wetumpka, in
Alabama. His father was a Scotch merchant and his mother
the daughter of a French officer and an Indian "princess."
Through his father's relatives in South Carolina, McGillivray
received a good education, but at the age of seventeen, after a
short experience as a merchant in Savannah and Pensacola, he
returned to the Muscogee Indians, who elected him chief. He
retained his connexion with business life as a member of the
British firm of Panton, Forbes & Leslie of Pensacola. During
the War of Independence, as a colonel in the British army, he
incited his followers to attack the western frontiers of Georgia
and the Carolinas. Georgia confiscated some of his property,
and after the peace of 1783 McGillivray remained hostile.
Though still retaining his British commission, he accepted one
from Spain, and during the remainder of his life used his influ-
ence to prevent American settlement in the south-west. So
important was he considered that in 1790 President Washington
sent an agent who induced him to visit New York. Here he wa?
persuaded to make peace in consideration of a brigadier-general's
commission and payment for the property confiscated by Georgia;
and with the warriors who accompanied him he signed a formal
treaty of peace and friendship on the 7th of August. He then
went back to the Indian country, and remained hostile to the
Americans until his death. He was one of the ablest Indian
leaders of America and at one time wielded great power having
5000 to 10,000 armed followers. In order to serve Indian
interests he played off British, Spanish and American interests
against one another, but before he died he saw that he was fight-
ing in a losing cause, and, changing his policy, endeavoured to
provide for the training of the Muscogees in the white man's
civilization. McGillivray was polished in manners, of cultivated
intellect, was a shrewd merchant, and a successful speculator;
but he had many savage traits, being noted for his treachery,
craftiness and love of barbaric display. (W. L. F.)
MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM (1796-1852), Scottish naturalist,
was born at Aberdeen on the 25th of January 1796. At King's
College, Aberdeen, he graduated in 1815, and also studied medi-
cine, but did not complete the latter course. In 1823 he became
assistant to R. Jameson, professor of natural history in Edin-
burgh University; and in 1831 he was appointed curator of the
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, a post
232
MAcGREGOR MACHALE
which he resigned in 1841 to become professor of natural history
and lecturer on botany in Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died
at Aberdeen on the 4th of September 1852. He possessed a wide
and comprehensive knowledge of natural science, gained no
less from personal observations in different parts of Scotland
than from a study of collections and books. His industry and
extensive knowledge are amply shown in his published works.
He assisted J. J. Audubon in his classical works on the Birds oj
America, and edited W. Withering's British Plants. His larger
works include biographies of A. von Humboldt, and of zoologists
from Aristotle to Linnaeus, a History of British Quadrupeds, a
History of the Molluscous Animals of Aberdeen, Banff and Kin-
cardine, a Manual of British Ornithology, and a History of British
Birds, in 5 vols. (1837-1852). The last work holds a high rank
from the excellent descriptions of the structure, habits and haunts
of birds, and from the use in classification of characters afforded
by their anatomical structure. His Natural History of Deesidc,
posthumously published by command of Queen Victoria, was
the result of a sojourn in the highlands of Aberdeenshire in
1850. He made large collections, alike for the instruction of his
students and to illustrate the zoology, botany and geology
of the parts of Scotland examined by him, especially around
Aberdeen, and a number of his original water-colour drawings
are preserved in the British Museum (Natural History).
His eldest son, JOHN MACGILLIVRAY (1822-1867), published an
account of the voyage round the world of H.M.S. " Rattlesnake,"
on board of which he was naturalist. Another son, PAUL, published
an Aberdeen Flora in 1853.
MACGREGOR, JOHN [" ROB ROY "] (1825-1892), Scottish
canoeist, traveller and philanthropist, son of General Sir Duncan
MacGregor, K.C.B., was born at Gravesend on the 24th of
January 1825. He combined a roving disposition with a natural
taste for mechanics and ,for literature. In 1839 he went to
Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1844 to Trinity, Cambridge,
where he was a wrangler. He was called to the bar in 1851, but
did not pursue his profession. He travelled a great deal in
Europe, Egypt, Palestine, Russia, Algeria and America, and
between 1853 and 1863 was largely occupied with researches
into the history and methods of marine propulsion. He was
the pioneer of British canoeing. In 1865 he started on a long
canoeing cruise in his " Rob Roy " canoe, and in this way
made a prolonged water tour through Europe, a record of
which he published in 1866 as A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy
Canoe. This book made MacGregor and his canoe famous.
He made similar voyages in later years in Norway, Sweden
and Denmark, the North Sea and Palestine. Another voyage,
in the English Channel and on French waters, was made in a
yawl. He published accounts of all these journeys. He did
not, however, confine his energies to travelling. He was active
in charity and philanthropic work, being one of the founders of
the Shoe-black Brigade. In 1870 and again in 1873 he was
elected on the London school board. He died at Boscombe on
the i6th of July 1892.
MACH, ERNST (1838- ), Austrian physicist and psycholo-
gist, was born on the i8th of February 1838 at Turas in Moravia,
and studied at Vienna. He was professor of mathematics at
Gratz (1864-1867), of physics at Prague (1867-1895), and of
physics at Vienna (1895-1901). In 1879 and 1880 as Rector
Magnificus he fought against the introduction of Czech instead
of German in the Prague University. In 1901 he was made a
member of the Austrian house of peers. In philosophy he began
with a strong predilection for the physical side of psychology,
and at an early age he came to the conclusion that all existence
is sensation, and, after a lapse into noiimenalism under the in-
fluence of Fechner's Psychophysics, finally adopted a universal
physical phenomenalism. The Ego he considers not an entity
sharply distinguished from the Non-ego, but merely, as it were,
a medium of continuity of sensory impressions. His whole
theory appears to be vitiated by the confusion of physics and
psychology.
WORKS. Kompendium der Physik fur Mediziner (Vienna, 1863);
Einleitung in die Helmholtz' sche Musiktheorie (Gratz, 1866) ; Die
Gesch. u. d. Wurzel d. Satzes von d. Erhaltung d. Arbeit (Prague, 1872) ;
Grundlinien d. Lehre v. d. Bewegungsempfindungen (Leipzig, 1875);
Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1883; rev. ed., 1908;
Eng. trans., T. J. McCormack, 1902); Beitrdge zur Analyse d.
Empfindungen (Jena, 1886), 5th ed., 1906, entitled Die Analyse d.
Empfindungen; Leitfaden d. Physik fur Studierende (Prague, 1881,
in collaboration) ; Populdrwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen (3rd ed.,
Leipzig, 1903) ; Die Prinzipien d. Wdrmelehre (2nd ed., 1900) ;
Erkenntnis und Irrtum (Leipzig, 1905).
MACHAERODUS, or MACHAIRODUS, the typical genus of a
group of long-tusked extinct cats, commonly known as sabre-
tooths. Although best regarded as a sub-family (Machaerodon-
tinae) of the Felidae, they are sometimes referred to a separate
family under the name Nimravidae (see CARNIVORA). The later
forms, as well as some of the earlier ones, are more specialized
as regards dentition than the modern Felidae, although in several
other respects they exhibit more primitive features. The general
type of dentition is feline, but in some instances more premolars
are retained, as well as a small tubercular molar behind the lower
carnassial. The characteristic feature is, however, the great
development of the upper canines, which in the more specialized
types reach far below the margin of the lower jaw, despite the
development of a flange-like expansion of the extremity of the
latter for their protection. In these extreme forms it is quite
evident that the jaws could not be used in the ordinary manner;
and it seems probable that in attacking prey the lower jaw was
dropped to a vertical position, and the huge upper tusks used as
stabbing instruments. The group is believed to be derived from
a creodont allied to the Eocene Palaeonictis (see CREODONTA).
Nimravus, of the American Oh'gocene, with two premolars and
two molars in the lower jaw, and comparatively short upper
canines, seems to be the least specialized type; next to which
comes Hoplophoneus, another North American Oligocene genus,
in which the tubercular lower molar is lost, and the upper canine
is longer. It is noteworthy, however, that this genus retains
the third trochanter to the femur, which is lost in Nimravus.
Machaerodus, in the wider sense, includes the larger and more
typical forms. In the Pliocene of France and Italy it is repre-
sented by M. megantereon, a species not larger than a leopard,
and allied forms occur in the Pliocene of Greece, Hungary,
Samos, Persia, India and China, as well as in the Middle Mio-
cene of France and Germany. Far larger is the Pleistocene
M . cultridens of the caverns of Europe, with serrated upper tusks
several inches in length. From Europe and Asia the sabre-
toothed tigers may be traced into North and thence into South
America, the home of M. (Smilodon) neogaeus, the largest of the
whole tribe, whose remains occur in the Brazilian caves and the
silt of the Argentine pampas. This animal was as large as a
tiger, with tusks projecting seven inches from the jaw and very
complex carnassials; the feet were very short, with only four toes
to the hind-pair, and the humerus has lost the foramen at the
lower end. Very noteworthy is the occurrence of an imper-
fectly known specialized type Eusmilus in the Lower Oligo-
cene of Europe and perhaps also North America. Unlike all
other cats, it had only two pairs of lower incisors, and the large
cheek-teeth were reduced to the carnassial and one premolar in
advance of the same. (R. L.*)
MACHALE, JOHN (1791-1881), Irish divine, was born on the
1 5th of March 1791 at Tuber-na-Fian, Mayo, and was educated
at Maynooth, where after graduating in 1814 he was ordained
priest and appointed lecturer in theology, succeeding to the
professoriate in 1820. In 1825 he became coadjutor bishop of
Killala, and in July 1834 archbishop of Tuam and metropolitan.
He visited Rome in 1831, and was there again at the proclamation
of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin (Dec.
1854) and in 1860-1870 at the Vatican council. Though he did
not favour the dogma of Papal Infallibility he submitted as soon
as it was defined. Machale was an intensely patriotic Irishman,
who fought hard for Catholic Emancipation, for separate Roman
Catholic schools, and against the Queen's Colleges. He trans-
lated part of the Iliad (Dublin, 1861), and made an Irish version
of some of Moore's melodies and of the Pentateuch. He died at
Tuam on the 7th of November 1881.
MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE MACHIAVELLI
233
MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1701-
1794), French statesman, was a son of Louis Charles Machault
d'Arnouville, lieutenant of police. In 1721 he was counsel to
the parlement of Paris, in 1728 maitre des requUes, and ten years
later was made president of the Great Council; although he had
opposed the court in the Unigenilus dispute, he was appointed
intendant of Hainaut in 1743. From this position, through
the influence at court of his old friend Rene Louis, Marquis
d'Argenson, he was called to succeed Orry de Fulvy as controller-
general of the finances in December 1745. He found, on taking
office, that in the four years of the War of the Austrian Succession
the economies of Cardinal Fleury had been exhausted, and he
was forced to develop the system of borrowings which was bring-
ing French finances to bankruptcy. He attempted in 1749 a
reform in the levying of direct taxes, which, if carried out, would
have done much to prevent the later Revolutionary movement.
He proposed to abolish the old tax of a tenth, which was evaded
by the clergy and most of the nobility, and substitute a tax of
one-twentieth which should be levied on all without exception.
The cry for exceptions, however, began at once. The clergy
stood in a body by their historical privileges, and the outcry of
the nobility was too great for the minister to make headway
against. Still he managed to retain his office until July 1754,
when he exchanged the controllership for the ministry of marine.
Foreseeing the disastrous results of the alliance with Austria, he
was drawn to oppose more decidedly the schemes of Mme de
Pompadour, whose personal ill-will he had gained. Louis XV.
acquiesced in her demand for his disgrace on the istof February
1757. Machault lived on his estate at Arnouville until the
Revolution broke out, when, after a period of hiding, he was
apprehended in 1794 at Rouen and brought to Paris as a suspect.
He was imprisoned in the Madelonnettes, where he succumbed
in a few weeks, at the age of ninety-three.
His son, Louis CHARLES MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE (1737-
1820), was bishop of Amiens from 1774 until the Revolution.
He was famous for his charity; but proved to be a most uncom-
promising Conservative at the estates general of 1789, where he
voted consistently against every reform. He emigrated in 1791,
resigned his bishopric in 1801 to facilitate the concordat, and
retired to the ancestral chateau of Arnouville, where he died in
1820.
MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE (c. 1300-1377), French poet and
musician, was born in the village of Machault near Rethel in
Champagne. Machaut tells us that he served for thirty years
the adventurous John of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia. He
followed his master to Russia and Poland, and, though of peaceful
tastes himself, saw twenty battles and a hundred tourneys.
When John was killed at Crecy in 1346 Machaut was received at
the court of Normandy, and on the accession of John the Good to
the throne of France (1350) he received an office which enabled
him to devote himself thenceforth to music and poetry. Machaut
wrote about 1348 in honour of Charles III., king of Navarre, a
long poem much admired by contemporaries, Le Jugement du rot
de Navarre. When Charles was thrown into prison by his father-
in-law, King John, Machaut addressed him a Comfort d'ami to
console him for his enforced separation from his young wife,
then aged fifteen. This was followed about 1370 by a poem of
9000 lines entitled La Prise d' Alexandrie, one of the last chro-
nicles cast in this form. Its hero was Pierre de Lusignan, king
of Cyprus. Machaut is best known for the strange book telling
of the love affair of his old age with a young and noble lady long
supposed to be Agnes of Navarre, sister of Charles the Bad;
Paulin Paris in his edition of the Voir dit (Historic vraie) identi-
fied her as Perronne d'Armentieres, a noble lady of Champagne.
In 1362, when Machaut must have been at least sixty-two years
of age, he received a rondeau from Perronne, who was then
eighteen, expressing her devotion. She no doubt wished to
play Laura to his Petrarch, and the Voir dit contains the corre-
spondence and the poems which they exchanged. The romance,
which ended with Perronne's marriage and Machaut's desire
to remain her doux ami, has gleams of poetry, especially in
Perronne's verses, but its subject and its length are both
deterrent to modern readers. But Machaut with Deschamps
marks a distinct transition. The trouveres had been impersonal.
It is difficult to gather any details of their personal history
from their work. Machaut and Deschamps wrote of their own
affairs, and the next step in development was to be the self-
analysis of Villon. Machaut was also a musician. He com-
posed a number of motets, songs and ballads, also a mass
supposed to have been sung at the coronation of Charles V.
This was translated into modern notation by Perne, who read
a notice on it before the Institute of France in 1817.
Machaut's Oewvres choisies were edited by P. Tarbd (Rheims and
Paris, 1849) ; La Prise d' Alexandrie, by L. de Mas-Latrie (Geneva,
1877); and Le Lime du voir-dit, by Paulin Paris (1875). See also
F. G. F6tis, Biog. universelle des musiciens. . .(Paris, 1862), and a
notice on the Instruments de musique au xitf siecle d'apres Cuillaume
de Machaut, by E. Travers (Paris, 1882).
MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLO (1469-1527), Italian statesman
and writer, was born at Florence on the 3rd of May 1469. His
ancestry claimed blood relationship with the lords of Montes-
pertoli, a fief situated between Val di Pesa and Val d'Elsa, at
no great distance from the city. Niccolo's father, Bernardo
(b. 1428), followed the profession of a jurist. He held landed
property worth something like 250 a year of our money. His
son, though not wealthy, was never wholly dependent upon
official income.
Of Niccolo's early years and education little is known. His
works show wide reading in the Latin and Italian classics, but
it is almost certain that he had not mastered the Greek language.
To the defects of Machiavelli's education we may, in part at
least, ascribe the peculiar vigour of his style and his speculative
originality. He is free from the scholastic trifling and learned
frivolity which tainted the rhetorical culture of his century. He
made the world of men and things his study, learned to write
his mother-tongue with idiomatic conciseness, and nourished his
imagination on the masterpieces of the Romans.
The year of Charles VIII.'s invasion and of the Medici's
expulsion from Florence (1494) saw Machiavelli's first entrance
into public life. He was appointed clerk in the second chancery
of the commune under his old master, the grammarian,
Marcello Virgilio Adriani. Early in 1498 Adriani became chan-
cellor of the republic, and Machiavelli received his vacated
office with the rank of second chancellor and secretary.
This post he retained till the year 1512. The masters he
had to serve were the died di liberta e pace, who, though
subordinate to the signoria, exercised a separate control
over the departments of war and the interior. They sent
their own ambassadors to foreign powers, transacted business
with the cities of the Florentine domain, and controlled the
military establishment of the commonwealth. The next four-
teen years of Machiavelli's life were fully occupied in the volumi-
nous correspondence of his bureau, in diplomatic missions of
varying importance, and in the organization of a Florentine
militia. It would be tedious to follow him through all his em-
bassies to petty courts of Italy, the first of which took place
in 1499, when he was sent to negotiate the continuance of a loan
to Catherine Sforza, countess of Forli and Imola. In 1500
Machiavelli travelled into France, to deal with Louis XII. about
the affairs of Pisa. These embassies were the school in which
Machiavelli formed his political opinions, and gathered views
regarding the state of Europe and the relative strength of nations.
They not only introduced him to the subtleties of Italian diplo-
macy, but also extended his observation over races very different
from the Italians. He thus, in the course of his official business,
gradually acquired principles and settled ways of thinking which
he afterwards expressed in writing.
In 1502 Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini, who bore him
several children, with whom, in spite of his own infidelities, he
lived on good terms, and who survived him twenty-six years. In
the same year Piero Soderini was chosen gonfalonier for life, in
accordance with certain changes in the constitution of the state,
which were intended to bring Florence closer to the Venetian
type of government. Machiavelli became intimately connected
234
MACHIAVELLI
with Soderini, assisted him in carrying out his policy, suggested
important measures of military reform which Soderini adopted,
and finally was involved in ruin by his fall.
The year 1 502 was marked by yet another decisive incident in
Machiavelli's life. In October he was sent, much against his
will, as envoy to the camp of Cesare Borgia, duke of Valentinois.
The duke was then in Romagna, and it was Machiavelli's duty
to wait upon and watch him. He was able now to observe those
intricate intrigues which culminated in Cesare's murder of his
disaffected captains. From what remains of Machiavelli's
official letters, and from his tract upon the Modo che tenne il
duca Valentino per ammazzar Vitellozzo Vitelli, we are able to
appreciate the actual relations which existed between the two
men, and the growth in Machiavelli's mind of a political ideal
based upon his study of the duke's character. Machiavelli
conceived the strongest admiration for Cesare's combination of
audacity with diplomatic prudence, for his adroit use of cruelty
and fraud, for his self-reliance, avoidance of half-measures,
employment of native troops, and firm administration in con-
quered provinces. More than once, in letters to his friend
Vettori, no less than in the pages of the Principe, Machiavelli
afterwards expressed his belief that Cesare Borgia's behaviour
in the conquest of provinces, the cementing of a new state out of
scattered elements, and the dealing with false friends or doubtful
allies, was worthy of all commendation and of scrupulous imita-
tion. As he watched Cesare Borgia at this, the most brilliant
period of his adventurous career, the man became idealized in
his reflective but imaginative mind. Round him, as a hero, he
allowed his own conceptions of the perfect prince to cluster.
That Machiavelli separated the actual Cesare Borgia, whom he
afterwards saw, ruined and contemptible, at Rome, from this
radiant creature of his political fancy, is probable. That the
Cesare of history does not exactly match the Duca Valentino of
Machiavelli's writings is certain. Still the fact remains that
henceforth Machiavelli cherished the ideal image of the statesman
which he had modelled upon Cesare, and called this by the name
of Valentino.
On his return to Florence early in January 1503, Machiavelli
began to occupy himself with a project which his recent atten-
dance upon Cesare Borgia had strengthened in his mind. The
duties of his office obliged him to study the conditions of military
service as they then existed in Italy. He was familiar with the
disadvantages under which republics laboured when they engaged
professional captains of adventure and levied mercenary troops.
The bad faith of the condottiere Paolo Vitelli (beheaded at
Florence in 1499) had deeply impressed him. In the war with
Pisa he had observed the insubordination and untrustworthiness
of soldiers gathered from the dregs of different districts, serving
under egotistical and irresponsible commanders. His reading
in Livy taught him to admire the Roman system of employing
armies raised from the body of the citizens; and Cesare Borgia's
method of gradually substituting the troops of his own duchy
for aliens and mercenaries showed him that this plan might be
adopted with success by the Italians. He was now determined,
if possible, to furnish Florence with a national militia. The
gonfalonier Soderini entered into his views. But obstacles of no
small magnitude arose. The question of money was immediately
pressing. Early in 1503 Machiavelli drew up for Soderini a
speech, Discorso sulla provisions del danaro, in which the duty and
necessity of liberal expenditure for the protection of the state
were expounded upon principles of sound political philosophy.
Between this date and the last month of 1506 Machiavelli
laboured at his favourite scheme, working out memorials on the
subject for his office, and suggesting the outlines of a new military
organization. On the 6th of December 1506 his plan was ap-
proved by the signoria, and a special ministry, called the nove
di ordinanza e milizia, was appointed. Machiavelli immediately
became their secretary. The country districts of the Florentine
dominion were now divided into departments, and levies of foot
soldiers were made in order to secure a standing militia. A
commander-in-chief had to be chosen for the new troops.
Italian jealousy shrank from conferring this important office
on a Florentine, lest one member of the state should acquire a
power dangerous to the whole. The choice of Soderini and
Machiavelli fell, at this juncture, upon an extremely ineligible
person, none other than Don Micheletto, Cesare Borgia's cut-
throat and assassin. It is necessary to insist upon this point,
since it serves to illustrate a radical infirmity in Machiavelli's
genius. While forming and promoting his scheme, he was
actuated by principles of political wisdom and by the purest
patriotism. But he failed to perceive that such a ruffian as
Micheletto could not inspire the troops of Florence with that
devotion to their country and that healthy moral tone which
should distinguish a patriot army. Here, as elsewhere, he re-
vealed his insensibility to the ethical element in human nature.
Meanwhile Italy had been the scene of memorable events, in
most of which Machiavelli took some part. Alexander VI. had
died suddenly of fever. Julius II. had ascended the papal
chair. The duke of Valentinois had been checked in mid-career
of conquest. The collapse of the Borgias threw Central Italy
into confusion; and Machiavelli had, in 1505, to visit the
Baglioni at Perugia and the Petrucci at Siena. In the following
year he accompanied Julius upon his march through Perugia
into the province of Emilia, where the fiery pope subdued in
person the rebellious cities of the Church. Upon these embassies
Machiavelli represented the Florentine died in quality of envoy.
It was his duty to keep the ministry informed by means of
frequent despatches and reports. All this while the war for the
recovery of Pisa was slowly dragging on, with no success or
honour to the Florentines. Machiavelli had to attend the camp
and provide for levies amid his many other occupations. And
yet he found time for private literary work. In the autumn of
1504 he began his Decennali, or Annals of Italy, a poem composed
in rough terza rima. About the same time he composed a
comedy on the model of Aristophanes, which is unfortunately
lost. It seems to have been called Le Maschere. Giuliano de'
Ricci tells us it was marked by stringent satire upon great eccle-
siastics and statesmen, no less than by a tendency to "ascribe
all human things to natural causes or to fortune." That phrase
accurately describes the prevalent bias of its author's mind.
The greater part of 1506 and 1507 was spent in organizing the
new militia, corresponding on the subject, and scouring the coun-
try on enlistment service. But at the end of the latter year
European affairs of no small moment diverted Machiavelli from
these humbler duties. Maximilian was planning a journey into
Italy in order to be crowned emperor at Rome, and was levying
subsidies from the imperial burghs for his expenses. The
Florentines thought his demands excessive. Though they
already had Francesco Vettori at his court, Soderini judged it
advisable to send Machiavelli thither in December. He tra-
velled by Geneva, all through Switzerland, to Botzen, where he
found the emperor. This journey was an important moment
in his life. It enabled him to study the Swiss and the Germans
in their homes; and the report which he wrote on his return is
among his most effective political studies. What is most remark-
able in it is his concentrated effort to realize the exact political
weight of the German nation, and to penetrate the causes of its
strength and weakness. He attempts to grasp the national
character as a whole, and thence to deduce practical conclusions.
The same qualities are noticeable in his Ritratti delle cose di
Francia, which he drew up after an embassy to Louis XII. at
Blois in 1510. These notes upon the French race are more
scattered than the report on German affairs. But they reveal
no less acumen combined with imaginative penetration into the
very essence of national existence.
Michiavelli returned from Germany in June 1508. The rest
of that year and a large part of 1 509 were spent in the affairs of
the militia and the war of Pisa. Chiefly through his exertions
the war was terminated by the surrender of Pisa in June 1509.
Meanwhile the league of Cambray had disturbed the peace of
Italy, and Florence found herself in a perilous position between
Spain and France. Soderini's government grew weaker. The
Medicean party lifted up its head. To the league of Cambray
succeeded the Holy League. The battle of Ravenna was fought,
MACHIAVELLI
235
and the French retired from Italy. The Florentines had been
spectators rather than actors in these great events. But they
were now destined to feel the full effects of them. The cardinal
Giovanni de' Medici, who was present at the battle of Ravenna,
brought a Spanish army into Tuscany. Prato was sacked in
the August of 1512. Florence, in extreme terror, deposed the
gonfalonier, and opened her gates to the princes of the house of
Medici.
The government on which Machiavelli depended had fallen,
never to rise again. The national militia in which he placed
unbounded confidence had proved inefficient to protect Florence
in the hour of need. He was surrounded by political and per-
sonal enemies, who regarded him with jealousy as the ex-gon-
falonier's right-hand man. Yet at first it appears that he still
hoped to retain his office. He showed no repugnance to a change
of masters, and began to make overtures to the Medici. The
nave della mtiizia were, however, dissolved; and on the yth of
November 1512 Machiavelli was deprived of his appointments.
He was exiled from Florence and confined to the dominion for
one year, and on the ryth of November was futher prohibited
from setting foot in the Palazzo Pubblico. Ruin stared him in
the face; and, to make matters worse, he was implicated in the
conspiracy of Pier Paolo Boscoli in February 1513. Machiavelli
had taken no share in that feeble attempt against the Medici,
but his name was found upon a memorandum dropped by
Boscoli. This was enough to ensure his imprisonment. He
was racked, and only released upon Giovanni de' Medici's
election to the papacy in March 1513. When he left his dungeon
he retired to a farm near San Casciano, and faced the fact that
his political career was at an end.
Machiavelli now entered upon a period of life to which we owe
the great works that have rendered his name immortal. But it
was one of prolonged disappointment and annoyance. He had
not accustomed himself to economical living; and, when the
emoluments of his office were withdrawn, he had barely enough
to support his family. The previous years of his manhood had
been spent in continual activity. Much as he enjoyed the
study of the Latin and Italian classics, literature was not his
business; nor had he looked on writing as more thanan occasional
amusement. He was now driven in upon his books for the em-
ployment of a restless temperament; and to this irksomeness of
enforced leisure may be ascribed the production of the Principe,
the Discorsi, the Arte della guerra, the comedies, and the Historic
Florentine. The uneasiness of Machiavelli's mind in the first
years of this retirement is brought before us by his private corre-
spondence. The letters to Vettori paint a man of vigorous
intellect and feverish activity, dividing his time between studies
and vulgar dissipations, seeking at one time distraction in low
intrigues and wanton company, at another turning to the great
minds of antiquity for solace. It is not easy to understand the
spirit in which the author of the Principe sat down to exchange
obscenities with the author of the Sommario della storia d 'Italia.
At the same time this coarseness of taste did not blunt his intel-
lectual sagacity. His letters on public affairs in Italy and Europe,
especially those which he meant Vettori to communicate to the
Medici at Rome, are marked by extraordinary fineness of percep-
tion, combined, as usual in his case, with philosophical breadth.
In retirement at his villa near Percussina, a hamlet of San
Casciano, Machiavelli completed the Principe before the end of
1513. This famous book is an analysis of the methods whereby
an ambitious man may rise to sovereign power. It appears to
have grown out of another scarcely less celebrated work, upon
which Machiavelli had been engaged before he took the Principe
in hand, and which he did not finish until some time afterwards.
This second treatise is the Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito
Livio,
Cast in the form of comments on the history of Livy, the Discorsi
are really an inquiry into the genesis and maintenance of states.
he Principe is an offshoot from the main theme of the Discorsi,
ttmg forth Machiavelli's views at large and in detail upon the
nature of principalities, the method of cementing them, and the
qualities of a successful autocrat. Being more limited in subject
and more independent as a work of literary art, this essay detaches
itself from the main body of the Discorsi, and has attracted far more
attention. We feel that the Principe is inspired with greater
fervency, as though its author had more than a speculative aim in
view, and brought it forth to serve a special crisis. The moment of
its composition was indeed decisive. Machiavelli judged the case
of Italy so desperate that salvation could only be expected from the
intervention of a powerful despot. The unification of Italy in a
state protected by a national army was the cherished dream of his
life; and the peroration of the Principe shows that he meant this
treatise to have a direct bearing on the problem. We must be care-
ful, however, not to fall into the error of supposing that he wrote
it with the sole object of meeting an occasional emergency. Together
with the Discorsi, the Principe contains the speculative fruits of his
experience and observation combined with his deductions from
Roman history. The two works form one coherent body of opinion,
not systematically expressed, it is true, but based on the same
principles, involving the same conclusions, and directed to the same
philosophicat end. That end is the analysis of the conception of
the state, studied under two main types, republican and monarchical.
Up to the date of Machiavelli, modern political philosophy had
always presupposed an ideal. Medieval speculation took the Church
and the Empire for granted, as divinely appointed institutions,
under which the nations of the earth must flourish for the space of
man's probation on this planet. Thinkers differed only as Guelfs
and Gnibellines, as leaning on the one side to papal, on the other
to imperial supremacy. In the revival of learning, scholarship
supplanted scholasticism, and the old ways of medieval thinking
were forgotten. But no substantial philosophy of any kind emerged
from humanism; the political lucubrations of the scholars were,
like their ethical treatises, for the most part rhetorical. Still the
humanists effected a delivery of the intellect from what had become
the bondage of obsolete ideas, and created a new medium for the
speculative faculty. Simultaneously with the revival, Italy had
passed into that stage of her existence which has been called the
age of despots. The yoke of the Empire had been shaken off. The
Church had taken rank among Italian tyrannies. The peninsula
was, roughly speaking, divided into principalities and sovereign
cities, each of which claimed autocratic jurisdiction. These separate
despotisms owned no common social tie, were founded on no common
jus or right, but were connected in a network of conflicting interests
and changeful diplomatic combinations. A keen and positive
political intelligence emerged in the Italian race. The reports of
Venetian and Florentine ambassadors at this epoch contain the first
germs of an attempt to study politics from the point of view of
science.
At this moment Machiavelli intervenes. He was conscious of the
change which had come over Italy and Europe. He was aware that
the old strongholds of medieval thought must be abandoned, and
that the decaying ruins of medieval institutions furnished no basis
for the erection of solid political edifices. He felt the corruption
of his country, and sought to bring the world back to a lively sense
of the necessity for reformation. His originality consists in having
extended the positive intelligence of his century from the sphere of
contemporary politics and special interests to man at large regarded
as a political being. He founded the science of politics for the
modern world, by concentrating thought upon its fundamental
principles. He began to study men, not according to some precon-
ception, but as he found them men, not in the isolation of one
century, but as a whole in history. He drew his conclusions from
the nature of mankind itself, " ascribing all things to natural causes
or to fortune." In this way he restored the right method of study,
a method which had been neglected since the days of Aristotle. He
formed a conception of the modern state, which marked the close
of the middle ages, and anticipated the next phase of European
development. His prince, abating those points which are purely
Italian or strongly tinctured with the author's personal peculiarities,
prefigured the monarchs of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, tne monarchs
whose motto was Vital c' est moil His doctrine of a national militia
foreshadowed the system which has given strength in arms to France
and Germany. His insight into the causes of Italian decadence
was complete; and the remedies which he suggested, in the perora-
tions of _ the Principe and the Arte della guerra, have since been
applied in the unification of Italy. Lastly, when we once have freed
ourselves from the antipathy engendered by his severance of ethics
from the field of politics, when we have once made proper allowance
for his peculiar use of phrases like frodi onorevoli or scelleratezze
fioriose, nothing is left but admiration for his mental attitude. That
is the attitude of a patriot, who saw with open eyes the ruin of his
country, who burned above all things to save Italy and set her in
her place among the powerful nations, who held the duty of self-
sacrifice in the most absolute sense, whose very limitations and
mistakes were due to an absorbing passion for the state he dreamed
might be reconstituted. It was Machiavelli's intense preoccupation
with this problem what a state is and how to found one in existing
circumstances which caused* the many riddles of his speculative
writings. Dazzled, as it were, with the brilliancy of his own dis-
covery, concentrated in attention on the one necessity for organizing
a powerful coherent nation, he forgot that men are more than
political beings. He neglected religion, or regarded it as part of
236
MACHIAVELLI
the state machinery. He was by no means indifferent to private
virtue, which indeed he judged the basis of all healthy national ex-
istence ; but in the realm of politics he postponed morals to political
expediency. He held that the people, as distinguished from the
nobles and the clergy, were the pith and fibre of nations; yet this
same people had to become wax in the hands of the politician
their commerce and their comforts, the arts which give a dignity
to life and the pleasures which make life liveable, neglected their
very liberty subordinated to the one tyrannical conception. To
this point the segregation of politics from every other factor which
goes to constitute humanity had brought him; and this it is which
makes us feel his world a wilderness, devoid of atmosphere and
vegetation. Yet some such isolation of the subject matter of this
science was demanded at the moment of its birth, just as political
economy, when first started, had to make a rigid severance of wealth
from other units. It is only by a gradual process that social science
in its whole complexity can be evolved. We have hardly yet dis-
covered that political economy has unavoidable points of contact
with ethics.
From the foregoing criticism it will be perceived that all the
questions whether Machiavelli meant to corrupt or to instruct the
world, to fortify the hands of tyrants or to lead them to their ruin,
are now obsolete. He was a man of science one who by the
vigorous study of his subject matter sought from that subject-
matter itself to deduce laws. The difficulty which remains in
judging him is a difficulty of statement, valuation, allowance. How
much shall we allow for his position in Renaissance Italy, for the
corruption in the midst of which he lived, for his own personal
temperament? How shall we state his point of departure from
the middle ages, his sympathy with prevalent classical enthusiasms,
his divination of a new period? How shall we estimate the per-
manent worth of his method, the residuum of value in his maxims ?
After finishing the Principe, Machiavelli thought of dedicating
it to one of the Medicean princes, with the avowed hope that he
might thereby regain their favour and find public employment.
He wrote to Vettori on the subject, and Giuliano de' Medici,
duke of Nemours, seemed to him the proper person. The choice
was reasonable. No sooner had Leo been made pope than he
formed schemes for the aggrandizement of his family. Giuliano
was offered and refused the duchy of Urbino. Later on, Leo
designed for him a duchy in Emilia, to be cemented out of Parma,
Piacenza, Reggio and Modena. Supported by the power of the
papacy, with the goodwill of Florence to back him, Giuliano
would have found himself in a position somewhat better than that
of Cesare Borgia; and Borgia's creation of the duchy of Romagna
might have served as his model. Machiavelli therefore was justi-
fied in feeling that here was an opportunity for putting his cher-
ished schemes in practice, and that a prince with such alliances
might even advance to the grand end of the unification of Italy.
Giuliano, however, died in 1506. Then Machiavelli turned his
thoughts towards Lorenzo, duke of Urbino. The choice of this
man as a possible Italian liberator reminds us of the choice of
Don Micheletto as general of the Florentine militia. To Lorenzo
the Principe was dedicated, but without result. The Medici,
as yet at all events, could not employ Machiavelli, and had not
in themselves the stuff to found Italian kingdoms.
Machiavelli, meanwhile, was reading his Discorsi to a select
audience in the Rucellai gardens, fanning that republican enthu-
siasm which never lay long dormant among the Florentines.
Towards the year 1519 both Leo X. and his cousin, the cardinal
Giulio de' Medici, were much perplexed about the management
of the republic. It seemed necessary, if possible, in the gradual
extinction of their family to give the city at least a semblance of
self-government. They applied to several celebrated politicians,
among others to Machiavelli, for advice in the emergency. The
result was a treatise in which he deduced practical conclusions
from the past history and present temper of the city, blending
these with his favourite principles of government in general.
He earnestly admonished Leo, for his own sake and for Florence,
to found a permanent and free state system for the republic,
reminding him in terms of noble eloquence how splendid is the
glory of the man who shall confer such benefits upon a people.
The year 1520 saw the composition of the Arte della guerra and
the Vita di Castruccio.
The first of these is a methodical treatise, setting forth
Machiavelli's views on military matters, digesting his theories
respecting the superiority of national troops, the inefficiency of
fortresses, the necessity of relying upon infantry in war, and the
comparative insignificance of artillery. It is strongly coloured with
his enthusiasm for ancient Rome; and specially upon the topic of
artillery it displays a want of insight into the actualities of modern
warfare. We may regard it as a supplement or appendix to the
Principe and the Discorsi, since Machiavelli held it for a fundamental
axiom that states are powerless unless completely armed in perma-
nence. The peroration contains a noble appeal to the Italian liberator
of his dreams, and a parallel from Macedonian history, which, read
by the light of this century, sounds like a prophecy of Piedmont.
The Vita di Castruccio was composed at Lucca, whither Machia-
velli had been sent on a mission. This so-called biography of the
medieval adventurer who raised himself by personal ability and
military skill to the tyranny of several Tuscan cities must be
regarded in the light of an historical romance. Dealing freely with
the outline of Castruccio's career, as he had previously dealt with
Cesare Borgia, he sketched his own ideal of the successful prince.
Cesare Borgia had entered into the Principe as a representative figure
rather than an actual personage ; so now conversely the theories of
the Principe assumed the outward form and semblance of Castruccio.
In each case history is blent with speculation in nearly the same
proportions. But Castruccio, being farther from the writer's own
experience, bears weaker traits of personality.
In the same year, 1520, Machiavelli, at the instance of the cardinal
Giulio de' Medici, received commission from the officers of the Studio
pubblico to write a history of Florence. They agreed to pay him
an annual allowance of loo florins while engaged upon the work.
The next six years were partly employed in its composition, and
he left a portion of it finished, with a dedication to Clement VII.,
when he died in 1527. In the Historic fiorentine Machiavelli quitted
the field of political speculation for that of history. But, having
already written the Discorsi and the Principe, he carried with him to
this new task of historiography the habit of mind proper to political
philosophy. In his hands the history of Florence became a text
on which at fitting seasons to deliver lessons in the science he ini-
tiated. This gives the work its special character. It is not so much
a chronicle of Florentine affairs, from the commencement of modern
history to the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492, as a critique of
that chronicle from the point of view adopted by Machiavelli in his
former writings. Having condensed his doctrines in the Principe
and the Discorsi, he applies their abstract principles to the example
of the Florentine republic.. But the History of Florence is not a mere
political pamphlet. It is the first example in Italian literature of
a national biography, the first attempt in any literature to trace the
vicissitudes of a people's life in their logical sequence, deducing
each successive phase from passions or necessities inherent in pre-
ceding circumstances, reasoning upon them from general principles,
and inferring corollaries for the conduct of the future. In point of
form the Florentine History is modelled upon Livy. It contains
speeches in the antique manner, which may be taken partly as
embodying the author s commentary upon situations of importance,
partly as expressing what he thought dramatically appropriate to
prominent personages. The style of the whole book is nervous,
vivid, free from artifice and rhetoric, obeying the writer's thought
with absolute plasticity. Machiavelli had formed for himself a
prose style, equalled by no one but by Guicciardini in his minor
works, which was far removed from the emptiness of the latinizing
humanists and the trivialities of the Italian purists. Words in his
hands have the substance, the self-evidence of things. It is an
athlete's style, all bone and sinew, nude, without superfluous flesh
or ornament.
It would seem that from the date of Machiavelli's discourse
to Leo on the government of Florence the Medici had taken him
into consideration. Writing to Vettori in 1513, he had expressed
his eager wish to " roll stones " in their service; and this desire
was now gratified. In 1521 he was sent to Carpi to transact a
petty matter with the chapter of the Franciscans, the chief known
result of the embassy being a burlesque correspondence with
Francesco Guicciardini. Four "years later, in 1525, he received
a rather more important mission to Venice. But Machiavelli's
public career was virtually closed; and the interest of his bio-
graphy still centres in his literary work. We have seen that
already, in 1504, he had been engaged upon a comedy in the
manner of Aristophanes, which is now unfortunately lost. A
translation of the Andria and three original comedies from his
pen are extant, the precise dates of which are uncertain, though
the greatest of them was first printed at Rome in 1524. This is
the Mandragola, which may be justly called the ripest and most
powerful play in the Italian language.
The plot is both improbable and unpleasing. But literary
criticism is merged in admiration of the wit, the humour, the
vivacity, the satire of a piece which brings before us the old life of
Florence in a succession of brilliant scenes. If Machiavelli had any
moral object when he composed the Mandragola, it was to paint in
glaring colours the corruption of Italian society. It shows how a
MACHICOLATION MACHINE-GUN
237
bold and plausible adventurer, aided by the profligacy of a parasite,
the avarice and hypocrisy of a confessor, and a mother's complaisant
familiarity with vice, achieves the triumph of making a gulled
husband bring his own unwilling but too yielding wife to shame.
The whole comedy is a study of stupidity and baseness acted on by
roguery. About the power with which this picture of domestic
immorality is presented there can be no question. But the perusal
of the piece obliges us to ask ourselves whether the author's radical
conception of human nature was not false. The same suspicion is
forced upon us by the Principe. Did not Machiavelli leave good
habit, as an essential ingredient of character, out of account? Men
are not such absolute fools as Nicia, nor such compliant catspaws
as Ligurio and Timoteo; women are not such weak instruments as
Sostrata and Lucrezia. Somewhere, in actual life, the stress of
craft and courage acting on the springs of human vice and weakness
fails, unless the hero of the comedy or tragedy, Callimaco or Cesare,
allows for the revolt of healthier instincts. Machiavelli does not
seem to have calculated the force of this recoil. He speculates a
world in which virt-H, unscrupulous strength of character, shall deal
successfully with frailty. This, we submit, was a deep-seated error
in his theory of life, an error to which may be ascribed the numerous
stumbling-blocks and rocks of offence in his more serious writings.
Some time after the Mandragola, he composed a second comedy,
entitled Clizia, which is even homelier and closer to the life of
Florence than its predecessor. It contains incomparable studies
of the Florentine housewife and her husband, a grave business-like
citizen, who falls into the senile folly of a base intrigue. There
remains a short piece without title, the Commedia in prosa, which,
if it be Machiavelli's, as internal evidence of style sufficiently argues,
might be accepted as a study for both the Clizia and the Mandragola.
It seems written to expose the corruption of domestic life in Florence,
and especially to satirize the friars in their familar part of go-
betweens, tame cats, confessors and adulterers.
Of Machiavelli's minor poems, sonnets, capitoli and carnival
songs there is not much to say. Powerful as a comic playwright,
he was not a poet in the proper sense of the term. The little novel
of Belfagor claims a passing word, if only because of its celebrity.
It is a good-humoured satire upon marriage, the devil being forced
to admit that hell itself is preferable to his wife's company. That
Machiavelli invented it to express the irritation of his own domestic
life is a myth without foundation. The story has a medieval origin,
and it was almost simultaneously treated in Italian by Machiavelli,
Straparola and Giovanni Brevio.
In the spring of 1526 Machiavelli was employed by
Clement VII. to inspect the fortifications of Florence. He
presented a report upon the subject, and in the summer of
the same year received orders to attend Francesco Guicciar-
dini, the pope's commissary of war in Lombardy. Guicciardini
sent him in August to Cremona, to transact business with the
Venetian proweditori. Later on in the autumn we find him
once more with Guicciardini at Bologna. Thus the two great
Italian historians of the i6th century, who had been friends
for several years, were brought into relations of close intimacy.
After another visit to Guicciardini in the spring of 1527,
Machiavelli was sent by him to Civita Vecchia. It seemed that he
was destined to be associated in the papal service with Clement's
viceroy, and that a new period of diplomatic employment was
opening for him. But soon after his return to Florence he fell
ill. His son Piero said that he took medicine on the 2oth of
June which disagreed with him; and on the 22nd he died,
having received the last offices of the Church.
There is no foundation for the legend that he expired with
profane sarcasms upon his lips. Yet we need not run into the
opposite extreme, and try to fancy that Machiavelli, who had
professed Paganism in his life, proved himself a believing
Christian on his deathbed. That he left an unfavourable
opinion among his fellow citizens is very decidedly recorded
by the historian Varchi. The Principe, it seems, had already
begun to prejudice the world against him; and we can readily
believe that Varchi sententiously observes, that " it would
have been better for him if nature had given him either a less
powerful intellect or a mind of a more genial temper." There
is in truth a something crude, unsympathetic, cynical in his
mental attitude toward human nature, for which, even after
the lapse of more than three centuries, we find it difficult to
make allowance. The force of his intellect renders this want
of geniality repulsive. We cannot help objecting that one
who was so powerful could have been kindlier and sounder ii
he willed. We therefore do him the injustice of mistaking his
infirmity for perversity. He was colour-blind to commonplace
morality j and we are angry with him because he merged the
mes of ethics in one grey monotone of politics.
In person Machiavelli was of middle height, black-haired,
with rather a small head, very bright eyes and slightly aquiline
nose. His thin, close lips often broke into a smile of sarcasm,
rlis activity was almost feverish. When unemployed in work
or study he was not averse to the society of boon companions,
gave himself readily to transient amours, and corresponded in
a tone of cynical bad taste. At the same time he lived on
terms of intimacy with worthy men. Varchi says that " in
lis conversation he was pleasant, obliging to his intimates, the
riend of virtuous persons." Those who care to understand
the contradictions of which such a character was capable should
study his correspondence with Vettori. It would be unfair to
charge what is repulsive in their letters wholly on the habits
of the times, for wide familiarity with the published corre-
spondence of similar men at the same epoch brings one
acquainted with little that is so disagreeable. (J. A. S.)
Among the many editions of Machiavelli's works the one in
J vols., dated Italia, 1813, may be mentioned, and the more compre-
hensive ones published by A. Parent! (Florence, 1843) and by A.
Usigli (Florence 1857). P. Fanfani and L. Passerini began another,
which promised to be the most complete of all; but only 6 vols.
were published (Florence, 1873-1877) ; the work contains many new
and important documents on Machiavelli's life. The best biography
is the standard work of Pasquale Villari, La Storia di Niccolo
Machiavelli e de' suoi tempi (Florence, 1877-1882; latest ed., 1895;
Eng. trans, by Linda Villari, London, 1892); in vol. ii. there is an
exhaustive criticism of the various authors who have written on
Machiavelli. See also T. Mundt, Niccolo Machiavelli und das
System der modernen Polilik (3rd ed., Berlin, 1867); E. Feuerlein,
" Zur Machiavelli- Frage " in H. von Sybel's Histor. Zeitschrift
(Munich, 1868) ; P. S. Mancini, Prelezioni con un saggio sid Machia-
velli; F. Nitti, Machiavelli netta vita e nelle opere (Naples, 1876);
O. Tomasini, La Vita e gli scritti di Niccolo Machiavelli (Turin, 1883) ;
L. A. Burd, // Principe, by Niccolo Machiavelli (Oxford, 1891);
Lord Morley, Machiavelli (Romanes lecture, Oxford, 1897). The
Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1903), contains an
essay on Machiavelli by L. A. Burd, with a very full biography.
MACHICOLATION (from Fr. machicoulis), an opening between
a wall and a parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, so
that the defenders might throw down stones, melted lead, &c.,
upon assailants below.
MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr.
lj.ijxa.vft), any device or apparatus for the application or
modification of force to a specific purpose. The term " simple
machine " is applied to the six so-called mechanical powers
the lever, wedge, wheel and axle, pulley, screw, and inclined
plane. For machine-tools see TOOLS. The word machine was
formerly applied to vehicles, such as stage-coaches, &c., and is
still applied to carriages in Scotland; a survival of this use
is in the term " bathing machine." Figuratively, the word is
used of persons whose actions seem to be regulated according
to a rigid and unchanging system. In politics, especially in
America, machine is synonymous with party organization. A
stage device of the ancient Greek drama gave rise to the pro-
verbial expression, " the god from the machine," Lat. deus ex
machina, for the disentangling and conclusion of a plot by
supernatural interference or by some accident extraneous to
the natural development of the story. When a god had to be
brought on the stage he was floated down from above by a
yepavos (crane) or other machine dj.rfx.avii). Euripides has
been reproached with an excessive use of the device, but it
has been pointed out (A.E. Haigh, Tragic Drama of the Greeks,
p. 245 seq.) that only in two plays (Orestes and Hippolylus) is
the god brought on for the solution of the plot. In the others
the god comes to deliver a kind of epilogue, describing the
future story of the characters, or to introduce some account of a
legend, institution, &c.
MACHINE-GUN, a weapon designed to deliver a large number
of bullets or small shells, either by volleys 1 or in very quick
1 The French term mitrailleuse, made famous by the War of 1870,
reappears in other Latin tongues (e.g. Spanish ametraUadora). It
signifies a weapon which delivers a shower of small projectiles
mitraille grape or case shot), and has no special reference to its
mechanical (hand or automatic) action.
MACHINE-GUN
succession, at a high rate of fire. Formerly the mechanism of
machine-guns was hand operated, but all modern weapons are
automatic in action, the gas of the explosion or the force of
recoil being utilized to lock and unlock the breech mechanism,
to load the weapon and to eject the fired cartridge cases. The
smaller types approximate to the " automatic rifle," which is
expected to replace the magazine rifle as the arm of the infantry-
man. The large types, generically called " pompoms," fire a
light artillery projectile, and are considered by many artillery
experts as " the gun of the future." The medium type, which
takes the ordinary rifle ammunition but is fired from various
forms of carriage, is the ordinary machine-gun of to-day, and
the present article deals mainly with this.
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Machine-guns of a primitive kind are found in the early history
of gunpowder artillery, in the form of a grouping or binding of
several small-calibre guns for purposes of a volley or a rapid
succession of shots. The earliest field artillery (q.v.) was indeed
chiefly designed to serve the purpose of a modern machine-gun,
i.e. for a mechanical concentration of musketry. Infantry fire
(till the development of the Spanish arquebus, about 1520) was
almost ineffective, and the disintegration of the masses of pikes,
preparatory to the decisive cavalry charge, had to be effected
by guns of one sort or another (see also INFANTRY). Hence the
" cart with gonnes," although the prototype of the field gun of
to-day was actually a primitive mitrailleuse.
Weapons of this sort were freely employed by the Hussites,
who fought in laager formation (Wagenburg), but the fitting of
two or more hand-guns or small culverins to a two-wheeled
carriage garnished with spikes and scythe blades (like the ancient
war-chariots) was somewhat older, for in 1382 the men of Ghent
put into the field 200 " chars de canon " and in 1411 the Bur-
gundian army is said to have had 2000 " ribaudequins " (mean-
ing probably the weapons, not the carts, in this case). These
were of course hardly more than carts with hand-gun men; in
fact most armies in those days moved about in a hollow square
or lozenge of wagons, and it was natural to fill the carts with
the available gunners or archers. The method of breaking the
enemy's " battles " with these carts was at first, in the ancient
manner, to drive into and disorder the hostile ranks with the
scythes. But they contained at least the germ of
quins. ' tne modern machine-gun, for the tubes (cannes,
canons) were connected by a train of powder and fired
in volleys. As however field artillery improved (latter half of 1 5th
century), and a cannon-ball could be fired from a mobile carriage,
the ribaudequin ceased to exist, its name being transferred to
heavy hand-guns used as rampart pieces. The idea of the machine-
gun reappeared however in the i6th century. The weapons were
now called " organs " (argues), from the number of pipes or tubes
that they contained. At first used (defensively) in the same way
as the ribaudequins, i.e. as an effective addition to the military
equipment of a war-cart, they were developed, in the early part of
the 1 6th century, into a really formidable weapon for breaking
the masses of the enemy, not by scythes and spikes but by fire.
Fleurange's memoirs assign the credit of this to the famous
gunner and engineer Pedro Navarro, who made two hundred
weapons of a design of his own for Louis XII. These " were
not more than two feet long, and fired fifty shots at a round,"
but nevertheless " organs " were relatively rare in the armies
of the i6th century, for the field artillery, though it grew in
size and lost in mobility, had discovered the efficacy of case
shot (then called " perdreaux ") against uncovered animate
targets, and -for work that was not sufficiently serious for the
guns heavy arquebuses were employed. Infantry fire, too,
was growing in power and importance. In 1551 a French army
contained 21 guns and 150 arquebuses a croc and one piece fa^on
d'orgue. By about 1 570 it had been found that when an " organ "
(<n _ ,. was needed all that was necessary was to mount some
urguns. . "
heavy arquebuses on a cart, and the organ, as a
separate weapon, disappeared from the field, although under the
name of " mantelet " (from the shield which protected the
gunners), it was still used for the defence of breaches in siege war-
fare. Diego Ufano, who wrote in the early years of the 1 7th century,
describes it as a weapon consisting of five or six barrels fired simul-
taneously by a common lock, and mentions as a celebrated example
the " Triquetraque of Rome " which had five barrels. Another
writer, Hanzelet, describes amongst other devices a mitrailleuse
of four barrels which was fired from the back of an ass or pony.
But such weapons as these were more curious than useful.
For work in the open field the musket came more and more to
the front, its bullet became at least as formidable as that of an
" organ," and when it was necessary to obtain a concentrated
fire on a narrow front arquebuses A croc were mounted for the
nonce in groups of four to six. The " organ " maintained a
precarious existence, and is described by Montecucculi a century
later, and one of twelve barrels figures in the list of military
stores at Hesdin in 1680. But its fatal defect was that it
was neither powerful enough to engage nor mobile enough to
evade the hostile artillery.
Enthusiastic inventors, of course, produced many models of
machine-gun in the strict sense of the word i.e. a gun firing
many charges, in volleys or in rapid succession, by a mechanical
arrangement of the lock. Wilhelm Calthoff, a German employed
by Louis XIII., produced arquebuses and muskets that fired
six to eight shots per round, but his invention was a secret,
and it seems to have been more of a magazine small arm than a
machine-gun (1640). In 1701 a Lorrainer, Beaufort de Mire-
court, proposed a machine-gun which had as its purpose the
augmentation of infantry-fire power, so as to place an inferior
army on an equality with a superior. At this time inventors
were so numerous and so embarrassing that the French grand
master of artillery, St Hilaire, in 1703 wrote that he would be
glad to have done with " ces sortes de gens a secrets," some of
whom demanded a grant of compensation even when their
experiments had failed. The machine-gun of the i7th and i8th
centuries in fact possessed no advantage over contemporary
field artillery, and the battalion gun in particular, which possessed
the long ranging and battering power that its rival lacked, and
was moreover more efficacious against living targets with its
case-shot or grape. As compared with infantry fire, too, it was
less effective and slower than the muskets of a well-drilled
company. Rapid fire was easily arranged, but the rapid
loading which would have compensated for other defects was
unobtainable in the then existing state of gun-making.
Thus a satisfactory machine-gun was not forthcoming until
breech-loading had been, so to speak, rediscovered, that is until
about 1860. At that time the tactical conditions of armament
were peculiar. As regards artillery, the new (muzzle-loading) long-
range rifle sufficed, in the hand of determined infantry, to keep
guns out of case-shot range. This made the Napoleonic artillery
attack an impossibility. At the same time the infantry rifle was
a slow loader, and the augmentation of the volume of infantry
fire attracted the attention of several inventors. The French,
with their artillery traditions, regarded the machine-gun there-
fore as a method of restoring the lost superiority of the gunner,
while the Americans, equally in accordance with traditions and
local circumstances, regarded it as a musketry machine. The
representative weapons evolved by each were the canon a holies,
more commonly called mitrailleuse, and the Catling gun.
The declared purpose of the canon a holies was to replace the
old artillery case-shot attack. Shrapnel, owing to the defects
of the time-fuzes then available, had proved disappointing in
the Italian War of 1859, and the gun itself, of the existing model,
was not considered satisfactory. Napoleon III., a keen student
of artillery, maintained a private arsenal and workshop at the
chateau of Meudon 1 and in 1866, in the alarm following upon
1 Meudon Chateau had long been used for military experiments.
The peasantry credited it with mysterious and terrible secrets,
asserting even that it contained a tannery of human skins, this
tradition perhaps relating to the war balloon constructed there
before the battle of Fleurus (1794). Reffye had also many non-
military tasks, such as the reproduction of a famous set of bas-reliefs,
construction of aeroplanes, and the reconstruction of triremes and
balistas.
MACHINE-GUN
239
Koniggriitz, he ordered Commandant Reffye (1821-1880), the
artillery officer he had placed in charge of it, to produce a
machine-gun. Reffye held that the work of a mitrailleuse should
only begin where that of the infantry rifle ceased. The handbook
to his gun issued to the French army in 1870 stated that it was
" to carry balls to distances that the infantry, and the
ThcCaaoa artillery firing case, could not reach." The most
"1866 -'IS'TO. su ' ta ble range was given as 1500-2000 yards against
infantry in close order, 2000-2700 against artillery.
As the French shrapnel (obus d holies) of these days was only
used to give its peculiar case-shot effect between 550 and 1350
yards, and even so sparingly and without much confidence in
its efficacy, it is clear that the canon d battes was intended to
do the field-gun's work, except at (what were then) extreme field
artillery ranges (2800 and above), in which case the ordinary
gun with common shell (time or percussion) alone was used.
Constructed to meet these conditions, the Reffye machine-gun
in its final form resembled outwardly an ordinary field gun, with
wheeled carriage, limber and four-horse team. The gun barrel
was in reality a casing for 25 rifle barrels disposed around a common
axis (the idea of obtaining sweeping effect by disposing the barrels
slightly fan-wise had been tried and abandoned). The barrels were
held together at intervals by wrought-iron plates. They were
entirely open at the breech, a removable false breech containing
the firing mechanism (the cartridge cases were of brass, solid-drawn,
like those of the American and unlike those of the British Catlings).
This false breech, held in the firing position by a strong screw
resembling roughly those of contemporary B.L. ordnance such as
the Armstrong R. B. L. consisted of a plate with 25 holes, which
allowed the points of the strikers to pass through and reach the
cartridges. The plate was turned by hand so that one striker
was admitted at a time, the metal of the plate holding back the
rest. To avoid any deflection of the bullet by the gases at an adjoin-
ing muzzle the barrels were fired in an irregular order. Each gun
was provided with four chambers, which were loaded with their 25
cartridges apiece by a charger, and fixed to the breech one after the
other as quickly as the manipulation of the powerful retaining screw
permitted. The rates of fire were " slow, 3 rounds or 75 shots a
minute, and " rapid," 5 rounds or 125 shots per minute. One advan-
tage as against artillery that was claimed for the new weapon was
rapidity of ranging. Any ordinary target, such as a hostile gun,
would, it was expected, be accurately ranged by the mitrailleuse before
it was ready to open fire for effect. The ordinary rifle bullet was
employed, but to enhance the case-shot effect a heavy bullet made up
in three parts, which broke asunder on discharge, was introduced in
1870 in the proportion of one round in nine. The weapon was sighted
to 3000 metres (3300 yds.). The initial velocity was 1558 f.s. ;
and the weight of the gun 350 kg. (6-45 cwt.), of the carriage 371 kg.
(6-86 cwt.); total behind the team, 1,485 kg. (27-1 cwt.).
For an artillery effect, dispersion had to be combined with
accuracy. The rifle-barrels when carefully set gave a very close
grouping of shots on the target, and dispersion was obtained by
traversing the gun during the firing of a round. When this was
skilfully performed a front of 18 metres (about 20 yds.) at 1,000
metres range was thoroughly swept by the cone of bullets.
The design and manufacture of these mitrailleuses under the
personal orders and at the expense of the emperor enabled the
French authorities to keep their new weapon most secret.
Even though, after a time, mitrailleuses were constructed by
scores, and could therefore no longer be charged to a " sundry "
or " petty cash " account in the budget, secrecy was still main-
tained. The pieces were taken about, muffled in tarpaulins, by
by-ways and footpaths. In 1869, two years after the definitive
adoption of the weapon, only a few artillery captains were in-
structed in its mechanism; the non-commissioned officers who
had to handle the gun in war were called up for practice in July
1870, when Major Reffye's energies were too much absorbed in
turning out the material so urgently demanded to allow him to
devote himself to their instruction. The natural consequence
was that the mitrailleuses were taken into battle by officers and
men of whom nine-tenths had never seen them fire one round
of live cartridges. The purpose of this fatal secrecy was the
maintenance of prestige. No details were given, but it was
confidently announced that war would be revolutionized. One
foreign officer only, Major Fosbery, R.A. (see R.U.S.I. Journal,
v. xiii.), penetrated the secret, and he felt himself bound in
honour to keep it to himself, not even communicating it to the
War Office. But public attention was only too fully aroused
by these mysterious prophecies. " The mitrailleuse paid dearly
for its fame." The Prussians, who had examined mitrailleuses
of the Galling or infantry type, were well aware that the artillery
machine-gun was at the least a most formidable opponent.
They therefore ostentatiously rejected the Galling gun, taught
their troops that the new weapons were in the nature of scientific
toys, and secretly made up their minds to lurn ihe whole weight
of their guns on to the mitrailleuse whenever and wherever it
appeared on the field, and so to overwhelm it at once. This
policy they carried inlo effecl in the War of 1870; and although
on occasions the new weapon rendered excellent service, in
general il cruelly disappointed the over-high hopes of its
admirers. And thus, although the Catling and similar types
of gun were employed to a slight extent by both sides in ihe
laler stage of the war, machine-guns, as a class of armament for
civilized warfare, praclically disappeared.
As a good deal of criticism after the event has been levelled
at the French for their " improper use of the machine-gun as a sub-
stitute for artillery," it is necessary to give some summary of the
ideas and rules which were inspired by the inventor or dictated by
the authorities as to its tactical employment. The first principle
laid down was that the gun should not be employed within the zone
of the infantry fight. Officers commanding batteries were explicitly
warned against infantry divisional generals who would certainly
attempt to put the batteries, by sections, amongst the infantry.
The second principle was that the mitrailleuses were to share the
work of the guns, the latter battering obstacles with common shell,
and the former being employed against troops in the open, and
especially to cover and support the infantry advance. This tendency
to classify the r61es of the artillery and to tell off the batteries each
in its special task has reappeared in the French, and to a mo -e limited
extent in the British, field artillery of to-day (the Germans alone
resolutely opposing the idea of subdivision). The mitrailleuse of
1870 was, in fact, intended to do what the perfected Shrapnel of
1910 does, to transfer the case-shot attack to longer ranges. But,
as we have seen, secrecy had prevented any general spread of know-
ledge as to the uses to which the canon A battes was to be put, and
consequently, after a few weeks of the war, we find Reffye complain-
ing that the machine-guns were being used by their battery comman-
ders " in a perfectly idiotic fashion. They are only good at a great
distance and when used in masses, and they are being employed at
close quarters like a rifle." The officers in the field, however, held
that it was foolish to pit the mitrailleuse against the gun, which had
a longer range, and exerted themselves to use it as an infantry
weapon, a concentrated company, for which, unlike the Catlings of
1870 and the machine-guns of to-day, it was never designed. As
to which was right in the controversy it is impossible to dogmatize
and needless to argue.
Very different was the Galling gun, the invention of Richard
Jordan Catling (1818-1903), which came into existence and was
to a slight extent used in the field in the latler years of Ihe
American Civil War, 1 and also to a still slighler extent by the
Bavarians and the French in the latler part of Ihe war of 1870.
This was dislinclively an infanlry type weapon, a sort of revolv-
ing rifle, Ihe len barrels of which were set around an axis,
and fired in turn when brought into position by aatiiag
Ihe revolving mechanism. This weapon had a long O""-
reign, and was used side by side wilh Ihe lalesl automatic
machine gun in the Spanish-American War of 1898. The follow-
ing account of the old British service Catling (fig. i), as used in
the Egyptian and Sudanese campaigns, is condensed from that
in the article " Gun-making," Ency. Brit. 9th ed.
A block of ten barrels is secured round an axis, which is fixed in a
frame a a. On turning the handle h (fig. 2) the spindle g g causes
the worm / to act on the pinion w, making the axis and barrels
revolve. A drum T (figs. I and 4) is placed on the top at the breech
end of the barrels over a hopper, through a slot in which the cart-
ridges drop into the carrier (fig. 3). The construction of the lock is
shown in ng. 4. A A A A is a cam, sloping as in the drawing, which,
it must be understood, represents the circular construction opened
out and laid flat. As the barrels, carrier and locks revolve the slope
of the cam forces the locks forward and backward alternately.
At position I. the cartridge has just fallen into the carrier, the lock
and bolt are completely withdrawn. At positions II., III., IV.,
the cam is forcing them forward, so that the bolt pushes the cart-
ridge into the barrel. At IV. the cocking cam R begins to compress
the spiral spring, releasing it at V. Position VI. shows the cartridge
just after firing ; the extractor is clutching the base of the cartridge
1 A machine-gun of the artillery or volley type, called the " Requa
battery," which had its barrels disposed fan-wise, was also used in
the Civil War.
240
MACHINE-GUN
case, which is withdrawn as the locks retreat down the slope of the
cam, till at X it falls through an aperture to the ground. The drum
consists of a number of vertical channels radiating from the centre.
The cartridges are arranged horizontally, one above the other, in
FIG. i. Catling Gun.
these channels, bullet ends inwards. The drum revolves on the pivot
b (fig- 3), and the cartridges fall through the aperture B. When all
the channels are emptied, a full drum is brought from the limber,
and substituted for the empty one. Each barrel fires in turn
as it comes to a certain position, so that by turning the handle
quickly an almost continuous stream of bullets can. be ejected.
Experimental Catlings were constructed which could be made to fire
nearly 1000 shots a minute, and an automatic traversing arrange-
ment was also fitted.
As has been said, this weapon had a long reign. It was used
with great effect in the Zulu War at Ulundi and in the Sudan.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
But a grave disadvantage of the English pattern was that it
had to be used with the Boxer coiled cartridge supplied for the
Martini-Henry rifle, and until this was replaced by a solid-drawn
cartridge case it was impossible to avoid frequent " jams."
The modern, fully automatic, machine gun suffers from this
to a considerable extent,, and it was an even more serious defect
with a hand-operated weapon, as the British troops found in
FIG. 4. Lock of Catling Gun.
MACHINE-GUN
241
their campaigns against the Mahdists. But the Catling had
many advantages over its newer rivals as regards simplicity
and strength. Theodore Roosevelt, who commanded sections of
both types in the Spanish-American War, speaks with enthusiasm
of the old-fashioned weapon * while somewhat disparaging the
Colt automatic.
The Gardner was another type which had a certain vogue 2
and was used by the British in savage warfare. But, next to
In this weapon the barrels are placed horizontally, and have no
movement. A box containing the locks, bolts, strikers and spiral
springs, one of each corresponding to each barrel, moves Nar ., enlfUt
straight backwards and forwards when worked by the \^.
handle of the lever on the right. When the box is
drawn back the cartridges fall from the holder on the top into the
carriers simultaneously. When the box is pushed forward the bolts
push the cartridges into the barrel, cocking-catches compress the
spiral springs, the lever releases the catches one after the other at
very minute intervals of time, and the cartridges are fired in rapid
l-io, Parts of frame ;
11, Breech plug;
12, Striker;
13, Extractor;
14, Cartridge receiver;
FIG. 5. Nordenfeldt Machine-Gun.
15-18, 23-31, Lock and trigger parts;
19-22, Locking action ;
32-35, Loading action ;
36-39, Cartridge receiver;
40, Cover;
41-44, Parts of hand-lever ;
45-49, Traversing action ;
5<>-S5t Elevating and trailing action;
S^, 57, Hopper and slide.
the Catling, the most important of the hand-operated machine
guns was the Nordenfeldt, which was principally designed for
naval use about the time when torpedo-boats were beginning
to be regarded as dangerous antagonists.
1 The U.S. pattern Galling hardly differed except in details from
the model, above described, of twenty years earlier. The drum
had been set horizontally instead of vertically and improved in de-
tails, and a " gravity feed," a tall vertical charger, was also used.
The barrels were surrounded with a light casing. Tests made
of the improved Catling showed that the use of only one barrel
at a time prevented overheating. On one trial 63,000 rounds were
fired without a jam, and without stopping to clean the barrels.
Smokeless powder and the modern cartridge case were of course
used.
'The following particulars may be given of the 2-barrelled
Gardner and 3-barrelled Nordenfeldt (land service) converted to
take the -303 cartridge: Weight, 92 and 110 ft respectively;
parapet mounting in each case 168 lb; rate of fire of Gardner about
250 rounds per minute, of the Nordenfeldt about 350. A few of
these guns are still used in fortresses and coast defences.
succession. In this piece, careful aim can be taken from a movine
platform, and at the right moment the barrels can be fired at the
object almost simultaneously.
PRESENT DAY MACHINE-GUNS
Hitherto we have been dealing with weapons worked by hand-
power applied to a lever or winch-handle, the motion of this
lever being translated by suitable mechanism into those by which
the cartridges are loaded, fired, extracted and ejected the cycle
continuing as long as the lever is worked and there are cartridges
in the " hoppers " which feed the gun. In the modern " auto-
matic " machine-gun, moreover, the loading, firing, extracting
and ejecting are all performed automatically by the gun itself,
either by the recoil of its barrel, or by a small portion of the
gases of explosion being allowed to escape through a minute
hole in the barrel near the muzzle. The following details of
the British Maxim, Hotchkiss and Colt types are reproduced
from the article " Machine-guns," Ency. Brit. loth ed.
242
MACHINE-GUN
The idea of using the recoil, or a portion of the gases of ex- I Attached to the rear of the barrel (6) on either side are two side
plosion, for the working of the breech mechanism is by no means I p!^ 5 /^,' ^ etwe " whi , c , h '" g uides O works the aggregation of parts
new, the latter system having been proposed and ^tw^l^^'j^h^^^^^^^^^^^^ 11 ^
(certainly in a very crude and probably unworkable form) by
FIG. 6. Maxim Gun on Wheeled Carriage (1900).
(Sir) Henry Bessemer in 1854; but whatever might be dis-
covered by a search in old patent and other records or in
museums, there can be no doubt that (Sir) Hiram S. Maxim was
the first to produce a finished automatic gun of practical value.
His patents in connexion with this particular class of weapon
date back to 1884, and his gun on the recoil system was, after
extensive trials, adopted into the British army in 1889 and into
the navy in 1892. It is very possible that Bessemer's idea did
not bear fruit earlier because the fouling left by the old forms of
" black " or smoky powders was apt to clog the moving parts
and to choke any small port. With modern smokeless powders
this difficulty does not arise.
The Maxim gun, 1 as will be seen from figs. 7 and 8, consists of two
parts, the barrel casing (a) and breech casing (d), secured firmly
together. The former (a), which is cylindrical in form,
contains the barrel (6), and the water surrounding it
to keep down the very high temperature attained by
rapid fire, and the steam tube (c), which by the action of a sliding
valve allows of the escape of steam but not of water. The barrel has
asbestos packings at its front and rear bearings in the casing, which
Maxim
Qua.
the crank axle E, crank E', and connecting rod I (see figs. 7 to 1 1^7
The connecting rod I joins the lock and crank, being attached
to the side levers J of the former by means of the
interrupted screw U ; the latter enables the lock to
be detached and removed.
The crank axle E extends through both sides
of the breech casing (d), slots (k, fig. 7), allowing
~*it a longitudinal movement of about an inch.
To its left-hand end, outside the breech casing,
is attached the fusee chain Y of the recoil spring
X (see dotted lines in fig. 7), and to its right-
hand end a bell trunk lever, B B'; the arm B,
""which terminates in a knob, being turned by the
crank handle, the arm B' working against the
buffer stop C.
In figs. 8, 9 and n the breech is shown closed,
and it will be noticed that the crank pin I' is
above the straight line joining the axis of the
barrel, the striker T, and the crank axle E. As
the crank is prevented from further movement
upwards by the crank handle B taking against
the check-lever G (fig. 7), it is clear that the
pressure on discharge of the cartridge cannot
cause the crank axle to rotate, and so open the
breech as shown in figs. 10 and 12.
The withdrawal of the lock and opening of the breech are effected
as follows: The total travel in recoil of the barrel is about one inch,
but on discharge the barrel, the side plates and lock all recoil
together for about a quarter of an inch without any disturbance
of the locking as explained above, and by the time this short travel
is completed the bullet has left the muzzle. The arm B' of the crank
handle then engages the buffer stop C and causes the crank axle E
to rotate and the crank E' to fall and so draw back the lock from,
and open, the breech. At the same time the fusee chain Y is wound
up round the left-hand end of the crank axle E and the spring X
extended. In the meantime the knob of the buffer handle B swings
over, and just as the lock reaches its rearmost position (as in figs.
10 and 12) strikes the flat. buffer spring H, and, rebounding, assists
the crank in revolving in the reverse direction; the spring X also
contracts, and, unwinding the fusee chain, draws back the lock
again and closes the breech, a fresh cartridge having been placed
in the barrel as explained below.
The gun is fired by means of the trigger F, which is actuated by
the projection (I) on the trigger bar (S), the latter being drawn back
when the button (m) on the push lever (n) is pressed forwards.
If, therefore, the button he kept permanently pressed, the projection
(/) will always lie in the path of the trigger F just as the lock reaches
its forward position and the breech is closed, and the gun will fire
FIGS. 7 and 8. Mechanism of Maxim Gun.
allow of its sliding in recoil without the escape of water. The breech
casing (d) is a rectangular oblong box, and contains the lock and
firing mechanism. At its rear end it has handles (e) by which the
gun is directed, and the thumb-piece (m) by which the trigger is
actuated. Its top is closed by a lid, hinged at (i). At its front
is a recess holding the feed-block (/) through which the belt of
cartridges (g) is fed to the gun.
1 Modern improvements in mechanical details are only slight,
as may be found by reference to the official handbooks of the gun,
editions of 1903 and 1907.
automatically, and continue to do so as long as there are cartridges
in the belt.
The loading, extraction and ejection of the cartridges are effected
as follows: The left-hand side-plate is extended forwards a little
beyond the breech, and communicates the reciprocating motion of
the barrel to a lever on the feed-block, which causes the cartridges
in the belt to be fed forward one by one by a " step-by-step " pawl
action, the cartridge which is next to be taken from the belt being
arrested exactly above the breech, the ejector-tube Q being below
in the same vertical plane.
The extractor D (see figs. 9 to 12) which performs the operations
MACHINE-GUN
243
of inserting, extracting and ejecting the cartridges, travels vertically
in guides on the face of the lock. Projecting outwards from each
side of its top are horns N (figs. 9 and 10). These travel round the
edges of the cams M (fig. 8) situated on each side of the breech casing,
and in conjunction with the spring W (fig. 8), compel the top of the
extractor to take the path shown by the dotted lines and arrows in
figs. 9 to 12.
FIG. 9. Maxim Gun Mechanism.
The extractor (figs. 11 and 12) is recessed to take a movable
plate (M) termed a " gib," behind which is a spring (v). In the face
of the gib is a recess (w) into which the base of a cartridge can just
enter. On either side of the gib the face of the extractor has under-
cut flanges, open at the top and bottom, between which the base of
a cartridge can fit the rim, being held in the undercuts (figs. 9 and 10).
It is clear from this arrangement that the base of the cartridge
having been introduced between the flanges at the top of the
extractor, can be pushed down, the spring (v) yielding, till arrested
at the recess (w) ; and, as the lower edges of this
recess are slightly sloped, further pressure will
make it leave the recess (w) and slide over the
face of the gib, leave it, and take up a position
in front of the hole for the point of the striker
(x), being now only prevented from slipping out
of the extractor by the extractor spring (y). If
this last be clear of the extractor stop (z) it will
yield to pressure and the cartridge will be free.
This "is the action in the gun except that the
cartridge is held firm and the extractor pushed
against it.
In fig. 10 the extractor holds a cartridge (r) and
a fired case (g) ready to be pushed into the empty
breech and ejector-tube Q respectively. In the
latter there is already a fired case (p), which will
be driven by the fired case (g) beyond the ejectoi
spring R. As soon as the lock reaches the face of
the breech, the cartridge (r) and case (g) are
deposited in the breech and ejector-tube respec-
tively, and the extractor D rises under the action of the levers L and J,
slides, as already explained, by the bases of the cartriSges (r) and
case (g), and then over the base of the cartridge (s) in the belt (g).
Assuming the push-lever (n) to be pressed, the gun fires immediately
this has occurred, and the bullet of the cartridge (r) is expelled. The
position is now that shown in fig. o. The barrel now recoils and the
lock is withdrawn, taking with it the fresh cartridge (s) from the belt
and the now fired case (r). The extractor travels horizontally for
a time and then drops (as shown by the dotted line and arrows),
assuming the position shown in fig. 12, which is exactly similar to
that in fig. 10 but with different cartridges; continuing the action,
mechanism and the safety arrangement. The lock is cocked, after
firing, by the arm of the " tumbler " K, being pressed down by the
side lever J as it swings down when following the crank E'. Safety
against firing before the breech is closed is provided by the projection
on the safety lever V, which does not clear the striker T until lifted
by the side lever J at the top of its travel, that is, when the crank E'
has passed the axial line as already explained.
The lock in its rearmost position is kept in
place by the block Z on the under side of the
coyer of the breech casing. When in this position
it is clear of the guides O on the side-plates, and
if the cover be opened it can be turned up, un-
screwed by a turn through an eighth of a circle
(the screw-thread U being interrupted in four
places) and removed. To prepare the gun for
firing, the crank handle is pushed over by hand
to the buffer-spring, thus withdrawing the ex-
tractor, and held in this position ; the tongue on
the end of a filled belt is then pushed through the
feed-block from the left and pulled as far as it
will go from the opposite side. This places a
cartridge above the breech ready to be seized by
the extractor. The crank handle is now released
and the lock flies forwards. The crank handle is
now again pushed over and let go, and the first
cartridge thus taken from the belt and placed in
the breech. The gun is ready to fire.
To remove a partially filled belt, the crank handle must be pushed
over, thus freeing the extractor from the belt, and the latter with-
drawn after pressing a spring catch under the feed block which
releases the pawls. The gun now has two live cartridges in it both
in the extractor. Letting go the crank handle, one of them is
deposited in the ejector-tube, and again pushing over and letting
go the crank handle does the same with the second.
Fig. 13 shows the feed-block and the cartridge belts. The greatest
number usually carried in a belt is 250.,
FIG. 10. Maxim Gun Mechanism.
the position shown in fig. 1 1 is arrived at. It will thus be seen that
each cartridge makes two complete journeys with the extractor;
the first as a live cartridge from the belt to the breech, the
second from the breech to the ejector-tube, the forward journey
being always on a lower level than that of the backward one. The
sections in figs, n and 12 clearly show the cocking and firing
FIG. ii. Maxim Gun Mechanism.
The gun is sighted to 2,500 yds. and has a folding tangent sight as
shown. Its weight varies from 50 to 60 Ib, and it can fire about
450 rounds per minute.
[The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of
Messrs Vickers, Sons & Maxim.]
The Hotchkiss gun, figs. 14 to 16, wWh has been adopted by
the French army and navy and elsewhere, depends for its action
on the use of a small portion of the gases of the cartridge itself.
The barrel A is firmly attached to the receiver or frame B, the latter
containing the breech and firing mechanism. Under f htl
the barrel A, and communicating with it by a port (c) .
near the muzzle is a cylinder or tube C.
When the gun is fired, and the bullet has passed
the port (c), a portion of the gases of explosion
passes into the cylinder C and drives back the
piston F contained in it, a lug on the under part
of the piston compressing the spring M, the
latter, when the trigger N is pulled, driving back
the piston again. The reciprocating motion of
the piston performs all the processes of loading
and firing the gun, and the action is continuous
as long as the trigger is kept pressed back.
The piston F, enlarged and suitably shaped at
the rear, actuates the breech-block H and firing
pin or striker J ; and, by suitable cam grooves
(/) at about the centre of its length, works the
larger feed-wheel U of the feed-box S ; the smaller
wheel U on the same axis in turn imparting a
step-by-step motion to the metal feed-strips, each
containing 30 cartridges, so that fresh cartridges are placed one
by bne before the face of the breech block ready to be pushed
into the breech when the fired cartridge has been extracted and
ejected.
On the under surface of the piston F, in rear, is a recess or sear
(/) in which the nose of the trigger N engages, holding back the
244
MACHINE-GUN
piston when it has been driven back by the gases. As already
stated, a lug on the under surface just in rear of the cam (/) engages
with the front of the mainspring.
FIG. 12. Maxim Gun Mechanism.
Taking first the position shown in fig. 15 with the breech closed
and locked and the cartridge fired, it will be seen that the breech
is locked by the upper cam (/'), on
the end of the piston, F, having
caused the movable locking-dog (h)
to fall and bear against the recoil
blocks Z (see fig. 14 also) on the walls
of the receiver or frame B. Con-
sequently the breech is not unlocked
until the piston has moved sufficiently
to the rear for the lower cam (/') to
lift the locking-dog (h) clear of the
recoil blocks Z. As the piston F
is not actuated by the gases until
the bullet has passed the port (c),
and then has to move a short dis-
tance before the locking-dog is
raised, the bullet is clear of the
muzzle before the breech is unlocked.
As the piston continues to recoil
it draws back the striker J and then
FIG. 13. Maxim Feed-block, the breech-block H, and is then
caught and retained by the engage-
ment of the sear (/) with the trigger N, and the position assumed
is that shown in fig. 14.
I the object of the arrangement being to enable the under surface of
' the breech-block to clear the clips which hold the cartridges in the
I feed-strips. The cartridge therefore, being extracted in the line of
the axis of the block, is ejected through an opening
above its plane of entry in the feed-strip.
Returning to the position shown in fig. 16, if the
trigger be pulled, the compressed spring M reacts
and drives the piston forwards, carrying the breech-
block with it, the latter in turn driving a cartridge
in front of it out of the feed-strip. When the block
and cartridge are home, and not till then, the piston
completes its travel, the upper cam (/') locking the
dog (h), and the firing-pin protrudes and fires the
cartridge. Anything, therefore, which prevents the
breech-block from being home against the breech,
or the locking-dog from falling in front of the recoil
blocks Z, renders firing of the cartridge impossible.
Clearly if the trigger be kept depressed the action
becomes automatic.
A special feature of this gun is the absence of a
separate spring to actuate the firing-pin ; the recoil
spring M performing this function, in addition to
that of driving the piston forwards.
The feed-strips have holes in them in which the teeth of the smaller
feed-wheel U engage. The engagement of this feed with the piston
F can be released by pulling out the feed arbor W, so that the strips
can be removed at any time.
When the last shot in a feed-strip has been fired a stop (V) holds
the piston and block ready for a fresh feed-strip to be inserted.
As the stop V acts quite independently of the trigger, this action
takes place even if the trigger be still depressed after the last cartridge
in a strip has been fired.
To cock the gun, when in the locked position, a cocking handle G
is provided. This has a long arm projecting to the front with a
catch which takes against the front of the lug on the under side of
the piston. To prepare the gun for action the gun is cocked, and a
feed-strip is pushed into the feed-block.
The pressure of the gas on the piston is regulated by the regulator
screw D, by means of which the space in the cylinder C in front of
the piston F can be reduced or increased.
A safety lock R is furnished, which is a " half round " pin
which can be turned so as to enter the semicircular slot just in
front of the sear (/), and so hold back the piston when in the cocked
position.
Radiation of the heat, generated in the barrel by rapid fire, is
facilitated by the radiator (a), which consists of rings on the barrel
close to the breech, which offer an increased surface to the air.
HOTCHKISS AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUN
Longitudinal Section Breech open
Longitudinal Section Breech closed.
FIGS. 14, 15, 16. Hotchkiss Gun Mechanism.
From the head or nose-piece I of the breech-block projects the
claw K of a spring extractor which, as the cartridge is pushed home
by the breech-block, seizes it, extracting the fired case when the
breech-block is withdrawn. Ejection of the fired case is effected
by means of the ejector L (fig. 16) which catches against the base of
the case, on the opposite side to the extractor claw, and so throws
it sideways through the oblong-pointed opening in the receiver just
in rear of the breech (see fig. 14).
The platform on the top of the feed-box through which the teeth
of the smaller feed-wheel U project, and on which the feed-strips
rest, lies below the axial line of the breech-block H, so that the face
or nose-piece I of the latter only engages a portion of the base of the
cartridge in the feed-strip as it pushes the cartridge into the breech,
the bullet of the cartridge being guided into the breech by the incline
at the opening of the latter. This point should be specially noted,
The gun is sighted to 2000 yds., with the ordinary flap back-
sight, weighs about 53 ft, and can fire from 500 to 600 rounds per
minute.
[The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of
the Hotchkiss Ordnance Company.]
The Colt automatic gun, which has been adopted by the American
army and navy, and was used by the British in S. Africa, depends
for its action, similarly to the Hotchkiss, on the escape coltOu
of a small portion of the gases of explosion through a
port in the barrel a short distance from the muzzle. Figs. 17 and
18 give a plan, and side elevation with the left side plate removed,
respectively. Into the recess in the barrel (92) just below the
port fits the piston (35), capable of slight motion round the pivot
(36), by which it is attached to the gas lever (29). The latter
is a bell-crank lever pivoted at (34), its short arm being attached
MACHINE-GUN
245
at (46) by a pivot to a long link with a cross head, termed the
retracting connexion (45). This link extends from a point close to
the figures (44), where the arms of the cross head bear against the
ends of two long spiral retracting springs, (37) and (38), contained
in two tubes, (39) and (40), which are slotted for a few inches of
their length to allow the cross head to follow up and compress the
springs. (Only (38) and (40) are shown, (37) and (39) lying in the
same plane of projection.)
When the gun fires, and the bullet has passed the port, the gases
drive the piston (35) and gas lever (29) downwards, and the momen-
tum imparted causes them to swing back round the pivot (36), as
shown by the dotted circle. The gas lever is brought up now by the
bottom plate (91); and the retracting springs, compressed by the
cross head of the long link (45) owing to the forward motion of the
I
8
e
3
O
T3
C
a
short arm of the gas lever, react and drive the gas lever into its
forward position again.
The rotary movement of the gas lever is converted into a recipro-
cating movement of the slide (86) by means of the gas lever connexion
rod (31) pivoted at (32) to the gas lever, and at (87) to the slide.
The slide (86) is a nearly flat bar, travelling in guides in the re-
ceiver, extending from (14) to (87). It is slotted completely through
longitudinally for nearly the whole of its length, this slot affording
an opening through which work the cartridge extractor (82) and
carrier (21). At its rear end it engages by means of a pin (14) in a
cam slot (97) in the bottom rib of the bolt (13), and at (83) it bears
the pivot of the cartridge extractor (82). Its rear end is enlarged
below to form a cam lug (98), and on its right side are two projections
(95) and (96), which work the feed lever (66).
FIG. 19. Colt Gun mounted.
The feed wheel (61), over which passes the belt containing the
cartridges, is actuated by a pawl " step-by-step " gear by means of
the feed lever (66).
The carrier (21) is a long trip lever pivoted at (22), and provided
with a spring dog (23) pivoted at (24).
The bolt (13) is a cylinder with a guide rib extending from its
under surface. It is actuated by the slide by means of the pin
(14) and cam slot (07) as already stated, and is bored through to
take the striker or firing pin (18). The rear end of the latter pro-
jects slightly beyond the rear face of the bolt, being retained in this
position by the spring (19). When this projecting end is pushed
into the bolt, the point protrudes from the front of the bolt and fires
the cartridge. The bolt, when the breech is locked, is held firm by
two recoil blocks on the receiver (not shown), as is explained later.
At the front of the bolt is an extractor (15) with a spring claw for
extracting the fired case. (This is of course quite distinct from the
cartridge extractor (82).) Ejection is effected by means of an ejector
projecting into the path of the fired case.
The firing of the gun is performed by the cylindrical hammer
(6) hollowed out in rear to contain the mainspring (7). When
pushed back and cocked as shown in fig. 18, it is held during a portion
of the operations of the mechanism by two detents working indepen-
dently of each other the sear (10) and the nose of the trigger (8).
The former is automatically released by a trip lever (not shown) as
soon as the breech is locked, leaving the hammer held by the trigger
only. This is the position shown in fig. 1 8. The necessity for the
two detents is explained later.
The hammer, when cocked, can also be permanently locked by
the handle lock (2) actuated by a thumb-piece on the outside of the
receiver. The air compressed in rear of the hammer, as the latter
is driven back, passes through the tube (99) to the breech ; and a
puff of air is therefore blown through the barrel after every shot,
clearing out fouling and unconsumed powder, and assisting to an
appreciable extent to keep down the temperature of the barrel.
Taking the position shown in fig. 18, the hammer is only held
back by the trigger nose, the sear (10) having been released as stated
above. A belt of cartridges (not shown) has been placed on the feed-
wheel, and the cartridge next to be used after the one (not shown)
now in the breech has its rim (or base with rimless cartridges) just
above the hook on the extractor (82). If now the trigger be pulled,
the hammer flies forwards, strikes the protruding end of the firing
pin, and the cartridge fires; the gases cause the gas lever to swing
round and drive back the slide. The pin (14) working in the cam
groove (97) causes the rear of the bolt to rise and clear itself from the
recoil blocks (not shown) on the receiver, and then to move rearwards
horizontally, driving the hammer back until the latter is caught
and held by the sear and trigger. In the meantime the extractor
(82) has pulled a cartridge from the belt, and, assisted by two spring
cartridge guides (80 and 81), of which only (80) is shown, deposits
it on the carrier (21) ; the projection (95) strikes the feed-lever (66),
and moves the feed mechanism so as to prepare to revolve the feed-
wheel and place a fresh cartridge ready for the next round ; and as
the slide completes its travel backwards, the cam (98) strikes the
dog (23) and slightly depresses it (the spring (25) yielding), the
246
MACHINE-GUN
carrier and cartridge on it consequently rising a little and falling again
(this latter action is incidental only to the form of the parts, and is
not a necessity).
The retracting springs now react and pull the slide forwards;
the cam (98) strikes the dog (23), which, as the spring arrangement
is of the " non-return " class, does not yield but is depressed, and the
FIG. 20. Hotchkiss Gun mounted.
front of the carrier and the cartridge on it are therefore raised sharply,
and the latter placed in the path of the bolt. The bolt being now
pulled forwards, the cartridge is driven off the carrier into the breech,
and the bolt locked by the pin (14), causing the bolt to drop in front
of the recoil blocks; the carrier is pushed down flat by the advance
of the cam lug (98), the trip releases the sear (10), and the projection
(96) pushes back the feed lever, completing the action of feeding a
fresh cartridge forward. The position shown in fig. 17 is now
resumed.
It is clear that were the trigger kept permanently pulled the
gun would fire immediately the bolt was locked and the sear (10)
depressed, and the action would become automatic.
The object of two detents, though now probably obvious, may here
be explained. The whole action of the gun depends upon the hammer
after it is pushed back by the bolt being held back until the bolt
has gone completely forwards and locked the breech. If only the
trigger detent existed, and that were kept pressed down, the hammer,
after being pushed back by the bolt, would immediately follow up
the latter, and might fire the cartridge prematurely, or fail to fire it
at all; hence the use of the sear in addition to the trigger.
To cock the lock, or work the mechanism by hand, the gas lever
is pulled round by the pin (30) provided for the purpose, and by this
means the gun is prepared for firing. A brass tongue on the end of
the belt is pushed through the opening above the feed-wheel and then
pulled from the other side of the gun as far as it will go. This
places a cartridge in front of the extractor, and if the gas lever be
now pulled right back and let go, this cartridge is placed in the
breech as already described, and the gun is ready for firing. If it
be desired to remove a belt from the feed, a button (68) is pressed and
the feed-wheel is then free to revolve backwards.
The gun is sighted with the ordinary rifle-pattern sights, up to
2000 yds. or more if required. It weighs about 40 ft, and can fire
about 400 rounds per minute as usually adjusted, though this rate
can be increased. There is no means of altering the gas pressure
in the field as with the Hotchkiss.
[The diagrams have been made from drawings, by permission of
the Colt Arms Company.]
Comparing the principle of employing a recoiling barrel with
that of using a portion of the gas, the advantages of the former
are that the recoil is made to do useful work instead of straining
the gun and mounting in its absorption; the latter system,
however, has undoubtedly the advantage in simplicity of mechan-
ism (the Hotchkiss is extraordinarily simple in construction
for an automatic gun), and in the large margin of power for
working the mechanism with certainty in all conditions of
exposure to climate, dust, and dirt. While inferior in this
respect, it is nevertheless the fact that the Maxim has proved
itself in the field even in savage warfare in the roughest country
to be a very efficient and powerful weapon.
The great difficulty which has to be met in all single-barrel
machine guns is the heating of the barrel. The 75 pints of
water in the water-jacket of the Maxim gun are raised to boiling
point by 600 rounds of rapid fire i.e. in about 15 minutes
and if firing be continued, about i j pints of water are evaporated
for every 1000 rounds. Assuming that the operation is con-
tinuous, the rate of waste of energy due to heat expended on the
water alone is equivalent to about 20 horse-power (294 foot
tons per minute). The water-jacket acts well in keeping down
the temperature of the barrel; but apart from the complications
FIG. 21. Tripod mounting (Mark IV.), for British Maxim.
entailed by its use, the provision of water for this purpose is at
times exceedingly troublesome on service. In the Hotchkiss and
Colt guns, which have no water-jacket, an attempt is made to
meet the heating, in the one by the radiator, and in the other
by a very heavy barrel.
One of the most modern types of gun is the Schwarzlose,
which is manufactured at Steyr in Austria, and was adopted by
the Austrian army in 1907. This weapon is remarkable for its
simplicity. There are only 10 main working parts, and any of
these can be replaced in a few seconds. It is operated by the
gases of the explosion, has a water-jacket that allows 3000
rounds to be fired without refilling. The " life " of the gun-
barrel is stated to be 35,000 rounds without serious loss of
accuracy. The weight of the gun is 37-9 Ib. It is a belt loader.
The Italian Perino gun, adopted in 1907, is a recoil-operated
weapon, and is loaded by a metal clip. The Skoda gun, some
of which type are used in Japan and China, is loaded by a
hopper feed, and is gas-operated. The Bergmann gun is a
belt loader, but the belt passes down a " gravity feed " an
arrangement which saves a number of working parts.
One defect common to all is that it is by no means easy to
proportion the fire to the target, as there are only two rates
of fire, viz. rapid automatic and slow single shots. To fire a
single shot requires practice, since the gun will fire some 7 shots
MACHINE-GUN
247
in one second, and to press the trigger and remove the finger or
thumb instantly, and at the same time be ready to traverse
to a fresh target, requires considerable skill.- The result of these
difficulties is that the target when struck is often riddled with
bullets when one would have sufficed. The aiming of the gun,
when rapid fire is taking place, may also be difficult even on
firmly fixed mountings, owing to vibration. The greater
delicacy of the modern machine gun has been alluded to above. 1
Nevertheless the advantages of safety, steadiness and lightness
which the automatic weapon possesses, have ensured its victory
over the older type of weapon, and although the simple strong
and well-tried Galling still has its advocates, every civilized
army has adopted one or more of the automatic types.
ORGANIZATION AND TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT !
Although machine-gun tactics are still somewhat indefinite, at
least there are well-marked tendencies which have a close relation
to the general tactical scheme or doctrine adopted by each of
the various armies as suited to its own purposes and conditions.
For many years before the South African and Manchurian
wars, the machine-gun had been freely spoken of as "a
diabolical weapon before which nothing could live," but this
did not contribute much to the science of handling it. Most
military powers, indeed, distrusted it actuated perhaps by the
remembrance of the vain hopes excited by the canon d balles.
It was not until the second half of the war of 1904-05 that the
Japanese, taught by the effective handling of the Russian
machine-guns at Liao-Yang, introduced it into their field armies,
and although Great Britain had provided every regular battalion
with a Maxim-gun section some years before the Boer War, and a
Volunteer corps, the Central London Rangers (now izth bn.
London Regiment) had maintained a (Nordenfeldt) gun section
since 1882, instruction in the tactics of the weapon was confined
practically to the simple phrase " the machine-gun is a weapon
of opportunity." More than this, at any rate, is attempted
in the drill-books of to-day.
One important point is that, whether the guns are used as an
arm, in numbers, or as auxiliaries, in sections, they should be
free to move without having to maintain their exact position
relatively to some other unit. It was in following the infantry
firing lines of their own battalion over the open that the British
Maxims suffered most heavily in South Africa. Another of
equal importance is that the machine guns must co-operate
with other troops of their side in the closest possible way; more,
in this regard, is demanded of them than of artillery, owing to
their mobility and the relative ease of obtaining cover. A
third factor, which has been the subject of numerous experi-
ments, is the precise value of a machine-gun, stated in terms of
infantry, i.e. how many rifles would be required to produce
the fire-effect of a machine-gun. A fourth and on this the
teaching of military history is quite definite is the need of
concealment and of evading the enemy's shrapnel. These points,
once the datum of efficiency of fire has been settled, resolve
themselves into two conclusions the necessity for combining
independence and co-operation, and the desirability of Mercury's
winged feet and cap of darkness for the weapon itself. It is on
the former that opinions in Europe vary most. Some armies
ensure co-operation by making the machine-gun section an
integral part of the infantry regimental organization, but in
this case the officer commanding it must be taught and allowed
to shake himself free from his comrades and immediate superiors
when necessary. Others ensure co-operation of the machine-
guns as an arm by using them, absolutely free of infantry
control, on batteries; but this brings them face to- face with the
risks of showing, not one or two low-lying gun-barrels, but a
number of carriages, limbers and gun teams, within range of
the enemy's artillery.
1 At San-de-pu 1905 the Japanese machine-guns (Hotcrikiss)
sustained damage averaging, I extractor broken per gun, I jam in
every 300 rounds. It should be mentioned, however, that the
machine-gun companies were only formed shortly before the battle.
In field operations only. For siege warfare see FORTIFICATION
AND SlEGECRAFT.
French experiments are said to show that the fire-power
of a machine-gun is equal to that of 150-200 rifles at exactly
known range, and to 60-80 rifles at ranges judged by the French
" instantaneous range-finder." The German drill-book gives
it as equal approximately to that of 80 rifles on an average.
The distinction of known and unknown ranges is due to the
fact that the " cone of dispersion " of a large number of bullets
in collective infantry fire is deeper than that of machine-gun
fire. The latter therefore groups its bullets much more closely
about the target if the latter is in the centre of the
cone viz. at known ranges but if the distance
be misjudged not only the close central group of
50% of the shots, but even the outlying rounds may fall
well away from the target. At 1500 yards range the " 50
per cent, zone " with the Maxim gun is only 34 yards deep as
compared with the 60 yards of a half-company of rifles.* The
accuracy of the gun is more marked when the breadth of the
cone of dispersion is taken into account. The " 75 per cent."
zone is in the case of the machine-gun about as broad at 2000
yards as that of collective rifle fire at 500. At the School of
Musketry, South Africa, a trial between 42 picked marksmen and
a Maxim at an unknown range at service targets resulted in
408 rounds from the rifles inflicting a loss of 54% on the
enemy's firing line represented by the targets, and 228 rounds
from the Maxim inflicting one of 64%. Another factor is
rapidity of fire. It is doubtful if infantry can keep up a rate of
12 rounds a minute for more than two or three minutes at a
time without exhaustion and consequent wild shooting. The
machine-gun, with all its limitations in this respect, can probably,
taking a period of twenty or thirty minutes, deliver a greater
volume of fire than fifty rifles, and assuming that,
by one device or another (ranging by observing the
strike of the bullets, the use of a telemeter, or the employment
of "combined sights") the 75% cone of bullets has been
brought on to the target, that fire will be more effective. The
serious limiting condition is the need of accurate ranging. If
this is unsatisfactory the whole (and not, as with infantry, a
part) of the fire effect may be lost, and if the safe expedient of
" combined sights " 4 be too freely resorted to, the consumption
of ammunition may be out of all proportion.
The vulnerability of machine-guns is quite as important as is
their accuracy. At a minimum, that is when painted a " service "
colour, manoeuvred with skill, and mounted on a low
tripod in several armies even the shield has been
rejected as tending to make guns more conspicuous
the vulnerability of one gun should be that of one skirmisher
lying down. At a maximum, vulnerability is that of a small
battery of guns and wagons limbered up.
Mobility comes next. The older patterns of hand-operated
guns weighed about 90 Ib at least, without carriage, the earlier
patterns of Maxims (such as that described in detail
above) about 60 Ib. But the most modern Maxims Mobtut y-
weigh no more than 35 Ib. Now, such weapons with tripods
can be easily carried to and fro by one or two men over ground
that is impracticable for wheeled carriages. Nevertheless,
1 * For practical purposes in the field, the " effective " beaten zone,
containing 75 % of the bullets, is the basis of fire direction both for
the machine-gun and the rifle. The depths of these " effective "
zones are on an average:
At
500 yds.
1,000 yds.
1,500yds.
2, ooo yds.
S.L.E. Rifle
220 yds.
1 2O yds.
100 yds.
Maxim Gun
150 yds.
70 yds.
60 yds.
50 yds.
" Combined sights " implies firing with the sights set for two
different ranges, the usual difference being 50 yds. With grouped
machine guns, " progressive fire " with elevations increasing by 25
yds. is used. This artificially disperses the fire, and therefore lessens
the chance of losing the target through ranging errors. One ingeni-
ous inventor has produced a two-barrelled automatic, in which the
barrels are permanently set to give combined elevations. The
British memorandum of August 1909 seems to regard the facility of
employing combined sights as the principal advantage of the battery
over the section.
248
MACHINE-GUN
wheeled carriages are often used for the ordinary transport of
the gun and its equipment, especially with the heavier models.
The simplest machine-gun has a number of accessories tools,
spare parts, &c. that must be conveyed with it, and at the
least a pack-animal is indispensable.
Reducing these conditions to a phrase the fire effect that
can be reasonably expected of machine-guns is that of fifty or
sixty rifles, the space it takes up in the line can be made to equal
that occupied by two men, and it possesses by turns the speed
of a mounted man and the freedom of movement of an infantry-
man.
The use of the machine-gun (apart from savage warfare) that
first commended itself in Europe was its use as a mobile reserve
Machine- f fi re - Now, the greatest difficulty attending the
duns as a employment of a reserve of any sort is the selection
Reserve of o f the right moment for its intervention in the
struggle, and experience of manceuvres of all arms
in Germany, where " machine-gun detachments " began to be
formed in 1902, appears to have been that the machine-guns
always came into action too late. On the other hand, the
conditions of the cavalry versus cavalry combat were more
favourable. Here there was every inducement to augment fire-
power without dismounting whole regiments for the purpose.
Moreover, vulnerability was not a fatal defect as against a
battery or two of the enemy's horse artillery, whose main task
is to fire with effect into the closed squadrons of mounted men
on the verge of their charge, and above all to avoid a meaningless
duel of projectiles. The use of wheeled carriages was therefore
quite admissible (although in fact the equipment was detachable
from the carriage) and, given the rapidity and sudden changes
of cavalry fighting, both desirable and necessary. Thus, thanks
Machine- to the machine-gun, the eternal problem of increasing
duos with the fire-power of mounted troops is at last partially
Cavalry. so i vec j ) anc } th e solution has appealed strongly both
to armies exceptionally strong in cavalry, as for example
the German, and to those exceptionally weak in that arm Den-
mark, for instance, having two or three light machine-guns per
squadron. The object of the weaker cavalry may be to cause
the onset of the stronger to dwindle away into a dismounted
skirmish, and this is most effectually brought about by a fire
concentrated enough and heavy enough to discourage mounted
manoeuvres; on the other hand, the stronger party desires to
avoid dismounting a single squadron that can be kept mounted;
and this too may be effected by the machine-guns. What the
result of such a policy on both sides may be, it would be hard
to prophesy, but it is clear at any rate that, whether on the
offensive or on the defensive, skilfully handled machine-guns
may enable a cavalry commander to achieve the difficult and
longed-for result to give the law to his opponent. The
principal difference between the tactics of the stronger and those
of the weaker cavalry in this matter is, that it is generally
advantageous for the former to act by batteries and for the
latter to disperse his machine guns irregularly in pairs.
It is not merely in cavalry tactics that the question of
" section or battery " arises. It deeply affects the machine-gun
tactics in the battle of all arms, and it is therefore decided in each
service by the use to which the guns are intended to be put. One
powerful current of opinion is in favour of employing them as
a mobile reserve of fire. This opinion was responsible for the
creation of the German machine-gun batteries or " detach-
ments"; and in the drill regulations issued in 1902 for their
guidance it was stated that the, proper use of machine-guns
required a comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the
general situation, and that therefore only the superior leaders
could employ them to advantage. Manoeuvre experience, as
mentioned above, has caused considerable modification in this
matter, and while the large machine-gun " detachments " are
now definitely told off to the cavalry, new and smaller units
have been formed, with the title " companies " to indicate
their attachment to the infantry arm. A recent official
pronouncement as to the role of the " companies " (Amendments
to Exerzierreglement fiir die Infanterie, 1909) is to the effect
that the companies are an integral part of the infantry, that
their mission is to augment directly the fire of the infantry,
and that their employment is in the hands of the infantry regi-
mental commander, who keeps the guns at his own disposition
or distributes them to the battalions as he sees fit. It must be
remembered that the regiment is a large unit, 30x30 strong,
and the idea of a " mobile reserve of fire " is tacitly maintained,
although it has been found necessary to depart from the extreme
measure of massing the guns and holding them at the disposal
of a general officer. The Japanese regulations state that in
principle the machine-gun battery fights as a unit ; that although
it may be advantageously employed with the ad- Machine-
vanced guard to assure the possession of support- duns in
ing points, its true function is to intervene with full
effect in the decisive attack, its use in the delaying
action being " a serious error." In France, on the other hand,
the system of independent sections is most rigidly maintained;
when in barracks, the three sections belonging to an infantry
regiment are combined for drill, but in the field they seem to be
used exclusively as sections. They are not, however, restricted
to the positions of their own battalions; taught probably by
the experiences of the British in South Africa, they co-operate
with instead of following the infantry. In Great Britain,
Field Service Regulations, part i., 1909, lay down that " machine-
guns are best used in pairs 1 in support of the particular body of
troops to which they belong " (i.e. battalions). " The guns
of two or more units may, if required, 2 be placed under a
specially selected officer and employed as a special reserve of
fire in the hands of a brigade commander " (corresponding to
German regimental commander), but "if an overwhelming fire
on a particular point is required, it can be obtained by con-
centrating the fire of dispersed pairs of guns." More explicitly
still, " the movements and fire action of these weapons should
be regulated so as to enable them to open fire immediately a favour-
able opportunity arises."
Contrasting the German system with the French and English,
we may observe that it is German tactics as a whole that impose
a method of using machine-guns which the Germans themselves
recognize as being in many respects disadvantageous. A
German force in action possesses little depth, i.e. reserves, except
on the flanks where the enveloping attack is intended to be made.
Consequently, a German commander needs a reserve of fire in
a mechanical, concentrated form more than a British or a
French commander, and, further, as regards the decisive attack
on the flanks, it is intended not merely to be sudden but even
more to be powerful and overwhelming. These considerations
tend to impose both the massing and the holding in reserve of
machine-guns. The French and British doctrine (see TACTICS)
is fundamentally different. Here, whether the guns be massed
or not, there is rarely any question of using the machine-guns
as a special reserve. In the decisive attack, and especially at
the culmination of the decisive attack, when concealment has
ceased and power is everything, the machine-guns can render
the greatest services when grouped and boldly handled. Above
all, they must reach the captured crest in a few minutes, so as
to crush the inevitable offensive return of the enemy's reserves.
The decisive attack, moreover, is not a prearranged affair, as in
Germany, but the culmination, " at a selected point, of gradually
increasing pressure relentlessly applied to the enemy at all
points " (F. S. Regulations). The holding attack, as this " pres-
sure " is called, is not a mere feint. It is launched and developed
as a decisive attack, though not completed as such, as it lacks
the necessary reserve strength. Here, then, the machine-
1 The use of single guns facilitates concealment, but this is out-
weighed by the objection that when a jam or other breakdown
occurs the fire ceases altogether. The use of guns in pairs not only
obviates this, but admits of each gun in turn ceasing fire to economize
ammunition, to cool down, &c. This is the old artillery principle
one gun is no gun."
2 In the instructions issued in August 1909 one of the principal
advantages of grouped sections is stated to be the neutralization of
ranging errors at ranges over TOOO yards. At a less range, it is
laid down, grouped guns form too visible a target, unless the
ground is very favourable.
MACIAS
249
gun is best employed in enabling relatively small forces to
advance not to assault without undue loss, that is, in econo-
mizing rifles along the non-decisive front. 1
Withal, there are certain principles, or rather details of
principle, that find general acceptance. One of these is the
employment of machine-guns with the advanced guard. In
this case the value of the weapon lies in its enabling the advanced
guard both to seize favourable ground and points of support
without undue effort and to hold the positions gained against
the enemy's counter-attack. This applies, further, to the
preliminary stages of an action. 2 Another point is that as
a rule the most favourable range for the machine-gun is
" effective infantry," i.e. 600-1400 yards (which is, mutatis
mutandis, the principle of Reffye's mitrailleuse). Its employ-
ment at close infantry range depends entirely on conditions
of ground and circumstances even supposing that the handiest
and most inconspicuous type of weapon is employed. Thirdly
and this has a considerable bearing on the other points the
machine-gun both concentrates many rifles on a narrow front,
and concentrates the bullets of many rifles on a narrow front.
The first clause implies that it can be used where there is no
room (physically or tactically) for the fifty or eighty riflemen it
represents (as, for instance, in some slight patch of cover whence
the gun can give effective cross-fire in support of the infantry
attack, or in front of an advanced post, or can watch an exposed
flank), and, further, that it can be swung round laterally on to
a fresh target far more easily than a line of excited and extended
infantry can be made to change front. The second means that
the exit of a defile, an exposed turn in a lane or on a bridge, can
be beaten by closely grouped fire at greater distances and
with greater accuracy than is attainable with riflemen.
Further, the waste of ammunition and the strain on the
weapon caused by unnecessarily prolonged firing at the rate
for which its mechanism is set varying between 350 and 700
rounds a minute have caused it to be laid down as an axiom
in all armies that machine-guns shall deliver their fire by
" bursts " and only on favourable targets.
Lastly, the reports, both of observers and combatants, are
unanimous as to the immense moral effect produced on the
combatants by the unmistakable drumming sound of the
machine-guns, an effect comparable even at certain stages of the
fight to the boom of the artillery itself.
Equipments in Use. Practically all nations have abandoned the
simple wheeled carriage for machine-guns, or rather have adopted
the tripod or table mounting, reserving the wheeled vehicle for the
mere transport of the equipment. Since the Russo-Japanese War
the tendency has been to sacrifice the slight protection afforded by
the shield in order to reduce visibility. The Japanese, who had
unprotected field guns and protected machine-guns in the war,
found it advisable to reverse this procedure, for reasons that can
easily be guessed in the cases of both weapons.
Great Britain. The service machine-gun is the Maxim -303 in.,
adjusted to a rate of 450 rounds per minute and sighted (except in
a few weapons) to 2900 yards. The original patterns weighed
60 lb, and were mounted on wheeled carriages. In the latest
pattern, however, the weight of the gun has been reduced to 36 lb.
The old Mark I. cavalry Maxim carriage, complete with gun, ammu-
nition, &c., weighed 13 cwt. behind the traces, and the gun was
5 ft. above the ground. It had no limber. The Mark III. cavalry
carriage is much lower (3' 6* from the ground to the gun), and the
gun carriage and limber together only weigh 13 cwt. Of infantry
carriages there were various marks, one of which is shown in fig. 6.
Now, however, all mountings for infantry are of the tripod type,
transported on wheels or on pack animals, but entirely detachable
from the travelling mounting, and in action practically never used
except on the tripod. The Mark IV. tripod mounting, of which a
1 The British instructions of August 1909 direct the grouping of
guns in the decisive attack (if circumstances and ground favour this
course) and their use by sections " if the brigade is deployed on a
wide front," i.e. on the non-decisive front; further, that it is often
advisable to disperse the sections of the leading battalions and to
group those of units in reserve. In any case, while the 2, 4 or 8
guns must be ready to act independently as a special " arm," their
normal work is to give the closest support to the neighbouring
infantry (battalion in the holding, brigade in the decisive, attack).
5 In Germany, however, the tendency is not to make holding
attacks but to keep the troops out of harm's way (i.e. too far away
for the enemy to counter-attack) until they can strike effectively.
sketch is given in fig. 21, weighs 48 lb. The total weight of the
fighting equipment is thus 84 lb only an important consideration
now that in action the gun is man-carried. The gun can be adjusted
to fire at heights varying from 2' 6* to i' 2 J* only from the ground ;
in its lowest position, then, it is a little lower than the head of a man
firing lying. All the later infantry machine-gun equipments are
for pack transport and have no shields.
The organization of the machine-gun arm is regimental. Each
cavalry regiment and each infantry battalion has a section of 2 guns
under an officer.
France. The guns in use are the Puteaux and the Hotchkiss.
The unit is the regimental 2-gun section. Four-horsed carriages
with limbers are used with cavalry, tripods with the infantry
sections. No shields. Weight of the Hotchkiss in use, 50 lb; of
the tripod, 70 lb. The Puteaux was lightened and improved in
1909.
Germany. As already mentioned the German machine-gun units
are classed as cavalry " detachments " and infantry " companies."
The " detachment " or battery consists of 6 guns and 4 wagons,
the vehicles being of a light artillery pattern and drawn by four
horses. The gun (Maxim) weighs 61 lb, and its fighting carriage
1 10 lb. The " companies " have also 6 guns and 4 wagons, but the
equipment is lighter (two-horse), and is not constructed on artillery
principles, nor are the guns fired from their carriages as are those
of the " detachments." The weight of the gun is 38 lb, and that of
the fighting carriage 75 (some accounts give 53 for the latter), the
difference between these weights and those of the mounted equip-
ments, affording a good illustration of the difference in the tactical
requirements of the cavalry and of the infantry types of gun. The
fighting carriage is a sort of sledge, which is provided with four legs
for fire in the highest position, but can of course be placed on the
ground ; the height of the gun, therefore, can be variea from 3' 6* to
l' 6*. The sledges can be dragged across country or carried by
men stretcher fashion, and sometimes several sledges are coupled
and drawn by a horse.
Japan. The Japanese Hotchkiss, as modified since the war with
Russia, is said to weigh 70 lb, and its tripod mounting 40. Each
regiment of infantry has a six-gun battery and each cavalry brigade
one of eight guns. Pack transport is used.
Russia. Since the war eight-gun companies have been formed
in the infantry regiments, and each cavalry regiment has been
provided with two guns. The var organization is, however, un-
known. Both wheel and pack transport are employed for travelling,
but the guns are fought from tripods. Early and somewhat heavy
patterns of Maxim (with shield) are chiefly used, but a great number
of very light guns of the Madsen type have been issued.
The Austrian gun is the Schwarzlose, of which some details are
given above. Pack transport is used, one mule taking the whole
equipment with 1000 rounds. Weight of the gun 37-9 lb, of the
tripod 41 lb. The height of the tripod can be varied from 9! in.
to 2 ft. above the ground. It is proposed that each cavalry regiment
should have four jjuns, and each infantry regiment two. Switzerland
adopted the Maxim in 1902. It is used principally as a substitute
for horse artillery. Denmark and other small states have adopted
the Madsen or Rexer light-type guns in relatively large numbers,
especially for cavalry. In the Untied States the British organization
was after many trials adopted, and each infantry and cavalry
regiment has a two-gun section of Maxims, with tripod mounting
and pack transport.
See P. Azan, Les prem&res mitrailleuses (" Revue d' Histoire de
1'Armee," July 1907) ; Le Canon a balles, 1870-^1871 (" Revue d'Hist.
de 1'Armee, 1909); Lieut-Colonel E. Rogers in " Journal R. United
Service Institution " of 1905; Capt. R. V. K. Applin, Machine-gun
Tactics (London, 1910) and paper in " J. R. United Service Inst."
(1910); War Office Handbook to the Maxim gun (1007); Capt.
Cesbron Lavau, Mitrailleuses de cavalerie; Lieut. Buttm, L'emploi
des mitrailleuses d'infanterie; Major J. Goots, Les Mitrailleuses
(Brussels, 1908); and Merkatz, Unterrichtsbuch fur die Masch.-
Gewehrabteilungen (Berlin, 1906); Korzen & Kiihn, Waffenlehre, &c.
(C. F. A.)
MACfAS [0 NAMORODO] (J. 1360-1300), Galician trovador,
held some position in the household of Enrique de Villena.
He is represented by five poems in the Cancionero de Baena,
and is the reputed author of sixteen others. Macias lives by
virtue of the romantic legends which have accumulated round
his name. The most popular version of his story is related
by Hernan Nunez. According to this tradition, Macias was
enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and
was murdered by the jealous husband while singing the lady's
praises. There may be some basis of fact for this narrative,
which became a favourite subject with contemporary Spanish
poets and later writers. Macfas is mentioned in Rocaberti's
Gloria de amor as the Castilian equivalent of Cabestanh; he
afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in Porfiar hasta morir; in
the igth century, at the outset of the romantic movement
250
MACINTOSH McKEESPORT
in Spain, he inspired Larra (?..) in the play Maclas and in
the historical novel entitled El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente.
See H. A. Rennert, Marias, o namorado; a Galician trobador
(Philadelphia, 1900); Theodore J. de Puymaigre, Les vieux auteurs
castittans (1889-1890), i. 54-74; Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano
(New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Beller-
mann, Die alien Liederbucher der Porlugiesen (Berlin, 1840).
MACINTOSH, CHARLES (1766-1843), Scottish chemist
and inventor of waterproof fabrics, was born on the zgth of
December 1766 at Glasgow, where he was first employed as
a clerk. He devoted all his spare time to science, particularly
chemistry, and before he was twenty resigned his clerkship
to take up the manufacture of chemicals. In this he was
highly successful, inventing various new processes. His ex-
periments with one of the by-products of tar, naphtha, led
to his invention of waterproof fabrics, the essence of his patent
being the cementing of two 'thicknesses of india-rubber together,
the india-rubber being made soluble by the action of the naphtha.
For his various chemical discoveries he was, in 1823, elected
F.R.S. He died on the 25th of July 1843.
See George Macintosh, Memoir of C. Macintosh (1847).
MACKAY, CHARLES (1814-1889), Scottish writer, was
born at Perth, on the 27th of March 1814, and educated at
the Caledonian Asylum, London, and in Brussels. In 1830,
being then private secretary to a Belgian ironmaster, he began
writing verses and articles for local newspapers. Returning
to London, he devoted himself to literary and journalistic
work, and was attached to the Morning Chronicle (1835-1844).
He published Memoirs of Extraordinary Public Delusions (1841),
and gradually made himself known as an industrious and
prolific journalist. In 1844 he was made editor of the Glasgow
Argus. His literary reputation was made by the publication
in 1846 of a volume of verses, Voices from the Crowd, some of
which were set to music by Henry Russell and became very
popular. In 1848 Mackay returned to London and worked
for the Illustrated London News, of which he became editor
in 1852. In it he published a number of songs, set to music
by Sir Henry Bishop and Henry Russell, and in 1855 they
were collected in a volume; they included the popular " Cheer,
Boys! Cheer! " After his severance from the Illustrated
London News, in 1859, Mackay started two unsuccessful period-
icals, and acted as special correspondent for The Times in
America during the Civil War. He edited A Thousand and
One Gems of English Poetry (1867). Mackay died in London
on the 24th of December 1889. Marie Corelli (q.v.) was his
adopted daughter. His son, Eric Mackay (1851-1899), was
known as a writer of verse, particularly by his Love Letters of
a Violinist (1886).
MACKAY, HUGH (c. 1640-1692), Scottish general, was
the son of Hugh Mackay of Scourie, Sutherlandshire, and was
born there about 1640. He entered Douglas's (Dumbarton's)
regiment of the English army (now the Royal Scots) in 1660,
accompanied it to France when it was lent by Charles II. to
Louis XIV., and though succeeding, through the death of his
two elder brothers, to his father's estates, continued to serve
abroad. In 1669 he was in the Venetian service at Candia,
and in 1672 he was back with his old regiment, Dumbarton's,
in the French army, taking part under Turenne in the invasion
of Holland. In 1673 he married Clara de Bie of Bommel
in Gelderland. Through her influence he became, as Burnet
says, " the most pious man that I ever knew in a military
way," and, convinced that he was fighting in an unjust cause,
resigned his commission to take a captaincy in a Scottish
regiment in the Dutch service. He had risen to the rank of
major-general in 1685, when the Scots brigade was called to
England to assist in the suppression of the Monmouth rebellion.
Returning to Holland, Mackay was one of those officers who
elected to stay with their men when James II., having again
demanded the services of the Scots brigade, and having been met
with a refusal, was permitted to invite the officers individually
into his service. As major-general commanding the brigade,
and also as a privy councillor of Scotland, Mackay was an
important and influential person, and James chose to attribute
the decision of most of the officers to Mackay's instigation.
Soon after this event the Prince of Orange started on his
expedition to England, Mackay's division leading the invading
corps, and in January 1688-89 Mackay was appointed major-
general commanding in chief in Scotland. In this capacity
he was called upon to deal with the formidable insurrection
headed by Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee. In
the battle of Killiecrankie Mackay was severely defeated, but
Dundee was killed, and the English commander, displaying
unexpected energy, subdued the Highlands in one summer.
In 1690 he founded Fort William at Inverlochy, in 1691 he
distinguished himself in the brilliant victory of Aughrim,
and in 1692, with the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded
the British division of the allied army in Flanders. At the
great battle of Steinkirk Mackay's division bore the brunt of
the day unsupported and the general himself was killed.
Mackay was the inventor of the ring bayonet which
soon came into general use, the idea of this being suggested
to him by the failure of the plug-bayonet to stop the rush of
the Highlanders at Killiecrankie. Many of his despatches
and papers were published by the Bannatyne Club in 1883.
See Life by John Mackay of Rockville (1836) ; and J. W. Fortescue,
History of the British Army, vol. i.
MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM (1831-1902), American capi-
talist, was born in Dublin, Ireland, on the 28th of November
1831. His parents brought him in 1840 to New York City,
where he worked in a ship-yard. In 1851 he went to California
and worked in placer gold-mines in Sierra county. In 1852
he went to Virginia City, Nevada, and there, after losing all
he had made in California, he formed with James G. Fair,
James C. Flood and William S. O'Brien the firm which in 1873
discovered the great Bonanza vein, more than 1200 ft. deep,
in the Comstock lode (yielding in March of that year as much
as $632 per ton, and in 1877 nearly $19,000,000 altogether);
and this firm established the Bank of Nevada in San Fran-
cisco. In 1884, with James Gordon Bennett, Mackay formed
the Commercial Cable Company largely to fight Jay
Gould and the Western Union Telegraph Company laid
two transatlantic cables, and forced the toll-rate for trans-
atlantic messages down to twenty-five cents a word. In
connexion with the Commercial Cable Company he formed
the Postal Telegraph Company. Mackay died on the 2oth
of July 1902 in London. He gave generously, especially to
the charities of the Roman Catholic Church, and endowed
the Roman Catholic orphan asylum in Virginia City, Nevada.
In June 1908 a school of mines was presented to the University
of Nevada, as a memorial to him, by his widow and his son,
Clarence H. Mackay.
MACKAY, a seaport of Carlisle county, Queensland, Australia,
on the Pioneer river, 625 m. direct N.N.W. Pop. (1901), 4091.
The harbour is not good. Sugar, tobacco and coffee thrive
in the district. There are several important sugar mills, one
of which, the largest in Queensland, is capable of an annual
output of 8000 tons. Rum is distilled, and there are a brewery
and a factory for tinning butter for export. Workable coal
is found in the district. This is the port of the Mt Orange
and Mt Gotthart copper mines, and the Mt Britten and Eun-
gella gold-fields. It is a calling-station for the Queensland
royal mail steamers. The town is named after Captain John
Mackay, who discovered the harbour in 1860.
McKEESPORT, a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., at the confluence of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny
rivers (both of which are navigable), 14 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890), 20,741; (1900), 34,227, of whom 9349 were foreign-
born and 748 were negroes; (1910 census) 42,694. It is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pittsburg & Lake Erie and the
Pennsylvania railways. The city has a Carnegie library, a
general hospital, and two business schools. Bituminous coal
and natural gas abound in the vicinity, and iron, steel, and tin
and terne plate are extensively manufactured in the city, the
tin-plate plant being one of the most important in the United
McKEES ROCKS MACKENZIE, SIR A. C.
251
States. The total value of the city's factory products was
$36,058,447 in 1900 and $23,054,412 in 1905. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works. The first white settler was
David McKee, who established a ferry here in 1769. In 1795
his son John laid out the town, which was named in his honour,
but its growth was very slow until after the discovery of coal in
1830. McKeesport was incorporated as a borough in 1842 and
chartered as a city in 1890.
McKEES ROCKS, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 3 m. N.W. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 1687; (1900) 6352 (1264 foreign-born); (1910)
14,702. McKees Rocks is served by the Pittsburg & Lake Erie
and the Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny railways, the
latter a short line extending (13 m.) to Beechmont. Bituminous
coal and natural gas are found in the vicinity, and the borough
ships coal and lumber, and has various important manufactures.
There is an ancient Indian mound here. The first settlement
was made in 1830, and the borough incorporated in 1892.
MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER (1835-1904), English Noncon-
formist divine, was born at Truro in Cornwall, on the I4th of
January 1835, the son of Patrick Mackennal, a Scot, who had
settled in Cornwall. In 1848 the family removed to London,
and at sixteen he went to Glasgow University. In 1854 he
entered Hackney College to prepare for the Congregational
ministry, and in 1857 he graduated B.A. at London Univer-
sity. After holding pastorates at Burton-on-Trent (1856
1861), Surbiton (1862-1870), Leicester (1870-1876), he finally
accepted the pastorate of the Congregational Church at Bowdon,
Cheshire, in 1877, in which he remained till his death. In 1886
he was chairman of the Congregational Union, which he repre-
sented in 1889 at the triannual national council of the American
Congregational churches. The first international council of
Congregationalists held in London in 1891 was partly cause,
partly consequence, of his visit, and Mackennal acted as secre-
tary. In 1892 he became definitely associated in the public
mind with a movement for free church federation which grew
out of a series of meetings held to discuss the question of home
reunion. When the Lambeth articles put forward as a basis
of union were discussed, it was evident that all the free churches
were agreed in accepting the three articles dealing with the
Bible, the Creed and the Sacraments as a basis of discussion,
and were also agreed in rejecting the fourth article, which put
the historic episcopate on the same level as the other three.
Omitting the Anglicans, the representatives of the remaining
churches resolved to develop Christian fellowship by united
action and worship wherever possible. Out of this grew the
Free Church Federation, which secures a measure of co-operation
between the Protestant Evangelical churches throughout Eng-
land. Mackennal's public action brought him into associa-
tion with many well-known political and religious leaders. He
was a lifelong advocate of international peace, and made a
remarkable declaration as to the Christian standard of national
action when the Free Church Federation met at Leeds during
the South African War in 1900.
Besides a volume of sermons under the title Christ's Healing
Touch, Mackennal published The Biblical Scheme of Nature and
of Man, The Christian Testimony, the Letters to the Seven
Churches of Asia, The Kingdom of the Lord Jesus and The
Eternal God and the Human Sonship. These are contributions
to exegetical study or to theological and progressive religious
thought, and have elements of permanent value. He also made
some useful contributions to religious history. In 1893 he
published the Story of the English Separatists, and later the Homes
. and Haunts of the Pilgrim Fathers; he also wrote the life of
Dr J. A. Macfadyen of Manchester. In 1901 he delivered a
series of lectures at Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut,
U.S.A., published under the title The Evolution of Congregation-
alism. He died at Highgate on the 23rd of June 1904.
See D. Macfadyen, Life and Letters of Alexander Mackennal
(1905). (D. MN.)
MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820), Canadian
explorer, was probably a native of Inverness. Emigrating to
North America at an early age, he was for several years engaged
in the fur trade at Fort Chippewyan, at the head of Lake Atha-
basca, and it was here that his schemes of travel were formed.
His first journey, made in 1789, was from Fort Chippewyan
along the Great Slave Lake, and down the river which now bears
his name to the Arctic Ocean; and his second, made in 1792 and
1793, from Fort Chippewyan across the Rocky Mountains to
the Pacific coast near Cape Menzies. He wrote an account of
these journeys, Voyages on the River St Lawrence and through
the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans
(London, 1801), which is of considerable interest from the
information it contains about the native tribes. It is prefaced
by an historical dissertation on the Canadian fur trade. Amass-
ing considerable wealth, Mackenzie was knighted in 1802, and
later settled in Scotland. He died at Mulnain, near Dunkeld, on
the nth of March 1820.
MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892), Canadian states-
man, was born in Perthshire, Scotland, on the 28th of January,
1822. His father was a builder, and young Mackenzie emigrated
to Canada in 1842, and worked in Ontario as a stone-mason,
setting up for himself later as a builder and contractor at Sarnia
with his brother. In 1852 his interest in questions of reform led
to his becoming the editor of the Lambton Shield, a local Liberal
paper. This brought him to the front, and in 1861 he became a
member of the Canadian parliament, where he at once made his
mark and was closely connected with the liberal leader, George
Brown. He was elected for Lambton to the first Dominion
house of commons in 1867, and soon became the leader of the
liberal opposition; from 1871 to 1872 he also sat in the Ontario
provincial assembly, and held the position of provincial
treasurer. In 1873 the attack on Sir John Macdonald's ministry
with regard to the Pacific Railway charter resulted in its defeat,
and Mackenzie formed a new government, taking the portfolio
of public works and becoming the first liberal premier of Canada.
He remained in power till 1878, when industrial depression
enabled Macdonald to return to office on a protectionist pro-
gramme. In 1875 Mackenzie paid a visit to Great Britain, and
was received at Windsor by Queen Victoria; he was offered a
knighthood, but declined it. After his defeat he suffered from
failing health, gradually resulting in almost total paralysis, but
though in 1880 he resigned the leadership of the opposition, he
retained a seat in parliament till his death at Toronto on the i7th
of April 1892. While perhaps too cautious to be the ideal leader
of a young and vigorous community, his grasp of detail, inde-
fatigable industry, and unbending integrity won him the respect
even of his political opponents.
His Life and Times by William Buckingham and the Hon. George
W. Ross (Toronto, 1892) contains documents of much interest.
See also George Stewart, Canada under the Administration of the
Earl of Dufferin (Toronto, 1878).
MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847- ),
British composer, son of an eminent Edinburgh violinist and
conductor, was born on the 22nd of August 1847. On the advice
of a member of GungTs band who had taken up his residence in
Edinburgh, Mackenzie was sent for his musical education to
Sondershausen, where he entered the conservatorium under
Ulrich and Stein, remaining there from 1857 to 1861, when he
entered the ducal orchestra as a violinist. At this time he made
Liszt's acquaintance. On his return home he won the King's
Scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and remained the
usual three years in the institution, after which he established
himself as a teacher of the piano, &c., in Edinburgh. He
appeared in public as a violinist, taking part in Chappell's
quartette concerts, and starting a set of classical concerts. He
was appointed precentor of St George's Church in 1870, and
conductor of the Scottish vocal music association in 1873, at the
same time getting through a prodigious amount of teaching.
He kept in touch with his old friends by playing in the orchestra
of the Birmingham Festivals from 1864 to 1873. The most
important compositions of this period of Mackenzie's life were
the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings, Op. n, and an
252 MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE MACKENZIE, HENRY
overture, Cervantes, which owed its first performance to the
encouragement and help of von Biilow. On the advice of this
great pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which
had quite worn him out, and settled in Florence in order to
compose. The cantatas The Bride (Worcester, 1881) and Jason
(Bristol, 1882) belong to this time, as well as his first opera. This
was commissioned for the Carl Rosa Company, and was written
to a version of Merimee's Colomba prepared by Franz Hueffer.
It was produced with great success in 1883, and was the first
of a too short series of modern English operas; Mackenzie's
second opera, The Troubadour, was produced by the same
company in 1886; and his third dramatic work was His Majesty,
an excellent comic opera (Savoy Theatre, 1897). In 1884 his
Rose of Sharon was given with very great success at the Norwich
Festival; in 1885 he was appointed conductor of Novello's
oratorio concerts; The Story of Sayid came out at the Leeds
Festival of 1886; and in 1888 he succeeded Macfarren as principal
of the Royal Academy of Music. The Dream of Jubal was pro-
duced at Liverpool in 1889, and in London very soon afterwards.
A fine setting of the hymn " Veni, Creator Spiritus " was given
at Birmingham in 1891, and the oratorio Bethlehem in 1894.
From 1892 to 1899 he conducted the Philharmonic Concerts,
and was knighted in 1894. Besides the works mentioned he
has written incidental music to plays, as, for instance, to Ravens-
wood, The Little Minister, and Coriolamis; concertos and other
works for violin and orchestra, much orchestral music, and many
songs and violin pieces. The romantic side of music appeals
to Mackenzie far more strongly than any other, and the cases in
which he has conformed to the classical conventions are of the
rarest. In the orchestral ballad, La Belle Dame sans Merci, he
touches the note of weird pathos, and in the nautical overture
Britannia his sense of humour stands revealed. In the two
" Scottish Rhapsodies " for orchestra, in the music to The Little
Minister, and in a beautiful fantasia for pianoforte and orchestra
on Scottish themes, he has seized the essential, not the accidental
features of his native music.
MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691), of Rosehaugh,
Scottish lawyer, was the grandson of Kenneth, first Lord Mac-
kenzie of Kintail, and the nephew of Colin and George, first and
second earls of Seaforth; his mother was a daughter of Andrew
Bruce, principal of St Leonard's College, St Andrews. He was
born at Dundee in 1636, educated at the grammar school there
and at Aberdeen, and afterwards at St Andrews, graduating
at sixteen. He then engaged for three years in the study of
the civil law at Bourges; on his return to Scotland he was called
to the bar in 1659, and before the Restoration had risen into
considerable practice. Immediately after the Restoration he
was appointed a " justice-depute," and it is recorded that he
and his colleagues in that office were ordained by the parliament
in 1661 " to repair, once in the week at least, to Musselburgh
and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as are there or
thereabouts delate of witchcraft." In the same year he acted
as counsel for the marquis of Argyll; soon afterwards he was
knighted, and he represented the county of Ross during the four
sessions of the parliament which was called in 1669. He suc-
ceeded Sir Johh Nisbet as king's advocate in August 1677, and in
the discharge of this office became implicated in all the worst acts
of the Scottish administration of Charles II., earning for himself
an unenviable distinction as " the bloody Mackenzie." His
refusal to concur in the measures for dispensing with the penal
laws against Catholics led to his removal from office in 1686, but
he was reinstated in February 1688. At the Revolution, being
a member of convention, he was one of the minority of five
in the division on the forfeiture of the crown. King William
was urged to declare him incapacitated for holding any public
office, but refused to accede to the proposal. When the
death of Dundee (July 1689) had finally destroyed the hopes
of his party in Scotland, Mackenzie betook himself to Oxford,
where, admitted a student by a grace passed in 1690, he was
allowed to spend the rest of his days in the enjoyment of the
ample fortune he had acquired, and in the prosecution of
his literary labours. One of his last acts before leaving Edin-
burgh had been to pronounce (March 15, 1689), as dean of
the faculty of advocates, the inaugural oration at the founda-
tion of the Advocates' library. He died at Westminster on the
8th of May 1691, and was buried in Greyfriars churchyard,
Edinburgh.
While still a young man Sir George Mackenzie appears to have
aspired to eminence in the domain of pure literature, his earliest
publication having been Aretina, or a Serious Romance (anon., 1661) ;
it was followed, also anonymously, by Religio Stoici, a Short Discourse
upon Several Divine and Moral Subjects (1663); A Moral Essay,
preferring Solitude to Public Employment (1665); and one or two
other disquisitions of a similar nature. His most important legal
works are entitled A Discourse upon the Laws and Customs of Scotland
in Matters Criminal (1674); Observations upon the Laws and Customs
of Nations as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry (1680);
Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1684) ; and Observations upon the
Acts of Parliament (1686); of these the last-named is the most
important, the Institutions being completely overshadowed by the
similar work of his great contemporary Stair. In his Jus Regium:
or the Just and Solid Foundations of Monarchy in general, and more
especially of the Monarchy of Scotland, maintained (1684), Mackenzie
appears as an uncompromising advocate of the highest doctrines of
prerogative. His Vindication of the Government of Scotland during
the reign of Charles II. (1691) is valuable as a piece of contemporary
history. The collected Works were published at Edinburgh (2 vols.
fol.) in 17161722; and Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the
Restoration of King Charles II., from previously unpublished MSS.,
in 1821.
See A. Lang, Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh (1909).
MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831), Scottish novelist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh in August 1745.
His father, Joshua Mackenzie, was a distinguished physician,
and his mother, Margaret Rose, belonged to an old Nairnshire
family. Mackenzie was educated at the high school and the
university of Edinburgh, and was then articled to George Inglis
of Redhall, who was attorney for the crown in the management
of exchequer business. In 1765 he was sent to London to prose-
cute his legal studies, and on his return to Edinburgh became
partner with Inglis, whom he afterwards succeeded as attorney
for the crown. His first and most famous work, The Man of
Feeling, was published anonymously in 1771, and met with
instant success. The " Man of Feeling " is a weak creature,
dominated by a futile benevolence, who goes up to London and
falls into the hands of people who exploit his innocence. The
sentimental key in which the book is written shows the author's
acquaintance with Sterne and Richardson, but he had neither
the humour of Sterne nor the subtle insight into character of
Richardson. One Eccles of Bath claimed the authorship of this
book, bringing in support of his pretensions a MS. with many
ingenious erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially an-
nounced, but Eccles appears to have induced some people to
believe in him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel,
The Man of the World, the hero of which was as consistently bad
as the " Man of Feeling " had been " constantly obedient to his
moral sense," as Sir Walter Scott says. Julia de Roubigrie (1777),
a story in letters, was preferred to his other novels by " Chris-
topher North," who had a high opinion of Mackenzie (see Nodes
Ambrosianae, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his dramatic
pieces, The Prince of Tunis, was produced in Edinburgh in 1773
with a certain measure of success. The others were failures. At
Edinburgh Mackenzie belonged to a literary club, at the meetings
of which papers in the manner of the Spectator were read. This
led to the establishment of a weekly periodical called the Mirror
(January 23, 1779-May 27, 1780), of which Mackenzie was
editor and chief contributor. It was followed in 1785 by a
similar paper, the Lounger, which ran for nearly two years and
had the distinction of containing one of the earliest tributes to
the genius of Robert Burns. Mackenzie was an ardent Tory,
and wrote many tracts intended to counteract the doctrines of the
French Revolution. Most of these remained anonymous, but
he acknowledged his Review of the Principal Proceedings of the
Parliament of 1784, a defence of the policy of William Pitt,
written at the desire of Henry Dundas. He was rewarded (1804)
by the office of comptroller of the taxes for Scotland. In
1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovick
Grant of Grant. He was, in his later years, a notable figure in
McKENZIE, SIR J. MACKENZIE, W. L.
253
Edinburgh society. He was nicknamed the " man of feeling,"
but he was in reality a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly
heart. Some of his literary reminiscences were embodied in his
Account of the Life and Writings of John Home, Esq. (1822). He
also wrote a Life of Doctor Blacklock, prefixed to the 1793
edition of the poet's works. He died on the I4th of January
1831.
In 1807 The Works of Henry Mackenzie were published surrep-
titiously, and he then himself superintended the publication of his
Works (8 vols., 1808). There is an admiring but discriminating
criticism of his work in the Prefatory Memoir prefixed by Sir Walter
Scott to an edition of his novels in Ballantyne's Novelist's Library
(vol. v., 1823).
McKENZIE, SIR JOHN (1838-1901), New Zealand statesman,
was born at Ard-Ross, Scotland, in 1838, the son of a crofter.
He emigrated to Otago, New Zealand, in 1860. Beginning as a
shepherd, he rose to be farm manager at Puketapu near Palmer-
ston South, and then to be a farmer in a substantial way in
Shag Valley. In 1865 he was clerk to the local road board
and school committee; in 1871 he entered the provincial council
of Otago; and on the nth of December 1881 was elected member
of the House of Representatives, in which he sat till 1900. He
was also for some years a member of the education board and
of the land board of Otago, and always showed interest in the
national elementary school system. In the House of Represen-
tatives he soon made good his footing, becoming almost at once
a recognized spokesman for the smaller sort of rural settlers
and a person of influence in the lobbies. He acted as govern-
ment whip for the coalition ministry of Sir Robert Stout and Sir
Julius Vogel, 1884-1887, and, while still a private member, scored
his first success as a land reformer by carrying the " McKenzie
clause " in a land act limiting the area which a state tenant
might thenceforth obtain on lease. He was still, however,
comparatively unknown outside his own province when, in
January 1891, his party took office and he aided John Ballance
in forming a ministry, in which he himself held the portfolio of
lands, immigration and agriculture. From the first he made
his hand felt in every matter connected with land settlement
and the administration of the vast public estate. Generally his
aim was to break up and subdivide the great freehold and lease-
hold properties which in his time covered four-sevenths of the
occupied land of the colony. In his Land Act of 1892 he con-
solidated, abolished or amended, fifty land acts and ordinances
dealing with crown lands, and thereafter amended his own act
four times. Though owning to a preference for state tenancy
over freehold, he never stopped the selling of crown land, and
was satisfied to give would-be settlers the option of choosing
freehold or leasehold under tempting terms as their form of
tenure. As a compromise he introduced the lease in perpetuity
or holding for 999 years at a quit rent fixed at 4%; theoretical
objections have since led to its abolition, but for fifteen years
much genuine settlement took place under its conditions.
Broadly, however, McKenzie's exceptional success as lands
minister was due rather to unflinching determination to stimu-
late the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the
solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-
known experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law
(1892) was displaced by a compulsory act (1894), under which
between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in
buying and subdividing estates for closer settlements, with
excellent results. McKenzie also founded and expanded an
efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of which
inspection, grading, teaching and example are successfully
combined. It has aided the development of dairying, fruit-
growing, poultry-farming, bee-keeping and flax-milling, and
done not a little to keep up the standard of New Zealand pro-
ducts. After 1897 McKenzie had to hold on in the face of failing
health. An operation in London in 1899 only postponed the
end. He died at his farm on the 6th of August 1901, soon after
being called to the legislative council, and receiving a knight-
hood.
MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892), British physician,
son of Stephen Mackenzie, surgeon (d. 1851), was born at Leyton-
stone, Essex, on the 7th of July 1837. After going through the
course at the London Hospital, and becoming M.R.C.S. in 1858,
he studied abroad at Paris, Vienna and Pesth; ancj at Pesth he
learnt the use of the newly-invented laryngoscope under J. N.
Czermak. Returning to London in 1862, he worked at the
London Hospital, and took his degree in medicine. In 1863
he won the Jacksonian prize at the Royal College of Surgeons
for an essay on the " Pathology of the Larynx," and he then de-
voted himself to becoming a specialist in diseases of the throat.
In 1863 the Throat Hospital in King Street, Golden Square, was
founded, largely owing to his initiative, and by his work there and
at the London Hospital (where he was one of the physicians
from 1866 to 1873) Morell Mackenzie rapidly became recognized
throughout Europe as a leading authority, and acquired an
extensive practice. So great was his reputation that in May
1887, when the crown prince of Germany (afterwards the emperor
Frederick III.) was attacked by the affectionof the throat of which
he ultimately died, Morell Mackenzie was specially summoned
to attend him. The German physicians who had attended the
prince since the beginning of March (Karl Gerhardt, and subse-
quently Tobold, E. von Bergmann, and others) had diagnosed
his ailment on the iSthof May as cancer of the throat; but Morell
Mackenzie insisted (basing his opinion on a microscopical ex-
amination by R. Virchow of a portion of the tissue) that the
disease was not demonstrably cancerous, that an operation for
the extirpation of the larynx (planned for the 2ist of May) was
unjustifiable, and that the growth might well be a benign one
and therefore curable by other treatment. The question was
one not only of personal but of political importance, since it was
doubted whether any one suffering from an incapacitating disease
like cancer could, according to the family law of the Hohenzollerns,
occupy the German throne; and there was talk of a renunciation
of the succession by the crown prince. It was freely hinted,
moreover, that some of the doctors themselves were influenced
by political considerations. At any rate, Morell Mackenzie's
opinion was followed: the crown prince went to England, under
his treatment, and was present at the Jubilee celebrations in
June. Morell Mackenzie was knighted in September 1887 for his
services, and decorated with the Grand Cross of the Hohenzollern
Order. In November, however, the German doctors were again
called into consultation, and it was ultimately admitted that the
disease really was cancer; though Mackenzie, with very question-
able judgment, more than hinted that it had become malignant
since his first examination, in consequence of the irritating effect
of the treatment by the German doctors. The crown prince
(see FREDERICK III.) became emperor on the 9th of March 1888,
and died on the 1 5th of June. During all this period a violent
quarrel raged between Sir Morell Mackenzie and the German
medical world. The German doctors published an account of
the illness, to which Mackenzie replied by a work entitled
The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble (1888), the publication
of which caused him to be censured by the Royal College of
Surgeons. After this sensational episode in his career, the
remainder of Sir Morell Mackenzie's life was uneventful, and
he died somewhat suddenly in London, on the 3rd of February
1892. He published several books on laryngoscopy and diseases
of the throat.
MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861), Canadian politi-
cian, was born near Dundee, Scotland, on the izth of March 1795.
His father died before he was a month old, and the family were
left in poverty. After some six years' work in a shop at Alyth, in
April 1820 he emigrated with his mother to Canada. There he
became a general merchant, first at York, then at Dundas, and
lateral Queenston. The discontented condition of Upper Canada
drew him into politics, and on the i8th of May 1824 he published
at Queenston the first number of the Colonial Advocate, in which
the ruling oligarchy was attacked with great asperity. Most of
the changes which he advocated were wise and have since been
adopted; but the violence of Mackenzie's attacks roused great
anger among the social and political set at York (Toronto),
which was headed by John Beverley Robinson. In November
254
MACKENZIE MACKEREL
1824 Mackenzie removed to Toronto, but he had little capital;
his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of suspending
publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown
into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In
an action against the chief rioters he was awarded 625 and costs,
was thus enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient
plant, and the Colonial Advocate ran till the 4th of November
1834.
In 1828 he was elected member of parliament for York, but
was expelled on the technical ground that he had published in his
newspaper the proceedings of the house without authorization.
Five times he was expelled and five times re-elected by his
constituents, till at last the government refused to issue a writ,
and for three years York was without one of its representatives.
In May 1832 he visited England, where he was well received by
the colonial office. Largely as the result of his representations,
many important reforms were ordered by Lord Goderich, after-
wards earl of Ripon, the colonial secretary. While in England,
he published Sketches of Canada and the United States, in which,
with some exaggeration, many of the Canadian grievances were
exposed. On his return in March 1834 he was elected mayor of
Toronto. During his year of office, the heroism with which he
worked hand in hand with his old enemy, Bishop Strachan, in
fighting an attack of choltera, did not prevent him from winning
much unpopularity by his officiousness, and in 1835 he was not
re-elected either as mayor or alderman. In October 1834 he was
elected member of parliament for York, and took his seat in
January 1835, the Reformers being now in the majority. A com-
mittee on grievances was appointed, as chairman of which Mac-
kenzie presented the admirable Seventh Report on Grievances,
largely written by himself, in which the case for the Reformers
was presented with force and moderation, and the adoption of
responsible government advocated as the remedy.
In the general election of June 1836 the Tory party won a
complete victory, Mackenzie and almost all the prominent
Reformers being defeated at the polls. This totally unexpected
defeat greatly embittered him. On the 4th of July 1836, the
anniversary of the adoption of the American Declaration of Inde-
pendence, he began the publication of the Constitution, which
openly advocated a republican form of government. Later in the
year he was appointed " agent and corresponding secretary "
of the extreme wing of the Reform party, and more and more
openly, in his speeches throughout the province, advocated armed
revolt. He was also in correspondence with Papineau and the
other leaders of the Reformers in Lower Canada, who were
already planning a rising. Early in December 1837 Mackenzie
gathered a mob of his followers, to the number of several hundred,
at Gallows Hill, some miles to the north of Toronto, with the
intention of seizing the lieutenant-governor and setting up a
provisional government. Misunderstandings among the leaders
led to the total failure of the revolt, and Mackenzie was forced
to fly to the United States with a price on his head. In the town
of Buffalo he collected a disorderly rabble, who seized and fortified
Navy Island, in the river between the two countries, and for
some weeks troubled the Canadian frontier. After the failure
of this attempt he was put to the most pitiful shifts to make a
living. In June 1839 he was tried in the United States for a
breach of the neutrality laws, and sentenced to eighteen months'
imprisonment, of which he served over eleven. While in gaol at
Rochester he published the Caroline Almanac, the tone of which
may be judged from its references to " Victoria Guelph, the
bloody queen of England," and by the title given to the British
cabinet of " Victoria Melbourne's bloody divan." He returned
to Canada in consequence of the Amnesty Act 1849. A
closer inspection had cured him of his love for republican
institutions.
In 1851 he was elected to parliament for Haldimand, defeating
George Brown. He at once allied himself with the Radicals (the
" Clear Grits") , and, on the leadership of that party being assumed
by Brown, became one of his lieutenants. He was still miserably
poor, but refused all offers to accept a government position.
In 1858 he resigned his seat in the house, owing to
incipient softening of the brain, of which he died on the zgth of
August 1861.
Turbulent, ungovernable, vain, often the dupe of schemers,
Mackenzie united with much that was laughable not a little that
was heroic. He could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled.
Perhaps the best instance of this is that in 1832 he refused from
Lord Goderich an offer of a position which would have given
him great influence in Canada and an income of 1,500. He
was a born agitator, and as such tended to exaggeration and
misrepresentation. But the evils against which he struggled
were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional
Reformers might have taken long to achieve the results which
were due to his hot-headed advocacy.
The Life and Times by his son-in-law, Charles Lindsey (Toronto,
2 vols., 1862), is moderate and fair, though tending to smooth over
his anti-British gasconnade while in the United States. An abridg-
ment of this work was edited by G. G. S. Lindsey for the " Makers
of Canada " series (1909). In The Story of the Upper Canadian
Rebellion by J. C. Dent (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), a bitter attack is
made on him, which drew a savage reply from another son-in-law,
John King, K.C., called The Other Side of the Story. The best short
account of his career is given by J. C. Dent in The Canadian
Portrait Gallery, vol. ii. (Toronto, 1881). (W. L. G.)
MACKENZIE, a river of the North-West Territories, Canada,
discharging the waters of the Great Slave Lake into the Arctic
Ocean. It was discovered and first navigated by Sir Alexander
Mackenzie in 1 789. It has an average width of i m., an average
fall of 6 in. to the mile; an approximate discharge, at a medium
stage, of 500,000 cub. ft. per second; and a total length, in-
cluding its great tributary the Peace, of 2,350 m. The latter
rises, under the name of the Finlay, in the mountains of British
Columbia, and flows north-east and then south-east in the
great intermontane valley that bounds the Rocky Mountains
on the west, to its confluence with the Parsnip. From the
confluence the waters of the combined rivers, now called
the Peace, flow east through the Rocky Mountains, and then
north-east to unite with the river which discharges the
waters of Lake Athabasca; thence to Great Slave Lake it is
known as Slave river. Excluding the rivers which enter
these lakes, the principal tributaries of the Peace are:
Omineca, Nation, Parsnip, Halfway, North Pine, South Pine,
Smoky, Battle, and Loon rivers; those of the Mackenzie are the
Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the sources of the Pelly,
west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through that range on
its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which drains
Great Bear Lake, Nahanni. Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel
rivers. The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135 W. and
68 50' W., after flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta,
not yet fully surveyed. With its continuation, Slave river, it is
navigable from the Arctic Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over
i , 200 m . , and between the latter and the head of Lesser Slave Lake,
a further distance of 625 m., there is only one obstruction to
navigation, the Grand Rapids near Fort McMurray on the
Athabasca river. The Peace is navigable from its junction with
Slave river for about 220 m. to Vermilion Falls. The Mackenzie
is navigable from about the loth of June to the 2oth of October,
and Great Slave Lake from about the ist of July to the end of
October. All the waters and lakes of this great system are
abundantly stocked with fish, chiefly white fish and trout, the
latter attaining to remarkable size.
MACKEREL, pelagic fishes, belonging to a small family,
Scombridae, of which the tunny, bonito, albacore, and a few
other tropical genera are members. Although the species are
fewer in number than in most other families of fishes, they are
widely spread and extremely abundant, peopling by countless
schools the oceans of the tropical and temperate zones, and
approaching the coasts only accidentally, occasionally, or
periodically.
The mackerel proper (genus Scomber) are readily recognized
by their elegantly shaped, well-proportioned body, shining in
iridescent colours. Small, thin, deciduous scales equally cover
nearly the entire body. There are two dorsal fins, the anterior
near the head, composed of 11-14 feeble spines, the second near
McKIM MACKINAC ISLAND
255
the tail with all the rays soft except the first, and behind the second
dorsal five or six finlets. The ventral is immediately below the
second dorsal, and is also followed by finlets. The caudal fin is
crescent-shaped, strengthened at the base by two short ridges
on each side. The mouth is wide, armed above and below with a
row of very small fixed teeth.
No other fish shows finer proportions in the shape of its body.
Every " line " of its build is designed and eminently adapted for
rapid progression through the water; the muscles massed along
the vertebral column are enormously developed, especially on the
back and the sides of the tail, and impart to the body a certain
rigidity which interferes with abruptly sideward motions of the
fish. Therefore mackerel generally swim in a straightforward
direction, deviating sidewards only when compelled, and rarely
turning about in the same spot. They are in almost continuous
motion, their power of endurance being equal to the rapidity of
their motions. Mackerel, like all fishes of this family, have a firm
flesh; that is, the muscles of the several segments are interlaced,
and receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in
other fishes. Therefore the flesh, especially of the larger kinds,
is of a red colour; and the energy of their muscular action causes
the temperature of their blood to be several degrees higher than
in other fishes.
All fishes of the mackerel family are strictly carnivorous; they
unceasingly pursue their prey, which consists principally of other
fish and pelagic crustaceans. The fry of clupeoids, which like-
wise swim in schools, are followed by the mackerel until they
reach some shallow place, which their enemies dare not
enter.
Mackerel are found in almost all tropical and temperate seas,
with the exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South
America. European mackerel are of two kinds, of which one, the
common mackerel, Scomber scomber, lacks, while the other pos-
sesses, an air-bladder. The best-known species of the latter kind
is 5. colias, the "Spanish" mackerel; 1 a third, 5. pneumato-
phorus, is believed by some ichthyologists to be identical with
S. colias. Be this as it may, we have strong evidence that
the Mediterranean is inhabited by other species different from
S. scomber and 5. colias, and well characterized by their dentition
and coloration. Also the species from St Helena is distinct.
Of extra-Atlantic species the mackerel of the Japanese seas are
the most nearly allied to the European, those of New Zealand
and Australia, and still more those of the Indian Ocean, differ-
ing in many conspicuous points. Two of these species occur
in the British seas: S. scomber, which is the most common there
as well as in other parts of the North Atlantic, crossing the
ocean to America, where it abounds; and the Spanish mackerel,
S. colias, which is distinguished by a somewhat different pattern
of coloration, the transverse black bands of the common mackerel
being in this species narrower, more irregular or partly broken
up into spots, while the scales of the pectoral region are larger,
and the snout is longer and more pointed. The Spanish mackerel
is, as the name implies, a native of the seas of southern Europe,
but single individuals or small schools frequently reach the shores
of Great Britain and of the United States.
The home of the common mackerel (to which the following
remarks refer) is the North Atlantic, from the Canary Islands to the
Orkneys, and from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the
coasts of Norway to the United States.
Towards the spring large schools approach the coasts. Two
causes have been assigned of this migration: first, the instinct of
finding a suitable locality for propagating their species; and,
secondly, the search and pursuit of food, which in the warmer season
is more abundant in the neighbourhood of land than in the open sea.
It is probable that the latter is the chief cause.
In the month of February, or in some years as early as the end
of January, the first large schools appear at the entrance of the
English Channel, and are met by the more adventurous of the drift-
net fishers many miles west of the Scilly Islands. These early
schools, which consist chiefly of one-year and two-year-old fishes,
yield sometimes enormous catches, whilst in other years they escape
the drift-nets altogether, passing them, for some hitherto unex-
plained reason, at a greater depth than that to which the nets reach,
1 The term " Spanish mackerel " is applied in America to Cybium
maculatum.
viz. 20 ft. As the season advances, the schools penetrate farther
northwards into St George's Channel or eastwards into the English
Channel. The fishery then assumes proportions which render it
next in importance to the herring and cod fisheries. In Plymouth
alone a fleet of some two hundred boats assembles; and on the French
side of the Channel no less capital and labour are invested in it,
the vessels employed being, though less in number, larger in size
than on the English side. The chief centre, however, of the fishery
in the west of England is at Newlyn, near Penzance, where the small
local sailing boats are outnumbered by hundreds of large boats,
both sail and steam, which come chiefly from Lowestoft for the
season. Simultaneously with the drift-net the deep-sea-seine and
shore-seine are used, which towards June almost entirely supersede
the drift-net. Towards the end of May the old fish become heavy
with spawn and are in the highest condition for the table; and the
latter half of June or beginning of July may be regarded as the time
at which the greater part of mackerel spawn. Considerable numbers
of mackerel are taken off Norfolk and Suffolk in May and June, and
also in September and October. There can be no doubt that they
enter the North Sea from the English Channel, and return by the
same route, but others travel round the north of Scotland and
appear in rather small numbers off the east coast of that country.
On the Norwegian coast mackerel fishing does not begin before May,
whilst on the English coasts large catches are frequently made in
March. Large cargoes are annually imported in ice from Norway
to the English market.
After the spawning the schools break up into smaller companies
which are much scattered, and offer for two or three months employ-
ment to the hand-line fishermen. They now begin to disappear
from the coasts and return to the open sea. Single individuals or
small companies are found, however, on the coast all the year round;
they may have become detached from the main bodies, and be
seeking for the larger schools which have long left on their return
migration.
Although, on the whole, the course and time of the annual migra-
tion of mackerel are marked with great regularity, their appearance
and abundance at certain localities are subject to great variations.
They may pass a spot at such a depth as to evade the nets, and
reappear at the surface some days after farther eastwards; they may
deviate from their direct line of migration, and even temporarily
return westwards. In some years between 1852 and 1867 the old
mackerel disappeared off Guernsey from the surface, and were
accidentally discovered feeding at the bottom. Many were taken at
10 fathoms and deeper with the line, and all were of exceptionally
large size, several measuring 18 in. and weighing nearly 3 Ib; these
are the largest mackerel on record.
The mackerel most esteemed as food is the common species, and
individuals from 10 to 12 in. in length are considered the best
flavoured. In more southern latitudes, however, this species seems
to deteriorate, specimens from the coast of Portugal, and from the
Mediterranean and Black Sea, being stated to be dry and resembling
in flavour the Spanish mackerel (S. colias), which is not esteemed
for the table. (A. C. G. ; J. T. C.)
MCKIM, CHARLES POLLEN (1847-1909), American archi-
tect, was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th
of August 1847. His father, James Miller McKim (1810-1874),
originally a Presbyterian minister, was a prominent abolitionist
and one of the founders (1865) of the New York Nation.
The son studied at Harvard (1866-1867) and at Paris in the
Ecole des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an
architect in New York City, entering the office of H. H. Richard-
son; in 1877 he formed a partnership with William Rutherford
Mead (b. 1846), the firm becoming in 1879 McKim, Mead &
White, when Stanford White (1853-1906) became a partner.
McKim was one of the founders of the American Academy in
Rome; received a gold medal at the Paris exposition of 1900;
in 1903, for his services in the promotion of architecture, received
the King's Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects;
and in 1907 became a National Academician. He died at
St James, Long Island, N.Y., on the I4th of September 1909.
McKim's name is especially associated with the University Club
in New York, with the Columbia University buildings, with the
additions to the White House (1906), and, more particularly,
with the Boston Public Library, for which the library of
Ste Genevieve in Paris furnished the suggestion.
MACKINAC ISLAND, a small island in the N.W. extremity
of Lake Huron and a part of Mackinac county, Michigan,
and a city and summer resort of the same name on the island.
The city is on the S.E. shore, at the entrance of the Straits
of Mackinac, about 7 m. N.E. of Mackinaw City and 6 m. E.S.E.
of St Ignace. Pop. (ioo), 665; (1904), 736; (1910), 714.
During the summer season, when thousands of people come
256
McKINLEY
here to enjoy the cool and pure air and the island's beautiful
scenery, the city is served by the principal steamboat lines on
the Great Lakes and by ferry to Mackinaw city (pop. in 1904,
696), which is served by the Michigan Central, the Grand
Rapids & Indiana, and the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic
railways. The island is about 3 m. long by 2 m. wide. From
the remarkably clear water of Lake Huron its shores rise for
the most part in tall white limestone cliffs; inland there are
strangely shaped rocks and forests of cedar, pine, fir, spruce,
juniper, maple, oak, birch, and beech. Throughout the island
there are numerous glens, ravines, and caverns, some of which
are rich in associations with Indian legends. The city is an
antiquated fishing and trading village with modern hotels,
club-houses, and summer villas. Fort Mackinac and its grounds
are included in a state reservation which embraces about
one-half of the island.
The original name of the island was Michilimackinac (" place
of the big lame person " or " place of the big wounded person ") ;
the name was apparently derived from an Algonquian tribe,
the Mishinimaki or Mishinimakinagog, now extinct. The
island was long occupied by Chippewas, the Hurbns had a
village here for a short time after their expulsion from the
East by the Iroquois, and subsequently there was an Ottawa
village here. The first white settlement or station was established
by the French in 1670 (abandoned in 1701) at Point Saint Ignace
on the north side of the strait. In 1761 a fort on the south
side (built in 1712) was surrendered to the British. By the
treaty of Paris (1783) the right of the United States to this
district was acknowledged; but the fort was held by the
British until 1796. In July 1812 a British force surprised
the garrison, which had not yet learned that war had been
declared. In August 1814 an American force under Colonel
George Croghan (1791-1849) attempted to recapture the island
but was repulsed with considerable loss. By the treaty of Ghent,
however, the island was restored, in July 1815, to the United
States; Fort Mackinac was maintained by the Federal govern-
ment until 1895, when it was ceded to the state. From 1820
to 1840 the village was one of the principal stations of the
American Fur Company. A Congregational mission was
established among the Chippewas on the island in 1827, but
was discontinued before 1845. The city of Mackinac Island
was chartered in 1899.
See W. C. Richards, "The Fairy Isle of Mackinac," in the
Magazine of American History (July 1891); and R. G. Thwaites,
" The Story of Mackinac," in vol. 14 of the Collections of the State
Historical Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1898).
MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (1843-1001), twenty-fifth president
of the United States, was born in Niles, Trumbull county, Ohio,
on the 29th of January 1843. His ancestors on the paternal
side were Scotch-Irish who lived at Dervock, Co. Antrim, and
spelled the family name " McKinlay." His great-great-
grandfather settled in York county, Pennsylvania, about 1743,
and from Chester county, Pennsylvania, his great-grandfather,
David McKinley, who served as a private during the War
of Independence, moved to Ohio in 1814. David's son James
had gone in 1809 to Columbiana county, Ohio. His son William
McKinley (b. 1807), like his father an iron manufacturer, was
married in 1829 to Nancy Campbell Allison, and to them were
born nine children, of whom William, the president, was the
seventh. In 1852 the family removed to Poland, Mahoning
county, where the younger William was placed at school.
At seventeen he entered the junior class of Allegheny College,
at Meadville, Pennsylvania; but he studied beyond his strength,
and returned to Poland, where for a time he taught in a neigh-
bouring country school. When the Civil War broke out in
1861 he promptly enlisted as a private in the 23rd Ohio
Volunteer Infantry. He saw service in West Virginia, at
South Mountain, where this regiment lost heavily, and at
Antietam, where he brought up hot coffee and provisions to the
fighting line; for this he was promoted second lieutenant on
the 24th of September 1862. McKinley was promoted first
lieutenant in February 1864, and for his services at Winchester
was promoted captain on the 25th of July 1864. He was on
the staff of General George Crook at the battles of Opequan,
Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek in the Shenandoah valley, and
on the I4th of March 1865 was brevetted major of volunteers
for gallant and meritorious services. He also served on the
staff of General Rutherford B. Hayes, who spoke highly of his
soldierly qualities. He was mustered out with his regiment
on the 26th of July 1865. Four years of army life had changed
him from a pale and sickly lad into a man of superb figure
and health.
After the war McKinley returned to Poland, and bent all
his energy upon the study of law. He completed his prepara-
tory reading at the Albany (N.Y.) law school, and was admitted
to the bar at Warren, Ohio, in March 1867. On the advice
of an elder sister, who had been for several years a teacher
in Canton, Stark county, Ohio, he began his law practice in
that place, which was to be his permanent home. He identified
himself immediately with the Republican party, campaigned
in the Democratic county of Stark in favour of negro suffrage
in 1867, and took part in the campaign work on behalf of
Grant's presidential candidature in 1868. In the following
year he was elected prosecuting attorney on the Republican
ticket; in 1871 he failed of re-election by 45 votes, and again
devoted himself to his profession, while not relaxing his interest
in politics.
In 1875 he first became known as an able campaign speaker
by his speeches favouring the resumption of specie payments,
and in behalf of Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate
for governor of Ohio. In 1876 he was elected by a majority
of 3304 to the national House of Representatives. Conditions
both in Ohio and in Congress had placed him, and were to
keep him for twenty years, in an attitude of aggressive and
uncompromising partisanship. His Congressional district was
naturally Democratic, and its boundaries were changed two
or three times by Democratic legislatures for the purpose of
so grouping Democratic strongholds as to cause his defeat.
But he overcame what had threatened to be adverse majorities
on all occasions from 1876 to 1890, with the single exception
of 1882, when, although he received a certificate of election
showing that he had been re-elected by a majority of 8, and
although he served nearly through the long session of 1883-1884,
his seat was contested and taken (May 28, 1884) by his Demo-
cratic opponent, Jonathan H. Wallace. McKinley reflected
the strong sentiment of his manufacturing constituency in
behalf of a high protective tariff, and he soon became known
in Congress (where he particularly attracted the attention of
James G. Elaine) as one of the most diligent students of indus-
trial policy and question affecting national taxation. In
1878 he took part in the debates over the Wood Tariff Bill,
proposing lower import duties; and in the same year he voted
for the Bland- Allison Silver Bill. In December 1880 he was
appointed a member of the Ways and Means committee,
succeeding General James A. Garfield, who had been elected
president in the preceding month, and to whose friendship,
as to that of Rutherford B. Hayes, McKinley owed much in
his earlier years in Congress. He was prominent in the debate
which resulted in the defeat of the Democratic Morrison Tariff
Bill in 1884, and, as minority leader of the Ways and Means
committee, in the defeat of the Mills Bill for the revision of the
tariff in 1887-1888. In 1889 he became chairman of the Ways
and Means committee and Republican leader in the House
of Representatives, after having been defeated by Thomas
B. Reed on the third ballot in the Republican caucus for speaker
of the House. On the i6th of April 1890 he introduced from
the Ways and Means committee the tariff measure known
commonly as the McKinley Bill, which passed the House on
the 2ist of May, passed the Senate (in an amended form, with
a reciprocity clause, which McKinley had not been able to
get through the House) on the loth of September, was passed
as amended, by the House, and was approved by the president
on the ist of October 1890. The McKinley Bill reduced revenues
by its high and in many cases almost prohibitive duties; it
McKINLEY
257
put sugar on the free list with a discriminating duty of
of one cent a pound on sugar imported from countries giving
a bounty for sugar exported, and it gave bounties to American
sugar growers; it attempted to protect many " infant " industries
such as the manufacture of tin-plate; under its provision for
reciprocal trade agreements (a favourite project of James
(,. lilaine, who opposed many of the "protective" features
of the Bill) reciprocity treaties were made with Germany,
France, Italy, and Belgium, which secured a market in those
countries for American pork. Abroad, where the Bill made
McKinley's name known everywhere, there was bitter opposi-
tion to it and reprisals were threatened by several European
states. In the United States the McKinley Tariff Bill was
one of the main causes of the Democratic victory in the Con-
gressional elections of 1890, in which McKinley himself was
defeated by an extraordinary Democratic gerrymander of
his Congressional district. In November 1891 he was elected
governor of Ohio with a plurality of more than 21,000 votes
in a total of 795,000 votes cast. He was governor of Ohio in
1892-1895, being re-elected in 1893. His administration was
marked by no important events, except that he had on several
occasions in his second term to call out the militia of the state
to preserve order; but it may be considered important because
of the training it gave him in executive as distinguished from
legislative work.
McKinley had been prominent in national politics even
before the passage of the tariff measure bearing his name.
In 1888 in the National Republican Convention in Chicago
he was chairman of the committee on resolutions (i.e. the
platform committee) and was leader of the delegation from
Ohio, which had been instructed for John Sherman; after
James G. Blaine withdrew his name there was a movement,
begun by Republican congressmen, to nominate McKinley,
who received 16 votes on the seventh ballot, but passionately
refused to be a candidate, considering that his acquiescence
would be a breach of faith toward Sherman. In 1892 McKinley
was the permanent president of the National Republican
Convention which met in Minneapolis and which renominated
Benjamin Harrison on the first ballot, on which James G.
Blaine received 182 votes, and McKinley, in spite of his
efforts to the contrary, received 182 votes. In 1894 he made
an extended campaign tour before the Congressional elections,
and spoke even in the South. In 1896 he seemed for many
reasons the most " available " candidate of his party for the
presidency: he had no personal enemies in the party; he had
carried the crucial state of Ohio by a large majority in 1893;
his attitude on the coinage question had never been so pro-
nounced as to make him unpopular either with the radical
silver wing or with the conservative " gold-standard " members
of the party. The campaign for his nomination was conducted
with the greatest adroitness by his friend, Marcus A. Hanna,
and in the National Republican Convention held in St Louis
in June he was nominated for the presidency on the first ballot
by 66 1 J out of a total of 906 votes. The convention adopted
a tariff plank drafted by McKinley, and, of far greater im-
mediate importance, a plank, which declared that the
Republican party was " opposed to the free coinage of silver,
except by international agreement with the leading commercial
nations of the world, which we pledge ourselves to promote,
and until such agreement can be obtained the existing gold
standard must be preserved." This " gold standard " plank
drove out of the Republican party the Silver Republicans of
the West, headed by Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado.
The Republican convention nominated for the vice-presidency
Garrett A. Hobart of New Jersey. The National Democratic
Convention declared for the immediate opening of the mints
to the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio with
gold of 16 to i; and it nominated for the presidency William
Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, who also received the nomination
of the People's party and of the National Silver party. There
was a secession from the Democratic party of conservatives
who called themselves the National Democratic party, who
xvu. Q
were commonly called Gold Democrats, and who nominated
John M. Palmer (1817-1900) of Illinois for president. In
this re-alignment of parties McKinley, who had expected to
make the campaign on the issue of a high protective tariff,
was diverted to the defence of the gold standard as the main
issue. While his opponent travelled throughout the country
making speeches, McKinley remained in Canton, where he
was visited by and addressed many Republican delegations.
The campaign was enthusiastic: the Republican candidate
was called the " advance agent of prosperity "; " Bill McKinley
and the McKinley Bill " became a campaign cry; the panic of
1893 was charged to the repeal of the McKinley tariff measure;
and " business men " throughout the states were enlisted
in the cause of " sound money " to support McKinley, who
was elected in November by a popular vote of 7,106,779 to
6,502,925 for Bryan, and by an electoral vote of 271 to 176.
McKinley was inaugurated president of the United States
on the 4th of March 1897. The members of his cabinet were:
secretary of state, John Sherman (whose appointment created
a vacancy in the Senate to which Marcus A. Hanna was elected),
who was succeeded in April 1898 by William R. Day, who in
turn was followed in September 1898 by John Hay; secretary
of the treasury, Lyman J. Gage, a Gold Democrat; secretary
of war, Russell A. Alger, who was succeeded in 1899 by Elihu
Root; secretary of the navy, John D. Long; attorney-general,
Joseph McKenna, succeeded in January 1898 by John William
Griggs; postmaster-general, James A. Gary, succeeded in
April 1898 by Charles Emory Smith; secretary of the interior,
Cornelius N. Bliss, succeeded in February 1899 by Ethan Allen
Hitchcock; and secretary of agriculture, James Wilson, (For
the political history of McKinley's administration see UNITED
STATES: History). Immediately after his inauguration the
president summoned Congress to assemble in an extra session
on the isth of March. The Democratic tariff in 1893 had
been enacted as part of the general revenue measure, which
included an income-tax. The income-tax having been declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, the measure had failed
to produce a sufficient revenue, and it had been necessary to
increase the public debt. McKinley's message to the new
Congress dwelt upon the necessity of an immediate revision
of the tariff and revenue system of the country, and the
so-called Dingley TariS Bill was accordingly passed through
both houses, and was approved by the president on the 24th
of July.
The regular session of Congress which opened in December
was occupied chiefly with the situation in Cuba. President
McKinley showed himself singularly patient and self-controlled
in the midst of the popular excitement against Spain and the
clamour for intervention by the United States in behalf of
the Cubans; but finally, on the 23rd of March, he presented
an ultimatum to the Spanish government, and on the 25th
of April, on his recommendation, Congress declared war upon
Spain. During the war itself he devoted himself with great
energy to the mastery of military details; but there was bitter
criticism of the war department resulting in the resignation
of the secretary of war, Russell A. Alger (q.v.). The signing
of a peace protocol on the I2th of August was followed by
the signature at Paris on the loth of December of articles
of peace between the United States and Spain. After a long
discussion the peace treaty was ratified by the United States
Senate on the 6th of February 1899; and in accordance with
its terms Porto Rico, the Philippine Archipelago, and Guam
were transferred by Spain to the United States, and Cuba
came under American jurisdiction pending the establishment
there of an independent government. Two days before the
ratification of the peace treaty, a conflict took place between
armed Filipinos under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo
and the American forces that were in possession of Manila.
The six months that had elapsed between the signing of the peace
protocol and the ratification of the treaty had constituted
a virtual interregnum, Spain's authority having been practi-
cally destroyed in the Philippines and that of the United States
2 5 8
McKINLEY
not having begun. In this period a formidable native Filipino
army had been organized and a provisional government created.
The warfare waged by these Filipinos against the United States,
while having for the most part a desultory and guerilla character,
was of a very protracted and troublesome nature. Sovereignty
over the Filipinos having been accepted by virtue of the ratifi-
cation of the Paris treaty, President McKinley was not at
liberty to do otherwise than assert the authority of the United
States and use every endeavour to suppress the insurrection.
But there was bitter protest against this " imperialism," both
within the party by such men as Senators George F. Hoar and
Eugene Hale, and Thomas B. Reed and Carl Schurz. and,
often for purely political reasons, from the leaders of the Demo-
cratic party. In the foreign relations of the United States,
as directed by President McKinley, the most significant change
was the cordial understanding established with the British
government, to which much was contributed by his secretary
of state, John Hay, appointed to that portfolio when he was
ambassador to the court of St James, and which was due to
some extent to the friendliness of the British press and even
more markedly of the British navy in the Pacific during the
Spanish War. Other important foreign events during
McKinley 's administration were: the annexation of the Hawai-
ian Islands (see HAWAII) in August 1898, and the formation of
the Territory of Hawaii in April 1900; the cessation in 1899
of the tripartite (German, British, and French) government
of the Samoan Islands, and the annexation by the United
States of those of the islands east of 171, including the harbour
of Pago-Pago; the participation of American troops in the
march of the allies on Pekin in August 1900, and the part played
by McKinley's secretary of state, John Hay, in securing a
guarantee of the integrity of the Chinese empire. In 1900
McKinley was unanimously renominated by the National
Republican Convention which met in Philadelphia on the
igth of June, and which nominated Theodore Roosevelt,
governor of New York, for the vice-presidency. The Republi-
can convention demanded the maintenance of the gold standard,
and pointed to the fulfilment of some of the most important
of the pledges given by the Republican party four years earlier.
The intervening period had been one of very exceptional pros-
perity in the United States, foreign commerce having reached
an unprecedented volume, and agriculture and manufactures
having made greater advancement than in any previous period
of the country's history. The tendency towards the concen-
tration of capital in great industrial corporations had been
active to an extent previously undreamt of, with incidental
consequences that had aroused much apprehension; and the
Democrats accused President McKinley and the Republican
party of having fostered the " trusts." But the campaign
against McKinley and the Republican party was not only
" anti-trust " but " anti-imperialistic." William Jennings
Bryan, renominated by the Democratic party in July (and in
May by the Fusion People's party) on a free silver platform,
declared that imperialism was the " paramount issue " and
made a second vigorous campaign; and the opposition to
McKinley's re-election, whether based on opposition to his
economic or to his foreign policy, was not entirely outside
of his own party. As the result of the polling in November,
292 Republican presidential electors were chosen, and 155
Democratic electors, elected in Colorado, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, and the Southern states, represented the final strength
of the Bryan and Stevenson ticket. The Republican popular
vote was 7,207,923, and the Democratic 6,358,133. Since
1872 no president had been re-elected for a second consecutive
term.
In the term of Congress immediately following the presidential
election it was found possible to reduce materially the war taxes
which had been levied on the outbreak of the Spanish-American
War. Arrangements were perfected for the termination of the
American military occupation of Cuba and the inauguration
of a Cuban Republic as a virtual protectorate of the United
States, the American government having arranged with the
Cuban constitutional convention for the retention of certain
naval stations on the Cuban coast. In the Philippines advanced
steps had been taken in the substitution of civil government for
military occupation, and a governor-general, Judge William H.
Taft, had been appointed and sent to Manila. Prosperity at
home was great, and foreign relations were free from compli-
cations. The problems which had devolved upon McKinley's
administration had been far advanced towards final settlement.
He retained without change the cabinet of his first administra-
tion. After an arduous and anxious term, the president had
reached a period that promised to give him comparative repose
and freedom from care. He had secured, through the co-
operation of Congress, the permanent reorganization of the army
and a very considerable development of the navy. In these
circumstances, President McKinley, accompanied by the greater
part of his cabinet, set forth in the early summer on a tour to
visit the Pacific coast, where he was to witness the launching
of the battleship " Ohio " at San Francisco. The route chosen
was through the Southern states, where many stops were made,
and where the president delivered brief addresses.' The
heartiness of the welcome accorded him seemed to mark the
disappearance of the last vestige of sectional feeling that had
survived the Civil War, in which McKinley had participated as
a young man. After his return he spent a month in a visit at
his old home in Canton, Ohio, and at the end of this visit, by
previous arrangement, he visited the city of Buffalo, New York,
in order to attend the Pan-American exposition and deliver a
public address. This address (Sept. 5, 1901) was a public
utterance designed by McKinley to affect American opinion and
public policy, and apparently to show that he had modified his
views upon the tariff. > It declared that henceforth the progress
of the nations must be through harmony and co-operation, in
view of the fast-changing conditions of communication and
trade, and it maintained that the time had come for wide-
reaching modifications in the tariff policy of the United States,
the method preferred by McKinley being that of commercial
reciprocity arrangements with various nations. On the
following day, the 6th of September 1901, a great reception
was held for President McKinley in one of the public buildings
of the exposition, all sorts and conditions of men being welcome.
Advantage of this opportunity was taken by a young man of
Polish parentage, by name Leon Czolgosz, to shoot at the presi-
dent with a revolver at close range. One of the two bullets
fired penetrated the abdomen. After the world had been
assured that the patient was doing well and would recover,
he collapsed and died on the I4th. The assassin, who, it was
for a time supposed, had been inflamed by the editorials and
cartoons of the demagogic opposition press, but who professed
to hold the views of that branch of anarchists who believe in
the assassination of rulers and persons exercising political
authority, was promptly seized, and was convicted and executed
in October 1901. McKinley's conduct and utterances in his
last days revealed a loftiness of personal character that every-
where elicited admiration and praise. Immediately after his-
death Vice-President Roosevelt took the oath of office, announc-
ing that it would be his purpose to continue McKinley's policy,
while also retaining the cabinet and the principal officers of the
government. McKinley's funeral took place at Canton, Ohio,
on the 1 9th of September, the occasion being remarkable for
the public manifestations of mourning, not only in the United
States, but in Great Britain and other countries; in Canton a
memorial tomb has been erected.
Though he had not the personal magnetism of James G.
Elaine, whom he succeeded as a leader of the Republican party
and whose views of reciprocity he formally adopted in his last
public address, McKinley had great personal suavity and
dignity, and was thoroughly well liked by his party colleagues.
As a politician he was always more the people's representative
than their leader, and that he " kept his ear to the ground"
was the source of much of his power and at the same time was
his greatest weakness: his address at Buffalo the day before
his assassination seems to voice his appreciation of the change
McKINNEY MACKLIN
259
in popular sentiment regarding the tariff laws of the United
States and is the more remarkable as coming from the foremost
champion for years of a form of tariff legislation devised
to stifle international competition. His apparently incon-
sistent record on the coinage question becomes consistent if
considered in the same way, as the expression of the gradually
changing views of his constituency. And it may not be fanciful
to suggest that the obvious growth of McKinley in breadth and
power during his term as president was due to his being the
representative of a larger constituency, less local and less narrow-
minded. He was an able but far from brilliant campaign
speaker. His greatest administrative gift was a fine intuition
in choosing men to serve him. McKinley's private life was
irreproachable; and very fine was his devotion to his wife,
Ida Saxton (d. 1907), whom he had married in Canton in 1871,
who was throughout his political career a confirmed invalid.
He was from his early manhood a prominent member of the
Methodist Episcopal Church.
His Speeches and Addresses were printed in two volumes (New
York, 1893 and 1901).
McKINNEY, a city and the county-seat of Collin county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 30 m. N. by E. of Dallas. Pop. (1890),
2489; (1900), 4342 (917 negroes); (1910) 4714. It is served
by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Houston & Texas
Central railways, and by the Dallas & Sherman inter-urban
(electric) line, the central power plant of which is immediately
north of the city. McKinney is in a fine farming region; there
are also manufactures. The municipal water supply is obtained
from artesian wells. The first settlement in Collin county was
made about 10 m. north of what is now McKinney in 1841.
McKinney was named, as was the county, in honour of Collin
McKinney, a pioneer in the region and a signer of the Declara-
tion of the Independence of Texas. It was settled in 1844,
was laid out and became the county-seat in 1846, and was first
chartered as a city in 1874.
MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES (1765-1832), Scottish publicist,
was born at Aldourie, 7 m. from Inverness, on the 24th of October
1765. He came of old Highland families on both sides. He
went in 1780 to college at Aberdeen, where he made a friend
of Robert Hall, afterwards the famous preacher. In 1784 he
proceeded for the study of medicine to Edinburgh, where he
participated to the full in the intellectual ferment, but did
not quite neglect his medical studies, and took his degree in
1787.
In 1788 Mackintosh removed to London, then agitated by
the trial of Warren Hastings and the king's first lapse into
insanity. He was much more interested in these and other
political events than in his professional prospects; and his
attention was specially directed to the events and tendencies
which caused or preceded the Revolution in France. In 1789
he married his first wife, Catherine Stuart, whose brother
Daniel afterwards became editor of the Morning Post. His
wife's prudence was a corrective to his own unpractical tem-
perament, and his efforts in journalism became fairly profitable.
Mackintosh was soon absorbed in the question of the time;
and in April 1791, after long meditation, he published his
Vindiciae Gallicae, a reply to Burke's Reflections on the French
Revolution. It was the only worthy answer to Burke that
appeared. It placed the author in the front rank of European
publicists, and won him the friendship of some of the most
distinguished men of the time, including Burke himself. The
success of the Vindiciae finally decided him to give up the
medical for the legal profession. He was called to the bar in
1795. and gained a considerable reputation there as well as a
tolerable practice. In 1797 his wife died, and next year he
married Catherine Allen, sister-in-law of Josiah and John
Wedgwood, through whom he introduced Coleridge to the
torning Post. As a lawyer his greatest public efforts were his
lectures (1799) at Lincoln's Inn on the law of nature and nations,
of which the introductory discourse was published, and his
eloquent defence (1803) of Jean Gabriel Peltier, a French
refugee, tried at the instance of the French government for a
libel against the first consul. In 1803 he was knighted, and
received the post of recorder at Bombay. The spoilt child
of London society was not at home in India, and he was glad
to return to England, where he arrived in 1812.
He courteously declined the offer of Perceval to resume
political life under the auspices of the dominant Tory party,
though tempting prospects of office in connexion with India
were opened up. He entered parliament in the Whig interest
as member for Nairn. He sat for that county, and afterwards
for Knaresborough, till his death. In London society, and in
Paris during his occasional visits, he was a recognized favourite
for his genial wisdom and his great conversational power.
On Mme de Stael's visit to London he was the only Englishman
capable . of representing his country in talk with her. His
parliamentary career was marked by the same wide and candid
liberalism as his private life. He opposed the reactionary
measures of the Tory government, supported and afterwards
succeeded Romilly in his efforts for reforming the criminal
code, and took a leading part both in Catholic emancipation
and in the Reform Bill. But he was too little of a partisan,
too widely sympathetic and candid, as well as too elaborate,
to be a telling speaker in parliament, and was consequently
surpassed by more practical men whose powers were incom-
parably inferior. From 1818 to 1824 he was professor of law
and general politics in the East India Company's College at
Haileybury.
In the midst of the attractions of London society and of his
parliamentary avocations Mackintosh felt that the real work
of his life was being neglected. His great ambition was to
write a history of England. His studies both in English and
foreign speculation led him to cherish the design also of making
some worthy contribution to philosophy. It was not till 1828
that he set about the first task of his literary ambition. This
was the Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, pre-
fixed to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The dissertation, written mostly in ill-health and in snatches
of time taken from his parliamentary engagements, was pub-
lished in 1831. It was severely attacked in 1835 by James
Mill in his Fragment on Mackintosh. About the same time he
wrote for the Cabinet Cyclopaedia a " History of England from
the Earliest Times to the Final Establishment of the Refor-
mation." His more elaborate History of the Revolution, for
which he had made great researches and collections, was not
published till after his death. Already a privy councillor,
Mackintosh was appointed commissioner for the affairs of India
under the Whig administration of 1830. He died on the 3Oth
of May 1832.
Mackintosh was undoubtedly one of the most cultured and
catholic-minded men of his time. His studies and sympathies
embraced almost every human interest, except pure science.
But the width of his intellectual sympathies, joined to a con-
stitutional indecision and vis inertiae, prevented him from doing
more enduring work. Vindiciae Gallicae was the verdict of a
philosophic Liberal on the development of the French Revolu-
tion up to the spring of 1791, and though the excesses of the
revolutionists compelled him a few years after to express his
entire agreement with the opinions of Burke, its defence of the
" rights of man " is a valuable statement of the cultured Whig's
point of view at the time. The History of the Revolution in
England, breaking off at the point where William of Orange is
preparing to intervene in the affairs of England, is chiefly
interesting because of Macaulay's admiring essay on it and its
author.
A Life, by his son R. J. Mackintosh, was published in 1836.
MACKLIN, CHARLES (c. 1690-1797), Irish actor and play-
wright, whose real name was McLaughlin, was born in Ireland,
and had an adventurous youth before coming to Bristol, where
hie made his first appearance on the stage as Richmond in
Richard III. He was at Lincoln's Inn Fields about 1725, and
'733 was at Drury Lane, where the quarrel between the
manager and the principal actors resulted in his getting better
Darts. When the trouble was over and these were taken from
260
MACK VON LEIBERICH MACLAREN, C.
him, he went to the Haymarket, but he returned in 1734 to
Drury Lane and acted there almost continuously until 1748.
Then for two seasons he and his wife (d. c. 1758), an excellent
actress, were in Dublin under Sheridan, then back in London
at Covent Garden. He played a great number of characters,
principally in comedy, although Shylock was his greatest part,
and lago and the Ghost in Hamlet were in his repertory. At
the end of 1753 Macklin bade farewell to the stage to open a
tavern, near the theatre, where he personally supervised the
serving of dinner. He also delivered an evening lecture, followed
by a debate, which was soon a hopeless subject of ridicule. The
tavern failed, and Macklin returned to the stage, and played for
a number of years in London and Dublin. His quick temper got
him into constant trouble. In a foolish quarrel over a wig in
1735 he killed a fellow actor in the green-room at Drury Lane,
and he was constantly at law over his various contracts and
quarrels. The bitterest of these arose on account of his appear-
ing as Macbeth at Covent Garden in 1772. The part was usually
played there by William Smith, and the public would not brook
a change. A few nights later the audience refused to hear
Macklin as Shylock, and shouted their wish, in response to the
manager's question, to have him discharged. This was done
in order to quell the riot. His lawsuit, well conducted by him-
self, against the leaders of the disturbance resulted in an award
of 600 and costs, but Macklin magnanimously elected instead
that the defendants should take 100 in tickets at three benefits
for himself, his daughter and the management. He returned
to Covent Garden, but his appearances thereafter were less
frequent, ending in 1789, when as Shylock, at his benefit, he was
only able to begin the play, apologize for his wandering memory,
and retire. He lived until the nth of July 1797, and his last
years were provided for by a subscription edition of two of his
best plays, The Man of (he World and Love in a Maze.
Macklin 's daughter, Mary Macklin (c. 1734-1781), was a
well-known actress in her day.
See Edward A. Parry, Charles Macklin (1891).
MACK VON LEIBERICH, KARL, FREIHERR (175271828),
Austrian soldier, was born at Nenslingen, in Bavaria, on the
25th of August 1752. In 1770 he joined an Austrian cavalry
regiment, in which his uncle, Leiberich, was a squadron com-
mander, becoming an officer seven years later. During the
brief war of the Bavarian Succession he was selected for service
on the staff of Count Kinsky, under whom, and subsequently
under the commander-in-chief Field Marshal Count Lacy, he
did excellent work. He was promoted first lieutenant in 1778,
and captain on the quartermaster-general's staff in 1783.
Count Lacy, then the foremost soldier of the Austrian army,
had the highest opinion of his young assistant. In 1785 Mack
married Katherine Gabrieul, and was ennobled under the
name of Mack von Leiberich. In the Turkish war he was
employed on the headquarter staff, becoming in 1788 major and
personal aide-de-camp to the emperor, and in 1789 lieutenant-
colonel. He distinguished himself greatly in the storming of
Belgrade. Shortly after this, disagreements between Mack and
Loudon, now commander-in-chief, led to the former's demanding
a court-martial and leaving the front. He was, however, given
a colonelcy (1789) and the order of Maria Theresa, and in 1790
Loudon and Mack, having become reconciled, were again on the
field together. During these campaigns Mack received a severe
injury to his head, from which he never fully recovered. In
1 793 he was made quartermaster-general (chief of staff) to Prince
Josias of Saxe-Coburg, commanding in the Netherlands; and
he enhanced his reputation by the ensuing campaign. The
young Archduke Charles, who won his own first laurels in the
action of the ist of March 1793, wrote after the battle, " Above
all we have to thank Colonel Mack for these successes." Mack
distinguished himself again on the field of Neerwinden; and
had a leading part in the negotiations between Coburg and
Dumouriez. He continued to serve as quartermaster-general,
and was now made titular chief (Inhaber)oi a cuirassier regiment.
He received a wound at Famars, but in 1794 was once more
engaged, having at last been made a major-general. But the
failure of the allies, due though it was to political and military
factors and ideas, over which Mack had no control, was ascribed
to him, as their successes of March-April 1 793 had been, and he
fell into disfavour in consequence. In 1797 he was promoted
lieutenant field marshal, and in the following year he accepted,
at the personal request of the emperor, the command of the
Neapolitan army. But with the unpromising material of his
new command he could do nothing against the French revo-
lutionary troops, and before long, being in actual danger of
being murdered by his men, he took refuge in the French camp.
He was promised a free pass to his own country, but Napoleon
ordered that he should be sent to France as a prisoner of war.
Two years later he escaped from Paris in disguise. The allega-
tion that he broke his parole is false. He was not employed for
some years, but in 1804, when the war party in the Austrian
court needed a general to oppose the peace policy of the Arch-
duke Charles, Mack was made quartermaster-general of the army,
with instructions to prepare for a war with France. He did all
that was possible within the available time to reform the army,
and on the opening of the war of 1805 he was made quarter-
master-general to the titular commander-in-chief in Germany,
the Archduke Ferdinand. He was the real responsible com-
mander of the army which opposed Napoleon in Bavaria, but
his position was ill-defined and his authority treated with slight
respect by the other general officers. For the events of the Ulm
campaign and an estimate of Mack's responsibility for the
disaster, see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. After Austerlitz, Mack
was tried by a court-martial, sitting from February 1806 to
June 1807, and sentenced to be deprived of his rank, his regiment,
and the order of Maria Theresa, and to be imprisoned for two
years. He was released in 1808, and in 1819, when the ultimate
victory of the allies had obliterated the memory of earlier
disasters, he was, at the request of Prince Schwarzenberg, re-
instated in the army as lieutenant field marshal and a member
of the order of Maria Theresa. He died on the 22nd of October
1828 at S. Pplten.
See Schweigerd, Oesterreichs Helden (Vienna, 1854); Wurzbach,
Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserthums Oesterr. (Vienna, 1867); Ritter von
Rittersberg, Biogr. d. ausgezeichneten Feldherren d. oest. Armee
(Prague, 1828); Raumer's Hist. Taschenbuch (1873) contains Mack's
vindication. A short critical memoir will be found in Streffleur for
January 1907.
McLANE, LOUIS (1786-1857), American political leader,
was born in Smyrna, Delaware, on the 28th of May 1786, son
of Allan McLane (1746-1829), a well-known Revolutionary
soldier. He was admitted to the bar in 1807. He entered
politics as a Democrat, and served in the Federal House of
Representatives in 1817-1827 and in the Senate in 1827-1829.
He was minister to England in 1820-1831, and secretary of the
treasury in Jackson's cabinet from 1831 (when in his annual
report he argued for the United States Bank) until May 1833,
when he was transferred to the state department. He retired
from the cabinet in June 1834. He was president of the Balti-
more & Ohio railway in 1837-1847, minister to England in
1845-1846, and delegate to the Maryland constitutional conven-
tion of 1850-1851. He died in Baltimore, Maryland, on the
7th of October 1857.
His son, ROBERT MILLIGAN McLANE (1815-1898), graduated
at West Point in 1837, resigned from the army in 1843, and
practised law in Baltimore. He was a Democratic represent-
ative in Congress in 1847-1851 and again in 1879-1883,
governor of Maryland in 1884-1885, U.S. commissioner to China
in 1853-1854, and minister to Mexico in 1850-1860 and to
France in 1885-1889.
See R. M. McLane's Reminiscences, 1827-1897 (privately printed,
1897).
MACLAREN, CHARLES (1782-1866), Scottish editor, was
born at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire, on the 7th of October 1782,
the son of a farmer and cattle-dealer. He was almost entirely
self-educated, and when a young man became a clerk in Edin-
burgh. In 1817, with others, he established the Scotsman news-
paper in Edinburgh and at first acted as its editor. Offered a
post as clerk in the custom house, he resigned his editorial
MACLAREN, IAN M'LENNAN
261
position, resuming it in 1820, and resigning it again in 1845.
In 1820 Maclaren was made editor of the sixth edition of the
Km- \clopaedia Britannica. From 1864-1866 he was president
of the Geological Society of Edinburgh, in which city he died
on the loth of September 1866.
MACLAREN, IAN, the pseudonym of JOHN WATSON (1850-
1907), Scottish author and divine. The son of John Watson,
a civil servant, he was born at Manningtree, Essex, on the 3rd
of November 1850, and was educated at Stirling and at Edin-
burgh University, afterwards studying theology at New College,
Kdinburgh, and at Tubingen. In 1874 he entered the ministry
of the Free Church of Scotland and became assistant minister
of Barclay Church, Edinburgh. Subsequently he was minister
at Logiealmond in Perthshire and at Glasgow, and in 1880 he
became minister of Sefton Park Presbyterian church, Liverpool,
from which he retired in 1905. In 1896 he was Lyman Beecher
lecturer at Yale University, and in 1900 he was moderator of the
synod of the English Presbyterian church. While travelling
in America he died at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 6th of
May 1907. Ian Maclaren's first sketches of rural Scottish life,
Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush (1894), achieved extraordinary
popularity and were followed by other successful books, The
Days of Auld Lang Syne (1895), Kate Carnegie and those Ministers
(1896) and Afterwards and other Stories (1898). Under his own
name Watson published several volumes of sermons, among them
being The Upper Room (1895); The Mind of the Master (1896)
and The Potter's Wheel (1897).
See Sir W. Robertson Nicoll, Ian Maclaren (1908).
MACLAURIN, COLIN (1698-1746), Scottish mathematician,
was the son of a clergyman, and born at Kilmodan, Argyllshire.
In 1 709 he entered the university of Glasgow, where he exhibited
a decided genius for mathematics, more especially for geometry;
it is said that before the end of his sixteenth year he had dis-
covered many of the theorems afterwards published in his
Geometria organica. In 1717 he was elected professor of mathe-
matics in Marischal College, Aberdeen, as the result of a com-
petitive examination. Two years later he was admitted F.R.S.
and made the acquaintance of Sir Isaac Newton. In 1719 he
published his Geometria organica, sive descriptio linearum
curvarum uniwrsalis. In it Maclaurin developed several theo-
rems due to Newton, and introduced the method of generating
conies which bears his name, and showed that many curves
of the third and fourth degrees can be described by the inter-
section of two movable angles. In 1721 he wrote a supplement
to the Geometria organica, which he afterwards published, with
extensions, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1735. This
paper is principally based on the following general theorem,
which is a remarkable extension of Pascal's hexagram: "If a
polygon move so that each of its sides passes through a fixed
point, and if all its summits except one describe curves of the
degrees m, n, p, &c., respectively, then the free summit moves
on a curve of the degree imnp .... which reduces to mnp ....
when the fixed points all lie on a right line." In 1722 Maclaurin
travelled as tutor and companion to the eldest son of Lord
Polwarth, and after a short stay in Paris resided for some time
in Lorraine, where he wrote an essay on the percussion of bodies,
which obtained the prize of the French Academy of Sciences
for the year 1724. The following year he was elected professor
of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh on the urgent
recommendation of Newton. After the death of Newton, in
1728, his nephew, John Conduitt, applied to Maclaurin for his
assistance in publishing an. account of Newton's life and dis-
coveries. This Maclaurin gladly undertook, but the death of
Conduitt put a stop to the project.
In 1740 Maclaurin divided with Leonhard Euler and Daniel
Bernoulli the prize offered by the French Academy of Sciences
for an essay on tides. His Treatise on Fluxions was published
at Edinburgh in 1742, in two volumes. In the preface he states
that the work was undertaken in consequence of the attack on
the method of fluxions made by George Berkeley in 1734.
Madaurin's object was to found the doctrine of fluxions on
geometrical demonstration, and thus to answer all objections
to its method as being founded on false reasoning and full
of mystery. The most valuable part of the work is that devoted
to physical applications, in which he embodied his essay
on the tides. In this he showed that a homogeneous fluid
mass revolving uniformly round an axis under the action of
gravity ought to assume the form of an ellipsoid of revo-
lution. The importance of this investigation in connexion
with the theory of the tides, the figure of the earth, and other
kindred questions, has always caused it to be regarded as
one of the great problems of mathematical physics. Maclaurin
was the first to introduce into mechanics, in this discussion, the
important conception of surfaces of level; namely, surfaces at
each of whose points the total force acts in the normal direction.
He also gave in his Fluxions, for the first time, the correct theory
for distinguishing between maxima and minima in general, and
pointed out the importance of the distinction in the theory of the
multiple points of curves. In 1743, when the rebels were march-
ing on Edinburgh, Maclaurin took a most prominent part in
preparing trenches and barricades for its defence. The anxiety,
fatigue and cold to which he was thus exposed, affecting a con-
stitution naturally weak, laid the foundation of the disease to
which he afterwards succumbed. As soon as the rebel army
got possession of Edinburgh Maclaurin fled to England, to avoid
making submission to the Pretender. He accepted the invita-
tion of T. Herring, then archbishop of York, with whom he re-
mained until it was safe to return to Edinburgh. He died of
dropsy on the i4th of June 1746, at Edinburgh. Maclaurin was
married in 1 233 to Anne, daughter of Welter Stewart, solicitor-
general for Scotland. His eldest son John, born in 1734, was
distinguished as an advocate, and appointed one of the judges
of the Scottish court of session, with the title of Lord Dreghorn.
He inherited an attachment to scientific discovery, and was
one of the founders of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in
1782.
After Maclaurin's death his account of Newton's philosophical
discoveries was published by Patrick Murdoch, and also his algebra
in 1748. As an appendix to the latter appeared his De linearum
geometricarum proprielatibus generalibus tractatus, a treatise of re-
markable elegance. Of the more immediate successors of Newton
in Great Britain Maclaurin is probably the only one who can be placed
in competition with the great mathematicians of the continent of
Europe at the time. (B. W.)
M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSON (1827-1881), Scottish ethnolo-
gist, was born at Inverness.on the I4th of October 1827. He
studied at King's college, Aberdeen, where he graduated with
distinction in 1849, thence proceeding to Cambridge, where he
remained till 1855 without taking a degree. He was called to
the Scottish bar in 1857, and in 1871 was appointed parlia-
mentary draughtsman for Scotland. In 1865 he published
Primitive Marriage, in which, arguing from the prevalence of
the symbolical form of capture in the marriage ceremonies of
primitive races, he developed an intelligible picture of the
growth of the marriage relation and of systems of kinship (see
FAMILY) according to natural laws. In 1866 he wrote in the
Fortnightly Review (April and May) an essay on " Kinship in
Ancient Greece," in which he proposed to test by early Greek
facts the theory of the history of kinship set forth in Primitive
Marriage; and three years later appeared a series of essays on
" Totemism " in the same periodical for 1869-1870 (the germ of
which had been contained in the paper just named), which mark
the second great step in his systematic study of early society.
A reprint of Primitive Marriage, with " Kinship in Ancient
Greece " and some other essays not previously published, ap-
peared in 1876, under the title of Studies in Ancient History.
The new essays in this volume were mostly critical, but one of
them, in which perhaps his guessing talent is seen at its best,
" The Divisions of the Irish Family," is an elaborate discussion
of a problem which has long puzzled both Celtic scholars and
jurists; and in another, " On the Classificatory System of
Relationship," he propounded a new explanation of a series of
facts which, he thought, might throw light upon the early
history of society, at the same time putting to the test of those
facts the theories he had set forth in Primitive Marriage. Papers
262
MACLEOD, H. D. MACLISE
on " The Levirate and Polyandry," following up the line of his
previous investigations (Fortnightly Review, 1877), were the last
work he was able to publish. He died of consumption on the
I4th of June 1881 at Hayes Common, Kent.
Besides the works already cited, M'Lennan wrote a Life of Thomas
Drummond (1867). The vast materials which he had accumulated
on kinship were edited by his widow and A. Platt, under the title
Studies in Ancient History: Second Series (1896).
MACLEOD, HENRY DUNNING (1821-1902), Scottish econo-
mist, was born in Edinburgh, and educated at Eton, Edinburgh
University, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated
in 1843. He travelled in Europe, and in 1849 was called to
the English bar. He was employed in Scotland on the work of
poor-law reform, and devoted himself to the study of economics.
In 1856 he published his Theory and Practice of Banking, in
1858 Elements of Political Economy, and in 1859 A Dictionary
of Political Economy. In 1873 appeared his Principles of
Economist Philosophy, and other books on economics and
banking were published later. Between 1868 and 1870 he was
employed by the government in digesting and codifying the
law of bills of exchange. He died on the i6th of July 1902.
Macleod's principal contribution to the study of economics
consists in his work on the theory of credit, to which he was
the first to give due prominence.
For a judicious discussion of the value of Macleod's writings,
see an article on " The Revolt against Orthodox Economics " in the
Quarterly Review for October 1901 (No. 388).
MACLEOD, NORMAN (1812-1872), Scottish divine, son of
Rev. Norman Macleod (1783-1862), and grandson of Rev.
Norman Macleod, minister of Morven, Argyllshire, was born at
Campbeltown on the 3rd of June 1812. In 1827 he became a
student at Glasgow University, and in 1831 went to Edinburgh
to study divinity under Dr Thomas Chalmers. On the i8th of
March 1838 he became parish minister at Loudoun, Ayrshire.
At this time the troubles in the Scottish Church were already
gathering to a head (see FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND). Macleod,
although he had no love for lay patronage, and wished the
Church to be free to do its proper work, clung firmly to the idea
of a national Established Church, and therefore remained in
the Establishment when the disruption took place. He was
one of those who took a middle course in the non-intrusion
controversy, holding that the fitness of those who were presented
to parishes should be judged by the presbyteries the principle
of Lord Aberdeen's Bill. On the secession of 1843 he was
offered many different parishes, and having finally settled at
Dalkeith, devoted himself to parish work and to questions affect-
ing the Church as a whole. He was largely instrumental in the
work of strengthening the Church. In 1847 he became one of
the founders of the Evangelical Alliance, and from 1849 edited
the Christian Instructor (Edinburgh). In 1851 he was called to
the Barony church, Glasgow, in which city the rest of his days
were passed. There the more liberal theology rapidly made way
among a people who judged it more by its fruits than its argu-
ments, and Macleod won many adherents by his practical
schemes for the social improvement of the people. He instituted
temperance refreshment rooms, a congregational penny sav-
ings bank, and held services specially for the poor. In 1860
Macleod was appointed editor of the new monthly magazine
Good Words. Under his control the magazine, which was
mainly of a religious character, became widely popular. His
own literary work, nearly all of which originally appeared in
its pages sermons, stories, travels, poems was only a by-
product of a busy life. By far his best work was the spontaneous
and delightful Reminiscences of a Highland Parish (1867). While
Good Words made his name known, and helped the cause he had
so deeply at heart, his relations with the queen and the royal
family strengthened yet further his position in the country.
Never since Principal Carstairs had any Scottish clergyman
been on such terms with his sovereign. In 1865 he risked an
encounter with Scottish Sabbatarian ideas. The presbytery of
Glasgow issued a pastoral letter on the subject of Sunday trains
and other infringements of the Sabbath. Macleod protested
against the grounds on which its strictures were based. For
a time, owing partly to a misleading report of his statement, he
became " the man in all Scotland most profoundly distrusted."
But four years later the Church accorded him the highest honour
in her power by choosing him as moderator of her general
assembly. In 1867, along with Dr Archibald Watson, he was
sent to India, to inquire into the state of the missions. He
undertook the journey in spite of failing health, and seems never
to have recovered from its effects. He returned resolved to
devote the rest of his days to rousing the Church to her duty in
the sphere of foreign missions, but his health was now broken,
and his old energy flagged. He died on the i6th of June 1872,
and was buried at Campsie. He was one of the greatest of
Scottish religious leaders, a man of wide sympathy and high
ideals. His Glasgow church was named after him the " Macleod
Parish Church," and the " Macleod Missionary Institute " was
erected by the Barony church in Glasgow. Queen Victoria gave
two memorial windows to Crathie church as a testimony of her
admiration for his work.
See Memoir of Norman Macleod, by his brother, Donald Macleod
(1876).
MACLISE, DANIEL (1806-1870), Irish painter, was born at
Cork, the son of a Highland soldier. His education was of the
plainest kind, but he was eager for culture, fond of reading, and
anxious to become an artist. His father, however, placed him,
in 1820, in Newenham's Bank, where he remained for two years,
and then left to study in the Cork school of art. In 1825 it
happened that Sir Walter Scott was travelling in Ireland, and
young Maclise, having seen him in a bookseller's shop, made a
surreptitious sketch of the great man, which he afterwards
lithographed. It was exceedingly popular, and the artist became
celebrated enough to receive many commissions for portraits,
which he executed, in pencil, with very careful treatment of
detail and accessory. Various influential friends perceived the
genius and promise of the lad, and were anxious to furnish
him with the means of studying in the metropolis; but with rare
independence he refused all aid, and by careful economy saved
a sufficient sum to enable him to leave for London. There he
made a lucky hit by a sketch of the younger Kean, which, like
his portrait of Scott, was lithographed and published. He
entered the Academy schools in 1828, and carried off the highest
prizes open to the students. In 1829 he exhibited for the first
time in the Royal Academy. Gradually he began to confine
himself more exclusively to subject and historical pictures,
varied occasionally by portraits of Campbell, Miss Landon,
Dickens, and other of his literary friends. In 1833 he exhibited
two pictures which greatly increased his reputation, and in 1835
the " Chivalric Vow of the Ladies and the Peacock " procured his
election as associate of the Academy, of which he became full
member in 1840. The years that followed were occupied
with a long series of figure pictures, deriving their subjects
from history and tradition and from the works of Shakespeare,
Goldsmith and Le Sage. He also designed illustrations for
several of Dickens's Christmas books and other works. Between
the years 1830 and 1836 he contributed to Eraser's Magazine,
under the pseudonym of Alfred Croquis, a remarkable series
of portraits of the literary and other celebrities of the time
character studies, etched or lithographed in outline, and touched
more or less with the emphasis of the caricaturist, which were
afterwards published as the Maclise Portrait Gallery (1871).
In 1858 Maclise commenced one of the two great monumental
works of his life, the " Meeting of Wellington and Blucher,"
on the walls of Westminster Palace. It was begun in fresco, a
process which proved unmanageable. The artist wished to
resign the task; but, encouraged by Prince Albert, he studied
in Berlin the new method of " water-glass " painting, and
carried out the subject and its companion, the " Death of Nelson,"
in that medium, completing the latter painting in 1864. The
intense application which he gave to these great historic works,
and various circumstances connected with the commission, had
a serious effect on the artist's health. He began to shun the
company in which he formerly delighted; his old buoyancy of
MACLURE MAcMAHON
263
spirits was gone; and when, in 1865, the presidentship of the
Academy was offered to him he declined the honour. He died
of acute pneumonia on the 2sth of April 1870. His works are
distinguished by powerful intellectual and imaginative qualities,
but most of them are marred by harsh and dull colouring, by
metallic hardness of surface and texture, and by frequent
touches of the theatrical in the action and attitudes of the
figures. His fame rests most securely on his two greatest works
at Westminster.
A memoir of Maclise, by his friend W. J. O'DriscolI, was published
in 1871.
MACLURE, WILLIAM (1763-1840), American geologist, was
born at Ayr in Scotland in 1763. After a brief visit to New
York in 1782 he began active life as a partner in a London firm
of American merchants. In 1796 business affairs took him
to Virginia, U.S.A., which he thereafter made his home. In
1803 he visited France as one of the commissioners appointed
to settle the claims of American citizens on the French govern-
ment; and during the few years then spent in Europe he applied
himself with enthusiasm to the study of geology. On his return
home in 1807 he commenced the self-imposed task of making a
geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the
Union was traversed and mapped by him, the Alleghany Moun-
tains being crossed and recrossed some fifty times. The results
of his unaided labours were submitted to the American Philo-
sophical Society in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology
of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map, and pub-
lished in the Society's Transactions (vol. iv. 1809, p. 91) together
with the first geological map of that country. This antedates
William Smith's geological map of England by six years. In
1817 Maclure brought before the same society a revised edition
of his map, and his great geological memoir was issued sepa-
rately, with some additional matter, under the title Observations
on the Geology of the United States of America. Subsequent
survey has corroborated the general accuracy of Maclure's obser-
vations. In 1819 he visited Spain, and attempted, unsuccess-
fully, to establish an agricultural college near the city of Alicante.
Returning to America in 1824, he settled for some years at New
Harmony, Indiana, and sought to develop his scheme of the
agricultural college. Failing health ultimately constrained him
to relinquish the attempt, and to seek (in 1827) a more con-
genial climate in Mexico. There, at San Angel, he died on the
23rd of March 1840.
See S. G. Morton, " Memoir of William Maclure," Amer. Journ.
Sci., vol. xlvii. (1844), P- I-
MACMAHON, MARIE EDME PATRICE MAURICE DE, duke
of Magenta (1808-1893), French marshal and president of the
French republic, was born on the i3th of July 1808 at the chateau
of Sully, near Autun. He was descended from an Irish family
which went into exile with James II. Educated at the military
school of St Cyr, in 1827 he entered the army, and soon saw
active service in the first French campaign in Algeria, where
his ability and bravery became conspicuous. Being recalled
to France, he gained renewed distinction in the expedition to
Antwerp in 1832. He became captain in 1833, and in that
year returned to Algeria. He led daring cavalry raids across
plains infested with Bedouin, and especially distinguished
himself at the siege of Constantine in 1837. From then until
1855 he was almost constantly in Algeria, and rose to the rank
of general of division. During the Crimean War MacMahon was
given the command of a division, and in September 1855 he
successfully conducted the assault upon the Malakoff works,
which led to the fall of Sebastopol. After his return to France
honours were showered upon him, and he was made a senator.
Desiring a more active life, however, and declining the highest
command in France, he was once more sent out, at his own
request, to Algeria, where he completely defeated the Kabyles.
After his return to France he voted as a senator against the
unconstitutional law for general safety, which was brought
forward in consequence of Orsini's abortive attempt on the
emperor's life. MacMahon greatly distinguished himself in the
Italian campaign of 1859. Partly by good luck and partly by
his boldness and sagacity in pushing forward without orders at
a critical moment at the battle of Magenta, he enabled the
French to secure the victory. For his brilliant services Mac-
Mahon received his marshal's baton and was created duke of
Magenta. In 1861 he represented France at the coronation of
William I. of Prussia, and in 1864 he was nominated governor-
general of Algeria. MacMahon's action in this capacity formed
the least successful episode of his career. Although he did
institute some reforms in the colonies, complaints were so
numerous that twice in the early part of 1870 he sent in his
resignation to the emperor. When the ill-fated Ollivier cabinet
was formed the emperor abandoned his Algerian schemes and
MacMahon was recalled.
War being declared between France and Prussia in July 1870,
MacMahon was appointed to the command of the Alsace army
detachment (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). On the 6th of August
MacMahon fought the battle of Worth (q.v.). His courage
was always conspicuous on the field, but the two-to-one
numerical superiority of the Germans triumphed. MacMahon
was compelled to fall back upon Saverne, and thence to Toul.
Though he suffered further losses in the course of his retreat,
his movements were so ably conducted that the emperor confided
to him the supreme command of the new levies which he was
mustering at Chalons, and he was directed to effect a junction
with Bazaine. This operation he undertook against his will.
He had an army of 120,000 men, with 324 guns; but large
numbers of the troops were disorganized and demoralized.
Early on the ist of September the decisive battle of Sedan began.
MacMahon was dangerously wounded in the thigh, whereupon
General Ducrot, and soon afterwards General de Wimpffen, took
command. MacMahon shared the captivity of his comrades,
and resided at Wiesbaden until the conclusion of peace.
In March 187 1 MacMahon was appointed by Thiers Commander-
in-chief of the army of Versailles; and in that capacity he sup-
pressed the Communist insurrection, and successfully conducted
the second siege of Paris. In the following December he was
invited to become a candidate for Paris in the elections to the
National Assembly, but declined nomination. On the resigna-
tion of Thiers as president of the Republic, on the 24th of May
1873, MacMahon was elected to the vacant office by an almost
unanimous vote, being supported by 300 members out of 392.
The due de Broglie was empowered to form a Conservative
administration, but the president also took an early opportunity
of showing that he intended to uphold the sovereignty of the
National Assembly. On the sth of November 1873 General
Changarnier presented a motion in the Assembly to confirm
MacMahon's powers for a period of ten years, and to provide
for a commission of thirty to draw up a form of constitutional
law. The president consented, but in a message to the Assembly
he declared in favour of a confirmation of his own powers for
seven years, and expressed his determination to use all his
influence in the maintenance of Conservative principles. After
prolonged debates the Septennate was adopted on the igth of
November by 378 votes to 310. There was no coup d'etat in
favour of " Henri V.," as had been expected, and the president
resolved to abide by " existing institutions." One of his
earliest acts was to receive the finding of the court-martial upon
his old comrade in arms, Marshal Bazaine, whose death sentence
he commuted to one of twenty years' imprisonment in a fortress.
Though MacMahon's life as president of the Republic was of
the simplest possible character, his term of office was marked
by many brilliant displays, while his wife was a leader in all
works of charity and benevolence.
The president was very popular in the rural districts of
France, through which he made a successful tour shortly after
the declaration of the Septennate. But in Paris and other large
cities his policy soon caused great dissatisfaction, the Repub-
lican party especially being alienated by press prosecutions and
the attempted suppression of Republican ideas. Matters were
at a comparative deadlock in the National Assembly, until the
accession of some Orleanists to the Moderate Republican party
264
McMASTER MACNAGHTEN
in 1875 made it possible to pass various constitutional laws.
In May 1877, however, the constitutional crisis became once
more acute. A peremptory letter of censure from MacMahon
to Jules Simon caused the latter to resign with his colleagues.
The due de Broglie formed a ministry, but Gambetta carried
a resolution in the Chamber of Deputies in favour of parlia-
mentary government. The president declined to yield, and
being supported by the Senate, he dissolved the Chamber, by
decree, on the 25th of June. The prosecution of Gambetta
followed for a speech at Lille, in which he had said " the marshal
must, if the elections be against him, se soumettre ou se demettre."
In a manifesto respecting the elections, the president referred
to his successful government and observed, " I cannot obey
the injunctions of the demagogy; I can neither become the
instrument of Radicalism nor abandon the post in which the
constitution has placed me." His confidence in the result of
the elections was misplaced. Notwithstanding the great pressure
put upon the constituencies by the government, the elections
in October resulted in the return of 335 Republicans and only
198 anti-Republicans, the latter including 30 MacMahonists,
89 Bonapartists, 41 Legitimists, and 38 Orleanists. The presi-
dent endeavoured to ignore the significance of the elections,
and continued his reactionary policy. As a last resort he called
to power an extra-parliamentary cabinet under General Roche-
bouet, but the Republican majority refused to vote supplies,
and after a brief interval the president was compelled to yield,
and to accept a new Republican ministry under Dufaure. The
prolonged crisis terminated on the I4th of December 1877, and
no further constitutional difficulties arose in 1878. But as the
senatorial elections, held early in 1879, gave the Republicans
an effective working majority in the Upper Chamber, they now
called for the removal of the most conspicuous anti-Republicans
among the generals and officials. The president refused to
supersede them, and declined to sanction the law brought in
with this object. Perceiving further resistance to be useless,
however, MacMahon resigned the presidency on the 3oth of
January 1879, and Jules Grevy was elected as his successor.
MacMahon now retired into private life. Relieved from the
cares of state, his simple and unostentatious mode of existence
enabled him to pass many years of dignified repose. He died
at Paris on the I7th of October 1893, in his eighty-sixth
year. A fine, tall, soldierly man, of a thoroughly Irish type, in
private life MacMahon was universally esteemed as generous
and honourable; as a soldier he was brave and able, with-
out decided military genius; as a politician he was patriotic
and well-intentioned, but devoid of any real capacity for
statecraft. (G.B.S.)
McMASTER, JOHN BACH (1852- ), American historian,
was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the agth of June 1852. He
graduated from the college of the City of New York in 1872,
worked as a civil engineer in 1873-1877, was instructor in civil
engineering at Princeton University in 1877-1883, and in 1883
became professor of American history in the university of
Pennsylvania. He is best known for his History of the People of
the United States from the Revolution to the CM War (1883 sqq.),
a valuable supplement to the more purely political writings of
Schouler, Von Hoist and Henry Adams.
MACMILLAN, the name of a family of English publishers.
The founders of the firm were two Scotsmen, Daniel Macmillan
(1813-1857) and his younger brother Alexander (1818-1896).
Daniel was a native of the Isle of Arran, and Alexander was born
in Irvine on the 3rd of October 1818. Daniel was for some time
assistant to the bookseller Johnson at Cambridge, but entered
the employ of Messrs Seeley in London in 1837; in 1843 he began
business in Aldersgate Street, and in the same year the two
brothers purchased the business of Newby in Cambridge. They
did not confine themselves to bookselling, but published educa-
tional works as early as 1844. In 1845 they became the pro-
prietors of the more important business of Stevenson, in Cam-
bridge, the firm being styled Macmillan, Barclay & Macmillan.
In 1850 Barclay retired and the firm resumed the name of Mac-
millan & Co. Daniel Macmillan died at Cambridge on the 27th
of June 1857. In that year an impetus was given to the business
by the publication of Kingsley's Two Years Ago. A branch office
was opened in 1858 in Henrietta Street, London, which led to a
great extension of trade. These premises were surrendered for
larger ones in Bedford Street, and in 1897 the buildings in
St Martin's Street were opened. Alexander Macmillan died in
January 1896. By his great energy and literary associations,
and with the aid of his partners, there had been built up in little
over half a century one of the most important publishing houses
in the world. Besides the issue of many important series of
educational and scientific works, they published the works of
Kingsley, Huxley, Maurice, Tennyson, Lightfoot, Westcott, J. R.
Green, Lord Roberts, Lewis Carroll, and of many other well-known
authors. In 1898 they took over the old-established publishing
house of R. Bentley & Son, and with it the works of Mrs Henry
Wood, Miss Rhoda Broughton, The Ingoldsby Legends, and also
Temple Bar and the Argosy. In 1893 the firm was converted
into a limited liability company, its chairman being Frederick
Macmillan (b. 1851), who was knighted in 1909. The American
firm of the Macmillan Company, of which he was also a director,
is a separate business.
See Thomas Hughes, Memoir of Daniel Macmillan(l882) ; A Biblio-
graphical Catalogue of Macmillan & Go's Publications from 1843 to
1889 (1891), with portraits of the brothers Daniel and Alexander
after Lowes Dickinson and Hubert Herkomer; also articles in Le
Livre (September 1886), Publishers' Circular (January 14, 1893), the
Bookman (May 1901), &c.
MACMONNIES, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1863- ), Ameri-
can sculptor and painter, was born at Brooklyn, New York, on
the 2oth of September 1863. His mother was a niece of Benjamin
West. At the age of sixteen- MacMonnies was received as an
apprentice in the studio of Augustus St Gaudens, the sculptor,
where he remained for five years. In 1884 he went to Paris and
thence to Munich, where he painted for some months. Returning
to Paris next year he became the most prominent pupil of Fal-
guiere. His " Diana " brought him a mention at the Salon of
1 889. Three life-sized figures of angels for the church of St Paul,
New York, were followed by his " Nathan Hale," in the City Hall
Park, New York, and a portrait of James S. T, Stranahan, for
Brooklyn. This last brought him a " second medal " in the Salon
of 1 89 1 , the first time an American sculptor had been so honoured.
In 1893 he was chosen to design and carry out the Columbian
Fountain for the Chicago World's Fair, which placed him instantly
in the front rank. His largest work is a decoration for the
Memorial Arch to Soldiers and Sailors, in Prospect Park, Brook-
lyn, consisting of three enormous groups in bronze. In Prospect
Park, Brooklyn, MacMonnies has also a large " Horse Tamer,"
a work of much distinction. A " Winged Victory " at the U.S.
military academy at West Point, New York, is of importance;
and his " Bacchante," an extraordinary combination of real-
ism and imagination, rejected by the Boston Public Library,
is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He
also became well known as a painter, mainly of portraits.
In 1888 he married Mary Fairchild, a figure painter of
distinction, but in 1909 they were divorced and she married
Will H. Low.
MACNAGHTEN, SIR WILLIAM HAY, BART. (1793-1841),
Anglo-Indian diplomatist, was the second son of Sir Francis
Macnaghten, Bart., judge of the supreme courts of Madras and
Calcutta. He was born in August 1 793, and educated at Charter-
house. He went out to Madras as a cadet in 1809, but was
appointed in 1816 to the Bengal Civil Service. He early dis-
played a great talent for languages, and also published several
treatises on Hindu and Mahommedan law. His political career
began in 1830 as secretary to Lord William Bentinck; and in 1837
he became one of the most trusted advisers of the governor-
general, Lord Auckland, with whose policy of supporting Shah
Shuja against Dost Mahommed, the reigning amir of Kabul,
Macnaghten was closely identified. As political agent at Kabul
he came into conflict with the military authorities and subse-
quently with his subordinate Sir Alexander Burnes. Macnaghten
attempted to placate the Afghan chiefs with heavy subsidies,
but when the drain on the Indian exchequer became too great,
MAcNALLY McNEILE
265
and the allowances were reduced, this policy led to an outbreak.
Burnes was murdered on the 2nd of November 1841 ; and owing
to the incapacity of the aged General Elphmstone the British
army in Kabul degenerated into a leaderless mob. Macnaghten
tried to save the situation by negotiating with the Afghan chiefs
and, independently of them, with Dost Mahommed's son, Akbar
Khan, by whom he was assassinated on the 23rd of December
1841; the disastrous retreat from Kabul and the massacre of the
British army in the Kurd Kabul pass followed. These events
threw doubt on Macnaghten's capacity for dealing with the
problems of Indian diplomacy, though his fearlessness and
integrity were unquestioned. He had been created a baronet in
1840, and four months before his death was nominated to the
governorship of Bombay.
MACNALLY, LEONARD (1752-1820), Irish informer, was born
in Dublin, the son of a merchant. In 1776 he was called to the
Irish, and in 1783 to the English bar. He supported himself for
some time in London by writing plays and editing the Public
Ledger. Returning to Dublin, he entered upon a systematic
course of informing against the members of the revolutionary
party, for whom his house had become the resort. He also
betrayed to the government prosecutors political clients whom
he defended eloquently in the courts. He made a fine defence
for Robert Emmet and cheered him in his last hours, although
before appearing in court he had sold, for 200, the contents
of his brief to the lawyers for the Crown. After living a professed
Protestant all his life, he received absolution on his deathbed
from a Roman Catholic priest. He died on the I3th of February
1820.
MACNEE, SIR DANIEL (1806-^882), Scottish portrait painter,
was born at Fintry in Stirlingshire. At the age of thirteen he was
apprenticed, along with Horatio Macculloch and Leitch the
water-colour painter, to John Knox, a landscapist of some re-
pute. He afterwards worked for a year as a lithographer, was
employed by the Smiths of Cumnock to paint the ornamental
lids of their planewood snuff-boxes, and, having studied in
Edinburgh at the " Trustees' Academy," supporting himself
meanwhile by designing and colouring book illustrations for
Lizars the engraver, he established himself as an artist in
Glasgow, where he became a fashionable portrait painter. He
was in 1829 admitted a member of the Royal Scottish Academy;
and on the death of Sir George Harvey in 1876 he was elected
president, and received the honour of knighthood. From this
period till his death, on the i8th of January 1882, he resided
in Edinburgh, where his genial social qualities and his
inimitable powers as a teller of humorous Scottish anecdote
rendered him popular.
MACNEIL, HERMON ATKINS ( 1 866- ) , American sculptor,
was born at Chelsea, Massachusetts. He was an instructor in
industrial art at Cornell University in 1886-1889, an d was then
a pupil of Henri M. Chapu and Falguiere in Paris. Returning to
America, he aided Philip Martiny in the preparation of sketch
models for the Columbian exposition, and in 1896 he won the
Rinehart scholarship, passing four years (1896-1900) in Rome.
In 1906 he became a National Academician. His first important,
work was " The Moqui Runner," which was followed by " A*
Primitive Chant," and " The Sun Vow," all figures of the North-
American Indian. A " Fountain of Liberty," for the St Louis
exposition, and other Indian themes came later; his " Agnese "
and his " Beatrice," two fine busts of women, also deserve
mention. His principal work is the sculpture for a large
memorial arch, at Columbus, Ohio, in honour of President
McKinley. In 1909 he won in competition a commission for
a large soldiers' and sailors' monument in Albany, New York.
His wife, Carol Brooks MacNeil, also a sculptor of distinction,
was a pupil of F. W. MacMonnies.
McNEILE, HUGH (1795-1879), Anglican divine, younger son
of Alexander McNeile (or McNeill), was born at Ballycastle, Co.
Antrim, on the isth of July 1795. He graduated at Trinity
College, Dublin, in 1810. His handsome presence, and his
promise of exceptional gifts of oratory, led a wealthy uncle,
Major-General Daniel McNeill, to adopt him as his heir; and he
was destined for a parliamentary career. During a stay at
Florence, Hugh McNeile became temporarily intimate with Lord
Byron and Madame de Stae'l. On returning home, he determined
to abandon the prospect of political distinction for the clerical
profession, and was disinherited. In 1820 he was ordained, and
after holding the curacy of Stranorlar, Co. Donegal, for two
years, was appointed to the living of Albury, Surrey, by Henry
Drummond.
Edward Irving endeavoured, not without success at first,
to draw McNeile into agreement with his doctrine and aims.
Irving's increasing extravagance, however, soon alienated
McNeile. His preaching now attracted much attention; in
London he frequently was heard by large congregations. In 1834
he accepted the incumbency of St Jude's, Liverpool, where for the
next thirty years he wielded great political as well as ecclesiastical
influence. He repudiated the notion that a clergyman should be
debarred from politics, maintaining at a public meeting that
" God when He made the minister did not unmake the citizen."
In 1835 McNeile entered upon a long contest, in which he was
eventually successful, with the Liverpool corporation, which had
been captured by the Whigs, after the passing of the Municipal
Reform Act. A proposal was carried that the elementary schools
under the control of the corporation should be secularized by the
introduction of what was known as the Irish National System.
The threatened withdrawal of the Bible as the basis of denomi-
national religious teaching was met by a fierce agitation led by
McNeile, who so successfully enlisted public support that before
the new system could be introduced every child was provided for
in new Church of England schools established by public sub-
scriptions. At the same time he conducted a campaign which
gradually reduced the Whig element in the council, till in 1841 it
almost entirely disappeared. To his influence was also attributed
the defeat of the Liberal parliamentary candidates in the general
election of 1837, followed by a long period of Conservative pre-
dominance in Liverpool politics. McNeile had the Irish Protest-
ant's horror of Romanism, which he constantly denounced in the
pulpit and on the platform; and Macaulay, speaking in the House
of Commons on the Maynooth endowment in April 1845, singled
him out for attack as the most powerful representative of un-
compromising Protestant opinion in the country. As the Tract-
arian movement in the Church of England developed, he became
one of its most zealous opponents and the most conspicuous
leader of the evangelical party. In 1840 he published a volume of
Lectures on the Church of England, and in 1846 (the year after
Newman's secession to Rome) The Church and the Churches, in
which he maintained with much dialectical skill the evangelical
doctrine of the " invisible Church " in opposition to the teaching
of Newman and Pusey. Hugh McNeile was in close sympathy
with the philanthropic work as well as the religious views of the
7th earl of Shaftesbury, who more than once tried to persuade
Lord Palmerston to raise him to the episcopal bench. But
although Palmerston usually followed the advice of Shaftesbury
in the appointment of bishops, he would not consent to the eleva-
tion to the House of Lords of so powerful a political opponent as
McNeile, whom Lord John Russell had accused of frustrating
for thirty years the education policy of the Liberal party. In
1860 he was appointed a canon of Chester; and in 1868 Disraeli
appointed him dean of Ripon. This preferment he resigned in
1875, and he lived in retirement at Bournemouth till his death
on the 28th of January 1879. McNeile married, in 1822, Anne,
daughter of William Magee, archbishop of Dublin, and aunt of
William Connor Magee, archbishop of York, by whom he had a
large family.
Although a vehement controversialist, Hugh McNeile was a man
of simple and sincere piety of character. Sir Edward Russell, an
opponent alike of his religious and his political opinions, bears
witness to the deep spirituality of his teaching, and describes him
as an absolutely unique personality. " He made himself leader
of the Liverpool people, and always led with calm and majesty
in the most excited times. His eloquence was grave, flowing,
emphatic had a dignity in delivery, a perfection of elocu-
tion, that only John Bright equalled in the latter half of the
266
MACNEILL MACON
igth century. Its fire was solemn force. McNeile's voice was
probably the finest organ ever heard in public oratory. His
action was as graceful as it was expressive. He ruled an
audience."
See J. A. Picton, Memorials of Liverpool, vol. i. (1873) ; Sir Edward
Russell, " The Religious Life of Liverpool," in the Sunday Maga-
zine (June 1905); Charles Bullock, Hugh McNeile and Reformation
Truth. (R. J. M.)
MACNEILL, HECTOR (1746-1818), Scottish poet, was born
near Roslin, Midlothian, on the 22nd of October 1746, the son
of an impoverished army captain. He went to Bristol as a
clerk at the age of fourteen, and soon afterwards was despatched
to the West Indies. From 1780 to 1786 he acted as assistant
secretary on board the flagships of Admiral Geary and Sir
Richard Bickerton (1727-1792). Most of his later life was spent
in Scotland, and it was in the house of a friend at Stirling that
he wrote most of his songs and his Scotland's Skaith, or the History
of Will and Jean (1795), a narrative poem intended to show the
deteriorating influences of whisky and pothouse politics. A
sequel, The Waes of War, appeared next year. In 1800 he pub-
lished The Memoirs of Charles Macpherson, Esq., a novel under-
stood to be a narrative of his own hardships and adventures. A
complete edition of the poems he wished to own appeared in 181 2.
His songs " Mary of Castlecary," " Come under my plaidy,"
" My boy Tammy," " O tell me how for to woo," " I lo'ed
ne'er a lassie but ane," " The plaid amang the hether," and
" Jeanie's black e'e," are notable for their sweetness and sim-
plicity. He died at Edinburgh on the isth of March 1818.
MACOMB, a city and the county-seat of McDonough county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, about 60 m. S.W.
of Peoria. Pop. (1890), 4052; (1900), 5375 (232 foreign-born);
(1910), 5774. Macomb is served by the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the Macomb & Western Illinois railways. The city
is the seat of the Western Illinois state normal school (opened
in 1902), and has a Carnegie library and a city park. Clay is
found in the vicinity, and there are manufactures of pottery,
bricks, &c. The city was founded in 1830 as the county-seat
of McDonough county, and was called Washington by the
settlers, but the charter of incorporation, also granted in 1830,
gave it the present name in honour of General Alexander Macomb.
Macomb was first chartered as a city in 1856.
MACOMER, a village of Sardinia in the province of Cagliari,
from which it is 95 m. N.N.W. by rail, and the same distance
S.W. of Golfo degli Aranci. Pop. (1901), 3488. It is situated
1890 ft. above sea-level on the southern ascent to the central
plateau (the Campeda) of this part of Sardinia; and it is the junc-
tion of narrow-gauge lines branching from the main line east-
wards to Nuoro and westwards to Bosa. The old parish church
of S. Pantaleone has three Roman mile-stones in front of
it, belonging to the Roman high-road from Carales to Turris
Libisonis. The modern high-road follows the ancient. The
district, especially the Campeda, is well fitted for grazing and
horse and cattle breeding, which is carried on to a consider-
able extent. It is perhaps richer in nuraghi than any other
part of Sardinia.
MACON, NATHANIEL (1758-1837), American political leader,
was born at Macon Manor, Warren county, North Carolina, on
the i7th of December 1758. He studied at the college of New
Jersey (now Princeton University) from 1774 to 1776, when the
institution was closed on account of the outbreak of the War of
Independence; served for a short time in a New Jersey militia
company; studied law at Bute Court-house, North Carolina, in
1777-1780, at the same time managing his tobacco plantation;
was a member of a Warren county militia company in 1780-
1782, and served in the North Carolina Senate in 1781-1785.
In 1786 he was elected to the Continental Congress, but declined
to serve. In 1791-1815 he was a member of the national House
of Representatives, and in 1815-1828 of the United States
Senate. Macon's point of view was always local rather than
national. He was essentially a North Carolinian first, and an
American afterwards; and throughout his career he was an
aggressive advocate of state sovereignty and an adherent of the
doctrines of the " Old Republicans." He at first opposed the
adoption of the Federal constitution of 1787, as a member of
the faction led by Willie Jones (1731-1801) of Halifax, North
Carolina, but later withdrew his opposition. In Congress he
denounced Hamilton's financial policy, opposed the Jay Treaty
(1795) and the Alien and Sedition Acts, and advocated a con-
tinuance of the French alliance of 1778. His party came into
power in 1801, and he was Speaker of the house from December
1801 to October 1807. At first he was in accord with Jefferson's
administration; he approved the Louisiana Purchase, and as
early as 1803 advocated the purchase of Florida. For a number
of years, however, he was politically allied with John Randolph. 1
As speaker, in spite of strong opposition, he kept Randolph at the
head of the important committee on Ways and Means from 1801
to 1806; and in 1805-1808, with Randolph and Joseph H.
Nicholson (1770-1817) of Maryland, he was a leader of the group
of about ten independents, called the " Quids," who strongly
criticized Jefferson and opposed the presidential candidature of
Madison. By 1809, however, Macon was again in accord
with his party, and during the next two years he was one
of the most influential of its leaders. In December 1809 he
introduced resolutions which combined the ideas of Peter Early
(1773-1817) of Georgia, David R. Williams (1776-1830) of South
Carolina, and Samuel W. Dana (1757-1830) of Connecticut with
his own. The resolutions recommended the complete exclusion
of foreign war vessels from United States ports and the suppres-
sion of illegal trade carried on by foreign merchants under the
American flag. The substance of these resolutions was embodied
in the " Macon Bill, No. i," which passed the House but was
defeated in the Senate. On the 7th of April 1810 Macon reported
from committee the " Macon Bill, No. 2," which had been drawn
by John Taylor (1770-1832) of South Carolina, and was not
actively supported by him. This measure (amended) became
law on the ist of May, and provided for the repeal of the Non-
Intercourse Act of 1809, authorized the president, " in case
either Great Britain or France shall before the 3rd day of March
next so revoke or modify her edicts as that they shall cease to
violate the neutral commerce of the United States," to revive
non-intercourse against the other, and prohibited British and
French vessels of war from entering American waters. In 1812
Macon voted for the declaration of war against Great Britain,
and later was chairman of the Congressional committee which
made a report (July 1813) condemning Great Britain's conduct
of the war. He opposed the Bank Act of 1816, the " internal
improvements " policy of Calhoun (in the early part of his
career) and Clay, and the Missouri Compromise, his speech against
the last being especially able. In 1824 Macon received the elec-
toral vote of Virginia for the vice-presidency, and in 1826-1828
was president pro tempore of the Senate. He was president of
the North Carolina constitutional convention in 1835, and was an
elector on the Van Buren ticket in 1836. He died at his home,
Buck Springs, Warren county, North Carolina, on the 29th of
June 1837.
See William E. Dodd, The Life of Nathaniel Macon (Raleigh, N.C.,
1 93) I E. M. Wilson, The Congressional Career of Nathaniel Macon
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1900).
MACON, a town of east-central France, capital of the depart-
ment of Sa6ne-et-Loire, 45 m. N. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon
railway. Pop. (1906), 16,151. Macon is situated on the right
bank of the Saone facing the plain of the Bresse; a bridge of
twelve arches connects it with the suburb of St Laurent on the
opposite bank. The most prominent building is the modern
Romanesque church of St Pierre, a large three-naved basilica,
with two fine spires. Of the old cathedral of St Vincent (i2th
and I3th centuries), destroyed at the Revolution, nothing re-
mains but the Romanesque narthex, now used as a chapel, the
[acade and its two flanking towers. The hotel de ville contains
a library, a theatre and picture-gallery. Opposite to it stands
a statue of the poet Alphonse Lamartine, a native of the town.
Macon is the seat of a prefecture, and has tribunals of first in-
stance and of commerce, and a chamber of commerce. There are
1 Their names are associated in Randolph-Macon College, named
in their honour in 1830.
MACON--MACPHERSON, J.
267
lycees and training colleges. Copper-founding is an important
industry; manufactures include casks, mats, rope and utensils
for the wine-trade. The town has a large trade in wine of the
district, known as Macon. It is a railway centre of considerable
importance, being the point at which the line from Paris to
Marseilles is joined by that from Mont Cenis and Geneva, as
well as by a branch from Moulins.
Macon (M atisco)wa.s an important town of the Aedui, but under
the Romans it was supplanted by Autun and Lyons. It suffered
a succession of disasters at the hands of the Germans, Burgun-
dians, Vandals, Huns, Hungarians and even of the Carolingian
kings. In the feudal period it was an important countship
which in 1228 was sold to the king of France, but more than once
afterwards passed into the possession of the dukes of Burgundy,
until the ownership of the French crown was established in the
time of Louis XI. In the i6th century Macon became a strong-
hold of the Huguenots, but afterwards fell into the hands of the
League, and did not yield to Henry IV. until 1594. The
bishopric, created by King Childebert, was suppressed in
1790.
MACON, a city and the county-seat of Bibb county, Georgia,
U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on both sides of the
Ocmulgee river (at the head of navigation), about 90 m. S.S.E.
of Atlanta. Pop. (1900), 23,272, of whom 11,550 were negroes;
(1910 census) 40,665. Macon is, next to Atlanta, the most im-
portant railway centre in the state, being served by the Southern,
the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Georgia Southern &
Florida, the Macon Dublin & Savannah, and the Macon & Bir-
mingham railways. It was formerly an important river port,
especially for the shipment of cotton, but lost this commercial
advantage when railway bridges made the river impassable. It is,
however, partially regaining the river trade in consequence of the
compulsory substitution of drawbridges for the stationary rail-
way bridges. The city is the seat of the Wesleyan female college
(1836), which claims to be the first college in the world chartered
to grant academic degrees to women ; Mercer University (Baptist) ,
which was established in 1833 as Mercer Institute at Penfield,
became a university in 1837, was removed to Macon in 1871, and
controls Hearn Academy (1839) at Cave Spring and Gibson
Mercer Academy (1903) at Bowman; the state academy for the
blind (1852), St Stanislaus' College (Jesuit), and Mt de Sales
Academy (Roman Catholic) for women. There are four orphan
asylums for whites and two for negroes, supported chiefly by
the Protestant Episcopal and Methodist Churches, and a public
hospital. Immediately east of Macon are two large Indian
mounds, and there is a third mound 9 m. south of the city.
Situated in the heart of the " Cotton Belt," Macon has a large
and lucrative trade; it is one of the most important inland cotton
markets of the United States, its annual receipts averaging about
250,000 bales. The city's factory products in 1905 were valued
at $7,297,347 (33-8% more than in 1900). In the vicinity are
large beds of kaolin, 30 m. wide, reaching nearly across the state,
and frequently 35 to 70 ft. in depth. Macon is near the fruit-
growing region of Georgia, and large quantities of peaches and
of garden products are annually shipped from the city.
Macon (named in honour of Nathaniel Macon) was surveyed
in 1823 by order of the Georgia legislature for the county-seat
of Bibb county, and received its first charter in 1824. It soon
became the centre of trade for Middle Georgia; in 1833 a steam-
boat line to Darien was opened, and in the following year 69,000
bales of cotton were shipped by this route. During the Civil
War the city was a centre for Confederate commissary supplies
and the seat of a Treasury depository. In July 1864 General
George Stoneman (1822-1894) with 500 men was captured near
the city by the Confederate general, Howell Cobb. Macon was
finally occupied by Federal troops under General James H.
Wilson (b. 1837) on the 2oth of April 1865. In 1900-1910 the
area of the city was increased by the annexation of several
suburbs.
MACPHERSON. SIR DAVID LEWIS (1818-1896), Canadian
financier and politician, was born at Castle Leathers, near Inver-
ness, Scotland, on the i2th of September 1818. In 1835 he
emigrated to Canada, settling in Montreal, where he built up a
large fortune by " forwarding " merchandise. In 1853 he re-
moved to Toronto, and in the same year obtained the contract
for building a line of railway from Toronto to Sarnia, a project
from which sprang the Grand Trunk railway, in the construc-
tion of which line he greatly increased his wealth. In 1864 he
was elected to the Canadian parliament as member of the Legis~
lative Council for Saugeen, and on the formation of the Dominion,
in 1867, was nominated to the Senate. In the following years
he published a number of pamphlets on economic subjects, of
which the best-known is Banking and Currency (1869). In 1880
he was appointed Speaker of the Senate, and from October 1883
till 1885 was minister of the interior in the Conservative cabinet.
In 1884 he was knighted by Queen Victoria. He died on the i6th
of August 1896.
MACPHERSON, JAMES (1736-1796), Scottish "translator"
of the Ossianic poems, was born at Ruthven in the parish of
Kingussie, Inverness, on the 27th of October 1736. He was
sent in 1753 to King's College, Aberdeen, removing two years
later to Marischal College. He also studied at Edinburgh, but
took no degree. He is said to have written over 4000 lines of
verse while a student, but though some of this was published,
notably The Highlander (1758), he afterwards tried to suppress
it. On leaving college he taught in the school of his native
place. At Moffat he met John Home, the author of Douglas,
for whom he recited some Gaelic verses from memory. He also
showed him MSS. of Gaelic poetry, supposed to have been picked
up in the Highlands, and, encouraged by Home and others, he
produced a number of pieces translated from the Gaelic, which
he was induced to publish at Edinburgh in 1760 as Fragments of
Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland. Dr Hugh
Blair, who was a firm believer in the authenticity of the poems,
got up a subscription to allow Macpherson to pursue his Gaelic
researches. In the autumn he set out to visit western Inverness,
the islands of Skye, North and South Uist and Benbecula.
He obtained MSS. which he translated with the assistance
of Captain Morrison and the Rev. A. Gallic. Later in the
year he made an expedition to Mull, when he obtained other
MSS. In 1761 he announced the discovery of an epic on the
subject of Fingal, and in December he published Fingal, an
Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems
composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic
Language, written in the musical measured prose of which he had
made use in his earlier volume. Temora followed in 1763, and
a collected edition, The Works of Ossian, in 1765.
The genuineness of these so-called translations from the works
of a 3rd-century bard was immediately challenged in England,
and Dr Johnson, after some local investigation, asserted (Journey
to the Western Islands of Scotland, 1775) that Macpherson had
only found fragments of ancient poems and stories, which he had
woven into a romance of his own composition. Macpherson is
said to have sent Johnson a challenge, to which Johnson replied
that he was not to be deterred from detecting what he thought a
cheat by the menaces of a ruffian. Macpherson never produced
his originals, which he refused to publish on the ground of the ex-
pense. In 1764 he was made secretary to General Johnstone at
Pensacola, West Florida, and when he returned, two years later,
to England, after a quarrel with Johnstone, he was allowed to
retain his salary as a pension. He occupied himself with writing
several historical works, the most important of which was
Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain
from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover; to
which are prefixed Extracts from the Life of James II., as written
by himself (1775). He enjoyed a salary for defending the policy
of Lord North's government, and held the lucrative post of
London agent to Mahommed Ali, nabob of Arcot. He entered
parliament in 1780, and continued to sit until hie death. In his
later years he bought an estate, to which he gave the name of
Belville, in his native county of Inverness, where he died on the
1 7th of February 1796.
After Macpherson's death, Malcolm Laing, in an appendix to
his History of Scotland (1800), propounded the extreme view that
268
McPHERSON MACREADY
the so-called Ossianic poems were altogether modern in origin
and that Macpherson's authorities were practically non-existent
For a discussion of this question see CELT: Scottish Gaelic Litera-
ture. Much of Macpherson's matter is clearly his own, and he
confounds the stories belonging to different cycles. But apart
from the doubtful morality of his transactions he must still be
regarded as one of the great Scottish writers. The varied sources
of his work and its worthlessness as a transcript of actual Celtic
poems do not alter the fact that he produced a work of art which
by its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy
tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than
any single work to bring about the romantic movement in
European, and especially in German, literature. It was speedily
translated into many European languages, and Herder and
Goethe (in his earlier period) were among its profound admirers.
Cesarotti's Italian translation was one of Napoleon's favourite
books.
AUTHORITIES. For Macpherson's life, see The Life and Letters
of James Macpherson . . . (1894, new ed., 1906), by T. Bailey
Saunders, who has laboured to redeem his character from the sus-
picions generally current with English readers. The antiquity
of the Ossianic poems was defended in the introduction by Archibald
Clerk to his edition of the Poems of Ossian (1870). Materials for
arriving at a decision by comparison with undoubtedly genuine
fragments of the Ossianic legend are available in The Book of the Dean
of Lismore, Gaelic verses, collected by J. McGregor, dean of Lismore,
in the early i6th century (ed. T. McLauchlan, 1862) ; the Leabhar na
Feinne (1871) of F. J. Campbell, who also discusses the subject in
Popular Tales of the Western Highlands, iv. (1893). See also L. C.
Stern, "Die ossianische Heldenlieder "in Zeitschnft fur vergleichende
Litteratur-geschichte (1895; Eng. trans, by J. L. Robertson in Trans.
Gael. Soc. of Inverness, xxii., 1897-1898); Sir J. Sinclair, A Disser-
tation on the Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian (1806) ; Transactions
of the Ossianic Society (Dublin, 1854-1861); Cours de litterature
celtique, by Arbois de Jubainville, editor of the Revue celtique
(1883, &c.); A. Nutt, Ossian and the Ossianic Literature (1899),
with a valuable bibliographical appendix; J. S. Smart, James
Macpherson: an Episode in Literature (1905).
McPHERSON, JAMES BIRDSEYE (1828-1864), American
soldier, was born at Sandusky, Ohio, on the I4th of November
1828. He entered West Point at the age of twenty-one, and
graduated (1853) at the head of his class, which included Sheridan,
Schofield and Hood. He was employed at the military academy
as instructor of practical military engineering (1.853). A year
later he was sent to engineer duty at New York, and in 1857,
after constructing Fort Delaware, he was sent as superintending
engineer to San Francisco, becoming ist lieutenant in 1858. He
was promoted captain during the first year of the Civil War, and
towards the close of 1861 became lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-
camp to General Halleck, who in the spring of 1862 sent him to
General Grant as chief engineer. He remained with Grant during
the Shiloh campaign, and acted as engineer adviser to Halleck
during the siege operations against Corinth in the summer of
1862. In October he distinguished himself in command of an
infantry brigade at the battle of Corinth, and on the 8th of this
month was made major-general of volunteers and commander of
a division. In the second advance onVicksburg(i863)McPherson
commanded the XVII. corps, fought at Port Gibson, Raymond
and Jackson, and after the fall of Vicksburg was strongly recom-
mended by Grant for the rank of brigadier-general in the regular
army, to which he was promoted on the ist of August 1863. He
commanded at Vicksburg until the following spring. He was about
to go on leave of absence in order to be married in Baltimore
when he received his nomination to the command of the Army
of the Tennessee, Grant's and Sherman's old army, which was to
take part under Sherman's supreme command in the campaign
against Atlanta (1864). This nomination was made by Sherman
and entirely approved by Grant, who had the highest opinion of
McPherson's military and personal qualities. He was in com-
mand of his army at the actions of Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw Moun-
tain and the battles about Atlanta. On the 22nd of July, when
the Confederates under his old classmate Hood made a sudden
and violent attack on the lines held by the Army of the Tennessee,
McPherson rode up, in the woods, to the enemy's firing line
and was killed. He was one of the most heroic figures of the
American Civil War, and Grant is reported to have said when
he heard of McPherson's death, " The country has lost one of
its best soldiers, and I have lost my best friend."
MACQUARIE, a British island in the South Pacific Ocean,
in 54 49' S. and 159 49' E. It is about 20 m. long, and covered
with a grassy vegetation, with some trees or shrubs in the shel-
tered places which afford food to a parrot of the genus Cyano-
rhamphus, allied to those of the Auckland Islands. Although it
has no settled population, Macquarie is constantly visited by
sailors in quest of the seals which abound in its waters.
MACRAUCHENIA, a long-necked and long-limbed, three-toed
South American ungulate mammal, typifying the suborder
Litopterna (q.v.).
MACREADY, WILLIAM CHARLES (1793-1873), English
actor, was born in London on the 3rd of March 1793, and edu-
cated at Rugby. It was his intention to go up to Oxford, but in
1809 the embarrassed affairs of his father, the lessee of several
provincial theatres, called him to share the responsibilities of
theatrical management. On the 7th of June 1810 he made a
successful first appearance as Romeo at Birmingham. Other
Shakespearian parts followed, but a serious rupture between
father and son resulted in the young man's departure for Bath
in 1814. Here he remained for two years, with occasional
professional visits to other provincial towns. On the i6th
of September 1816, Macready made his first London appear-
ance at Covent Garden as Orestes in The Distressed Mother,
a translation of Racine's Andromaque by Ambrose Philips.
Macready's choice of characters was at first confined chiefly
to the romantic drama. In 1818 he won a permanent
success in Isaac Pocock's (1782-1835) adaptation of Scott's
Rob Roy. He showed his capacity for the highest tragedy
when he played Richard III. at Covent Garden on the 25th
of October 1819. Transferring his services to Drury Lane,
he gradually rose in public favour, his most conspicuous suc-
cess being in the title-role of Sheridan Knowles's William Tell
(May u, 1825). Ini826hecompletedasuccessful engagementin
America, and in 1828 his performances met with a very flattering
reception in Paris. On the isth of December 1830 he appeared
at Drury Lane as Werner, one of his most powerful impersona-
tions. In 1833 he played in Antony and Cleopatra, in Byron's
Sardanapalus, and in King Lear. Already Macready had done
something to encourage the creation of a modern English drama,
and after entering on the management of Covent Garden in 1837
he introduced Robert Browning's Strafford, and in the following
year Bulwer's Lady of Lyons and Richelieu, the principal charac-
ters in which were among his most effective parts. On the loth
of June 1838 he gave a memorable performance of Henry V.,
for which Stanfield prepared sketches, and the mounting was
superintended by Bulwer, Dickens, Forster, Maclise, W. J. Fox
and other friends. The first production of Bulwer's Money took
place under the artistic direction of Count d'Orsay on the 8th of
December 1840, Macready winning unmistakable success in the
character of Alfred Evelyn. Both in his management of Covent
Garden, which he resigned in 1839, and of Drury Lane, which he
beld from 1841 to 1843, he found his designs for the elevation
of the stage frustrated by the absence of adequate public sup-
port. In 1843-1844 he made a prosperous tour in the United
States, but his last visit to that country, in 1849, was marred by
a riot at the Astor Opera House, New York, arising from the
jealousy of the actor Edwin Forrest, and resulting in the death of
seventeen persons, who were shot by the military called out to
quell the disturbance. Macready took leave of the stage in a
'arewell performance of Macbeth at Drury Lane on the 26th
of February 1851. The remainder of his life was spent in happy
retirement, and he died at Cheltenham on the 27th of April
1873. He had married, in 1823, Catherine Frances Atkins
(d. 1852). Of a numerous family of children only one son and one
daughter survived. In 1860 he married Cecile Louise Frederica
Spencer (1827-1908), by whom he had a son.
Macready's performances always displayed fine artistic per-
ceptions developed to a high degree of perfection by very
comprehensive culture, and even his least successful persona-
tions had the interest resulting from thorough intellectual
MACROBIUS MADACH
269
study. He belonged to the school of Kean rather than of
Kemble; but, if his tastes were better disciplined and in some
respects more refined than those of Kean, his natural tempera-
ment did not permit him to give proper effect to the great tragic
parts of Shakespeare, King Lear perhaps excepted, which
afforded scope for his pathos and tenderness, the qualities in
which he specially excelled. With the exception of a voice of
good compass and capable of very varied expression, Macready
had no especial physical gifts for acting, but the defects of his
face and figure cannot be said to have materially affected his
success.
See Macready's Reminiscences, edited by Sir Frederick Pollock,
2 vols. (1875) ; William Charles Macready, by William Archer (1890).
MACROBIUS, AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS, Roman gram-
marian and philosopher, flourished during the reigns of Honorius
and Arcadius (395-423). He himself states that he was not a
Roman, but there is no certain evidence whether he was of Greek
or perhaps African descent. He is generally supposed to have
been praetorian praefect in Spain (399), proconsul of Africa
(410), and lord chamberlain (422). But the tenure of high
office at that date was limited to Christians, and there is no evi-
dence in the writings of Macrobius that he was a Christian.
Hence the identification is more than doubtful, unless it be
assumed that his conversion to Christianity was subsequent to
the composition of his books. It is possible, but by no means
certain, that he was the Theodosius to whom Avianus dedicates
his fables.
The most important of his works is the Saturnalia, containing
an account of the discussions held at the house of Vettius
Praetextatus (c. 325-385) during the holiday of the Saturnalia.
It was written by the author for the benefit of his son Eustathius
(or Eustachius), and contains a great variety of curious historical,
mythological, critical and grammatical disquisitions. There is
but little attempt to give any dramatic character to the dia-
logue ; in each book some one of the personages takes the leading
part, and the remarks of the others serve only as occasions for
calling forth fresh displays of erudition. The first book is devoted
to an inquiry as to the origin of the Saturnalia and the festivals
of Janus, which leads to a history and discussion of the Roman
calendar, and to an attempt to derive all forms of worship from
that of the sun. The second book begins with a collection of
bans mots, to which all present make their contributions, many of
them being ascribed to Cicero and Augustus; a discussion of
various pleasures, especially of the senses, then seems to have
taken place, but almost the whole of this is lost. The third,
fourth, fifth and sixth books are devoted to Virgil, dwelling
respectively on his learning in religious matters, his rhetorical
skill, his debt to Homer (with a comparison of the art of the two)
and to other Greek writers, and the nature and extent of his
borrowings from the earlier Latin poets. The latter part of the
third book is taken up with a dissertation upon luxury and the
sumptuary laws intended to check it, which is probably a dis-
located portion of the second book. The seventh book consists
largely of the discussion of various physiological questions.
The value of the work consists solely in the facts and opinions
quoted from earlier writers, for it is purely a compilation, and
has little in its literary form to recommend it. The form of the
Saturnalia is copied from Plato's Symposium and Gellius's
Nodes allicae; the chief authorities (whose names, however,
are not quoted) are Gellius, Seneca the philosopher, Plutarch
(Quacstiones conviviales) , Athenaeus and the commentaries of
Servius (excluded by some) and others on Virgil. We have also
two books of a commentary on the Somnium Scipionis narrated
by Cicero in his De republica. The nature of the dream, in
which the elder Scipio appears to his (adopted) grandson, and
describes the life of the good after death and the constitution of
the universe from the Stoic point of view, gives occasion for
Macrobius to discourse upon many points of physics in a series
of essays interesting as showing the astronomical notions then
current. The moral elevation of the fragment of Cicero thus
preserved to us gave the work a popularity in the middle ages
to which its own merits have little claim. Of a third work,
De differ entiis el societatibus graeci lalinique verbi, we only
possess an abstract by a certain Johannes, identified -with
Johannes Scotus Erigena (gth century).
See editions by L. von Jan (1848-1852, with bibliog. of previous
editions, and commentary) and F. Eyssenhardt (1893, Teubner
text); on the sources of the Saturnalia see H. Linke (1880) and
G. Wissowa (1880). The grammatical treatise will be found in Jan's
edition and H. Keil's Grammatici latini, v. ; see also G. F. Schomann,
Commentatio macrobiana (1871).
MACROOM, a market town in the western part of county Cork,
Ireland, on the river Sullane, an affluent of the Lee, 24! m. W.
of Cork by the Cork & Macroom railway, of which it is the ter-
minus. Pop. (1901), 3016. Besides a fine Roman Catholic church,
a court house and barracks, Macroom possesses a modernized
castle, which is said to have been founded by King John, though
it is more probably attributable to Norman invaders. It was
besieged more than once in the I7th century, and is said to have
been the birthplace of Admiral Sir William Penn, whose more
famous son founded Pennsylvania. Here some rebels of 1 798
were executed and their heads exhibited on the spikes of the
castle gate. Macroom has trade in corn-milling, leather-work
and dairy produce, and is a good centre for salmon and trout
fishing. It is governed by an urban district council.
MACUGNAGA, a village of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Novara, 20 m. W.S.W. of Piedimulera, which is 7 m. S. of Domo-
dossola by rail. Pop. (1901), 798. It is situated 4047 ft. above
sea-level, and is 10 m. N.E. of the highest summit of Monte
Rosa. It is frequented as a summer resort.
MACVEAGH, WAYNE (1833- ), American lawyer and
diplomatist, was born near Phoenixville, Chester county, Pa.,
on the igth of April 1833. He graduated at Yale in 1853, was
admitted to the bar in 1856, and was district attorney of Chester
county in 1859-1864. He held commands in militia forces raised
to meet threatened Confederate invasions of Pennsylvania
(1862-63). He became a leader in the Republican party, and
was a prominent opponent of his father-in-law, Simon Cameron,
in the fight within the party in 1871. MacVeagh was minister to
Turkey in 1870-1871; was a member of the state constitutional
convention of 1872-1873; was chairman of the " MacVeagh Com-
mission," sent in 1877 by President Hayes to Louisiana, which
secured the settlement of the contest between the two existing
state governments and thus made possible the withdrawal of
Federal troops from the state; and was attorney-general of the
United States in 1881 under President Garfield, but resigned
immediately after Garfield's death. In 1892 he supported
Grover Cleveland, the Democratic nominee for the presidency,
and from 1893 to 1897 was ambassador to Italy. He returned
to the Republican party in 1896. In 1903 he was chief counsel
of the United States before the Hague tribunal in the case regard-
ing the claims of Germany, Great Britain and Italy against the
republic of Venezuela.
MADACH, IMRE (1829-1864), Hungarian dramatist, was
born at Als6-Sztregova. He took part in the great revolution
of 1848-49 and was imprisoned; on his return to his small
estate in the county of Nograd, he found that his family life had
meanwhile been completely wrecked. This only increased his
natural tendency to melancholy, and he withdrew from public
life till 1861, devoting his time mainly to the composition of
his chief work, Az ember tragoedidja (" The Tragedy of Man ").
John Arany, then at the height of his fame as a poet, at once
recognized the great merits of that peculiar drama, and Madach
enjoyed a short spell of fame before his untimely death of heart-
disease in 1864. In The Tragedy of Man Madach takes us
from the hour when Adam and Eve were innocently walking
in the Garden of Eden to the times of the Pharaohs; then to
the Athens of Miltiades; to declining Rome; to the period
of the crusades; into the study of the astronomer Kepler;
thence into the horrors of the French Revolution; into greed-
eaten and commerce-ridden modern London; nay, into the
ultra-Socialist state of the future, when all the former ideals
of man will by scientific formulae be shown up in their hollow-
m?ss; still further, the poet shows the future of ice-clad earth,
when man will be reduced to a degraded brute dragging on the
2JO
MADAGASCAR
misery of his existence in rf cave. In all these scenes, or
rather anticipatory dreams, Adam, Eve and the arch-fiend
Lucifer are the chief and constantly recurring personae dramatis.
In the end, Adam, despairing of his race, wants to commit
suicide, when at the critical moment Eve tells him that she is
going to be a mother. Adam then prostrates himself before
God, who encourages him to hope and trust. The diction of
the drama is elevated and pure, and although not meant for the
stage, it. has proved very effective at several public performances.
Concerning Madich there is an ample literature, consisting mostly
of elaborate articles by Charles Szasz (1862), Augustus Greguss
(1872), B. Alexander (1871), M. Palagyi (1890), and others.
MADAGASCAR, an island in the Indian Ocean, and after
New Guinea and Borneo the largest island in the world, about
260 m. distant, at the nearest point, from the S.E. coast of
Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique Channel.
Since 1896 Madagascar has been a French colony. It is 995 m.
in length from N. to S., and about 250 m. in average breadth,
although near the centre it is nearly 360 m. across; its area is
about 228,000 sq. m., or not quite four times the extent of
England and Wales. It lies mainly between 44 and 50 E.
Its northernmost point, Cape Ambro, in 12 S., inclines 16 to
the E. from the longitude of Cape St Mary, the southernmost
point, in 25 35' S., so that the main axis of the island runs
from N.N.E. to S.S.W. In its broad structure Madagascar
consists of an elevated mountainous region, from 3000 to
5000 ft. in altitude, occupying from two-fifths to a half of the
centre and the eastern side of the island, around which are
extensive plains at a much less elevation above the sea, and
most developed on the western and north-west sides. But
this lower region is broken up by masses of hills, with several
elevated plateaus, especially in the south-west and south.
Physical Features. Madagascar has a very regular and compact
form, with few indentations considering its great extent of shore-line.
In general outline it has a strong resemblance to the impression of a
human foot the left side. Along two-thirds of its eastern side the
coast is almost a straight line, without any inlet, Tamatave, the chief
port on this side of the island, being onfy protected by coral reefs.
North of this line, however, is Antongil Bay, a deep and wide inlet
running northwards for about 50 m. ; farther north is Port Louquez,
and at almost the extreme point of the island is Diego-Suarez Bay,
one of the finest harbours in the world. But the north-western
side of Madagascar is broken up by a number of inlets, some of them
land-locked and of considerable size. South of Cape St Andrew,
the north-west angle of the island, the coast-line is unbroken until
the estuary of the river Onil&hy, or St Augustine's Bay, is reached.
Rounding the southern end of the island, there is no other inlet
save the small bay north of Fort Dauphin, at the southern end of the
straight line of coast already mentioned.
The islands around Madagascar are few and unimportant. The
largest are Ste Marie, near the eastern coast, a narrow island about
35 m. long, and Nossi-be' (q.v.), larger and more compact in form,
opposite Ampasindava Bay on the N.W. coast. Except the Minnow
group, north of Nossi-b<5, the rest are merely rocky islets, chiefly of
coral.
The shores of the greater portion of the southern half of the island
are low and flat, but in the northern half the coast is often bold and
precipitous, the high land occasionally approaching the sea. On
the eastern side the plains vary from 10 to 50 m. in breadth, but on
the western side they exceed in some localities 100 m. From these
coast-plains the ground rises by successive ranges of hills to the high
interior land. This elevated region is broken in all directions by
mountains, from which the crystalline rocks show most frequently
as huge bosses, and in certain regions present very varied and pictur-
esque outlines, resembling Titanic castles,cathedrals,domes, pyramids
and spires. The highest mountain mass is centrally situated as
regards the length of the island, but more to the eastern side. This
is the ancient extinct volcano Ankaratra, three of the highest points
varying in elevation from 7284 to 8635 ft. above the sea, and from
4000 to 5000 ft. above the general level of the surrounding country.
The loftiest of these is named Tsi-afa-javona, i.e. " That which the
mists cannot climb." It had been supposed that Ankaratra was the
highest point in the island, but in 1903 it was found that Amboro,
in the northern province of Antankarana, is about 9490 ft. in altitude.
Besides these highest points there are a considerable number of
mountains in the central provinces of Imerina and B6tsileo and the
intervening and surrounding districts; and in the Bara country
the IsMo range has been compared to the "Church Buttes" and
other striking features of the scenery of Utah. One of the finest
of the Madagascar mountains is an isolated mass near the northern
point of the island called Amb6hitra. This is 4460 ft. high, and
rising from land little above the sea-level, is well seen far out
to sea.
In the elevated region of Madagascar are many fertile plains and
valleys, the former being the dried-up beds of ancient lakes. Among
these are Betsimitatatra in Imerina, and Tsienimparihy in Betsil6o,
supplying a large proportion of the rice required for the capitals of
these two provinces. Still more spacious valleys are the Antsi-
hanaka country'and the Ankay district, between the two eastern
lines of forest. The extensive coast plains on the western side of
the island are chiefly in Iboina (N.W.) and in Menab(5 (S. of the Tsiri-
bihina River); those on the east are widest in the Taifasy country
(S.E.). The water-parting for six-sevenths of the whole length of
the island is much nearer the eastern than the western side, averag-
ing from 80 to 90 m. from the sea. There are no arid districts,
except in the extreme south-west and towards the southern point of
the island. The general surface of the interior highland consists
of bare rolling moor-like country, with a great amount of red clay-
like soil, while the valleys have a rich humus of bluish-black
alluvium.
The chief rivers flow to the west and north-west sides of the island.
The eastern streams are all less in size, except the Mangoro, which
flows parallel with the coast. Few of them therefore are of much
service for navigation, except for the light-draught native canoes;
and all of them are more or less closed at their outlets by sand-bars.
Beginning at the south-eastern point and going northwards, the
principal rivers are the Mananara, Manampatrana, MatitAnana,
Mananjary, Mangoro, with its great affluent Oniv<5, Vohitra, Manin-
gory, and the Antanambalana at the head of Antongil Bay. On the
N.W. coast, going southwards, are the Sofia and Mahajamba, falling
into Mahajamba Bay, the Be'tsiboka with the Ikopa the great
drains of the northern central provinces, forming unitedly the second
largest river of the island and falling into Bembatoka Bay the
Mahavary, Manambolo, Tsiribihina or Onimainty, the third largest
river, with its tributaries the Kitsamby, Mahajilo and Mania, the
M6rondava, Mangoky, probably the largest river in the country,
with its important tributaries the Matsiatra, Manantanana and
Ranomaitso, the Fiherenana and Onilahy. On the south coast are
four considerable streams, the largest of which is the Menarandra.
Of the western rivers the Betsiboka can be ascended by small
steamers for about 100 m., and the Tsiribihina is also navigable for
a considerable distance. The former is about 300 m. long ; the latter
somewhat less, but by its affluents spreads over a greater extent of
country, as also does the Mangoky. The rivers are all crossed fre-
quently by rocky bars, which often form grand waterfalls. The
eastern rivers cut their way through the ramparts of the high land
by magnificent gorges amidst dense forest, and descend by a succes-
sion of rapids and cataracts. The MatitAnana, whose falls were first
seen by the writer in 1876, descends at one plunge some 400 ft.;
and on the Vohitra River, whose valley is followed by the railway,
there are also many fine waterfalls.
On the eastern side of Madagascar the contest between the fresh
water of the rivers and the sea has caused the formation of a chain
of lagoons for nearly 300 m. In many places these look like a river
following the coast-line, but frequently they spread out into exten-
sive sheets of water. By cutting about 30 m. of canal to connect
them, a continuous waterway could be formed for 270 m. along the
coast. This has already been done for about 55 m. between Ivon-
drona and Andovoranto, a service of small steamers forming part
of the communication between the coast and the capital. Besides
these lagoons, there are few lakes of any size in Madagascar, although
there were some very extensive lakes in a recent geological epoch.
Of the largest of these, the Alaotra Lake in the Antsihanaka plain
is the relic; it is about 25 m. long. Next comes Kinkony, near
Maroambitsy Bay (N.W. coast), about 16 m. long, and then Itasy,
in western Imerina, about half as large. There is also a salt lake,
Tsimanampetsotsa (S.W. coast), about as large as Alaotra.
There is now no active volcano in Madagascar, but a large number
of extinct cones are found, some apparently of very recent formation.
Soirm miles south of Die'go-Suarez is a huge volcanic mountain,
Ambohitra, with scores of subsidiary cones on its slopes and around
its base. About 40 m. south-west of Antananarivo there is a still
larger extinct volcano, Ankaratra, with an extensive lava field
surrounding it; while near Lake Itasy are some 200 volcanic cones.
Another group of extinct volcanoes is in the Vakinankaratra dis-
trict, S.W. of Ankaratra. Many others exist in other parts of the
island (see Geology). Slight shoqks of earthquake are felt every
year, and hot springs occur at many places. Several of these are
sulphurous and medicinal, and have been found efficacious in skin
diseases and in internal complaints.
Geology. Madagascar may be divided into two very distinct
geological regions, viz. (I.) the Archean Region, which extends over
the central and eastern portions of the island and occupies about
two-thirds of its whole area, and is composed of crystalline schists;
and (II.) the Western Region, of sedimentary rocks, including the re-
maining third of the island, in the centre of which, however, is an
isolated patch of Archean rocks, near Cape St Andrew. There are
also found in both regions numerous masses of igneous rocks, both
plutonic and volcanic, in some places of considerable extent, which
pierce through and overflow the earlier formations.
MADAGASCAR
271
I. The Archean Region. 1 This region, nearly coincident with the
mountainous upper portion of the island, is chiefly composed of the
following crystalline rocks: gneiss, which is the most common of
them all, quartzite and quartz-schist, with occasional beds of crystal-
line limestone and mica-schist, although this latter rock is very rare.
The gneiss is mostly grey, but occasionally pinkish, its essential
constituents (felspar and quartz) being almost always associated
with dark mica (biotite) and hornblende in variable quantity. The
rock is therefore a hornblende-granitite-gneiss. Granite more
MADAGASCAR
*>'4> Hauotte (Mautt) . i'vi. ..*
"
frequently granitite occurs in several places, as well as pyroxene-
granulite, serpentine, argillate, &c. ; and gold is found widely dis-
seminated, as well as other metals, but these latter, as far as at pre-
sent known, except iron, are not abundant. The general strike of
the rocks is the same as that of the trend of the island itself (N.N.E.
In the apparent absence of any Cambrian formation above them,
there is little doubt that these rocks are Archean, although this
cannot be absolutely proved.
to S.S.W.), but in its western portion the strike is frequently from
N.N.W. to S.S.E. In both cases the strike of the rocks is coincident
with the direction of several large valleys, which mark huge faults
in the crystalline rocks. Almost the whole of this region is covered
by a red soil, often of great thickness, which resembles and is often
described as " clay," but is really decomposed rock, chiefly gneiss,
reddened with oxidized magnetite.
II. The Sedimentary Region. The sedimentary rocks extend con-
tinuously along the western side of Madagascar, following the coast-
line; in the north these series of strata are only
from 20 to 30 m. across, but farther south they
reach a breadth of nearly 100 m., while opposite
the B<5tsileb province they extend nearly half across
the island. A narrow band, of Cretaceous age,
occurs also on the east coast, for about 120 m.,
between Vitomandry and Mananjary. The follow-
ing formations are represented :
1. Primary. It is thought that certain beds of
slaty rocks, which have been recognized at different
places, may belong to some of the Primary strata.
Some siliceous schists of the Permian age were dis-
covered in 1908 in the valley of the Sakameira,
south of the Onilahy, or Augustine river. (S.W.
coast). These contain reptilian remains, and also
clear imprints of leaves of the Glossopteris indica, '
as well as other indications of an ancient vegeta-
tion. In the same region conglomerates have been
found containing enormous blocks, apparently
brought by glacial action, and said to be identical
in character with those described as existing in the
Transvaal. True coal has also been obtained in
the same district, the deposits varying from a
third to half a metre in thickness.
2. Secondary. The lowest members of these rest
directly upon the central mass of crystalline rocks,
and consist of sandstones, conglomerates and
shales, which have been supposed by some to
belong to the Trias, without, however, the dis-
covery of any fossil necessary to confirm this
supposition, except some silicified trunks of trees.
These beds are most probably lower members of
the Jurassic series. Westward of and above these
strata, the Middle and Upper Jurassic formations
are found (Lias, Lower Oolite, Oxfordian, &c.),
with well-marked and numerous fossils (Ammo-
nites, Nerinaea, Natica, Astarte, Rhynchonella,
Echinodermata, &c.) ; then the Cretaceous rocks,
both these and the Jurassic series being largely
developed, the Cretaceous fossils including Nau-
tilus, Belemnites, Ostrea, Gryphaea, &c., and some
very large Ammonites (P achy discus). The Second-
ary strata show generally a very slight dip west-
wards and are consequently almost horizontal.
They do not seem to have been greatly disturbed,
although faults occur here and there.
3. Tertiary. A small strip of coast of Eocene
age is known near Tullear (S.W. coast), and rocks
of the same period occur in Ndssi-be', at Mahajamba
Bay, and at Diego-Suarez, with Nummulites and
other foraminifera. Near the latter locality, beds
of Oligocene age have been noticed, consisting of
coarse limestones.
4. Quaternary and Recent. A narrow band of
these deposits extends along the west coast, from
north of Cape St Andrew nearly to the extreme
southern point of the island. But the most notice-
able of these are those in the ancient bed of the
Alaotra Lake, which formerly extended far south-
wards along the valley of the Mangoro; also those
in the marshes of AntsirabS and of Ifanja, in the
Ikopa valley (the great rice plain west of the
capital), and also in the plain of Tsie'nimparihy in
Betsileo, and especially the recent deposits of
Ampasambazimba, north-west of Lake Itasy, dis-
covered in 1902. These beds, rich in sub-fossil
remains, have yielded important additions to our
knowledge of the extinct fauna of the island.
(See Palaeontology.)
Igneous Rocks. ( I ) Plutonic rocks. The ancient
or plutonic igneous rocks (including granite, syen-
ite, diorite, gabbro, porphyry, porphyrite, norite
and retinite) appear at various points of the two
previously described regions. In the Archean region the gneiss is
very often found passing into granite, but certain granitic masses
have a sufficiently distinct character. In the midst of the sedimen-
tary region are two well-recognized masses of plutonic rocks, belonging
to the syenites, sometimes quartziferous in structure. (2) Volcanic
rocks. Recent volcanic eruptive rocks (including rhyolite, trachyte,
phonolite, andesite and basalt) have been examined at a number
of points throughout both the geological regions of the island. In
F m.- ' V W4lkt
272
MADAGASCAR
the Archean region these are very noticeable near Lake Itasy, in
the massif of Ankaratra (an ancient volcano) and in Vakinankaratra
(at Betafo, Antsirabe, &c.); while there are numerous outflows of
doleritic rocks, probably from faults, along the eastern side of the
island and almost parallel with the coast line. In the sedimentary
region volcanic rocks are very numerous; the most extensive of
these is a tract of country, more than 80 m. long, on the west coast,
where the basalt has overflowed the Cretaceous strata. It must be
remembered that the geology of Madagascar is still only known in
its broad features. 1
Minerals and Metals. The country has considerable mineral
wealth. Gold is found almost all over the region of crystalline rocks,
except in and around the Antsihanaka province, the richest aurifer-
ous districts being a band of country parallel with the east coast and
spreading at its southern end into the interior; and another tract,
whose centre is about 100 m. N. of the capital (see Industries, &c.).
Silver has been detected in certain galenas, and also platinum;
copper has been found in various localities, as well as zinc, lead,
nickel, antimony and manganese, but none of these metals has yet
been discovered in sufficient quantities for profitable working. Iron,
on the contrary, especially magnetite, is found abundantly and has
for long been worked by the Malagasy with the simple appliances
brought by their ancestors from their original home in the Far East.
The principal seats of the native industry are on the edge of the
upper forest, where charcoal is easily procured. The following
precious stones are reported: corundum (rubies and sapphires),
beryl, topaz, zircon, garnet, amazon-stone, tourmaline, often in
large crystals, and variously coloured quartz, also often found in
crystals of great size. Bitumen and petroleum have been found ;
graphite is plentiful, and sulphur, salt, saltpetre and lime are also
procured. On the north-west coast thin beds of lignite occur, and
coal has been found in the valley of the Sakameira.
Palaeontology. Researches in various parts of the island have
revealed the existence, in a subfossil state, of the bones of numerous
birds of the family Struthidae. These have been arranged in twelve
species, belonging to two genera, Aepyornis and Mullerornis, which
varied in size from that of a bustard to birds much exceeding an
ostrich, and rivalling the recently extinct moa of New Zealand, the
largest species being about 10 ft. in height. One species of these
great wingless birds laid an egg which is the largest known, being
12 1 in. by 95 in. Associated with these remains there have been
found those of many other birds, including a hawk, a duck, a darter,
a spoonbill, a heron, a rail and a wild-goose, some of these being
much larger than any now inhabiting Madagascar. In the same
beds the remains of two, if not three, species of hippopotamus have
been found, about two-thirds the size of the living South African
species; also the bones and carapace, &c., of gigantic tortoises, and
the bones of a crocodile, now extinct on the coast and rivers, but
still living in the two chief lakes; also the remains of a river-hog,
of a species of swine, and of a slender-legged form of zebu-ox. Near
the south-west coast the skull of a large lemuroid animal was dis-
covered in 1893, much longer than that of any living lemur, the
animal being probably three times the size of any previously known
Madagascar lemuroid. Later still, in 1899 and subsequently, the
bones of two other creatures of the same suborder have been dis-
covered, one of them indicating an animal much larger than a
man. Many of these birds and animals were probably contem-
poraneous with the earliest human inhabitants of Madagascar. The
remains of two species of Edentata have been found, as well
as those of several species of small Rodents, also of a Carnivore
(Cryptoprocta), a larger variety of the species still living in the
island.
In the deposits of a much more remote era than those already
spoken of the Jurassic the bones of some enormous terrestrial
lizards have been brought to light, belonging to Sauropodous
Dinosaurs of the genera Bothriospondylus and Titanosaurus, and to
a Theropod of the genus Megalosaurus. In the beds of the Lower
Oolite portions of the skull of a reptile resembling the gavial of the
Ganges had been previously discovered, from which a new genus
called Steneosaurus has been founded. Since the French occupation
(1895) considerable additions have been made to our knowledge of
the fossil fauna of Madagascar from researches made both on the west
and south-west coast (at Belo and Ambolisatrana) and in the interior
(at Antsirabe), especially in the rich deposits near Tsarazaza (Ampas-
ambazimba), to the north-west of Lake Ittsy. From these various
localities the subfossil remains of thirteen or fourteen extinct species
of lemuroid animals (including the gigantic species already men-
tioned) have been obtained, and have been classified under five new
genera: viz. Megaladapis (3 sp.), Palaeopropithecus (3 sp.), Archaeo-
lemur (2 sp.), Bradylemur (i sp.) and Hadropithecus (i sp.), together
with three new species of lemur. Of these, the Archaeolemurs seem
to have combined the characteristics of lemuroid animals with those
of the monkeys, while Hadropithecus is pronounced to be the nearest
known link with them. A list of all the fossils of the island known
in 1895, but omitting the vertebrates above mentioned, included
1 For most of the information here given on the geology the
writer is indebted to Captain Mouneyres, chef de services des
mines, and the Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., F.L.S.
140 species, 2 belonging to the Mollusca, Foraminifera, Echinodermata,
Actinozoa and Plantae ; but the researches of French geologists made
the total number of Madagascar fossils known in 1907 to be not
fewer than 280 species.
Climate. In the high interior the climate resembles that of the
temperate zones, although six-sevenths of the island are within the
tropics; there is no intense heat, and it is quite cold, occasionally
touching freezing point, during the nights of the cool season. These
parts of the country are tolerably healthy for Europeans. But the
coasts are much hotter, especially on the western side, as is also the
interior west of the highland region; and from the large amount of
marsh and lagoon on the coasts, malarial fever is common and
frequently fatal, both to Europeans and to natives from the interior.
Epidemics of influenza and fever have been very prevalent of late
years in the central provinces. The seasons are two the hot and
rainy season from November to April, and the cool and dry season
during the rest of the year; this remark applies chiefly to the interior,
for rain falls throughout the year on the eastern coast, which is
exposed to the vapour-laden south-east trade winds. The rainfall
diminishes as one goes westward and especially south-westward,
there being very little rain in the south-west corner of the island.
No snow is known, even on the loftiest mountains, but thin ice is
occasionally seen; and hail-showers, often very destructive, are
frequent in the rainy season. Terrific thunderstorms are also
common at that period ; waterspouts are sometimes seen ; and as the
Indian Ocean cyclone region touches the eastern coast, hurricanes
occur every few years, at rare intervals ascending into the interior
highland. The yearly rainfall of the Imerina province (Antanan-
arivo) averages about 54^ in.; accurate statistics as to that of other
parts of the island are not available ; but on the east coast it appears
to be about double that of the interior ; in the south-east consider-
ably more than that amount; while at Morondava (west coast) it is
given as about 21 in. annually, and at Tullear (south-west coast) as
only 10 in. At Tamatave (east coast) the mean annual temperature
is given as 76-5, while at the capital it is about 66; the tempera-
ture of Antananarivo resembles that of Naples or Palermo. 3 The
following table gives the mean of two different sets of government
returns of mean rainfall: Antananarivo, 1369 mm.; Tamatave,
E. coast, 1863 mm.; Farafangana, S.E. coast, 2803 mm.; Diego-
Suarez, N. end of island, 1 196 mm. ; Morondava, W. coast, 543 mm. ;
Tullear, S.W. coast, 273 mm.; Marovoay, W. interior, 1413 mm.
Fauna. The fauna of Madagascar, while deficient in most of the
characteristic tropical forms of life, is one of great interest to the
naturalist from its remote affinities, much of its animal life having
Asiatic rather than African relationships. The central portions of
the island, from their generally bare and treeless character, are poor
in living creatures; but the lower country, and especially the forests
and coast plains, are fairly well stocked. But it is noticeable that
many species have a very limited range. Although a continental
island, it possesses no large quadrupeds none of the larger carni-
vorous, ungulate, proboscoid or quadrumanous animals; but it is
the headquarters of the Lemuroidea, no fewer than thirty-nine species
of which are found in its forests and wooded plains. Some of these
creatures are highly specialized, while the curious aye-aye (Chiromys
madagascariensis), an allied form, is one of the most remarkable
animals known, forming a genus and family by itself. Its whole
structure is strangely modified to enable it to procure the wood-
boring larvae which form its food. Other peculiar animals are
twenty-three species of the Centetidae, a family of the Insectivora
almost confined to Madagascar; while of the Carnivora there are
several small creatures belonging to the civets (Viverridae). The
largest of these ferocious animals, also forming a genus and family by
itself, is the Cryptoprocta ferox ; it is a plantigrade animal, 3 ft. long,
but very like an enormous weasel, and attacks other animals with
the greatest ferocity. The island contains twenty-five species of
bats, mostly of African, but some of Indian, affinities. African
humped cattle were introduced several hundred years ago and now
exist in large herds all over the country. The fat-tailed sheep, goats
and swine have also been naturalized, as well as all kinds of domestic
poultry.
The avi-fauna is much richer than the mammalian, and, although
wanting the largest birds as well as the most brilliantly coloured,
comprises two hundred and sixty species, half of which are endemic.
Many of the birds are remarkable not so much for their shape or
colouring as for their distant relationships; many belong to peculiar
genera, and some are so isolated that new families have had to be
formed for their reception. There is a large variety of perching
birds, including several species of brilliant plumage sun-birds,
kingfishers, rollers and flycatchers, &c. ; kites, hawks and owls are
numerous, and the lakes and marshes abound with water-fowl and
herons, ibises, &c.
The island is free from deadly serpents, but contains two or three
* See " On a Collection of Fossils from Madagascar," by R. B.
Newton, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (Feb. 1895).
3 The following are figures of mean temperature, kindly supplied
by the Rev. E. Colin, S. J., director of the observatory: Di6go-
Suarez, N., 79; Farafangana, S.E. coast, 75; Marovoay, W. intr.,
81; Morondava, W. coast, 77; Tullear, S.W. coast, 78*.
MADAGASCAR
273
small species of boa; crocodiles abound in the rivers and lakes; and
numerous species of lizard, chameleon and tree-frog inhabit the
woods. Madagascar may be considered as one of the headquarters
of the Chamaeleonidae, for of the fifty known species no fewer than
twenty-five have already been described from the island. Many of
these are of curious form, with remarkable developments of the
plates of the head and projecting horns and spines. There are
several peculiar tortoises, but the gigantic species are now found
alive only on the little island of Aldabra, to the north. The insect
life comprises many brilliantly-coloured beetles, butterflies (about
eight hundred species of which are known), moths, locusts, spiders
and flies, and also noxious spiders, with scorpions and centipedes.
The river fishes belong chiefly to the family Chromididae ; many of
thorn are of brilliant and bizarre appearance, with strongly con-
trasted colours in bands and spots. Those found in the coast waters
do not differ materially from the widely spread Indian Ocean species.
As a whole, the Madagascar fauna is marked by a strong individu-
ality, which would appear to be the result of long isolation from
the other zoological " regions." The Asiatic and Malayan affinities
of many of its animals, as well as the physical conditions of the bed
of the Indian Ocean, make it highly probable that Madagascar,
while once forming part of Africa, is the chief relic of a considerable
archipelago formerly connecting that continent with Asia, its other
portions being shown by groups of small islands, and by coral atolls
and shoals, which are gradually disappearing beneath the waves.
These questions have been fully treated by Dr A. R. Wallace in his
Geographical Distribution of Animals (vol. i. ch. ix., 1876) and
Island Life, ch. xix. (1880).
Flora. The flora of Madagascar is one of great interest. One of
its most prominent features is the belt of forest round a large part
of the island at no great distance from the sea, and generally following
the coast-line. This forest is densest on the east side, and for about
120 m. iorms a double line, the lower one being much the broader
and averaging 30 m. across, but attaining a breadth of 60 or 70 m.
on the north-east, near Antongil Bay. The vegetation on the western
side of the island is much less dense, often appearing as scattered
clumps of trees on savannah-like plains rather than continuous
forest; while in the south-west, where the rainfall is very scanty,
the vegetation is largely of fleshy-leaved and spiny plants aloes
and cacti (the latter introduced), with several species of Euphorbia,
as well as numerous lianas, one of which (Intisy) yields india-rubber.
It is estimated that there are about 30,000 sq. m. of forest-covered
country in Madagascar, or about one-eighth of its whole surface.
The vegetation of the forests, the abundant epiphytes, the tree-
mosses, the filmy ferns and the viviparous character of many of the
ferns, show clearly how abundant the rainfall is in the eastern forest
region. This contains a large variety of hard-wooded and valuable
timber trees, including species of Weinmannia (Lalbna *), Elaeocarpus
( Voanana) , Dalbergia ( Vbamboana), Nuxia ( Valanirana) , Podocarpus,
a pine, the sole species in the island (Hbtatra),Tambourissa (Ambbra),
Neobaronia (Harahara), Ocotea (Varbngy) and probably ebony,
Diospyros sp., &c. The following trees are characteristic of Mada-
gascar vegetation, some of them being endemic, and others very
prominent features in the landscape: the traveller's-tree (Urania
speciosa), with its graceful crown of plantain-like leayes growing
like an enormous fan at the top of a tall trunk, and affording a supply
of pure cool water, every part of the tree being of some service in
building; the Raphia (rona) palm (Sagus ruffia); the tall fir-like
Casuanna equisetifolia or beefwood tree, very prominent on the
eastern coast, as well as several species of screw-pine (Pandanus) ;
the Madagascar spice (Ravintsara madagascariinsis), a large forest
tree, with fragrant fruit, leaves and bark ; a beautiful-leaved species
of Calophyllum; and the Tangena (Tanghinia veneniflua), formerly
employed as a poison ordeal. On the lagoons and lower reaches of
the rivers the Viha (Typhonodorum lindleyanum) , an arum endemic
to Madagascar, grows in great profusion to a height of 12 or 13 ft.
and has a white spathe more than a foot in length; and on the
western coast dense thickets of mangrove line the creeks and rivers.
In the interior rivers is found the curious and beautiful lace-leaf
plant (Ouvirandra fenestralis), with an edible tuberous root. On
the western side of the island the baobab, the tamarind, the rotra
(Eugenia sp.), the rofia palm, and several species of fan-palm
(Hyphaene) and of Ficus are prominent ; and the mango (introduced)
grows to a large tree. In the generally bare interior highlands,
large trees, species of Ficus (Amdntana, Avi&vy, Nbnoka, Adabo,
&c.), often mark the position of the old towns; and some of these,
as Ambohimanga, V6hilena, &c., are surrounded by remnants of the
original forest, which formerly covered large portions of the interior.
The most prominent tree in the central province is now the Cape-
lilac (Melia azederach) introduced about 1825; and since the French
conquest several species of eucalyptus have been planted in vast
numbers by the road sides. These have given quite a new aspect
to the vegetation, while bright colour is imparted by species of
Bougainvillea and Poinsettia. In the eastern forests palms, bamboos,
lianas and tree-ferns, as well as species of Dracaena, are found.
Although flowers growing on the ground or on shrubs are not
conspicuous for number or beauty, there are many fine flowering
trees, such as Poinciana regia, presenting a mass of scarlet flowers;
1 The words in parentheses are the native Malagasy names.
Colvillia racemosa, with yellow flowers; Astrapaea Wallichii, striking
attention from its abundant flowers; and species of Cryptostegia, a
purple-flowered creeper, and Strongylodon, another creeper with
cream-coloured blossoms. Among attractive plants are species
of Hibiscus, Euphorbia, Buddleia, Ixora, Kilchingia, Clematis, &c.
On the east coast two orchids, species of Angraecum, with large white
waxy flowers, one with an extraordinarily long spur or nectary,
attract the attention of every traveller during June and July by
their abundance and beauty. Some 320 species of fern have been
collected, and there are large numbers of spiny and prickly
plants, as well as numerous grasses, reeds and rushes, many of
them of great service in the native manufactures of mats, hats,
baskets, &c.
The Rev R. Baron divides the flora into three distinctly marked
" regions," which run in a longitudinal direction, following approxi-
mately the longer axis of the island, and are termed respectively
eastern, western and central. The central includes the elevated
highland of the interior, while the eastern and western include the
forest belts and most of the wooded country and coast plains. Of the
4100 known plants of which about three-fourths are endemic
composing the Madagascar flora, there are 3492 Dicotyledons, 248
Monocotyledons and 360 Acotyledons. Of these, the orders most
largely represented (together with their species) are: Leguminosae,
346; Filices, 318; Compositae, 281 ; Euphorbiaceae, 228; Orchideae,
170; Cyperaceae, 160; Rubiaceae, 147; Acanthaceae, 131; Gra-
mineae, 130. The numberof endemic genera now known is 148. Ofthe
3178 species of plants whose localities have been determined, 35%
are peculiar to the eastern region, 27-5% to the central, and 22%
to the western. One natural order, Chlaenaceae, is strictly confined
to Madagascar. " A small proportion of the species are Asian, but
not African ; and the flora of the mountains corresponds closely with
that of the great ranges of the tropical zone of Africa." " The
general plan of the flora follows thoroughly the same lines as that of
the tropical regions of the Old World.
Among the food-giving plants are rice^ the staff of life to the
majority of the Malagasy in many varieties, maize, millet, manioc,
yams,!sweet-potatoes, arrowroot, which is largely used by the western
tribes as well as numerous vegetables, many of them of foreign
introduction. The fruits the majority of which are introduced
are the banana, peach, loquat, pineapple, mango, melon, grape,
quince, plum, apple, mulberry, orange, lemon, citron, guava, Chinese-
guava, Cape-gooseberry, fig, raspberry, tomato, &c. Several spices
are grown, including ginger, capsicum, &c. ; sugar-cane, coffee, indigo,
vanilla, tobacco, cotton, hemp, gourds, dye-woods, gums, mulberry
and other trees and plants for silk-culture, are also among the vege-
table productions; gum-copal was formerly, and india-rubber is still,
an important article of export.
Provinces and Towns. The island may be divided into dis-
tricts or provinces, which in the main indicate tribal divisions.
Of these tribal territories the following may be distinguished,
taking them in three main divisions, from north to south:
(i) Eastern: Antankarana, occupying the northern peninsula;
the country of the Betsimisaraka, who inhabit a long extent
of the coast plains, about 500 m. in length; parallel with this
for about a third of it, and between the two lines of forest, is the
Beza.noza.no country. South again are the districts of the
Taimbahoaka, the Taimoro, the Taifasy and the Taisaka; and
at the south-eastern corner are the Tanosy. (2) Central: the
districts of Tsimihety and the Sihanaka; Imerina, the Hova
province; the Betsileo; the Tanala or foresters; the Bara;
and the emigrant Tanosy. (3) Western: the people from
almost the northern to the southern extremities of the island
are known as Sakalava, but consist of a number of distinct
tribes the Tiboina, the Mailaka, the Tamenabe, and the
Fiherenana, &c. South of these last are the Mahafaly, with
the Tandroy at the extreme south. There are no distinctly
marked boundaries between any of these tribal territories; and
west of Imerina and Betsileo there is a considerable extent of
country with hardly any population, a kind of " no-man's-
land." There are numerous subdivisions of most of the
tribes.
The capital, Antananarivo (pop. 69,000), in the highlands of
Imerina, and Tamatave (pop. 4600), on the east coast and
the chief seaport, are separately described. Majunga (properly
Mojanga, pop. 5300) on the north-west coast, just north of
16 S., and Diego-Suarez, are important ports for foreign trade,
the latter being also a fortified naval and military station.
Other ports and towns are Mahanoro, Mananjary (S.E. coast,
pop. 4500), Tullear (S.W. coast), and Fianarantsoa (pop.
6200), the chief town of the Betsileo. There are very few
places besides these with as many as 2000 people.
274
MADAGASCAR
InJiabitanis. The population is somewhat under two and
three-quarter millions, 1 including some 10,000 or 11,000 Euro-
peans, and a smaller number of Indian, Arab, and other Asiatics,
mostly small traders found in the seaports, the Chinese being
found in every town of any size. The island, it will be seen,
is very sparsely inhabited; the most densely peopled province
is that of Imerina with (1905) 388,000 inhabitants. The natives,
collectively known as Malagasy, are divided into a considerable
number of tribes, each having its distinct customs. Although
geographically an African island, the majority of its inhabi-
tants are derived, the lighter portion of them from the Malayo-
Polynesian stock, and the darker races from the Melanesian.
This is inferred from their similarity to the peoples of the
Indian and Pacific archipelagoes in their physical appearance,
mental habits, customs, and, above all, in their language.
Their traditions also point in the same direction. There is,
however, an undoubted African mixture in the western and
some other tribes. There is also an Arab element both on the
north-west and south-east coasts; and it appears that most
of the families of the ruling classes in all parts of the island are
descended from Arabs, who married native women. It is
believed that there are traces of an aboriginal people (the
Vazimba), who occupied portions of the interior before the
advent of the present inhabitants, and these appear to have
been a somewhat dwarfish race, and lighter-coloured than the
Malagasy generally. The Hova became the dominant tribe
from the beginning of the igth century; they appear to be the
latest immigrants, and are the lightest in colour; and they are
also the most intelligent and civilized of all the peoples inhabiting
the island.
The most striking proof of the virtual unity of the inhabitants
of Madagascar is that substantially but one language is spoken
over the whole country. The Malay affinities of Malagasy were
noted in the i6th century; indeed, the second and fifth books
published upon the country (in 1603 and 1613) were comparative
vocabularies of these two languages. Later investigations have
confirmed the conclusions thus early arrived at; and Van der
Tuuk, Marre de Marin and W. E. Cousins have shown con-
clusively the close relationships between the language of the
Malagasy and those of the Malayo-Polynesian regions; similar
connexions exist, especially in grammatical construction, between
the Malagasy and Melanesian languages. The Malagasy had
never invented for themselves a written character, and had
consequently no manuscripts, inscriptions or books, until their
language was reduced to writing, and its orthography settled by
English missionaries. Their speech nevertheless is very full in
many of its verbal and other forms, while it also exhibits some
curious deficiencies. It is very soft and musical, full of vowels
and liquids, and free from all harsh gutturals. Native oratory
abounds in figures, metaphors and parables; and a large number
of folk-tales, songs and legends, together with the very numerous
proverbs, give ample evidence of the mental ability and imagin-
ative powers of the Malagasy.
Native society in Imerina among the Hova was formerly divided
into three great classes: the Andriana, or nobles; the Hova, freemen
or commoners; and the Andevo, or slaves; but these last became free
by a proclamation issued in 1896. The Andriana are, strictly speak-
ing, royal clans, being descendants of pet'ty kings who were conquered
or otherwise lost their authority through the increasing power of the
ancestors of the reigning family. Their descendants retained certain
honours in virtue of their royal origin, such as special terms of saluta-
tion, the use of the smaller scarlet umbrella (the larger one was the
mark of royal rank), the right to build a particular kind of tomb, &c. ;
they also enjoyed exemption from certain government service, and
from some punishments for crime. The Hova 2 or commoners form
the mass of the population of Imferina. They are composed of a
large number of tribes, who usually intermarry strictly among them-
selves, as indeed do families, so that property and land may be kept
together. The third great division was the slave population, which
since 1896 has become merged in the mass of the people. The
1 The census taken in 1905 gives 2,664,000 as the total population,
but it is probably a little over that amount, as some localities are
still imperfectly known.
J This is a special and restricted use of the word, Hova in its widest
sense being a tribal name, including all ranks of people in ImSrina.
Mozambiques or African slaves, who had been brought from the
African coast by Arab dhows, were in 1877 formally set free by an
agreement with the British government.
Royalty and chieftainship in Madagascar had many peculiar
customs. It had a semi-sacred character; the chief was, in heathen
tribes, while living, the high priest for his people, and after death,
was worshipped as a god; in its modern development among the
Hova sovereigns it gathered round it much state and ceremony.
There were many curious examples of the taboo with regard to actions
connected with royalty, and also in the words used which relate
to Malagasy sovereigns and their surroundings. These were par-
ticularly seen in everything having to do with the burial of a monarch.
While the foregoing description of native society applied chiefly
to the people of the central province of Imferina, it is applicable,
with local modifications, to most of the Malagasy tribes. But on
the island becoming a French colony, in 1896, royalty was for-
mally abolished ; and little regard is paid to native rank by French
officials.
The chief employment of the Malagasy is agriculture. In the
cultivation of rice they show very great ingenuity, the ketsa grounds,
where the rice is sown before transplanting, being formed either on
the margins of the streams or in the hollows of the hills in a series
of terraces, to which water is often conducted from a considerable
distance. In this agricultural engineering no people surpass the
B6tsileo. No plough is used, all work being done by a long-handled
spade ; and oxen are only employed to tread out the soft mud prepara-
tory to transplanting. The rice is threshed by being beaten in
bundles on stones set upright on the threshing-floor; and when beaten
out the grain is stored by the H6va in rice-pits dug in the hard red
soil, but by the coast tribes in small timber houses raised on posts.
In preparing the rice for use it is pounded in a wooden mortar to
remove the husk, this work being almost always done by the women.
The manioc root is also largely consumed, together with several
other roots and vegetables; but little animal foods (save fish
and freshwater Crustacea) is taken by the mass of the people except
at festival times. Rice is used less by the western tribes than by
those of the central and eastern provinces, and the former people
are more nomadic in their habits than are the others. Large herds
of fine humped cattle are found almost all over the island.
The central and eastern peoples have considerable manual dex-
terity. The women spin and weave, and with the rudest appliances
manufacture a variety of strong and durable cloths of silk.cotton and
hemp, and of rofia palm, aloe and banana fibre, of elegant patterns,
and often with much taste in colour. They also make from straw
and papyrus peel strong and beautiful mats and baskets in great
variety, some of much fineness and delicacy, and also hats resembling
those of Panama. The people of the south and south-east make
large use of soft rush matting for covering, and they also prepare
a rough cloth of bark. Their non-employment of skins for clothing
is a marked distinction between the Malagasy and the South African
races, and their use of vegetable fibres an equally strong link be-
tween them and the Polynesian peoples. The men wear a loin-
cloth or salaka, the women a kitamby or apron folded round the
body from waist to heel, to which a jacket or dress is usually added ;
both sexes use over these the Idmba, a large square of cloth folded
round the body something like the Roman toga, and which is the
characteristic native dress. The Malagasy are skilful in metal-work-
ing; with a few rude-looking tools they manufacture silver chains
of great fineness, and filagree ornaments both of gold and silver.
Their iron-work is of excellent quality, and in copper and brass they
can produce copies of anything made by Europeans. They display
considerable inventive power, and they are exceedingly quick to
adopt new ideas from Europeans.
There is a considerable variety in the houses of the different
Malagasy tribes. The majority of Hova houses were formerly built
of layers of the hard red soil of the country, with high-pitched roofs
thatched with grass or rush; while the chiefs and wealthy people
had houses of framed timber, with massive upright planking, and
lofty roofs covered with shingles or tiles. But the introduction of
sun-dried and burnt bricks, and of roofing tiles in the central pro-
vinces has led to the general use of these materials in the building of
houses, large numbers of which are made in two storeys and in Euro-
pean fashion. The forest and coast tribes make their dwellings
chiefly of wood framing filled in with the leaf-stalks of the traveller's
tree, with the leaves themselves forming the roof covering. The houses
of the Betsileo and Sakalava are very small and dirty, but those of
the coast peoples are more cleanly and roomy. Among the Hova
and B6tsil6o the old villages were always built for security on the
summits of lofty hills, around which were dug several deep fosses,
one within the other. In other districts the villages and homesteads
are enclosed within formidable defences of prickly-pear or thorny
mimosa.
Apart from the modern influence of religious teaching, the people
are very immoral and untruthful, disregardful of human life and
suffering, and cruel in war. Until lately polygamy has been common
among all the Malagasy tribes, and divorce effected in an absurdly
easy fashion. At the same time the position of woman is
much higher in Madagascar than in most heathen countries; and,
the fact that for nearly seventy years there were (with a few months
MADAGASCAR
275
exception) only female sovereigns, helped to give women consider-
able influence in native society. The southern and western peoples
still practise infanticide as regards children born on several unlucky
days in each month. This was formerly the general practice all
over the island. The old laws among the H6va were very barbarous
in their punishments, and death in various cruel forms was inflicted
for very trifling offences. Drunkenness is very prevalent in many
parts of the island ; and it can hardly be said of many of the Malagasy
that they are very industrious. But they are courageous and loyal
to their chiefs and tribe, and for short periods are capable of much
strenuous exertion. They are affectionate and firm in their friend-
ships, kind to their children and their aged and infirm relatives, very
respectful to old age, most courteous and polite and very hospitable
to strangers. Slavery had a patriarchal and family character, and
was seldom exercised in a cruel or oppressive way.
The Malagasy have never had any organized religious system or
forms of worship ; there are no temples, images or stated seasons of
devotion, nor is there a priesthood, properly so-called. Yet they have
never been without some distinct recognition of a supreme being,
whom they call Andriamanitra, " The Fragrant One," and Zanahary,
" The Creator " words which are recognized all over the island.
They have also retained many ancient sayings, proverbial in their
style, which enforce many of the truths of natural religion as to the
attributes of God. With all this, however, there has long existed
a kind of idolatry, which in its origin is simply fetishism the belief
in charms as having power to procure various benefits and protect
from certain evils. Among the H6va in modern times four or five
of these charms had acquired special sanctity and were each
honoured as a kind of national deity, being called " god," and brought
out on all public occasions. Together with this idolatry there is
also a firm belief in the power of witchcraft and sorcery, in divina-
tion, in lucky and unlucky days and times, in ancestor worship,
especially that of the sovereign's predecessors, and in several curious
ordeals for the detection of crime. The chief of these was the cele-
brated tangena poison ordeal, in which there was implicit belief,
and by which, until its prohibition by an article in the Anglo-
Malagasy treaty of 1865, thousands of persons perished every year.
Sacrifices of fowls and sheep are made at many places at sacred
stones and altars, both in thanksgiving at times of harvest, &c.,
and as propitiatory offerings. Blood and fat are used to anoint
many of these stones, as well as the tombs of ancestors, and especially
those of the Vazlmba. In some of the southern districts it is said
that human sacrifices were occasionally offered. The chief festival
among the H6va, and almost confined to them, was that of the New
Year, at which time a kind of sacrificial killing of oxen took place,
and a ceremonial bathing, from which the festival took its name of
Fandroana (the Bath). This festival is now merged in the French
national fete of the idth of July. Another great festival was at
circumcision times. This rite was observed by royal command at
intervals of a few years; these were occasions of great rejoicing, but
also of much drunkenness and licentiousness. Since 1868 circum-
cision has been observed by each family at any time convenient to
itself. It is practised by all the Malagasy tribes. Funerals were
also times of much feasting, and at the death of people of rank and
wealth numbers of bullocks were and are still killed. Although
there was no proper priesthood, the idol-keepers, the diviners, the
day-declarers and some others formed a class of people closely
connected with heathen customs and interested in their continued
observance.
Industries and Commerce. The rearing of cattle and the
dressing of hides, the collection of rubber and bee culture are
important industries. The chief food crops grown have been
indicated (see Flora), and the gold-mining is separately noticed
below. Other industries undertaken or developed by Europeans
are silk and cotton weaving and raphia-fibre preparation, and
ostrich farming. Sugar, rice, soap and other factories have
been established. In 1904 the exportation of straw and other
fibre hats began; these resemble those of Panama and promise
to become an important item. Tanning bark, coffee and guano
are also recent exports.
Since 1862, when the country was thrown open to foreign
trade, the growth of over-sea commerce has been comparatively
slow. In the early days cattle were the chief export. About
1870 india-rubber began to be exported in considerable quan-
tities, and cattle, rubber and hides continue staple products.
Other important exports are raphia fibre and beeswax. Since
1900 gold has become a leading export, the value of the gold
sent .out of the country in the five years 1901-1906 being
1,384,493. The imports consist chiefly of tissues (mostly
cotton goods), breadstuff s and rice, liquors, metal- ware and
coal. Better means of internal transport and increased pro-
duction in the island have greatly reduced the import of
rice, which came mostly from Saigon.
Before the occupation of Madagascar by France the duty
on imports and exports was 10% ad valorem, and the foreign
trade was very largely in the hands of British and American
merchants; In July 1897 the French tariff was applied and
increased rates levied on foreign goods, notably cottons. This
practically killed the American trade and reduced the British
trade to a very small proportion. In 1897 the British imports,
were valued at 179,000; the next year, with the new tariff
in force, they had dropped to 42,000. The only export duties
are: cattle 23. per head and rubber 2d. per Ib.
In 1880-1885 the entire foreign trade of Madagascar, imports
and exports, was estimated to be about i,ooo,coo; in 1900-1906
the volume of trade had increased to a little over 2,500,000 a
year. But while from 1900 onwards imports had a tendency
to decrease (they were 1,841,310 in 1901 and 1,247,936 in
1905), exports steadily increased, owing to the working of gold-
mines. The total value of the exports rose from 359,019 in
1901 to 822,470 in .1906.* About 90% of the trade is with
France or other French colonies. The remaining trade is nearly
all British and German.
Banking business is in the hands of French companies. The
legal currency is the French s-franc piece and the smaller
French coins. There was no native coinage, the French s-franc
piece or dollar being the standard, and all sums under that
amount were obtained by cutting up those coins into all shapes
and sizes, which were weighed with small weights and scales
into halves, quarters, eighths, twelfths and twenty-fourths of a
dollar, and even reckoned down to the seven hundred and
twentieth fraction of the same amount.
Gold-mining. Gold-mining has been carried on regularly since
1897, and by 1900 the value of the ore extracted exceeded 100,000.
Reports of rich discoveries attracted considerable attention in South
Africa and Europe during 1904-1906, but experts, sent from the
Transvaal, came to the conclusion that Madagascar would not
become one of the rich goldfields of the world. The chief mining
districts have been already indicated (see under Geology). Rich
finds were reported from the north of the island during 1907, in
which year the export of gold was 320,000. The mines afford a
lucrative occupation for some thousands of persons, and many of
the claim-holders are British. Decrees of 1902 and 1905 regulate
the conditions under which mining is carried on. By decree of the
23rd of May 1907, the radius of the circle within which claims may
be pegged is 2 kilometres (ij m.), and a tax of 5% is levied on the
value of the gold extracted. _
Communications. There is regular steamship communication
between the chief ports and Marseilles, Zanzibar and India (via
Mauritius and Ceylon) ; and a submarine cable to Mozambique places
the island in telegraphic connexion with the rest of the world. The
French have built carriage roads from the interior to the principal
ports as well as to connect the principal towns. On these roads
large use is made of bullock wagons, as well as carts drawn by men,
and women also. Tamatave and Antananarivo are joined by coast
canals and lakes and by a railway service. Where other means
are not available, goods are carried by canoes, or on the shoulders
of bearers along the native footpaths.
There is a well-organized postal service, and all the towns of note
are linked by a telegraph system, which has a length of over 4000
miles.
Government, Revenue, 6*c. The colony is not represented
in the French Chambers, nor has it self-government. At the
head of the administration is a governor-general, who is assisted
by a nominated council of administration which includes
unofficial members. This council must be consulted on matters
affecting the budget. In several towns there are chambres con-
sultative*, composed of local merchants and planters. The
island is divided into circles, placed under military officers, and
provinces, presided over by a civilian. As far as possible in
local affairs, each of the native races is granted autonomy, the
dominion of the Hova over the other tribes being abolished.
Each province has its native governor and minor officials, the
governor being generally selected by popular vote. Each
village has an organization (the Fdkon' dlona) resembling that
1 Exports:
1901
1906
Increase.
Rubber
Hides and skins .
Gold ....
26,679
3L548
13 '.987
301,518
250,339
270,613
274.839
218,791
138,626
276
MADAGASCAR
of a commune; at its head is a chief or mpiadidy, who serves
for three years.
For Europeans and in suits between Europeans and natives the
French judicial code is applicable; suits between natives are tried
by native tribunals (established 1898) presided over by a European
assisted by two native assessors. These tribunals judge according
to native law and usages, except when such customs (e.g. polygamy
and slavery) have been expressly abolished. Arbitration councils
are available everywhere for the settlement of disputes between
native workmen and their employers. The native laws respecting
land tenure have been improved by the adoption of a method of
registration based on the Torrens system.
Revenue is derived from land, house and capitation taxes, from
customs, posts and telegraphs, ferries, licences and other indirect
imposts. The excess of expenditure over revenue is made good by
subventions from France. A considerable portion of the revenue
is expended on public works. Revenue and expenditure in 1905
were each just beneath 1,000,000. This is exclusive of the sums
spent by France in the island on the army, and for the naval base
at Diego-Suarez. There is a public debt amounting (1907) to
4-556oo. As stated in the French senate (February 1909),
everything is taxed in the island ; and no sooner has any enterprise
become fairly successful than it is so heavily taxed as to be no longer
worth carrying on, and certain crops have therefore been destroyed
by the colonists who had planted them. This has been the case
with tobacco, sugar, rum, and also in butter-making, cattle-breeding
and other things. Notwithstanding this taxation, from 1895 to
1908 12,000,000 was required for Madagascar from the home
government, and the demand is constantly increasing.
History. From the earliest accounts given of the people of
Madagascar by European travellers, as well as from what may
be inferred from their present condition, they seem for many
centuries to have been divided into a number of tribes, often
separated from one another by a wide extent of uninhabited
country. Each of these was under its own chief, and was often
at war with its neighbours. No one tribe seems to have gained
any great ascendancy over the rest until about the middle of
the 1 7th century, when a small but warlike people called
Sa.kala.va, in the south-west of Madagascar, advanced north-
ward, conquered all the inhabitants of the western half of the
island, as well as some northern and central tribes, and
eventually founded two kingdoms which retained their supre-
macy until the close of the i8th century. About that time, the
Hova in the central province of Imerina began to assert their
own position under two warlike and energetic chieftains,
Andrianimpoina and his son Radama; they threw off the
Sakalava authority, and after several wars obtained a nominal
allegiance from them; they also conquered the surrounding
tribes, and so made themselves virtual kings of Madagascar.
From that time until 1895 Hova authority was retained over
a large part of the central and eastern provinces, but it was
only nominal over much of the western side of the island, while
in the south-west the people were quite independent and
governed by their own chiefs.
While European intercourse with Madagascar is comparatively
recent, the connexion of the Arabs with the island dates from a
Arab very remote epoch; and in very early times settle-
intt-rcourse ments were formed both on the north-west and south-
*d east coasts. In the latter locality there are still
influence. traces of their influence in the knowledge of Arabic
possessed by a few of the people. But in these provinces they
have become merged in the general mass of the people. Tt is
different, however, in the north-west and west of the island.
Here are several large Arab colonies, occupying the ports of
Anorontsanga, Mojanga, Marovoay and Morondava, and re-
taining their distinct nationality. There is also in these districts
a Hindu element in the population, for intercourse has also been
maintained for some centuries between India and northern
Madagascar, and in some towns the Banyan Indian element
is as prominent as the Arab element. In the early times of their
intercourse with Madagascar, the Arabs had a very powerful
influence upon the Malagasy. This is seen in the number of
words derived from the Arabic in the native language. Among
these are the names of the months and the days of the week,
those used in astrology and divination, some forms of salutation,
words for dress and bedding, money, musical instruments, books
and writings, together with a number of miscellaneous terms.
The island is mentioned by several of the early Arabic writers
and geographers, but medieval maps show curious ignorance of
its size and position. Marco Polo has a chapter upon
it, and terms it " Madeigascar," but his accounts are
confused with those of the mainland of Africa. The
first European voyager who saw Madagascar was a Portuguese
named Diogo Diaz, captain of one of the ships of a fleet com-
manded by Pedro Cabral and bound for India. Separated from
his companions by a storm near the Cape, he sighted the eastern
coast of the island on the loth of August 1500. That day being
the feast of St Lawrence, Madagascar was named the " Isle of
St Lawrence," and retained that name on all maps and charts for
a hundred years. The Portuguese gave names to most of the
capes, but made no persistent attempts at colonization. After
them the Dutch endeavoured, but with little success, to form
colonies; and in the time of Charles I. proposals were made to
form an English " plantation," but these were never carried
into effect, although for a short time there was a settlement
formed on the south-west coast. In the latter part of the 1 7th and
during most of the i8th century the French attempted to establish
military positions on the east coast. For some time they held
the extreme south-east point of the island at Fort Dauphin; but
several of their commandants were so incapable and tyrannical
that they were frequently involved in war with the people,
and more than once their stations were destroyed and the
French were massacred. Early in the igth century all their
positions on the mainland were relinquished, and they retained
nothing but the island of Ste Marie on the east coast. In 1811
Tamatave had been occupied by British troops, and the Treaty
of Paris of 1814 recognized as British the " French settlements
in Madagascar," but as a matter of fact France had then no
settlements on the mainland. The then governor of Mauritius,
Sir Robert Farquhar, endeavoured to prosecute British claims and
obtained a cession of Diego-Suarez Bay. These claims were not
backed up by the home government, and a little later the policy
was adopted by Great Britain of supporting the Hova authority.
The political history of Madagascar as a whole may be said
to date from the reign of Radama I. (1810-1828). He was a man
much in advance of his age shrewd, enterprising, and p adama 7
undeterred by difficulty a kind of Peter the Great of
his time. He saw that it was necessary for his people to be
educated and civilized if the country was to progress; and making
a treaty with the governor of Mauritius to abolish the export of
slaves, he received every year in compensation a subsidy of arms,
ammunition, and uniforms, as well as English training for his
troops. He was thus enabled to establish his authority over a
large portion of the island. For some years a British agent,
Mr Hastie, resided at Radama's court, and exercised a powerful
influence over the king, doing much for the material advance of
the country. At the same period (1820) Christian introduc-
teaching was commenced in the capital by the tion ot
London Missionary Society, and by its missionaries Chris-
the language was reduced to a systematic written
form, and the art of printing introduced; books were pre-
pared, the Scriptures were translated, numerous schools were
formed, and several Christian congregations were gathered
together. The knowledge of many of the useful arts was also
imparted, and many valuable natural productions were dis-
covered. The power of superstition was greatly broken, a result
partly due to the keen good sense of the king, but chiefly to the
spread of knowledge and religious teaching.
The bright prospects thus opening up were clouded by the
death of Radama at the age of thirty-six, and the seizure of
the royal authority by one of his wives, the Princess , ag
Ranavalona. She looked with much suspicion upon /_
the ideas then gaining power among many of her
people, and determined to strike a decisive blow at the new
teaching. In 1835 the profession of the Christian religion
was declared illegal; all worship was to cease, and all religious
books were ordered to be given up. By the middle of 1836 all
the English missionaries were obliged to leave the island, and
for twenty-five years the most strenuous efforts were made by
MADAGASCAR
277
the queen and her government to suppress all opposition to her
commands. This, however, only served to show in a very
remarkable manner the courage and faith of the Christian
Malagasy, of whom about two hundred suffered death in various
cruel forms, while many hundreds were punished more or less
severely by fine, degradation, imprisonment and slavery.
During the queen's reign the political condition of the country
was deplorable; there were frequent rebellions, many of the
distant provinces were desolated by barbarous wars; and for
some years all Europeans were excluded, and foreign commerce
almost ceased. This last circumstance was partly owing to
an ill-managed attack upon Tamatave in 1846 by a combined
British and French force, made to redress the wrongs inflicted
upon the foreign traders of that port. But for the leaven of
Christianity and education which had been introduced into the
country it would have reverted to a state of barbarism.
This reign of terror was brought to a close in 1861 by the
death of the queen and the accession of her son Radama II. The
R d mall ' s ' an d was reopened to European trade, and rhis-
' sionary efforts were recommenced. A determined
attempt was made by some Frenchmen to gain for their
country an overwhelming influence by means of a treaty
which they induced the king to sign. But this act, as well
as the vices and insane follies into which he was led by
worthless foreign and native favourites, soon brought his reign
and his life to an end. He was put to death in his palace
(1863) and his wife was placed on the throne. The new sovereign
and her government refused to ratify the agreement which had
been illegally obtained, choosing rather to pay a million francs
as compensation to the French company. During the five years'
reign of Queen Rasoherina, quiet and steady advances were
made in civilization and education, and treaties were concluded
with the British, French and American governments.
At the death of Rasoherina in 1868, she was succeeded by her
cousin, Ranavalona II. One of the first acts of the new queen
was the public recognition of Christianity; and very
Raaavsioaa soon afterwards she and her husband, the prime
minister, were baptized, and the erection of a chapel
royal was commenced in the palace yard. These acts were
followed in the succeeding year by the burning of the royal
idols, and immediately afterwards by the destruction of the idols
throughout the central provinces, the people generally putting
themselves under Christian instruction. From that time educa-
tion and enlightenment made great progress, chiefly through the
labours of missionaries of various societies.
The native Malagasy government, though theoretically
despotic, was limited in various ways. Radama I. and Rana-
Native valona I. were much more absolute sovereigns than
Govern- those before or after them, but even they were
largely restrained by public opinion. New laws were
announced at large assemblies of the people, whose consent was
asked, and always given through the headmen of the different
divisions of native sooiety; this custom was no doubt a survival
from a time when the popular assent was not a merely formal
act. The large disciplined army formed by Radama I. aided
much in changing what was formerly a somewhat limited
monarchy into an absolute one. The Hova queen's authority
was maintained over the central and eastern portions of Mada-
gascar, and at almost all the ports, by governors appointed by
the queen, and supported by small garrisons of Hova troops.
At the same time the chiefs of the various tribes were left in
possession of a good deal of their former honours and influence.
Ranavalona II., her predecessor and her successor were succes-
sively married to the prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, a man of
great ability and sagacity, who, by his position as husband and
chief adviser of the sovereign, became virtual ruler of the
country. Chiefly owing to his influence, many measures
tending to improve the administration were introduced. The
Hova army was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000 men, several
English non-commissioned officers and, latterly, others of
higher rank being engaged to train them in European methods.
Revenue was derived from customs duties, firstfruits, fines and
confiscation of offenders' property, and a money offering called
h&sina, presented on a great variety of occasions both to the
sovereign in person and to her representatives; and these were
supplemented by " benevolences " (in the medieval sense of
the word) levied upon the people for occasional state necessities.
The government also claimed the unpaid service of all classes of
the community for every kind of public work.
The Hova government aspired to have Madagascar recognized
as an independent civilized state, and consuls appointed by the
British, French and American governments were
accredited to the Malagasy sovereign, the queen
having a consul in England, and a consular agent
at Mauritius. The treaty with Great Britain, concluded in 1865,
gave the consuls of that nation jurisdiction over the British sub-
jects in the island. At this period, on the initiative of the 4th
earl of Clarendon, then foreign secretary, an understanding was
come to between the British and French governments by which
it was agreed that each power should respect the independence
of Madagascar; and the future of the country appeared to be
bound up in the gradual consolidation of the central Hova
authority over the whole island. While this prospect would
have satisfied the British interests in the island, it was other-
wise with the French. The tradition of their former settlements
in and influence over the island was strong; in 1840 they had
taken under their protection the Sakalava ruler of the small
island of Nossi-be, off the north-west coast, and in virtue of that
act claimed a vague protectorate over the adjacent shores of
the mainland. A treaty, concluded in 1868, while establishing
French consular jurisdiction in Madagascar, recognized Rana-
valona II. as queen of Madagascar, and under the Second
Empire attempts to establish French political influence were dis-
couraged, and even as late as 1872 the subsidy enjoyed by the
Jesuit missionaries was withdrawn. In 1878 the French consul,
Laborde, died, and a dispute arose as to the disposal of his pro-
perty. This dispute was the occasion of further intervention on
the part of the French, for the Paris government supported the
claims of Laborde's heirs, and revived their claim to a protector-
ate over the Sakalava of the north-west coast, as based on their
agreement with them in 1840, ceding Nossi-be to France. A
policy of colonial expansion generally, and in Africa in par-
ticular at this time, was manifest in France, as in other Euro-
pean countries, and the French claims on the Hova were pressed
with vigour.
Towards the middle of 1882 the relations between the native
government and that of France became much strained, and
to settle, if possible, these causes of dispute, two Franco-
Hova officers of high rank were sent to France as Malagasy
ambassadors, but as they were not authorized to
concede any territory, their visit accomplished very
little. Treaties had been concluded with Great Britain, Ger-
many and America, giving improved facilities for trade with
Madagascar, but before the return of the envoys matters had
come to a crisis in the island. In May 1883 an ultimatum was
sent to the Malagasy queen, requiring immediate compliance
with the demands of France; and as these were refused by the
Hova government, Tamatave was bombarded by a French
squadron and then occupied by the marines. The war con-
tinued in a desultory fashion for many months; but no serious
attempt was made to invade the interior; and in 1885 terms
of peace were agreed to. By a treaty signed on the I7th of
December it was agreed that the foreign relations of Madagascar
should be directed by France; that a resident should live at
the capital, with a small guard of French soldiers; and that
the Bay of Diego-Suarez, together with surrounding territory,
should be ceded to France. The word "protectorate" was
carefully excluded from the treaty, although doubtless the
French envoys intended that this should be its practical issue.
It was at the same time agreed that there should be no foreign
interference with the internal government of the country, and
that the queen should retain her former position, with all its
honours and dignity. It should be here noticed that the queen,
Ranavalona II., died just at the beginning of the war, on the
278
MADAGASCAR
I3th of July 1883, and was succeeded by her niece, Princess
Razafindrahety, under the title of Ranavalona III., who main-
tained the same policy as her predecessor, and was much beloved
French Pro-ty her people and respected by all. Several French
tectorate, residents successively represented France at Antana-
1885-1894. nar ivo; but these found themselves unable to
obtain that influence which the home authorities thought they
had a right to demand. Although the British government, in
return for concessions in Zanzibar, had consented, in 1890, to
recognize a French protectorate over Madagascar, the Malagasy
prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, was not disposed to give any
advantage to France and continued to arm and train, by the
help of British officers, a large body of native soldiers. This
state of tension and irritation could not last, and at length,
towards the close of 1894, the French government sent an
ultimatum to the Malagasy sovereign, demanding such powers
as would have made French authority supreme in the island.
These demands were refused by the native government, and
other conditions were offered; but the French envoy, together
French la- witn tne resident's escort, left the capital, as also did
vasion and the French traders and others, including the large
Conquest, Jesuit mission. As soon as these had left the island,
l895 ' the chief ports were occupied by French troops, and
an expeditionary force under General Duchesne was afterwards
landed on the north-west coast at Mojanga commonly, but in-
correctly, written Majunga with the object of breaking the
Hova authority. Owing to the necessity of making a road for the
passage of artillery and military stores, many months were spent
on the march into the interior, and there was considerable loss
of life by fever and other disease among the invading troops.
But no effectual resistance was made by the Malagasy, and
at length, on the 3oth of September 1895, the French forces
appeared on the heights north and east of Antananarivo, bom-
barded the city, which surrendered in the afternoon, and on
the evening of the same day the French entered the capital.
The result was that the protectorate of France was re-estab-
lished in the central provinces, but the queen was allowed to
retain her position. Early in 1896, however, a serious
1896, and" rebellion broke out in several parts of Imerina. This
movement was not only anti-French and anti-foreign,
but also distinctly anti-Christian. The French troops
gradually broke up the power of the rebellion in the
central provinces, but as there appeared to be
considerable unrest in many other parts of the island, General
Gallieni, an officer with a reputation for vigour and ability in
the Sudan and Tongking campaigns, was sent out to relieve the
then resident-general.
General Gallieni had a difficult task in establishing the autho-
rity of France throughout the island among numbers of tribes
Adminis- wno had never submitted to any control from others.
tration of Among the first steps he took were to put the country
General under martial law, to abolish royalty and all semblance
Gauieal. Q{ Hova government, and to declare Madagascar to be
henceforth a colony of France. Queen Ranavalona III. was
exiled to Reunion, and subsequently to Algeria. Meanwhile
carriage roads were commenced to connect all the chief centres,
and the military posts were gradually extended so as to consoli-
date French rule over all the outlying tribes. French residents
and numerous other officials were placed at every important
town, and various projects were started for the civilization of the
Malagasy in accordance with French ideas. At the close of 1899,
General Gallieni was able to report that only portions of the west
and south-west remained to be brought into submission. Not
long afterwards the authority of France was recognized through-
out the island. General Gallieni, whose firm and vigorous ad-
ministration, and desire to treat the Malagasy justly and kindly,
made him liked by the people, retired in 1905, and was succeeded
in that office by M. Victor Augagneur, late mayor of Lyons.
Since the French occupation the Malagasy have conformed
pretty readily to the new order of things, although many of the
most intelligent Hova deeply regret that their country did not
retain its independence. Justice is administered, on the whole,
1896, and
Gradual
Subjection
of the
Malagasy.
with fairness and impartiality ; but the taxation seems too heavy
for the means of the people, indeed it is affirmed by trustworthy
natives that the well-to-do classes are being gradually drained of
their property. To an outsider it also appears that the staff of
officials is very largely in excess of any real needs of administra-
tion; several monopolies, which interfere with the habits of the
people, tend to produce discontent; and the taking of their land
and houses for public works, roads, &c., while but a mere fraction
of their real value is allowed as compensation, does not help to
increase their acquiescence in foreign control. But the most
serious cause for dislike to government action was the inter-
ference by the governor-general, in 1907, with their religious
customs, by the suppression of hundreds of their congregational
schools, and the closing of numbers of their churches. In
July 1910 M. Augagneur was replaced as governor-general by
N. Picquie, a prominent official of the Colonial Department,
who had previously served with acceptance as deputy governor-
general of French Indo-China, and who had a reputation for
tact and impartiality.
Christian Missions and Education. As already noticed, the
Malagasy owe to missionaries of the London Missionary Society
their first school system and their first literature, in 1820 and
subsequent years; 1 and for fifteen years all educational work was
carried on by them, some 10,000 to 12,000 children having been
instructed in their schools. On the reopening of the country to
Europeans in 1862, the L.M.S. mission was resumed and was carried
on with vigour for several years, stations being formed in several
parts of Imerina, in the Be'tsile'o and Antsihanaka provinces, and at
the ports of Tamatave, Majunga and Farafangana (south-east coast).
In 1890 the number of their churches was 1220; adherents, 248,000;
and scholars, 68,000; so that for long the greater part of the educa-
tional work was in their hands, carried on not only in primary
schools, but also in high schools and colleges. In 1863 the Church
of England began work in the island through the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel and the Church Missionary Society.
After some time, however, the latter society withdrew, leaving the
field to the S.P.G. A bishop is stationed in the capital, with a
theological college in its neighbourhood, but the chief work of the
Anglican mission is on the east coast. In 1866 the Norwegian
Lutheran Society began work in Madagascar, and was joined in 1888
by an American Lutheran Society. With a representative church at
the capital, the chief work of these missions is in the Vakinankaratra
district (south-west of Imerina), in the B4tsil<So province, and on the
south-east and south-west coasts; in these places they have a large
number of converts and (until lately) schools. In 1867 a mission
was begun by the Society of Friends, who gave great attention to
education and literary work, and afterwards took up as their field
of labour the western and south-western parts of Imerina, where
they have a large and well-organized mission. Immediately after
the island became a French possession the French Protestant
Churches began (in 1896) to take part in the evangelizing of their
new colony, and about half the area for long occupied by the London
Missionary Society was transferred to the Paris Society. The bulk
of the Malagasy Christians are Protestants, probably three-fourths
or four-fifths of those professing Christianity. A Roman Catholic
(Jesuit) mission was begun in 1861, and a large force of priests with
a bishop and lay brethren and sisters engaged in education, have
been at work in the island since then, except during the two Franco-
Malagasy wars. 2 Since the French conquest, the north of the island
has been occupied by a mission of priests of the Saint Esprit, and
the southern portion by the Lazarist mission, each with a bishop
at its head. The following table gives the statistics of the various
Protestant missions at the close of 1906:
Mission
Mission-
aries
Churches
Adhe-
rents
Mem-
bers
Scho-
lars
Lond. Miss. Soc.
25
630
120,000
32,000
27,000
Soc. Prop. Gospel
15
121
13,000
4,094
7,655
Norweg. Luth.
60
892
84,000
71,500
38,000
Am. Luth.
14
?
?
?
?
Soc. of Friends
27
178
15,000
2,540
7,122
French Prot. Miss.
29
491
110,660
10,500
18,200
1 It is true that 200 years earlier than this, persistent efforts were
made for nineteen years (16001619) by Portuguese Roman Catholic
missionaries to propagate their faith among the south-east coast
tribes. But although much zeal and self-denial were shown by
these men, their efforts were abortive, and the mission was at length
abandoned, leaving no fruit of their labours in a single church or
convert. Half a dozen small books of devotion are all that remain
to show their presence in Madagascar.
2 The work of the " Freres chre'tiens " was, however, almost
broken up by the anti-clerical policy of the French government.
MADAN MADDALONI
279
Since 1897 high schools, and medical and technical schools, and a
few primary schools, have been formed by the French government ;
and all other schools have been placed under regulations issued by
an educational department, the scholars being required to learn the
French language; but until the end of 1906 the bulk of the educa-
tional work was carried on by the various missions. At that date
the anti-clerical movement in France began to affect Madagascar.
In all the missions the churches had, in the vast majority of cases,
been used as school-houses, but in November 1906 it was strictly
forbidden to use churches for educational purposes after two months
from that date; and the effect of the decree, with other provisions,
was to close hundreds of schools, probably three-fourths of the
whole number.
For many years (1862-1896), all medical aid to the sick, the forma-
tion of hospitals and dispensaries, the training of native doctors,
midwives and nurses, ana the production of medical literature was
entirely due to the Protestant missionaries, viz. the LondonMission-
ary Society, the Friends and the Norwegians. Numbers of young
men received a full course of medical and surgical training, and were
awarded diplomas after passing strict examinations. This work is
now mostly in charge of a government department, and mission
medical work is much restricted; but for thirty-five years the Mala-
gasy owed all such help to the benevolence of European Christians.
Besides care for the sick in ordinary diseases, asylums for lepers
were for many years carried on; two by the London Missionary
Society, one, a large one, with 800 or 900 inmates, by the Norwegian
Society, and another by the Roman Catholic mission. This last,
with one of those of the L.M.S., is now taken over by the government.
AUTHORITIES. As regards the scientific aspects of the country,
almost everything of value in previous books and papers is included
in the magnificent work (1882 et seq.), in 28 410 vols., by Alfred
Grandidier, entitled Histoire naturelle, physique, et politique de
Madagascar. Many of the volumes consist of coloured lithograph
plates illustrating the natural history of the country, as well as
atlases of maps from the earliest period.
General: Etienne de Flacourt, Histoire de la grande isle Madagas-
car (Paris, 1658) ; Madagascar, or Robert Drury's Journal during
Fifteen Years' Captivity on that Island (London, 1729 ; new ed., 1890) ;
Voyages et memoires de Maurice Auguste, comte de Benyowski (Paris,
1791); Froberville, Histoire de Madagascar (Isle de France, 1809);
Ellis, History of Madagascar (London, 1838); Guillain, Documents
sur ... /a partie occidentale de Madagascar (Paris, 1845) ; Mac6
Descartes, Histoire et geographic de Madagascar (Paris, 1846); Ellis,
Three Visits to Madagascar (London, 1859); J. Sibree, Madagascar
and its People (London, 1870) ; Tantara ny Andrtana eto Madagascar:
Histoire des rois d'Imerina d'apres les manuscrits malgaches,
(Antananarivo, 1875); Mullens, Twelve Months in Madagascar
(London, 1875); Blanchard, L'Jle de Madagascar (Paris, 1875);
Dahle, Madagascar og dels Beboere (Christiania, 1876^-1878); Sibree
and Baron (cds.), The Antananarivo Annual, Nos. i-xxiv. (1875-
1900, pp. 3115); Notes, reconnaissances, et explorations, revue men-
suelle (Antananarivo, 5 vols., 1897-1899, pp. 304^1); Sibree, A
Madagascar Bibliography (Antananarivo, 1885); Vaissiere, Histoire
de Madagascar (Paris, 1884), Vingt ans a Madagascar (Paris-, 1885);
Oliver, Madagascar: an Historical and Descriptive Account (2 vols.,
London, 1886); Cousins, Madagascar of To-day (London, 1895);
Bulletin du comite de Madagascar (monthly) (Paris, 1895, et seq.);
Sibree, Madagascar before the Conquest (London, 1896) ; Catat, Voyage
a Madagascar (Pari?, 1895) ; Annuairede Madagascar (Antananarivo,
1898,0! seq.); J. S. Gallieni, Rapport d' ensemble sur la situation
generate de Madagascar (2 vols., Paris, 1899); Revue de Madagascar,
mensuelle, illuslree (1895, ct seq.) ; Guide de I'immigrant d Madagascar
(3 vols., with atlas, Paris, 1899); Collection des anciens ouvrages
relatifs d Madagascar, par les soins du comite de Madagascar (a
collection and translation of all works relating to the island from
1500 to 1800, in 10 vols.), (Paris, 1899 et seq.) ; Bulletin trimestriel de
I'academie de Malgache (quarterly) (Antananarivo, 1902 et seq.) ;
G. Grandidier et autres, Madagascar au debut du xx* siecle (Paris,
1902); G. Grandidier, Bibliographic de Madagascar (2 vols., Paris,
1905 and 1907).
Political: Sibree, " What are ' French Claims ' on Madagascar?"
Madagascar Tracts (1882); Oliver, True Story of the French Dispute in
Madagascar (London, 1885) ; Shaw, Madagascar and France (London,
I88 5): Saillens, Nos droits sur Madagascar (Paris, 1885); K. Blind
" The Fictitious French Claim to Madagascar," Contemp. Rev.
(i894);'Martineau, Etude de politique contemporaine. Madagascar
(Paris, 1894) ; Rentier, Les droits dela France sur Madagascar (1895) ;
Corlay, Notre campagne a Madagascar(Paris, 1896) ; Knight, Madagas-
car in Wat-time (London. 1896); Carol, Chez les Hovas (Paris, 1898);
Gallieni, Neuf ans d Madagascar (Paris, 1908).
Philology: Houtman, Spraak ende woord boek in de Maleische ende
Madagaskarsche talen (Amsterdam, 1603) ; Voyage de C. van Heems-
kerk; Vocabulaire de la langue parlee dans Vile Saint-Laurent (Amster-
dam, 1603) Megiser, Beschretbung der Mechtigen und Weitberhiimbten
Insul Madagascar, with dictionary and dialogues (Altenburg, 1609) ;
Arthus, Colloquia latino-maleyica et madagascarica (Frankfort, 1613) ;
Challand, Vocabulaire franc,ais-malgac!ie et malgache-franc,ais (lie de
France, 1773); Froberville, Dictionnaire franfais-madecasse (3 vols.,
He de France, 1809) ; Freeman and Johns, Dictionary of the Malagasy
Language(Eng.-Mal. and Mal.-Eng.), (Antananarivo, 1835) ; Dalmond,
Vocabulaire et grammaire pour les langues malgaches, Sakalava
et Betsimisdra (Bourbon, 1842); R. C. Missionaries' Dictionnaire
franfais-malgache (Reunion, 1853); and Dictionnaire malgache-
franfais (R6union, 1855); Van der Tunk, " Outlines of a Grammar
of the Malagasy Language," Jour. Roy. Asiat. Soc. (1860); Ailloud,
Grammaire malgache-hova (Antananarivo, 1872); W. E. Cousins.
Concise Introduction to the Study of the Malagasy Language as
spoken in Imerina (Antananarivo, 1873); Marrc de Marin, Gram-
maire malgache (Paris, 1876); id., Essai sur le malgache, ou Etude
compares des langues javanaise, malgache, et malayse (Paris, 1876);
id., LeJardin des racines oceaniennes (Paris, 1876) ; Dahle, Specimens
of Malagasy Folk-lore (Antananarivo, 1877); and W. E. Cousins,
" The Malagasy Language," in Trans. Phil. Soc. (1878). Besides
these there are several valuable papers by Dahle in the yearly num-
bers of The Antananarivo Annual (ante) (1876 1877) ; Richardson,
A New Malagasy-English Dictionary (Antananarivo, 1885); Cousins
and Parrett, Malagasy Proverbs (Antananarivo, 1885) ; Causseque,
Grammaire malgache (Antananarivo, 1886); Abinal et Malzac, Dic-
tionnaire malgache-franc,ais (Antananarivo, 1889); Brandstetter,
" Die Beziehungen des Malagasy zum Malaiischen," Malaio-poly-
nesische Forschungen, pt. 2 (Lucerne, 1893).
Missions and Religious History: Freeman and Johns, Narrative
of the Persecutions of the Christians in Madagascar (London, 1840);
Prout, Madagascar, its Missions and its Martyrs (London, 1863);
Ellis, Madagascar Revisited (London, 1867); id., The Martyr Church
(London, 1869); " Religion in Madagascar," Ch. Quar. Rev. (1878);
Briggs, The Madagascar Mission (L.M.S. 1879) ; id.. Ten Years'
Review of Mission Work in Madagascar (L.M.S. 18701880, 1881);
Johnson, Review of Work of the Friends' Foreign Mission Association
in Madagascar, 1867-1880 (Antananarivo, 1880); Vaissiere, Histoire
de Madagascar, ses habitants et ses missionaires (Paris, 1884); The
Church in Madagascar (S.P.G., 15 years' progress, 1874-1889, 1889);
La Liberte religieuse a Madagascar (Paris, 1897); Matthews, Thirty
Years in Madagascar (London, 1904) ; Sibree, The L.M.S. Mission
in Madagascar (L.M.S. Mission Hand Books, London, 1907);
id., " Christian Missions in Madagascar and French Colonial
Policy," The East and the West (Jan. 1909); and General Gallieni's
" Neuf ans Madagascar, Journal of the African Society (April
1909). G- Si.*)
MADAN, MARTIN (1726-1790), English writer, was educated
at Westminster School, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where
he graduated in 1746. In 1748 he was called to the bar, and for
some time lived a very gay life, until he was persuaded to change
his ways on hearing a sermon by John Wesley. He took holy
orders, and was appointed chaplain to the Lock Hospital, London.
He was closely connected with the Calvinistic Methodist move-
ment supported by the countess of Huntingdon, and from time to
time acted as an itinerant preacher. He was a first cousin of
William Cowper, with whom he had some correspondence on
religious matters. In 1767 much adverse comment was aroused
by his support of his friend Thomas Haweis in a controversy
arising out of the latter's possession of the living of Aldwinkle,
Northamptonshire (see Monthly Review, xxxvii. 382, 390. 465).
In 1780 Madan raised more serious storm of opposition by the
publication of his Thelyphlhora, or A Treatise on Female Ruin,
in which he advocated polygamy as the remedy for the evils he
deplored. The author was no doubt sincere in his arguments,
which he based chiefly on scriptural authority; but his book
called forth many angry replies. Nineteen attacks on it are
catalogued by Falconer Madan in Diet. Nat. Biog. Madan
resigned his chaplainship and retired to Epsom, where he pro-
duced, among other works, A New and Literal Translation of
Juvenal and Persius (1789). ' He died on the 2nd of May 1790.
MADDALONI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of
Caserta, about 35 m. S.E. of Caserta, withstationson the railways
from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Avellino, 200 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), I9',778 (town) ; 21,270 (commune).
It is prettily situated at the base of one of the Tifata hills, the
towers of its medieval castle and the church of San Michele crown-
ing the heights above. The fine old palace of the Caraffa family,
once dukes of Maddaloni, the old college now named after
Giordano Bruno, and the institute for the sons of soldiers are the
chief points of interest. About 2\ m. east of Valle di Madda-
loni, the Ponte della Valle, an aqueduct built by the orders
of Charles III. of Naples and his son to convey the water of the
Tiburno to Caserta (19 m.), is carried across the valley between
Monte Longano and Monte Gargano by a threefold series of
noble arches rising to a height of 210 ft. The work was
280
MADDEN MADEIRA
designed by Lodovico Vanvitelli, and constructed between 1753
and 1759.
MADDEN, SIR FREDERIC (1801-1873), English palaeographer,
the son of an officer of Irish extraction, was born at Portsmouth
on the i6th of February 1801. From his earliest years he dis-
played a strong bent to linguistic and antiquarian studies. In
1826 he was engaged by the British Museum to assist in the pre-
paration of the classified catalogue of printed books then contem-
plated, and in 1828 he became assistant keeper of manuscripts.
In 1833 he was knighted, and in 1837 succeeded Josiah Forshall as
keeper of manuscripts. . He was not entirely successful in this
office, partly owing to want of harmony with his colleagues; he
retired in 1866. He edited for the Roxburghe Club Havelok the
Dane (1828), discovered by himself among the Laudian MSS. in
the Bodleian, William and the Werwolf (1832) and the old English
versions of the Gesta Romanorum (1838). In 1839 he edited the
ancient metrical romances of Syr Gaioayne for the Bannatyne
Club, and in 1847 Layamon's Brut, with a prose translation, for
the Society of Antiquaries. In 1850 the magnificent edition, in
parallel columns, of what are known as the " Wycliflfite " versions
of the Bible, from the original MSS., upon which he and his
coadjutor, Forshall, had been engaged for twenty years, was
published by the university of Oxford. In 1866-1869 he edited
the Historic*. Minor of Matthew Paris for the Rolls Series. In
1833 he wrote the text of Henry Shaw's Illuminated Ornaments
of the Middle Ages; and in 1850 edited the English translation
of Silvestre's Paleographie universelle. He died on the 8th of
March 1873, bequeathing his journals and other private papers
to the Bodleian Library, where they were to remain unopened
until 1920.
Madden was perhaps the first palaeographer of his day. He was
an acute as well as a laborious antiquary, but his ignorance of
German prevented his ranking high as a philologist, although he
paid much attention to the early dialectical forms of French and
English. His minor contributions to antiquarian research were
exceedingly numerous: the best known, perhaps, was his disser-
tation on the orthography of Shakespeare's name, which, mainly
on the strength of the Florio autograph, he contended should be
" Shakspere.'
MADDER, or DYERS' MADDER, the root of Rubia tinclorum
and perhaps also of R. peregrina, both European, R. cordifolia, a
native of the hilly districts of India and of north-east Asia and
Java, supplying the Indian madder or manjit. Rubia is a genus
of about thirty-five species of the tribe Galieae of the order
Rubiaceae, and much resembles the familiar Galiums, e.g. lady's
bedstraw (G. verum) and the cleavers (G. aparine) of English
hedges, having similarly whorled leaves, but the parts of the
flowers are in fives and not fours, while the fruit is somewhat
fleshy. The only British species is R. peregrina, which is found
in Wales, the south and west of England, and in east and south
Ireland. The use of madder appears to have been known from
the earliest times, as cloth dyed with it has been found on the
Egyptian mummies. It was the eptvdidavov used for dyeing the
cloaks of the Libyan women in the days of Herodotus (Herod, iv.
189). It is the ipvdpodavov of Dioscorides, who speaks of its cul-
tivation in Caria (Hi. 160), and of Hippocrates (De morb. mul. i.),
and the Rubia of Pliny (xix. 17). R. tinclorum, a native of
western Europe, &c., has been extensively cultivated in south
Europe, France, where it is called garance, and Holland, and to a
small extent in the United States. Large quantities have been
imported into England from Smyrna, Trieste, Leghorn, &c. The
cultivation, however, decreased after alizarin, the red colouring
principle of madder, was made artificially. Madder was employed
medicinally by the ancients and in the middle ages. Gerard, in
1597, speaks of it as having been cultivated in many gardens in
his day, and describes its supposed many virtues (Herball, p. 960) ;
but any pharmacological or therapeutic action which madder
may possess is unrecognizable. Its most remarkable physio-
logical effect is that of colouring red the bones of animals fed
upon it, as also the claws and beaks of birds. This appears to be
due to the chemical affinity of phosphate of lime for the colouring
matter (Pereira, Mat. med., vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 52). This property
has been of much use in enabling physiologists to ascertain the
manner in which bones develop, and the functions of the various
types of cells found in growing bone. R. chilensis has been used
for dyeing red from time immemorial. The chay-root, which
furnishes a red dye in Coromandel and other parts of India, is the
root-bark of Oldenlandia umbellata, a low-growing plant of the
same family as madder.
MADEC, RENE-MARIE (1736-1784) called Medoc in Anglo-
Indian writings French adventurer in India, was born at
Quimper in Brittany on the 7th of February 1 736, of poor parents.
He went out to India and served under Dupleix and Lally, but
being taken prisoner by the British he enlisted in the Bengal
army. Deserting with some of his companions shortly before
the battle of Buxar (1764), he became military instructor to
various native princes, organizing successively the forces of
Shuja-ud-Dowlah, nawab of Oudh, and of the Jats and Rohillas.
He took service under the emperor Shah Alam in 1772, and when
that prince was defeated at Delhi by the Mahrattas, Madec
rejoined his own countrymen in Pondicherry, where he took an
active part in the defence of the town (1778). After the capitula-
tion of Pondicherry he returned to France with a considerable
fortune, and died there in 1 784. At one time he formed a scheme
for a French alliance with the Mogul emperor against the British,
but the project came to nothing.
See Emile Barb6, Le Nabab Ren& Madec (1894).
MADEIRA, or THE MADEIRAS, a group of islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean, which belong to Portugal, and consist of two
inhabited islands named Madeira and Porto Santo and two
groups of uninhabited rocks named the Desertas and Selvagens.
Pop. (1900), 150,574; area, 314 sq. m. Funchal, the capital
of the archipelago, is on the south coast of Madeira Island, in
32 37' 45" N. and 16 54' W. It is about 360 m. from the
coast of Africa, 535 from Lisbon, 1215 from Plymouth, 240
from Teneriffe, and 480 from Santa Maria, the nearest of the
Azores.
Madeira (pop. 1900, 148,263), the largest island of the group,
has a length of 30 m., an extreme breadth of 12 m., and a coast-
line of 80 or 90 m. Its longer axis lies east and west, in which
direction it is traversed by a mountain chain, the backbone of the
island, having a mean altitude of 4000 ft., up to which many deep
ravines penetrate from both coasts and render travel by land very
difficult. Pico Ruivo, the highest summit, stands in the centre of
the island, and has a height of 6056 ft., while some of the adjacent
summits are very little lower. The depth and narrowness of
the ravines, the loftiness of the rugged peaks, often covered with
snow, that tower above them, the bold precipices of the coast,
and the proximity of the sea, afford many scenes of picturesque
beauty or striking grandeur. The greater part of the interior
is uninhabited, though cultivated, for the towns, villages and
scattered huts are usually built either at the mouths of ravines
or upon the lower slopes that extend from the mountains to the
coast. The ridges between the ravines usually terminate in lofty
headlands, one of which, called Cabo Girao, has the height of
1920 ft., and much of the seaboard is bound by precipices of dark
basalt. The north coast, having been more exposed to the erosion
of the sea, is more precipitous than the south, and presents every-
where a wilder aspect. On the south there is left very little
of the indigenous forest which once clothed the whole island
and gave it the name it bears (from the Portuguese madeira,
Lat. materia, wood), but on the north some of the valleys still
contain native trees of fine growth. A long, narrow and com-
paratively low rocky promontory forms the eastern extremity of
the island; and here is a tract of calcareous sand, known as the
Fossil Bed, containing land shells and numerous bodies resem-
bling the roots of trees, probably produced by infiltration.
Porto Santo is about 25 m. N.E. of Madeira. Pop. (1900),
2311. It has a length of 63 m. and a width of 3 m. The capital
is Porto Santo, called locally the villa or town. The island
is very unproductive, water being scarce and wood wholly absent.
Around the little town there is a considerable tract of pretty level
ground covered by calcareous sand containing fossil land-shells.
At each end of the island are hills, of which Pico do Facho, the
highest, reaches the altitude of 1663 ft. Barley, but little else,
MADEIRA
281
is grown here, the limited requirements of the inhabitants being
supplied from Funchal.
The Desertas lie about n m. S.E. of Madeira, and consist of
three islands, Ilheo Chao, Bugio and Deserta Grande, together
with Sail Rock off the north end of Ilheo Chao. They present
lofty precipices to the sea on all sides. Rabbits and goats abound
on them. The archil weed grows on the rocks, and is gathered
for exportation. The largest islet (Deserta Grande) is 6J m. long,
and attains the height of 1610 ft. These rocks are conspicuous
objects in the sea-views from Funchal.
MADEIRA ISLANDS
Scale. 1:1.115.000
English Miles
5 ' >S V>
The Selvagens or Salvages are a group of three islands, 156 m.
from Madeira, and between Madeira and the Canary Islands.
The largest island is the Great Piton, 3 m. long, and i m. broad.
The inclusion of the Selvagens in the Madeira Archipelago is due
to political rather than to geographical reasons.
Geology. All the islands of the group are of volcanic origin.
They are the summits of very lofty mountains which have their
bases in an abyssal ocean. The greater part of what is now visible
in Madeira is of subaerial formation, consisting of basaltic and
trachytic lavas, beds of tuff and other ejectamenta, the result of a
long and complicated series of eruptions from innumerable vents.
Besides this building up by the emission of matter from craters and
clefts, a certain amount of upheaval in mass has taken place, for at
a spot about 1200 ft. above the sea in the northern valley of Sao
Vicente, and again at about the same height in Porto Santo, there
have been found fragments of limestone accompanied by tuffs
containing marine shells and echinoderms of the Miocene Tertiary
epoch. We have here proof that during or since that epoch portions
at least of these islands have been bodily uplifted more than 1000 ft.
The fossils are sufficiently well preserved to admit of their genera,
and in many instances even their species, being made out.
There were pauses of considerable duration whilst the island of
Madeira was being increased in height. The leaf bed and the
accompanying carbonaceous matter, frequently termed lignite,
although it displays no trace of structure, which lie under 1200 ft.
of lavas in the valley of Sao Jorge, afford proof that there had been
sufficient time for the growth of a vegetation of high order, many of
the leaf impressions belonging to species of trees and shrubs which
still exist on the island. Moreover, great alterations and dislocations
had taken place in the rocks of various localities before other lavas
and tuffs had been thrown upon them.
There are no data for determining when volcanic action began
in this locality, but looking at the enormous depth of the surrounding
sea it is clear that a vast period of time must have elapsed to allow
of a great mountain reaching the surface and then rising several
thousand feet. Again, considering the comparatively feeble agents
for effecting the work of denudation (neither glaciers nor thick
accumulations of alpine snow being found here), and then the
enormous erosion that has actually taken place, the inference is
inevitable that a very great lapse of time was required to excavate
the deep and wide ravines that everywhere intersect the island.
Nor is anything known as to. the period of the cessation of volcanic
action. At the present day there are no live craters or smoking
crevices, as at the Canaries and Cape Verdes, nor any hot springs,
as at the Azores.
In one of the northern ravines of Madeira by Porto da Cruz some
masses of a coarsely crystalline Essexite are exposed to view; this
rock is evidently the deep-seated representative of the Trachy-
doleritic and Nepheline basalt lavas. Fragments of a sodalite-syenite
have also been found at Soca in the same neighbourhood.
In the eastern part of the island several small crater rings are to
be seen ; their rims are formed of spheroidal basalt, while within the
craters themselves masses of bauxite are found accompanied by
evidences of fumerolic action.
In the sections afforded by the ravines, which strike north and
south from the central ridge of Madeira to the sea, the nucleus
of the island is seen to consist of a confused mass of more or
less stratified rock, upon which rest beds of tuff, scoriae and lava,
in the shape of basalt, trap and trachyte, the whole traversed
by dykes. These beds are thinnest near the central axis; as they
approach the coast they become thicker and less intersected by
dykes.
In various parts are elevated tracts of comparatively level ground.
These are supposed to have been formed by the meeting of numerous
streams of lava flowing from cones and points of eruption in close
proximity, various ejectamenta assisting at the same time to fill
up inequalities. Deep down in some of the lateral ravines may be
seen ancient cones of eruption which have been overwhelmed by
streams of melted matter issuing from the central region, and after-
wards exposed to view by the same causes that excavated the
ravines. These ravines may be regarded as having been formed at
first by subterranean movements, both gradual and violent, which
dislocated the rocks and cut clefts through which streams flowed to
the sea. In course of time the waters, periodically swollen by
melted snows and the copious rains of winter, would cut deeper and
deeper into the heart of the mountains, and would undermine the
lateral cliffs, until the valleys became as large as we now find them.
Even the Curral, which from its rounded shape and its position in
the centre of the island has been usually deemed the ruins of a
crater, is thought to be nothing more than a valley scooped out in
the way described. The rarity of crateriform cavities in Madeira is
very remarkable. There exists, however, to the east of Funchal,
on a tract 2000 ft. high, the Lagoa, a small but perfect crater,
500 ft. in diameter, and with a depth of 150 ft. ; and there is another,
which is a double one, in the district known as Fanal, in the north-
west of Madeira, nearly 5000 ft. above the sea. The basalt, of which
much of the outer part of the island is composed, is of a dark colour
and a tough texture, with small disseminated crystals of olivine and
augite. It is sometimes full of vesicular cavities, formed by the
expansion of imprisoned gases. A rudely columnar structure is
very often seen in the basalt, but there is nothing so perfect as the
columns of Staffa or the Giant's Causeway. The trachytic rocks are
small in quantity compared with those of the basaltic class. The
tufa is soft and friable, and generally of a yellow colour ; but where
it has been overflowed by a hot stream of lava it has assumed a red
colour. Black ashes ana fragments of pumice are sometimes found
in the tufaceous strata.
There are no metallic ores, nor has any sulphur been found ; but a
little iron pyrites and specular iron are occasionally met with. The
basalt yields an excellent building-stone, various qualities of which
are quarried near Camara de Lobos, five or six miles west of
Funchal.
In Porto Santo the trachytic rocks bear a much greater proportion
to the basaltic than in Madeira. An adjacent islet is formed of
tuffs and calcareous rock, indicating a submarine origin, upon
which supramarine lavas have been poured. The older series
contains corals and shells (also of the Miocene Tertiary epoch), with
water-worn pebbles, cemented together by carbonate of lime, the
whole appearing to have been a coral reef near an ancient beach.
The calcareous rock is taken in large quantities to Funchal, to be
burnt into lime for building purposes.
Climate. Observations taken at Funchal Observatory (80 ft.
above sea-level) in the last twenty years of the 1 9th century showed
that the mean annual temperature is about 65 F. The mean
minimum for the coldest part of the year (October to May inclusive)
does not fall below 55, and the average daily variation of tempera-
ture in the same period does not exceed 10 . Madeira thus has a
remarkably mild climate, though it lies only 10 north of the Tropic
of Cancer. This mildness is due to the surrounding ocean, from which
the atmosphere obtains a large supply of watery vapour. The mean
humidity of the air is about 75 (saturation = 100). The prevalent
winds are from the north or from a few points east or west of north,
but these winds are much mitigated on the south coast by the central
range of mountains. The west wind usually brings rain. That
from the east is a dry wind. A hot and dry wind, the leste of the
natives, occasionally blows from the east-south-east, the direction
of the Sahara, and causes the hill region to be hotter than below;
but even on the coast the thermometer under its influence sometimes
indicates 93. The leste is often accompanied by sandstorms.
As the thermometer has never been known to fall as low as 46 at
Funchal, frost and snow are there wholly unknown; but snow falls
on the mountains once or twice during the winter, very seldom,
however, below the altitude of 2000 ft. Thunderstorms are rare,
and scarcely ever violent.
282
MADEIRA
Madeira has long had a high reputation as a sanatory resort for
persons suffering from diseases of the chest. Notwithstanding the
ever-increasing competition of other winter resorts, a consider-
able number of invalids, especially English and German, winter at
Funchal.
Fauna. No species of land mammal is indigenous to the Madeiras.
Some of the early voyagers indeed speak of wild goats and swine,
but these animals must have escaped from confinement. The
rabbit, black rat, brown rat and mouse have been introduced. The
first comers encountered seals, and this amphibious mammal (Mona-
chus albiventer) still lingers at the Desertas. Amongst the thirty
species of birds which breed in these islands are the kestrel, buzzard
and barn owl, the blackbird, robin, wagtail, goldfinch, ring sparrow,
linnet, two swifts, three pigeons, the quail, red-legged partridge,
woodcock, tern, herring gull, two petrels and three puffins. Only
one species is endemic, and that is a wren (Regulus madeirensis),
but five other species are known elsewhere only at the Canaries.
These are the green canary (Fringilla butyracea, the parent of the
domesticated yellow variety), a chaffinch (Fringilla tintillon), a swift
(Cypselus unicolor), a wood pigeon (Columba trocaz) and a petrel
(Thalassidroma Bulwerii). There is also a local variety of the black-
cap, distinguishable from the common kind by the extension in the
male of the cap to the shoulder. About seventy other species have
been seen from time to time in Madeira, chiefly stragglers from the
African coast, many of them coming with the leste wind.
The only land reptile is a small lizard (Lacerta dugesii), which is
abundant and is very destructive to the grape crop. The logger-
head turtle (Caouana caretta, Gray) is frequently captured, and is
cooked for the table, but the soup is much inferior to that made from
the green turtle of the West Indies. A single variety of frog (Rana
esculenta) has been introduced ; there are no other batrachians.
About 250 species of marine fishes taken at Madeira have been
scientifically determined, the largest families being Scombridae with
35 species, the sharks with 24, the Sparidae with 15, the rays with 14,
the Labridae with 13, the Gadidae with 12, the eels with 12, the
Percidae with 1 1 , and the Carangidae with 10. Many kinds, such as
the mackerel, horse mackerel, groper, mullet, braise, &c. t are caught in
abundance, and afford a cheap article of diet to the people. Several
species of tunny are taken plentifully in spring and summer, one
of them sometimes attaining the weight of 300 ID. The only fresh-
water fish is the common eel, which is found in one or two of the
streams.
According to T. V. Wollaston (Testacea atlantica, 1878), there
have been found 158 species of mollusca on the land, 6 inhabiting
fresh water, and 7 littoral species, making a total of 171. A large
majority of the land shells are considered to be peculiar. Many of
the species are variable in form or colour, and some have an extra-
ordinary number of varieties. Of the land mollusca 91 species are
assigned to the genus Helix, 31 to the genus Pupa, and 15 to the genus
Achatina (or Lovea). About 43 species are found both living and
fossil in superficial deposits of calcareous sand in Madeira or Porto
Santo. These deposits were assigned by Lyell to the Newer Pliocene
period. Some 12 or 13 species have not been hitherto discovered
alive. More than 100 species of Pplyzoa (Bryozoa) have been col-
lected, among them are some highly interesting forms.
The only order of insects which has been thoroughly examined is
that of the Coleoptera. By the persevering researches of T. V.
Wollaston the astonishing number of 695 species of beetles has been
brought to light at the Madeiras. The proportion of endemic kinds
is very large, and it is remarkable that 200 of them are either wingless
or their wings are so poorly developed that they cannot fly, while
23 of the endemic genera have all their species in this condition.
With regard to the Lepidoptera, n or 12 species of butterflies have
been seen, all of which belong to European genera. Some of the
species are geographical varieties of well-known types. Upward
of 100 moths have been collected, the majority of them being of a
European stamp, but probably a fourth of the total number are
peculiar to the Madeiran group. Thirty-seven species of Neuroptera
have been observed in Madeira, 12 of them being so far as is known
peculiar.
The bristle-footed worms of the coast have been studied by Pro-
fessor P. Langerhans, who has met with about 200 species, of which
a large number were new to science. There are no modern coral
reefs, but several species of stony and . flexible corals have been
collected, though none are of commercial value. There is, however,
a white stony coral allied to the red coral of the Mediterranean which
would be valuable as an article of trade if it could be obtained in
sufficient quantity. Specimens of a rare and handsome red Para-
gorgia are in the British Museum and Liverpool Museum.
Flora. The vegetation is strongly impressed with a south-Euro-
pean character. Many of the plants in the lower region undoubtedly
were introduced and naturalized after the Portuguese coloniza-
tion. A large number of the remainder are found at the Canaries
and the Azores, or in one of these groups, but nowhere else. Lastly,
there are about a hundred plants which are peculiarly Madeiran,
either as distinct species or as strongly marked varieties. The flower-
ing plants found truly wild belong to about 363 genera and 717
species, the monocotyledons numbering 70 genera and 128 species,
the dicotyledons 293 genera and 589 species. The three largest
orders are the Compositae, Legiiminosae and Graminaceae. Forty-one
species of ferns grow in Madeira, three of which are endemic species
and six others belong to the peculiar flora of the North Atlantic
islands. About 100 species of moss have been collected, and 47
species of Hepaticae. A connexion between the flora of Madeira
and that of the West Indies and tropical America has been inferred
from the presence in the former of six ferns found nowhere in Europe
or North Africa, but existing on the islands of the east coast of
America or on the Isthmus of Panama. A further relationship to
that continent is to be traced by the presence in Madeira of the
beautiful ericaceous tree Clethra arborea, belonging to a genus which
is otherwise wholly American, and of a Persea, a tree laurel, also an
American genus. The dragon tree (Dracaena Draco) is almost
extinct. Amongst the trees most worthy of note are four of the
laurel order belonging to separate genera, an Ardisia, PiUosporum,
Sideroxylon, Notelaea, Rhamnus and Myrica, a strange mixture of
genera to be found on a small Atlantic island. Two heaths of
arborescent growth and a whortleberry cover large tracts on the
mountains. In some parts there is a belt of the Spanish chestnut
about the height of 1500 ft. There is no indigenous pine tree as
at the Canaries; but large tracts on the hills have been planted with
Pinus pinaster, from which the fuel of the inhabitants is mainly
derived. A European juniper (/. Oxycedrus) , growing to the height
of 40 or 50 ft., was formerly abundant, but has been almost exter-
minated, as its scented wood is prized by the cabinet-maker. Several
of the native trees and shrubs now grow only in situations which are
nearly inaccessible, and some of tha indigenous plants are of the
greatest rarity. But some plants of foreign origin have spread in a
remarkable manner. Among these is the common cactus or prickly
pear (Opuntia Tuna), which in many spots on the coast is sufficiently
abundant to give a character to the landscape. As to Algae, the
coast is too rocky and the sea too unquiet for a luxuriant marine
vegetation, consequently the species are few and poor.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants are of Portuguese descent, with
probably some intermixture of Moorish and negro blood amongst
the lower classes. The dress of the peasantry, without being
picturesque, is peculiar. Both men and women in the outlying
country districts wear the carapuQa, a small cap made of blue
cloth in shape something like a funnel, with the pipe standing
upwards. The men have trousers of linen, drawn tight, and
terminating at the knees; .a coarse shirt enveloping the upper
part of their person, covered by a short jacket, completes their
attire, with the exception of a pair of rough yellow boots. . The
women's outer garments consist of a gaudily coloured gown,
made from island material, with a small cape of coarse scarlet or
blue woollen cloth.) The population tends to increase rapidly.
In 1900 it amounted to 150,574, including 890 foreigners, of
whom the majority were British. The number of females exceeds
that of males by about 6000, partly because many of the able-
bodied males emigrate to Brazil or the United States. The
density of population (479-5 per sq. m. ) is very great for a
district containing no large town and chiefly dependent on
agriculture and viticulture.
Agriculture. A large portion of the land was formerly entailed
in the families of the landlords (morgados), but entails have been
abolished by the legislature, and the land is now absolutely free.
The deficiency of water is a great obstacle to the proper cultiva-
tion of the land, and the rocky nature or steeo inclination of the
upper parts of the islands is an effectual bar to all tillage. An
incredible amount of labour has been expended upon the soil,
partly in the erection of walls intended to prevent its being
washed away by the rains, and to build up the plots of ground
in the form of terraces. Watercourses have been constructed
for purposes of irrigation, without which at regular intervals the
island would not produce a hundredth part of its present yield.
These watercourses originate high up in the ravines, are built of
masonry or driven through the rock, and wind about for miles
until they reach the cultivated land. Some of them are brought
by tunnels from the north side of the island through the central
crest of hill. Each occupier takes his turn at the running stream
for so many hours in the day or night at a time notified to him
beforehand. In this climate flowing water has a saleable value
as well as land, which is useless without irrigation.
The agricultural implements employed are of the rudest kind,
and the system of cultivation is extremely primitive. Very few of
the occupiers own the land they cultivate ; but they almost invariably
own the walls, cottages and trees standing thereon, the land alone
belonging to the landlord. The tenant can sell his share of the pro-
perty without the consent of the landlord, and if he does not so
MADELENIAN
283
dispose of it that share' passes to his heirs. In this way the tenant
practically enjoys fixity of tenure, for the landlord is seldom in a
position to pay the price at which the tenant's share is valued. Money
rents are rare, the me'tayer system regulating almost universally
the relations between landlord and tenant; that is, the tenant pays
to the owner a certain portion of the produce, usually one half or one
third. The holdings are as a rule rarely larger than one man can
cultivate with a little occasional assistance. There are few meadows
and pastures, the cattle being stall-fed when not feeding on the moun-
tains. Horses are never employed for draught, all labour of that
kind being done by oxen.
The two staple productions of the soil are wine and sugar. The
vine was introduced from Cyprus or Crete soon after the discovery
of the island by the Portuguese (1420), but it was not actively
cultivated until the early part of the i6th century. The vines,
after having been totally destroyed by the oidium disease, which
made its first appearance in the island in 1852, were replanted, and
in a few years wine was again made. The phylloxera
also made its way to the island, and every vineyard in
Madeira was more or less affected by it. The wine usually termed
Madeira is made from a mixture of black and white grapes, which
are also made separately into wines called Tinta and Verdelho, after
the names of the grapes. Other high-class wines, known as Bual,
Sercial and Malmsey, are made from varieties of grapes bearing the
same names. (See also WINE.)
The sugar cane is said to have been brought from Sicily about
1452, and in course of time its produce became the sole staple of the
island. The cultivation languished, however, as the more abundant
produce of tropical countries came into the European market,
and sugar had long ceased to be made when the destruction of the
vines compelled the peasants to turn their attention to other things.
Its cultivation was resumed and su'gar machinery imported. A
considerable quantity of spirit is made by the distillation
of the juice or of the molasses left after extracting the
sugar, and this is consumed on the island. The cane does not
flourish here as luxuriantly as within the tropics; but in localities
below 1000 ft., where there is a good supply of water, it pays the
cultivator well.
The grain produced on the island (principally wheat, barley and
Indian corn) is not sufficient for the consumption of the people.
The common potato, sweet potato and gourds of various kinds are
extensively grown, as well as the Colocasia esculenta, the kalo of the
Pacific islanders, the root of which yields an insipid food. Most
of the common table vegetables of Europe are plentiful. Besides
apples, pears and peaches, all of poor quality, oranges, lemons,
guavas, mangoes, loquats, custard-apples, figs, bananas and pine-
apples are produced, the last two forming articles of export. The
date palm is occasionally grown, but its fruit is scarcely edible. On
the hills large quantities of the Spanish chestnut afford an item in
the food of the common people. A little tobacco is grown, and is
made into cigars of inferior quality.
The total foreign trade of Madeira was valued at 628,000 in 1900.
The principal exports are wine, sugar, embroidery, vegetables, fruits
and wicker goods. Coal is imported for the ships calling at Funchal,
which is the headquarters of Madeiran commerce and industry.
Spirits, beer, olive oil, soap, butter, linen and woollen goods, straw
hats and leather, are manufactured for home consumption, and there
are important fisheries.
Chief Towns and Communications. Funchal (pop. 20,850) is
described in a separate article. The other chief towns are Camara
de Lobos (7150), Machico (6128), Santa Cruz (5876) Ponta do
Sol (5665), Sao Vicente (4896), Calheta (3475), Sant' Anna
(3011) and Porto Santo (2311). Each of these is the capital of
a commune (concelho), to which it gives its name. Madeira is
connected by regular lines of steamships with Great Britain,
Germany, Portugal, Cape Colony, Brazil and the United States.
There is no railway in the archipelago, and partly owing to the
irregularities of the surface of the roads, of which there are some
580 m., are bad, except in the neighbourhood of Funchal. Wheel
carriages are rare, and all heavy goods are transported either on
the backs of mules or upon rude wooden sledges drawn by
bullocks. When horses are not employed, locomotion is effected
either by means of hammocks or by bullock cars. The ham-
mock (rede) is a piece of stout canvas gathered up and secured
at each end to a long pole carried by a couple of bearers. In
place of cabs, curtained cars on sledges, made to hold four
persons, and drawn by a pair of bullocks, are employed. They
are convenient, but the rate of progress is very slow.
Administration. The archipelago is officially styled the dis-
trict of Funchal; it returns members to the Portuguese Cortes,
and is regarded as an integral part of the kingdom. The district
is subdivided into the eight communes already enumerated,
and is administered in accordance with the same laws that
regulate local government on the mainland (see PORTUGAL).
Funchal is a Roman Catholic bishopric in the archiepiscopal
province of Lisbon. Education is compulsory in name only, for
less than 2% of the population could read when the census of
1900 was taken. An infantry regiment and a battery of garrison
artillery are permanently stationed in Madeira.
History. It has been conjectured, but on insufficient evidence,
that the Phoenicians discovered Madeira at a very early period.
Pliny mentions certain Purple or Mauretanian Islands, the posi-
tion of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries
might seem to indicate the Madeiras. There is a romantic story, to
the effect that two lovers, Robert Machim, a Machin, or Macham,
and Anna d'Arfet, fleeing from England to France (c. 1370) were
driven out of their course by a violent storm and cast on the
coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in
memory of one of them. Both perished here, but some of their
crew escaped to the Barbary coast, and were made slaves.
Among them was the pilot Pedro Morales of Seville, who is said
to have been ransomed and to have communicated his knowledge
of Madeira to Joao Goncalvez Zarco (or Zargo). How far this story
is true cannot now be ascertained. It is, however, certain that
Zarco first sighted Porto Santo in 1418, having been driven thither
by a storm while he was exploring the coast of West Africa.
Madeira itself was discovered in 1420. It is probable that the
whole archipelago had been explored at an earlier date by Genoese
adventurers, and had been forgotten; for an Italian map dated
1351 (theLaurentian portolano) shows the Madeiras quite clearly,
and there is some reason to believe that they were known to the
Genoese before 1339. When Zarco visited Madeira in 1420 the
islands were uninhabited, but Prince Henry the Navigator at once
began their colonization, aided by the knights of the Order of
Christ. Sanctioned by the pope and by two charters which the
king of Portugal granted in 1430 and 1433, the work proceeded
apace; much land was deforested and. brought into cultivation,
and the Madeiran sugar trade soon became important. For the
sixty years 1580-1640 Madeira, with Portugal itself, was united
with Spain. Slavery was abolished in Madeira in 1775, by order
of Pombal. In 1801 British troops, commanded by General
Beresford, occupied the island for a few months, and it was again
under the British flag from 1807 to 1814. It shared in the civil
disturbances brought about by the accession of Dom Miguel (see
PORTUGAL: History), but after 1833 its history is a record of
peaceful commercial development.
See A. S. Brown, Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores
(1903), a comprehensive study of the three archipelagoes. The
Land of the Wine, by A. J. D. Biddle (Philadelphia, 1901) is generally
valuable, but its history cannot be trusted. See also P. Langerhaus,
Handbnch fur Madeira (1884) and Vahl, Madeira's Vegetation
(Copenhagen, 1904).
MADELENIAN, a term derived from La Madeleine, a cave in
the Vezere, about midway between Moustier and Les Eyzies,
France, and given by the French anthropologist Gabriel de
Mortillet to the third stage of his system of cave-chronology,
synchronous with the fourth or most recent division of the
Quaternary Age. The Madelenian epoch was a long one, repre-
sented by numerous stations, whose contents show progress in
the arts and general culture. It was characterized by a cold and
dry climate, the existence of man in association with the reindeer,
and the extinction of the mammoth. The use of bone and ivory
for various implements, already begun in the preceding Solutrian
epoch, was much increased, and the period is essentially a Bone
age. The bone instruments are very varied: spear-points,
harpoon-heads, borers, hooks and needles. Most remarkable
is the evidence La Madeleine affords of prehistoric art. Numbers
of bones, reindeer antlers and animals' teeth were found, with rude
pictures, carved or etched on them, of seals, fishes, reindeer,
mammoths and other creatures. The best of these are a mammoth
engraved on a fragment of its own ivory; a dagger of reindeer
antler, with handle in form of a reindeer; a cave-bear cut on a flat
piece of schist; a seal on a bear's tooth; a fish well drawn on a
reindeer antler; and a complete picture, also on reindeer antler,
showing horses, an aurochs, trees, and a snake biting a man's
leg. The man is naked, and this and the snake suggest a warm
MADELEY MADISON, JAMES
climate, in spite of the presence of the reindeer. The fauna of
the Madelenian epoch seems, indeed, to have included tigers and
other tropical species side by side with reindeer, blue foxes,
Arctic hares and other polar creatures. Madelenian man appears
to have been of low stature, dolichocephalic, with low retreating
forehead and prominent brow ridges. Besides La Madeleine the
chief stations of the epoch are Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse, and
Gorge d'Enfer in Dordogne; Grotte du Placard in Charente and
others in south-west France.
See G. de Mortillet, Le Prehistoriqiie (1900); Edouard Lartet and
Henry Christy, Reliquiae A quitanicae (1865-1875) ; Edouard Dupont,
Le Temps prehistorique en Belgique (1872) ; Lord Avebury, Prehistoric
Times (1900).
MADELEY, a market town in the municipal borough of Wen-
lock, and the Wellington (Mid) parliamentary division of Shrop-
shire, England, 159 m. N.W. from London, with stations on the
London & North Western (Madeley Market) and Great Western
railways (Madeley Court). Pop. of civil parish (1901), 8442.
There are large ironworks, ironstone and coal are mined, and
potter's clay is raised. The church of St Michael (1796 ) replaced
a Norman building. The living was held from 1760 to 1783 by
John William Fletcher or de la Fleche're, a close friend of the
Wesleys. The parish includes a portion of Coalbrookdale (q.v.),
and the towns of Ironbridge and Coalport. IRONBRIDGE, a
town picturesquely situated on the steep left bank of the Severn,
adjoins Madeley on the south-west. It takes its name from the
iron bridge of one span crossing the river, erected in 1779. This
bridge is a remarkable work considering its date; it was probably
the first erected, at any rate on so large a scale, and attracted
great attention. It is the work of Abraham Darby, the third of
the name, one of the famous family of iron-workers in Coalbrook-
dale. Here are brick and tile works and lime-kilns. There is a
station (Ironbridge and Broseley) on the Great Western railway,
across the river. COALPORT lies also on the Severn, S. of Madeley
and 2 m. S.E. of Ironbridge, with a station on the Great Western
railway. It has large china works, founded at the close of
the 1 8th century, which subsequently incorporated those of
Caughley, across the Severn, and of Nantgarw in Glamorganshire.
MADHAVA ACHARYA (fl. c. 1380), Hindu statesman and
philosopher, lived at the court of Vijayanagar (the modern
Humpi in the district of Bellary), the vigorous Southern Hindu
kingdom that so long withstood Mahommedan influence and
aggression. His younger brother Sayana (d. 1387) was associated
with him in the administration and was a famous commentator on
the Rigveda. Sayana's commentaries were influenced by and
dedicated to Madhava, who is best known as the author of the
Sawadarsana Samgraha (Compendium of Speculations). With
remarkable mental detachment he places himself in the position
of an adherent of sixteen distinct systems. Madhava also wrote
a commentary on the Mimamsa Sutras. He died as abbot of the
monastery of Sringeri.
MADI (A-MADi), a negro race of the Nile valley, occupying
both banks of the Bahr-el-Jebel immediately north of Albert
Nyanza. Tradition makes them immigrants from the north-
west. They are remarkable for the consideration shown to their
women, who choose their own husbands, are never ill-treated or
hard-worked, and take part in tribal deliberations. The Madi
build sepulchral monuments of an elaborate type, two -huge
narrow stones sloping towards each other with two smaller slabs
covering the opening between them. They have been much
harried by the Azandeh and Abarambo. They were visited by
W. Junker in 1882-1883, an d described by him in Petermann's
Millheilungen for May 1883.
MADISON, JAMES (1751-1836), fourth president of the
United States, was born at Port Conway, in King George county,
Virginia, on the i6thof March 1751. His first ancestor in America
may possibly have been Captain Isaac Maddyson, a colonist of
1623 mentioned by John Smith as an excellent Indian fighter.
His father, also named James Madison, was the owner of large
estates in Orange county, Virginia. In 1769 the son entered the
college of New Jersey (now Princeton University), where, in the
same year, he founded the well-known literary club, "The
American Whig Society." He graduated in 1771, but remained
for another year at Princeton studying, apparently for the
ministry, under the direction of John Witherspoon (1722-1794).
In 1772 he returned to Virginia, where he pursued his reading and
studies, especially theology and Hebrew, and acted as a tutor to
the younger children of the family. In 1 775 he became chairman
of the committee of public safety for Orange county, and wrote
its response to Patrick Henry's call for the arming of a colonial
militia, and in the spring of 1776 he was chosen a delegate to the
new Virginia convention, where he was on the committee which
drafted the constitution for the state, and proposed an amend-
ment (not adopted) which declared that " all men are equally
entitled to the full and free exercise " of religion, and was more
radical than the similar one offered by George Mason. In 1777,
largely, it seems, because he refused to treat the electors with
rum and punch, after the custom of the time, he was not re-
elected, but in November of the same year he was chosen a
member of the privy council or council of state, in which he
acted as interpreter for a few months, as secretary prepared
papers for the governor, and in general took a prominent part
from the I4th of January 1778 until the end of 1779, when he
was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress.
He was in Congress during the final stages of the War of Inde-
pendence, and in 1780 drafted instructions to Jay, then repre-
senting the United States at Madrid, that in negotiations with
Spain he should insist upon the free navigation of the Mississippi
and upon the principle that the United States succeeded
to British rights affirmed by the treaty of Paris of 1763. When
the confederation was almost in a state of collapse because of the
failure of the states to respond to requisitions of Congress for
supplies for the federal treasury, Madison was among the first
to advocate the granting of additional powers to Congress, and
urged that congress should forbid the states to issue more paper
money. In 1781 he favoured an amendment 'of the Articles of
Confederation giving Congress power to enforce its requisitions,
and in 1783, in spite of the open opposition of the Virginia
legislature, which considered the Virginian delegates wholly
subject to its instructions, he advocated that the states should
grant to Congress for twenty-five years authority to levy an
import duty, and suggested a scheme to provide for the interest
on the debt not raised by the import duty apportioning it
among the states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths
of the slaves, a ratio suggested by Madison himself. Accompany-
ing this plan was an address to the states drawn up by Madison,
and one of the ablest of his state papers. In the same year, with
Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, Nathaniel Gorham of Massachu-
setts, Gunning Bedford of Delaware, and John Rutledge of South
Carolina, he was a member of the committee which reported on
the Virginia proposal as to the terms of cession to the Confedera-
tion of the " back lands," or unoccupied Western territory, held
by several of the states; the report was a skilful compromise made
by Madison, which secured the approval of the rather exigent
Virginia legislature.
In November 1783 Madison's term in Congress expired, and he
returned to Virginia and took up the study of the law. In the
following year he was elected to the House of Delegates. As a
member of its committee on religion, he opposed the giving of
special privileges to the Episcopal (or any other) church, and
contended against a general assessment for the support of the
churches of the state. His petition of remonstrance against
the proposed assessment, drawn up at the suggestion of
George Nicholas (c. 1755-1799), was widely circulated and
procured its defeat. On the 26th of December 1785 Jeffer-
son's Bill for establishing religious freedom in Virginia,
which had been introduced by Madison, was passed. In
the Viginia House of Delegates, as in the Continental Con-
gress, he opposed the further issue of paper money; and
he tried to induce the legislature to repeal the law con-
fiscating British debts, but he did not lose sight of the interests
of the Confederacy. The boundary between Virginia and Mary-
land, according to the Baltimore grant, was the south shore of the
Potomac, a line to which Virginia had agreed on condition of free
MADISON, TAMES
285
navigation of the river and the Chesapeake Bay. Virginia now
feared that too much had been given up, and desired joint regu-
lation of the navigation and commerce of the river by Maryland
and Virginia. On Madison's proposal commissioners from the
two states met at Alexandria (q.v.) and at Mount Vernon in
March 1785. The Maryland legislature approved the Mount
Vernon agreement and proposed to invite Pennsylvania and
Delaware to join in the arrangement. Madison, seeing an oppor-
tunity for more general concert in regard to commerce and trade
(and possibly for the increase of the power of Congress) , proposed
that all the states should be invited to send commissioners to
consider commercial questions, and a resolution to that effect
was adopted (on Jan. 21, 1786) by the Virginia legislature.
This led to the Annapolis convention of 1786, and that in
turn led to the Philadelphia convention of 1787. In April 1787
Madison had written a paper, The Vices of the Political System of
the United Stales, and from his study of confederacies, ancient
and modern, later summed up in numbers 17, 18, and 19 of
The Federalist, he had concluded that no confederacy could
long endure if it acted upon states only and not directly upon
individuals. As the time for the convention of 1787 approached
he drew up an outline of a new system of government, the basis
of the " Virginia plan " presented in the convention by Edmund
Jennings Randolph. Madison's scheme, as expressed in a letter
to Washington dated the i6th of April 1787, was that indi-
vidual sovereignty of states was irreconcilable with aggregate
sovereignty, but that the " consolidation of the whole into one
simple republic would be as inexpedient as it is unattainable."
He considered as a practical middle ground changing the basis of
representation in Congress from states to population; giving the
national government " positive and complete authority in all
cases which require uniformity"; giving it a negative on all
state laws, a power which might best be vested in the Senate, a
comparatively permanent body; electing the lower house, and the
more numerous, for a short term; providing for a national execu-
tive, for extending the national supremacy over the judiciary
and the militia, for a council to revise all laws, and for an express
statement of the right of coercion; and finally, obtaining the
ratification of a new constitutional instrument from the people,
and not merely from the legislatures. The " Virginia plan "
was the basis of the convention's deliberations which resulted in
the constitution favourably voted on by the convention on the
1 7th of September 1787. Among the features of the plan which
were not embodied in the constitution were the following: pro-
portionate representation in the Senate and the election of its
members by the lower house " out of a proper number of persons
nominated by the individual legislatures"; the vesting in the
national Congress of power to negative state acts; and the estab-
lishment of a council of revision (the executive and a convenient
number of national judges) with veto power over all laws passed
by the national Congress. Madison, always an opponent of
slavery, disapproved of the compromise (in Art. I. 9 and Art.V.)
postponing to 1808 (or later) the prohibition of the importation of
slaves. He took a leading part in the debates of the convention,
of which he kept full and careful notes, afterwards published by
order of Congress (3 vols., Washington, 1843). Many minute
and wise provisions are due to him, and he spoke before the con-
vention more frequently than any delegate except James Wilson
and Gouverneur Morris. In spite of the opposition to the consti-
tution of the Virginia leaders George Mason and E. J. Randolph,
Madison induced the state's delegation to stand by the consti-
tution in the convention. His influence largely shaped the form
of the final draft of the constitution, but the labour was not
finished with this draft; that the constitution was accepted by
the people was due in an eminent degree to the efforts of Madison,
who, to place the new constitution before the public in its true
light, and to meet the objections brought against it, joined
Alexander Hamilton (?..) and John Jay in writing The Federal-
ist, a series of eighty-five papers, out of which twenty certainly,
and nine others probably, were written by him. In the Virginia
convention for ratifying the constitution (June 1788), when eight
states had ratified and it seemed that Virginia's vote would be
needed to make the necessary nine (New Hampshire's favourable
vote was cast only shortly before that of Virginia), and it
appeared that New York would vote against the constitution
if Virginia did not ratify it, Madison was called upon to defend
that instrument again, and he appeared at his best against its
opponents, Patrick Henry, George Mason, James Monroe, Benja-
min Harrison, William Grayson and John Tyler. He answered
their objections in detail, calmly and with an intellectual power
and earnestness that carried the convention. The result was a
victory against an originally adverse public opinion and against
the eloquence of the opponents of the constitution, for Madison
and for his lieutenants, Edmund Pendleton, John Marshall,
George Nicholas, Harry Innes and Henry Lee. At the same
time Madison's labours in behalf of the constitution alienated
from him valuable political support in Virginia. He was defeated
by Richard Henry Lee and William Grayson in his candidacy
for the United States Senate, but in his own district he was
chosen a representative to Congress, defeating James Monroe,
who seems to have had the powerful support of Patrick Henry.
Madison took his seat in the House of Representatives in
April 1789, and assumed a leading part in the legislation neces-
sary to the organization of the new government. He drafted a
Tariff Bill giving certain notable advantages to nations with
which the United States had commercial treaties, hoping to force
Great Britain into a similar treaty; but his policy of discrimi-
nation against England was rejected by Congress. It was his
belief that such a system of retaliation would remove the possi-
bility of war arising from commercial quarrels. He introduced
resolutions calling for the establishment of three executive
departments, foreign affairs, treasury and war, the head of each
removable by the president. Most important of all, he proposed
nine amendments to the constitution, embodying suggestions
made by a number of the ratifying states, especially those made
by Virginia at the instance of George Mason; and the essential
principles of Madison's proposed amendments were included in a
Bill of Rights, adopted by the states in the form of ten amend-
ments. The absence of a Bill of Rights from the constitution
as first adopted had been the point on which the opposition had
made common cause, and the adoption of this now greatly
weakened the same opposition. Although a staunch friend of the
constitution, Madison believed, however, that the instrument
should be interpreted conservatively and not be made the means
of introducing radical innovations. The tide of strict con-
struction was setting in strongly in his state, and he was borne
along with the flood. It is very probable that Jefferson's
influence over Madison, which was greater than Hamilton's,
contributed to this result. Madison now opposed Hamilton's
measures for the funding of the debt, the assumption of state
debts, and the establishment of a National Bank, and on other
questions he sided more and more with the opposition, gradually
assuming its leadership in the House of Representatives and
labouring to confine the powers of the national government
within the narrowest possible limits; his most important argu-
ment against Hamilton's Bank was that the constitution did not
provide for it explicitly, and could not properly be construed
into permitting its creation. Madison, Jefferson and Randolph
were consulted by Washington, and they advised him not to
sign the bill providing for the Bank, but Hamilton's counter-
argument was successful. On the same constitutional grounds
Madison objected to the carrying out of the recommendations
in Hamilton's famous report on manufactures (Dec. , 1791),
which favoured a protective tariff. In the presidential cam-
paign of 1792 Madison seems to have lent his influence to the
determined efforts of the Jeffersonians to defeat John Adams
by electing George Clinton vice-president. In 1793-1796 he
strongly criticized the administration for maintaining a neutral
position between Great Britain and France, writing for the public
press five papers (signed " Helvidius "), attacking the " monar-
chical prerogative of the executive " as exercised in the proclama-
tion of neutrality in 1793 and denying the president's right to
recognize foreign states. He found in Washington's attitude
as in Hamilton's failure to pay an instalment of the moneys
286
MADISON, JAMES
due France an " Anglified complexion," in direct opposition
to the popular sympathy with France and French Republicanism.
In 1 794 he tried again his commercial weapons, introducing in the
House of Representatives resolutions based on Jefferson's report
on commerce, advising retaliation against Great Britain and dis-
crimination in commercial and navigation laws in favour of
France; and he deslared that the friends of Jay's treaty were " a
British party systematically aiming at an exclusive connexion
with the British government," and in 1796 strenuously but
unsuccessfully opposed the appropriation of money to carry
this treaty into effect. Still thinking that foreign nations could
be coerced through their commercial interests, he scouted as
visionary the idea that Great Britain would go to war on a refusal
to carry Jay's treaty into effect, thinking it inconceivable that
Great Britain " would wantonly make war " upon a country
which was the best market she had in the world for her manu-
factures, and one with which her export trade was so much
larger than her import.
In 1797 Madison retired from Congress, but not to a life of
inactivity. In 1798 he joined Jefferson in opposing the Alien and
Sedition Laws, and Madison himself wrote the resolutions of the
Virginia legislature declaring that it viewed " the powers of the
Federal government as resulting from the compact to which the
states are parties, as limited by the plain sense and intention of
the instrument constituting that compact; as no further valid
than they are authorized by the grants enumerated in that com-
pact; and that, in case of a deliberate, palpable and dangerous
exercise of other powers, not granted by the said compact, the
states, who are parties thereto, have the right and are in duty
bound to interpose for arresting the progress of the evil, and for
maintaining within their respective limits, the authorities, rights
and liberties appertaining to them." The Virginia resolutions
and the Kentucky resolutions (the latter having been drafted by
Jefferson) were met by dissenting resolutions from the New
England states, from New York, and from Delaware. In answer
to these, Madison, who had become a member of the Virginia
legislature in the autumn of 1799, wrote for the committee to
which they were referred a report elaborating and sustaining in
every point the phraseology of the Virginia resolutions. 1
Upon the accession of the Republican party to power in 1801,
Madison became secretary of state in Jefferson's cabinet, a
position for which he was well fitted both because he possessed
to a remarkable degree the gifts of careful thinking and discreet
and able speaking, and of large constructive ability; and because
he was well versed in constitutional and international law and
practised a fairness in discussion essential to a diplomat. During
the eight years that he held the portfolio of state, he had con-
tinually to defend the neutral rights of the United States against
the encroachments of European belligerents; in 1806 he published
An Examination of the British Doctrine which subjects to Capture
a, Neutral Trade not open in Time of Peace, a careful argument
with a minute examination of authorities on international law
against the rule of war of 1756 extended by Great Britain in
1793 and 1803.
1 Thirty years later Madison's arguments for the Virginia resolu-
tions ana the resolutions themselves were freely used by Calhoun
and his followers in support of his doctrine of nullification. But
Madison insisted that the Resolutions of 1798 did not involve the
principles of nullification. Nearly all his arguments, especially
where he attempts to interpret Jefferson's writings on the point,
notably the Kentucky resolutions, are rather strained and specious,
but it does seem that the Virginia resolutions were based on a
different idea from Calhoun's doctrine of nullification. Madison's
theory was that the legislature of Virginia, being one of the bodies
which had chosen delegates to the constitutional convention, was
legally capable of considering the question of the constitutionality
of laws passed by the Federal government, and that the state of
Virginia might invite other states to join her, but could not singly,
as Calhoun argued, declare any law of the Federal legislature null and
void. (It is to be noted the words "null and void "were in Madison's
first draft of the Virginia resolutions, but that they were omitted
by the Virginia legislature.) It is notable, besides, that Madison
had always feared that the national congress would assume too great
power, that he had approved of Supreme Court checks on the national
legislature, and of veto power by a council of revision.
During Jefferson's presidency and whilst Madison was secretary
of state, by the purchase of Louisiana, Madison's campaign begun
in 1780 for the free navigation of the Mississippi was brought to a
successful close. The candidate in 1808 of the Republican party,
although bitterly opposed in the party by John Randolph and
George Clinton, Madison was elected president, defeating C. C.
Pinckney, the Federalist candidate, by 1 2 2 votes to 47. Madison
had no false hopes of placating the Federalist opposition, but as
the preceding administration was one with which he was in har-
mony, his position was different from that of Jefferson in 1801,
and he had less occasion for removing Federalists from office.
Jefferson's peace policy or, more correctly, Madison's peace
policy of commercial restrictions to coerce Great Britain and
France he continued to follow until 1812, when he was forced to
change these futile commercial weapons for a policy of war, which
was very popular with the extreme French wing of his party.
There is a charge, which has never been proved or disproved, that
Madison's real desire was for peace, but that in order to secure the
renomination he yielded to that wing of his party which was
resolved on war with Great Britain. The only certain fact is that
Madison, whatever were his personal feelings in this matter,
acted according to the wishes of a majority of the Republicans;
but whether in doing so he was influenced by the desire of another
nomination is largely a matter of conjecture. Madison was re-
nominated on the i8th of May 1812, issued his war message on
the ist of June, and in the November elections he was re-elected,
defeating De Witt Clinton by 128 votes to 89. His administra-
tion during the war was pitiably weak. His cabinet in great part
had been dictated to him in 1809 by a senatorial clique, and
it was hopelessly discordant; for two years he was to all intents
and purposes his own secretary of state, Robert Smith being a
mere figure-head of whom he gladly got rid in 181 1, giving Monroe
the vacant place. Madison himself had attempted alternately
to prevent war by his " commercial weapons " and to prepare the
country for war, but he had met with no success, because of the
tricky diplomacy of Great Britain and of France, and because
of the general distrust of him coupled with the particular opposi-
tion to the war of the prosperous New England Federalists, who
suggested with the utmost seriousness that his resignation should
be demanded. In brief, Madison was too much the mere scholar
to prove a strong leader in such a crisis. The supreme disgrace
of the administration was the capture and partial destruction
in August 1814 of the city of Washington this was due, how-
ever, to incompetence of the military and not to any lack of
prudence on the cabinet's part. In general, Congress was more
blamable than either the president or his official family, or the
army officers. With the declaration of peace the president again
gained a momentary popularity much like that he had won in
1809 by his apparent willingness at that time to fight France.
Retiring from the presidency in 1817, Madison returned to his
home, Montpelier (in Orange county, Virginia), which he left in
no official capacity save in 1829, when he was a delegate to the
state constitutional convention and served on several of its com-
mittees. Montpelier, like Jefferson's Monticello and Monroe's
Oak-Hill, was an expensive bit of " gentleman farming," which
with his generous Virginia hospitality nearly ruined its owner
financially. Madison's home was peculiarly a centre for literary
travellers in his last years; when he was eighty-three he was
visited by Harriet Martineau, who reported her conversations
with him in her Retrospect of Western Travel (1838). He took a
great interest in education his library was left to the university
of Virginia, where it was burned in 1895 in emancipation, and in
agricultural questions, to the very last. He died at Montpelier
on the 28th of June 1836. Madison married, in 1794, Dorothy
Payne Todd (1772-1849), widow of John Todd, a Philadelphia
lawyer. She had great social charm, and upon Madison's enter-
ing Jefferson's cabinet became " first lady " in Washington
society. Her plump beauty was often remarked notably by
Washington Irving in contrast to her husband's delicate and
feeble figure and wizened face for even in his prime Madison
was, as Henry Adams says, " a small man, quiet, somewhat pre-
cise in manner, pleasant, fond of conversation, with a certain
MADISON
287
mixture of ease and dignity in his address." Her son, spoilec
by his mother and his step-father, became a wild young fellow
and added his debts to the heavy burden of Montpelier upon
Madison.
Madison's portrait was painted by Gilbert Stuart and by Charle
Willson Peale; Giuseppe Ceracchi made a marble bust of him in 1792
and John H. J. Browere another in 1827, now in possession of th<
Virginia Historical Society at Richmond. Though commonl;
dignified and a little stiff he seems to have had a strong sense o
humour and he was fond of telling a good story. Henry Clay, con
trasting him with Jefferson, said that Jefferson had more genius
Madison more judgment and common sense; that Jefferson was
a visionary and a theorist; Madison cool, dispassionate, practical
and safe. 1 The broadest and most accurate scholar among the
" founders and fathers," he was particularly an expert in constitu-
tional history and theory. In the great causes for which Madison
fought in his earlier years religious freedom and separation o!
church and state, the free navigation of the Mississippi, and the
adoption of the constitution he met with success. His greatest
and truest fame is as the " father of the constitution." The " com-
mercial weapons " with which he wished to prevent armed conflict
proved less useful in his day than they have since been in inter-
national disputes.
AUTHORITIES. Madison's personality is perplexingly vague; the
biographies of him are little more than histories of the period, and
the best history of the later period in which he was before the public,
Henry Adams's History of the United States from 1801 to 1817 (1889-
1890), gives the clearest sketch and best criticism of him. The lives
of Madison are: J. Q. Adams's (Boston, 1850); W. C. Rives's
(Boston, 1859-1869, 3 vols.), covering the period previous to 1797;
S. H. Gay's (Boston, 1884) in the" American Statesmen Series ";and
Gaillard Hunt's (New York, 1902). Madison's Writings (7 vols.,
New York, 1900-1906) were edited by Hunt, who 'also edited
The Journal ef the Debates in the Convention which framed the Con-
stitution of the United States, as Recorded by James Madison (2 vols.,
New York, 1908). See also Mrs Madison's Memoirs and Letters
(Boston, 1887) and Maud Wilder Goodwin, Dolly Madison (New
York, 1897).
MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Ohio river, about
90 m. below Cincinnati, and 44 m. above Louisville, Kentucky.
Pop. (1870), 10,709; (1890), 8936; (1900), 7835 (554 foreign-
born and 570 negroes); (1910), 6934. Madison is served by
the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railroad and by
river steamboats. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs
above the river and has two public parks. In Madison are a
King's Daughters' Hospital, a children's home, and the Drusilla
home for old ladies, and immediately north of the city are the
buildings of the Indiana South-eastern Insane Hospital. Madison
is a trading centre of the surrounding farming region, whose
principal products are burley tobacco, grain and fruits (peaches,
apples, pears, plums and small fruits). The municipality owns
and operates the waterworks. Madison was settled about the
beginning of the igth century; was incorporated as a town in
1824, and was first chartered as a city in 1836.
MADISON, a borough of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
27 m. (by rail) W. of New York City and 4 m. S.E. of Morris-
town. Pop. (1890), 2469; (1900), 3754, of whom975 wereforeign-
born and 300 were negroes; (1005), 4115; (IQIO), 4658. It is
served by the Morris & Essex division of the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western railroad. The borough is attractively situated
among the hiljs of Northern New Jersey, is primarily a residential
suburb of New York and Newark, and contains many fine
residences. There are a public library and a beautiful public
park, both given to the borough by Daniel Willis James (1832-
1007), a prominent metal manufacturer; the library is closely
allied with the public schools. Madison is the seat of the well-
known Drew theological seminary (Methodist Episcopal; founded
in 1866 and opened in 1867), named in honour of Daniel Drew
(1788-1879), who, having acquired great wealth from steamboat
and railway enterprises, especially from trading in railway stocks,
presented the large and beautiful grounds and most of the build-
ings. The seminary's course covers three years; no fee is charged.
In connexion with the seminary the Drew settlement in New
York City officially the department of applied Christianity
1 Clay's opinion is given in a report written by Mrs Samuel H.
Smith of a conversation in 1829 between Clay and her husband, a
prominent politician.
has for its object the " practical study of present-day problems
in city evangelism, church organization, and work among the
poor." In 1907-1908 the seminary had 9 instructors, 175 stu-
dents, and a library of more than 100,000 volumes, especially
rich in works dealing with the history of Methodism and in Greek
New Testament manuscripts. About 2 m. N.W. of Madison is
Convent Station, the seat of a convent of the Sisters of Charity,
who here conduct the college of St Elizabeth, for girls, founded in
1859; also conducted by the Sisters of Charity is St Joseph's
preparatory school for boys, founded in 1862. The cultivation
of roses and chrysanthemums is practically the only industry of
Madison. Madison owns and operates its waterworks and
electric-lighting plant. Before 1844 when it took its present
name (in honour of President Madison), Madison was called
Bottle Hill; it is one of the older places of the state, and its first
church (Presbyterian) was built about 1748. The borough was
incorporated in 1889.
MADISON, the capital of Wisconsin, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Dane County, situated between Lakes Mendota and
Monona in the south central part of the state, about 82 m. W. of
Milwaukee and about 131 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1800),
I 3,4 2 6; (1900) 19,164, of whom 3362 were foreign-born and
69 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,531. Madison is served
by the Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St Paul, and the Illinois Central railways (being the northern
terminus of the last), and by interurban electric lines, connecting
with Janesville, Beloit and Chicago. It has a picturesque
situation in what is known as " the Four-Lakes region "; this
region takes its name from a chain of lakes, Kegonsa, Waubesa,
Monona and Mendota, which, lying in the order named and
connected with one another by the Yahara or Catfish River,
form the head-waters of Rock river flowing southward through
Illinois into the Mississippi. The city occupies a hilly isthmus
about a mile wide between Lakes Mendota and Monona, bodies
of water of great clearness and beauty, with bottoms of white
sand and granite.
The state capitol is in a wooded park at the summit of a hill
85 ft. high in the centre of the city. From this park the streets
and avenues radiate in all directions. The capitol, built in
1860-1867 (with an addition in 1883) on the site of the original
capitol building (1837-1838), was partially destroyed by fire in
1904, and in 1909-1910 was replaced by a larger edifice. The
principal business portion of the city is built about the capitol
>ark and the university. Among the public buildings on or
near the park are the federal building, housing the post office
nd the United States courts, the city hall, the Dane county
court-house, the public library, the Fuller opera-house, the
:ounty gaol, and the high school. Running directly west from
he capitol is State Street, at the western end of which lie the
grounds of the university of Wisconsin (q.v.), occupying a hilly
wooded tract of 300 acres, and extending for a mile along the
south shore of Lake Mendota. University Hill, on which
he main building of the university stands, is 125 ft. above
he lake; at its foot stands the magnificent library building
f the State Historical Society. In it, in addition to the inter-
sting and valuable historical museum and art gallery, are the
Society's library of more than 350,000 books and pamphlets,
he university library of 150,000 volumes, and the library of the
Wisconsin academy of arts and sciences, 5000 volumes. Other
braries in the city include the state law library (45,000 volumes)
n the capitol, the Madison public library (22,500 volumes), and
he Woodman astronomical library (7500 volumes). The
iladison public library houses also the state library school
maintained by the Wisconsin library commission. Connected
with the university is the Washbum observatory. On the
margin of the city lies the extensive experimental farm of
the state college of agriculture. In addition to the state
niversity, Madison is the seat of several Roman Catholic
nd Lutheran parochial schools, two business schools, and the
Wisconsin academy, a non-sectarian preparatory school of
igh grade. On the banks of Lake Monona are the beautiful
rounds of the Monona Lake assembly, a summer assembly
288
MADOU MADRAS
on the Chautauqua model. Near the city is one of the five
fish-hatcheries maintained by the state; it is largely devoted
to the propagation of trout and other small fish. North of
the city, occupying a tract of 500 acres, on Lake Mendota,
are the buildings and grounds of the state hospital for the
insane, opened in 1860.
The city's streets are broad and heavily shaded with a pro-
fusion of elm, oak and maple trees. There are many fine
stone residences dating from the middle of the igth century.
There are several parks of great beauty, and along the shores
of Lake Mendota there is a broad bouleyarded drive of 1 2 m.
The municipality owns its waterworks, the water being obtained
from eleven artesian wells, and being chemically similar to that
of Waukesha Springs. The city and surrounding region are
a summer resort, the lakes affording opportunities for fishing
and for yachting and boating.
Madison is an important jobbing centre for central and
south-western Wisconsin; it has an extensive trade in farm,
garden and dairy products, poultry and tobacco; and there
are various manufactures. In 1905 the value of the total
factory product was $3,291,143, an increase of 22-4% over
that in 1900.
At the time of the settlement by the whites the aboriginal
inhabitants of the Four-Lakes region were the Winnebago.
Prehistoric earthworks are to be seen in the neighbourhood,
several animal-shaped mounds upon the shores of Lakes Men-
dota, Monona and Waubesa being among the best examples.
A regular trading post is known to have been established on
Lake Mendota as early as 1820. The title to the Indian lands
was acquired by the United States by treaty in 1825. Colonel
Ebenezer Brigham established himself at Blue Mounds, in the
western part of Dane county, in 1827. In 1832 the " Four-
Lakes " country was in the theatre of hostilities during the
Black Hawk War; Colonel Henry Dodge held a conference with
Winnebago chiefs on Lake Mendota, and there were several
skirmishes in the neighbourhood between his troops and the
followers of Black Hawk, one of which took place on the site
of Madison. After Black Hawk's defeat on the Bad Axe he
fled to the Wisconsin river Dalles, near the present Kilbourn,
where he was betrayed by the Winnebago. In 1836 Stevens
T. Mason, governor of Michigan, and James Duane Doty,
then U.S. district judge, who had visited the region as early
as 1829, recorded a tract of land, including most of the present
site of Madison. Here they surveyed a " paper " city which
they named in honour of James Madison. On the 3rd of
December 1836 the territorial legislature in session at Belmont,
after a protracted and acrimonious debate, determined, largely
through Doty's influence, to make Madison the permanent
capital. The construction of houses began in the early spring
of 1837. The first constitutional convention met here in
1846, the second in 1847. Madison was chartered as a city
in 1856. In 1862 a large number of Confederate prisoners
were confined in Camp Randall, at Madison, and many of
them died in hospital.
See D. S. Durrie, History of Madison, Wisconsin (Madison, 1874) ;
Lyman C. Draper, Madison the Capital of Wisconsin (Madison, 1857) ;
J. D. Butler, " The Four Lakes Country " in Wisconsin Historical
Society Collections, vol. IO (1888), and R. G. Thwaites, " Madison "
in Historic Towns of the Western Slates (New York, 1900), and his
" Story of Madison " in The University of Wisconsin (Madison,
1900).
MADOU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1796-1877), Belgian painter
and lithographer, was born at Brussels on the 3rd of February
1796. He studied at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts and
was a pupil of Francois. While draughtsman to the topo-
graphical military division at Courtrai, he received a com-
mission for lithographic work from a Brussels publisher. It
was about 1820 that he began his artistic career. Between
1825 and 1827 he contributed to Les Vues pittoresques de la
Belgique, to a Life of Napoleon, and to works on the costumes
of the Netherlands, and later made a great reputation by his
work in La Physionomie de la sociilt en Europe depitis 1400
iusqu' a nos jours (1836) and Les Scenes de la vie des peintres.
It was not until about 1840 that he began to paint in oils,
and the success of his early efforts in this medium resulted
in a long series of pictures representing scenes of village and
city life, including " The Fiddler," " The Jewel Merchant,"
"The Police Court," "The Drunkard," "The Ill-regulated
Household," and "The Village Politicians." Among his
numerous works mention may also be made of " The Feast
at the Chateau" (1851), "The Unwelcome Guests" (1852,
Brussels Gallery), generally regarded as his masterpiece, " The
Rat Hunt" (acquired by Leopold II., king of the Bel-
gians), " The Arquebusier "(1860), and "The Stirrup Cup."
At the age of sixty-eight he decorated a hall in his house with
a series of large paintings representing scenes from La Fon-
taine's fables, and ten years later made for King Leopold
a series of decorative paintings for the chateau of Ciergnon.
Madou died at Brussels on the 3ist of March 1877.
For a list of his paintings see the annual report of the Academy "of
Belgium for 1879. (F. K.*)
MADOZ, PASCUAL (1806-1870), Spanish statistician, was
born at Pampeluna on the 7th of May 1806. In early life
he was settled in Barcelona, as a writer and journalist. He
joined the Progresista party formed during the first Carlist
war, 1833-40. He saw some service against the Carlists;
was elected deputy to the Cortes of 1836; took part for Espar-
tero, and then against him; was imprisoned in 1843; went
into exile and returned; was governor of Barcelona in 1854,
and minister of finance in 1855; had a large share in secularizing
the Church lands; and after the revolution of 1868 was governor
of Madrid. He had, however, no great influence as a leader
and soon went abroad, dying at Genoa in 1870. Madoz was
distinguished from most of the politicians of his generation
by the fact that in middle life he compiled what is still a book
of value a geographical, statistical and historical dictionary
of Spain and its possessions oversea, Dicciamario geografico,
estadlstico y historico de Espana, y sus posesiones de Ultramar
(Madrid, 1848-1850).
MADRAS, a presidency of British India officially styled
Fort St George occupying, with its dependencies, the entire
south of the Indian peninsula. The north boundary is extremely
irregular. On the extreme N.E. is the Bengal province of
Orissa; then the wild highlands of the Central Provinces; next
the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad; and lastly, on the
N.W., the Bombay districts of Dharwar and North Kanara.
Geographically Mysore and Coorg lie within the bounds of
Madras, and politically it includes the Laccadive Islands,
off the Malabar coast, in the Indian Ocean. Its total area,
including native states, is 151,695 sq. m., and its popula-
tion in 1901 was 42,397,522, showing an increase of 7-7%
in the decade. The seat of government is at Madras city
(-.).
Physical Aspect. The Madras presidency may be roughly divided
into three tracts: (l) the long and broad east coast, (2) the shorter
and narrower west coast, and (3) the high interior table-land.
These divisions are determined by the great mountain ranges of the
Eastern and Western Ghats (q.v.). Between these two ranges lies
the central table-land, with an elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft., which
includes the whole of Mysore, and extends over about half a dozen
districts of Madras. The Anaimudi mountain (8837 ft.) in Travan-
core is the highest in southern India. The Nilgiri hills, which join
the Ghats, culminate in Dodabetta (8760 ft.). There are besides
many outlying spurs and tangled masses of hills, of which the She-
varoys, Anamalais and Palnis are the most important. The Godavari,
Kistna and Cauvery rivers, each having a large tributary system, all
rise in the Western Ghats, and run across the peninsula in a south-east
direction into the Bay of Bengal. In the upper parts of their course
they drain rather than water the country through which they flow,
and are comparatively valueless either for navigation or irrigation;
but before reaching the sea they spread over alluvial deltas. Smaller
rivers of the same character are the Pennar and South Pennar or
Ponniar, Palar, Vaigai, Vellar and Tambraparni. The principal
lake is that of Pulicat on the east coast, which is 37 m. long from
north to south, and forms an important means of communication
between Madras city and the northern districts. On the west coast
are a remarkable series of backwaters or lagoons, fringing the sea-
board of Kanara, Malabar and Travancore. The largest is the back-
water of Cochin, which extends 120 m. from north to south.
MADRAS
289
Geology. By far the greater part of Madras is occupied by
granitic and gneissic rocks of very ancient date. Among them are
the " charnockites," a series of associated eruptive rocks character-
ized by the presence of rhombic pyroxenes. In Bellary and Ananta-
pur districts, as well as in Mysore and Hyderabad, several long
narrow strips of a later formation, known as the Dharwar system,
are folded or faulted into the gneissic floor. They run from N.N.W. to
S.S.E., and consist of conglomerates, lavas and schists. All the
quartz reefs which contain gold in paying quantities are found within
these Dharwar bands, those of the Kolar goldfield in Mysore being
the most important. The gneissic and Dharwar rocks are overlaid
unconformably by the sandstones, limestones, shales, &c., of the
Cuddapah and Kurnool series. It is in the sandstones and shales
of the Kurnool group that most of the diamonds of southern India
are found ; but as these rocks are of sedimentary origin, it is probable
that the diamonds were originally derived from some still unknown
source. A strip of Gondwana beds follows approximately the course
of the Godavari. In Hyderabad it includes the important Singareni
coalfield, but in the Presidency no good coal seams have yet been
found. Upper Gondwana beds also occur in small patches at several
other places near the east coast. Marine cretaceous deposits are
found in three detached areas, near Trichinopoly, Viruddhachalam
and Pondicherry. Some of the coastal sandstones may be of late
Tertiary age, but Tertiary fossils have not been found except in a
few small patches on the west coast, the most southerly being near
Quilon in Travancore.
Climate. The climate varies in accordance with the height of the
mountain chain on the western coast. Where this chain is lofty, as
between Malabar and Cpimbatore, the rainclouds are intercepted
and give a rainfall of 150 in. on the side of the sea, and only 20 in. on
the landward side. Where the range is lower, the rainclouds pass
over the hills and carry their moisture to the interior districts. The
Nilgiri hills enjoy the climate of the temperate zone, with a mode-
rate rainfall. The Malabar coast has a rainfall of 150 in., and the
clouds on the Western Ghats sometimes obscure the sun for months
at a time. Along the eastern coasts and central table-lands the
rainfall is low and the heat excessive. At Madras city the aver-
age rainfall is 50 in., but this is considerably above the mean of the
east coast.
Minerals. The mineral wealth of the province is undeveloped.
Iron of excellent quality has been smelted by native smiths in many
localities from time immemorial ; but attempts to work the beds after
European methods have proved unsuccessful. Carboniferous sand-
stone extends across the Godavari valley as far as Ellore, but the
coal has been found to be of inferior quality. Among other minerals
may be mentioned manganese in Vizagapatam, and mica in Nellore.
Garnets are abundant in the sandstone of the Northern Circars, and
diamonds of moderate value are found in the same region. Stone
and gravel quarries are very numerous.
Forests. The forest department of Madras was first organized in
1856, and it is estimated that forests cover a total area of more than
19,600 sq. m., the whole of which is under conservancy rules. An
area of about 1500 sq. m. is strictly conserved. In the remaining
forests, after supplying local wants, timber is either sold direct by
the department or licences are granted to wood-cutters. The more
valuable timber trees comprise teak, ebony, rosewood, sandal-wood
and redwood. The trees artificially reared are teak, sandal-wood,
Casuarina and eucalyptus. The finest teak plantation is near
Beypur in Malabar. At Mudumalli there are plantations of both
teak and sandal-wood ; and the eucalyptus or Australian gum-tree
grows on the Nilgiris in magnificent clumps.
Fauna. The wild animals include the elephant, bison, sambur
and ibex of the Western Ghats and the Nilgiris. Bison are found
also in the hill tracts of the Northern Circars. In Travancore state the
black leopard is not uncommon. The elephant is protected by law
from indiscriminate destruction. The cattle are small, but in Nellore
and along the Mysore frontier a superior breed is carefully kept up
by the wealthier farmers. The best buffaloes are imported from the
Bombay district of Dharwar.
Population. The population in 1901 was divided into
Hindus (37,026,471), Mahommedans (2,732,931), and Chris-
tians (1,934,480). The Hindus may be subdivided into Siva-
ites, Vishnuvites and Lingayats. The Sivaites are most
numerous in the extreme south and on the west coast, while
the Vishnuvites are chiefly found in the northern districts.
The Lingayats, a sect of Sivaite puritans, derive their name
from their practice of carrying about on their persons the
lingo, r or emblem of Siva. The Brahmans follow various
pursuits, and some of them are recent immigrants, who came
south in the train of the Mahratta armies. A peculiar caste
of Brahmans, called Nambudri, is found in Malabar. The
most numerous of the hill tribes are the Kondhs and Savaras,
two cognate races who inhabit the mountainous tracts of the
Eastern Ghats, attached to several of the large estates of Ganjam
and Vizagapatam. On the Nilgiris the best known aboriginal
xvu. 10
tribe is the Todas (?..). The Mahommedans are subdivided
into Labbai, Moplah, Arab, Sheikh, Sayad, Pathan and Mogul.
The Labbais are the descendants of Hindu converts, and are
traders by hereditary occupation, although many now employ
themselves as sailors and fishermen. The Moplahs are the
descendants of Malayalam converts to Islam the head of
the tribe, the raja of Cannanore, being descended from a fisher
family in Malabar. They are a hard-working, frugal people,
but quite uneducated and fanatical, and under the influence
of religious excitement have often disturbed the public peace.
Christians are more numerous in Madras than in any other
part of India. In Travancore and Cochin states the native
Christians constitute as much as one-fourth of the popu-
lation. The Roman Catholics, whose number throughout
southern India is estimated at upwards of 650,000, owe their
establishment to St Francis Xavier and the famous Jesuit
mission of Madura; they are partly under the authority of
the archbishop of Goa, and partly under twelve Jesuit vicar-
iates. Protestant missions date from the beginning of the
1 8th century. The Danes were the pioneers; but their work
was taken up by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
under whom laboured the great Lutherans of the i8th century
Schultz, Sartorius, Fabricius and Schwartz. The Church
Missionary Society entered the field in 1814; and subsequently
an American mission joined in the work.
Languages. Broadly speaking, the entire population of
Madras belongs to the five linguistic offshoots of the great
Dravidian stock, dominant throughout southern India. At
an early period, before the dawn of history, these races appear
to have accepted some form of the Brahmanical or Buddhist
faiths. Many storms of conquest have since swept over the
land, and colonies of Mogul and Mahratta origin are to be
found here and there. But the evidence of language proves
that the ethnical character of the population has remained
stable under all these influences, and that the Madras Hindu,
Mahommedan, Jain and Christian are of the same stock. Of
the five Dravidian languages in British territory Telugu is
spoken by over 14,000,000 persons; Tamil by over 15,000,000
persons; Kanarese by over 1,500,000 persons; Malayalam by
nearly 3,000,000 persons; and Tulu by about 500,000 persons.
Oriya is the native tongue in the extreme north of Ganjam,
bordering on Orissa; and various sub-dialects of Dravidian
origin are used by the hill tribes of the Eastern Ghats, 'of whom
the Kondhs may be taken as the type.
Agriculture. Over the greater part of the area of Madras artificial
irrigation is impossible, and cultivation is dependent upon the local
rainfall, which rarely exceeds 40 in. a year, and is liable to fall
irregularly. The Malabar coast is the only part where the rainfall
brought by the south-west monsoon may be trusted both for its
amount and regularity. Other districts, such as Bellary, are also
dependent upon this monsoon; but in their case the rainclouds have
spent themselves in passing over the Western Ghats, and cultivation
becomes a matter of hazard. Over the greater part of the presidency
the rainy season is caused by the south-east monsoon, which breaks
about the end of September. The deltas of the Godavari, Kistna
and Cauvery rivers are the only spots on the east coast which artificial
irrigation is able to save from the risk of occasional scarcity. The
principal food staples are rice, cholam, cambu, ragi and varagu (four
kinds of millet). The most common oil-seed is gingelly (sesamum).
Garden crops comprise tobacco, sugar-cane, chillies, betel-leaf and
plantains. Sugar is chiefly derived from the sap of palms. The fruit
trees are coco-nut, areca-nut, palmyra palm, jack, tamarind and
mango. Special crops include cotton, indigo, coffee, tea, cinchona.
The best cotton is grown in Tinnevelly. The principal coffee tract
stretches along the slopes of the Western Ghats from the north of
Mysore almost down to Cape Comorin. The larger portion of this area
lies within Mysore, Coprgand Travancore states, but the Wynaad and
the Nilgiri hills are within Madras. The first coffee plantation was
opened in the Wynaad in 1840. Many of the early clearings proved
unprofitable, and the enterprise made little progress till about 1855.
Coffee, which is much cultivated on the Nilgiris, covers about loo sq.
m., though the area fluctuates. The tea plant was also introduced
into the Nilgiri hills about 1840, but was not taken up as a commer-
cial speculation till 1865, and is still unimportant. The cinchona
plant was successfully introduced into the Nilgiri hills by the govern-
ment in 1860, and there are now a few plantations belonging to
private owners.
The greater part of the soil in Madras is held by the cultivators
290
MADRAS
direct from the government under the tenure known as ryotwari.
Besides these lands in the hands of the government, there are also
proprietary or zamindari estates in all parts of the country. These
estates are either the remains of ancient principalities, which the
holder cannot sell or encumber beyond his own life interest, or they
are creations of British rule and subject to the usual Hindu custom
of partition. The total area of the zamindari estates is about 26
million acres, more than one-fourth of the whole presidency. The
peshkash or tribute payable to government in perpetuity amounts
to about 330,000 a year. Indms, revenue-free or quit-rent grants
of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to
the state, occupy an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres.
Manufactures. Madras possesses few staple manufactures. The
chief industries of the presidency are cotton-ginning, coffee-curing,
fish-curing, indigo-pressing, oil-pressing, printing, rice-curing, rope-
making, sugar-refining, tanning, tile and brick-making, and tobacco-
curing. Up to the close of the 1 8th century cotton goods constituted
the main article of export. Masulipatam, where the first English
factory on the- Coromandel coast was established in 1620, enjoyed a
special reputation for its chintzes, which were valued for the fresh-
ness and permanency of their dyes. There is still a small demand
for these articles in Burma, the Straits and the Persian Gulf; but
Manchester goods have nearly beaten the Indian exporter out of the
field. Native looms, however, still hold their own in the local market,
in face of strenuous opposition. After weaving, working in metals
appears to be the most widespread native industry. Among local
specialities which have attracted European curiosity may be men-
tioned the jewelry of Trichinopoly, ornaments of ivory and horn
worked at Vizagapatam, and sandal-wood carving in Kanara.
Commerce and Trade. -The continuous seaboard of the Madras
presidency, without any natural harbours of the first rank, has
tended to create a widely diffused trade. Madras city conducts
nearly one-half of the total sea-borne commerce ; next comes Malabar,
containing the western railway terminus near Calicut; then Godavari,
with its cluster of ports along the fringe of the delta; Tinnevelly,
with the harbour at Tuticorin, which has opened Jarge dealings with
Ceylon and Burma ; Tanjore, South Kanara, Ganjam and Vizagapa-
tam. As compared with the other provinces, the trade of Madras
is broadly marked by the larger proportion assigned to coasting trade
with other Indian ports and with Ceylon. The chief staples of the
export trade are hides and skins, coffee and raw cotton.
Railways and Irrigation. The presidency is well supplied with
railways, which naturally have their centre in Madras city, the chief
seaport. The broad-gauge line of the Madras & Southern Mahratta
railway connects with Bombay and Bangalore, and also crosses the
peninsula to Calicut on the western coast. The South Indian
(narrow-gauge) serves the extreme south, with its terminus at Tuti-
corin, and branches to Tinnevelly, Negapatam, Erade, Pondicherry
and Nellore. The narrow-gauge line of the Madras & Southern
Mahratta railway traverses the Deccan districts; and the East Coast
line (broad-gauge), through the Northern Circars, has brought
Madras into direct communication with Calcutta. The Madras
system of. irrigation has been most successful in the case of the three
great eastern rivers, the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery. Each of
these is intercepted by an anicut or dam at the head of its delta, from
which canals diverge on each side for navigation as well as irrigation.
The scheme for diverting the waters of the Tungabhadra (a tributary
of the Kistna) over the thirsty uplands of Kurnool proved a failure.
The bold project of leading the Periyar river through a tunnel across
the watershed of the Travancore hills on to the plain of Madura has
been more successful.
Administration. The Madras presidency is administered
by a governor and a council, consisting of two members of
the civil service, which number may be increased to four.
There is also a board of revenue of three members. The number
of districts is 24, each under the charge of a collector, with
sub-collectors and assistants. The districts are not grouped
into divisions or commissionerships, as in other provinces. For
legislative purposes the council of the governor is augmented
by additional members, numbering 45 in all, of whom not
more than 17 may be nominated officials, while 19 are elected
by various representative constituencies. Members of the
legislative council enjoy the right of interpellation, of proposing
resolutions on matters of public interest, and of discussing
the annual financial statement. The principle of local devolu-
tion is carried somewhat further in Madras than in other pro-
vinces. At the bottom are union panchayats or village com-
mittees, whose chief duty is to attend to sanitation. Above
them come taluk or subdivisional boards. At the head of
all are district boards, a portion of whose members are elected
by the taluk boards.
Education. The chief educational institutions are the
Madras University, the Presidency College, Madras Christian
College, and Pachayyappa's College at Madras; the government
arts colleges at Combaconum and Rajahmundry; the law
college, medical college and engineering college at Madras;
the college of agriculture at Coimbatore; the teachers' college at
Saidapet; the school of arts at Madras; and the military ophan-
age at Ootacamund, in memory of Sir Henry Lawrence. In
1007, the total number of pupils at all institutions was 1,007,118,
of whom 164,706 were females, and 132,857 were learning
English.
History. Until the British conquest the whole of southern
India had never acknowledged a single ruler. The difficult
nature of the hill passes and the warlike character of the highland
tribes forbade the growth of great empires, such as succeeded
one another on the plains of Hindustan. The Tamil country
in the extreme south is traditionally divided between the three
kingdoms of Pandya, Chola and Chera. The west coast
supplied the nucleus of a monarchy which afterwards extended
over the highlands of Mysore, and took its name from the
Carnatic. On the north-east the kings of Kalinga at one time
ruled over the entire line of seaboard from the Kistna to the
Ganges. Hindu legend has preserved marvellous stories of
these early dynasties, but our only authentic evidence consists
in their inscriptions on stone and brass, and their noble archi-
tecture (see INDIA). The Mahommedan invader first estab-
lished himself in the south in the beginning of the I4th century.
Ala-ud-din, the second monarch of the Khilji dynasty at Delhi,
and his general Malik Kafur conquered the Deccan, and over-
threw the kingdoms of Karnataka and Telingana, which were
then the most powerful in southern India. But after the
withdrawal of the Mussulman armies the native monarchy
of Vijayanagar arose out of the ruins. This dynasty gradually
extended its dominions from sea to sea, and reached a pitch
of prosperity before unknown. At last, in 1565, it was over-
whelmed by a combination of the four Mahommedan princi-
palities of the Deccan. At the close of the reign of Aurangzeb,
although that emperor nominally extended his sovereign!
as far as Cape Comorin, in reality South India had again fallen
under a number of rulers who owned no regular allegiance.
The nizam of the Deccan, himself an independent sovereign,
represented the distant court of Delhi. The most powerful
of his feudatories was the nawab of the Carnatic, with his
capital at Arcot. In Tanjore, a descendant of Sivaji ruled;
and on the central table-land a Hindu chieftain was gradually
establishing his authority and founding the state of Mysore,
destined soon to pass to a Mahommedan usurper.
Vasco da Gama cast anchor off Calicut on the 2oth of May
1498, and for a century the Portuguese retained in their control
the commerce of India. The Dutch began to establish them-
selves on the ruin of the Portuguese at the beginning of the
1 7th century, and were quickly followed by the English, who
established themselves at Calicut and Cranganore in 1616.
Tellicherry became the principal English emporium on the
west coast of Madras. The Portuguese eventually retired
to Goa, and the Dutch to the Spice Islands. The first English
settlement on the east coast was in 1611, at Masulipatam,
even then celebrated for its fabrics. Farther south a fort,
the nucleus of Madras city, was erected in 1640. Pondicherry
was purchased, by the French in 1762. For many years the
English and French traders lived peacefully side by side, and
with no ambition for territorial aggrandisement. The war
of the Austrian succession in Europe lit the first flame of hostility
on the Coromandel coast. In 1746 Madras was forced to sur-
render to La Bourdonnais, and Fort St David remained the
only English possession in southern India. By the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the English; but
from this time the rivalry of the two nations was keen, and
found its opportunities in the disputed successions which
always fill a large place in Oriental politics. English influence
was generally able to secure the favour of the rulers of the
Carnatic and Tanjore, while the French succeeded in placing
their own nominee on the throne at Hyderabad. At last
Dupleix rose to be the temporary arbiter of the fate of southern
[
MADRAS
291
India, but he was overthrown by Clive, whose defence of Arcot
in 1751 forms the turning point in Indian history. In 1760
the crowning victory of Wandewash was won by Colonel (after-
wards Sir Eyre) Coote, over Lally, and in the following year,
< help from Mysore, Pondicherry was captured.
Though the English had no longer any European rival, they
hiul yet to deal with Mahommedan fanaticism and the warlike
population of the highlands of Mysore. The dynasty founded
by Hyder Ali, and terminating in his son Tippoo Sultan, proved
itself in four several wars, which terminated only in 1799,
the most formidable antagonist which the English had ever
encountered (see HYDER ALI and INDIA). Since the beginning
of the igth century Madras has known no regular war, but
occasional disturbances have called for measures of repression.
The pdlegdrs or local chieftains long clung to their independence
after their country was ceded to the British. On the west
coast, the feudal aristocracy of the Nairs, and the religious
fanaticism of the Moplahs, have more than once led to rebellion
and bloodshed. In the extreme north, the wild tribes occupying
the hills of Ganjam and Vizagapatam have only lately learned
the habit of subordination. In 1836 the zaminddri of Gumsur
in this remote tract was attached by government for the rebel-
lious conduct of its chief. An inquiry then instituted revealed
the wide prevalence among the tribe of Kondhs of human
sacrifice, under the name of meriah. The practice has since
been suppressed by a special agency. In 1879 the country
round Rampa on the northern frontier was the scene of riots
sufficiently serious to lead to the necessity of calling out troops.
The same necessity arose three years later, when the Hindus
and Mahommedans of Salem came into collision over a question
of religious ceremonial. A more serious disturbance was that
known as the " Anti-Shanar riots " of 1899. The Maravans
of Tinnevelly and parts of Madura, resenting the pretensions
of the Shanans, a toddy-drawing caste, to a higher social and
religious status, organized attacks on Shanan villages. The
i of Sivakasi was looted and burnt by five thousand
Maravans. Quiet was restored by the military, and a punitive
police force was stationed in the disturbed area.
The different territories comprising the Madras presidency
were acquired by the British at various dates. In 1763 the
tract encircling Madras city, then known as the Jagir, now
Chingleput district, was ceded by the nawab of Arcot. In
1765 the Northern Circars, out of which the French had recently
been driven, were granted to the Company by the Mogul emperor,
but at the price of an annual tribute of 90,000 to the nizam
of Hyderabad. Full rights of dominion were not acquired
till 1823, when the tribute was commuted for a lump payment.
In 1792 Tippoo was compelled to cede the Baramahal (now
part of Salem district), Malabar and Dindigul subdivision of
Madura. In 1799, on the reconstruction of Mysore state after
Tippoo's death, Coimbatore and Kanara were appropriated as
the British share; and in the same year the Mahratta raja of
Tanjore resigned the administration of his territory, though
his descendant retained titular rank till 1855. In 1800 Bellary
and Cuddapah were made over by the nizam of Hyderabad
to defray the expense of an increased subsidiary force. In
the following year the dominions of the nawab of the Carnatic,
extending along the east coast almost continuously from Nellore
to Tinnevelly, were resigned into the hands of the British by
a puppet who had been put upon the throne for the purpose.
The last titular nawab of the Carnatic died in 1855; but his
representative still bears the title of prince of Arcot, and is
recognized as the first native nobleman in Madras. In 1839
the nawab of Kurnool was deposed for misgovernment and
suspicion of treason, and his territories annexed.
See Madras Manual of Administration, 3 vols. (Madras, 1885 and
'893); S. Ayyangar, Forty Years' Progress in Madras (Madras,
'893); J. P. Rees, Madras (Society of Arts, 1901); Madras Pro-
vincial Gazetteer (2 vols., Calcutta, 1908).
MADRAS, the capital of Madras presidency, and the chief
seaport on the eastern coast of India, is situated in 13 4' N.
and 80 17' E. The city, with its suburbs, extends nine miles
along the sea and nearly four miles inland, intersected by
the little river Cooum. Area, 27 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 509,346,
showing an increase of 12-6% in. the decade. Madras is the
third city in India.
Although at first sight the city presents a disappointing
appearance, and possesses not a single handsome street, it
has several buildings of architectural pretensions, and many
spots of historical interest. It is spread over a very wide area,
and many parts of it are almost rural in character. Seen from
the roadstead, the fort, a row of merchants' offices, a few spires
and public buildings are all that strike the eye. Roughly
speaking, the city consists of the following divisions, (i)
George Town (formerly Black Town, but renamed after the
visit of the Prince of Wales in 1906), an ill-built, densely-popu-
lated block, about a mile square, is the business part of the
town, containing the banks, custom house, high court, and all
the mercantile offices. The last, for the most part handsome
structures, lie along the beach. On the sea-face of George
Town are the pier and the new harbour. Immediately south
of George Town there is (2) an open space which contains Fort
St George, the Marina, or fashionable drive and promenade
by the seashore, Government House, and several handsome
public buildings on the sea-face. (3) West and south of this
lung of the city are crowded quarters known by native names
Chintadrapet, Turuvaleswarampet, Pudupak, Royapet, Kist-
nampet and Mylapur, which bend to the sea again at the old
town of Saint Thome. (4) To the west of George Town are the
quarters of Veperi and Pudupet, chiefly inhabited by Eurasians,
and the suburbs of Egmore, Nangambakam, and Perambur,
adorned with handsome European mansions and their spacious
" compounds " or parks, which make Madras a city of magnifi-
cent distances. (5) South-west and south lie the European
quarters of Tanampet and aristocratic Adyar. Among the
most notable buildings are the cathedral, Scottish church,
Government House, Pachayappa's Hall, senate house, Chepauk
palace (now the revenue board), and the Central railway
station.
Madras possesses no special industries. There are several
cotton mills, large cement works, iron foundries and cigar
factories. Large sums of money have from time to time been
spent upon the harbour works, but without any great success.
The port remains practically an open roadstead, protected
by two breakwaters, and the P. & O. steamers ceased to
call in 1898. Passengers or cargo are landed or embarked
in flat-bottomed masula boats. The sea bottom is unusually
flat, reaching a depth of ten fathoms only at a mile from the
shore. The harbour is not safe during a cyclone, and vessels
have to put out to sea. Madras conducts about 56% of the
foreign trade of the presidency, but a much smaller share of
the coasting trade. As the capital of southern India, Madras
is the centre on which all the great military roads converge.
It is also the terminal station of two lines of railway, the
Madras & Southern Mahratta line and the Madras & Tanjore
"section of the South Indian railway. The Buckingham canal,
which passes through an outlying part of the city, connects
South Arcot district with Nellore and the Kistna and Godavari
system of canal navigation. The municipal government of
the city was framed by an act of the Madras legislature passed
in 1884. The governing body consists of 32 commissioners,
of whom 24 are elected by the ratepayers, together with a paid
president. The Madras University was constituted in 1857,
as an examining body, on the model of the university of London.
The chief educational institutions in Madras city are tl e Presi-
dency College; six missionary colleges and one native College;
the medical college, the law college, the college of engin jering,
the teachers' college in the suburb of Saidapet, all maintained
by government; and the government school of arts.
The foundation of Madras dates from 1640, when Francis
Day, chief of the East India Company's settlement at Armagon,
obtained a grant of the present site of the city from a native
ruler. A fort called Fort St George, presumably from having
been finished on St George's Day (April 23) was at once
292
MADRAZO Y KUNT MADRID
constructed, and a gradually increasing population settled
around its walls. In 1653 Madras, which had previously been
subordinate to the settlement of Bantam in Java, was raised
to the rank of an independent presidency. In 1702 Baud
Khan, Aurangzeb's general, blockaded the town for a few
weeks, and in 1741 the Mahrattas unsuccessfully attacked
the place. In 1746 La Bourdonnais bombarded and captured
Madras. The settlement was restored to the English two
years later by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the govern-
ment of the presidency did not return to Madras till 1762. In
1758 the French under Lally occupied the Black Town and
invested the fort. The siege was conducted on both sides
with great skill and vigour. After two months the arrival of
an English fleet relieved the garrison, and the besiegers retired
with some precipitancy. With the exception of the threatening
approach of Hyder Ali's horsemen in 1769, and again in 1780,
Madras has since the French siege been free from external
attack. The town of Saint Thome, now part of Madras city,
was founded and fortified by the Portuguese in 1504, and was
held by the French from 1672 to 1674.
See Mrs F. Penny, Fort St George (1900); W. Foster, Founding of
Fort St George (1902).
MADRAZO Y KUNT, DON FEDERICO DE (1815-1894),
Spanish painter, was born in Rome on the 12th of February
1815. He was the son of the painter Madrazo y Agudo (1781-
1859), and received his first instruction from his father. While
still attending the classes at the Academy of San Fernando
he painted his first picture, " The Resurrection of Christ "
(1829), which was purchased by Queen Christina. Not long
afterwards he painted " Achilles in his Tent," and subsequently
presented to the Academy " The Continence of Scipio," which
secured him admission as a member " for merit." While
decorating the palace of Vista Alegre he took up portraiture.
In 1852 he went to Paris, where he studied under Winterhalter,
and painted portraits of Baron Taylor and of Ingres. In
1837 he was commissioned to produce a picture for the gallery
at Versailles, and painted " Godfrey de Bouillon proclaimed
King of Jerusalem." The artist then went to Rome, where
he worked at various subjects, sacred and profane. Then
he painted " Maria Christina in the Dress of a Nun by the
bedside of Ferdinand III." (1843), " Queen Isabella," " The
Duchess of Medina-Coeli," and " The Countess de Vilches "
(1845-1847), besides a number of portraits of the Spanish aristo-
cracy, some of which were sent to the exhibition of 1855. He
received the Legion of Honour in 1846. He was made a corre-
sponding member of the Paris Academy of Fine Arts on the
loth of December 1853, and in 1873, on the death of Schnorr,
the painter, he was chosen foreign member. After his father's
death he succeeded him as director of the Prado Gallery and
president of the Academy of San Fernando. He originated
in Spain the production of art reviews and journals, such as
El Arlisla, El Renacimiento and El Semanario pinloresco.
He died at Madrid on the nth of June 1894. His brother^
DON Louis DE MADRAZO, was also known as a painter, chiefly*
by his " Burial of Saint Cecilia " (1855). Don Federico's best-
known pupil was his son, DON RAIMUNDO DE MADRAZO (b. 1841).
MADRID, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts previously included in New Castile, and bounded
on the W. and N. by Avila and Segovia, E. by Guadalajara,
S.E. by Cuenca and S. by Toledo. Pop. (1900), 775,34,
of whom 539,835 inhabit the city of Madrid; area, 3084 sq. m.
Madrid belongs to the basin of the Tagus, being separated
from th it of the Douro by the Sierra de Guadarrama on the
N.W. and N., and by the Sierra de Credos on the S.W. The
Tagus is the southern boundary for some distance, its chief
tributary being the Jarama, which rises in the Somosierra
in the north and terminates at Aranjuez. The Jarama, in
turn, is joined by the Henares and Tajuna on the left, and by
the Lozoya and Manzanares on the right. The Guadarrama,
another tributary of the Tagus, has its upper course within
the province. Like the rest of Castile, Madrid is chiefly of
Tertiary formation; the soil is mostly clayey, but there are
tracts of sandy soil. Agriculture is somewhat backward;
the rainfall is deficient, and the rivers are not utilized as they
might be for irrigation. The south-eastern districts are the
best watered, and produce in abundance fruit, vegetables,
wheat, olives, esparto grass and excellent wine. Gardening
and viticulture are carried on to some extent near the capital,
though the markets of Madrid receive their most liberal supply
of fruits and vegetables from Valencia. Sheep, goats and
horned cattle are reared, and fish are found in the Jarama
and other rivers. Much timber is extracted from the forests
of the northern and north-eastern parts of the province for
building purposes and for firewood and charcoal. The royal
domains of the Escorial, Aranjuez and El Pardo, and the pre-
serves of the nobility, are all well wooded and contain much
game. Efforts have also been made by the local authorities
to cover the large stretches of waste ground and commons
with pines and other trees.
The Sierra de Guadarrama has quarries of granite, lime
and gypsum, and is known to contain iron, copper and argenti-
ferous lead; but these resources are undeveloped. Other in-
dustries are chiefly confined to the capital; but cloth, leather,
paper, earthenware, porcelain, glass, bricks and tiles, ironware,
soap, candles, chocolate and lace are also manufactured on a
small scale beyond its boundaries. There is very little commerce
except for the supply of the capital with necessaries.
Besides the local lines, all the great railways in the kingdom
converge in this province, and it contains in all 221 m. of line.
Besides Madrid, the towns of Aranjuez (12,670) and Alcala
de Henares (11,206) and the Escorial are described in separate
articles. The other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants
are Vallecas (10,128), Colmenar de Oreja (6182), Colmenar
Viejo (5255) and Carabanchel Bajo (5862).
MADRID, the capital of Spain and of the province of Madrid,
on the left bank of the river Manzanares, a right-hand tributary
of the Jarama, which flows south into the Tagus. Pop. (1877),
397,816; (1887), 472,228; (1897), 512.150; (1900), 539,835-
Madrid was the largest city in Spain in 1900; it is the see
of an archbishop, the focus of the principal Spanish railways,
the headquarters of an army corps, the seat of a university, the
meeting-place of parliament, and the chief residence of the king,
the court, and the captain-general of New Castile. It is.
however, surpassed in ecclesiastical importance by Toledo and
in commerce by Barcelona.
Situation and Climate. Madrid is built on an elevated and undula-
ting plateau of sand and clay, which is bounded on the north by the
Sierra Guadarrama and merges on all other sides into the barren and
treeless table-land of New Castile. Numerous water-courses (arroyos),
dry except at rare intervals, furrow the surface of the plateau ; these
as they pass through the city have in certain cases been converted
into roads e.g. the Paseo de Recoletos and Prado, which are still
so liable to be flooded after prolonged rain that special channels have
been constructed to carry away the water. The highest point in
Madrid is 2372 ft. above sea-level. The city is close to the geo-
graphical centre of the peninsula, nearly equidistant from the Bay
of Biscay, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Owing to its high
altitude and open situation it is liable to sudden and frequent varia-
tions of climate, and the daily range of temperature sometimes
exceeds 50 F. In summer the heat is rendered doubly oppressive
by the fiery, dust-laden winds which sweep across the Castihan table-
land ; at this season a temperature of 109 has been registered in the
shade. In winter the northerly gales from the Sierra Guadarrama
bring intense cold ; snow falls frequently, and skating is carried on
in the Buen Retire park. A Spanish proverb describes the wind
of Madrid as so deadly and subtle that " it will kill a man when it
will not blow out a candle " ; but, though pulmonary diseases are not
uncommon, the climate appears to be exceptionally healthy. In
1901 the death-rate was 22-07 per 1000, or lower than that of any
other town on the Spanish mainland. The Sierra Guadarrama
renders the atmosphere unusually dry and clear by intercepting the
moisture of the north-western winds which prevail in summer;
hence the average daily number of deaths decreases from 80 in winter
to about 25 in summer. The sanitation of the older quarters is
defective, and overcrowding is common, partly owing to the royal
decrees which formerly prohibited the extension of the city; but
much has been done in modern times to remove or mitigate these
evils.
The Inner City. The form of Madrid proper (exclusive of the
modern suburbs) is almost that of a square with the corners
MADRID
293
rounded off ; from east to west it measures rather less than from
north to south. It was formerly surrounded by a poor wall,
partly of brick, partly of earth, some 20 ft. in height, and pierced
by five principal gates (puertas) and eleven doorways (portillos).
Of these only three, the Puerta de Alcala on the east, the Puerta
de Toledo on the south and the Portillo de San Vicente on the
west, actually exist; the first and the third were erected in the
time of Charles III. (1759-1788), and the second in honour of
the restoration of Ferdinand VII. (1827). The Manzanares or
rather its bed, for the stream is at most seasons of the year quite
insignificant is spanned by six bridges, the Puente de Toledo
and Puente de Segovia being the chief.
The Puerta del Sol is the centre of Madrid, the largest of its
many plazas, and the place of most traffic. It derived its name
from the former east gate of the city, which stood here until
1570, and had on its front a representation of the sun. On its
south side stands the Palacio de la Gobernacion, or ministry of
the interior, a heavy square building by a French architect,
J. Marquet, dating from 1768. From the Puerta del Sol diverge,
immediately or mediately, ten of the principal streets of Madrid
eastward by north, the Calle de Alcala, terminating beyond
the Buen Retiro park; eastward, the Carrera de San Jeronimo,
terminating by the Plaza de las Cortes in the Prado; southward,
the Calle de Carretas; westward, the Calle Mayor, which leads
to the council chamber and to the palace, and the Calle del
Arenal, terminating in the Plaza de Isabel II. and the royal
opera house; north-westward, the Calles de Preciados and Del
Carmen; and northward, the Calle de la Montera, which after-
wards divides into the Calle de Fuencarral to the left and the
Calle de Hortaleza to the right. The contract for another wide
street through central Mudrid, to be called the Gran Via, was
given to an English firm in 1905.
The Calle de Alcala is bordered on both sides with acacias, and
contains the Real Academia de Bellas Artes, founded in 1752 as an
academy of art and music; its collection of paintings by Spanish
masters includes some of the best-known works of Munllo. The
handsome Bank of Spain (i884-i89i)stands where the Calle de Alcala
meets the Prado; in the oval Plaza de Madrid, at the same point, is
a fine 18th-century fountain with a marble group representing the
goddess Cybele drawn in a chariot by two lions. The Calle de Alcala
is continued eastward past the Buen Retiro gardens and park, and
through the Plaza de Independencia, in the middle of which is the
Puerta de Alcala. The Plaza de las Corte's is so called from the
Congreso de los Diputados, or House of Commons, on its north side.
The square contains a bronze statue of Cervantes, by Antonio Sola,
erected in 1835. The Calle de Carretas, on the west side of which is
the General Post Office, ranks with the Carrera de San Jeronimo and
Calle de la Montera for the excellence of its shops. From the Calle
Mayor is entered the PlazaMayor.a rectangle of about 430 ft.by 330 ft.,
formerly the scene of tournaments, bull fights, autos de fe, acts of
canonization (including that of Ignatius Loyola in 1622) and similar
exhibitions, which used to be viewed by the royal family from the
balcony of one of the houses called the Panaderia (belonging to the
guild of bakers). The square, which was built under Philip III. in
1619, is surrounded by an arcade; the houses are uniform in height
and decoration. In the centre stands a bronze equestrian statue of
Philip III., designed by Giovanni da Bologna, after a painting by
Pantoja de la Cruz, and finished by Pietro Tacca. From the south-
east angle of the Plaza Mayor the Calle de Atocha.one of the principal
thoroughfares of Madrid, leads to the outskirts of the inner city; it
contains two large hospitals and part of the university buildings
(faculty of medicine). The house occupied by Cervantes from 1606
until his death in 1616 stands at the point where it meets the Calle
de L6on; in this street is the Real Academia de la Historia, with a
valuable library and collections of MSS. and plate. From the south-
west angle of the Plaza Mayor begins the Calle de Toledo, the chief
mart for the various woollen and silken fabrics from which the pictu-
resque costumes peculiar to the peninsula are made. In the Plaza de
Isabel II., at the western extremity of the Calle del Arenal, stands
the royal opera-house, the principal front of which faces the Plaza
del Onente and the royal palace. In the centre of the plaza is a fine
bronze equestrian statue of PhilipIV.(l62l-l665); it was designed by
Velazquez and cast by Tacca, while Galileo is said to have suggested
the means by which the balance is preserved. The gift of the grand
duke of Tuscany in 1640, it stood in the Buen Retiro gardens until
1844.
Modern Development of the City. The north and east of the
city the new suburbs have developed past the Retiro Park
as far as the Bull-ring, and have covered all the vast space
included between the Retiro, the Bull-ring, the long Castellana
Drive to the race-course and the exhibition building. On the
slopes of the other side of the Castellana, and along what were
the northern limits of Madrid in 1875, the modern suburbs have
extended to the vicinity of the fine cellular prison that was built
at the close of the reign of King Alphonso XII. to replace the
gloomy building known as El Saladero.
The new parts of the capital, with their broad streets and
squares, and their villas sometimes surrounded with gardens,
their boulevards lined by rather stunted trees, and their modern
public buildings, all resemble the similar features of other Euro-
pean capitals, and contrast with the old Madrid that has pre-
served so many of its traits in architecture, popular life and
habits. Some of the streets have been slightly widened, and in
many thoroughfares new houses are being built among the ugly,
irregular dwelling-places of the i8th and earlier centuries. This
contrast is to be seen especially in and about the Calle Mayor,
the Plaza Mayor, the Calle de Toledo, the Rastro, and the heart
of the city.
Few capitals have more extensively developed their electric and
horse tramways, gas and electric light installations and telephones.
Much was done to improve the sanitary conditions of the city in the
last twenty years of the igth century. The streets are deluged
three times a day with fire-hose, but even that has little effect upon
the dust. Unfortunately the water supply, which used to be famed
for its abundance and purity, became wholly insufficient owing to
the growth of the city. The old reservoir of the Lozoya canal, a
cutting 32 m. long, and the additional reservoir opened m 1883, are
quite inadequate for the requirements of modern Madrid, and were
formerly kept in such an unsatisfactory state that for several months
in 1898 and 1899 the water not only was on the point of giving out,
but at times was of such inferior quality that the people had recourse
to the many wells and fountains available. The construction of
new waterworks was delayed by a terrible accident, which occurred
on the 8th of April 1905; the whole structure collapsed, and nearly
400 persons lost their lives in the flooded ruins. A decided improve-
ment has been made in the burial customs of Madrid. No bodies
are allowed to be interred in the churches and convents. Some of
the older burial grounds in the northern suburbs have been closed
altogether, and in those which remain open few coffins are placed
in the niche vaults in the depth of the thick walls, as was once the
practice. A large modern necropolis has been established a few miles
to the north-east.
Principal Buildings. As compared with other capitals
Madrid has very few buildings of much architectural interest.
The Basilica de Nuestra Sefiora de Atocha, on the Paseo de
Atocha, a continuation of the Calle de Atocha, was originally
founded in 1523. After being almost destroyed by the French,
it was restored by Ferdinand VII., and rebuilt after 1896. The
modern church is Romanesque in style; it contains a much
venerated statue of the Virgin, attributed to St Luke. The
collegiate church of San Isidro el Real, in the Calle de Toledo,
dates from 1651; it has no architectural merit, but contains
one or two valuable pictures and other works of art. It
was originally owned by the Jesuits, but after their expulsion
in 1769 it was reconsecrated, and dedicated to St Isidore the
Labourer (d. 1170), the patron saint of Madrid, whose remains
were entombed here. When the diocese of Madrid was separated
from that of Toledo San Isidro was chosen as the cathedral.
The modern Gothic church of San Jeronimo el Real occupies a
conspicuous site eastward of the town. The church of San
Francisco el Grande, which contains many interesting monu-
ments, is also known as the National Pantheon. An act was
passed in 1837 declaring that the remains of all the most dis-
tinguished Spaniards should be buried here; but no attempt to
enforce the act systematically was made until 1869, and even
then the attempt failed. Towards the close of the I9th century
the church was splendidly restored at the expense of the state.
Its interior was decorated with paintings and statuary by most
of the leading Spanish artists of the time. Of secular buildings
unquestionably the most important is the royal palace (Palacio
Real), on the west side of the town, on rising ground overhanging
the Manzanares. It occupies the site of the ancient Moorish
alcazar (citadel), where a hunting seat was built by Henry IV.;
this was enlarged and improved by Charles V. when he first
made Madrid his residence in 1532; was further developed by
Phillip II., but ultimately was destroyed by fire in 1734. The
294
MADRID
present edifice was begun under Philip V. in 1737 by Sacchetti
of Turin, and was finished in 1 764. It is in the Tuscan style, and
is 470 ft. square and 100 ft. in height, the material being white
Colmenar granite, resembling marble. To the north of the palace
are the royal stables and coach-houses, remarkable for their
extent; to the south is the armoury (Museo de la Real Armeria),
containing what is possibly the best collection of the kind in
existence. After the Palacio Real may be .mentioned the
royal picture gallery (Real Museo de Pinturas), adjoining the
Salon del Prado; it was built about 1785 for Charles III. by Juan
de Villanueva as a museum of natural history and academy of
sciences. ' It contains the collections of Charles V., Philip II. and
Philip IV., and the pictures number upwards of two thousand.
The specimens of Titian, Raphael, Tintoretto, Velazquez, Van-
dyck, Rubens and Teniers give it a claim to be considered the
finest picture gallery in the world. The Biblioteca Nacional,
in the Paseo de Recoletos, was founded in 1866, and completed
in 1892. Not only the national library, with its important collec-
tions of MSS. and documents, but the archaeological museum,
the museums of modern painting and sculpture, and the fine
arts academy of San Fernando, are within its walls. The two
houses of the Cortes meet in separate buildings. The deputies
have a handsome building with a very valuable library in the
Carrera San Jeronimo; the senators have an old Augustinian
convent which contains some fine pictures. A large and hand-
some building near the Retiro Park contains the offices of the
ministers of public works, agriculture and commerce, and of fine
arts and education; nearly opposite stands the new station of
the Southern Railway Company. The Great Northern and the
Spain to Portugal Railway Companies have also replaced their
old stations by very spacious, handsome structures, much resem-
bling those of Paris. In 1896 the Royal Exchange was installed
in a large monumental building with a fine colonnade facing the
Dos de Mayo monument, not far from the museum of paintings.
Of the promenades and open places of public resort the most
fashionable and most frequented is the Prado (Paseo del Prado,
Salon del Prado) on the east side of the town, with its northward
continuation the Paseo de Recoletos. To the south of the town
is the Paseo de las Delicias, and on the west, below the royal
palace, and skirting the Manzanares, is the Paseo de la Virgen
del Puerto, used chiefly by the poorer classes. Eastward from
the Prado are the Buen Retiro Gardens, with ponds and
pavilions, and a menagerie. The gardens were formerly the
grounds surrounding a royal hunting seat, on the site of which
a palace was built for Philip IV. in 1633; it was destroyed
during the French occupation.
Education, Religion and Charity. Madrid University
developed gradually out of the college of Dona Maria de Aragon,
established in 1 590 by Alphonso Orozco. Schools of mathematics
and natural science were added in the i6th and i7th centuries,
and in 1786 the medical and surgical college of San Carlos was
opened. In 1836-1837 the university of Alcala de Henares (q.v.)
was transferred to the capital and the older foundations
incorporated with it. The university of Madrid thenceforth
became the headquarters of education in central Spain. It has
an observatory, and a library containing more than 2,000,000
printed books and about 5500 MSS. It gives instruction, chiefly
in law and medicine, but also in literature, philosophy, mathe-
matics and physics, to about 5000 students. Associated with
the university is the preparatory school of San Isidro, founded
by Philip IV. (1621-1665), and reorganized by Charles III. in
1770.
There are upwards of 100 official primary schools and a large
number of private ones, among which the schools conducted by the
Jesuits and the Scolapian fathers claim special mention. Madrid
also has schools of agriculture, architecture, civil and mining engi-
neering, the fine arts, veterinary science and music. The school of
military engineering is at Guadalajara. Besides these special
schools there are a self-supporting institute for preparing girls for
the higher degrees and for certificates as primary teachers, and an
institute for secondary education, conducted chiefly by ecclesiastics.
Among the educational institutions may be reckoned the botanical
garden, dating from 1781, the libraries of the palace, the university,
and San Isidro, and the museum of natural science, exceedingly rich
in the mineralogical department. The principal learned society is
the royal Spanish Academy, founded in 1713 for the cultivation and
improvement of the Spanish tongue. The Academy of History
possesses a good library, rich in MSS. and incunabula, as well as a
fine collection of coins and medals. In addition to the academies of
fine arts, the exact sciences, moral and political science, medicine
and surgery, and jurisprudence and legislation, all of which possess
''braries, there are also anthropological, economic and geographical
societies, and a scientific and literary athenaeum. Madrid has a
British cemetery opened in 1853, when the older Protestant cemetery
in the Paseo de Recoletos was closed. The town also contains a
British embassy chapel, a German chapel, and several Spanish
Protestant chapels, attended by over 1200 native Protestants, while
the Protestant schools, chiefly supported by British, German and
American contributions, are attended by more than 2500 children.
The first Protestant bishop of Madrid was consecrated in 1895 by
Archbishop Plunkett of Dublin. The charitable institutions were
greatly improved between 1885 and 1905. The Princess Hospital
was completely restored on modern methods, and can accommodate
several hundred patients. The old contagious diseases hospital
of San Juan de Dios was pulled down and a fine new hospital built
in the suburbs beyond the Retiro Park, to hold 700 patients. The
military hospital was demolished and a very good one built in the
suburbs. There are in all twenty hospitals in Madrid, and a lunatic
asylum on the outskirts of the capital, founded by one of the most
eminent of Spanish surgeons, and admirably conducted. New
buildings have been provided for the orphanages, and for the asylums
for the blind, deaf and dumb, incurables and aged paupers. There
are hospitals supported by the French, Italian and Belgian colonies;
these are old and well-endowed foundations. Public charity gener-
ally is very active. _ In Madrid, as in the rest of Spain, there has been
an unprecedented increase in convents, monasteries and religious
institutions, societies and Roman Catholic workmen's clubs and
classes.
Apart from private institutions for such purposes, the state
maintains in the capital a savings bank for the poorer classes, and
acts as pawnbroker for their benefit. The mercantile and industrial
classes are organized in gilds, which themselves collect the lump sum
of taxation exacted by the exchequer and 'the municipality from each
gremio or class of taxpayers. The working classes also have com-
mercial and industrial circulos or clubs that are obeyed by the gilds
with great esprit de corps, a chamber of commerce and industries,
and " associations of productions " for the defence of economic
interests.
Industries. The industries of the capital have developed
extraordinarily since 1890. In the town, and within the muni-
cipal boundaries in the suburbs, many manufactories have been
established, giving employment to more than 30,000 hands, ,
besides the 4000 women and girls of the Tobacco Monopoly
Company's factory. Among the most important factories are
those which make every article in leather, especially cigar and
card cases, purses and pocket-books. Next come the manu-
factures of fans, umbrellas, sunshades, chemicals, varnishes,
buttons, wax candles, beds, cardboard, porcelain, coarse pottery,
matches, baskets, sweets and preserves, gloves, guitars, biscuits,
furniture, carpets, corks, cards, carriages, jewelry, drinks of
all kinds, plate and plated goods. There are also tanneries,
saw and flour mills, glass and porcelain works, soap works,
brickfields, paper mills, zinc, bronze, copper and iron foundries.
The working classes are strongly imbued with socialistic ideas.
Strikes and May Day demonstrations have often been trouble-
some. Order is kept by a garrison of 12,500 men in the barracks
of the town and cantonments around, and by a strong force of
civil guards or gendarmes quartered in the town itself. The
civil and municipal authorities can employ beside the gendarmes
the police, about 1400 strong, and what is called the guardias
urbanos, another police force whose special duty it is to regulate
the street traffic and prevent breaches of the municipal regula-
tions. There is not, on the average, more crime in Madrid than
in the provinces.
History. Spanish archaeologists have frequently claimed for
Madrid a very high antiquity, but the earliest authentic historical
mention of the town (Majrit, Majoritum) occurs in the Arab
chronicle, and does not take us farther back than to the first
half of the loth century. The place was finally taken from the
Moors by Alphonso VI. (1083), and was made a hunting-seat by
Henry IV., but first rose into importance when Charles V.,
benefiting by its keen air, made it his occasional residence.
Philip II. created it his capital and " only court " (Anica corte)
in 1560. It is, however, only classed as a town (villa), having
MADRIGAL MADURA
295
never received the title of city (ciitdad). Fruitless attempts
were made by Philip III. and Charles III. respectively to transfer
the seat of government to Valladolid and to Seville. (See also
SPAIN: History).
See J Amador de los Rios, Historia de la villa y corte de Madrid
(Madrid 1 861-1864); ValverdeyAlvarez,J!^Ca,frt7a/deEjaSa(Madrid,
1881) E Sepulveda, La Vida en Madrid en 1886 (Madrid, 1887) ; H.
Penasco Las Calles de Madrid (Madrid, 1889); C. Perez Pastor,
BMiogmfia madrileha, sigh XVI. (Madrid, 1891); F. X. de Palacio v
Garcia, count of las Almenas, La Municipalidad de Madrid (Madrid,
1896)- E. Sepulveda, El Madrid de los recuerdos: coleccion de
articu'los (Madrid, 1897); P. Mauser, Madrid bajo el punlo de vista
mtdtco-social (Madrid, 1902) ; L. Williams, Toledo and Madrid, their
Records and Romances (London, 1903).
MADRIGAL (Ital. madrigale), the name of a form of verse,
the exact nature of which has never been decided in English,
and of a form of vocal music.
(i) In Verse. The definition given in the New English
Dictionary, " a short lyrical poem of amatory character,"
offers no distinctive formula; some madrigals are long, and many
have nothing whatever to do with love. The most important
English collection of madrigals, not set to music, was published
by William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585-1649) in his
Poems of 1616. Perhaps the best way of ascertaining what was
looked upon in the i?th century as a madrigal is to quote
one of Drummond's:
The beauty and the life
Of life's and beauty's fairest paragon,
O tears! O grief! hung at a feeble thread,
To which pale Atropos had set her knife ;
The soul with many a groan
Had left each outward part,
And now did take his last leave of the heart ;
Nought else did want, save death, even to be dead;
When the afflicted band about her bed,
Seeing so fair him come in lips, cheeks, eyes,
Cried ah ! and can death enter Paradise?
This may be taken as a type of Drummond's madrigals, of which
he has left us about eighty. They are serious, brief, irregular
lyrics, in which neither the amatory nor the complimentary tone
is by any means obligatory. Some of these pieces contain as
few as six lines, one as many as fourteen, but they average from
nine to eleven. In the majority of examples the little poem
opens with a line of six syllables, and no line extends beyond
ten syllables. The madrigal appears to be a short canzone of
the Tuscan type, but less rigidly constructed. In French the
madrigal has not this Italian character. It is simply a short
piece of verse, ingenious in its turn and of a gallant tendency.
The idea of compliment is essential. J. F. Guichard ( 1 730-1 8 1 1 )
writes:
Orgon, po&te marital,
A Venus compare sa femme;
C'est pour la belle un madrigal,
C'est pour Venus une 6pigramme.
This quatrain emphasizes the fact that in French a madrigal
is a trifling piece of erotic compliment, neatly turned but not
seriously meant. The credit of inventing the old French verse-
form of madrigal belongs to Clement Marot, and one of his may
be quoted in contrast to that of Drummond:
Un doux nenni avec un doux sourire
Est tant honneste, il le vous faut apprendre;
Quant est de oui, si veniez a le dire,
D'avoir trop dit je voudrois vous reprendre;
Non que je sois ennuy6 d'entreprendre
D'avoir le fruit dont le d6sir me point ;
Mais je voudrois qu'en ne le laissant prendre,
Vous me disiez : vous ne 1'aurez point.
In English, when the word first occurred it has not been
traced farther back than 1588 (in the preface to Nicholas
Yonge's Musica transalpine) it was identified with the chief
form of secular vocal music in the i6th century. In 1741 John
Immyns (d. 1764) founded the Madrigal Society, which met in
an ale-house in Bride Lane, Fleet Street; this association still
exists, and is the oldest musical society in Europe.
The word " madrigal " is frequently also used to designate
a sentimental or trifling expression in a half-contemptuous
sense. (E. G.)
(2) In Music. As a definite musical art-form, the madrigal
was known in the Netherlands by the middle of the isth century;
ike the motet, it obviously originated in the treatment of counter-
joint on a canto fermo, some early examples even combining
an ecclesiastical canto fermo in the tenor with secular counter-
3oint in the other parts. Thus Josquin's Deploration de Jehan
Okenheim (see Music) might equally well be called a madrigal
or motet, if the word " madrigal " were used for compositions
to French texts at all. But by the middle of the 1 6th century
the Italian supremacy in music had developed the madrigal into
the greatest of secular musical forms, and made it independent
of the form of the words; and thus when Lasso sets Marot's
madrigals to appropriately witty and tuneful music he calls
the result a " chanson "; while when Palestrina composes
Petrarca's Sonnets to the Virgin in memory of Laura, the result
appears as a volume of Madrigali spirituali. Elegiac madrigals,
whether spiritual or secular, were thus as common as any other
kind; so that when the Musica transalpine, brought the word
madrigal " to England it brought a precedent for the poet
Drummond's melancholy type of madrigal poetry.
Italian madrigals, however, are by no means always elegiac;
but the term always means a highly organized and flowing
polyphonic piece, often as developed as the motet, though, in
the mature classical period, distinct in style. Yet masses were
often founded on the themes of madrigals, just as they were
on the themes of motets (see MASS; MOTET) ; and it is interesting,
in such beautiful cases as Palestrina's Missa gia fu chi m'ebbe
cara, to detect the slight strain the mildly scandalous origin of
the themes puts upon the ecclesiastical style.
The breaking strain was put on the madrigal style at the end
of the i6th century, in one way by the new discords of Monte-
verde and (with more musical invention) Schiitz; and in another
way by the brilliant musical character-drawing of Vecchi, whose
Amfiparnasso is a veritable comic opera in the form of a set of
fourteen madrigals, all riotously witty in the purest and most
masterly polyphonic style. It was probably meant, or at least
made use of, to laugh down the earliest pioneers of opera (q.v.) ;
but it is the beginning of the end for the madrigal as a living
art. Long afterwards we occasionally meet with the word
again, when a I7th or i8th century composer sets to some kind
of accompanied singing a poem of madrigalesque character.
But this does not indicate any continuation of the true musical
history of the madrigal. The strict meaning of the word in its
musical sense is, then, a musical setting of an Italian or English
non-ecclesiastical poem (typically a canzone) for unaccompanied
chorus, in a 16th-century style less ecclesiastical than the motet,
but as like it in organization as the form and sentiment of the
words admit. The greatest classics in the madrigal style are
those of Italy; and but little, if at all, below them come the
English. The form, though not the name, of course, exists in
the 16th-century music of other languages whenever the poetry
is not too light for it.
It is important but easy to distinguish the madrigal from the
lighter 16th-century forms, such as the Italian villanella and the
English ballet, these being very homophonic and distinguished
by the strong lilt of their rhythm.
The madrigal has been very successfully revived in modern
English music with a more or less strict adherence to the i6th
century principles; the compositions of De Pearsall being of high
artistic merit, while the Madrigale spirituale in Stanford's
oratorio Eden is a movement of rare beauty. (D. F. T.)
MADURA (Dutch Madoera), an island of the Dutch East
Indies, separated by the shallow Strait of Madura from the N.E.
coast of Java. Pop. (1897), 1,652,580, of whom 1,646,071 were
natives, 4252 Chinese and 558 Europeans. It extends from
about 112 32' to 114 7' E., and is divided into two nearly
equal portions by the parallel of 7 S.; the area is estimated at
1725 sq. m. It is a plateau-like prolongation of the limestone
range of northern Java, with hills (1300 to 1600 ft. high) and
dales. The formation of the coast and plains is Tertiary and
recent alluvium. Hot springs are not infrequent; and in the
valley between Gunong Geger and Banjar lies the mud volcano of
296
MADURA MAECENAS
Banju Ening. The coasts are clothed with tropical vegetation;
but the soil is better fitted for pastoral than agricultural purposes.
Fishing and cattle-rearing are the chief means of subsistence.
Besides rice and maize, Madura yields coco-nut oil and jati.
The manufacture of salt for the government, abolished in other
places, continues in Madura. Hence perhaps the name is derived
(Sansk. mandura, salt). Petroleum is found in small quantities.
The principal town is Sumenep; and there are populous Malay,
Arab and Chinese villages between the town and the European
settlement of Maringan. On a hill in the neighbourhood lies
Asia, the burial-place of the Sumenep princes. Pamekasan is
the seat of government. Bangkalang is a large town with the
old palace of the sultan of Madura and the residences of the
princes of the blood; the mosque is adorned with the first three
suras of the Koran, thus differing from nearly all the mosques
in Java and Madura, though resembling those of western Islam.
In the vicinity once stood the Erfprins fort. Arisbaya (less
correctly Arosbaya) is the place where the first mosque was built
in Madura, and where the Dutch sailors first made acquaintance
with the natives. The once excellent harbour is now silted up.
Sampang is the seat of an important market. The Kangean and
Sapudi islands, belonging to Madura, yield timber, trepang,
turtle, pisang and other products.
Madura formerly consisted of three native states Madura
or Bangkalang, Pamekasan and Sumenep. The whole island
was considered part of the Java residency of Surabaya. The
separate residency of Madura was constituted in 1857; it now
consists of four" departments " Pamekasan, Madura, Sumenep
and Sampang.
See P. J. Veth, Java, vol. iii. ; Kielstra, " Het Eiland Madoera,"
in De Gids (1890); H. van Lennep, " De Madoereezen," in De
Indische Gids (1895), with detailed bibliography.
MADURA, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
Presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river
Vaigai, and has a station on the South Indian railway 345 m.
S.E. of Madras. Pop. (1901), 105,984. The city was the capital
of the old Pandyan dynasty, which ruled over this part of India
from the sth century B.C. to the end of the nth century A.D.
Its great temple forms a parallelogram about 847 ft. by 729 ft.,
and is surrounded by nine gopuras, of which the largest is
152 ft. high. These ornamental pyramids begin with door-
posts of single stones 60 ft. in height, and rise course upon
course, carved with rows of gods and goddesses, peacocks, bulls,
elephants, horses, lions, and a bewildering entanglement of sym-
bolical ornament all coloured and gilded, diminishing with dis-
tance until the stone trisul at the top looks like the finest
jeweller's work. The temple, which contains some of the finest
carving in southern India, is said to have been built in the reign
of Viswanath, first ruler of the Nayak dynasty. Its chief feature
is the sculptured " Hall of a Thousand Pillars." The palace of
Tirumala Nayak is the most perfect relic of secular architecture
in Madras. This palace, which covers a large area of ground,
has been restored, and is utilized for public offices. The Vasanta,
a hall 333 ft! long, probably dedicated to the god Sundareswara,
and the Tamakam, a pleasure-palace, now the residence of the
collector, are the other principal buildings of this period.
The last of the old Pandyan kings is said to have extermi-
nated the Jains and conquered the neighbouring kingdom of
Chola; but he was in his turn overthrown by an invader from the
north, conjectured to have been a Mahommedan. In 1324 a
Moslem army under Malik Kafur occupied Madura, and the
Hindus were held in subjection for a period of fifty years. Sub-
sequently Madura became a province of the Hindu Empire of
Vijayanagar. In the middle of the i6th century the governor
Viswanath established the Nayak dynasty, which lasted for a
century. The greatest of the line was Tirumala Nayak (reigned
1623-1659), whose military exploits are recorded in the contem-
porary letters of the Jesuit missionaries. He adorned Madura
with many public buildings, and extended his empire over the
adjoining districts of Tinnevelly, Travancore, Coimbatore,
Salem and Trichinopoly. His repudiation of the nominal
allegiance paid to the raja of Vijayanagar brought him into
collision with the sultan of Bijapur, and after a lapse of three
centuries Mahommedans again invaded Madura and compelled
him to pay them tribute. After the death of Tirumala the king-
dom of Madura gradually fell to pieces, being invaded by both
Mahommedans and Mahrattas. About 1736 the district fell
into the hands of the nawab of the Carnatic, and the line of
the Nayaks was extinguished. About 1764 British officers took
charge of Madura in trust for Mahommed Ali (Wallah Jah), the
last independent nawab of the Carnatic, whose son finally ceded
his rights of sovereignty to the East India Company in 1801.
The DISTRICT of MADURA has an area of 8701 sq. m. Pop.
(1901), 2,831,280, an increase of 8-5% in the decade. It con-
sists of a section of the plain stretching from the mountains east
to the sea, coinciding with the basin of the Vaigai river, and grad-
ually sloping to the S.E. The plain is broken by the outlying
spurs of the Ghats, and by a few isolated hills and masses of
rock scattered over the country. The most important spur of
the Ghats is known as the Palni hills, which project E.N.E.
across the district for a distance of about 54 m. Their highest
peaks are more than 8000 ft. above sea-level, and they enclose
a plateau of about 100 sq. m., with an average height of 7000 ft.
On this plateau is situated the sanatorium of Kodaikanal, and
coffee-planting is successfully carried on. The other principal
crops of the district are millets, rice, other food-grains, oil-seeds
and cotton. Tobacco is grown chiefly in the neighbourhood of
Dindigul, whence it is exported to Trichinopoly, to be made into
cigars. There are several cigar factories and a number of salt-
petre refineries. The only other large industry is that of coffee-
cleaning. Madura is traversed by the main line of the South
Indian railway. It has four small seaports, whose trade is
chiefly carried on with Ceylon. The most important irrigation
work, known as the Periyar project, consists of a tunnel thro'ugh
the Travancore hills, to convey the rainfall across the watershed.
See Madura District Gazetteer (Madras, 1906).
MADVIG, JOHAN NICOLAI (1804-1886), Danish philologist,
was born on the island of Bornholm, on the 7th of August 1804.
He was educated at the classical school of Frederiksborg and the
university of Copenhagen. In 1828 he became reader, and in
1829 professor, of Latin language and literature at Copenhagen,
and in 1832 was appointed university librarian. In 1848
Madvig entered parliament as a member of what was called the
" Eider-Danish " party, because they desired the Eider to be the
boundary of the country. When this party came into power
Madvig became minister of education. In 1852 be became direc-
tor of public instruction. Some years later, from 1856 to 1863,
Madvig was president of the Danish parliament and leader of
the National Liberal party. With these brief interruptions the
greater part of his life was devoted to the study and teaching
of Latin and the improvement of the classical schools, of which
he was chief inspector. As a critic he was distinguished for learn-
ing and acumen. He devoted much attention to Cicero, and
revolutionized the study of his philosophical writings by an
edition of De Finibus (1839; 3rd ed., 1876). Perhaps his most
widely known works are those on Latin grammar and Greek
syntax, especially his Latin grammar for schools (Eng. trans,
by G. Woods). In 1874 his sight began to fail, and he was
forced to give up much of his work. He still, however, con-
tinued to lecture, and in 1879 he was chosen rector for
the sixth time. In 1880 he resigned his professorship, but
went on with his work on the Roman constitution, which was
completed and published before his death. In this book Madvig
takes a strongly conservative standpoint and attacks Mommsen's
views on Caesar's programme of reforms. It is a clear ex-
position, though rather too dogmatic and without sufficient
regard for the views of other scholars. His last work was his
autobiography, Livserindringer (published 1887). Madvig died
at Copenhagen on the i2th of .December 1886.
See J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1908), iii.,
3I9-324-
MAECENAS, GAIUS (CiLNius), Roman patron of letters,
was probably born between 74 and 64 B.C., perhaps at Arretium.
Expressions in Propertius (ii. i, 25-30) seem to imply that he
MAECIANUS MAELDUIN, VOYAGE OF
297
had taken some part in the campaigns of Mutina, Philippi
and Perusia. He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan
lineage, and claimed descent from the princely house of the
Cilnii, who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their
preponderating wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th
century B.C. (Livy x. 3). The Gaius Maecenas mentioned
in Cicero (Pro Cluentio, 56) as an influential member of the
equestrian order in 91 B.C. may have been his grandfather,
or even his father. The testimony of Horace (Odes iii. 8, 5)
and Maecenas's own literary tastes imply that he nad profited
by the highest education of his time. His great wealth may
have been in part hereditary, but he owed his position and
influence to his close connexion with the emperor Augustus. He
first appears in history in 40 B.C., when he was employed by
Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and after-
wards in assisting to negotiate the peace of Brundusium and
the reconciliation with Antony. It was in 39 B.C. that Horace
was introduced to Maecenas, who had before this received Varius
and Virgil into his intimacy. In the " Journey to Brundusium,"
(Horace, Satires, i. 5) in 37, Maecenas and Cocceius Nerva are
described as having been sent on an important mission, and they
were successful in patching up, by the Treaty of Tarentum, a
reconciliation between the two claimants for supreme power.
During the Sicilian war against Sextus Pompeius in 36, Maecenas
was sent back to Rome, and was entrusted with supreme
administrative control in the city and in Italy. He was vice-
gerent of Octavian during the campaign of Actium, when, with
great promptness and secrecy, he crushed the conspiracy of
the younger Lepidus; and during the subsequent absences of
his chief in the provinces he again held the same position.
During the latter years of his life he fell somewhat out of favour
with his master. Suetonius (Augustus, 66) attributes the loss
of the imperial favour to Maecenas having indiscreetly revealed
to Terentia, his wife, the discovery of the conspiracy in which
her brother Murena was implicated. But according to Dio
Cassius (liv. 19) it was due to the emperor's relations with
Terentia. Maecenas died in 8 B.C., leaving the emperor heir to
his wealth.
Opinions were much divided in ancient times as to the
personal character of Maecenas; but the testimony as to his
administrative and diplomatic ability was unanimous. He
enjoyed the credit of sharing largely in the establishment of
the new order of things, of reconciling parties, and of carrying
the new empire safely through many dangers. To his influence
especially was attributed the humaner policy of Octavian after
his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus. The best summary
of his character as a man and a statesman is that of Velleius
Paterculus (ii. 88), who describes him as " of sleepless vigilance
in critical emergencies, far-seeing and knowing how io act, but
in his relaxation from business more luxurious and effeminate
than a woman."
Expressions in the Odes of Horace (ii. 17. i) seem to imply that
Maecenas was deficient in the robustness of fibre characteristic of
the average Roman. His character as a munificent patron of
literature which has made his name a household word is
gratefully acknowledged by the recipients of it and attested
by the regrets of the men of letters of a later age, expressed
by Martial and Juvenal. His patronage was exercised, not
from vanity or a mere dilettante love of letters, but with a view to
the higher interest of the state. He recognized in the genius
of the poets of that time, not only the truest ornament of the
court, but a power of reconciling men's minds to the new order
of things, and of investing the actual state of affairs with an
ideal glory and majesty. The change in seriousness of purpose
between the Eclogues and the Georgics of Virgil was in a great
measure the result of the direction given by the statesman
to the poet's genius. A similar change between the earlier
odes of Horace, in which he declares his epicurean indifference
to affairs of state, and the great national odes of the third book
is to be ascribed to the same guidance. Maecenas endeavoured
also to divert the less masculine genius of Propertius from
harping continually on his love to themes of public interest. But
if the motive of his patronage had been merely politic it never
could have inspired the affection which it did in its recipients.
The great charm of Maecenas in his relation to the men of genius
who formed his circle was his simplicity, cordiality and sincerity.
Although not particular in the choice of some of the associates
of his pleasures, he admitted none but men of worth to his
intimacy, and when once admitted they were treated like
equals. Much of the wisdom of Maecenas probably lives in the
Satires and Epistles of Horace. It has fallen to the lot of no
other patron of literature to have his name associated with
works of such lasting interest as the Georgics of Virgil, the first
three books of Horace's Odes, and the first book of his Epistles.
Maecenas himself wrote in both prose and verse. The few
fragments that remain show that he was less successful as an
author than as a judge and patron of literature. His prose works
on various subjects Prometheus, Symposium (a banquet at
which Virgil, Horace and Messalla were present), Decultusuo
(on his manner of life) were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca
and Quintilian for their strange style, the use of rare words and
awkward transpositions. According to Dio Cassius, Maecenas
was the inventor of a system of shorthand.
There is no good modern biography of Maecenas. The best known
is that by P. S. Frandsen (1843). See " Horace et Mecene " by J.
Girard, in La Revue politique et litteraire (Dec. 27, 1873); V.
Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit, i. 762 seq.; ii. 432 seq. The
chief ancient authorities for his life are Horace (Odes with Scholia),
Dio Cassius, Tacitus (Annals), Suetonius (Augustus). The frag-
ments have been collected and edited by F. Harder (1889).
MAECIANUS, LUCIUS VOLUSIUS (znd cent.) Roman jurist,
was the tutor in law of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. When
governor of Alexandria he was slain by the soldiers, as having
participated in the rebellion of Avidius Cassius (175). Maecianus
was the author of works on trusts (Fideicommissd) , on the
Judicia publica, and of a collection of the Rhodian laws relating
to maritime affairs. His treatise on numerical divisions, weights
and measures (Distributio) is extant, with the exception of the
concluding portion.
See Capitolinus, Antoninus, 3; Vulcacius Gallicanus, Avidius
Cassius, i ; edition of the metrological work by F. Hultsch in Metrolo-
gicorum scriptorum reliquiae, ii.(i866) ;Mommsen \nAbhandlungen der
sdchsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, iii. (1853).
MAELDUIN (or MAELDUNE), VOYAGE OF (Imram Maeleduin),
an early Irish romance. The text exists in an nth-century
redaction, by a certain Aed the Fair, described as the " chief
sage of Ireland," but it may be gathered from internal evidence
that the tale itself dates back to the 8th century. It belongs
to the group of Irish romance, the Navigations (Imrama), the
common type of which was probably imitated from the classical
tales of the wanderings of Jason, of Ulysses and of Aeneas.
Maelduin, the foster-son of an Irish queen, learnt on reaching
manhood that he was the son of a nun, and that his father,
Ailill of the edge of battle, had been slain by a marauder from
Leix. He set sail to seek his father's murderer, taking with
him, in accordance with the instructions of a sorcerer, seventeen
men. His three foster-brothers swam after him, and were taken
on board. This increase of the fateful number caused Maelduin's
vengeance to be deferred for three years and seven months,
until the last of the intruders had perished. The travellers
visited many strange islands, and met with a long series of
adventures, some of which are familiar from other sources.
The Voyage of St Brendan (q.v.) has very close similarities
with the Maelduin, of which it is possibly a clerical imitation,
with the important addition of the whale-island episode,. which
it has in common with " Sindbad the Sailor."
Intrant Curaig Mailduin is preserved, in each case imperfectly,
in the Lebor na h Uidre, a MS. in the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin;
and in the Yellow Book of Lecan, MS. H. 216 in the Trinity College
Library, Dublin ; fragments are in Harleian MS. 5280 and Egerton
MS. 1782 in the British Museum. There are translations by Patrick
Joyce, Old Celtic Romances (1879), by Whitley Stokes (a more
critical version, printed together with the text) in Revue celtique,
vols. ix. and x. (1888-1889). See H. Zimmer, " Brendan's Meer-
fahrt " in Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum, vol. xxxiii. (1889).
Tennyson's Voyage of Maeldune, suggested by the Irish romance,
borrows little more than its framework.
MAELIUS MAETERLINCK
HAELIUS, SPURIUS (d. 4393.0.), a wealthy Roman plebeian,
who during a severe famine bought up a large amount of corn
and sold it at a low price to the people. Lucius (or Gaius)
Minucius, the patrician praefectus annonae (president of the
market), thereupon accused him of courting popularity with a
view to making himself king. The cry was taken up. Maelius,
summoned before the aged Cincinnatus (specially appointed
dictator), refused to appear, and was slain by Gaius Servilius
Ahala; his house was razed to the ground, his corn distributed
amongst the people, and his property confiscated. The open
space called Aequimaelium, on which his house had stood,
preserved the memory of his death. Cicero calls Ahala's deed
a glorious one, but, whether Maelius entertained any ambitious
projects or not, his summary execution was an act of murder,
since by the Valerio-Horatian laws the dictator was bound
to allow the right of appeal.
See Niebuhr's History of Rome, ii. 418 (Eng. trans., 1851) ; G. Corne-
wall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ii. ; Livy, iv. 13;
Cicero, De senectute 16, De amicitia 8, De republica, ii. 27; Florus,
i. 26; Dion. Halic. xii. I.
MAELSTROM (whirlpool), a term originally applied to a strong
current running past the south end of the island of Moskenaes,
a member of the group of Lofoten Islands on the west coast of
Norway. It is known also as the Moskenstrom. Though
dangerous in certain states of wind and tide, the tales of ships
being swallowed in this whirlpool are fables. The word is
probably of Dutch origin, from malen, to grind or whirl, and
strom or stroom, a stream or current. It appears on Mercator's
Atlas of 1595.
MAENADS (Gr. Maivaots, frenzied women), the female
attendants of Dionysus. They are known by other names
Bacchae, Thyiades, Clodones and Mimallones (the last two
probably of Thracian origin) all more or less synonymous.
See the exhaustive articles by A. Legrand in Daremberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquit&s and A. Rapp in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; also editions of Euripides, Bacchae (e.g.
J. E. Sandys).
MAENIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general. Having
completed (when consul in 338 B.C.) the subjugation of Latium,
which with Campania had revolted against Rome, he was
honoured by a triumph, and a column was erected to him in
the Forum. When censor in 318, in order that the spectators
might have more room for seeing the games that were
celebrated in the Forum, he provided the buildings in the
neighbourhood with balconies, which were called after him
maeniana.
See Festus, s.v. Maeniana; Livy viii. 13, ix. 34; Pliny, Nat. Hist.
xxxiv. ii (5).
MAERLANT, JACOB VAN (c. 1235-0. 1300), Flemish poet,
was born in the Franc de Burges (tradition says at Damme)
between 1230 and 1240. He was sacristan of Maerlant, in the
island of Ost-Voorne, and afterwards clerk to the magistrates at
Damme. His early works are translations of French romances.
Maerlant's most serious work in the field of romance was his
Ystorien van Troyen (c. 1264), a poem of some forty thousand
lines, translated and amplified from the Roman de Troie of
Benoit de Sainte-More. From this time Maerlant rejected
romance as idle, and devoted himself to writing scientific and
historical works for the education and enlightenment of the
Flemish people. His Heimelicheit der H eimelicheden (c. 1266)
is a translation of the Secreta secreiorwn, a manual for the
education of princes, ascribed throughout the middle ages to
Aristotle. Van der Naturen Bloeme is a free translation of
De nalura rerum, a natural history in twenty books by a native
of Brabant, Thomas de Cantimpre; and his Rijmbijbel is taken,
with many omissions and additions, from the Historia scholastica
of Petrus Comestor. He supplemented this metrical paraphrase
of Scripture history by Die Wrake van Jherusalem (1271) from
Josephus. Although Maerlant was an orthodox Catholic, he is
said to have been called to account by the priests for translating
the Bible into the vulgar tongue. In 1284 he began his magnum
opus, the Spiegel historiael, a history of the world, derived
chiefly from the third part of the Speculum majus of Vincent de
Beauvais. This work was completed by two other writers,
Philipp Utenbroeke and Lodowijk van Velthem. Maerlant
died in the closing years of the i3th century, his last poem, Van
den lande van oversee, dating from 1 291. The greater part of his
work consists of translations, but he also produced poems which
prove him to have had real original poetic faculty. Among
these are Die Clausule van der Bible, Der Kerken Clage, imitated
from the Complaintes of Rutebeuf, and the three dialogues
entitled Martijn, in which the fundamental questions of theology
and ethics were discussed. In spite of his orthodoxy, Maerlant
was a keen satirist of the corruptions of the clergy. He was
one of the most learned men of his age, and for two centuries
was the most celebrated of Flemish poets.
See monographs by J. van Beers (Ghent, 1860); C. A. Serrure
(Ghent, 1861); K. Versnaeyen (Ghent, 1861); J. te Winkel (Leiden,
1877, 2nd ed., Ghent, 1892); and editions of Torec (Leiden, 1875)
by J. te Winkel; of Naturen Bloeme, by Eelco Verwijs; of Alexanders
Geesten (Groningen, 1 882), by J.Franck; Merlijn (Leiden, 1880-1882),
by J. van Bloten; Heimelicheit der Heimelicheden (Dordrecht, 1838),
by Clarisse; Der Naturen Bloeme (Groningen, 1878), by Verwijs; of
Rijmbijbel (Brussels, 1858-1869), by David ; Spiegel historiael (Leiden
1857-1863), by Verwijs and de Vries; selections from the Ystorien
van Troyen (1873), by J. Verdam.
MAES, NICOLAS (1632-1693), Dutch painter, was born at
Dordrecht, and went about 1650 to Amsterdam, where he entered
Rembrandt's studio. Before his return to Dordrecht in 1654
Maes painted a few Rembrandtesque genre pictures, with
life-size figures and in a deep glowing scheme of colour, like
the " Reverie " at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, the " Card
Players " at the National Gallery, and the " Children with a
Goat Carriage," belonging to Baroness N. de Rothschild. So
closely did his early style resemble that of Rembrandt, that
the last-named picture, and other canvases in the Leipzig and
Budapest galleries and in the collection of Lord Radnor, were
or are still ascribed to Rembrandt. In his best period, from 1655
to 1665, Maes devoted himself to domestic genre on a smaller
scale, retaining to a great extent the magic of colour he had
learnt from Rembrandt. Only on rare occasions did he treat
scriptural subjects, as in the earl of Denbigh's " Hagar's
Departure," which has been ascribed to Rembrandt. His
favourite subjects were women spinning, or reading the Bible, or
preparing a meal. In 1665 he went to Antwerp, where he
remained till 1678, in which year he probably returned to
Amsterdam. His Antwerp period coincides with a complete
change in style and subject. He devoted himself almost
exclusively to portraiture, and abandoned the intimacy and
glowing colour harmonies of his earlier work for a careless
elegance which suggests the influence of Van Dyck. So great
indeed was the change, that it gave rise to the theory of the
existence of another Maes, of Brussels. Maes is well represented
at the National Gallery by five paintings: " The Cradle," " The
Dutch Housewife," " The Idle Servant," " The Card Players,"
and a man's portrait. At Amsterdam, besides the splendid
examples to be found at the Ryks Museum, is the " Inquisitive
Servant " of the Six collection. At Buckingham Palace is
" The Listening Girl " (repetitions exist), and at Apsley House
" Selling Milk " and " The Listener." Other notable examples
are at the Berlin, Brussels, St Petersburg, the Hague, Frankfort,
Hanover and Munich galleries.
MAESTRO, a north-westerly wind observed in the Adriatic
and surrounding regions, chiefly during summer. The maestro
is a " fine weather " wind, and is the counterpart of the
sirocco.
MAETERLINCK, MAURICE (1862- ), Belgian-French
dramatist and poet, of Flemish extraction, was born at' Ghent
on the 29th of August 1862. He was educated at the College
Sainte-Barbe, and then at the university of his native city,
where, at the age of twenty-four, he was enrolled as a barrister.
In 1887 he settled in Paris, where he immediately became
acquainted with Villiers de ITsle-Adam and the leaders of the
symbolist school of French poetry. At the death of his
father, Maeterlinck returned to Belgium, where he thenceforth
mainly resided: in the winter at Ghent, in the summer on an
MAFEKING MAFIA
299
estate at Oostacker. He had by this time determined to devote
his whole life to poetry, a dedication which his fortune permitted.
His career as an author began in 1889, when he published a
volume of verse, Serres chaudes, and a play, La Princesse Maleine,
the latter originally composed in metre, but afterwards carefully
rewritten in prose, the vehicle which the author continued to
use for his dramatic work. Maeterlinck was at this time totally
unknown, but he became famous through an article by Octave
Mirbeau, prominently published in the Paris Figaro, entitled
" A Belgian Shakespeare." The enthusiasm of this review
and the excellence of the passages quoted combined to make
Maeterlinck the talk of the town. Maeterlinck, among his Belgian
roses, continued to work with extreme deliberation. In 1890
he published, in Brussels, two more plays, L'Intruse and Les
Aveugles; followed in 1891 by Les Sept princesses. His strong
leaning to mysticism was now explained, or denned, by a trans-
lation of the Flemish medieval visionary, the Admirable
Ruysbroeck, which Maeterlinck brought out in 1891. In 1892
appeared what has been perhaps the most successful of all his
plays on the stage, Pelleas el Milisande, followed in 1894 by
those very curious and powerful little dramas written to be
performed by marionettes: Alladine el Palomides, Interieur
and La Mart de Tintagiles. In 1895 Maeterlinck brought out,
under the title of Annabella, a translation of Ford's 'Tis Pity
She's a Whore, with a preface. Two philosophical works followed,
a study on Novalis (1895) and Le Tresor des humbles (1896).
In 1896 he returned to drama with Aglavaine et Selyselte and to
lyric verse with Douze chansons. A monograph on the ethics
of mysticism, entitled La Sagesse el l-a destinee, was issued,
as a kind of commentary on his own dramas, in 1898; and in
1901 Maeterlinck produced a fascinating volume of prose,
founded upon observations made in his apiaries at Oostacker,
in which philosophy, fancy and natural history were surprisingly
mingled La Vie des abeilles. In 1902 he published Le Temple
ensevcli and Monna Vanna; in 1903 Joyzelle. In 1901 he
began to issue, in Brussels, an edition of his complete dramatic
works.
The nature of Maeterlinck's writings, whether in prose or
verse, has been strictly homogeneous. Few poets have kept
so rigorously to a certain denned direction in the practice of their
art. Whether in philosophy, or drama, or lyric, Maeterlinck
is exclusively occupied in revealing, or indicating, the mystery
which lies, only just out of sight, beneath the surface of ordinary
life. In order to produce this effect of the mysterious he aims
at an extreme simplicity of diction, and a symbolism so realistic
as to be almost bare. He allows life itself to astonish us by its
strangeness, by its inexplicable elements. Many of his plays
are really highly pathetic records of unseen emotion; they are
occupied with the spiritual adventures of souls, and the ordinary
facts of time and space have no influence upon the movements
of the characters. We know not who these orphan princesses,
these blind persons, these pale Arthurian knights, these aged
guardians of desolate castles, may be; we are not informed
whence they come, nor whither they go; there is nothing concrete
or circumstantial about them. Their life is intense and consis-
tent, but it is wholly of a spiritual character; they are mysterious
with the mystery of the movements of a soul. These character-
istics, which make the dramatic work of Maeterlinck so curious
and unique, are familiar to most readers in PelUas et Mtlisande,
but are carried, perhaps, to their farthest intensity in Aglavaine
el Selyselte, which seems to be written for a phantom stage and
to be acted by disembodied spirits. In spite of the violence
of his early admirers, and of the fact that the form of his dramas
easily lent itself to the cheap ridicule of parodists, the talent
of Maeterlinck has hardly met with opposition from the criticism
of his time. It has been universally felt that his spirit is one of
grave and disinterested attachment to the highest moral beauty,
and his seriousness, his serenity and his extreme originality have
impressed even those who are bewildered by his diaphanous
graces and offended at his nebulous mysticism. While the crude
enthusiasm which compared him with Shakespeare has been
shown to be ridiculous, the best judges combine with Camille
Mauclair when he says: " Maurice Maeterlinck est un homme
de genie authentique, un tres grand phenomene de puissance
mentale a la fin du xix e siecle." In spite of the shadowy action
of Maeterlinck's plays, which indeed require some special
conditions and contrivances for their performance, they are
frequently produced with remarkable success before audiences
who cannot be suspected of mysticism, in most of the countries
of Europe. In his philosophical writings Maeterlinck shows
himself a disciple of Novalis, of Emerson, of Hello, of the Flemish
Catholic mystics, and he evolves from the teachings of those
thinkers a system of aesthetics applicable to the theatre as he
conceives it. (E. G.)
MAFEKING, a town in the British Bechuanaland division
of the Cape, 870 m. N.E. of Cape Town and 492 m. S.S.W. of
Bulawayo by rail, and 162 m. in a direct line W. by N. of
Johannesburg. (Pop. 1904), 2713. It is built on the open
veld, at an elevation of 4194 ft., by the banks of the Upper
Molopo, is 9 m. W. of the western frontier of the Transvaal
and 15 m. S. of the southern boundary of the Bechuanaland
protectorate. The Madibi goldfields are some 10 m. south of the
town. Mafeking is thus an important trading and distributing
centre for Bechuanaland and the western Transvaal. Here
are, too, the chief railway workshops between Kimberley and
Bulawayo. The headquarters of the administration for the
Bechuanaland protectorate are in the town. The chief build-
ings are the town-hall, Anglican church, Masonic temple, and
hospital.
Mafeking was originally the headquarters of the Barolong
tribe of Bechuana and is still their largest station, the native
location (pop. 2860) being about a mile distant from the town.
It was from Pitsani Pothlugo (or Potlogo), 24 m. north of Mafe-
king, that Dr Jameson started, on the 29th of December 1895, on
his raid into the Transvaal. On the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer
war in 1899 Mafeking was invested by a Boer force. Colonel
R. S. S. Baden-Powell was in command of the defence, which
was stubbornly maintained for 217 days (Oct. 12 to May 17),
when a relief column arrived and the Boers dispersed (see
TRANSVAAL: History). The fate of the town had excited the
liveliest sympathy in England, and the exuberant rejoicings
in London on the news of its relief led to the coining of the
word mafficking to describe the behaviour of crowds on occasions
of extravagant demonstrations of a national kind. In Sep-
tember 1904 Lord Roberts unveiled at Mafeking an obelisk
bearing the names of those who fell in defence of the town.
R. S. S. Baden-Powell's Sketches in Mafeking and East Africa
(1907) and Lady Sarah Wilson's South African Memories (1909)
deal largely with the siege of Mafeking.
MAFFEI, FRANCESCO SCIPIONE, MARCHESE DI (1675-
I7SS), Italian archaeologist and man of letters, was born at
Verona on the ist of June 1675. He studied for five years in
Parma, at the Jesuit College, and afterwards from 1698 at Rome;
and in 1703-1704 he took part as a volunteer in the war of
succession, fighting on the Bavarian side at Donauwerth In
1709 he began at Padua along with Apostolo Zeno and Valisnieri
the Giornale dei letlerati d' Italia, a literary periodical which had
but a short career; and subsequently an acquaintance with
the actor Riccoboni led him to exert himself for the improvement
of dramatic art in Italy. His Merope, a tragedy, appeared in
1713; Teatro italiano, a small collection of works for presentation
on the stage, in 1723-1725; and Le Ceremonie, an original
comedy, in 1728. From 1718 he became specially interested
in the archaeology of his native town, and his investigations
resulted in the valuable Verona illustrate. (1731-1732). Maffri
afterwards devoted four years to .travel in France, England,
Holland and Germany. He died at Verona on the nth of
February 1755.
A complete edition of his works appeared at Venice (28 vols., 8vo)
in 1790.
MAFIA (MAFFIA), a secret society of Sicily. Its organization
and purposes much resemble those of the Camorra (?..).
Various derivations are found for the name. Some hold it to be
a Tuscan synonym for miscria; others, a corruption of Fr. mauvais
300
MAFRA MAGAZINE
(bad). Others connect it with the name of an alleged Arab tribe
Ma-ifir, once settled at Palermo. Giuseppe Pitr6 asserts that th<
word is peculiar to western Sicily and that, with its derivatives, i
formerly meant, in II Borgo, a district of Palermo, beauty or excel
lence. Thus, a handsome woman showily dressed was said " to have
mafia," or to be mafiusa. Often in Palermo the street merchants
call arance-mafiuse (fine oranges). Thus, PitnS argues, mafia
applied to a man to express manly carriage and bravery, woulc
naturally become the title of a society the members of which were
all " bravos." A less credible explanation of the term is connectec
with Mazzini, who is said to have formed a secret society the mem-
bers of which were called Mafiusi, from Mafia, a word composed o
the initial letters of five Italian words, Mazzini autorizzafurti, incendi
awelenamenti, " Mazzini authorizes theft, arson and poisoning.'
This theory suggests that the word was unknown before 1859 or
1860.
The Mafia, however named, existed long before Mazzini 's day
In its crudest form it was co-operative brigandage, blendec
with the Vendetta (?..). The more strictly organized Mafia
was the result of the disorders consequent upon the expulsion
of the king of Naples by Napoleon. When the Bourbon court
took refuge in Sicily there were a large number of armed retainers
in the service of the Sicilian feudal nobility. Ferdinand IV.
at the bidding of England, granted a constitution to the island
in 1812, and with the destruction of feudalism most of the feudal
troops became brigands. Powerless to suppress them, Ferdinand
organized the bandits into a rural gendarmerie, and they soon
established a reign of terror. The abject poverty of the poorer
classes, unable to eke out existence by work in the sulphur
mines or on the fields, fostered the growth of two classes of
mafiusi the vast majority of the inhabitants who were glad
to put themselves as passive members under the protection of
the Mafia, while the active members shared in the plunder.
The Mafia thus became a loosely organized society under an
unwritten code of laws or ethics known as Omerta, i.e., manliness
(from Sicil. omu, .Ital. uomo, a man), which embodied the
rules of the Vendetta. Candidates were admitted after trial
by duel, and were sworn to resist law and defeat justice. Like
the Camorra, the Mafia was soon powerful in all classes, and
even the commander of the royal troops acted in collusion with
it. The real home of Mafia was in and around Palermo, where no
traveller was safe from robbery and the knife. In an organized
form the Mafia survives only in isolated districts. Generally
speaking, it is to-day not a compact criminal association
but a complex social phenomenon, the consequence of centuries
of misgovernment. The Mafiuso is governed by a sentiment
akin to arrogance which imposes a special line of conduct upon
him. He considers it dishonourable to have recourse to lawful
authority to obtain redress for a wrong or a crime committed
against him. He therefore hides the identity of the offender
from the police, reserving vengeance to himself or to his friends
and dependants. This sentiment, still widely diffused among
the lower classes of many districts, and not entirely unknown
to the upper classes, renders difficult legal proof of culpability
for acts of violence, and multiplies sanguinary private reprisals.
In September 1892 about 150 Mafiusi were arrested at Catania,
but all repressive measures proved useless. The only result
was to drive some of the members abroad, with disastrous
results to other countries. In October 1890 David Hennessy,
chief of police in New Orleans, was murdered. Subsequent
legal inquiry proved the crime to be the work of the Mafia,
which had been introduced into the United States thirty years
before. In May 1890 a band of Italians living in New Orleans
had ambushed another gang of their fellow-countrymen
belonging to a society called Stoppaghera. The severe police
measures taken brought the vengeance of the society
upon Hennessy. Eleven Italians were indicted on suspicion of
being implicated in his murder; but the jury was terrorized
and acquitted six. On the I4th of March 1891 a mob led
by well-known New Orleans citizens broke into the gaol
where nineteen Italians were imprisoned and lynched eleven
of them.
See W. Agnew Paton, Picturesque Sicily (1898) ; C. W. Heckethorn,
Secret Societies of all Ages (1897); Alongi, La Maffia (Turin, 1887);
Le Faure, La Maffia (Paris, 1892).
MAFRA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon (formerly
in the province of Estremadura) ; near the Atlantic coast and the
right bank of the river Lizandro, and 20 m. N.W. of Lisbon.
Pop. (1900), 4769. Mafra is remarkable for its monastery,
church, and palace, built by John V. in 1717-1732, in conse-
quence of a vow made during a dangerous illness to build a
convent for the poorest friary of the kingdom which proved
to be a small Franciscan settlement here. The architects,
Johann Friedrich Ludwig of Regensburg, and his son Johann
Peter, took the Escurial for their model; but the imitation is
less successful than the original, though the cost exceeded
4,000,000. The building is in the form of a parallelogram
measuring upwards of 800 ft. from north to south and 700 ft.
from east to west; it is said to contain 866 rooms, and to be
lighted by no fewer than 5200 windows. The centre is occupied
by the church, sumptuously built of marble, and richly adorned
with statues and other objects of art. In each of the twin
towers there is a chime of 57 bells. Part of the palace, originally
designed as barracks, is used as a military academy. Adjoining
the palace are fine gardens and a royal model farm.
MAGADHA, an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It comprised that portion
of Behar lying S. of the Ganges, with its capital at Pataliputra
or Patna. As the scene of many incidents in the life of Gautama
Buddha, it was a holy land. It was also the seat of the
Maurya Empire, founded by Chandragupta, which extended
over all India under Asoka; and, later, of the powerful Gupta
dynasty.
MAGALDAN, a town in the northern part of the province of
Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 2 m. from the
shore of the Gulf of Lingayen. Pop. (1903), 15,841. In 1903
the adjacent municipality of Mapandan (pop. in 1903, 4198)
was annexed to Magaldan. Most of its inhabitants are engaged
in rice culture. The principal language is Pangasinan; Ilocano
is also spoken.
MAGALLANES (Spanish form of Magellan), a territory of
southern Chile extending from 47 S. to Cape Horn and including
the mainland from the Argentine frontier to the Pacific coast, the
islands extending along that coast, the Fuegian archipelago, and
the western half of Tierra del Fuego. Area, about 71,127 sq. m.;
pop. (1895), 5170. It is one of the most inhospitable regions
of the world, being exposed to cold westerly storms for most
of the year. The islands are barren, but the mainland is covered
with forests, practically inaccessible to exploitation because of
the inclement climate and the wet spongy soil. The coast is
indented with bays and fjords and affords remarkable scenery.
There is little animal life on land, but the coast is frequented
by the seal and sea-otter and the sheltered waters by count-
ess sea-fowl. The only permanent settlements are at Punta
Arenas, the capital, on the Straits of Magellan, Palomares on
Dtway Water, Mina Marta on Skyring Water, and Ultima
Esperanza (Last Hope) on the east shore of Worsley Sound.
All are east of the Andean ranges and partially sheltered from
the westerly storms. In this sheltered region there are open
:>lains where sheep are grazed. A few sheep ranges have
seen established on Tierra del Fuego. Some nomadic tribes
of Indians inhabit Tierra del Fuego and the extreme southern
end of the mainland, but their numbers are small. Coal
las been found in the vicinity of Punta Arenas, and gold
occurs.
See The Voyage of the Adventure and Beagle (1839).
MAGAZINE, primarily a warehouse for goods or merchandise
Arab, makhzan, a storehouse, from khazana, to store up). In
Morocco makhzan (or maghzen) has come to be used as the name
)f the government. The Spaniards adopted the Arabic in the
orm magacen, and the English form comes through the older
'rench magazin, modern magasin. The meaning of a storehouse
>r large shop, common in French, is rare in English except in
he military use of the term for a building for the storage of
explosives and ammunition. It is applied to the chamber
f a repeating rifle or machine-gun containing the supply of
artridges. The name as applied to a periodical publication
MAGDALA MAGDEBURG
301
containing articles on various subjects was first used in the
Gentleman's Magazine (1731), described as " a monthly collec-
tion, to treasure up as in a magazine " articles on the subjects
with which it was proposed to deal.
MAGDALA (more correctly MAKDALA), a natural stronghold
in the country of the Wollo Gallas, Abyssinia, about 250 m. W.
of Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden, in 11 22' N., 39 25' E. The
basaltic plateau of which it consists rises 9110 ft. above the
sea. It is about three-quarters of a mile in length by less than
half a mile in breadth, and lies more than a thousand feet higher
than the neighbouring plain of Arogie. Chosen about 1860 by
the emperor Theodore of Abyssinia as his principal stronghold
in the south, Magdala owes its celebrity to the fact that, as the
place of imprisonment of the English captives, it became the
goal of the great English Expedition of 1868. At the time of
its capture it contained huts for a population of about three
thousand. The whole rock was burned bare by order of the
commander of the British force, Sir Robert Napier, who, on
being raised to the peerage for his services on this occasion,
took the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. The plateau was
subsequently refortified by the Abyssinians.
See Clements Markham, History of the Abyssinian Expedition
(1869); and H. Rassam, British Mission to Theodore (1869).
MAGDEBURG, a city of Germany, capital of the Prussian
province of Saxony, a fortress of the first rank and one of the
principal commercial towns of the German Empire. It lies in
a broad and fertile plain, mainly on the left bank of the Elbe,
88 m. S.W. from Berlin and at the junction of main lines to
Leipzig, Brunswick, Cassel and Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 159,520;
(1890), 202,234; (1905), 240,661. It consists of the town proper,
and of the five suburbs of Friedrichstadt, Wilhelmstadt, Neu-
stadt, Sudenburg and Buckau; the last four are separated from
the town by the ramparts and glacis, but are all included within
the new line of advanced bastions, while Friedrichstadt lies
on the right bank of the river. In the Elbe, between the old
town and the Friedrichstadt, lies an island whereon stands the
citadel; this is united with both banks by bridges. With the
exception of the Breite Weg, a handsome thoroughfare running
from north to south, the streets of the town proper are narrow
and crooked. Along the Elbe, however, extend fine promenades,
the Fiirstenwall and the Fursten t)fer. To the south of the
inner town is the Friedrich Wilhelms Garten, a beautiful park
laid out on the site of the celebrated convent of Berge, which
was founded in 968 and suppressed in 1809. By far the most
important building in Magdeburg is the cathedral, dedicated to
SS Maurice and Catherine, a handsome and massive structure
of the i4th century, exhibiting an interesting blending of
Romanesque and Gothic architecture. The two fine western
towers were completed about 1520. The interior contains the
tombs of the emperor Otto the Great and his wife Edith, an
English princess, and the fine monument of Archbishop Ernest
(d. 1513), executed -in 1495 by Peter Vischer of Nuremberg.
The Liebfrauenkirche, the oldest church in Magdeburg, is an
interesting Romanesque edifice of the I2th and I3th centuries,
which was restored in 1890-1891. The chief secular buildings
are the town-hall (Rathaus), built in 1691 and enlarged in 1866,
the government offices, the palace of justice, the central railway
station and the exchange. The Breite Weg and the old market
contain numerous fine gable-ended private houses in the style
of the Renaissance. In front of the town-hall stands an eques-
trian statue of Otto the Great, erected about 1290. The modern
streets are spacious, and the houses well-built though monoto-
nous. There are two theatres, an agricultural college, an art
school, several gymnasia, a commercial and other schools, an
observatory, and two fine hospitals. The first place amongst
the industries is taken by the ironworks (one being a branch of
the Krupp firm, the Grusonwerke, employing about 4000 hands),
which produce naval armour and munitions of war. Of almost
equal importance are the sugar refineries and chicory factories.
Then come establishments for making tobacco, gloves, chocolate,
artificial manure, cement, varnish, chemicals and pottery. There
are also distilleries and breweries, and factories for the
manufacture of cotton and silk goods. Magdeburg is the central
market in Germany for sugar and chicory, but trades extensively
also in cereals, fruit, vegetables, groceries, cattle, horses, wool,
cloth, yarn, leather, coal and books. A new winter harbour,
made at a cost of 400,000, facilitates the river traffic along the
Elbe. Three million tons of merchandise pass Magdeburg, going
upstream, and nearly i million tons, going downstream, annually.
Magdeburg is the headquarters of the IV. corps of the German
army and the seat of the provincial court of appeal and admini-
strative offices, and of a Lutheran consistory.
History. Magdeburg, which was in existence as a small
trading settlement at the beginning of the 9th century, owes
its early prosperity chiefly to the emperor Otto the Great, who
established a convent here about 937. In 968 it became the
seat of an archbishop, who exercised sway over an extensive
territory. Although it was burnt down in 1188, Magdeburg
became a flourishing commercial town during the i3th century,
and was soon an important member of the Hanseatic League.
Its bench of jurats (Schoppenstuhl) became celebrated, and
" Magdeburg law " (Magdeburger Recht), securing the adminis-
trative independence of municipalities, was adopted in many
parts of Germany, Poland and Bohemia. During the middle
ages the citizens were almost constantly at variance with the
archbishops, and by the end of the isth century had become
nearly independent of them. It should, however, be noted that
Magdeburg never became a free city of the Empire. The town
embraced the Reformation in 15 24, and was thenceforth governed
by Protestant titular archbishops (see BISHOP). On the refusal
of the citizens to accept the " Interim," issued by the emperor
Charles V., Magdeburg was besieged by Maurice of Saxony in
1550, and capitulated on favourable terms in November 1551.
During the Thirty Years' War it was twice besieged, and suffered
terribly. It successfully resisted Wallenstein for seven months
in 1629, but was stormed and sacked by Tilly in May 1631.
The whole town, with the exception of the cathedral, and about
140 houses, was burned to the ground, and the greater part
of its 36,000 inhabitants were butchered without regard to age
or sex, but it recovered from this deadly blow with wonderful
rapidity. By the peace of Westphalia (1648) the archbishopric
was converted into a secular duchy, to fall to Brandenburg
on the death of the last administrator, which happened in 1680.
In 1806 Magdeburg was taken by the French and
annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but it was restored
to Prussia in 1814, on the downfall of Napoleon. Otto von
Guericke (1602-1686), the inventor of the air-pump, was
burgomaster of Magdeburg. Count Lazare Carnot died here
in exile, and was buried in the cemetery, but his remains
were exhumed in 1889 and conveyed to Paris. Luther was
at school here, and sang in the streets for bread with other
poor choristers.
See W. Kawerau, Aus Magdeburgs Vergangenheit (Halle, 1886)
O. von Guericke, Geschichte der Belagerung, Eroberung und Zer-
sto'rungvon Magdeburg (Magdeburg, 1887) ; M. Dittmar, Beitrdgezur
Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg (Halle, 1885); F. W. Hoffmann,
Geschichte der Stadt Magdeburg (Magdeburg, 1885-1886) ; F. Htilsse,
Die Einfuhrung der Reformation in der Stadt Magdeburg (Magdeburg,
1883); R. Volkholz, Die Zerstorung Magdeburgs 1631 (Magdeburg,
1892); W. Leinung and R. Stumvoll, Aus Magdeburgs Sage und
Geschichte (Magdeburg, 1894); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt
Magdeburg (1892).
THE ARCHBISHOPRIC or MAGDEBURG was carved out of the
bishopric of Halberstadt when it was founded in 968, and its
history is largely bound up with that of the city and of the
prelates who have ruled the see. The first archbishop was
Adalbert, and he and his successors had six or seven suffragan
bishops. Several of the archbishops took very prominent parts
in German politics. Early in the 15th century their residence
was fixed at Halle, and about the same time it became the
custom to select them from one of the reigning families of
Germany, most often from the house of Brandenburg, The
doctrines of the reformers made their appearance in the diocese
early in the i6th century, and soon Archbishop Sigismund, a
son of Joachim II., elector of Brandenburg, openly avowed his
adherence to Lutheram'sm. After the issue of the edict of
302
MAGEE, W. MAGELLAN
restitution by the emperor Ferdinand II. in 1629, there were
three rival candidates for the see, and their struggles added to
the confusion caused by the Thirty Years' War. By the peace
of Prague, however, in 1635, the archbishopric was given to
Augustus, prince of Saxe-Weissenfels, who retained it until his
death in 1680. In 1773 the area of the see was over 2000 sq. m.
It included 29 towns and over 400 villages and contained about
250,000 inhabitants.
See the Regesta archiepiscopatus magdeburgensis, edited by G. A.
von Mulyerstedt (Magdeburg, 1876-1899) ; and K. Uhlirz, Geschichle
des ErzbistUms Magdeburg unter den Kaisern aus sachsischem Hause
(Magdeburg, 1887).
Distinct both from the archbishopric and from the city was
the BURGRAVIATE OF MAGDEBURG. The office of burgrave dates
from the time of Charlemagne, although its holder was not at
first called by this name, and it soon became one of great impor-
tance. The burgrave was the king's representative; he was
charged with the administration of the royal estates in a given
district, and in general with watching the royal interests therein.
The burgraviate of Magdeburg was held by several countly
families in turn until 1 269, when it was purchased by Archbishop
Conrad II., who, however, soon sold it. In 1294 it was again
united with the archbishopric and the prelates retained it until
1538; then in 1579 Augustus, elector of Saxony, made an arrange-
ment which again gave the office to the archbishops, who held
it until the secularization of the see.
The MAGDEBURG CENTURIES (Magdeburger Zenturien) is the
name given to the first general history of the Christian Church
written from a Protestant point of view. It was compiled in
Magdeburg, and the history is divided into periods of one hundred
years each. It was written in Latin in 1562, its principal
author being the reformer Matthias Flacius, who was assisted
by other Lutheran theologians. The cost of the undertaking
was borne by some of the German Protestant princes. As the
Historia ecclesiae Christi it was first published at Basel in seven
volumes (1559-1574). It deals with the history of the Church
down to 1400, and considering the time at which it was written
it is a remarkable monument to the scholarship of its authors.
The earlier part of it has been translated into German (Jena,
1560-1565).
See E. Schaumkell, Beitrag zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Magde-
burger Zenturien (Ludwigslust, 1898).
MAGEE, WILLIAM (1766-1831), archbishop of Dublin, was
born at Enniskillen, Co. Fermanagh, and educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he was elected fellow in 1788. He was
ordained in 1790. Two sermons, preached in the college chapel
in 1798 and 1799, form the basis of his Discourses on the Scrip-
tural Doctrines of Atonement and Sacrifice (1801), a polemic
against Unitarian theology which was answered by Lant Car-
penter. Magee was appointed professor of mathematics and
senior fellow of Trinity in 1800, but in 1812 he resigned, and
undertook the charge of the livings of Cappagh, Co. Tyrone, and
Killeleagh, Co. Down. Next year he became dean of Cork. He
was well known as a preacher and promoter of the Irish refor-
mation, and in 1819 he was consecrated bishop of Raphoe. In
1822 the archbishop of Dublin was translated to Armagh, and
Magee succeeded him at Dublin. Though in most respects a
tolerant man, he steadily opposed the movement for Catholic
Emancipation. He died on the i8th of August 1831.
A memoir of his life is included with the Works of the Most Reverend
William Magee, D.D. (1842), by A. H. Kenney.
MAGEE, WILLIAM CONNOR (1821-1891), Anglican divine,
archbishop of York, was born at Cork in 1821. His father was
curate of the parish attached to the Protestant cathedral in
that city; his grandfather was archbishop of Dublin. Young
Magee entered Trinity College, Dublin, with a scholarship at
thirteen. He was ordained to the curacy of St Thomas's,
Dublin, but, being threatened with consumption, went after
two years to Malaga. On his return he took a curacy at Bath,
and was speedily appointed to the Octagon Chapel, where his
fame both as preacher and platform speaker continued to
spread. Some years afterwards he was made prebendary of
Wells Cathedral. In 1860 the delicate state of his health
caused him to accept the living of Enniskillen. In 1864 he
was made dean of Cork and chaplain to the lord lieutenant.
Here he manifested those great gifts which ultimately raised
him to high office; a powerful grasp of mental, moral and
political problems, combined with eloquence of a high order
and illuminated with brilliant flashes of wit. In 1868 the
question of the disestablishment of the Irish Church came to
the front, and Magee threw himself into the task of its defence
with his usual energy and vivacity. The success of his orations
caused Disraeli to offer him the bishopric of Peterborough. He
justified his appointment by his magnificent speech when the
Disestablishment Bill reached the House of Lords in 1869, and
then plunged into diocesan and general work in England. He
preached three remarkable sermons on Christian Evidence in
Norwich Cathedral in 1871. He took up the temperance
question, and declared in the House of Lords that he would
rather see "England free than England compulsorily sober,"
an utterance which the extreme advocates of total abstinence
misquoted and attacked. He was also a supporter of the
movement for abolishing the recitation of the Athanasian
Creed in the public services of the Church of England, believing,
as he said, that the " presence " of the damnatory clauses, " as
they stand and where they stand, is a real peril to the Church
and to Christianity itself," and that those clauses " are no
essential part " of the creed. The project was laid aside in
consequence of the hostility of a large body of the clergy,
reinforced by the threat of Dr Pusey and Canon Liddon to
abandon their offices if it were carried. Magee took a prominent
part in the Ritual controversy, opposing what he conceived to
be romanizing excess in ritual, as well as the endeavour of the
opposite party to " put down Ritualism," as Disraeli expressed
it, by the operation of the civil law. His incisive way of putting
things earned for him the title of the "Militant Bishop," but,
as he himself remarked in. relation to this title, his efforts were
ever for peace. Unfortunately for the Church, he was not
elevated to the see of York until his energies were exhausted.
He died on the sth of May 1891, about four months after his
appointment. Magee's manifold activities, his capability as an
administrator, his sound judgment, and his remarkable insight
into the ecclesiastical problems of his time, rank him among
the most distinguished of English prelates.
See Life and Letters, by Canon MacDonnell (2 vols. 1896).
MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (in Sp. FERNANDO MAGALLANES,
in Port. FERNAO DE MAGALHAES) (c. 1480-1521), the first
circumnavigator of the globe, was born at Sabrosa in the Villa
Real district of the Traz-os-Montes province of Portugal. He
was a son of Pedro de Magalhaes, and belonged to the fourth
order of Portuguese nobility (fidalgos de cola de armas). He was
brought up as one of the pages of Queen Leonor, consort of
King John (Joao) II " the Perfect." In 1495 he entered the
service of Manuel " the Fortunate," John's successor, and in
1504 enlisted as a volunteer for the Indian voyage of the first
Portuguese viceroy in the East, Francisco d'Almeida. He sailed
on the 25th of March 1505; was wounded at Cannanore on
the 1 6th of March 1506; was then sent with Nuno Vaz Pereira
to Sofala to build a Portuguese fortress at that place; returned
to India early in 1508; and was again wounded at the battle
of Diu on the 3rd of February 1509. At Cochin (Aug. 19,
1509) he joined Diogo Lopes de Sequeira on his famous voyage
intended for the Spice Islands, when the Portuguese almost fell
victims to Malay treachery at Malacca. In this crisis he fought
bravely and skilfully (though it is not true, as often asserted,
that he discovered the Malay plot); and before the loth of
October 1510 he had been rewarded for his many services with
the rank of captain. He again distinguished himself at the
taking of Malacca by Albuquerque (July-Aug., 1511), and
was then sent on by the viceroy with Antonio d'Abreu to explore
the Spice Islands (Moluccas). Leaving Malacca at the end of
December 1511, this squadron^ sailed along the north of Java,
passed between Java and Ma'dura, left Celebes on their left,
coasted by the Gunong Api volcano, touched at Bura, and so
reached Amboyna and Banda. At the last-named they found
MAGELLAN
303
such abundance of spices that they came straight back to
Malacca without visiting Ternate, as had been intended.
Magellan returned to Portugal in 1512. On the I4th of July
of that year he was raised to the rank of fidalgo escudeiro;
and in 1513 he accompanied a Portuguese expedition against
Azamor in Morocco. The city was taken on the zSth-agth of
August 1513; but Magellan was subsequently wounded, and
lamed for life, in a sortie; he was also accused of trading with
the Moors. The accusation was subsequently dropped, but
Magellan fell into disfavour with King Manuel, who let him
understand that he would have no further employment in his
country's service (after the isth of May 1514). Magellan
formally renounced his nationality, and went to offer his services
to the court of Spain. He reached Seville on the zoth of October
1517, and thence went to Valladolid to see Charles V. With
the help of Juan de Aranda, one of the three chief officials of
the India House at Seville, and of other friends, especially
Diogo Barbosa, a Portuguese like himself, naturalized as a
Spaniard, who had acquired great influence in Seville, and whose
daughter he now married, he gained the ear of Charles and of
the powerful minister, Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, bishop of
Burgos, the persistent enemy of Columbus, the steady supporter
of his great successor. Magellan proposed to reach the Spice
Islands of the East Indies by the west; for that purpose he
hoped to discover a strait at the extreme south of South America,
and is said to have declared himself ready to sail southwards to
75 to realize his project. Ruy Faleiro the astronomer, another
Portuguese exile, aided him in the working out of his plan, and
he found an invaluable financial ally in Christopher de Haro,
a member of a great Antwerp firm, who owed a grudge to the
king of Portugal. On the 22nd of March 1518, Magellan and
Faleiro, as joint captains-general, signed an agreement with
Charles V., by which one-twentieth of the clear profits were to
fall to them; further, the government of any lands discovered
was vested in them and their heirs, with the title of Adelantados.
On the roth of August 1519, the fleet of five vessels, under
Magellan's command, left Seville and dropped down the Guadal-
quivir to S. Lucar de Barrameda, at the mouth of the river,
where they remained more than five weeks. On the 2oth of
September the armada put to sea. Of the vessels which com-
posed it, the " Trinidad " was the flagship, and the " Vittoria "
the only one which accomplished the circumnavigation. The
crew, officers, volunteers, &c., numbered about 270-280, of
whom the names of 268 are preserved; 237 of these received
pay; at least 37 were Portuguese, 30 or more Italians (mostly
Genoese), 19 French, i English, i German. Only 31 returned
in the " Vittoria "; 4 survivors of the crew of the " Trinidad "
reappeared later. Antonio Pigafetta of Vicenza, an Italian
gentleman who has left the best history of the voyage, went
as a volunteer in Magellan's suite. Faleiro stayed behind,
having cast his horoscope and found that the venture would
be fatal to him. The fleet was well armed, and the total cost
of equipment was 8,751,000 maravedis, or 5032 (equal to over
50,000 in present value). Three-quarters were defrayed by
the Spanish Crown, one-quarter by Christopher Haro and his
friends. Before starting, Magellan made his will and addressed
a memorandum to Charles V., assigning geographical positions
connected with the controversy he was intending to settle:
viz., the proper drawing of a demarcation-line between the
spheres of Spain and Portugal in the East Indies, and the in-
clusion of the Moluccas within the Spanish sphere.
Steering south-west and calling at Teneriffe (Sept. 26-Oct.3),
Magellan sighted South America at Cape St Augustine,
near Pernambuco on the 29th of November; thence he followed
the east coast of the New World down to the La Plata
estuary, which he examined in the hope of finding a passage
at this point (Jan. n-Feb. 6, 1520). On the 3ist of March
following, he arrived at Port St Julian (in 49 20' S.)
where he wintered. Here he crushed a formidable mutiny
{April 1-2), and made acquaintance with the natives, whom he
called Patagonians (" Big Feet "), whose great size and lofty
stature are magnified by Pigafetta to gigantic proportions.
Leaving Port St Julian on the 24th of August 1520,
he discovered on the 2ist of October the cape of the Eleven
Thousand Virgins, the eastern entrance of the long-sought
passage. Through this strait, 360 m. long, often narrow and
very tortuous, fringed by snow-clad mountains, he guided his
armada for thirty-eight days, weakened by the desertion of one
vessel (the " S. Artonio "). On the 2ist of November a council
of pilots and captains was held to consider the continuation of
the voyage, and on the 28th of November the fleet rounded Cabo
Deseado, the " desired " western terminus of the strait, variously
called by the first discoverers, " Victoria Strait," " Strait of
the Patagonians," "of all Saints," "of the Eleven Thousand
Virgins," or " of Magellan," now only known by the last of
these names. To the south of the passage lay the forbidding
land " stark with eternal cold," which from the many fires
here observed Magellan named "Tierra del Fuego." The
expedition now entered the " Great South Sea," first sighted
by Vasco Nunez de Balboa (q.v.), which, from the steady and
gentle winds that drove the fleet across the immeasurable
expanse, was by Magellan called " Pacific." For ninety-eight
days Magellan crossed this sea, almost beyond the grasp of
man's mind for vastness (as Maximilian of Transylvania puts
it), from Cabo Deseado to the Ladrones. On the whole transit
he discovered only two islands, sterile and uninhabited,
which he called "St Paul's" (Jan, 24, 1521) and "Shark
Island " (Feb. 3). The first of these has been identified
with Puka Puka in the Tuamotu Archipelago, the second with
Flint Island in the Manihiki group; neither identification
seems convincing. For most of these ninety-eight days the
explorers had no -fresh provisions, little water (and that bad),
and putrid biscuit; the ravages of scurvy became terrible.
The worst anticipations of Magellan ("he would push on, if
they had to eat the leather of the rigging") were realized;
ox-hides, sawdust, and rats became coveted food. At last,
on the 6th of March 1521, the Ladrones (so named by Magellan
from the thievish habits of the natives) came in sight, Guam
being probably the first port of call. Here the fleet rested,
watered, revictualled and refitted; on the gth of March they
started again westward; and on the i6th of March sighted the
southern point of Samar Island in the archipelago, since 1542
called the Philippines, but named by Magellan, its first dis-
coverer, after St Lazarus. On the 7th of April the squadron
arrived at Cebu, south-west of Samar, in the heart of the Philip-
pines; here Magellan contracted a close friendship and alliance
with the treacherous native sovereign, who professed Christianity
the better to please and utilize his Catholic friends. Undertaking
an expedition to conquer, for the Catholic faith and the king
of Cebu, the neighbouring island of Mactan, Magellan was killed
there in a fight with the islanders (April 27, 1521). The king
of Cebu after this got into his power several of the leading
personages of the squadron, including Juan Serrano, one of
the two admirals elected to replace Magellan, and murdered
them. The survivors, burning one of the three remaining
vessels, left the Philippines, and made their way to thye
Moluccas (Nov. 6), visiting Borneo on the way (July 9-Sept.
27, 1521). ^At Tidor a heavy cargo of cloves was taken in;
the "Trinidad," becoming leaky, stayed behind with her crew;
and the " Vittoria," under Juan Sebastian del Canb, proceeded
to Europe alone (Dec. 21, 1521). To double the Cape
of Good Hope the " Vittoria " reached between 40 and 41 S.
(April 7-16, 1522) and suffered from contrary winds, heavy
seas, scurvy and starvation. In th'e Cape Verde Islands
(July 9-15, 1522) thirteen of the crew were detained prisoners
by the Portuguese. Only thirtj>-one men returned with del
Cano to Seville in the fijst, vessel that had ever made the tour
of the earth. Though Magellan had not quite reached the
Spice Islands when he fell at Mactan, his task had then been
accomplished. He had already reached and passed the longitude
of the Moluccas, where he had already been; the way home from
the Philippines by the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope
was perfectly known to the Portuguese, himself included.
Magellan's name has never received its due recognition in
304
MAGELLANIC CLOUDS MAGIC
general history. It ranks with those of Columbus, Marco Polo,
and Henry the Navigator. The circumnavigation of the globe
is as great an event as the discovery of America. Magellan
achieved what Columbus planned the linking of west Europe
with east Asia by direct transit over the western ocean. Had
America not intervened, the project of 1492 must have failed;
by 1519 European pioneers had formed a more adequate notion
of the task and its magnitude.
Magellan's Straits, the Magellanic clouds (not first observed
by him), and Magellan's Land a name long given to Patagonia
and that hypothetical southern continent of which Tierra del
Fuego was considered only a portion, and now again bestowed
by Chile on her territory in the extreme south preserve the
memory of the first circumnavigator. The largest of the oceans
has also kept the flattering name given to it by the man who
first crossed it.
No record of his exploits was left by Magellan himself; and
contemporary accounts are less detailed and consistent than could
be wished. The best is that of Antonio Pigafetta, a volunteer in the
fleet. It is printed in Ramusio, and exists in four early MS. copies,
one in Italian and three in French. The latter was perhaps the
original language of this work, which was addressed by Pigafetta,
as a knight of Rhodes, to the Frenchman Villiers de 1'Isle Adam,
grand master of the order of the Hospital of St John. But this
view is rejected by J. A. Robertson (see below), who believes the
Ambrosian MS. to be the ultimate text. See the Prime viaggio
inlorno al mondo, otherwise the Navigation et descouvrement de la
Indie superieure faicte par moi Anthoyne Pigapheta, Vincentin,
chevallier de Rhodes, probably published in 1524 (in August of that
year Pigafetta obtained leave to print his book in Venice). Of the
three French MSS., two are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
(5650 and 24,224 Fr.), the latter is wrongly supposed by Thomassy,
followed by Lord Stanley of Alderley, to have been the copy pre-
sented by Pigafetta to the regent of France, Marie Louise of Savoy,
mother of Francis I. The third French MS., often called the MS. of
Nancy, first noticed by Thomassy in 1 84 1 , was bought by Sir Thomas
Phillipps at Libri's sale, and became MS. Philhpps 16,405. The
Italian MS. is in the Ambrosian library at Milan. From this Carlo
Amoretti, prefect of the Ambrosiana, published his Italian edition
of Pigafetta in 1800; a French translation of this, by Amoretti
himself, was issued by H. J. Jansen, 1801. An English version of
Pigafetta was made by Richard Eden in his Decodes of the Newe Worlde
(London, 1555). The earliest printed edition, apparently a summary
of the Italian MS., was issued in French by Simon de Colines of Paris
about 1525. The earliest Italian edition is of 1534 (or 1536).
Other authorities are: (i) The narrative of an unknown Portu-
guese in Ramusio's Navigationi et viaggi; (2) the Derrotero or Log-
Book in the Seville Archives, supposed to be the work of Francisco
Albo, contramaestre of Magellan's flagship, the "Trinidad": this
consists mainly of nautical observations; (3) the narrative of the
so-called Genoese pilot, written in excellent Portuguese, and printed
in vol. iv. of the CoUecao de noticias of the Lisbon Academy ; (4)
various informations and other papers in the Seville Archives,
especially bearing on the mutiny; (5) the letter of Maximilian of
Transylvania, under-secretary to Charles V., to the cardinal of
Salzburg; (6) the references in Correa and Herrera, often based on
good information, and adding points of interest to other records.
Of these (i)-(3), (5), and an instance of (6) are translated in the
Hakluyt Society's volume. Magellan's two wills (i) executed at
Belem on the i;th of December 1504, on the eve of his departure
with Almeida, (ii) executed at Seville on the 24th of August, 1519,
just before starting on his voyage round the world, are both of some
value for his life.
See also Lord Stanley of Alderley, The First Voyage round the World
by Magellan, translated from . . . Pigafetta, &c., Hakluyt Society
(London, 1874); Diego de Barros Arana, Vida e viagems de Fernao
de Magalhaes, a trans, of the Spanish life by Fernando de Magalhaes
Villas Boas (Lisbon, 1881); F. H. H. Guillemard, Life of Magellan
(London, 1890); Magellan . . . the original text of the Ambrosian MS.
(of Pigafetta), with English translation, notes, bibliography, &c.,
by J. A. Robertson (Cleveland, U.S.A., 1906). Before the appear-
ance of this indispensable work, the best edition of Pigafetta had been
in vol. iii. part 5 of the Raccolta di documenti e studi pubblicati nella
r. commissione colombiana, edited by Andrea da Mosto (Rome,
Ministry of Public Instruction, 1894). (C. R. B.)
MAGELLANIC CLOUDS (named after Ferdinand Magellan),
two cloud-like condensations of stars in the southern constella-
tion of Mensa about 69 S. Dec. and between 5 and 5 40' of
R. A. They are remarkable in the resemblance of their stars
as regards spectra and physical constitution to the stars of the
Milky Way, though entirely detached from that object.
MAGENTA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Milan, 16 m. by rail W. of Milan city, 364 ft. about sea-level
situated in the midst of rice-fields. Pop. (1901), 8012. It
manufactures silks and matches, and is famous for the battle
(1859) in which the allied French and Piedmontese defeated
the Austrians (see ITALIAN WARS). A memorial chapel and
a monument were erected on the battle-field in 1862. A crimson-
purple aniline dye, discovered about the time of the battle, was
given from it the name of " magenta,"
MAGGIORE, LAGO (Locus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr.
Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee), the most extensive of the lakes
that extend along the foot of the Alps in Lombardy, N. Italy.
Its area is about 83 sq. m., its length 37 m., its greatest width
5? m., and its greatest depth 1198 ft., while its surface is 646 ft.
about sea-level. It is mainly formed by the Ticino (Tessin)
River, flowing in at the north and out at the south end, on its
way to join the Po, but on the west the lake receives a very
important tributary, the Toce or Tosa River, which flows down
through the Val d'Ossola from the mountains around the
Simplon Pass. Other important afHuents are the Maggia (N. W . )
and the Tresa (E.). The upper end of the lake (about 16 sq. m.)
is in the Swiss canton of Ticino (Tessin). Locarno, at the
northern or Swiss end, is 14 m. by rail S.W. of Bellinzona on
the St Gotthard line. There is a railway along the south-
eastern shore, from Magadino (io m. S.W. of Bellinzona) to
Sesto Calende (36501.), at the southern end of the lake and 20 m.
by rail from Novara. The east shore of the lake is reached at
Luino by a steam tramway from Ponte Tresa on the lake of
Lugano (8 m.), while the direct Simplon line runs along the west
shore of the lake for 153 m. from near Pallanza past Baveno and
Stresa to Arena, which is 23 m. by rail from Novara. On the
east shore are Luino (Ital. Luvino) and Laveno. On the west
shore are (reckoning from N. to S.) Cannobio, Pallanza, Baveno,
Stresa and Arona. Opposite (S.E.) Baveno are the famous
Borromean Islands, on the largest of which (Isola Bella) are very
remarkable gardens (formed about 1617), wherein many tropical
plants flourish abundantly, while south-west of Baveno rises the
glorious view-point of the Monte Mottarone (4892 ft.) between
Lago Maggiore and the northern end of the Lake of Orta.
In the morning the tramontana wind blows from the north
down the lake, while in the afternoon the inverna, blowing from
the south, prevails. The first steamer was placed on the lake
in 1826. (W. A. B. C.)
MAGIC 1 (i.e. "art magic"; Lat. ars magica), the general
term for the practice and power of wonder-working, as depend-
ing on the employment of supposed supernatural agencies.
Etymologically the Gr. fia-ytla, meant the science and religion
of the magi, or priests of Zoroaster, as known among the Greeks;
in this sense it was opposed to yoriTtia (? necromancy) and
0ap,uowia (the use of drugs) ; but this distinction was not
universally recognized, and ftrrjTeia is often used as a synonym
of Aio/yeto. There is no general agreement as to the proper
definition of " magic," which depends on the view taken of
" religion."
I. NATURE OF MAGIC
Theories of Magic. Existing theories of magic may be
classified as objective or subjective. The objective school regards
magic as a thing by itself, entirely distinct from religion,
recognizable by certain characteristics, and traceable to a
definite psychological origin. Magic, on this view, is a system
of savage science based on imaginary laws supposed to operate
with the regularity ascribed to natural laws by the science of
to-day. If practices prima facie magical form part of the
recognized ritual of religion, it is because the older ideas have
persisted and at most assumed a veneer of religion. For the
subjective school, on the other hand, only those rites are magical
which their practitioners qualify with the name of magic; there
is no inherent quality which makes a rite magical; practices
based on a belief in the law of sympathy may be religious as well
as magical; rites may pass from the category of religion to that
of magic when public recognition is withdrawn from them.
1 For what is often called " magic," but is really trick-perform-
ance, see CONJURING.
MAGIC
305
a. For E. B. Tylor the distinguishing characteristic of magic
is its unreality; it is a confused mass of oeliefs and practices, and
their unity consists in the absence of the ordinary nexus of natural
cause and effect. Under the general head of magic he distinguishes
(i) a spiritual and (ii) a non-spiritual element, (i) The former is
made up of such rites as involve the intervention of spiritual beings,
ghosts of the dead, demons or gods; hence, in Tylor's view, this
form of magic is merely an inferior branch of religion, (ii) The non-
spiritual part, but for which the category of magic would be unneces-
sary, depends on imagined powers and correspondences in nature;
it is merely imperfect reasoning, the mistaking of an ideal connexion
for a real one. When the American Indian medicine man draws the
picture of a deer on a piece of bark and expects that shooting at
it will cause him to kill a real deer the next day, he mistakes a
connexion which exists only in the mind of the sorcerer for a real
bond independent of the human mind.
b. In J. G. Frazer's view all magic is based on the law of sympathy
i.e. the assumption that things act on one another at a distance
through a secret link, due either to the fact that there is some
similarity between them or to the fact that they have at one time
been in contact, or that one has formed part of the other. These
two branches of " sympathetic magic " Frazer denominates " homoeo-
pathic magic " and contagious magic." Homoeopathic or imita-
tive (mimetic) magic may be practised by itself, but contagious
magic generally involves the application of the imitative principle,
(i) One of the most familiar applications of the former is the belief
that an enemy may be destroyed or injured by destroying or injuring
an image of him. (ii) Under the head of contagious magic are
included such beliefs as that which causes the peasant to anoint the
weapon with which he has been injured, which, according to Frazer,
is founded on the supposition that the blood on the weapon continues
to feel with the blood in the body, (iii) Implicitly Frazer seems to
distinguish a third kind of magic; "the rain-charm," he says,
" operates partly or wholly through the dead ... in Halmahera
there is a practice of throwing stones on a grave, in order that the
ghost may fall into a passion and avenge the disturbance, as he
imagines, by sending heavy rain." Here there is no assumption of
an invariable course of nature set in motion by magical rites; save
that it is coercive and not propitiatory, the practice does not differ
from ordinary religious rites.
In his theory of the origin of magic Frazer follows the association-
ist school. But, as R. R. Marett has pointed out in a criticism of the
associationist position, it is proved beyond question that even in the
individual mind association by similarity, contiguity or contrast,
is but the passive condition, the important element being interest
and attention. Frazer assumes that magic has everywhere preceded
religion : man tried to control nature by using what he conceived to be
immutable laws; failing in this he came to believe in the existence
of higher powers whom he could propitiate but not coerce; with this
transformation religion appeared on the scene; the priest supplanted
the magician, at least in part, and the first blows were struck in the
perennial warfare of magic and religion. Frazer recognizes, how-
ever, that magical and religious rites are at the present day, and have
been in historical times, frequently intermingled; it should be noted
that for him religion means propitiation and that he does not recognize
the existence of anything beyond magic among the aborigines of
Australia. His theory is based on a selection of facts, and not on the
whole body of beliefs and rites recognized as magical, among which
are many wherein spirits figure. Frazer's position appears to be
that such rites are relatively late and may be neglected in framing
a definition of magic. It may be perfectly true that the idea of
magic has been progressively extended ; but belief in transformation
is also for Dr Frazer magical; this belief is certainly primitive;
yet sympathy will not explain it, as it should if Frazer's theory is
correct.
c. L. Marillier distinguished three classes of magic : (i) the magic
of the word or act; (ii) the magic of the human being, indepen-
dent of rite or formula, &c. ; (iii) the magic which demands at once a
human being of special powers (or in a special state) and the use of
certain forms, (i) Under the first head he included such rites as
mimetic dances, rain-making, disease- making, and sympathetic magic
generally. Some of these rites are conceived to affect the course
of nature directly, as by influencing winds or the sun, others
do so through the intermediary of a god or spirit, who controls
the course of nature, and is himself coerced by man with magical
acts and incantations, (ii) Other rites cannot be performed by all
and sundry: ceremonial purity, initiation or other conditions may
be needed to make the charm effective, (iii) Individuals are found
who are invested with magical power (mana), whose will rules the
universe, whose simple words bring rain or sunshine, and whose
presence gives fertility to the fields. Sometimes this power is an
attribute of the individual, sometimes it is bound up with the office
which he fills. In many cases the magical powers of both men and
other objects, animate and inanimate, are put down to the fact that
a god resides in them.
d. Hubert and Mauss have made the most complete and sys-
tematic study of magic which has yet appeared. They hold that,
implicitly at any rate, magic is everywhere distinguished from other
systems of social facts ; in order to be magical an act or belief must
be common to the whole of a society ; the acts which the whole of a
group does not regard as efficacious are not, for this school of thought ,
magical: consequently the practices of gamesters, &c., do not come
under the head of magic. Magic is essentially traditional; a dis-
tinguishing characteristic of primitive thought is that the individual
mind is markedly unoriginal; and this feature is as prominent, if
not more so, in magic as in technology or any other important ele-
ment in human life. The correspondence between magic and tech-
nology can be traced far; for the gestures of the craftsman are as
strictly prescribed as the ritual acts of the magician or priest : but in
magic the results of the gestures are not of the same order as the
results of the craftsman's movements, and herein lies the distinction
between magic and technic. The distinction between magic and
religion is to be sought not in the sympathetic character of the
former, nor in any supposed necessary sequence of cause and effect,
nor yet in its maleficent character. Religion is prescribed, official,
an organized cult. Magic is prohibited, secret; at most it is per-
mitted, without being prescribed.. Three important laws may be
traced in the machinery of magical operations magical power
flows along channels determined by the contiguity, similarity or
contrast of the object of the act and the object to be affected;
but these laws do not suffice to explain magic: equally insufficient
are the demonological theory and the theory of properties inherent
in the objects used in magical operations. The underlying idea of
magic is dynamical ; to this power may be given the name of mana
(see below), of which sanctity is a special development. This mana
operates in a milieu different from the ordinary material world;
distance is no obstacle to contact ; wishes are immediately realized ;
but law reigns in the milieu in question, necessary relations are con-
ceived as existing. The notion of time as it is found in the world
of magic is even more alien from European ideas; the notion of
sanctity enters into it, but time in magic and religion is qualitative
rather than quantitative. The homogeneity of periods of time not
depending on their duration, conventional numbers are employed;
successive periods of time apparently equal are not so for the primi-
tive consciousness; and both in magic and religion periods are homo-
geneous by reason of occupying the same position m the calendar.
e. For A. Lehmann magic is the practice of superstitions, and his
explanation of magic is purely psychological. Relying mainly on
modern spiritualism for his examples, he traces magic back to illusions,
prejudices and false precepts due to strained attention. This is
ultimately also the view of Hubert and Mauss, who hold that " at
the root of magic are states of consciousness which generate illusions;
and that these states are not individual but collective and arise
from the amalgamation of the ideas of a given person with those
current in the society of which he forms a part." The reunion of a
group supplies a soil in which illusions flourish readily, and it is impor-
tant to note that in magic and religion attention is above all necessary
for the success of a rite, witness the frequent rule imposing silence;
but this concentration of attention is precisely calculated to favour
illusions; it is indeed the ordinary condition of successful hypnotism;
even in civilized countries collective hallucinations without verbal
suggestion are not unknown.
/. R. R. Marett regards religion and magic as two forms of a
social phenomenon originally one and indivisible ; primitive man had
an institution which dealt with the supernatural, and in this institu-
tion were the germs of both magic and religion, which were gradually
differentiated; magic and religion differ in respectability; religion
is always the higher, the accepted cult ; but between what is definitely
religious and what is definitely magical lies a mass of indeterminate
elements, such as " white-magic," which do not attain to the public
recognition of religion, nor suffer the condemnation meted out to
the indisputably magical. For primitive man the abnormal was
the supernormal, and the supernormal was the supernatural, the
object of fear; this is especially evident when we consider the case
of taboo ; it may be regarded as a public scare for which no particular
individual is responsible, which becomes traditional along fairly
constant lines, growing as it goes. Mana was attributed to taboo
objects, among which were men in any way abnormal, whether as
geniuses or idiots; and such men were expected to exercise their
powers for the good of society; hence came into existence the pro-
fessional medicine man; man originally argued from cause to effect
and not vice versa. Priest and magician were originally one; but
the former, learning humility in the face of might greater than his
own, discarded the spell for the prayer and prostratea himself before
a higher power.
Definition of Magic. To arrive at a definition of magic we
may either follow the a priori road mapped out by Frazer and
decline to recognize the distinction actually drawn by various
societies between magical and religious practices; or we may
ask what magic and corresponding terms actually connote.
Frazer's method ignores the fact that magic, like religion, is
an institution, f.e. a product of society, not of any single indi-
vidual; there is no more reason to suppose that a child reared
in isolation would develop any kind of magical practices than
that it would invent for itself a religion; but if this is the case,
306
MAGIC
the associationist account of magic cannot be true. It is there-
fore by an analysis of actually existing practices that we must
define and limit the term magic. There is, however, a serious
difficulty in the way of determining the attitude of non-European
peoples towards religio-magical practices; general terms are
things of slow growth; it is therefore prima facie improbable
that peoples in the lower stages of culture will have anything
corresponding to our terms " religion " and " magic "; more-
over, if we are right in assuming the fundamental unity of the
two, it is by no means certain that they have even the con-
sciousness of any distinction. Even when this consciousness
is present, it by no means follows that the whole of the field is
mapped out according to our categories; there will be a large
indeterminate area which is neither magical nor religious. This
suggests that the consciousness of the educated Occidental, for
which the spheres of magic and religion in civilized society are
sharply defined and contrasted, should be the ultimate arbiter;
but here again we are confronted by a difficulty, for, to the
educated man, the characteristic of magic is its unreality,
and this does not help us to distinguish primitive magic and
religion.
We must, it appears, determine the relation of magic to
religion by an analysis of the conceptions of those who believe
in both ; but in so doing we must consider that, like all other
institutions, magic has a history. Even if we go back to the
i6th century and take the view of magic then held by the
average European, it is still a complex idea. When we ask
what the most primitive races now on the earth regard as
magic, we are applying to their ideas a touchstone made for a
very different age and culture; as well might we ask what their
theory of knowledge is. If, however, we reverse the process and
ask what elements of primitive institutions correspond most
nearly to later conceptions of magic, we can at once say that
the forbidden and private arts are the prototypes of the magic
of later times. Magic is therefore the practice of maleficent
arts which involve the use of religio-magical power, with perhaps
a secondary idea of the use of private arts, which are to benefit,
not the community as a whole, but a single individual. Religion
in the lower stages of culture is essentially the tribal creed which
all practise and in which all believe; if therefore an individual
has a cult of his own, even if otherwise indistinguishable from
a public cult, it is for this very reason on a lower plane, and
probably corresponds in a degree to what is later regarded as
magic. But our information as to the attitude of the uncivilized
towards magico-religious rites in general is seldom sufficiently
clear; our terminology is influenced by the prepossession of
alien observers whose accounts cannot be assumed to-correspond
to the native view of the case.
Magico-religious Force. The mere fact that we cannot draw
an exact line between magic and religion suggests that they may
have some fundamental feature in common. Both terms have
greatly changed their connotation in the course of their ex-
istence; religio seems to have meant originally Kara&o^os
(magical spell), and Pliny says that fiaytia is a deceptive art
compounded of medicine, religion and astrology. Among the
Greeks, on the other hand, fiayeia occupied a respectable
position. More important is the fact that taboo (q.v.) is both
religious and magical. There is a universal tendency to regard
as magical the religions of alien races, as well as national religions
which have been superseded; Lelarid tells us that witchcraft
in Italy is known as la vecchia religione. An examination of the
ideas of primitive peoples shows that there is a widely found
notion of a power which manifests itself both in religion and
magic. Observers have often been content to describe cere-
monies without attempting to penetrate to the fundamental
ideas which underlie them; this is particularly the case with
magic, and only recently have anthropologists realized that in
many primitive societies exists a fairly well-defined idea of
magico-religious power, to which the generic name of mana,
from the Melanesian word, has been given.
a. Mana in Melanesia is a force, a being, an action, a quality, or a
state ; it is transmissible and contagious, and is hence associated with
taboo; it may be regarded as material and seen in the form of flames
or heard ; it is the power which is inherent in certain spirits, among
which are included such of the dead as are denominated tindalos;
it may also be a force inherent in some inanimate object, such as a
stone which causes the yams to grow, but it is a spiritual force and
does not act mechanically ; it is the power of the magician and of the
rite; the magic formula is itself mana. There seem to be a variety
of manas, but probably the underlying idea is essentially one, though
it does not follow that the Melanesians have arrived at the conscious-
ness of this unity. Hubert and Mauss go even further and regard
all force as mana; it is a quality added to objects without prejudice
to their other qualities, one which supplements without destroying
their mechanical action.
6. Similar ideas are found in other areas, (i) The continental
Malays have a word Kramat (hrm), which means sacred or magical;
in Indo-China the Bahnars use the word deng; in Madagascar hasina
seems to embody in part the same notion, (ii) In Africa the idea
is less apparent; perhaps the ngai of the Tanganika tribes comes
nearest to the notion of mana; on the Congo nkici has a similar
but more restricted sense, (iii) In Australia there are two, or perhaps
three, kinds of magical power distinguished by the aborigines ; all
over the continent we find the maleficent power, boolya in West
Australia, arungquiltha in the central tribes, koochie in New South
Wales; the central tribes have certain objects termed churinga, to
which magical power (which we may term churinga) is attributed;
the power of magicians is held to reside in certain stones, called
atnongara, and in this we must, provisionally at any rate, see a third
kind of magical power: churinga is beneficent and seems to originate
with the mythical ancestors, whereas arungquiltha is of immediate
origin, created by means of incantations or acquired by contact
with certain objects; the power of the magicians seems to proceed
from the ancestors in like manner, (iv) In America these ideas
are widely found; the orenda of the Hurons has been elaborately
described by J. N. B. Hewitt; everything in nature, and particularly
all animate objects, have their orenda; so have gods and spirits;
and natural phenomena are the product of the orenda of their spirits.
Orenda is distinct from the things to which it is attached; the cry
of birds, the rustle of the trees, the soughing of the wind, are expres-
sions of their orenda ; the voice of the magician is orenda, so are the
prayer and the spell, and in fact all rites ; orenda -is above all the power
of the medicine man. Among the Algonquins we find the word
manitu, among the Sioux wakanda, mahowa, &c., among the Shoshones
pokunt; all of which seem to carry, at least in part, the same signifi-
cation. In Central America, according to Hubert and Mauss, naval
or nagual is the corresponding term, (v) Traces of similar ideas may
be found in more advanced nations; the Hindu brahman is identified
by Hubert and Mauss as the correlative of mana ; in Greece <}>vais is
possibly the echo of a similar idea; but we are yet far from having
adequately fathomed the dynamical theories of pre-scientific days.
Origin of Magic. The associationist theory of magic sets out
with the assumption that primitive man began with general
conceptions; he started with certain means at his disposal the
law of sympathy by which he could, in his own belief, influence
the outer world. But it is more probable that he argued from
concrete instances and arrived little by little at abstract ideas
of magical power.
a. Death and disease are universally regarded by uncivilized
people as due to so-called " magic," i.e. to non-natural causes.
Primitive man was familiar with the wounds and bruises caused by
physical means; he would naturally attribute any pain not so caused
to the operation of analogous but invisible weapons, and eventually
attempt to discover how he himself could apply on his own behalf
the forces thus used against him. Similarly he may have asked
himself to what causes were to be attributed the superiority of one
man over another; he may have decided the problem by referring
it to the superior power of the one, and then inquired in what way
this power could in individual instances be increased. In fact we may
say generally that man probably explained the already existing
and happening by reference to the supernormal, and then endeavoured
to guide the supernormal for his own benefit, direct or indirect.
b. Ritual, however (the primitive magico-religious plasm), is
negative as well as positive. The corpse is uncanny, and man's
dread of the corpse may well have been an early development ; this
dread, become traditional, with accretions of various sorts, crystal-
lized into taboo, the magico-religious prohibition. The notion of the
uncanny, once arrived at, may have been exploited positively;
psychical abnormalities are present among savage races in very
different degrees; but if they were developed at an early stage in
human history they doubtless suggested the possibility that man
might exploit them for the collective advantage. But it by no means
follows that beneficent rites were originally regarded as magical;
and it should be noted that the initiator of the so-called magician in
Australia is often the god of the tribe or nation. The limits of
magic or its correlatives in the lower stages of culture are thus far
undecided.
c. Magic as it represents itself to the Occidental mind of the pre-
sent day, and perhaps to the great part of theinhabitantsof the world,
MAGIC
307
seems to be a thing of gradual growth, (i) In the earlier stages there
was probably no animistic feature about magic; it was essentially
" the prohibited." (ii) Then with the rise of animistic beliefs and
practices came the association of the magician with demons the
spirits of the dead, or of animals, or unattached spirits upon whose
co-operation the powers of the magician are often now held to depend.
These spirits were not in the position of gods; such recognition,
worship, or cult as they received was often not a social institution,
but the work of individuals, liable to fall into desuetude at the death
of the individual, if not earlier, (iii) Again, the magical tends to
be the less important and eventually the less respectable; therefore
ancient cults which are conquered, like the religion of Rome by
Christianity, come to be reckoned as within the sphere of magic
and witchcraft, (iv) All non-animistic practices tend to become
ipso facto magical; many ritual prohibitions fall under the head
of negative magic. Religion is predominantly animistic, and with
the rise of gods magic and religion become antagonistic. Thus rites
of a neutral character, such as leechcraft, and perhaps agricultural
ceremonies which are not absorbed by religion, tend to acquire the
reputation of being magical, as also do alF amulets and talismans,
and, in fact, everything not directly associated with religion. We
therefore arrive at a period when magic is distinguished as while,
i.e. the laudable, or at least permitted form, and black, i.e. the
prohibited form.
Magic and Demonology. Primitive psychology, tends to
anthropomorphize and personify; it is in many of its stages
inclined to an animistic philosophy. To this is due in part the
difficulty of distinguishing magic from religion. In many rites
there is no obvious indication that a spirit or personal being is
concerned. A portion of the ceremonies in which the spirits of
the dead are concerned falls under the head of religion (see
ANCESTOR WORSHIP), but in the very name " necromancy "
(vtKpos, corpse) lies an implication of magic; and dealings with
the departed are viewed in this light in many parts of the world,
sometimes concurrently with a cult of ancestors. Side by side
with the human souls we find demons (see DEMONOLOGY);
but on the whole only a small proportion of the world of spirits
is recognized as powerful in magic; others, such as disease-
spirits, are objects, not sources, of magical influence. Magic
is sometimes made to depend upon the activity of demons and
spirits, and it is true that the magician usually if not invariably
has a spirit helper, often an animal; but there is no evidence that
magical power had ever been confined to those who are thus aided.
It is not easy to define the relation of fetishism (q.v.) to magic.
Magic and Science. It is a commonplace, that the sciences
have developed from non-scientific beginnings; the root of
astronomy is to be sought in astrology (q.v.), of chemistry in
alchemy (q.v.), of leechcraft in the practices of the savage magi-
cian, who depends for much of his success on suggestion, conscious
or unconscious, but also relies on a pharmacopeia of ho mean
extent. The dynamical theory of magic and religion brings
primitive man from one point of view far nearer to the modern
man of science than was previously suspected, we may fairly
say that the Australians have an idea not unlike that of the trans-
formation and conservation of energy, that this energy they store
in accumulators, transmit by means of conductors, and so on.
The discovery of these complicated ideas only serves to show
how far the present-day peoples in the lower stages of culture
have travelled from the primitive man who knew neither magic
nor religion. But it is perhaps less in respect of abstract ideas
than by its concrete investigations into properties, experiment
and otherwise that magic has been the forerunner of science.
Magic and Divination. Magic is an attempt to influence the
course of events, divination (q.v.) to foresee them; but divination
is frequently regarded as magical. It is certain that a large part
of divination is religious, and the knowledge is explained as a
message from the gods; but necromancy, the practice of dis-
covering the future by consulting the dead, is in many respects
essentially magical. Perhaps the magical character of divina-
tion may be in part explained, when we regard it as a group of
practices in many varieties of which animism plays no part ; for
non-animistic ceremonies tend to be regarded as magical (cf.
rain-making). Thus, heteroscopic divination seems to involve
the idea of what may be termed a return current of magico-
religious force; the event is not influenced, but itself determines
the issue of the diviner's experiment.
II. LAWS AND RlTUAl OF MAGIC
The practice of magic involves the belief in the operation of
certain laws, and demands certain conditions. The number of
positive rites is not unlimited; a certain rite tends to become
stable and is finally used for all sorts of purposes; and each
magician tends to specialize in this respect. Just as there are
well-marked schools of magic, and the rain-maker is not the same
as the fetish-man, so within the school there are various groups,
differentiated not by the purposes at which they aim nor by the
powers they claim to possess, but by the ceremonies which they
practise. Chief among the laws lying at the base of magical
practice is that of sympathy.
Sympathy. That the law of sympathy is an essential element
of magic is admitted equally by the associationist school and by
its critics. Under the head of sympathy are embraced the laws
of contiguity or contagion, of similarity or homoeopathy, and
of contrariety or antipathy.
a. In its simplest form the law of contiguity asserts that whatever
has once formed part of a body continues to form part of it or to
represent it for magical purposes; thus, by obtaining possession of
the parings of a person's nails, or the clippings of his hair, and by
working magic upon them, it is held to be possible to produce on
the actual human body the effects which are in reality produced on
the object of the magical rite. As is clear by the well-known case of the
" life index," the current of magical power may pass in either direc-
tion ; if the life of a man is supposed to be bound up with the life of
a tree, so that any injury to the tree reacts on the man, it is equally
believed that the death of the man will not fail to be manifest by
the state of the tree. In particular this sympathetic relation is
predicated of wizards or witches and their animal familiars; it is
then known by the name of " repercussion." It is not only upon
parts of the body that contagious magic can be worked; anything
which has been in contact with the body, such as clothes, anything
which has been in part assimilated by the body, such as the remains
of food, and even representations of the body or of parts of it such
as footprints, &c., may be used as objects of magical rites, in order
to transmit to the human being some influence, maleficent or other-
wise. The contact demanded may be actual, or mediate, for in
Australia it suffices to connect the magician and his patient by a
thread in order that the disease may be removed, (i) The use of
clothes for magical purposes gives us perhaps the clue to the wide-
spread custom of " rag-trees "; in nearly every part of the world it
is the practice to suspend wool or rags to trees associated with some
spirit, or, in Christian countries, with some saint, in order to reap a
benefit; similarly nails are .driven into trees or images; pins are
dropped into wells, stones are cast upon cairns, and missiles aimed
at various holy objects; but it cannot be assumed that the same ex-
planation lies at the root of the whole group of practices, (ii) This
jaw may perhaps be taken as the explanation of the " couvade ";
in many parts of the world relatives, and in particular the father
of a new-born child, are compelled to .practise various abstinences,
in order that the health of the child may not be affected, member-
jhip of the same family therefore establishes a sympathetic relation,
(iii) In this direct transference of qualities if exemplified another
magical process, which may also be referred to the operation of the
law of sympathy; it is a world- wide belief that the assimilation of
food involves the transference to the eater of the qualities, or of
some of them, inherent in the source of the food ; a South African
warrior, for example, may not eat hedgehog, because the animal is
held to be cowardly and the eater would himself become a coward ;
on the other hand, the flesh of lions is fit meat for brave men, because
they at the same time transfer its courage to themselves.
6. The law of homoeopathy takes two forms, (i) The magician
may proceed on the assumption that like produces like ; he may, for
example, take an image of wax or wood, and subject it to heat or
other influences under the belief that it represents the human being
against whom his malefice is directed, and that without any contact,
real or pretended ; so that any results produced on the image, which
may be replaced by an animal or a portion of one, are equally pro-
duced in the human being. There need not even be any resemblance
between the representation and the person or thing represented; a
pot may serve to represent a village ; hence step by step we pass from
the representation to the symbol, (ii) The law of homoeopathy also
manifests itself in the formula similia similibus curantur; the Brah-
man in India treated dropsy with ablutions, not in order to add to,
but to subtract from, the quantity of liquid in the patient's body.
So, too, the yellow turmeric was held to be a specific for jaundice.
c. Here we approach the third class of sympathetic rites; it is
clear that a remedy produces the contrary, when it cures the like;
conversely, like by producing like expels its contrary.
Some statements of the law of sympathy suggest that it is
absolute in its application. It is true that the current of magical
power is sometimes held to be transmitted along lines indicated
3 o8
MAGIC
by the law of sympathy, without the intervention of any volition,
human or otherwise; thus, the crow which carries stray hairs
away to weave them into the structure of its nest is nowhere
supposed to be engaged in a magical process; but it is commonly
held that the person whose hair is thus used will suffer from head-
ache or other maladies; this seems to indicate that the law of
sympathy operates mechanically in certain directions, though
the belief may also be explained as a secondary growth. In
general the operation of these laws is limited in the extreme.
For example, the medieval doctrine known as the Law of Signa-
tures asserted that the effects of remedies were correlated to their
external qualities; bear's grease is good for baldness, because
the bear is a hairy animal. But the transference was held to
terminate with the acquisition by the man of this single quality;
in some magical books powdered mummy is recommended
as a means of prolonging life, but it is simply the age of the
remedy which is to benefit the patient; the magician who removes
a patient's pains or diseases does not transfer them to himself;
the child whose parents eat forbidden foods is held to be affected
by their transgression, while they themselves come off unharmed.
The magical effects are limited by exclusive attention and ab-
straction ; and this is true not only of the kind of effect produced
but also as to the direction in which it is held to be produced.
The Magic of Names. For primitive peoples the name is as
much a part of the person as a limb; consequently the magical
use of names is in some of its aspects assimilable to the processes
dependent on the law of sympathy. In some cases the name
must be withheld from any one who is likely to make a wrong use
of it, and in some parts of the world people have secret names
which are never used. Elsewhere the name must not be told
by the bearer of it, but any other person may communicate it
without giving an opening for the magical use of it. Not only
human beings but also spirits can be coerced by the use of their
names; hence the names of the dead are forbidden, lest the men-
tion of them act as an evocation, unintentional though it be.
Even among more advanced nations it has been the practice to
conceal the real name of supreme gods; we may probably explain
this as due to the fear that an enemy might by the use of them
turn the gods away from those to whom they originally belonged.
For the same reason ancient Rome had a secret name.
Magical Rites. The magic of names leads us up to the magic of
the spoken word in general. The spell or incantation and the
magical act together make up the rite, (a) The manual acts are
very frequently symbolic or sympathetic in their nature; sometimes
they are mere' reversals of a religious rite ; such is the marching
against the sun (known as luiddershins or deisul) ; sometimes they
are purificatory ; and magic has its sacrifices just as much as religion.
(6) There are many types of oral rites; some of the most curious
consist in simply reciting the effect intended to be produced, describ-
ing the manual act, or, especially in Europe, telling a mythical
narrative in which Christ or the apostles figure, and in which they
are represented as producing a similar effect to the one desired ; in
other cases the " origin " of the disease or maleficent being is recited.
Oral rites, which are termed spells or incantations, correspond in
many cases to the oral rites of religion; they, like the manual rites,
are a heterogeneous mass and hardly lend themselves to classifica-
tion. Some formulae may be termed sympathetic; it suffices to
name the result to be produced in order to produce it ; but often an
incantation is employed, not to produce a result directly, but to
coerce a god or other being and compel him to fulfil the magician's
will. The language of the incantations often differs from that of
daily life; it may be a survival of archaic forms or may be a special
creation for magical purposes. In many languages the word used
to express the idea of magic means an act, a deed ; and it may be
assumed that few if any magical ceremonies consist of formulae only ;
on the other hand, it is certain that no manual act in magic stands
absolutely alone without oral rite; if there is no spoken formula,
there is at least an unspoken thought. It is in many cases difficult
to discover the relative proportions and importance of manual and
oral acts. _ Not only the words but also the tone are of importance
in magic ; in fact, the tone may be the more important. Rhythm
and repetition are no less necessary in oral than in manual acts, (c)
As preliminaries, more seldom as necessary sequels to the central
feature of the rite, manual or oral, we usually find a certain number
of accessory observances prescribed, which find their parallel in the
sacrificial ritual. For example, it is laid down at what time of year,
at what period of the month or week, at what hour of the day a rite
must be performed ; the waxing or waning of the moon must be noted ;
and certain days must be avoided altogether. Similarly, certain
places may be prescribed for the performance of the ritual ; often
the altar of the god serves magical purposes also ; but elsewhere it
is precisely the impure sites which are devoted to magical operations
the cemeteries and the cross roads. The instruments of magic
are in like manner often the remains of a sacrifice, or otherwise
consecrated by .religion; sometimes, especially when they belong
to the animal or vegetable world, they must be sought at certain
seasons, May Day, St George's Day, Midsummer Day, &c. The
magician and his client must undergo rites of preparation rrd the
exit may be marked by similar ceremonies.
Magicians. Most peoples know the professional worker of magic,
or what is regarded as magic, (a) In most if not all societies magic,
or certain sorts of it, may be performed by any one, so far as we can
see, who has mastered the necessary ritual ; in other cases the magician
is a specialist who owes his position to an accident of birth (seventh
son of a seventh son) ; to simple inheritance (families of magicians
in modern India, rain-makers in New Caledonia) ; to revelation from
the gods or the spirits of the dead (Malays), showing itself in the
phenomena of possession ; or to initiation by other magicians.
(6) From a psychical point of view it may probably be said that the
initiation of a magician corresponds to the " development " of the
modern spiritualistic medium ; that is to say, that it resolves itself
into exercises and rites which have for their object the creation or
evolution of a secondary personality. From this point of view it is
important to notice that certain things are forbidden to magicians
under pain of loss of their powers ; thus, hot tea is taboo to the Arunta
medicine man; and if this seems unlikely to cause the secondary
personality to disappear, it must be remembered that to the physio-
logical effects, if any, must be added the effects of suggestion. Of
this duplication of personality various explanations are given ; in
Siberia the soul of the shaman is said to wander into the other world,
and this is a widely spread theory ; where the magician is supposed
to remain on earth, his soul is again believed to wander, but there
is an alternative explanation which gives him two or more bodies.
Here we reach a point at which the familiar makes its appearance;
this is at times a secondary form of the magician, but more often is
a sort of life index or animal helper (see LYCANTHROPY) ; in fact, the
magician's power is sometimes held to depend on the presence that
is, the independence of his animal auxiliary. Concurrent with this
theory is the view that the magician must first enter into a trance
before the animal makes its appearance, and this makes it a double
of the magician, or, from the psychological point of view, a phase of
secondary personality, (c) In many parts of the world magical
powers are associated with the membership of secret societies, and
elsewhere the magicians form a sort of corporation; in Siberia, for
example, they are held to be united by a certain tie of kinship ; where
this is not the case, they are believed, as in Africa at the present day
or in medieval Europe, to hold assemblies, so-called witches Sabbaths ;
in Europe the meetings of heretics seem to be responsible for the
prominence of the idea if not for its origin (see WITCHCRAFT). The
magician is often regarded as possessed (see POSSESSION) either by
an animal or by a human or super-human spirit. The relations of
priest and magician are for various reasons complex; where the
initiation of the magician is regarded as the work of the gods, the
magician is for obvious reasons likely to develop into a priest, but
he may at the same time remain a magician; where a religion has
been superseded, the priests of the ojd cult are, for those who super-
sede them, one and all magicians; in the medieval church, priests
were regarded as especially exposed to the assaults of demons, and
were consequently often charged with working magic. The great
magicians who are gods rather than men e.g. kings of Fire and Water
in Cambodia enjoy a reverence and receive a cult which separates
them from the common herd, and assimilates them to priests rather
than to magicians. The function of the so-called magician is often
said to be beneficent; in Africa the witch-doctor's business is to
counteract evil magic; in Australia the magician has to protect his
own tribe against the assaults of hostile magicians of other tribes;
and in Europe " white magic " is the correlative of this beneficent
power; but it may be questioned how far the beneficent virtue is
regarded as magical outside Europe.
Talismans and Amulets. Inanimate objects as well as living
beings are credited with stores of magical force; when they are
regarded as bringing good, i.e. are positive in their action, they may
be termed "talismans"; "amulets" are protective or negative
in their action, and their function is to avert evil; a single object
may serve both purposes. Broadly speaking, the fetish, whose
" magical " properties are due to association with a spirit, tends to
become a talisman or amulet. The " medicine " of the Red Indian,
originally carried as means of union between him and his manito, is
perhaps the prototype of many European charms. In other cases
it is some specific quality of the object or animal which is desired;
the boar's tusk is worn on the Papuan Gulf as a means of imparting
courage to the wearer; the Lukungen Indians of Vancouver Island
rub the ashes of wasps on the faces of their warriors, in order that
they may be pugnacious. Some Bechuanas wear a ferret as a charm,
in the belief that it will make them difficult to kill, the animal being
very tenacious of life. Among amulets may be mentioned horns
and crescents, eyes or their representations, and grotesque figures,
all of which are supposed to be powerful against the Evil Eye (q.v.).
MAGIC
39
Tylor has shown that the brass objects so often seen on harness were
originally amuletic in purpose, and can be traced back to Roman
times. Some amulets are supposed to protect from the evil eye
k simply by attracting the glance from the wearer to themselves, but,
as a rule, magical power is ascribed to them.
Evil Magic. The object of " black " magic is to inflict injury,
disease, or death on an enemy, and the various methods employed
illustrate the general principles dealt with above and emphasize the
conclusion that magic is not simply a matter of sympathetic rites,
but involves a conception of magical force, (a) It has been men-
tioned that contagious magic makes use of portions of a person's
body ; the Cherokee magician follows his victim till he spits on the
ground ; collecting the spittle mingled with dust on the end of a stick,
the magician puts it into a tube made of a poisonous plant together
with seven earth worms, beaten into a paste, and splinters of a tree
blasted by lightning; the whole is buried with seven yellow stones
at the foot of a tree struck by lightning, and a fire is built over the
spot ; the magician fasts till the ceremony is over. Probably the
worms are supposed to feed on the victim's soul, which is said to
become " blue " when the charm works; the yellow stones are the
emblem of trouble, and lightning-struck trees are reputed powerful
in magic. If the charm does not work, the victim survives the
criticalseven days, and the magician and his employer are themselves
in danger, for a charm gone wrong returns upon the head of him who
sent it forth. (b) In homoeopathic magic the victim is represented
by an image or other object. In the Malay Peninsula the magician
makes an image like a corpse, a footstep long. " If you want to
cause sickness, you pierce the eye and blindness results; or you pierce
the waist and the stomach gets sick. If you want to cause death,
you transfix the head with a palm twig; then you enshroud the image
as you would a corpse and you pray over it as if you were praying
over the dead ; then you bury it in the middle of the path which leads
to the place of the person whom you wish to charm, so that he may
step over it." Sometimes the wizard repeats a form of words
signifying that not he but the Archangel Gabriel is burying the
victim; sometimes he exclaims, " It is not wax I slay but the liver,
heart and spleen of So-and-so." Finally, the image is buried in front
of the victim's doors, (c) Very widespread is the idea that a magician
can influence his victim by charming a bone, stick or other object,
and then projecting the magical influence from it. It is perhaps
the commonest form of evil magic in Australia; in the Arunta tribe
a man desirous of using one of these pointing sticks or bones goes
away by himself into the bush, puts the bone on the ground and
crouches over it, muttering a charm : " May your heart be rent
asunder." After a time he brings the irna back to the camp and
hides it ; then one evening after dark he takes it and creeps near
enough to see the features of his victim; he stoops down with the
irna in his hand and repeatedly jerks it over his shoulder, muttering
curses all the time. The evil magic, arungquUtha, is said to go
straight to the victim, who sickens and dies without apparent cause,
unless some medicine-man can discover what is wrong and save him
by removing the evil magic. The irna is concealed after the cere-
mony, for the magician would at once be killed if it were known that
he had used it. (d) Magicians are often said to be able to assume
animal form or to have an animal familiar. They are said to suck
the victim's blood or send a messenger to do so; sometimes they are
said to steal his soul, thus causing sickness and eventually death.
These beliefs bring the magician into close relation with the werwolf
(see LYCANTHROPY).
Rain-making. In the lower stages of culture rain-making assumes
rather the appearance of a religious ceremony, and even in higher
stages the magical character is by no means invariably felt. It will,
however, be well to notice some of the methods here, (a) Among
the Dieri of Central Australia the whole tribe takes part in the
ceremony ; a hole is dug, and over this a hut is built, large enough for
the old men ; the women are called to look at it and then retire some
five hundred yards. Two wizards have their arms bound at the
shoulder, the old men huddle in the hut, and the principal wizard
bleeds the two men selected by cutting them inside the arm below
the elbow. The blood is made to flow on the old men, and the two
men throw handfuls of down into the air. The blood symbolizes
the rain ; the down is the clouds. Then two large stones are placed
in the middle of the hut ; these two represent gathering clouds. The
women are again summoned, and then the stones are placed high
in a tree; other men pound gypsum and throw it into a water-hole;
the ancestral spirits are supposed to see this and to send rain. Then
the hut is knocked down, the men butting at it with their heads; this
symbolizes the breaking of the clouds, and the fall of the hut is the
rain. If no rain comes they say that another tribe has stopped their
power or that the Mura-mura (ancestors) are angry with them.
(b) Rain-making ceremonies are far from uncommon in Europe.
Sometimes water is poured on a stone; a row of stepping-stones runs
into one of the tarns on Snowdon, and it is said that water thrown
upon the last one will cause rain to fall before night. Sometimes the
images of saints are carried to a river or a fountain and ducked or
sprinkled_with water in the belief that rain will follow; sometimes
ram is said to ensue when the water of certain springs is troubled ;
perhaps the idea is that the rain-god is disturbed in his haunts. But
perhaps the commonest method is to duck or drench a human figure
or puppet, who represents in many instances the vegetation demon.
The gipsies of Transylvania celebrate the festival of " Green George "
at Easter or on St George's Day; a boy dressed up in leaves and
blossoms is the principal figure; he throws grass to the cattle of the
tribe, and after various other ceremonies a pretence is made of throw-
ing him into the water; but in fact only a puppet is ducked in the
stream.
Negative Magic. There is also a negative side to magic,
which, together with ritual prohibitions of a religious nature, is
often embraced under the name of taboo (q.v.) ; this extension of
meaning is not justified, for taboo is only concerned with sacred
things, and the mark of it is that its violation causes the taboo
to be transmitted. All taboos are ritual prohibitions, but all
ritual prohibitions are not taboos; they include also (a) inter-
dictions of which the sanction is the wrath of a god; these may
be termed religious interdictions; (b) interdictions, the violation
of which will automatically cause some undesired magico-religious
effect; to these the term negative magic should be restricted,
and they might conveniently be called " bans "; they correspond
in the main to positive rites and are largely based on the same
principles.
(a) Certain prohibitions, such as those imposed on totem kins,
seem to occupy an intermediate place; they depend on the sanctity
of the totem animal without being taboos in the strict sense ; to them
no positive magical rites correspond, for the totemic prohibition is
clearly religious, not magical.
(b) Among cases of negative magic may be mentioned (i.) the
couvade, and prohibitions observed by parents and relatives gener-
ally ; this is most common in the case of young children, but a sym-
pathetic relation is held to exist in other cases also. In Madagascar
a son may not eat fallen bananas, for the result would be to cause
the death of his own father; the sympathy between father and son
establishes a sympathy between the father and objects touched or
eaten by the son, and, in addition, the fall of the bananas is equated
with the death of a human being. Again, the wife of a Malagasy
warrior may not be faithless to him when he is absent ; if she is,
he will be killed or wounded. Ownership, too, may create a sym-
pathetic relation of this kind, for it is believed in parts of Europe
that if a man _kills a swallow his cows will give bloody milk. In
some cases it is even harder to see how the sympathetic bond is
established; some Indians of Brazil always hamstring animals before
bringing them home, in the belief that by so doing they make it
easier for themselves and their children to run down their enemies,
who are then magically deprived of the use of their legs. These are
all examples of negative magic with regard to persons, but things
may be equally affected ; thus in Borneo men who search for camphor
abstain from washing their plates for fear the camphor, which is
found crystallized in the crevices of trees, should dissolve and dis-
appear, (ii.) Rules which regulate diet exist not only for the benefit
of others but also for that of the eater. Some animals, such as the
hare, are forbidden, just as others, like the lion, are prescribed;
the one produces cowardice, while the other makes a man's heart
bold, (iii.) Words may not be used; Scottish fishermen will not
mention the pig at sea; the real names of certain animals, like the
bear, may not be used ; the names of the dead may not be mentioned ;
a sacred language must be used, e.g. camphor language in the Malay
peninsula, or only words of good omen (cf. Gr. 60j|/ire) ; or
absolute silence must be preserved. Personal names are concealed ;
a man may not mention the names of certain relatives, &c. There
are customs of avoidance not only as to (iv.) the names of relatives,
but as to the persons themselves; the mother-in-law must avoid the
son-in-law, and vice versa; sometimes they may converse at a
distance, or in low tones, sometimes not at all, and sometimes they
may not even meet, (v.) In addition to these few classes selected at
random, we have prohibitions relating to numbers (cf. unlucky
thirteen, which is, however, of recent date), the calendar (Friday as
an unlucky day, May as an unlucky month for marriage), places,
persons, orientation, &c ; but it is impossible to enumerate even the
main classes. The individual origin of such beliefs, which with us
form the superstitions of daily life but in a savage or semi-civilized
community play a large part in regulating conduct, is often shrouded
in darkness; the meaning of the positive rite is easily forgotten; the
negative rite persists, but it is observed merely to avoid some
unknown misfortune. Sometimes we can, however, guess at the
meaning of our civilized notions of ill luck; it is perhaps as a
survival of the savage belief that stepping over a person is injurious
to him that many people regard going under a ladder as unlucky;
in the one case the luck is taken away by the person stepping
over, in the other left behind by the person passing under.
History of Magic. The subject is too vast and our data are
too slight to make a general sketch of magic possible. Our
knowledge of Assyrian magic, for example, hardly extends
beyond the rites of exorcism ; the magic of Africa is most inade-
quately known, and only in recent years have we well-analysed
310
MAGIC SQUARE
repertories of magical rituals from any part of the world. For
certain departments of ancient magic, however, like the Pytha-
gorean philosophy, there is no lack of illustrative material; it
depended on mystical speculations based on numbers or analo-
gous principles. The importance of numbers is recognized in
the magic of America and other areas, but the science of the
Mediterranean area, combined with the art of writing, was needed
to develop such mystical ideas to their full extent. Among the
neo-Platonists there was a strong tendency to magical specula-
tion, and they sought to impress into their service the demons
with which they peopled the universe. Alexandria was the
home of many systems of theurgic magic, and gnostic gems
afford evidence of the nature of their symbols. In the middle
ages the respectable branches of magic, such as astrology and
alchemy, included much of the real science of the period; the
rise of Christianity introduced a new element, for the Church
regarded all the religions of the heathen as dealings with demons
and therefore magical (see WITCHCRAFT). In our own day the
occult sciences still find devotees among the educated; certain
elements have acquired a new interest, in so far as they are the
subject matter of psychical research (q.v.) and spiritualism (q.v.).
But it is only among what are regarded as the lower classes,
and in England especially the rural population, that belief in its
efficacy still prevails to any large extent.
Psychology of Magic. The same causes which operated to
produce a belief in witchcraft (q.v.) aided the creed of magic in
general. Fortuitous coincidences attract attention; the failures
are disregarded or explained ' away. Probably the magician is
never wholly an impostor, and frequently has a whole-hearted
belief in himself; in this connexion may be noted the fact that
juggling tricks have in all ages been passed off as magical; the
name of " conjuring " (q.v.) survives in our own day, though the
conjurer no longer claims that his mysterious results are produced
by demons. It is interesting to note that magical leechcraft
depended for its success on the power of suggestion (q.v.), which
is to-day a recognized element in medicine; perhaps other ele-
ments may have been instrumental in producing a cure, for there
are cases on record in which European patients have been cured
by the apparently meaningless performances of medicine-men,
but an adequate study of savage medicine is still a desideratum.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a general discussion of magic with a list of
selected works see Hubert and Mauss in Annee sociologique, vii.
1-146; also A. Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei; the article
" Religion " in La Grande encyclopedic; K. T. Preuss in Globus,
vols. 86, 87; Mauss, L'Origine des pouvoirs magiques, and Hubert,
La Representation du temps (Reports of Ecole pratique des
hautes Etudes, Paris). For general bibliographies see Hauck,
Realencyklopddie, s.v. " Magie ' ; A. C. Haddon, Magic and Fetish-
ism. J. G. T. Graesse's Bibliotlieca magica is an exhaustive list of
early works dealing with magic and superstition. For Australia
see Spencer and Gillen's works, and A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes.
For America see Reports of Bureau of Ethnology, vii. xvii. For
India see W. Caland, Altindisches Zauber-ritual; and W. Crooke,
Popular Religion; also V. Henry, La Magie. For the Malays see
W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic. For Babylonia and Assyria see L. W.
King's works. For magic in Greece and Rome see Daremberg and
Saglio, s.v. " Magia," " Amuletum," &c. For medieval magic see
A. Maury, La Magie. For illustrations of magic see J. G. Frazer,
The Golden Bough; E. S. Hartland, Legend of Perseus; E. B. Tylor,
Primitive Culture; W. G. Black, Folkmedicine. For negative magic
see the works of Frazer and Skeat cited above; also Journ. Anthrop.
Inst. xxxvi. 92-103; Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie (Verhandlungen)
(1905), 153-162; Bulletin trimestriel de I'academie malgache, iii.
JOS-tSQ- See also bibliography to TABOO and WITCHCRAFT.
(N. W. T.)
MAGIC SQUARE, a square divided into equal squares, like a
chess-board, in each of which is placed one of a series of con-
secutive numbers from i up to the square of the number of cells
in a side, in such a manner that the sum of the numbers in each
row or column and in each diagonal is constant.
From a very early period these squares engaged the attention
of mathematicians, especially such as possessed a love of the
marvellous, or sought to win for themselves a superstitious
regard. They were then supposed to possess magical properties,
and were worn, as in India at the present day, engraven in metal
or stone, as amulets or talismans. According to the old astro-
logers, relations subsisted between these squares and the planets.
In later times such squares ranked only as mathematical curiosi-
ties; till at last their mode of construction was systematically
investigated. The earliest known writer on the subject was
Emanuel Moscopulus, a Greek (4th or 5th century). Bernard
Frenicle de Bessy constructed magic squares such that if one or
more of the encircling bands of numbers be taken away the
remaining central squares are still magical. Subsequently
Poignard constructed squares with numbers in arithmetical pro-
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FIG. i.
gression, having the magical summations. The later researches of
Phillipe de la Hire, recorded in the Memoires de V Academic
Roy ale in 1705, are interesting as giving general methods of
construction. He has there collected the results of the labours
of earlier pioneers; but the subject has now been fully systema-
tized, and extended to cubes.
Two interesting magical arrangements are said to have been given
by Benjamin Franklin; these have been termed the " magic square
of squares " and the " magic circle of circles." The first (fig. i)
is a square divided into 256 squares, i.e. 1 6 squares along a side, in
FIG. 2.
which are placed the numbers from I to 256. The chief properties of
this square are (i) the sum of the 16 numbers in any row or column
is 2056; (2) the sum of the 8 numbers in half of any row or column
is 1028, i.e. one half of 2056; (3) the sum of the numbers in two half-
diagonals equals 2056; (4) the sum of the four corner numbers of
the great square and the four central numbers equals 1028 ; (5) the
sum of the numbers in any 16 cells of the large square which them-
selves are disposed in a square is 2056. This square has other curious
MAGIC SQUARE
properties. The " magic circle of circles " (fig. 2) consists of eight
annular rings and a central circle, each ring being divided into eight
rrlU by radii drawn from the centre; there are therefore 65 cells.
The number 12 is placed in the centre, and the consecutive numbers
13 to 75 are placed in the other cells. The properties of this figure
include the following: (l) the sum of the eight numbers in any ring
together with the central number 12 is 360, the number of degrees
in a circle; (2) the sum of the eight numbers in any set of radial cells
together with the central number is 360; (3) the sum of the numbers
in any four adjoining cells, either annular, radial, or both radial
and two annular, together with half the central number, is 1 80.
Construction of Magic Squares. A square of 5 (fig. 3) has
adjoining it one of the eight equal squares by which any square
may be conceived to
be surrounded, eacli of
which has two sides
resting on adjoining
squares, while four
have sides resting on
the surrounded square,
and four meet it only
at its four angles. 1,2,
a
e
s
<
4
b
a
4
S
7
C
3
1
M
ft
d
if
a
e
FIG. 3.
3 are placed along the path of a knight in chess; 4, along the same
path, would fall in a cell of the outer square, and is placed instead
in the corresponding cell of the original square; 5 then falls
within the square, a, b, c, d are placed diagonally in the square;
but e enters the outer square, and is removed thence to the same
cell of the square it had left, a, /3, j, S, f pursue another regular
course; and the diagram shows how that course is recorded in
the square they have twice left. Whichever of the eight sur-
rounding squares may be entered, the corresponding cell of the
central square is taken instead. The i, 2, 3, ... ., a, b, c, . . . .,
o, (3, 7, .... are said to lie in "paths."
Squares whose Roots are Odd. Figs 4, 5, and 6 exhibit one of
the earliest methods of constructing magic squares. Here the
I
4
X
S
3
4
S
3
I
S
3
X
4
S
3
i
4
3
I
4
a
S
FIG. 6.
FIG. 4. FIG. 5.
3*s in fig. 4 and 2's in fig. 5 are placed in opposite diagonals to
secure the two diagonal summations; then each number in fig. 5
is multiplied by 5 and added to that in the corresponding square
in fig. 4, which gives the square of fig. 6. Figs. 7, 8 and 9 give
De la Hire's method; the squares of figs. 7 and 8, being combined,
give the magic square of fig. 9. C. G. Bachet arranged the num-
bers as in fig. 10, where there are three numbers in each of four
surrounding squares; these being placed in the corresponding cells
of the central square, the square of fig. 1 1 is formed. He also con-
a
l
S
3
4
3
4
a
I
S
I
5
3
4
a
4
a
i
S
3
5
3
4
a
t
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
FIG. 9.
structed squares such that if one or more outer bands of numbers
are removed the remaining central squares are magical. His
method of forming them may be understood from a square of 5.
Here each summation is 5X13; if therefore 13 is subtracted from
each number, the summations will be zero, and the twenty-five
cells will contain the series i, =*= 2, 3 * 12, the odd
cell having o. The central square of 3 is formed with four of the
twelve numbers with + and signs and zero in the middle; the
band is filled up with the rest, as in fig. 12; then, 13 being added
in each cell, the magic square of fig. 13 is obtained.
Squares whose Roots are Even. These were constructed in
various ways, similar to that of 4 in figs. 14, 1 5 and 16. The num-
bers in fig. 1 5 being multiplied by 4, and the squares of figs. 14
and 15 being superimposed, give fig. 16. The application of
11
7
3
12
8
'7
'3
9
18
4
3
19
'S
FIG. 10. FIG. ii.
this method to squares the half of whose roots are odd requires
a complicated adjustment. Squares whose half root is a multiple
of 4, and in which there are summations along all the diagonal
-9
12
S
-
-6
4
3S
i*
ti
7
1
7
-li
4
-I
M
ao
a
17
-8
-3
o
3
L 8
S
M
3
16
at
10
-4
ii
7
-10
*3
9
4
3
6
-i*
-S
*
9
<9
i
8
s
22
FIG. 12. FIG. 13.
paths, may be formed, by observing, as when the root is 4, that
the series i to 16 may be changed into the series 15, 13
3, i, -i, -3, . . . .-13,-is, by multiplying each number by a
FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16.
and subtracting 1 7 ; and, vice versa, by adding 17 to each of the
latter, and dividing by 2. The diagonal summations of a square,
filled as in fig. 17, make zero; and, to obtain the same in the rows
A
A
,
*
-3
IX
-9
f,
A
3
.
-s
7
-S
>3
-a,
-j
-A
-A
-IX
9
-I
3
-s
-4
-A
-A
>5
-'3
S
-7
FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19.
and columns, we must assign such values to the />'s and g's as
satisfy the equations pi + P^ + ai + a t = o, p s + pi + as -f 04 = O,
pi + p> cti 03 = O, and p t + p t a t a t = O, a solution of
which is readily obtained by inspection, as in fig. 18; this leads
to the square, fig. 19. When
the root is 8, the upper four
subsidiary rows may at once
be written, as in fig, 20; then,
if 65 be added to each, and
the sums halved, the square
is completed. In such squares
as these, the two opposite
squares about the same diagonal (except that of 4) may be
turned through any number of right angles, in the same
direction, without altering the summations.
Nasik Squares. Squares that have many more summations than
in rows, columns and diagonals were investigated by A. H. Frost
(Cambridge Math. Jour., 1857), and called Nasik squares, from the
town in India where he resided; and he extended the method to
cubes, various sections of which have the same singular properties.
In order to understand their construction it will be necessary to
-i
3
5
-7
-33
35
37
-39
9
-IX
-3
IS
41
-43
-45
47
'7
-9
-IX
*3
49
-S'
-S3
Si
-S
7
*9
-3
-57
S9
61
-63
FIG. 20.
312
MAGIC SQUARE
a
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
d
g
c
f
b
e
a
e
e
g
b
d
f
a
f
d
b
S
t
c
a
e
b
f
c
e
d
a
b
c
d
e
f
sr
h
h
h
h
h
h
FIG. 21.
consider carefully fig. 21, which shows that, when the root is a prime,
and not composite, number, as 7, eight letters a, b, . . . h may proceed
from any, the same, cell, suppose that marked o, each letter being
repeated in the cells along different paths. These eight paths are
called " normal paths," their number being one more than the root
Observe here that, excepting the cells from which any two letters
start, they do not occupy again the
same cell, and that two letters, starting
from any two different cells along differ-
ent paths, will appear together in one
and only one cell. Hence, if p L be placed
in the cells of one of the n+l normal
paths, each of the remaining n normal
paths will contain one, and only one,
of these />,'s. If now we fill each row
with p 2 , P 3 , . . . p n in the same order,
commencing from the pi in that row,
the /> 2 's, ^ 3 's and n 's will lie each in a
path similar to that of p l: and each of
the n normal paths will contain one,
and only one, of the letters p,, p 2 , . . . ,
whose sum will be 2p. Similarly, if
gi be placed along any of the normal paths, different from that of
the p's, and each row filled as above with the letters g 2 , g 3 , . . . q n ,
the sum of the g's along any normal path different from that of
the gi will be 2g. The n 2 cells of the square will now be found to
contain all the combinations of the p's and g's; and if the g's
be multiplied by n, the p's made equal to 1,2,... n, and the g's
to o, i, 2,. . .(n i) in any order, the Nasik square of n will be
obtained, and the summations along all the normal paths, except
those traversed by the p's and g's, will be the constant 2ng + 2.
When the root is an odd composite number, as 9, 15, &c., it will be
found that in some paths, different from the two along which the
pi and gi were placed, instead of having each of the p's and g's,
some will be wanting, while some are repeated. Thus, in the case
of 9, the triplets, p,p t p 7 , pj>,p s , p 3 PeP e ,and g,g,g 7 , g,g 5 g s , g^, occur,
each triplet thrice, along paths whose summation should be 2/> 45
and 2r 36. But if we make p,, p it . . .p g , = i, 3, 6, 5, 4, 7, 9, 8, 2, and
the TI, r 2 , . . .r 9 =o, 2, 5, 4, 3, 6, 8, 7, i, thrice each of the above sets
of triplets will equal 2/> and
2g respectively. If now the
g's are multiplied by 9, and
added to the p's in their
several cells, we shall have a
Nasik square, with a constant
summation along eight of its
ten normal paths. In fig. 22
the numbers are in the nonary
scale; that in the centre is
the middle one of I to 9 2 , and
the sum of pair of numbers
equidistant from and opposite
to the central 45 is twice 45;
and the sum of any number
and the 8 numbers 3 from it,
diagonally, and in its row and
column, is the constant Nasi-
cal summation, e.g. 72 and
32, 22, 76, 77, 26, 37, 36, 27. The numbers in fig. 22 being kept
in the nonary scale, it is not necessary to add any nine of them
together in order to test the Nasical summation; for, taking the
first column, the figures in the place of units are seen at once
to form the series, I, 2, 3 9, and those in the other place three
triplets of 6, I, 5. For the squares of 15 the p's and g's may be
respectively 1,2, 10, 8, 6, 14, 15, 11,4, 13,9, 7,3, 12, 5, ando, 1,9,7.
5, 13, 14, 10, 3, 12, 8, 6, 2, ii, 4, where five times the sum of every
third number and three times the sum of every fifth number makes
and 2g; then, if the g's are multiplied by 15, and added to the
^>'s, the Nasik square of 15
is obtained. When the root
is the multiple of 4, the same
process gives us, for the
square of 4, fig. 23. Here
the columns give.2/>, but
alternately 2g,, 2g 3 , and 2g 2 ,
2g, ; and the rows give 2g,
but alternately 2pi, 2p 3 ,
and 2p 2 , 2p t ; the diagonals
3
88
74
'3
8
M
ST
48
34
zl
9
*S
Si
49
35
61
89
75
5'
47
3
6*
87
76
12
7
26
68
84
73
18
4
*3
5
44
33
'9
S
21
59
45
3i
69
85
7i
57
4
3*
7
86
1*
'7
6
22
4
83
7
M
3
18
54
43
38
IS
i
*9
55
4
39
5
81
79
56
4>
37
66
8s
77
16
27
FIG. 22.
FIG. 24.
FIG. 23.
giving 2/> and 2g. If p t ,' P v *p\, p t and"g,, g 2 , g 3 , q t be I, 2, 4, 3,
and o, 1,3, 2, we have the Nasifc square of ng. 24. A square like this
is engraved in the Sanskrit character on the gate of the fort of
Gwalior, in India. The squares of higher multiples of 4 are readily
obtained by a similar adjustment.
Nasik Cubes. A Nasik cube is composed of n 3 small equal cubes,
here called cubelets, in the centres of which the natural numbers
from i to n' are so placed that every section of the cube by planes
perpendicular to an edge has the properties of a Nasik square ; also
sections by planes perpendicular to a face, and passing through the
cubelet centres of any path of Nasical summation in that face.
Fig. 25 shows by dots the way in which these cubes are constructed.
A dot is here placed on three faces of a cubelet at the corner, showing
that this cubelet belongs to each of the faces AOB, BOC, COA, of
the cube. Dots are placed on the cubelets of some path of AOB
(here the knight's path), beginning from O, also on the cubelets of
a knight's path in BOC. Dots are now placed in the cubelets of
similar paths to that on BOC in the other six sections parallel to
BOC, starting from their dots in AOB. Forty-nine of the three
hundred and forty-three cubelets will now contain a dot; and
it will be observed that the dots in sections perpendicular to BO
have arranged themselves in similar
paths. In this manner, p t , g p r,
being placed in the corner cubelet
0, these letters are severally placed
in the cubelets of three different
paths of AOB, and again along
any similar paths in the seven
sections perpendicular to AO, start-
ing from the letters' position in
AOB Next, pAf ? p^q 3 r 3 , . . .
p 7 q,r 7 are placed in the other cube-
lets ol the edge AO, and dispersed
in the same manner as piqrfi.
Every cubelet will then be found to
contain a different combination of
the p's, g's and r's. If therefore
the p's are made equal to i, 2,
... 7, and the g's and r's to o,
1, 2,. . . 6, in any order, and the
g's multiplied by 7, and the r's
by 7 2 , then, as in the case of the squares, the 7* cubelets will
contain the numbers from I to 7 3 , and the Nasical summations will
be 27 2 r+27g + p. If 2, 4, 5 be values of r,p,q, the number for
that cubelet is written 245 in the septenary scale, and if all the
cubelet numbers are kept thus, the paths along which summations
are found can be seen without adding, as the seven numbers
would contain I, 2, 3,. .. 7 in the unit place, and o, I, 2, ... 6 in
each of the other places. In all Nasik cubes, if such values are given
to the letters on the central cubelet that the number is the middle
one of the series I to n 3 , the sum of all the pairs of numbers opposite
FIG. 25 Nasik Cube.
I
8
9
18
tz
14
3
18
3
7
7
XI
20
9
16
4
5
3
5
so
s
XI
9
3
26
3
6
M
7
i*
3
FIG. 26.
to and equidistant from the middle number is the double of it.
Also, if around a Nasik cube the twenty-six surrounding equal cubes
be placed with their cells filled with the same numbers, and their
corresponding faces looking the same way, and if the surrounding
space be conceived thus filled with similar cubes, and a straight line
of unlimited length be drawn through any two cubelet centres, one
in each of any two cubes, the numbers along that line will be found
to recur in groups of seven, which (except in the three cases where
the same p, q or r recur in the group) together make the Nasical
summation of the cube. Further, if we take n similarly filled
Nasik cubes of n, n new letters, s,, S 2 , . . .s n , can be so placed, one in
each of the n* cubelets of this group of n cubes, that each shall
contain a different combination of the p's, g's, r's and s's. This is
done by placing Si on each of the n 2 cubelets of the first cube that
30
X
6
IS
28
'9
7
6
29
CO
5
>4
22
3
8
35
18
*7
9
3
'7
26
'3
4
3*
3
a
IS
34
5
i
so
33
34
3
12
FIG. 27.
FIG. 28.
contain pi, and on the n 2 cubelets 01 the 2d, 3d, ... and wth cube
that contain p 2 , p 3 , ... p n respectively. This process is repeated with
Si, beginning with the cube at which we ended, and so on with the
other s's; the n 4 cubelets, after multiplying the g's, r's, and s's by
n, n 2 , and n 3 respectively, will now be filled with the numbers from
I to n 4 , and the constant summation will be 2n 3 s + 2n 2 r + 2ng + 2.
This process may be carried on without limit ; for, if the n cubes are
placed in a row with their faces resting on each other, and the corres-
ponding faces looking the same way, n such parallelepipeds might be
put side by side, and the w 6 cubelets of this solid square be Nasically
filled by the introduction of a new letter /; while, by introducing
another letter, the n 6 cubelets of the compound cube of n' Nasik
MAGINN MAGISTRATE
cubes might be filled by the numbers from I to n 1 , and so ad infinitum.
When the root is an odd composite number the values of the three
groups of letters have to be adjusted as in squares, also in cubes
of an even root. A similar process enables us to place successive
numbers in the cells of several equal squares in which the Nasical
summations are the same in each, as in fig. 26.
Among the many ingenious squares given by various writers, this
article may justly close with two by L. Euler, in the Histoire de
I'academie royale des sciences (Berlin, 1759). In fig. 27 the natural
numbers show the path of a knight that moves within an odd square
in such a manner that the sum of pairs of numbers opposite to and
equidistant from the middle figure is its double. In fig. 28 the knight
returns to its starting cell in a square of 6, and the difference between
thr pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle
point is 18.
A model consisting of seven Nasik cubes, constructed by A. H.
Frost, is in the SouthKensington Museum. The centres of the cubes
an- placed at equal distances in a straight line, the similar faces look-
ing the same way in a plane parallel to that line. Each of the cubes
h.t- seven parallel glass plates, to which, on one side, the seven
numbers in the septenary scale are fixed, and behind each, on the
other side, its value in the common scale. 1201, the middle number
from i to 7 4 , occupies the central cubelet of the middle cube. Besides
each cube having separately the same Nasical summation, this is
also obtained by adding the numbers in any seven similarly situated
cubelets, one in each cube. Also, the sum of all pairs of numbers,
in a straight line, through the central cube of the system, equidistant
from it, in whatever cubes they are, is twice 1201. (A. H. F.)
Fenndl's Magic Ring. It has been noticed that the numbers
of magic squares, of which the extension by repeating the rows
and columns of numbers so as to form a square of zn-i sides
yields 2 magic squares of n sides, are arranged as if they were
all inscribed round a cylinder and also all inscribed on another
cylinder at right angles to the first. C. A. M. Fennell explains
this apparent anomaly by describing such magic squares as
Mercator's projections, so to say, of " magic rings. "
The surface of these magic rings is symmetrically divided into
n* quadrangular compartments or cells by n. equidistant zonal
circles parallel to the circular axis of the ring and by n transverse
circles which divide each of the n zones between any two neighbour-
ing zonal circles into n equal quadrangular cells, while the zonal
circles divide the sections between two neighbouring transverse circles
into n unequal quadrangular cells. The diagonals of cells which
follow each other passing once only through each zone and section,
form similar and equal closed curves passing once quite round
the circular axis of the ring and once quite round the centre of the
ring. The position of each number is regarded as the intersection of
two diagonals of its cell. The numbers are most easily seen if
the smallest circle on the surface of the ring, which circle is
concentric with the axis, be one of the zonal circles. In a perfect
magic ring the sum of the numbers of the cells whose diagonals form
any one of the 2n diagonal curves aforesaid is Jn(n s + i) with or
without increment, i.e. is the same sum as that of the numbers in
each zone and each transverse section. But if n be 3 or a multiple
of 3, only from 2 to n of the diagonal curves carry the sum in question,
so that the magic rings are imperfect ; and any set of numbers which
can be arranged to make a perfect magic ring or magic square can
also make an imperfect magic ring, e.g. the set i to 16 if the numbers
1,6, n, i61ie thus on a diagonal curve instead of in the order i, 6, 16
n. From a perfect magic ring of n ! cells containing one number
each, n 1 distinct magic squares can be read off; as the four numbers
round each intersection of a zonal circle and a transverse circle
constitute corner numbers of a magic square. The shape of a magic
ring gives it the function of an indefinite extension in all directions
of each of the aforesaid ri 1 magic squares. (C. A. M. F.)
See F. E. A. Lucas, Recreations mathimatiques (1891-1894) ; W.W.R.
Ball, Mathematical Recreations (1892); W. E. M. G. Ahrens, Mathe-
matische Unterhaltungen und Spiele (1901); H. C. H. Schubert,
Mathematische Mttssestunden (1900). A very detailed work is B.
Violle, Traite complet des carr&s magiques (3 vols., 1837-1838).
The theory of " path nasiks " is dealt with in a pamphlet by C.
Planck (1906).
MAGINN, WILLIAM (1793-1842), Irish poet and journalist,
was born at Cork on the loth of July 1793. The son of a
schoolmaster, he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1811,
and after his father's death in 1813 succeeded him in the school.
In 1819 he began to contribute to the Literary Gazette and to
Blackwood's Magazine, writing as " R. T. Scott " and " Morgan
O'Doherty." He first made his mark as a parodist and a writer
of humorous Latin verse. In 1821 he visited Edinburgh, where
he made acquaintance with the Blackwood circle. He is credited
with having originated the idea of the Nodes ambrosianae,
of which some of the most brilliant chapters were his. His
connexion with Blackwood lasted, with a short interval, almost
to the end of his life. His best story was " Bob Burke's Duel
with Ensign Brady." In 1823 he removed to London. He was
employed by John Murray on the short-lived Representative,
and was for a short time joint-editor of the Standard. But his
intemperate habits and his imperfect journalistic morality pre-
vented any permanent success. In connexion with Hugh
Fraser he established Eraser's Magazine (1830), in which ap-
peared his " Homeric Ballads." Maginn was the original of
Captain Shandon in Pendennis. In spite of his inexhaustible
wit and brilliant scholarship, most of his friends were eventually
alienated by his obvious failings and his persistent insolvency.
He died at Walton-on-Thames on the 2ist of August 1842.
His Miscellanies were edited (5 vols., New York, 1855-1857) by
R. Shelton Mackenzie and (2 vols., London, 1885) by R. W. Montagu
[Johnson].
MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistrates, from magister, master,
properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office),
in general, one vested with authority to administer the law or
one possessing large judicial or executive authority. In this
broad sense the word is used in such phrases as " the first magis-
trate " of a king hi a monarchy or " the chief magistrate "
of the president of the United States. But it is more generally
applied to minor or subordinate judicial officers, whether unpaid,
as justices of the peace, or paid, as stipendiary magistrates. A
stipendiary magistrate is appointed in London under the Metro-
politan Police Courts Act 1839, in municipal boroughs under the
Municipal Corporations Act 1882, and in particular districts
under the Stipendiary Magistrates Act 1863 and special acts.
In London and municipal boroughs a stipendiary magistrate
must be a barrister of at least seven years' standing, while under
the Stipendiary Magistrates Act 1863 he may be of five years'
standing. A stipendiary magistrate may do alone all acts
authorized to be done by two justices of the peace.
The term magistratus in ancient Rome originally implied
the office of magister (master) of the Roman people, but
was subsequently applied also to the holder of the office, thus
becoming identical in sense with magister, and supplanting it
in reference to any kind of public office. The fundamental
conception of Roman magistracy is tenure of the imperium,
the sovereignty which resides with the Roman people, but
is by it conferred either upon a single ruler for life, as in
the later monarchy, or upon a college of magistrates for a fixed
term, as in the Republican period. The Roman theory of magis-
tracy underwent little change when two consuls were substituted
for the king; but the subdivision of magisterial powers which
characterized the first centuries of the Republic, and resulted
in the establishment of twenty annually elected magistrates of
the people, implied some modification of this principle of the
investiture of magistrates with supreme authority. For when
the magistracies were multiplied a distinction was drawn be-
tween magistrates with imperium, namely consuls, praetors
and occasionally dictators, and the remaining magistrates, who,
although exercising independent magisterial authority and in no
sense agents of the higher magistrates, were invested merely
with an authority (potestas) to assist in the administration of the
state. At the same time the actual authority of every magistrate
was weakened not only by his colleagues' power of veto, but by
the power possessed by any magistrate of quashing the act of
an inferior, and by the tribune's right of putting his veto on the
act of any magistrate except a dictator; and the subdivision of
authority, which placed a great deal of business in the hands
of young and inexperienced magistrates, further tended to in-
crease the actual power as well as the influence of the senate at
the expense of the magistracy.
In the developed Republic magistracies were divided into two
classes: (a) magistrates of the whole people (populi Romani)
and (6) magistrates of the plebs. The former class is again
divided into two sections: (a) curule and 03) non-curule, a dis-
tinction which rests mainly on dignity rather than on actual
power, for it cuts across the division of magistrates according
to their tenure or non-tenure of imperium.
MAGLIABECHI MAGNA CARTA
o. The magistrates of the people also known as patrician magis-
trates, probably because the older and more important of these
magistracies could originally be held only by patricians (g.v.) were:
(a) Dictator, master of the horse (see DICTATOR), consuls, praetors,
curule, aediles and censors (curule) ; and (/?) Quaestors, and the body
of minor magistrates known as xxoi. viri (non-curule). The dictator-
ship and consulship were as old as the Republic. The first praetor
was appointed in 366 B.C., a second was added in 242 B.C., and the
number was gradually increased for provincial government until
Sulla brought it up to eight, and under the early principate it grew
to eighteen. Censors were first instituted in 443 B.C., and the office
continued unchanged until its abolition by Sulla, after which, though
restored, it rapidly fell into abeyance. Curule aediles were instituted
at the same time as the praetorship, and continued throughout the
Republic. The quaestorship was at least as old as the Republic,
but the number rose during the Republic from two to twenty. All
these offices except the censorship continued for administrative
purposes during the principate, though shorn of all important powers.
b. The plebeian magistrates had their origin in the secession of the
plebs to Mons Sacer in 494 B.C. (see ROME: History). In that year
tribunes of the plebs were instituted, and two aediles were given
them as subordinate officials, who were afterwards known as plebeian
aediles, to distinguish them from the curule magistrates of the same
name. Both these offices were abolished during the decemvirate,
but were restored in 449 B.C., and survived into the principate.
The powers possessed by all magistrates alike were two:
that of enforcing their enactments (coercitio) by the exercise of
any punishment short of capital, and that of veto( intercessio)
of any act of a colleague or minor magistrate. The right of
summoning and presiding over an assembly of that body of
citizens with whose powers the magistrate was invested lay with
the higher magistrates only in each class, with the consuls and
praetors, and with the tribunes of the plebs. Civil jurisdiction
was always a magisterial prerogative at Rome, and criminal
jurisdiction also, except in capital cases, the decision of which was
vested in the people at least as early as the first year of the
Republic, was wielded by magistrates until the establishment of
the various quaestiones perpetuae during the last century of the
Republic. But in civil cases the magistrate, though controlling
the trial and deciding matters of law, was quite distinct from
the judge or body of judges who decided the question of fact;
and the quaestiones perpetuae, which reduced the magistrate in
criminal cases to a mere president of the court, gave him a posi-
tion inferior to that of the praetor, who tried civil cases, only
in so far as the praetor controlled the trial in some degree by his
formula, under which the judges decided the question of fact.
Tenure of magistracy was always held to depend upon election
by the body whose powers the magistrate wielded. Thus the
magistrates of the plebs were elected by the plebeian council,
those of the people in the Comitia (q.v.). In every case the out-
going magistrate, as presiding officer of the elective assembly,
exercised the important right of nominating his successor for
election.
See A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life, 152 seq., 363 seq.
(London, 1901); T. Mommsen, Romisches Slaatsrecht, I. n. i. (1887).
(A. M. CL.)
MAGLIABECHI, ANTONIO DA MARCO (1633-1714), Italian
bibliophile, was born at Florence on the 28th of October 1633.
He followed the trade of a goldsmith until 1673, when he received
the appointment of librarian to the grand-duke of Tuscany, a
post for which he had qualified himself by his vast stores of self-
acquired learning. He died on the 4th of July 1714, bequeathing
his large private library to the grand-duke, who in turn handed it
over to the city.
MAGLIANI, AGOSTINO (1824-1891), Italian financier, was a
native of Lanzino, near Salerno. He studied at Naples, and a
book on the philosophy of law based on Liberal principles won
for him a post in the Neapolitan treasury. He entered the
Italian Senate in 1871, and had already secured a reputation as
a financial expert before his Questione monetaria appeared in
1874. In December 1877 he became minister of finance in the
reconstructed Depretis ministry, and he subsequently held the
same office in three other Liberal cabinets. In his second tenure
he carried through (1880) the abolition of the grist tax, to take
effect in 1884. Having to face an increased expenditure without
offending the Radical electorate by unpopular taxes, he had
recourse to unsound methods of finance, which seriously embar-
rassed Italian credit for some years after he finally laid down
office in 1888. He died in Rome on the 22nd of February 1891.
He was one of the founders of the anti-socialistic " Adam Smith
Society" at Florence.
MAGNA CARTA, or the Great Charter, the name of the famous
charter of liberties granted at Runnimede in June 1215 by King
John to the English people. Although in later ages its importance
was enormously magnified, it differs only in degree, not in kind,
from other charters granted by the Norman and early Plantagenet
kings. Its greater length, however, still more the exceptional
circumstances attending its birth, gave to it a position absolutely
unique in the minds of later generations of Englishmen. This
feeling was fostered by its many confirmations, and in sub-
sequent ages, especially during the time of the struggle between
the Stewart kings and the parliament, it was regarded as some-
thing sacrosanct, embodying the very ideal'of English liberties,
which to some extent had been lost, but which must be regained.
Its provisions, real and imaginary, formed the standard towards
which Englishmen must strive.
The causes which led to the grant of Magna Carta are described
in the article on English History. Briefly, they are to be found in
the conditions of the time; the increasing insularity of the English
barons, now no longer the holders of estates in Normandy; the
substitution of an unpopular for a popular king, an active spur
to the rising forces of discontent; and the unprecedented de-
mands for money demands followed, not by honour, but by
dishonour, to the arms of England abroad. So much for the
general causes. The actual crisis may be said to begin with
the quarrel between John and Pope Innocent III. regarding the
appointment of a new archbishop to the see of Canterbury. This
was settled in May 1213, and in the new prelate, the papal
nominee, Stephen Langton, who landed in England and absolved
the king in the following July, the baronial party found an able
and powerful ally. But before this event John had instituted a
great inquiry, the inquest of service of June 1212, for the purpose
of finding out how much he could exact from each of his vassals,
a measure which naturally excited some alarm; and then, fearing
a baronial rising, he had abandoned his proposed expedition into
Wales, had taken hostages from the most prominent of his foes,
and had sought safety in London.
His absolution followed, and then he took courage. Turning
once more his attention to the recovery of Normandy, he asked
the barons for assistance for this undertaking; in reply they,
or a section of them, refused, and instead of crossing the seas the
king marched northwards with the intention of taking vengeance
on his disobedient vassals, who were chiefly barons of the north
of England. Langton followed his sovereign to Northampton
and persuaded him, at least for the present, to refrain from any
serious measures of revenge. Before this interview a national
council had met at St Albans at the beginning of August 1213,
and this Vas followed by another council, held in St Paul's church,
London, later in the same month; it was doubtless summoned by
the archbishop, and was attended by many of the higher clergy
and a certain number of the barons. Addressing the gathering,
Langton referred to the laws of Edward the Confessor as " good
laws," which the king ought to observe, and then mentioned the
charter granted by Henry I. on his accession as a standard of
good government. This event has such an important bearing
on the issue of Magna Carta that it is not inappropriate to quote
the actual words used by Matthew Paris in describing the incident.
The chronicler represents the archbishop as saying " Inventa
est quoque nunc carta quaedam Henrici primi regis Angliae per
quam, si volueritis, libertates diu amissas poteritis ad statum
pristinum revocare." Those present decided to contend to the
death for their "long-lost liberties," and with this the meeting
came to an end. Nothing, however, was done during the re-
mainder of the year, and John, feeling his position had grown
stronger, went abroad early in 1214, and remained for some
months in France. With his mercenaries behind him he met with
some small successes in his fight for Normandy, but on the 2yth
of July he and his ally, the emperor Otto IV., met with a crushing.
MAGNA CARTA
defeat at Bouvines at the hands of Philip Augustus, and even the
king himself was compelled to recognise that his hopes of recover-
ing Normandy were at an end.
Meanwhile in England, which was ruled by Peter des Roches
as justiciar, the discontent had been increasing rather than
diminishing, and its volume became much larger owing to an
event of May 1214. Greatly needing money for his campaign,
John ordered another scutagc to be taken from his tenants; this,
moreover, was to be at the unprecedented rate of three marks on
the knight's fee, not as on previous occasions of two marks,
although this latter sum had hitherto been regarded as a very high
rale. The northern barons refused to pay, and the gathering forces
of resistance received a powerful stimulus when a little later came
the news of the king's humiliation at Bouvines. Then in October
the beaten monarch returned to England, no course open to him
but to bow before the storm. In November he met some of his
nobles at Bury St Edmunds, but as they still refused to pay the
scutage no agreement was reached. At once they took another
step towards the goal. With due solemnity (super majus allare)
they swore to withdraw their allegiance from the king and to
make war upon him, unless within a stated time he restored to
them their rightful laws and liberties. While they were collecting
troops in order to enforce their threats, John on his part tried to
divide his enemies by a concession to the clerical section. By a
charter, dated the zist of November 1214, he granted freedom of
election to the church. However, this did not prevent the pre-
lates from continuing to act to some extent with the barons, and
early in January 1215 the malcontents asked the king to confirm
the laws of Edward the Confessor and the other liberties of the
kingdom. He evaded the request and secured a truce until
Easter was passed. Energetically making use of this period of
respite, he again issued the charter to the church, ordered his
subjects to take a fresh oath of allegiance to him, and sent to the
pope for aid; butjieither these precautions, nor his expedient of
taking the cross, deterred the barons from returning to the attack.
In April they met in arms at Stamford, and as soon as the truce
had expired they inarched to Brackley, where they met the
royal ministers and again presented their demands. These were
carried to the king at Oxford, but angrily he refused to consider
them. Then the storm burst. On the sth of May the barons
formally renounced their allegiance to John, and appointed
Robert Fitzwalter as their leader. They marched towards
London, while John made another attempt to delay the crisis, or
to divide his foes, by granting a charter to the citizens of London
(May 9, 1215), and then by offering to submit the quarrel to a
court of arbitrators under the presidency of the pope. But
neither the one nor the other expedient availed him. Arbitration
under such conditions was contemptuously rejected, and after
the king had ordered the sheriffs to seize the lands and goods of
t he revolting nobles, London opened its gates and peacefully wel-
comed the baronial army. Other towns showed also that their
sympathies were with the insurgents, and John was forced to his
knees. Promising to assent to their demands, he agreed to meet
the barons, and the gathering was fixed for the isth of June, and
was to take place in a meadow between Staines and Windsor,
called Runnimede.
At the famous conference, which lasted from Monday the isth
to Tuesday the 2$rd of June, the hostile barons were present in
large numbers; on the other hand John, who rode over each day
from Windsor, was only attended by a few followers. At once
the malcontents presented their demands in a document known
popularly as the Articles of lite Barons, more strictly as Capitula
quae barones petunt el dominus rex concedit. Doubtless this had
been drawn up beforehand, and was brought by the baronial
leaders to Runnimede ; possibly it was identical with the document
presented to the royal ministers at Brackley a few weeks before.
John accepted the Articles on the same day and at once the great
seal was affixed to them. They are forty-eight in number, and
on them Magna Carta was based, the work of converting them
into a charter, which was regarded as a much more binding form
of engagement, being taken in hand immediately. This duty
occupied three days, negotiations between the two parties taking
place over several disputed points, and it was completed by
Friday the igth, when several copies of the charter were sealed.
All then took an oath to keep its terms, and orders were sent to
the sheriffs to publish it, and to see that its provisions were
observed, two or three days being taken up with making and
sending out copies for this purpose. It should be mentioned
that, although the charter was evidently not sealed until the
igth, the four existing copies of it are dated the isth, the day
on which John accepted the articles.
The days between Friday the ipth and the following Tuesday,
when the conference came to an end, were occupied in pro-
viding, as far as possible, for the due execution of the reforms
promised by the king in Magna Carta. The document itself
provided for an elected committee of twenty-five barons, whose
duty was to compel John, by force if necessary, to keep his
promises; but this was evidently regarded as insufficient, and the
matter was dealt with in a supplementary treaty (Conventio facta
inter regem Angliae et barones ejusdum regni). As a guarantee of
his good faith the king surrendered the city of London to his
foes, while the Tower was entrusted to the neutral keeping of the
archbishop of Canterbury. John then asked the barons for a
charter that they on their part would keep the peace. This was
refused, and although some of the bishops entered a mild protest,
the question was allowed to drop. Regarding another matter
also, the extent of the royal forests, the prelates made a protest.
John and his friends feared lest the inquiry promised into the
extent of the hated forest areas would be carried out too rigor-
ously, and that these would be seriously curtailed, if not abolished
altogether. Consequently, the two archbishops and their
colleagues declared that the articles in the charter which pro-
vided for this inquiry, and for a remedy against abuses of the
forest laws by the king, must not be interpreted in too harsh a
spirit. The customs necessary for the preservation of the
forests must remain in force.
No securities, however, could bind John. Even before Magna
Carta was signed he had set to work to destroy it, and he now
turned to this task with renewed vigour. He appealed to the
pope, and hoped to crush his enemies by the aid of foreign troops,
while the barons prepared for war, and the prelates strove to
keep the peace. Help came first from the spiritual arm. On the
24th of August 1215 Innocent III. published a bull which declared
Magna Carta null and void. It had been extorted from the king
by force (per vim et metum), and in the words of the bull the pope
said " compositionem hujusmodi reprobamus penitus et damna-
mus." He followed this up by excommunicating the barons
who had obtained it, and in the autumn of 1215 the inevitable
war began. Capturing Rochester castle, John met with some
other successes, and the disheartened barons invited Louis, son
of Philip Augustus of France and afterwards king as Louis VIII.,
to take the English crown. In spite of the veto of the pope
Louis accepted the invitation, landed in England in May 1216,
and occupied London and Winchester, the fortune of war having
in the meantime turned against John. The " ablest and most
ruthless of the Angevins," as J. R. Green calls this king, had not,
however, given up the struggle, and he was still in the field when
he was taken ill, dying in Newark castle on the igth of October
1216.
In its original form the text of Magna Carta was not divided
into chapters, but in later times a division of this kind was
adopted. This has since been retained by all commentators, the
number of chapters being 63.
The preamble states that the king has granted the charter on
the advice of various prelates and barons, some of whom, in-
cluding the archbishop of Canterbury, the papal legate Pandulf,
and William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, are mentioned by
name.
Chapter I. declares that the English church shall be free and shall
enjoy freedom of election. This follows the precedent set in the
accession charter of Henry I. and in other early charters, although
it had no place in the Articles of the Barons. On the present occa-
sion it was evidently regarded as quite a formal and introductory
matter, and the same remark applies to the general grant of liberties
to all freemen and their heirs, with which the chapter concludes.
316
MAGNA CARTA
Then follows a series of chapters intended to restrain the king
from raising money by the harsh and arbitrary methods adopted
in the past. These chapters, however, only afforded protection
to the tenants-in-chief of the crown, and it is clear from their
prominent position that the framers of the charter regarded them
as of paramount importance.
Chapter II. fixes the amount of the relief to be paid to the king
by the heir of any of his vassals. Previously John, disregarding
the custom of the past, had taken as much as he could extort. Hence-
forward he who inherits a barony must pay 100, he who inherits a
knight's fee 100 shillings or less, and for smaller holdings less " accord-
ing to the ancient custom of fiefs."
Chapters III. to VI. deal with the abuses of the king's privilege
of acting as guardian of minors and their lands. Money must not
be extorted from a ward when he receives his inheritance. The
guardian or his servant must not take from the ward's property
more than a reasonable amount for his expenses and the like ; on the
contrary he must maintain the houses, estates and other belongings
in a proper state of efficiency. A ward must be allowed a reasonable
liberty in the matter of marriage. He or she must not, as had been
so often the case in the past, be forced to marry some royal favourite,
or some one who had paid a sum of money for the privilege.
Chapters VII. and VIII. are for the protection of the widows of
tenants-in-chief. On the death of her husband a widow must
receive her rightful inheritance, without delay or hindrance. More-
over she must not be compelled to marry, a proceeding sometimes
adopted to get her lands into the possession of a royal minion.
Chapter IX. is intended to prevent the king from collecting the
money owing to him in an oppressive manner.
Now for a short time the document leaves the great questions at
issue between the king and the barons, and two chapters are
devoted to protecting the people generally against the exactions
of the Jews.
Chapter X. declares that money borrowed from the Jews shall not
bear interest during a minority.
Chapter XI. provides for the repayment of borrowed money to
the Jews, and also to other creditors. This, however, is only to be
done after certain liabilities have been met out of the estate, including
the services due to the lord of the land.
Having thus disposed of this matter, the grievances of the barons
are again considered, the vexed question of scutage being dealt
with.
Chapter XII. says that in future no scutage or aid, beyond the
three recognized feudal aids, shall be levied except by the consent
of the general council of the nation (commune concilium regni nostri),
while the three recognized aids shall only be levied at a reasonable
rate. In dealing with this matter the Articles of the Barons had
declared that aids and tallages must not be taken from the citizens
of London and of other places without the consent of the council.
This provision was omitted from Magna Carta, except so far as it
related to aids from the citizens of London. This chapter does not
give the people the right to control taxation. It gives to the men
interested a certain control over one form of taxation, and protects
one class only from arbitrary exactions, and that class the most
powerful and the most wealthy.
Chapter XIII. gives to the citizens of London all their ancient
liberties and free customs.
Chapter XIV. provides for the assembly of the council when its
consent is necessary for raising an aid or a scutage. Individual
summonses must be sent to the prelates and greater barons, while
the lesser barons will be called together through the sheriffs and
bailiffs. At least forty days' notice of the meeting must be given,
and the cause thereof specified. No chapter corresponding to this
is found in the Articles and none was inserted in the reissues of
Magna Carta. It is very interesting, but it does not constitute any
marked advance in the history of parliament, as it merely expresses
the customary method of summoning a council. It does not, as
has been sometimes asserted, in any way establish a representative
system, as this is understood to-day.
Chapter XV. extends the concessions obtained by the greater
barons for themselves to the lesser landholders, the tenants of the
tenants-in-chief.
Chapter XVI. declares that those who owe military service for
their lands shall not be called upon to perform more than the due
amount of such service.
We now come to an important series of articles which deal with
abuses in the administration of justice. Henry II. made the
royal courts of law a lucrative source of revenue, but he gave
protection to suitors. Under his sons justice was equally,
perhaps more, costly, while adequate protection was much harder
to obtain. Here were many grievances, and the barons set to
work to redress them.
Chapter XVII. declares that common pleas must henceforward
be heard in a fixed place. This had already been to some extent
the practice when this class of cases was heard ; it was now made the
rule. From this time suitors in this court were not put to the expense
and inconvenience of following the king from place to place.
Chapters XVIII. and XIX. deal with the three petty assizes,
three kinds of cases regarding disputes about the possession of land.
These must be heard in the county courts before two visiting justices
and four knights of the shire. The hardship of attendance at the
county courts was to some extent obviated.
Chapters XX. to XXII. regulate the amount of fines imposed for
offences against the law. Property necessary for one's livelihood
must not be taken. The fines must only be imposed by the oath
of honest men of the neighbourhood. In the same way earls and
barons must only be fined by their peers, and a similar privilege is
extended to the clergy, who, moreover, were not to be fined in accord-
ance with the value of their benefices, but only of their other property.
It should be noticed that trial by one's peers, as understood in Magna
Carta, is not confined to the nobility; in every class of society an
accused man is punished in accordance with the verdict of his peers,
or equals.
Chapter XXIII. asserts that persons shall not be compelled to
make bridges, unless they are bound to do so by ancient custom.
John had oppressed his subjects in this way before he visited a dis-
trict for purposes of sport, and the hardship was a real one.
Chapter XXIV. declared that the sheriffs and other officers of
the king must not hold the pleas of the crown. This was intended
to remove an old and serious evil, as the sheriffs had earned a very
bad reputation by their methods of administering justice.
Chapter XXV. also concerns the sheriffs. It prevents the king
from increasing by their agency the amount of money annually due
to him from the various counties and hundreds. The custom was
for the king to get a fixed sum from the sheriff of each county, this
being called the firma, comilatus, and for the sheriff to collect this as
best he could. Henceforward this amount must not be raised.
Chapters XXVI. and XXVII. were intended to protect the property
of deceased persons, and also to secure the full payment of debts
due therefrom to the crown. Other creditors were also protected,
and the property of an intestate must be distributed to his heirs under
the supervision of the church.
Chapter XXVIII. strikes a blow at the custom of purveyance.
Royal officials must pay for the corn and provisions which they take
on behalf of the king.
Chapter XXIX. says knights must not be compelled to give money
instead of performing castle-guard, if they are willing to perform this
service. Castle-guard was the liability incumbent on the holders
of some estates to serve in the garrison of the royal castles. The
constables of these castles had adopted the custom of compelling
these landholders to give money and not service, mercenaries being
then hired to perform this.
Chapters XXX. and XXXI. forbid the royal officials to seize the
horses or carts of freemen for transport duty, or to take wood for
the king's buildings.
Chapter XXXII. says that the lands of convicted felons shall be
handed over to the lords of such lands and not kept by the king
beyond a year and a day. In cases of treason the king had a right
to the forfeited lands, but he was not allowed to establish a similar
right in cases of felony.
Chapter XXXIII. provided for the removal of kydells, or weirs v
from all English rivers. This was intended to give greater freedom
to inland navigation, the rivers being the main highways of trade.
Chapter XXXIV. limits the use of the writ known as Praecipe.
This writ was one transferring cases concerning the ownership of
property from the courts of the feudal lords to those of the king.
This custom, which owes its origin to Henry II., meant a loss of
revenue to the lords, whose victory in this matter, however, was a
step backwards. It checked temporarily the process of centralizing
the administration of justice.
Chapter XXXV. provides for the uniformity of weights and
measures throughout the kingdom.
Chapter XXXVI. promises that in future writs of inquisition shall
be granted freely without payment of any kind. This kind of writ
allowed a man to refer the question of his guilt or innocence to the
verdict of his neighbours instead of proving his innocence by the duel.
Chapter XXXVII. prevents the king from administering certain
kinds of land when these fall into the possession of minors. In the
past John had evidently stretched his authority and seized lands
over which others had really the right of wardship.
Chapter XXXVIII. prevents a bailiff from compelling an accused
man to submit to the ordeal without the approval of credible wit-
nesses.
Chapter XXXIX. is more important and the English rendering of
it may be given in full. " No freeman shall be arrested, or detained
in prison, or deprived of his freehold, or outlawed, or banished, or
in any way molested ; and we will not set forth against him, nor send
against him, unless by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the
law of the land." The object of this was clearly to restrain John
from arbitrary proceedings against his free subjects. The principle
MAGNA CARTA
of judgment by one's peers is asserted, and is obviously the privilege
of every class of freemen, not of the greater lords alone.
Chapter XL. simply says, " To no one will we sell, to no one will
we refuse or delay, right or justice."
Chapters XLI. and XLII. give permission to merchants, both
English and foreign, to enter and leave the kingdom, except in time
of war. They are not to pay " evil tolls." The privilege is extended
to all travellers, except the prisoner and the outlaw, and natives of a
country with which England is at war.
Chapter XLI 1 1. is intended to compel the king to refrain from
exacting greater dues from an escheated barony than were pre-
viously due from such barony.
Chapter XLIV. deals with the hated and oppressive forest laws.
In future attendance at the forest courts is only obligatory on those
who have business thereat.
Chapter XLV. says that the royal officials must know something
of the law and must be desirous of keeping it.
Chapter XLVI. gives to the founders of religious houses the right
of acting as guardians of such houses when they are without heads.
Chapters XLVII. and XLVIII. deal again with the great grievance
of the royal forests. John undertakes to disforest all forests which
have been made in his time, and also to give up such river banks
as he has seized for his own use when engaged in sport. Twelve
knights in each county are to make a thorough inquiry into all
evil customs connected with the forests, and these are to be utterly
abolished.
Chapter XLIX. provides for the restoration of hostages. John
had been in the habit of taking the children of powerful subjects
as pledges for the good behaviour of their parents.
Chapter L. says that certain royal minions, who are mentioned
by name, are to be removed from their offices.
Chapter LI. says that as soon as peace is made all foreign mercen-
aries are to be banished.
Chapters LII. and LIII. are those in which the king promises to
make amends for the injuries he has done to his barons in the past.
He will restore lands and castles to those who have been deprived of
them without the judgment of their peers; he will do the same
concerning property unlawfully seized by Henry II. or Richard I.
and now in his hands. In the latter case, however, he was allowed
a respite until he returned from the projected crusade. He promises
also to do right concerning forests, abbeys and the wardship of lands
which belong lawfully to others.
' hapter LIV. prevents any one from being arrested on the appeal
of a woman, except on a charge of causing the death of her husband.
As a woman could not prove her case in the judicial combat, it was
felt that the earlier practice gave her an unfair advantage.
Chapter LV. provides for the remission of unjust fines. The deci-
sion on these matters is to rest with the archbishop of Canterbury
and the twenty-five barons appointed to see that the terms of the
charter are carried out.
Chapters LVI. and LVII. deal with the grievances of Welshmen.
Restoration of property is promised to them practically in the same
way as to Englishmen. Welsh law is to be used in Wales, and in
the marches the law of the marches is to be employed.
Chapter LVIII. promises that his hostages and his charters shall
be restored to Llewellyn, prince of Wales.
Chapter LIX. promises a restoration of hostages to Alexander I.
king of Scotland. Right is also to be done to him concerning the
lands which he holds in England.
Chapter LX. is a general statement that the aforesaid customs and
liberties are to be observed by all classes.
Chapter LXI. provides for the execution of the royal promises.
A committee is to be formed of twenty-five barons. Then if the king
or any of his servants do wrong and complaint is made to four of
the twenty-five, they are to ask for redress. In the event of this
not being granted within forty days the matter is to be referred
to the twenty-five, who are empowered to seize the lands and pro-
perty of the king, or to obtain justice in any other way possible.
They must, however, spare the persons of the king, the queen and
their children. Vacancies in the committee are to be filled by the
barons themselves. The twenty-five barons were duly appointed,
their names being given by Matthew Paris. This chronicler also
reports that another committee of thirty-eight members was ap-
pointed to assist and control the twenty-five. S. R. Gardiner calls the
scheme "a permanent organization for making war against the king."
Chapter LXI I. is an expression of general forgiveness.
Chapter LXIII. repeats the promise of freedom to the English
church and of their rights and liberties to all.
Magna Carta is an elaboration of the accession charter of
Henry I., and is based upon the Articles of the Barons. It is,
however, very much longer than the former charter and somewhat
longer than the Articles. Moreover, it differs in several particu-
lars from the Articles, these differences being doubtless the out-
come of deliberation and of compromise. For instance, the pro-
visions in Magna Carta concerning the freedom of the church
find no place in the Articles, while a comparison between the two
documents suggests that in other ways also influences favourable
to the church and the clergy were at work while the famous
charter was being framed. When one reflects how active and
prominent Langton and other prelates were at Runnimede the
change is not surprising. Another difference between the two
documents concerns the towns and the trading classes. Certain
privileges granted to them in the Articles are not found in Magna
Carta, although, it must be noted, this document bestows
exceptionally favoured treatment on the citizens of London. The
conclusion is that the friends of the towns and the traders were
less in evidence at Runnimede than they were at the earlier
meetings of the barons, but that the neighbouring Londoners
were strong enough to secure a good price for their support.
Magna Carta throws much light on the condition of England
in the early i3th century. By denouncing the evil deeds of John
and the innovations practised by him, it shows what these were
and how they were hated; how money had been raised, how
forest areas had been extended, how minors and widows had been
cheated and oppressed. By declaring, as it does, what were the
laws and customs of a past age wherein justice prevailed, it
shows what was the ideal of good government formed by John's
prelates and barons. Magna Carta can hardly be said to have
introduced any new ideas. As Pollock and Maitland (History
of English Law) say " on the whole the charter contains little
that is absolutely new. It is restorative." But although mature
study has established the truth of this proposition it was not
always so. Statesmen and commentators alike professed to find
in Magna Carta a number of political ideas which belonged to a
later age, and which had no place in the minds of its framers. It
was regarded as having conferred upon the nation nothing less
than the English constitution in its perfect and completed form.
Sir Edward Coke finds in Magna Carta a full and proper legal
answer to every exaction of the Stuart kings, and a remedy for
every evil suffered at the time. Sir William Blackstone is almost
equally admiring. Edmund Burke says " Magna Carta, if it did
not give us originally the House of Commons, gave us at least a
House of Commons of weight and consequence." Lord Chatham
used words equally superlative. " Magna Carta, the Petition of
Rights and the Bill of Rights form that code, which I call the
Bible of the English Constitution." Modern historians, although
less rhetorical, speak in the highest terms of the importance
of Magna Carta, the view of most of them being summed up in
the words of Dr Stubbs: " The whole of the constitutional
history of England is a commentary on this charter."
Many regard Magna Carta as giving equal rights to all English-
men. J. R. Green says " The rights which the barons claimed for
themselves they claimed for the nation at large." As a matter of
fact this statement is only true with large limitations. The
villains, who formed the majority of the population, got very
little from it; in fact the only clauses which protect them do so
because they are property the property of their lords and
therefore valuable. They get neither political nor civil rights
under Magna Carta. The traders, too, get little, while preferen-
tial treatment is meted out to the clergy and the barons. Its
benefits are confined to freemen, and of the benefits the lion's
share fell to the larger landholders; the smaller landholders
getting, it is true, some crumbs from the table. It did not
establish freedom from arbitrary arrest, or the right of the
representatives of the people to control taxation, or trial by jury,
or other conceptions of a later generation.
The story of Magna Carta after the death of John is soon told.
On the izth of November 1216 the regent William Marshal, earl
of Pembroke, reissued the charter in the name of the young king
Henry III. But important alterations were made. War was
being waged against Louis of France, and the executive must not
be hampered in the work of raising money; moreover the
personal equation had disappeared, the barons did not need to
protect themselves against John. Consequently the chapter
limiting the power of the crown to raise scutages and aids without
the consent of the council vanished, and with it the complemen-
tary one which determined the method of calling a council.
Other provisions, the object of which had been to restrain John
from demanding more money from various classes of his subjects,
3*8
MAGNA GRAECIA
were also deleted, and the same fate befell such chapters as dealt
with mere temporary matters. The most important of these
was Chapter LXI., which provided for the appointment of 25
executors to compel John to observe the charter. The next
year peace was made at Lambeth (Sept. n, 1217) between
Henry III. and Louis and another reissue of the charter was
promised. This promise was carried out, but two charters
appeared, one being a revised issue of Magna Carta proper, and
the other a separate charter dealing with the forests, all references
to which were omitted from the more important document.
The date of this issue appears to have been the 6th of November
1217. The issue of a separate forest charter at this time led
subsequently to some confusion. Roger of Wendover asserts
that John issued a separate charter of this kind when Magna
Carta appeared. This statement was believed by subsequent
writers until the time of Blackstone, who was the first to discover
the mistake.
As issued in 1217 Magna Carta consists of 47 chapters only.
It declares that henceforward scutages shall be taken according
to the precedents of Henry II. 's reign. New provisions were
introduced for the preservation of the peace unlawful castles
were to be destroyed while others were directed towards
making the administration of justice by the visiting justices less
burdensome. With regard to the land and the services due
therefrom a beginning was made of the policy which culminated
in the statutes of Mortmain and of Quia Emptores. The sheriffs
were ordered to publish the revised charter on the 22nd of Feb-
ruary 1218. Then in February 1225 Henry III. again issued the
two charters with only two slight alterations, and this is the final
form taken by Magna Carta, this text being the one referred to
by Coke and the other early commentators. Subsequently the
charters were confirmed several times by Henry III. and by
Edward I., the most important occasion being their confirmation
by Edward at Ghent in November 1297. On this occasion some
supplementary articles were added to the charter; these were
intended to limit the taxing power of the crown.
There are at present in existence four copies of Magna Carta,
sealed with the great seal of King John, and several unsealed copies.
Of the four two are in the British Museum. Both came into the
possession of the Museum with the valuable collection of papers
which had belonged to Sir Robert Cotton, who had obtained posses-
sion of both. One was found in Dover castle about 1630. This was
damaged by fire in 1731 ; the other is undamaged. The two other
sealed copies belong to the cathedrals of Lincoln and of Salisbury.
Both were written evidently in a less hurried fashion than those
in the British Museum, and the one at Lincoln was regarded as the
most perfect by the commissioners who were responsible for the
appearance of the Statutes of the Realm in 1810. The British Museum
also contains the original parchment of the Articles of the Barons.
Magna Carta was first printed by Richard Pynson in 1499. This,
however, was not the original text, which was neglected until the time
of Blackstone, who printed the various issues of the charter in his
book The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest (1759). The
earliest commentator of note was Sir Edward Coke, who published
his Second Institute, which deals with Magna Carta, by order of
the Long Parliament in 1642. Modern commentators, who also
print the various texts of the charter, are Richard Thomson, An
Historical Essay on the Magna Carta of King John (1829) ; C. Bemont,
in his Charles des libertes anglaises (1892); and W. Stubbs in his
Select Charters (1895). A more recent book and one embodying the
results of the latest research is W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carla (1905).
The text of Magna Carta is also printed in the Statutes of the Realm
(1810-1828), and in T. Rymer's Foedera (1816-1869). In addition to
Blackstone, Coke and these later writers, the following works may also
be consulted: John Reeves, History of English Law (1783-1784);
L. O. Pike, A Constitutional History of the House of Lords (1894);
W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (1897); Sir F. Pollock
and F. W. Maitland, The History of English Law (1895); W. S.
Holdsworth, A History of English Law (1903), and Kate Norgate,
John Lackland (1902). (A. W. H.*)
MAGNA GRAECIA (TI jue-ydXij 'EXXds), the name given (first,
apparently, in the 6th century B.C.) to the group of Greek
cities along the coast of the " toe " of South Italy (or more strictly
those only from Tarentum to Locri, along the east coast), while
the people were called Italiotes ('iTaXuorai). The interior,
which the Greeks never subdued, continued to be in the hands of
the Bruttii, the native mountaineers, from whom the district
was named in Roman times (Bperrta also in Greek writers).
The Greek colonies were established first as trading stations,
which grew into independent cities. At an early time a trade in
copper was carried on between Greece and Temesa (Homer, Od.
i. iSi). 1 The trade for a long time was chiefly in the hands of the
Euboeans; and Cyme (Cumae) in Campania was founded in the
8th century B.C., when the Euboean Cyme was still a great city.
After this the energy of Chalcis went onward to Sicily, and the
states of the Corinthian Gulf carried out the colonization of Italy,
Rhegium having been founded, it is true, by Chalcis, but after
Messana (Zancle), and at the request of the inhabitants of the
latter. Sybaris (721) and Crotona (703) were Achaean settle-
ments; Locri Epizephyrii (about 710) was settled by Ozolian
Locrians, so that, had it not been for the Dorian colony of Taren-
tum, the southern coast of Italy would have been entirely occupied
by a group of Achaean cities. Tarentum (whether or no founded
by pre-Dorian Greeks its founders bore the unexplained name
of Partheniae) became a Laconian colony at some unknown date,
whence a legend grew up connecting the Partheniae with Sparta,
and 707 B.C. was assigned as its traditional date. Tarentum is
remarkable as the only foreign settlement made by the Spartans.
It was industrial, depending largely on the purple and pottery
trade. Ionian Greeks fleeing from foreign invasion founded Siris
about 650 B.C., and, much later, Elea (540).
The Italian colonies were planted among friendly, almost
kindred, races, and grew much more rapidly than the Sicilian
Greek states, which had to contend against the power of Carthage.
After the Achaean cities had combined to destroy the Ionic Siris,
and had founded Metapontum as a counterpoise to the Dorian
Tarentum, there seems to have been little strife among the
Italiotes. An amphictyonic league, meeting in common rites at
the temple of Hera on the Lacinian promontory, fostered a feeling
of unity among them. The Pythagorean and Eleatic systems of
philosophy had their chief seat in Magna Graecia. Other depart-
ments of literature do not seem to have been so much cultivated
among them. The poet Ibycus, though a native of Rhegium, led
a very wandering life. They sent competitors to the Olympic
games (among them the famous Milo of Croton) ; and the physi-
cians of Croton early in the 6th century (especially in the person of
Democedes) were reputed the best in Greece; but politically they
appear to have generally kept themselves separate. One ship of
Croton, however, fought at Salamis, though it is not recorded that
Greece asked the Italiotes for help when it sent ambassadors to
Gelon of Syracuse. Mutual discord first sapped the prosperity of
Magna Graecia. In 510 Croton, having defeated the Sybarites in a
great battle, totally destroyed their city. Croton maintained alone
the leading position which had belonged jointly to the Achaean
cities (Diod. xiv. 103) ; but from that time Magna Graecia steadily
declined. In the war between Athens and Syracuse Magna
Graecia took comparatively little part; Locri was strongly anti-
Athenian, but Rhegium, though it was the headquarters of the
Athenians in 427, remained neutral in 415. Foreign enemies
pressed heavily on it. The Lucanians and Bruttians on the north
captured one town after another. Dionysius of Syracuse
attacked them from the south; and after he defeated the Croton-
iate league and destroyed Caulonia (389 B.C.), Tarentum remained
the only powerful city. Henceforth the history of Magna Graecia
is only a record of the vicissitudes of Tarentum (q.v.). Repeated
expeditions from Sparta and Epirus tried in vain to prop up the
decaying Greek states against the Lucanians and Bruttians; and
when in 282 the Romans appeared in the Tarentine Gulf the end
was close at hand. The aid which Pyrrhus brought did little
good to the Tarentines, and his final departure in 274 left them
defenceless. During these constant wars the Greek cities had
been steadily decaying; and in the second Punic war, when most
of them seized the opportunity of revolting from Rome, their very
existence was in some cases annihilated. Malaria increased in
strength as the population diminished. We are told by Cicero
(De am. 4), Magna Graecia nunc quidem deleta est. Many of the
cities completely disappeared, and hardly any of them were of
great importance under the Roman empire; some, like Tarentum,
1 This passage should perhaps be referred to the 8th century B.C.
It is the first mention of an Italian place in a literary record.
MAGNATE MAGNESIUM
3*9
maintained their existence into modern times, and in these only
(except at Locri) have archaeological investigations of any
importance been carried on; so that there still remains a consider-
able field for investigation. (T. As.)
MAGNATE (Late Lat. magnas, a great man), a noble, a man
in high position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. The term
is specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in
Hungary, the Forcndihaz or House of Magnates (see HUNGARY).
M AGNES (c. 460 B.C.), Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, a
native of the deme of Icaria in Attica. His death is alluded to by
Aristophanes (Equites, 518-523, which was brought out in 424
B.C.), who states that in his old age Magncs had lost the popularity
which he had formerly enjoyed. The few titles of his plays that
remain, such as the Frogs, the Birds, the Gall-flies, indicate that
he anticipated Aristophanes in introducing grotesque costumes
for the chorus.
See T. Kpck, Comicorum atticorum fragmenla, i. (1880); G. H.
Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst, iii. pt. 2 (1840).
MAGNESIA, in ancient geography the name of two cities in
Asia Minor and of a district in eastern Thessaly, lying between
the Vale of Tempe and the Pagasaean Gulf.
(1) MAGNESIA AD MAEANDRUH, a city of Ionia, situated on a
small stream flowing into the Maeander, 15 Roman miles from
Miletus and rather less from Ephesus. According to tradition,
reinforced by the similarity of names, it was founded by colonists
from the Thessalian tribe of the Magnetes, with whom were
associated, according to Strabo, some Cretan settlers (Magnesia
retained a connexion with Crete, as inscriptions found there
attest). It was thus not properly an Ionic city, and for this
reason, apparently, was not included in the Ionian league, though
superior in wealth and prosperity to most of the members except
Ephesus and Miletus. It was destroyed by the Cimmerii in
their irruption into Asia Minor, but was soon after rebuilt, and
gradually recovered its former prosperity. It was one of the
towns assigned by Artaxerxes to Themistocles for support in his
exile, and there the latter ended his days. His statue stood in its
market-place. Thibron, the Spartan, persuaded the Magnesians
to leave their indefensible and mutinous city in 399 B.C. and build
afresh at Leucophrys, an hour distant, noted for its temple of
Artemis Leucophryne, which, according to Strabo, surpassed
that at Ephesus in the beauty of its architecture, though inferior
in size and wealth. Its ruins were excavated by Dr K. Humann
for the Constantinople Museum in 1891-1893; but most of the
frieze of the temple of Artemis Leucophryne, representing an
Amazon battle, had already been carried off by Texier (1843) to
the Louvre. It was an octostyle, pseudo-dipteral temple of
highly ornate Ionic order, built on older foundations by Hermo-
genes of Alabanda at the end of the 3rd century B.C. The plat-
form has been greatly overgrown since the excavation, but many
bases, capitals, and other architectural members are visible. In
front of the west facade stood a great altar. An immense
peribolus wall is still standing (20 ft. high) , but its Doric colonnade
has vanished. The railway runs right through the precinct, and
much of Magnesia has gone into its bridges and embankments.
South and west of the temple are many other remains of the
Roman city, including a fairly perfect theatre excavated by
Hiller von Gartringen, and the shell of a large gymnasium.
Part of the Agora was laid open to Humann, but his trenches
have fallen in. The site is so unhealthy that even the' Circas-
sians who settled there twenty years ago have almost all died
off or emigrated. Magnesia continued under the kings of
Pergamum to be one of the most flourishing cities in this part
of Asia; it resisted Mithradates in 87 B.C., and was rewarded
with civic freedom by Sulla; but it appears to have greatly
declined under the Roman empire, and its name disappears
from history, though on coins of the time of Gordian it still
claimed to be the seventh city of Asia.
See K. Haumann, Magnesia am Maeander (1904).
(2) MAGNESIA AD SIPYLUM (mod. Manisa, q.v.), a city of
Lydia about 40 m. N.E. of Smyrna on the river Hermus at the foot
of Mt Sipylus. No mention of the town is found till 190 B.C.,
when Antiochus the Great was defeated under its walls by the
Roman consul L. Scipio Asiaticus. It became a city of impor-
tance under the Roman dominion and, though nearly destroyed
by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, was restored by that
emperor and flourished through the Roman empire. It was one
of the few towns in this part of Asia Minor which remained pros-
perous under the Turkish rule. The most famous relic of antiquity
is the " Niobe of Sipylus " (Suratlu Task) on the lowest slopes of
the mountain about 4 m. east of the town. This is a colossal
seated image cut in a niche of the rock, of " Hittite " origin, and
perhaps that called by'Pausanias the " very ancient statue of the
Mother of the Gods," carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, and
sung by Homer. Near it lie many remains of a primitive city,
and about half a mile east is the rock-seat conjecturally identified
with Pausanias' " Throne of Pelops." There are also hot springs
and a sacred grotto of Apollo. The whole site seems to be that of
the early " Tantalus " city. (D. G. H.)
MAGNESITE, a mineral consisting of magnesium carbonate,
MgCO 3 , and belonging to the calcite group of rhombohedral
carbonates. It is rarely found in crystals or crystalline masses,
being usually compact or earthy and intermixed with more or
less hydrous magnesium silicate (meerschaum). The compact
material has the appearance of unglazed porcelain, and the
earthy that of chalk. In colour it is usually dead white, some-
times yellowish. The hardness of the crystallized mineral is
4; sp. gr. 3-1. The name magnesite as originally applied by
J. C. Delametherie in 1797 included several minerals contain-
ing magnesium, and at the present day it is used by French
writers for meerschaum. The mineral has also been called
baudisserite from the locality Baudissero near Ivrea in Pied-
mont. Breunnerite is a ferriferous variety.
Magnesite is a product of alteration of magnesium silicates, and
occurs as veins and patches in serpentine, talc-schist or dolomite-
rock. It is extensively mined in the island of Euboea in the Grecian
Archipelago, near Salem in Madras, and in California, U.S.A.
It is principally used for the manufacture of highly refractory fire-
bricks for lining steel furnaces and electric furnaces; also for making
plaster, tiles and artificial stone; for the preparation of magnesium
salts (Epsom salts, &c.) ; for whitening paper-pulp and wool ; and as
a paint.
MAGNESIUM [symbol Mg, atomic weight 24-32 (0 = 16)],
a metallic chemical element. The sulphate or " Epsom salts "
(q.v.) was isolated in 1695 by N. Grew, while in 1707 M. B.
Valentin prepared magnesia alba from the mother liquors
obtained in the manufacture of nitre. Magnesia was con-
founded with lime until 1755, when J. Black showed that the
two substances were entirely different; and in 1808 Davy
pointed out that it was the oxide of a metal, which, however,
he was not able to isolate. Magnesium is found widely dis-
tributed in nature, chiefly in the forms of silicate, carbonate
and chloride, and occurring in the minerals olivine, hornblende,
talc, asbestos, meerschaum, augite, dolomite, magnesite, car-
nallite, kieserite and kainite. The metal was prepared (in a
state approximating to purity) by A. A. B. Bussy (Jour, de
pharm. 1829, 15, p. 30; 1830, 16, p. 142), who fused the an-
hydrous chloride with potassium; H. Sainte Claire Deville's
process, which used to be employed commercially, was essentially
the same, except that sodium was substituted for potassium
(Complex rendus, 1857, 44, p. 394), the product being further
purified by redistillation. It may also be prepared by heating
a mixture of carbon, oxide of iron and magnesite to bright
redness; and by heating a mixture of magnesium ferrocyanide
and sodium carbonate, the double cyanide formed being then
decomposed by heating it with metallic zinc. Electrolytic
methods have entirely superseded the older methods. The
problem of magnesium reduction is in many respects similar
to that of aluminium extraction, but the lightness of the metal
as compared, bulk for bulk, with its fused salts, and the
readiness with which it burns when exposed to air at high
temperatures, render the problem somewhat more difficult.
Moissan found that the oxide resisted reduction by carbon in the
electric furnace, so that electrolysis of a fusible salt of the metal must
be resorted to. Bunsen, in 1852, electrolysed fused magnesium
chloride in a porcelain crucible. In later processes, carnallite (a.
320
MAGNESIUM
natural double chloride of magnesium and potassium) has commonly,
after careful dehydration, been substituted for the single chloride.
Graetzel's process, which was at one time employed, consisted in
electrolysing the chloride in a metal crucible heated externally, the
crucible itself forming the cathode, and the magnesium being de-
posited upon its inner surface. W. Borchers also used an externally
heated metal vessel as the cathode; it is provided with a supporting
collar or flange a little below the top, so that the upper part of the
vessel is exposed to the cooling influence of the air, in order that a
crust of solidified salt may there be formed, and so prevent the
creeping of the electrolyte over the top. The carbon anode passes
through the cover of a porcelain cylinder, open at the bottom, and
provided with a side-tube at the top to remove the chlorine formed
during electrolysis. The operation is conducted at a dull red heat
(about 760 C. or 1400 F.), the current density being about 0-64
amperes per sq. in. of cathode surface, and the pressure about
7 volts. The fusing-point of the metal is about 730 C. (1350 F.),
and the magnesium is therefore reduced in the form of melted
globules which gradually accumulate. At intervals the current is
interrupted, the cover removed, and the temperature of the vessel
raised considerably above the melting-point of magnesium. The
metal is then removed from the walls with the aid of an iron
scraper, and the whole mass poured into a sheet-iron tray, where
it solidifies. The solidified chloride is then broken up, the shots
and fused masses of magnesium are picked out, run together in
a plumbago crucible without flux, and poured into a suitable
mould. Smaller pieces are thrown into a bath of melted carnallite
and pressed together with an iron rod, the bath being then heated
until the globules of metal float to the top, when they may be
removed in perforated iron ladles, through the holes in which the
fused chloride can drain away, but through which the melted magnes-
ium cannot pass by reason of its high surface tension. The globules
are then re-melted. F. Oettel (Zeit. f. Elektrochem., 1895, 2, p. 394)
recommends the electrolytic preparation from carnallite; the mineral
should be freed from water and sulphates.
Magnesium is a silvery white metal possessing a high lustre.
It is malleable and ductile. Sp. gr. 1-75. It preserves its
lustre in dry air, but in moist air it becomes tarnished by the
formation of a film of oxide. It melts at 632-7 C. (C. T. Hey-
cock and F. H. Neville), and boils at about nooC. Magnesium
and its salts are diamagnetic. It burns brilliantly when heated
in air or oxygen, or even in carbon dioxide, emitting a brilliant
white light and leaving a residue of magnesia, MgO. The
light is rich in the violet and ultra-violet rays, and consequently
is employed in photography. The metal is also used in pyro-
techny. It also burns when heated in a current of steam, which
it decomposes with the liberation of hydrogen and the formation
of magnesia. At high temperatures it acts as a reducing agent,
reducing silica to silicon, boric acid to boron, &c. (H. Moissan,
Comptes rendus, 1892, 114, p. 392). It combines directly with
nitrogen, when heated in the gas, to form the nitride MgaN2 (see
ARGON). It is rapidly dissolved by dilute acids, with the evolu-
tion of hydrogen and the formation of magnesium salts. It
precipitates many metals from solutions of their salts.
Magnesium Oxide, magnesia, MgO, occurs native as the mineral
periclase, and is formed when magnesium burns in air; it may also
be prepared by the gentle ignition of the hydroxide or carbonate.
It is a non-volatile and almost infusible white powder, which slowly
absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from air, and is readily
soluble in dilute acids. On account of its refractory nature, it is
employed in the manufacture of crucibles, furnace linings, &c. It
is also used in making hydraulic cements. A crystalline form was
obtained by M. Houdard (Abst. J. C. S., 1907, ii. p. 621) by fusing
the oxide and sulphide in the electric furnace. Magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2, occurs native as the minerals brucite and n<5malite, and
is prepared by precipitating solutions of magnesium salts by means
of caustic soda or potash. An artificial brucite was prepared by
A. de Schulten (Comptes rendus, 1885, 101, p. 72) by boiling magnes-
ium chloride with caustic potash and allowing the solution to cool.
Magnesium hydroxide is a white amorphous solid which is only
slightly soluble in water; the solubility is, however, greatly in-
creased by ammonium salts. It possesses an alkaline reaction and
absorbs carbon dioxide. It is employed in the manufacture of
cements.
When magnesium is heated in fluorine or chlorine or in the vapour
of bromine or iodine there is a violent reaction, and the corresponding
halide compounds are formed. With the exception of the fluoride,
these substances are readily soluble in water and are deliquescent.
The fluoride is found native as sellaite, and the bromide and iodide
occur in sea water and in many mineral springs. The most im-
portant of the halide salts is the chloride which, in the hydrated form,
has the formula MgCU-6HjO. It may be prepared by dissolving
the metal, its oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate in dilute hydrochloric
acid, or by mixing concentrated solutions of magnesium sulphate and
common salt, and cooling the mixture rapidly, when the less soluble
sodium sulphate separates first. It is also formed as a by-product
in the manufacture of potassium chloride from carnallite. The
hydrated salt loses water on heating, and partially decomposes into
hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxychlorides. To obtain the
anhydrous salt, the double magnesium ammonium chloride, MgClj-
NH4Q-6H 2 O, is prepared by adding ammonium chloride to a solution
of magnesium chloride. The solution is evaporated, and the residue
strongly heated, when water and ammonium chloride are expelled,
and anhydrous magnesium chloride remains. Magnesium chloride
readily forms double salts with the alkaline chlorides. A strong
solution of the chloride made into a thick paste with calcined mag-
nesia sets in a few hours to a hard, stone-like mass, which contains an
oxychloride of varying composition. Magnesium oxychloride when
heated to redness in a current of air evolves a mixture of hydro-
chloric acid and chlorine and leaves a residue of magnesia, a reaction
which is employed in the Weldon-Pechiney and Mond processes for
the manufacture of chlorine.
Magnesium Carbonate, MgCOs. The normal salt is found native
as the mineral magnesite, and in combination with calcium carbonate
as dolomite, whilst hydromagnesite is a basic carbonate. It is not
possible to prepare the normal carbonate by precipitating magnesium
salts with sodium carbonate. C. Marignac has prepared it by
the action of calcium carbonate on magnesium chloride. A salt
MgCO 3 -3H 2 O or Mg(Cp 3 H)(OH)-2H 2 O may be prepared from the
carbonate by dissolving it in water charged with carbon dioxide, and
then reducing the pressure (W. A. Davis, Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1906,
25, p. 788). The carbonate is not easily soluble in dilute acids, but
is readily soluble in water containing carbon dioxide. Magnesia
alba, a white bulky precipitate obtained by adding sodium carbonate
to Epsx>msalts,isa mixture of Mg(CO 3 H)(OH)-2H 2 O,Mg(CO 3 H)(OH)
and Mg(OH) 2 . It is almost insoluble in water, but readily dissolves
in ammonium salts.
Magnesium Phosphates. By adding sodium phosphate to mag-
nesium sulphate and allowing the mixture to stand, hexagonal
needles of MgHPO-7H 2 O are deposited. The normal phosphate,
Mg 3 P 2 O 8 , is found in some guanos, and as the mineral wagnerite.
It may be prepared by adding normal sodium phosphate to a mag-
nesium salt and boiling the precipitate with a solution of magnesium
sulphate. It is a white amorphous powder, readily soluble in acids.
Magnesium ammonium phosphate, MgNH 4 PO4-6H 2 O, is found as the
mineral struvite and in some guanos; it occurs also in urinary calculi
and is formed in the putrefaction of urine. It is prepared by adding
sodium phosphate to magnesium sulphate in the presence of ammonia
and ammonium chloride. When heated to 100 C., it loses five
molecules of water of crystallization, and at a higher temperature
loses the remainder of the water and also ammonia, leaving a residue
of magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg 2 P 2 O?. Magnesium Nitrate,
Mg(NO 3 ) 2 -6H 2 O, is a colourless, deliquescent, crystalline solid ob-
tained by dissolving magnesium or its carbonate in nitric acid, and
concentrating the solution. The crystals melt at 90 C. Magnesium
Nitride, Mg 3 N 2 , is obtained as a greenish-yellow amorphous mass by
passing a current of nitrogen or ammonia over heated magnesium
(F. Briegleb and A. Geuther, Ann., 1862, 123, p. 228; see also W.
Eidmann and L. Moeser, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 390). When heated in
dry oxygen it becomes incandescent, forming magnesia. Water
decomposes it with liberation of ammonia and formation of mag-
nesium hydroxide. The chlorides of nickel, cobalt, chromium, iron
and mercury are converted into nitrides when heated with it, whilst
the chlorides of copper and platinum are reduced to the metals (A.
Smits, Rec. Pays Bas, 1896, 15, p. 135). Magnesium sulphide,
MgS, may be obtained, mixed with some unaltered metal and some
magnesia, as a hard brown mass by heating magnesia, in sulphur
vapour. It slowly decomposes in moist air. Magnesium sulphate,
MgSO 4 , occurs (with IH 2 O) as Kieserite. A hexahydrate is also
known. The salt may be obtained from Kieserite: formerly it
was prepared by treating magnesite or dolomite with sulphuric
acid.
Organic Compounds. By heating magnesium filings with methyl
and ethyl iodides A. Cahours (Ann. chim. phys., 1860, 58, pp. 5, 19)
obtained magnesium methyl, Mg(CHj) 2 , and magnesium ethyl,
Mg(C 2 H s ) 2 , as colourless, strongly smelling, mobile liquids, which are
spontaneously inflammable and are readily decomposed by water.
The compounds formed by the action of magnesium on alkyl iodides
in the cold have been largely used in synthetic organic o,jg7iarrf
chemistry since V. Grignard (Comptes rendus, 1900 et p e agettt,
seq.) observed that magnesium and alkyl or aryl halides
combined together in presence of anhydrous ether at ordinary
temperatures (with the appearance of brisk boiling) to form com-
pounds of the type RMgX(R = an alkyl or aryl group and X = halo-
gen). These compounds are insoluble in ether, are non-inflammable
and exceedingly reactive. A. V. Baeyer (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1201)
regards them as oxonium salts containing tetravalent oxygen
(C.H 6 ) 2 :O:(MgR) (X), whilst W. Tschelinzeff (Ber., 1906, 39, p. 7?3>
considers that they contain two molecules of ether. In preparing
the Grignard reagent the commencement of the reaction is acceler-
ated by a trace of iodine. W. Tschelinzeff (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4534)
showed that the ether may be replaced by benzene containing a
small quantity of ether or anisole, or a few drops of a tertiary amine.
With unsaturated alkyl halides the products are only slightly soluble
in ether, and two molecules of the alkyl compound are brought into
MAGNETISM
321
the reaction. They are very unstable, and do not react in the
normal manner. (V. Grignard and L. Tissier, Comptes rendus, 1901 ,
'3 2 . P- SS^)'
The products formed by the action of the Grignard reagent with
the various types of organic compounds are usually thrown out of
solution in the form of crystalline precipitates or as thick oils, and
are then decomposed by ice-cold dilute sulphuric or acetic acids, the
magnesium being removed as a basic halide salt.
Applications. For the formation of primary and secondary alcohols
see ALDEHYDES and KETONES. Formaldehyde behaves abnormally
with magnesium benzyl bromide (M. Tiffeneau, Comptes rendus,
i<)"V 137. P- 573)p forming ortho-tolylcarbinol, CHs-CurU-CHjOH,
and not benzylcarbinol, CeHiCHj-CHuOH (cf. the reaction of form-
aldehyde on phenols : O. Manasse, Ber. 1894, 27, p. 2904). Acid
s yield carbinols, many of which are unstable and readily pass
over into unsaturated compounds, especially when warmed with
acetic anhydride: R-CO 2 R'(R") 2 -R!C-OMgX-(R>RlC-OH.
Formic ester yields a secondary alcohol under similar conditions.
Acid chlorides behave in an analogous manner to esters (Grignard
and Tissier, Comptes rendus, 1901, 132, p. 685). Nitriles yield
krtoncs (the nitrogen being eliminated as ammonia), the best yields
given by the aromatic nitriles (E. Blaise, ibid., 1901, 133, p.
1217): R-CN->RR':C:NMgI->R-CO-R'. Acid amides also react
to form ketones (C. B&S, ibid., 1903, 137, 575):
R-CONH 2 -RR':C(OMgX)-NHMgX+R'H->R-CO-R';
the yield increases with the complexity of the organic residue of the
,imide. On passing a current of dry carbon dioxide over the
nt, the gas is absorbed and the resulting compound, when
nposed by dilute acids, yields an organic acid, and similarly
with carbon oxysulphide a thio-acid is obtained :
RMgX->R-CO 2 MgX->R-CO 2 H;COS->CS(OMgX)-R^.R-CSOH.
A Klages (Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2633 et seq.)'has shown that if one uses
an excess of magnesium and of an alkyl halide with a ketone, an
ethylenc derivative is formed. The reaction appears to be per-
fectly general unless the ketone contains two ortho-substituent
groups. Organo-metallic compounds can also be prepared, for
example
For a summary see A. McKenzie, B. A. Rep. 1907.
Detection. The magnesium salts may be detected by the white
precipitate formed by adding sodium phosphate (in the presence of
ammonia and ammonium chloride) to their solutions. The same
reaction is made use of in the quantitative determination of magnes-
ium, the white precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate being
converted by ignition into magnesium pyrophosphate and weighed
as such. The atomic weight of magnesium has been determined
by many observers. J. Berzelius (Ann. Mm. phys., 1820, 14, p.
375). D y converting the oxide into the sulphate, obtained the value
12-62 for the equivalent. R. F. Marchand and T. Scheerer (Jour.
prakt. Chsm., 1850, 50, p. 358), by ignition of the carbonate, obtained
the value 24-00 for the atomic weight, whilst C. Marignac, by con-
vert ing the oxide into the sulphate, obtained the value 24-37. T.
W. Richards and H. G. Parker (Zeit.anorg. Chem., 1897, 13, p. 81)
have obtained the value 24-365 (O = 16).
Medicine. These salts of magnesium may be regarded as the
typical saline purgatives. Their aperient action is dependent
upon the minimum of irritation of the bowel, and is exercised
by their abstraction from the blood of water, which passes
into the bowel to act as a diluent of the salt. The stronger
the solution administered, the greater is the quantity of water
that passes into the bowel, a fact to be borne in mind when
the salt is administered for the purpose of draining superfluous
fluid from the system, as in dropsy. The oxide and carbonate
of magnesium are also invaluable as antidotes, since they
form insoluble compounds with oxalic acid and salts of mercury,
arsenic, and copper. The result is to prevent the local corrosive
action of the poison and to prevent absorption of the metals.
As alkaloids are insoluble in alkaline solutions, the oxide and
carbonate especially the former may be given in alkaloidal
poisoning. The compounds of magnesium are not absorbed
into the blood in any appreciable quantity, and therefore exert
no remote actions upon other functions. This is fortunate, as
the result of injecting a solution of a magnesium salt into a
vein is rapid poisoning. Hence it is of the utmost importance
to avoid the use of salts of this metal whenever it is necessary
as in diabetic coma to increase the alkalinity of the blood
rapidly. The usual doses of the oxide and carbonate of mag-
nesium are from half a drachm to a drachm.
MAGNETISM. The present article is a digest, mainly from
an experimental standpoint, of the leading facts and principles
of magnetic science. It is divided into the following sections:
XVII. II
1. General Phenomena.
2. Terminology and Elementary Principles.
3. Magnetic Measurements.
4. Magnetization in Strong Fields.
5. Magnetization in Weak Fields.
6. Changes of Dimensions attending Magnetization.
7. Effects of Mechanical Stress on Magnetization.
8. Effects of Temperature on Magnetism.
9. Magnetic Properties of Alloys and Compounds of Iron.
10. Miscellaneous Effects of Magnetization:
Electric Conductivity Hall Effect Electro-Thermal Rela-
tions Thermoelectric Quality Elasticity Chemical and
Voltaic Effects.
1 1 . Feebly Susceptible Substances.
12. Molecular Theory of Magnetism.
13. Historical and Chronological Notes.
Of these thirteen sections, the first contains a simple descrip-
tion of the more prominent phenomena, without mathematical
symbols or numerical data. The second includes definitions of
technical terms in common use, together with so much of the
elementary theory as is necessary for understanding the experi-
mental work described in subsequent portions of the article; a
number of formulae and results are given for purposes of refer-
ence, but the mathematical reasoning by which they are obtained
is not generally detailed, authorities being cited whenever the
demonstrations are not likely to be found in ordinary textbooks.
The subjects discussed in the remaining sections are sufficiently
indicated by their respective headings. (See also ELECTRO-
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, MAGNETO-OPTICS and
UNITS.)
i. GENERAL PHENOMENA
Pieces of a certain highly esteemed iron ore, which consists
mainly of the oxide FesO^ are sometimes found to possess
the power of attracting small fragments of iron or steel. Ore
endowed with this curious property was well known to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, who, because it occurred plentifully
in the district of Magnesia near the Aegean coast, gave it
the name of magnes, or the Magnesian stone. In English-
speaking countries the ore is commonly known as magnetite,
and pieces which exhibit attraction as magnets; the cause to
which the attractive property is attributed is called magnetism,
a name also applied to the important branch of science which
has been evolved from the study of phenomena associated with
the magnet.
If a magnet is dipped into a mass of iron filings and with-
drawn, filings cling to certain parts of the stone in moss-like
tufts, other parts remaining bare. There are generally two
regions where the tufts are thickest, and the attraction therefore
greatest, and between them is a zone in which no attraction is
evidenced. The regions of greatest attraction have received
the name of poles, and the line joining them is called the axis
of the magnet; the space around a magnet in which magnetic
effects are exhibited is called the field of magnetic force, or the
magnetic field.
Up to the end of the i$th century only two magnetic phe-
nomena of importance, besides that of attraction, had been
observed. Upon one of these is based the principle of the
mariner's compass, which is said to have been known to the
Chinese as early as noo B.C., though it was not introduced
into Europe until more than 2000 years later; a magnet
supported so that its axis is free to turn in a horizontal plane
will come to rest with its poles pointing approximately north
and south. The other phenomenon is mentioned by Greek
and Roman writers of the ist century: a piece of iron, when
brought into contact with a magnet, or even held near one,
itself becomes " inductively " magnetized, and acquires the
power of lifting iron. If the iron is soft and fairly pure, it loses
its attractive property when removed from the neighbourhood
of the magnet; if it is hard, some of the induced magnetism
is permanently retained, and the piece becomes an artificial
magnet. Steel is much more retentive of magnetism than any
ordinary iron, and some form of steel is now always used for
making artificial magnets. Magnetism may be imparted to a
bar of hardened steel by stroking it several times from end to
322
MAGNETISM
[GENERAL PHENOMENA
ENA
end, always in the same direction, with one of the poles of a
magnet. Until 1820 all the artificial magnets in practical use
derived their virtue, directly or indirectly, from the natural
magnets found in the earth: it is now recognized that the
source of all magnetism, not excepting that of the magnetic
ore itself, is electricity, and it is usual to have direct recourse
to electricity for producing magnetization, without the inter-
mediary of the magnetic ore. A wire carrying an electric
current is surrounded by a magnetic field, and if the wire is
bent into the form of an elongated coil or spiral, a field having
certain very useful qualities is generated in the interior. A bar
of soft iron introduced into the coil is at once magnetized, the
magnetism, however, disappearing almost completely as soon
as the current ceases to flow. Such a combination constitutes
an electromagnet, a valuable device by means of which a magnet
can be instantly made and unmade at will. With suitable
arrangements of iron and coil and a sufficiently strong current,
the intensity of the temporary magnetization may be very high,
and electromagnets capable of lifting weights of several tons
are in daily use in engineering works (see ELECTROMAGNETISM).
If the bar inserted into the coil is of hardened steel instead of
iron, the magnetism will be less intense, but a larger proportion
of it will be retained after the current has been cut off. Steel
magnets of great strength and of any convenient form may be
prepared either in this manner or by treatment with an electro-
magnet; hence the natural magnet, or lodestone as it is commonly
called, is no longer of any interest except as a scientific
curiosity.
Some of the principal phenomena of magnetism may be
demonstrated with very little apparatus; much may be done
with a small bar-magnet, a pocket compass and a few ounces
of irbn filings. Steel articles, such as knitting or sewing needles
and pieces of flat spring, may be readily magnetized by stroking
them with the bar-magnet; after having produced magnetism
in any number of other bodies, the magnet will have lost nothing
of its own virtue. The compass needle is a little steel magnet
balanced upon a pivot; one end of the needle, which always
bears a distinguishing mark, points approximately, but not in
general exactly, to the north, 1 the vertical plane through the
direction of the needle being termed the magnetic meridian.
The bar-magnet, if suspended horizontally in a paper stirrup
by a thread of unspun silk, will also come to rest in the magnetic
meridian with its marked end pointing northwards. The
north-seeking end of a magnet is in English-speaking countries
called the north pole and the other end the south pole; in France
the names are interchanged. If one pole of the bar-magnet
is brought near the compass, it will attract the opposite pole
of the compass-needle; and the magnetic action will not be
sensibly affected by the interposition between the bar and the
compass of any substance whatever except iron or other mag-
netizable metal. The poles of a piece of magnetized steel may
be at once distinguished if the two ends are successively pre-
sented to the compass; that end which attracts the south pole
of the compass needle (and is therefore north) may be marked
for easy identification.
Similar magnetic poles are not merely indifferent to each
other, but exhibit actual repulsion. This can be more easily
shown if the compass is replaced by a magnetized knitting
needle, supported horizontally by a thread. The north pole
of the bar-magnet will repel the north pole of the suspended
needle, and there will likewise be repulsion between the two
south poles. Such experiments as these demonstrate the
fundamental law that like poles repel each other; unlike poles
attract. It follows that between two neighbouring magnets,
the poles of which are regarded as centres of force, there must
always be four forces in action. Denoting the two pairs of
magnetic poles by N, S and N', S', there is attraction between
N and S', and between S and N'; repulsion between N and N',
and between S and S'. Hence it is not very easy to determine
experimentally the law of magnetic force between poles. The
1 In London in 1910 the needle pointed about 16 W. of the
geographical north. (See TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.)
difficulty was overcome by C. A. Coulomb, who by using very
long and thin magnets, so arranged that the action of their
distant poles was negligible, succeeded in establishing the law.
which has since been confirmed by more accurate methods,
that the force of attraction or repulsion exerted between two magnetic
poles varies inversely as the square of the distance between them.
Since the poles of different magnets differ in strength, it is
important to agree upon a definite unit or standard of reference
in terms of which the strength of a pole may be numerically
specified. According to the recognized convention, the unit
pole is that which acts upon an equal pole at unit distance
with unit force: a north pole is reckoned as positive (+) and
a south pole as negative ( ). Other conditions remaining
unchanged, the force between two poles is proportional to the
product of their strengths; it is repulsive or attractive according
as the signs of the poles are like or unlike.
If a wire of soft iron is substituted for the suspended magnetic
needle, either pole of the bar-magnet will attract either end of
the wire indifferently. The wire will in fact become temporarily
magnetized by induction, that end of it which is nearest to the
pole of the magnet acquiring opposite polarity, and behaving
as if it were the pole of a permanent magnet. Even a permanent
magnet is susceptible of induction, its polarity becoming thereby
strengthened, weakened, or possibly reversed. If one pole of a
strong magnet is presented to the like pole of a weaker one,
there will be repulsion so long as the two are separated by a
certain minimum distance. At shorter distances the magnetism
induced in the weaker magnet will be stronger than its permanent
magnetism, and there will be attraction; two magnets with
their like poles in actual contact will always cling together unless
the like poles are of exactly equal strength. Induction is an
effect of the field of force associated with a magnet. Magnetic
force has not merely the property of acting upon magnetic
poles, it has the additional property of producing a phenomenon
known as magnetic induction, or magnetic flux, a physical con-
dition which is of the nature of a flow continuously circulating
through the magnet and the space outside it. Inside the magnet
the course of the flow is from the south pole to the north pole;
thence it diverges through the surrounding space, and again
converging, re-enters the magnet at the south pole. When the
magnetic induction flows through a piece of iron or other mag-
netizable substance placed near the magnet, a south pole is
developed where the flux enters and a north pole where it
leaves the substance. Outside the magnet the direction of the
magnetic induction is generally the same as that of the magnetic
force. A map indicating the direction of the force in different
parts of the field due to a magnet may be constructed in a
very simple manner. A sheet of cardboard is placed above the
magnet, and some iron filings are sifted thinly and evenly over
the surface: if the cardboard is gently tapped, the filings will
arrange themselves in a series of curves, as shown in fig. i.
This experiment suggested to
Faraday the conception of
" lines of force," of which the
curves formed by the filings
afford a rough indication;
Faraday's lines are however
not confined to the plane of
the cardboard, but occur in
the whole of the space around
the magnet. A line of force
may be defined as an imaginary
line so drawn that its direction
at every point of its course
coincides with the direction of FIG. I.
the magnetic force at that
point. Through any point in the field one such line can be
drawn, but not more than one, for the force obviously cannot
have more than one direction; the lines therefore never
intersect. A line of force is regarded as proceeding from the
north pole towards the south pole of the magnet, its direction
being that in which an isolated north pole would be urged along
GENERAL PHENOMENA]
MAGNETISM
323
it. A south pole would be urged oppositely to the conventional
" direction " of the line; hence it follows that a very small
magnetic needle, if placed in the field, would tend to set itself
along or tangentially to the line of force passing through its
centre, as may be approximately verified if the compass be
J among the filings on the cardboard. In the internal
field of a long coil of wire carrying an electric current, the lines
of force are, except near the ends, parallel to the axis of the
coil, and it is chiefly for this reason that the field due to a coil
is particularly well adapted for inductively magnetizing iron
-teel. The older operation of magnetizing a steel bar by
drawing a magnetic pole along it merely consists in exposing
successive portions of the bar to the action of the strong field
near the pole.
Faraday's lines not only show the direction of the magnetic
force, but also serve to indicate its magnitude or strength in
different parts of the field. Where the lines are crowded to-
gether, as in the neighbourhood of the poles, the force is greater
(or the field is stronger) than where they are more widely
separated; hence the strength of a field at any point can be
accurately specified by reference to the concentration of the
lines. The lines presented to the eye by the scattered filings
are too vague and ill-defined to give a satisfactory indication
of the field-strength (see Faraday, Experimental Researches,
3237) though they show its direction clearly enough. It is
however easy to demonstrate by means of the compass that the
force is much greater in some parts of the field than in others.
Lay the compass upon the cardboard, and observe the rate
at which its needle vibrates after being displaced from its
position of equilibrium; this will vary greatly in different
regions. When the compass is far from the magnet, the vibra-
tions will be comparatively slow; when it is near a pole, they
will be exceedingly rapid, the frequency of the vibrations
varying as the square root of the magnetic force at the spot.
In a refined form this method is often employed for measuring
the intensity of a magnetic field at a given place, just as the
intensity of gravity at different parts of the earth is deduced
from observations of the rate at which a pendulum of known
length vibrates.
It is to the non-uniformity of the field surrounding a magnet
that the apparent attraction between a magnet and a magnetiz-
able body such as iron is ultimately due. This was pointed out
by W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) in 1847, as the result
of a mathematical investigation undertaken to explain Faraday's
experimental observations. If. the inductively magnetized body
lios in a part of the field which happens to be uniform there will
be no resulting force tending to move the body, and it will not
be " attracted." If however there is a small variation of the
force in the space occupied by the body, it can be shown that
the body will be urged, not necessarily towards a magnetic
pole, but towards places of stronger magnetic force. It will not
in general move along a line of force, as would an isolated pole,
but will follow the direction in which the magnetic force increases
most rapidly, and in so doing it may cross the lines of force
obliquely or even at right angles.
If a magnetized needle were supported so that it could move
freely rabout its centre of gravity it would not generally settle
with its axis in a horizontal position, but would come to rest
with its north-seeking pole either higher or lower than its centre.
For the practical observation of this phenomenon it is usual to
employ a needle which can turn freely in the plane of the magnetic
meridian upon a horizontal axis passing through the centre
of gravity of the needle. The angle which the magnetic axis
makes with the plane of the horizon is called the inclination or
dip. Along an irregular line encircling the earth in the neigh-
bourhood of the geographical equator the needle takes up a
horizontal position, and the dip is zero. At places north of this
line, which is called the magnetic equator, the north end of the
needle points downwards, the inclination generally becoming
greater with increased distance from the equator. Within a
certain small area in the Arctic Circle (about 97 W. long., 70 N.
lat.) the north pole of the needle points vertically downwards,
the dip being 90. South of the magnetic equator the south
end of the needle is always inclined downwards, and there is a
spot within the Antarctic Circle (148 E. long., 74 S. lat.) where
the needle again stands vertically, but with its north end directed
upwards. All these observations may be accounted for by the
fact first recognized by W. Gilbert in 1600, that the earth itself
is a great magnet, having its poles at the two places where the
dipping needle is vertical. To be consistent with the terminology
adopted in Britain, it is necessary to regard the pole which is
geographically north as being the south pole of the terrestrial
magnet, and that which is geographically south as the north
pole; in practice however the names assigned to the terrestrial
magnetic poles correspond with their geographical situations.
Within a limited space, such as that contained in a room, ^he
field due to the earth's magnetism is sensibly uniform, the lines
of force being parallel straight lines inclined to the horizon at the
angle of dip, which at Greenwich in 1910 was about 67. It is
by the horizontal component of the earth's total force that the
compass-needle is directed.
The magnets hitherto considered have been assumed to have
each two poles, the one north and the other south. It is possible
that there may be more than two. If, for example, a knitting
needle is stroked with the south pole of a magnet, the strokes
being directed from the middle of the needle towards the two
extremities alternately, the needle will acquire a north pole at
each end and a south pole in the middle. By suitably modifying
the manipulation a further number of consequent poles, as they
are called, may be developed. It is also possible that a magnet
may have no poles at all. Let a magnetic pole be drawn
several times around a uniform steel ring, so that every part
of the ring may be successively subjected to the magnetic force.
If the operation has been skilfully performed the ring will have
no poles and will not attract iron filings. Yet it will be mag-
netized; for if it is cut through and the cut ends are drawn
apart, each end will be found to exhibit polarity. Again, a
steel wire through which an electric current has been passed
will be magnetized, but so long as it is free from stress it will
give no evidence of magnetization; if, however, the wire is
twisted, poles will be developed at the two ends, for reasons
which will be explained later. A wire or rod in this condition
is said to be circularly magnetized; it may be regarded as con-
sisting of an indefinite number of elementary ring-magnets,
having their axes coincident with the axis of the wire and their
planes at right angles to it. But no magnet can have a single
pole; if there is one, there must also be at least a second, of
the opposite sign and of exactly equal strength. Let a mag-
netized knitting needle, having north and south poles at the
two ends respectively, be broken in the middle; each half
will be found to possess a north and a south pole, the appropriate
supplementary poles appearing at the broken ends. One of
the fragments may again be broken, and again two bipolar
magnets will be produced; and the operation may be repeated,
at least in imagination, till we arrive at molecular magnitudes
and can go no farther. This experiment proves that the con-
dition of magnetization is not confined to those parts where polar
phenomena are exhibited, but exists throughout the whole
body of the magnet; it also suggests the idea of molecular
magnetism, upon which the accepted theory of magnetization
is based. According to this theory the molecules of any mag-
netizable substance are little permanent magnets the axes of
which are, under ordinary conditions, disposed in all possible
directions indifferently. The process of magnetization consists
in turning round the molecules by the application of magnetic
force, so that their north poles may all point more or less ap-
proximately in the direction of the force; thus the body as a
whole becomes a magnet which is merely the resultant of an
immense number of molecular magnets.
In every magnet the strength of the south pole is exactly
equal to that of the north pole, the action of the same magnetic
force upon the two poles being equal and oppositely directed.
This may be shown by means of the uniform field of force due
to the earth's magnetism. A magnet attached to a cork and
324
MAGNETISM
[TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES
floated upon water will set itself with its axis in the magnetic
meridian, but it will be drawn neither northward nor southward;
the forces acting upon the two poles have therefore no horizontal
resultant. And again if a piece of steel is weighed in a delicate
balance before and after magnetization, no change whatever in
its weight can be detected; there is consequently no upward or
downward resultant force due to magnetization; the contrary
parallel forces acting upon the poles of the magnet are equal,
constituting a couple, which may tend to turn the body, but not
to propel it.
Iron and its alloys, including the various kinds of steel, though
exhibiting magnetic phenomena in a pre-eminent degree, are
not the only substances capable of magnetization. Nickel and
cobalt are also strongly magnetic, and in 1903 the interesting
discovery was made by F. Heusler that an alloy consisting of
copper, aluminium and manganese (Heusler's alloy), possesses
magnetic qualities comparable with those of iron. Practically
the metals iron, nickel and cobalt, and some of their alloys and
compounds constitute a class by themselves arid are called
ferromagnetic substances. But it was discovered by Faraday
in 1845 that all substances, including even gases, are either
attracted or repelled by a sufficiently powerful magnetic pole.
Those substances which are attracted, or rather which tend, like
iron, to move from weaker to stronger parts of the magnetic
field, are termed paramagnetic; those which are repelled, or tend
to move from stronger to weaker parts of the field, are termed
diamagnetic. Between the ferromagnetics and the para-
magnetics there is an enormous gap. The maximum magnetic
susceptibility of iron is half a million times greater than that of
liquid oxygen, one of the strongest paramagnetic substances
known. Bismuth, the strongest of the diamagnetics, has a
negative susceptibility which is numerically 20 times less than
that of liquid oxygen.
Many of the physical properties of a metal are affected by
magnetization. The dimensions of a piece of iron, for example,
its elasticity, its thermo-electric power and its electric conduc-
tivity are all changed under the influence of magnetism. On the
other hand, the magnetic properties of a substance are affected
by such causes as mechanical stress and changes of temperature.
An account of some of these effects will be found in another
section. 1
2. TERMINOLOGY AND ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
In what follows the C.G.S. electromagnetic system of units
will be generally adopted, and, unless otherwise stated, magnetic
substances will be assumed to be isotropic, or to have the same
physical properties in all directions.
Vectors. Physical quantities such as magnetic force, magnetic
induction and magnetization, which have direction as well as magni-
tude, are termed vectors; they are compounded and resolved in the
same manner as mechanical force, which is itself a vector. When
the direction of any vector quantity denoted by a symbol is to be
attended to, it is usual to employ for the symbol either a block
letter, as H, I, B, or a German capital, as , 3. SB. 2
Magnetic Poles and Magnetic Axis. A unit magnetic pole is that
which acts on an equal pole at a distance of one centimetre with a
force of one dyne. A pole which points north is reckoned positive,
one which points south negative. The action between any two
magnetic poles is mutual. If nti and mt are the strengths of two
poles, a the distance between them expressed in centimetres, and /
the force in dynes,
f=mim 1 /d? (l)
The force is one of attraction or repulsion, according as the sign of
the product m\mt is negative or positive. The poles at the ends of
an infinitely thin uniform magnet, or magnetic filament, would act
as definite centres of force. An actual magnet may generally be
regarded as a bundle of magnetic filaments, and those portions of
the surface of the magnet where the filaments terminate, and so-
called " free magnetism " appears, may be conveniently called poles
or polar regions. A more precise definition is the following: When
the magnet is placed in a uniform field, the parallel forces acting on
the positive poles of the constituent filaments, whether the filaments
1 For the relations between magnetism and light see MAGNETO-
OPTICS.
* Clerk Maxwell employed German capitals to denote vector
quantities. J. A. Fleming first recommended the use of blockletters
as being more convenient both to printers and readers.
terminate outside the magnet or inside, have a resultant, equal to
the sum of the forces and parallel to their direction, acting at a
certain point N. The point N, which is the centre of the parallel
forces, is called the north or positive pole of the magnet. Similarly,
the forces acting in the opposite direction on the negative poles of
the filaments have a resultant at another point S, which is called the
south or negative pole. The opposite and parallel forces acting on
the poles are always equal, a fact which is sometimes expressed by
the statement that the total magnetism of a magnet is zero. The
line joining the two poles is called the axis of the magnet.
Magnetic Field. Any space at every point of which there is a
finite magnetic force is called a field of magnetic force, or a magnetic
field. The strength or intensity of a magnetic field at any point is
measured by the force in dynes which a unit pole will experience
when placed at that point, the direction of the field being the direction
in which a positive pole is urged. The field-strength at any point
is also called the magnetic force at that point; it is denoted by H,or,
when it is desired to draw attention to the fact that it is a vector
quantity, by the block letter H, or the German character . Mag-
netic force is sometimes, and perhaps more suitably, termed magnetic
intensity; it corresponds to the intensity of gravity g in the theory
of heavy bodies (see Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, 12 and
68, footnote). A line of force is a line drawn through a magnetic
field in the direction of the force at each point through which it
passes. A uniform magnetic field is one in which H has everywhere
the same value and the same direction, the lines of force being,
therefore, straight and parallel. A magnetic field is generally due
either to a conductor carrying an electric current or to the poles of
a magnet. The magnetic field due to a long straight wire in which
a current of electricity is flowing is at every point at right angles to
the plane passing through it and through the wire ; its strength at
any point distant r centimetres from the wire is
H=2i/r, ( 2 )
i being the current in C.G.S. units. 8 The lines of force are evidently
circles concentric with the wire and at right angles to it ; their direc-
tion is related to that of the current in the same manner as the
rotation of a corkscrew is related to its thrust. The field at the
centre of a circular conductor of radius r through which current is
passing is
H=2/r, ( 3 )
the direction of the force being along the axis and related to the
direction of the current as the thrust of a corkscrew to its rotation.
The field strength in the interior of a long uniformly wound coil
containing n turns of wire and having a length of / centimetres is
(except near the ends)
In the middle portion of the coil the strength of the field is
nearly uniform, but towards the end it diminishes, and at the e,.,
is reduced to one-half. The direction of the force is parallel to the
axis of the coil, and related to the direction of the current as the
thrust of a corkscrew to its rotation. If the coil has the form of a
ring of mean radius r, the length will be 2jrr, and the field inside the
coil may be expressed as
H=2ni/r. (5)
The uniformity of the field is not in this case disturbed by the in-
fluence of ends, but its strength at any point varies inversely as the
distance from the axis of the ring. When therefore sensible uni-
formity is desired, the radius of the ring should be large in relation
to that of the convolutions, or the ring should have the form of a
short cylinder with thin walls. The strongest magnetic fields em-
ployed for experimental purposes are obtained by the use of electro-
magnets. For many experiments the field due to the earth's
magnetism is sufficient; this is practically quite uniform throughout
considerable spaces, but its total intensity is less than half a unit.
Magnetic Moment and Magnetization. The moment, M, M or 2K,
of a uniformly and longitudinally magnetized bar-magnet is the
product of its length into the strength of one of its poles; it is the
moment of the couple acting on the magnet when placed in a field
of unit intensity with its axis perpendicular to the direction of the
field. If / is the length of the magnet, M = ml. The action of a
magnet at a distance which is great compared with the length of the
magnet depends solely upon its moment; so also does the action
which the magnet experiences when placed in a uniform field. The
moment of a small magnet may be resolved like a force. The in-
tensity of magnetization, or, more shortly, the magnetization of a
uniformly magnetized body is defined as the magnetic moment per
unit of volume, and is denoted by I, I, or Q. Hence
I = M/v = mljv = m/a,
v being the volume and a the sectional area. If the magnet is not uni-
form, the magnetization at any point is the ratio of the moment of an
element of volume at that point to the volume itself, or I = m.ds/dv.
where ds is the length of the element. The direction of the magnetiza-
tion is that of the magnetic axisof the element ;'in isotropic substances
it coincides with the direction of the magnetic force at the point.
If the direction of the magnetization at the surface of a magnet makes
ery
nds
8 The C.G.S. unit of current = 10 amperes.
TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES]
MAGNETISM
325
an angle with the normal, the normal component of the magnetiza-
tion, I cos , is called the surface density of the magnetism, and is
generally denoted by a.
Potential and Magnetic Force. The magnetic potential at any point
in a magnetic field is the work which would be done against the
magnetic forces in bringing a unit pole to that point from the boundary
(it i lie field. The line through the given point along which the poten-
tial dim-uses most rapidly is the direction of the resultant magnetic
font-, and the rate of decrease of the potential in any direction is
1 to the component of the force in that direction. If V denote
tin- potential, /-"the resultant force, X, Y, Z, its components parallel
to the co-ordinate axes and n the line along which the force is directed,
_y =F _Y.
r< 6x
X,-
SV
ty'
"-S-
Z.
(6)
Surfaces for which the potential is constant are called equipotential
surfaces. The resultant magnetic force at every point of such a
surface is in the direction of the normal (n) to the surface; every line
of force therefore cuts the equipotential surfaces at right angles.
The potential due to a single pole of strength m at the distance r
from the pole is
V = m/r, (7)
the equipotential surfaces being spheres of which the pole is the
centre and the lines of force radii. The potential due to a thin
magnet ut a point whose distance from the two poles respectively
IN r and r' is
V=m(//r=//r'). (8)
When V is constant, this equation represents an equipotential
surface.
The equipotential surfaces are two series of ovoids surrounding
the two poles respectively, and separated by a plane at zero potential
ing perpendicularly through the middle of the axis. If r and r'
make angles 6 and 9' with the axis, it is easily shown that the equa-
tion to a line of force is
cos 6 cos 6' = constant. (9)
At the point where a line of force intersects the perpendicular bisector
of the axis r = r' = r , say, and cos cos 6' obviously =l/r ,l being
FIG. 2. FIG. 3.
the distance between the poles; l/r^ is therefore the value of the
constant in (9) for the line in question. Fig. 2 shows the lines of
force and the plane sections of the equipotential surfaces for a thin
magnet with poles concentrated at its ends. The potential due to a
small magnet of moment M, at a point whose distance from the
cen're of the magnet is r , is
V = Mcosfi/r, (10)
where is the angle between r and the axis of the magnet. Denoting
the force at P (see fig. 3) by F, and its components parallel to the
co-ordinate axes by X and Y, we have
If F r is the force along r and F, that along I at right angles to r,
M
^2 cos 9, (12)
M
F, = -X sin 0+ Y cos 8=^ sine.
(13)
For the resultant force at P,
(14)
The direction of F is given by the following construction: Trisect
OP at C, so that OC = OP/3 ; draw CD at right anglee to OP, to cut
the axis produced in D ; then DP will be the direction of the force
at P- *F r a P '" 1 in the axis OX ' e =0 ' therefore cos 9 = i , and the
point D coincides with C ; the magnitude of the force is, from (14),
F, = 2M/r, (, 5 )
its direction being along the axis OX. For a point in the line OY
bisecting the magnet perpendicularly, 8 = jr/2 therefore cos = O, and
the point D is at an infinite distance. The magnitude of the force
is in this case
F, = M/r, (16)
and its direction is parallel to the axis of the magnet. Although
the above useful formulae, (10) to (15), are true only for an infinitely
small magnet, they may be practically applied whenever the dis-
tance r is considerable compared with the length of the magnet.
Couples and Forces between Magnets. If a small magnet of moment
M is placed in the sensibly uniform field H due to a distant magnet,
the couple tending to turn the small magnet
upon an axis at right angles to the magnet w*
and to the force is
MHsinfl, (17)
where 8 is the angle between the axis of the
magnet and the direction of the force. In
FIG. 4.
fig. 4 S'N' is a small magnet of moment M', s
and SN a distant fixed magnet of moment
M ; the axes of SN and S'N make angles of
6 and < respectively with the line through their middle points. It
can be deduced from (17), (12) and (13) that the couple on S'N' due
to SN, and tending to increase <t>, is
MM' (sin 6 cos <t>-2 sin <f> cos 0)/r'. (18)
This vanishes if sin cos <f=2 sin <t> cos 8, i.e. if tan < = J tan 9,
S'N' being then along a line of force, a result which explains the
construction given above for finding the direction of the force F in
(14). If the axis of SN produced passes through the centre of S'N',
8=O, and the couple becomes
2MM'sin0/r s , (19)
tending to diminish 0; this is called the " end on " position. If the
centre of S'N' is on the perpendicular bisector of SN, 8 = Jn-, and
the couple will be
MM'cos0/r s , (20)
tending to increase </>; this is the " broadside on " position. These
two positions are sometimes called the first and second (or A and B)
principal positions of Gauss. The components X, Y, parallel and
perpendicular to r, of the force between the two magnets SN and
S'N' are
X=3MM'(sin 8 sin 2 cos 8 cos ^/r 4 , (21)
y=3MM'(sin 8 cos 0+sin cos 0)/r*. (22)
It will be seen that, whereas the couple varies inversely as the cube
of the distance, the force varies inversely as the fourth power.
_ Distributions of ^Magnetism. A magnet may be regarded as con-
sisting of an infinite number of elementary magnets, each having a
pair of poles and a definite magnetic moment. If a series of such
elements, all _ equally and longitudinally magnetized, were placed
end to end with their unlike poles in contact, the external action of
the filament thus formed would be reduced to that of the two extreme
poles. The same would be the case if the magnetization of the fila-
ment varied inversely as the area of its cross-section a in different
parts. Such a filament is called a simple magnetic solenoid, and the
product ol is called the strength of the solenoid. A magnet which
consists entirely of such solenoids, having their ends either upon the
surface or closed upon themselves, is called a solenoidal magnet, and
the magnetism is said to be distributed solenoidally ; there is no free
magnetism in its interior. If the constituent solenoids are parallel
and of equal strength, the magnet is also uniformly magnetized. A
thin sheet of magnetic matter magnetized normally to its surface in
such a manner that the magnetization at any place is inversely
proportional to the thickness h of the sheet at that place is called
a magnetic shell; the constant product hi is the strength of the shell
and is generally denoted by * or <t>. The potential at any point
due to a magnetic shell is the product of its strength into the solid
angle u> subtended by its edge at the given point, or V = o>. For
a given strength, therefore, the potential depends solely upon the
boundary of the shell, and the potential outside a closed shell is
everywhere zero. A magnet which can be divided into simple
magnetic shells, either closed or having their edges on the surface
of the magnet, is called a lamellar magnet, and the magnetism is said
to be distributed lamellarly. A magnet consisting of a series of
plane shells of equal strength arranged at right angles to the direction
of magnetization will be uniformly magnetized.
It can be shown that uniform magnetization is possible only when
the form of the body is ellipsoidal. (Maxwell, Electricity and
Magnetism, II., 437). The cases of greatest practical importance
are those of a sphere (which is an ellipsoid with three equal axes) and
an_ovoid or prolate ellipsoid of revolution. The potential due to a
uniformly magnetized sphere of radius o for an external point at a
distance r from the centre is
being the inclination of r to the magnetic axis. Since Jro'I is
the moment of the sphere (= volume X magnetization), it appears
from (10) that the magnetized sphere produces the same external
effect as a very small magnet of equal moment placed at its centre
and magnetized in the same direction ; the resultant force therefore
is the same as in (14). The force in the interior is uniform, opposite
326
MAGNETISM
[TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES
to the direction of magnetization, and equal to fa-I. When it is
desired to have a uniform magnet with definitely situated poles, ii
it usual to employ one having the form of an ovoid, or elongatec
ellipsoid of revolution, instead of a rectangular or cylindrical bar
If the magnetization is parallel to the major axis, and the lengths
of the major and minor axes are 20, and 2c, the poles are situated ai
a distance equal to fa from the centre, and the magnet will behave
externally like a simple solenoid of length fa. The internal force
F is opposite to the direction of the magnetization, and equal to
Nl, where N is a coefficient depending only on the ratio of the axes
The moment = firoc 2 ! = - firac 2 FN.
The distribution of magnetism and the position of the poles in
magnets of other shapes, such as cylindrical or rectangular bars
cannot be specified by any general statement, though approximate
determinations may be obtained experimentally in individual cases. 1
According to F. W. G. Kohlrausch* the distance between the poles
of a cylindrical magnet the length of which is from 10 to 30 times the
diameter, is sensibly equal to five-sixths of the length of the bar.
This statement, however, is only approximately correct, the distance
between the poles depending upon the intensity of the magnetiza-
tion. 3 In general, the greater the ratio of length to section, the
more nearly will the poles approach the end of the bar, and the more
nearly uniform will be the magnetization. For most practical
purpose a knowledge of the exact position of the poles is of no im-
portance; the magnetic moment, and therefore the mean magnetiza-
tion, can always be determined with accuracy.
Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux. When magnetic force acts
on any medium, whether magnetic, diamagnetic or neutral, it pro-
duces within it a phenomenon of the nature of a flux or flow called
magnetic induction (Maxwell, loc. cit., 428). Magnetic induction,
like other fluxes such as electrical, thermal or fluid currents, is defined
with reference to an area ; it satisfies the same conditions of continuity
as the electric current does, and in isotropic media it depends on the
magnetic force just as the electric current depends on the electro-
motive force. The magnitude of the flux produced by a given
magnetic force differs in different media. In a uniform magnetic
field of unit intensity formed in empty space the induction or magnetic
flux across an area of I square centimetre normal to the direction of
the field is arbitrarily taken as the unit of induction. ' Hence if the
induction per square centimetre at any point is denoted by B, then
in empty space B is numerically equal to H ; moreover in isotropic
media both have the same direction, and for these reasons it is often
said that in empty space (and practically in air and other non-
magnetic substances) B and H are identical. Inside a magnetized
body, B is the force that would be exerted on a unit pole if placed
in a narrow crevasse cut in the body, the walls of the crevasse being
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetization (Maxwell, 1
399, 604) ; and its numerical value, being partly due to the free
magnetism on the walls, is generally very different from that of H.
In the case of a straight uniformly magnetized bar the direction of
the magnetic force due to the poles of the magnet is from the north
to the south pole outside the magnet, and from the south to the north
inside. The magnetic flux per square centimetre at any point
(B, B, or SB) is briefly called the induction, or, especially by electrical
engineers, the flux-density. The direction of magnetic induction
may be indicated by lines of induction; a line of induction is
always a closed curve, though it may possibly extend to and return
from infinity. Lines of induction drawn through every point in the
contour of a small surface form a re-entrant tube bounded by lines
of induction ; such a tube is called a tube of induction. The cross-
section of a tube of induction may vary in different parts, but the
total induction across any section is everywhere the same. A special
meaning has been assigned to the term " lines of induction." Sup-
pose the whole space in which induction exists to be divided up into
unit tubes, such that the surface integral of the induction over any
cross-section of a tube is equal to unity, and along the axis of each
tube let a line of induction be drawn. These axial lines constitute
the system of lines of induction which are so often referred to in the
specification of a field. Where the induction is high the lines will
be crowded together; where it is weak they will be widely separated,
the number per square centimetre crossing a normal surface at any
point being always equal to the numerical value of B. The induction
may therefore be specified as B lines per square centimetre. The
direction of the induction is also of course indicated by the direction
of the lines, which thus serve to map out space in a convenient
manner. Lines of induction are frequently but inaccurately spoken
of as lines of force.
When induction or magnetic flux takes place in a ferromagnetic
metal, the metal becomes magnetized, but the magnetization at
any point is proportional not to B, but to B H. The factor of
proportionality will be 1-43-, so that
1 The principal theoretical investigations are summarized in
Mascart and Joubert's Electricity and Magnetism, i. 391-398 and
11. 646-657. The case of a long iron bar has been experi-
mentally studied with great care by C. G. Lamb, Proc. Phys. Soc.,
1899- 16, 509-
* Wied. Ann., 1884, 22, 411.
3 See C. G. Lamb, loc. cit. p. 518.
(B-H)/ 4 ,r,
H+4irI.
(24)
(25)
Unless the path of the induction is entirely inside the metal, free
magnetic poles are developed at those parts of the metal where
induction enters and leaves, the polarity being south at the entry
and north at the exit of the flux. These free poles produce a magnetic
field which is superposed upon that arising from other sources. The
resultant magnetic field, therefore, is compounded of two fields, the
one being due to the poles, and the other to the external causes which
would be operative in the absence of the magnetized metal. The
intensity (at any point) of the field due to the magnetization may b
denoted by H,, that of the external field by H , and that of the re-
sultant field by H. In certain cases, as, for instance, in an iron ring
wrapped uniformly round with a coil of wire through which a current
is passing, the induction is entirely within the metal; there are,
consequently, no free poles, and the ring, though magnetized, con-
stitutes a poleless magnet. Magnetization is usually regarded as
the direct effect of the resultant magnetic force, which is therefore
often termed the magnetizing force.
Permeability and Susceptibility. The ratio B/H is called the
permeability of the medium in which the induction is taking place,
and is denoted by / The ratio I/H is called the susceptibility of the
magnetized substance, and is denoted by K. Hence
(26)
(27)
Also
and
B=,zHand I=H.
B
" I T~~ lr
' 4
(28)
Since in empty space B has been assumed to be numerically equal
to H, it follows that the permeability of a vacuum is equal to I.
The permeability of most material substances differs very slightly
from unity, being a little greater than I in paramagnetic and a
little less in diamagnetic substances. In the case of the ferromagnetic
metals and some of their alloys and compounds, the permeability has
generally a much higher value. Moreover, it is not constant, being
an apparently arbitrary function of H or of B ; in the same specimen
its value may, under different conditions, vary from less than 2 to
upwards of 5000. The magnetic susceptibility K expresses the
numerical relation of the magnetization to the magnetizing force.
From the equation K = (p l)/4x, it follows that the magnetic
susceptibility of a vacuum (where /i = l) is o, that of a diamagnetic
substance (where n < I ) has a negative value, while the susceptibility
of paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances (for which n > i ) is
positive. No substance has yet been discovered having a negative
susceptibility sufficiently great to render the permeability ( = i +4*-*)
negative.
Magnetic Circuit. The circulation of magnetic induction or flux
through magnetic and non-magnetic substances, such as iron and
air, is in many respects analogous to that of an electric current
through good and bad conductors. Just as the lines of flow of an
electric current all pass in closed curves through the battery or other
generator, so do all the lines of induction pass in closed curves through
the magnet or magnetizing coil. The total magnetic induction or
flux corresponds to the current of electricity (practically measured
in amperes) ; the induction or flux density B to the density of the
current (number of amperes to the square centimetre of section);
the magnetic permeability to the specific electric conductivity; and
the line integral of the magnetic force, sometimes called the magneto-
motive force, to the electro-motive force in the circuit. The princi-
pal points of difference are that (i) the magnetic permeability,
unlike the electric conductivity, which is independent of the strength
of the current, is not in general constant; (2) there is no perfect
insulator for magnetic induction, which will pass more or less freely
through all known substances. Nevertheless, many important
problems relating to the distribution of magnetic induction may be
solved by methods similar to those employed for the solution of
analogous problems in electricity. For the elementary theory of
the magnetic circuit see ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
Hysteresis, Coercive Force, Retentiveness. It is found that when
a piece of ferromagnetic metal, such as.iron, is subjected toa magnetic
field of changing intensity, the changes which take place in the in-
duced magnetization of the iron exhibit a tendency to lag behind those
which occur in the intensity of the field a phenomenon to which
J. A. Ewing (Phil. Trans, clxxvi. 524) has given the name of hysteresis
(Gr. i<7Tcpko, to lag behind). Thus it happens that there is no definite
elation between the magnetization of a piece of metal which has
Deen previously magnetized and the strength of the field in which
t is placed. Much depends upon its antecedent magnetic condition,
and indeed upon its whole magnetic history. A well-known example
>f hysteresis is presented by the case of permanent magnets. If a
>ar of hard steel is placed in a strong magnetic field, a certain in-
:ensity of magnetization is induced in the bar; but when the strength
of the field is afterwards reduced to zero, the magnetization does not
entirely disappear. That portion which is permanently retained,
and which may amount to considerably more than one-half, is called
:he residual magnetization. The ratio of the residual magnetization
to its previous maximum value measures the retentiveness, or
TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES]
MAGNETISM
327
retentivity, of the metal. 1 Steel, which is well suited for the construc-
,( permanent magnets, is said to possess great " coercive force."
To tlii 1 * term, which had long been used in a loose and indefinite
manner, J. Hopkinson supplied a precise meaning (Phil. Trans.
iKxvi. 460). The coercive force, or coercivity, of a material is that
^.'.d magnetic force which, while it is acting, just suffices to
reduce the residual induction to nothing after the material has been
temporarily submitted to any great magnetizing force. A metal
which has great retentiveness may at the same time have small
ive force, and it is the latter quality which is of chief im-
portance in permanent magnets.
Demagnetizing Force. It has already been mentioned that when
a ferromagnetic body is placed in a magnetic field, the resultant
u'tic force H, at a point within the body, is compounded of
the force H , due to the external field, and of another force, Hj,
arising from the induced magnetization of the body. Since HI
generally tends to oppose the external force, thus making H less
than H , it may be called the demagnetizing force. Except in the
few special cases when a uniform external field produces uniform
magnetization, the value of the demagnetizing force cannot be calcu-
, and an exact determination of the actual magnetic force within
the body is therefore impossible. An important instance in which
the calculation can be made is that of an elongated ellipsoid of
revolution placed in a uniform field H , with its axis of revolution
iwrallel to the lines of force. The magnetization at any point inside
the ellipsoid will then be
,
=
(29)
e being the eccentricity
I =*H, we have
(see Maxwell's Treatise, 438). Since
<H+NI=HO, (30)
H=H O -NI,
NI being the demagnetizing force H ( . N may be called, after H.
du Bois (Magnetic Circuit, p. 33), the demagnetizing factor, and the
ratio of the length of the ellipsoid 2C to its equatorial diameter 2a
(=c/a), the dimensional ratio, denoted by the symbol m.
e= "\ l -7* = \ l ~l&'
the above expression for N may be written
from which the value of N for a given dimensional ratio can be
calculated. When the ellipsoid is so much elongated that I is
negligible in relation to m 2 , the expression approximates to the
simpler form
(32)
(33)
(34)
In the case of a sphere, e = O and N = Jir; therefore from (29)
Ho
I=H =
Whence
and
Equations (33) and (34) show that when, as is generally the case with
ferromagnetic substances, the value of M is considerable, the resultant
magnetic force is only a small fraction of the external force, while
the numerical value of the induction is approximately three times
that of the external force, and nearly independent of the permeability.
The demagnetizing force inside a cylindrical rod placed longitudinally
in a uniform field Ho is not uniform, being greatest at the ends and
least in the middle part. Denoting its mean value by Hi, and that
of the demagnetizing factor by N, we have
H=H -n.=Ho-NI. ( 35 )
Du Bois has shown that _when the dimensional ratio m ( = length/
diameter) exceeds 100, Nm 2 = constant =45, and hence for lone
thin rods
N=45/m.
(36)
From an analysis of a number of experiments made with rods of
Iifferent dimensions H. du Bois has deduced the corresponding mean
demagnetizing factors. These, together with values of m'N for
cylindrical rods, and of N and m l N for ellipsoids of revolution, are
given in the following useful table (loc. cit. p. 41):
1 Hopkinson specified the retentiveness by the numerical value of
the " residual induction " ( = 4-I).
Demagnetizing Factors.
m.
Cylinder.
Ellipsoid.
N.
m'N.
N.
m'N.
12-5664
12-5664
o
o-5
6-5864
i
4-1888
5
0-7015
10
0-2160
21-6
0-2549
25-5
15
0-1206
27-1
0-1350
30-5
20
0-0775
31-0
0-0848
34-o
25
0-0533
33-4
0-0579
36-2
30
0-0393
35-4
0-0432
38-8
40
0-0238
38-7
0-0266
42-5
5
0-0162
40-5
0-0181
45'3
60
0-0118
42-4
0-0132
47-5
70
0-0089
43-7
O-OIOI
49'5
80
0-0069
44'4
0-0080
5'-2
90
0-0055
44-8
0-0065
52-5
100
0-0045
45-o
0-0054
54-o
150
O-OO2O
45-o
0-0026
58-3
200
O-OOII
45-0
0.0016
64-0
300
O-00050
45-o
0-00075
67-5
40O
0-OO028
45-o
0-00045
72-0
500
O-OOOlS
45-
0-00030
75-o
IOOO
0-00005
45-o
0-00008
80-0
In the middle part of a rod which has a length of 400 or 500 dia-
meters the effect of the ends is insensible; but for many experiments
the condition of endlessness may be best secured by giving the metal
the shape of a ring of uniform section, the magnetic field being pro-
duced by an electric current through a coil of wire evenly wound
round the ring. In such cases Hi =o and H =H .
The residual magnetization I, retained by a bar of ferromagnetic
metal after it has been removed from the influence of an external
field produces a demagnetizing force NI r , which is greater the smaller
the dimensional ratio. Hence the difficulty of imparting any con-
siderable permanent magnetization to a short thick bar not possessed
of great coercive force. The magnetization retained by a long thin
rod, even when its coercive force is small, is sometimes little less than
that which was produced by the direct action of the field.
Demagnetization by Reversals. In the course of an experiment it
is often desired to eliminate the effects of previous magnetization,
and, as far as possible, wipe out the magnetic history of a specimen.
In order to attain this result it was formerly the practice to raise the
metal to a bright red heat, and allow it to cool while carefully guarded
from magnetic influence. This operation, besides being very trouble-
some, was open to the objection that it was almost sure to produce
a material but uncertain change in the physical constitution of the
metal, so that, in fact, the results of experiments made before and
after the treatment were not comparable. Ewing introduced the
method (Phil. Trans, clxxvi. 539) of demagnetizing a specimen by
subjecting it to a succession of magnetic forces which alternated in
direction and gradually diminished in strength from a high value to
zero. By means of a simple arrangement, which will be described
farther on, this process can be carried out in a few seconds, and the
metal can be brought as often as desired to a definite condition,
which, if not quite identical with the virgin state, at least closely
approximates to it.
Forces acting on a Small Body in the Magnetic Field. If a small
magnet of length ds and pole-strength m is brought into a magnetic
field such that the values of the magnetic potential at the negative
and positive poles respectively are Vi and Vj, the work done upon
the magnet, and therefore its potential energy, will be
W=m(V,-V,)=m</V,
which may be written
w=
= - MH = -
where M is the moment of the magnet, r the volume, I the magnetiza-
tion, and Ho the magnetic force along ds. The small magnet may
be a sphere rigidly magnetized in the direction of H ; if this is
replaced by an isotropic sphere inductively magnetized by the field,
then, for a displacement so small that the magnetization of the
sphere may be regarded as unchanged, we shall have
dW = -
whence
W--1
-H'o
C37)
The mechanical force acting on the sphere in the direction of dis-
placement x is
<AV * dH\
(38)
3 28
MAGNETISM
[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
If Ho is constant, the force will be zero; if H is variable, the sphere
will tend to move in the direction in which H varies most rapidly.
The coefficient K/(i+Jire) is positive for ferromagnetic and para-
magnetic substances, which will therefore tend to move from weaker
to stronger parts of the field ; for all known diamagnetic substances
it is negative, and these will tend to move from stronger to weaker
parts. For small bodies other than spheres the coefficient will -be
different, but its sign will always be negative for diamagnetic sub-
stances and positive for others; 1 hence the forces acting on any
small body will be in the same directions as in the case of a sphere. 8
Directing Couple acting on an Elongated Body. In a non-uniform
field every volume-element of the body tends to move towards regions
of greater or less force according as the substance is paramagnetic
or diamagnetic, and the behaviour of the whole mass will be deter-
mined chiefly by the tendency of its constituent elements. For this
reason a thin bar suspended at its centre of gravity between a pair
of magnetic poles will, if paramagnetic, set itself along the line
joining the poles, where the field is strongest, and if diamagnetic,
transversely to the line. These are the " axial " and " equatorial "
positions of Faraday. It can be shown * that in a uniform field an
elongated piece of any non-crystalline material is in stable equi-
librium only when its length is parallel to the lines of force; for
diamagnetic substances, however, the directing couple is exceedingly
small, and it would hardly be possible to obtain a uniform field of
sufficient strength to show the effect experimentally.
Relative Magnetization. A substance of which the real suscepti-
bility is K will, when surrounded by a medium having the sus-
ceptibility k', behave towards a magnet as if its susceptibility were
<fa = Oc-*'!)/(i+4jnc'). Since 1+41*' can never be negative,
the apparent susceptibility x a will be positive or negative according
as K is greater or less than K'. Thus, for example, a tube containing
a weak solution of an iron salt will appear to be diamagnetic if it is
immersed in a stronger solution of iron, though in air it is para-
magnetic. 4
Circular Magnetization. An electric current i flowing uniformly
through a cylindrical wire whose radius is a produces inside the wire
a magnetic field of which the lines of force are concentric circles
around the axis of the wire. At a point whose distance from the
axis of the wire is r the tangential magnetic force is
H=2z>/a 2 (39)
it therefore varies directly as the distance from the axis, where it is
zero. 6 If the wire consists of a ferromagnetic metal, it will become
" circularly " magnetized by the field, the lines of magnetization
being, like the lines of force, concentric circles. So long as the wire
(supposed isotropic) is free from torsional stress, there will be no
external evidence of magnetism.
Magnetic Shielding. The action of a hollow magnetized shell on
a point inside it is always opposed to that of the external magnetizing
force, 6 the resultant interior field being therefore weaker than the
field outside. Hence any apparatus, such as a galvanometer, may
be partially shielded from extraneous magnetic action by enclosing
it in an iron case. If a hollow sphere ' of which the outer radius is
R and the inner radius r is placed in a uniform field Ho, the field
inside will also be uniform and in the same direction as HO, and its
value will be approximately
"-= -J** (40)
For a cylinder placed with its axis at right angles to the lines of force,
(41)
These expressions show that the thicker the screen and the greater
its permeability n, the more effectual will be the shielding action.
Since n can never be infinite, complete shielding is not possible.
Magneto-Crystallic Phenomenon. In anisotropic bodies, such as
crystals, the direction of the magnetization does not in general
coincide with that of the magnetic force. There are, however, always
three principal axes at right angles to one another along which the
magnetization and the force have the same direction. If each of
these axes successively is placed parallel to the lines of force in a
uniform field H, we shall have
I,= K1 H, I S =H, I,=K,H,
the three susceptibilities ic being in general unequal, though in some
cases two of them may have the same value. For crystalline bodies
the value of K (+ or ) is nearly always small and constant, the
magnetization being therefore independent of the form of the body
and proportional to the force. Hence, whatever the position of the
body, if the field be resolved into three components parallel to the
1 For all except ferromagnetic substances the coefficient is sensibly
equal to K.
* See W. Thomson's Reprint, 615, 634-651.
* Ibid. 646, 684.
4 Faraday, Exp. Res. xxi.
* J. J. Thomson, Electricity and Magnetism, 205.
6 Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, 431.
7 H. du Bois, Electrtcian, 1898, 40, 317.
principal axes of the crystal, the actual magnetization will be the
resultant of the three magnetizations along the axes. The body
(or each element of it) will tend to set itself with its axis of greatest
susceptibility parallel to the lines of force, while, if the field is not
uniform, each volume-element will also tend to move towards places
of greater or smaller force (according as the substance is para-
magnetic or diamagnetic), the tendency being a maximum when the
axis of greatest susceptibility is parallel to the field, and a minimum
when it is perpendicular to it. The phenomena may therefore be
exceedingly complicated. 8
3. MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
Magnetic Moment. The moment M of a magnet may
determined in many ways, 9 the most accurate being that of C. F.
Gauss, which gives the value not only of M, but also that of
H, the horizontal component of the earth's force. The product
MH is first determined by suspending the magnet horizontally,
and causing it to vibrate in small arcs. If A is the moment of
inertia of the magnet, and t the time of a complete vibration,
MH = 47T 2 A// 2 (torsion being neglected). The ratio M/H is
then found by one of the magnetometric methods which in their
simplest forms are described below. Equation (44) shows that
as a first approximation.
M/H = (<?-?) tan
where / is half the length of the magnet, which is placed in the
" broadside-on " position as regards a small suspended magnetic
needle, d the distance between the centre of the magnet and the
needle, and the angle through which the needle is deflected by
the magnet. We get therefore
(42)
(43)
When a high degree of accuracy is required, the experiments and
calculations are less simple, and various corrections are applied.
The moment of a magnet may also be deduced from a measure-
ment of the couple exerted on the magnet by a uniform field H.
Thus if the magnet is suspended horizontally by a fine wire,
which, when the magnetic axis points north and south, is free from
torsion, and if is the angle through which the upper end of the
wire must be twisted to make the magnet point east and west,
then MH = C0, or M = C0/H, where C is the torsional couple for
i. A bifilar suspension is sometimes used instead of a single
wire. If P is the weight of the magnet, I the length of each of
the two threads, 20 the distance between their upper points of
attachment, and 2b that between the lower points, then, approxi-
mately, MH=P(a6//) sin d. It is often sufficient to find the
ratio of the moment of one magnet to that of another. If two
magnets having moments M, M' are arranged at right angles to
each other upon a horizontal support which is free to rotate, their
resultant R will set itself in the magnetic meridian. Let 6 be
the angle which the standard magnet M makes with the meridian,
then M'/R= sin0, and M/R=cos 0, whence M' = M tan 0.
A convenient and rapid method of estimating a magnetic
moment has been devised by H. Armagnat. 10 The magnet
is laid on a table with its north pole pointing northwards,
A compass having a very short needle is placed on the line which
bisects the axis of the magnet at right angles, and is moved until
a neutral point is found where the force
due to the earth's field H is balanced by
that due to the magnet. If 2/ is the
distance between the poles m and m,d
the distance from either pole to a point P
on the line AB (fig. 5), we have for the*
resultant force at P
R= -2cos0Xm/d? = -2lm[d> = -M/<P.
When P is the neutral point, H is equal and
opposite to R; therefore M = Hrf 3 , or the
moment is numerically equal to the cube of
the distance from the neutral point to a pole, multiplied by the
8 M. Faraday, E'*p. Res. xxii., xxiii. ; W. Thomson, Reprint, 604;
J. C. Maxwell, Treatise, 435; E. Mascart: and J. Joubert, Electricity
and Magnetism, 384, 396, 1226; A. Winkelmann, Physik, v. 287.
9 See A. Winkelmann, Physik, v. 69-94; Mascart and Joubert.
Electricity and Magnetism, ii. 617.
10 Sci. Abs. A, 1906, 9, 225.
FIG. 5.
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS]
MAGNETISM
329
horizontal intensity of the earth's force. The distance between
the poles may with sufficient accuracy for a rough determination
be assumed to be equal to five-sixths of the length of the magnet.
Measurement of Magnetization and Induction. The magnetic
condition assumed by a piece of ferromagnetic metal in different
circumstances is determinable by various modes of experiment
which may be classed as magnetometric, ballistic, and traction
methods. When either the magnetization I or the induction B
corresponding to a given magnetizing force H is known, the other
may be found by means of the formula B = 4irl + H.
Magnetometric Methods. Intensity of magnetization is most
directly measured by observing the action which a magnetized
body, generally a long straight rod, exerts upon a small magnetic
nci-dle placed near it. The magnetic needle may be cemented
horizontally across the back of a little plane or concave mirror,
about J or | in. in diameter, which is suspended by a single fibre
of unspun silk; this arrangement, when enclosed in a case with
a glazed front to protect it from currents of air, constitutes a
simple but efficient magnetometer. Deflections of the suspended
needle are indicated by the movement of a narrow beam of light
which the mirror reflects from a lamp and focusses upon a gradu-
ated cardboard scale placed at a distance of a few feet; the angu-
lar deflection of the beam of light is, of course, twice that of the
needle. The suspended needle is, in the absence of disturbing
causes, directed solely by the horizontal component of the earth's
field of magnetic force H K , and therefore sets itself approximately
north and south. The magnetized body which is to be tested
should be placed in such a position that the force H P due to its
poles may, at the spot occupied by the suspended needle, act in
a direction at right angles to that due to the earth that is, east
and west. The direction of the resultant field of force will then
make, with that of H H , an angle 6, such that H P /H K = tan 0, and
the suspended needle will be deflected through the same angle.
We have therefore
Hp = H K tan 9.
The angle 9 is indicated by the position of the spot of light upon
the scale, and the horizontal intensity of the earth's field H B is
known; thus we can at once determine the value of H,, from
which the magnetization I of the body under test may be
calculated.
In order to fulfil the requirement that the field which a mag-
netized rod produces at the magnetometer shall be at right angles
to that of the earth, the rod may be conveniently placed in any
one of three different positions with regard to the suspended needle.
(i) The rod is set in a horizontal position level with the suspended
needle, its axis being in a line which is perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian, and which passes
through the centre of suspen- n N
sion of the needle. This is ~i . i
called the " end-on " position,
and is indicated in fig. 6. AB p IG _ ^
is the rod and C the middle
point of its axis; NS is the magnetometer needle; AM bisects the
undeflected needle NS at right angles. Let 2/ = the length of
the rod (or, more accurately, the distance between its poles), =
its volume, m and m the strength of its poles, and let d= the
distance CM. For most ordinary purposes the length of the needle
may be assumed to be negligible in comparison with the distance
between the needle and the rod. We then have approximately for
the field at M due to the rod
Therefore 2ml = M
And
(44)
(45)
whence we can find the values of I which correspond to different
angles of deflection.
(2) The rod may be placed horizontally east and west in such a posi-
tion that the direction of the undeflected suspended needle bisects it at
right angles. This is known as the " broadside-on " position, and is
represented in fig. 7. Let the distance of each pole of the rod AB
from the centre of the magnetometer needle = d. Then, since HP,
the force at M due to m and -m, is the resultant of gjand-jp.
we have
the direction being parallel to AB.
And l=^!Mf = ^
tan 9.
(46)
(3) In the third position the test rod is placed vertically with one
of its poles at the level of the magnetometer needle, and in the line
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
drawn perpendicularly to the undeflected needle from its centre
of suspension. The arrangement is shown in fig. 8, where AB is
the vertical rod and M indicates the position of the magnetometer
needle, which is supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Denoting the distance AM by d t , BM by </, and AB by I,
we have for the force at M due to the magnetism of the rod
HP=-TJ horizontal component of ^
/i rf,\
'U-j?;-
Therefore
and
a? -3? '-(s)
tan 9.
t _ WH.
I-'!
(47)
This last method of arrangement is called by Ewing the " one-pole "
method, because the magnetometer deflection is mainly caused by
the upper pole of the rod (Magnetic Induction, p. 40). For experi-
ments with long thin rods or wires it has an advantage over the
other arrangements in that the position of the poles need not be
known with great accuracy, a small upward or downward displace-
ment having little effect upon the magnetometer deflection. On
the other hand, a vertically placed rod is subject to the inconveni-
ence that it is influenced by the earth's magnetic field, which is not
the case when the rod is horizontal and at right angles to the mag-
netic meridian. This extraneous influence may, however, be elimi-
nated by surrounding the rod with a coil of wire carrying a current
such as will produce in the interior a magnetic field equal and
opposite to the vertical component of the earth's field.
If the cardboard scale upon which the beam of light is reflected
by the magnetometer mirror is a flat one, the deflections as indicated
by the movement of the spot of light are related to the actual deflec-
tions of the needle in the ratio of tan 28 to 9. Since 9 is always small,
sufficiently accurate results may generally be obtained if we assume
that tan 28 = 2 tan 9. If the distance of the mirror from the scale
is equal to n scale divisions, and if a deflection 6 of the needle causes
the reflected spot of light to move over i scale divisions, we shall have
s/n = tan 28 exactly,
s/2 = tan 9 approximately.
We may therefore generally substitute s/2n for tan in the various
expressions which have been given for I.
Of the three methods which have been described, the first two
are generaljy the most suitable for determining the moment or the
magnetization of a permanent magnet, and the last for studying
the changes which occur in the magnetization of a long rod or wire
when subjected to various external magnetic forces, or, in other
words, for determining the relation of I to H. A plan of the apparatus
as arranged by Ewing for the latter purpose is shown diagrammatic-
ally in fig. 9. The cardboard scale SS is placed above a wooden
screen, having in it a narrow vertical slit which permits a beam of
light from the lamp L to reach the mirror of the magnetometer M,
whence it is reflected upon the scale. A is the upper end of a glass tube,
half a metre or so in length, which is clamped in a vertical position
behind the magnetometer. The tube is wound over its whole length
with two separate coils of insulated wire, the one being outside the
other. The inner coil is supplied, through the intervening appar-
atus, with current from the battery of secondary cells Bi ; this
produces the desired magnetic field inside the tube. The outer
coil derives current, through an adjustable resistance R, from a
330
MAGNETISM
[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
L
ft
constant cell Bj ; its object is to produce inside the tube a magnetic
field equal and opposite to that due to the earth's magnetism. C is a
" compensating coil " consisting of a few turns of wire through which
the magnetizing current passes; it serves to neutralize the effect
produced upon the magnetometer by the magnetizing coil, and its
distance from the mag-
netometer is so adjusted
that when the circuit is
closed, no ferromagnetic
metal being inside the
magnetizing coil, the
1 magnetometer needle
undergoes no deflection.
K is a commutator for
reversing the direction
of the magnetizing cur-
rent, and G a galvano-
meter for measuring it.
The strength of the magnetizing current is regulated by adjusting
the position of the sliding contact E upon the resistance D F. The
current increases to a maximum as E approaches F, and diminishes
to almost nothing when E is brought up to D; it can be completely
interrupted by means of the switch H.
The specimen upon which an experiment is to be made generally
consists of a wire having a " dimensional ratio " of at least 300 or
400; its length should be rather less than that of the magnetizing
coil, in order that the field Ho, to which it is subjected, may be
approximately uniform from end to end. The wire is supported
inside the glass tube A with its upper pole at the same height as the
magnetometer needle. Various currents are then passed through
the magnetizing coil, the galvanometer readings and the simultane-
ous magnetometer deflections being noted. From the former we
deduce Ho, and from the latter the corresponding value of I, using
the formulae H =
FIG. 9.
I
I" 1 !
X s,
(48)
where s is the deflection in scale-divisions, n the distance in scale-
divisions between the scale and the mirror, and r the radius of the
wire.
The curve, fig. 10, shows the result of a typical experiment made
upon a piece of soft iron (Ewing, Phil. Trans, vol. clxxvi. Plate 59), the
magnetizing field H being first gradually increased and then dimin-
ished to zero. When the length of the wire exceeds 400 diameters,
or thereabouts, Ho may generally be considered as equivalent to H,
i
is to,
Xignetu fifld H tf
FIG. 10.
the actual strength of the field as modified by the magnetization. of
the wire; but if greater accuracy is desired, the value of Hi ( = NI)
may be found by the help of du Bois'sjtable and subtracted from
HO. For a dimensional ratio of 400, N =0-00028, and therefore
H = Ho 0-00028 I. This correction may be indicated in the diagram
by a straight line drawn from o through the point at which the line
of I = looo intersects that of H = 0-28 (Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. xxii.
175), the true value of H for any point on the curve being that
measured from the sloping line instead of from the vertical axis.
The effect of the ends of the wire is, as Ewing remarks, to shear the
diagram in the horizontal direction through the angle which the
sloping line makes with the vertical.
Since the induction B is equal to H + 4irl, it is easy from the
results of experiments such as that just described to deduce the
relation between B and H ; a curve indicating such relation is called
a curve of induction. The general character of curves of magnetiza-
tion and of induction will be discussed later. A notable feature in
both classes of curves is that, owing to hysteresis, the ascending and
descending limbs do not coincide, but follow very different courses.
If it is desired to annihilate the hysteretic effects of previous mag-
netization and restore the metal to its original condition, it may be
demagnetized by reversals. This is effected by slowly moving the
sliding contact E (fig. 9) from F to D, while at the same time the
commutator K is rapidly worked, a series of alternating currents
of gradually diminishing strength being thus caused to pass through
the magnetizing coil.
The magnetometric method, except when employed in con-
nexion with ellipsoids, for which the demagnetizing factors are
accurately known, is generally less satisfactory for the exact
determination of induction or magnetization than the ballistic
method. But for much important experimental work it is
better adapted than any other, and is indeed sometimes
only method possible. 1
Ballistic Methods. The so-called " ballistic " method of
measuring induction is based upon the fact that a change of the
induction through a closed linear conductor sets up in the con-
ductor an electromotive force which is proportional to the rate
of change. If the conductor consists of a coil of wire the ends
of which are connected with a suitable galvanometer, the integral
electromotive force due to a sudden increase or decrease of the
induction through the coil displaces in the circuit a quantity
of electricity Q=5Bns R, where 5B is the increment or decrement
of induction per square centimetre, s is the area of the coil, n
the number of turns of wire, and R the resistance of the circuit.
Under the influence of the transient current, the galvanometer
needle undergoes a momentary deflection, or " throw," which is
proportional to Q, and therefore to 5B, and thus, if we know the
deflection produced by the discharge through the galvanometer
of a given quantity of electricity, we have the means of determin-
ing the value of 5B.
The galvanometer which is used for ballistic observations should
have a somewhat heavy needle with a period of vibration of not less
than five seconds, so that the transient current may have ceased
before the swing has well begun; an instrument of the d'Arsonval
form is recommended, not only because it is unaffected by outside
magnetic influence, but also because the moving part can be in-
stantly brought to rest by means of a short-circuit key, thus effecting
a great saving of time when a series of observations is being made.
In practice it is usual to standardize or " calibrate " the galvano-
meter by causing a known change of induction to take place within
a standard coil connected with it, and noting the corresponding
deflection on the galvanometer scale. Let j be the area of a single
turn of the standard coil, n the number of its turns, and r the resist-
ance of the circuit of which the coil forms part; and let S, N and R
be the corresponding constants for a coil which is to be used in an
experiment. Then if a known change of induction 8B a inside the
standard coil is found to cause a throw of d scale-divisions, any
change of induction 6B through the experimental coil will be numeri-
cally equal to the corresponding throw D multiplied by jnRB/SNrd.
For a series of experiments made with the same coil this fraction is
constant, and we may write &B = kD. Rowland and others have used
an earth coil for calibrating the galvanometer, a known change of
induction through the coil being produced by turning it over in the
earth's magnetic field, but for several reasons it is preferable to
employ an electric current as the source of a known induction. A
primary coil of length /, having turns, is wound upon a cylinder
made of non-conducting and non-magnetic material, and upon the
middle of the primary a secondary or induction coil is closely fitted.
When a current of strength i is suddenly interrupted in the primary,
the increment of induction through the secondary is sensibly equal
to 4'n// units. All the data required for standardizing the galvano-
meter can in this way be determined with accuracy.
The ballistic method is largely employed for determining the
relation of induction to magnetizing force in samples of the
iron and steel used in the manufacture of electrical machinery,
and especially for the observation of hysteresis effects. The
sample may have the form of a closed ring, upon which are
wound the induction coil and another coil for taking the mag-
netizing current; or it may consist of a long straight rod or wire
which can be slipped into a magnetizing coil such as is used in
magnetometric experiments, the induction coil being wound
upon the middle of the wire. With these arrangements there is
no demagnetizing force to be considered, for the ring has not
any ends to produce one, and the force due to the ends of a
rod 400 or 500 diameters in length is quite insensible at the middle
portion; H therefore is equal to HQ.
E. Grassot has devised a galvanometer, or " fluxmeter," which
greatly alleviates the tedious operation of taking ballistic readings. 1
The instrument is of the d'Arsonval type; its coil turns in a strong
uniform field, and is suspended in such a manner that torsion is
practically negligible, the swings of the coil being limited by damping
influences, chiefly electromagnetic. The index therefore remains
almost stationary at the limit of its deflection, and the deflection
is approximately the same whether the change of induction occurs
suddenly or gradually.
1 See C. G. Lamb, Proc. Phys. Soc., 1899, 16, 517.
s Soc. Franc. Phys. Seances, 1904, i, 27.
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS]
MAGNETISM
FIG. ii.
FIG. 13.
Induction and Hysteresis Curves. Some typical induction
curves, copied from a paper by Ewing (Proc. Insl. C.E. vol.
cxxvi.), are given in figs, n, 12 and 13. Fig. n shows the rela-
m of B to H in a specimen which has never before been mag-
itized. The experiment may be made in two different ways:
i) the magnetizing current is increased by a series of sudden
:eps, each of which produces a ballistic throw, the value of B
:r any one throw being proportional to the sum of that and
all the previous throws;
(2) the magnetizing
current having been
brought to any desired
value, is suddenly re-
versed, and the observed
throw taken as measur-
ing twice the actual in-
duction. Fig. 12 shows
the nature of the course
taken by the curve when
the magnetizing current, after having been raised to the value
corresponding to the point a, is diminished by steps until it is
nothing, and then gradually increased in the reverse direction.
The downward course of the curve is, owing to hysteresis, strik-
ingly different from its upward course, and when the magnetizing
force has been reduced to zero, there is still remaining an induc-
tion of 7500 units. If the operation is again reversed, the up-
ward course will be nearly, but not exactly, of the form shown
by the line d e a, fig. 13. After a. few repetitions of the reversal,
the process becomes strictly cyclic, the upward and downward
curves always following with precision the paths indicated in the
figure. In order to establish the cyclic condition, it is sufficient
to apply alternately the greatest positive and negative forces
employed in the test (greatest H = about 5 C.G.S. units in the
case illustrated in the figure), an operation which is performed
by simply reversing the direction of the maximum magnetizing
current a few times.
The closed figure a c d e a is variously called a hysteresis curve
or diagram or loop. The area J~KUB enclosed by it represents
the work done in carrying a cubic centimetre of the iron through
the corresponding magnetic cycle; expressed in ergs this work is
I HUB. 1 To quote an example given by J. A. Fleming, it
requires about 18 foot-pounds of work 'to make a complete mag-
netic cycle in a cubic foot of wrought iron, strongly magnetized
first one way and then the other, the work so expended taking
the form of heat in the mass.
Fig. 14 shows diagrammatically a convenient arrangement de-
scribed by Ewing (see Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxxvi., and Phil. Trans.,
I893A, p. 987) for carrying out ballistic tests by which either the
simple B-H curve (fig. n) or the hysteresis curve (figs. 12 and 13)
can be determined. The sample under test is prepared in the form
of a ring A, upon which are wound the induction and the magnetizing
coils; the latter should be wound evenly over the whole ring, though
for the sake of clearness only part of the winding is indicated in the
diagram. The magnetizing current, which is derived from the stor-
age battery B, is regulated by the adjustable resistance R and
measured by the galvanometer G. The current passes through the
rocking key K, which, when thrown over to the right, places a in
contact with c and b with d,and when thrown over to the left, places
a. in contact with e and b with /. When the switch S is closed, K
acts simply as a commutator or current-reverser, but if K is thrown
over from right to left while S is opened, not only is the current
reversed, but its strength is at the same time diminished by the
interposition of the adjustable resistance Rj. The induction coil
wound upon the ring is connected to the ballistic galvanometer G
in series with a large permanent resistance Ri. In the same circuit
is also included the induction coil E, which is used for standardizing
the galvanometer; this secondary coil is represented in the diagram
by three turns of wire wound over a much longer primary coil. The
short-circuit key F is kept closed except when an observation is about
to be made ; its object is to arrest the swing of the d'Arsonval galvano-
1 E. G. Warburg, Wied. Ann. 1881, 13, 141; Ewing, Phil. Trans.,
1885, 176, 549; Hopkinson, Phil. Trans. 1885, 176, 466. For a
simple proof, see Ewing, Magnetic Induction (1900), p. 99. Hopkin-
son pointed out that the greatest dissipation of energy which can
be caused by a to-and-fro reversal is approximately represented by
Coercive force X maximum induction \*.
meter Gz. By means of the three-way switch C the battery current
may be sent either into the primary of E, for the purpose of calibrat-
ing the galvanometer, or into the magnetizing coil of the ring under
test. When it is desired to obtain a simple curve of induction,
such as that in fig. 1 1, S is kept permanently closed, and correspond-
ing values of H and B are determined by one of the two methods
already described, the strength of the battery-current being varied
by means of the adjustable resistance R. When a hysteresis curve
is to be obtained, the procedure is as follows: The current is first
adjusted by means of R to such a strength as will fit it to produce
the greatest + and values of the magnetizing force which it is
intended to apply in the course of the cycle ; then it is reversed several
times, and when the range of the galvanometer throws has become
constant, half the extent of an excursion indicates the induction
corresponding to the extreme
value of H, and gives the point a
in the curve fig. 12. The revers-
ing key K having been put over
to the left side, the short-circuit
key S is suddenly opened; this
inserts the resistance Tl, which
has been suitably adjusted before-
hand, and thus reduces the current
and therefore the magnetizing
force to a known value. The gal-
vanometer throw which results
from the change of current mea-
sures the amount by which the
induction is reduced, and thus a
second point on the curve is found.
In a similar manner, by giving
different values to the resistance
R, any desired number of points
between a and c in the curve can
be determined. To continue the
process, the key K is turned over to the right-hand side, and then,
while S is open, is turned back, thereby not only reversing the direc-
tion of the current, but diminishing its strength by an amount
depending upon the previous adjustment of Rj. In this way points
can be found lying anywhere between c and d of fig. 12, and the
determination of the downward limb of the curve is therefore com-
pleted. As the return curve, shown in fig. 13, is merely an inverted
copy of the other, no separate determination of it is necessary.
In fig. 15 (J. A. Fleming, Magnets and Electric Currents, p. 193)
are shown three very different types of hysteresis curves, charac-
teristic of the special qualities of the metals from which they were
respectively obtained. The distinguishing feature of the first
is the steepness of its outlines; this indicates that the induction
increases rapidly in relation
to the magnetic force, and
hence the metal is well suited
for the construction of dy-
namo magnets. The second
has a very small area, show-
ing that the work done
in reversing the magnetiza- I J
tion is small; the metal is
therefore adapted for use in
alternating current trans-
formers. On the other hand, the form of the third curve,
its large intercepts on the axes of H and B, denotes that the
specimen to which it relates possesses both retentiveness and
coercive force in a high degree; such a metal would be chosen
for making good permanent magnets.
Several arrangements have been devised for determining hysteresis
more easily and expeditiously than is possible by the ballistic
method. The best known is J. A. Ewing's hysteresis-tester, 1 which
is specially intended for testing the sheet iron used in transformers.
The sample, arranged as a bundle of rectangular strips, is caused to
rotate about a central horizontal axis between the poles of an up-
right C-shaped magnet, which is supported near its middle upon
knife-edges in such a manner that it can oscillate about an axis in a
line with that about which the specimen rotates; the lower side of
the magnet is weighted, to give it some stability. When the speci-
men rotates, the magnet is deflected from its upright position by
an amount which depends upon the work done in a single complete
rotation, and therefore upon the hysteresis. The deflection is indi-
cated by a pointer upon a graduated scale, the readings being
interpreted by comparison with two standard specimens supplied
with the instrument. G. F. Searle and T. G. Bedford* nave
p IG
' Magnetic Induction, 1900, 378.
1 Phu. Trans., 1902, 198, 33.
332
MAGNETISM
[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
introduced the method of measuring hysteresis by means of an elec-
tro-dynamometer used ballistically. The fixed and suspended coils of
the dynamometer are respectively connected in series with the
magnetizing solenoid and with a secondary wound upon the speci-
men. When the magnetizing current is twice reversed, so as to
complete a cycle, the sum of the two deflections, multiplied by a fac-
toi depending upon the sectional area of the specimen and upon the
constants of the apparatus, gives the hysteresis for a complete cycle
in ergs per cubic centimetre. _For specimens of large sectional area
it is necessary to apply corrections in respect of the energy dissipated
by eddy currents and in heating the secondary circuit. The method
has been employed by the authors themselves in studying the effects
of tension, torsion and circular magnetization, while R. L. Wills 1
has made successful use of it in a research on the effects of tempera-
ture, a matter of great industrial importance.
C.P. Steinmetz (Electrician, 1891,26, p. 261 ; 1892, 28, pp. 384,408,
425) has .called attention to a simple relation which appears to exist
between the amount of energ_y dissipated in carrying a piece of
jron or steel through a magnetic cycle and the limiting value of the
induction reached in the cycle. Denoting by W the work in ergs
done upon a cubic centimetre of the metal
( = I HdB or I HdlJ , he finds W = >jB 1 ' 6 approximately, where i]
is a number, called the hysteretic constant, depending upon the
metal, and B is the maximum induction. The value of the constant
17 ranges in different metals from about o-ooi to 0-04; in soft iron
and steel it is said to be generally not far from 0-002. Steinmetz's
formula may be tested by taking a series of hysteresis curves between
different limits of B, measuring their areas by a planimeter, and
plotting the logarithms of these divided by 4ir as ordinates against
logarithms of the corresponding maximum values of B as abscissae.
The curve thus constructed should be a straight line inclined to the
horizontal axis at an angle 6, the tangent of which is 1-6. Ewing
and H. G. Klaassen (Phil. Trans., 1893, '^4' IOI 7) nave m this
manner examined how nearly and within what range a formula of
the type W=ijB may be taken to represent the facts. The results
of an example which they quote in detail may be briefly summarized
as follows:
Limits of B.
Hysteretic
Constant.
n
Index.
( = tan6)
Degrees.
e
200 to 500
500 to 1,000
1,000 to 2,000
2,000 to 8,000
8,000 to 14,000
O.OI
0-00134
la
55
475
70
62-25
59-25
57-25
55-75
59-50
It is remarked by the experimenters that the value of the index
c is by no means constant, but changes in correspondence with the
successive well-marked stages in the process of magnetization.
But though a formula of this type has no physical significance, and
cannot be accepted as an equation to the actual curve of W and B,
it is, nevertheless, the case that by making the index = i-6,
and assigning a suitable value to ij, a formula may be obtained
giving an approximation to the truth which is sufficiently close for
the ordinary purposes of electrical engineers, especially when the
limiting value of B is neither very great nor very small. Alex-
ander Siemens (Journ. Inst. Eng., 1894, 2 3> 229) states
that in the hundreds of comparisons of test pieces which have
been made at the works of his firm, Steinmetz's law has been
found to be practically correct. 2 An interesting collection of W-B
curves embodying the results of actual experiments by Ewing and
Klaassen on different specimens of metal is given in fig. 16. It has
been shown by Kennelly (Electrician, 1892, 28, 666) that Stein-
metz's formula gives approximately correct results in the case of
nickel. Working with two different specimens, he found that the
hysteresis loss in ergs per cubic centimetre (W) was fairly represented
by O-OOI25B 1 ' 6 and o-ooioiB 1 ' 6 respectively, the maximum induction
ranging from about 300 to 3000. The applicability of the law to
cobalt has been investigated by Fleming (Phil. Mag., 1899, 4^, 271),
who used a ring of cast cobalt containing about 96% of the pure
metal. The jogarithmic curves which accompany his paper demon-
strate that within wide ranges of maximum induction W = o-oiB 1 - 6 =
O-527I 1 ' 62 very nearly. Fleming rightly regards it as not a little
curious that for materials differing so much as this cast cobalt and
soft annealed iron the hysteretic exponent should in both cases be
so near to 1-6. After pointing out that, since the magnetization
of the metal is the quantity really concerned, W is more appropriately
expressed in terms of I, the magnetic moment per unit of volume,
than of_ B, he suggests an experiment to determine whether the
mechanical work required to effect the complete magnetic reversal
1 Phil. Mag., 1903, 5, 117.
1 Some experiments by F. G. Baily showed that hysteresis ceased
to increase when B was carried beyond 23,000. This value of B
corresponds to 1 = 1640, the saturation point for soft iron. Brit.
Assoc. Rep., 1895, p. 636.
of a crowd of small compass needles (representative of magnetic
molecules) is proportional to the I -6th power of the aggregate maxi-
mum magnetic moment before or after completion of the cycle.
10000
tzpoo
B000
4.000
ISOOO
a, Fine steel wire 0-257 mm - diam.
b, Fine iron wire 0-34 mm. diam.
c, Fine iron wire 0-2475 mm. diam.
d, Thin sheet iron 0-47 mm. thick.
e, Iron wire 0-602 mm. diam.
/, Iron wire 0-975 mm - diam.
g, Sheet iron 1-95 mm. thick.
h, Thin sheet iron 0-367 mm. thick.
*', Very soft iron wire.
The experiments of K. Honda and S. Shimizu ' indicate that
Steinmetz s formula holds for nickel and annealed cobalt up to
B =3000, for cast cobalt and tungsten steel up to B =8000, and for
Swedish iron up to B = 18,000, the range being in all cases extended
at the temperature of liquid air.
The diagram, fig. 17, contains examples of ascending induction
curves characteristic of wrought iron, cast iron, cobalt and nickel.
-1.000
10,000
1,000-
so
ri
-7SO
-500
FIG. 17.
These are to be regarded merely as typical specimens, for the
details of a curve depend largely upon the physical condition
and purity of the material; but they show at a glance how far
the several metals differ from and resemble one another as
regards their magnetic properties. Curves of magnetization
(which express the relation of I to H) have a close resemblance
to those of induction; and, indeed, since B = H+4irI, and 471"!
(except in extreme fields) greatly exceeds H in numerical value,
we may generally, without serious error, put I = B/4ir, and trans-
form curves of induction into curves of magnetization by merely
altering the scale to which the ordinates are referred. A scale for
the approximate transformation for the curves in fig. 1 2 is given
8 Tokyo Phys.-Math. Soc., 1904, 2, No. 14.
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS]
MAGNETISM
333
at the right-hand side of the diagram, the greatest error intro-
duced by neglecting H/4ir not exceeding 0-6%. A study of such
curves as these reveals the fact that there are three distinct
stages in the process of magnetization. During the first stage,
when the magnetizing force is small, the magnetization (or the
induction) increases rather slowly with increasing force; this is
well shown by the nickel curve in the diagram, but the effect
would be no less conspicuous in the iron curve if the abscissae
were plotted to a larger scale. During the second stage small
increments of magnetizing force are attended by relatively
large increments of magnetization, as is indicated by the steep
ascent of the curve. Then the curve bends over, forming what is
often called a " knee," and a third stage is entered upon, during
which a considerable increase of magnetizing force has little
further effect upon the magnetization. When in this condition
the metal is popularly said to be " saturated." Under increasing
magnetizing forces, greatly exceeding those comprised within
the limits of the diagram, the magnetization does practically
reach a limit, the maximum value being attained with a magnet-
izing force of less than 2000 for wrought iron and nickel, and less
than 4000 for cast iron and cobalt. The induction, however,
continues to increase indefinitely, though very slowly. These
observations have an important bearing upon the molecular
theory of magnetism, which will be referred to later.
The magnetic quality of a sample of iron depends very largely
upon the purity and physical condition of the metal. The
presence of ordinary impurities usually tends to diminish the
permeability, though, as will appear later, the addition of small
quantities of certain other substances is sometimes advantageous.
A very pure form of iron, which from the method of its manufac-
ture is called " steel," is now extensively used for the construc-
tion of dynamo magnets; this metal sometimes contains not more
than 0-3 % of foreign substances, including carbon, and is mag-
netically superior to the best commercial wrought iron. The
results of some comparative tests published by Ewing (Proc.
Inst. C.E., 1896) are given in the accompanying table. Those
in the second column are quoted from a paper by F. Lydall and
A. VV. Pocklington (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1892, 52, 228) and relate
to an exceptional specimen containing nearly 99-9% of the pure
metal.
Magnetic
Magnetic Induction.
Force.
Pure
Low Moor
Steel
Steel
Iron.
Iron.
Forging.
Casting.
5
12,700
10,900
12,300
9,600
10
14,980
13,120
14,920
13,050
15
15,800
14,010
15,800
14,600
20
16,300
14,580
16,280
I5.3IO
30
16,950
15.280
Id, .SKI
16,000
40
7.350
15.760
17,190
16,510
50
16,060
17.500
16,900
60
16,340
17.750
17,180
70
16,580
17,970
17,400
So
16,800
18,180
17,^20
90
17,000
18,390
17.830
IOO
17,200
18,600
18,030
To secure the highest possible permeability it is essential that
the iron should be softened by careful annealing. When it is
mechanically hardened by hammering, rolling or wire-drawing
its permeability may be greatly diminished, especially under a
moderate magnetizing force. An experiment by Ewing showed
that by the operation of stretching an annealed iron wire beyond
the limits of elasticity the permeability under a magnetizing
force of about 3 units was reduced by as much as 75%.
Ewing has also studied the effect of vibration in conferring
upon iron an apparent or spurious permeability of high value;
this effort also is most conspicuous when the magnetizing force
is weak. The permeability of a soft iron wire, which was tapped
while subjected to a very small magnetizing force, rose to the
enormous value of about 80,000 (Magnetic Induction, 85). It
follows that in testing iron for magnetic quality the greatest
care must be exercised to guard the specimen against any
accidental vibration.
Low hysteresis is the chief requisite for iron which is to be
used for transformer cores, and it does not necessarily accom-
pany high permeability. In response to the demand, manufac-
turers have succeeded in producing transformer plate in which
the loss of energy due to hysteresis is exceedingly small. Tests
of a sample supplied by Messrs. Sankey were found by Ewing
to give the following results, which, however, are regarded as
being unusually favourable. In a valuable collection of magnetic
Limits of
Induction.
Ergs per c.cm.
per cycle.
Watts per Ib.
Frequency, 100.
2000
220
0-129
3000
410
0-242
4O-JO
640
0-376
5fxx>
910
0-535
fooo
1200
0-710
7000
1520
0-890
8000
1900
II20
9000
2310
1-360
data (Proc. Inst. C.E., cxxvi.) H. F. Parshall quotes tests of six
samples of iron, described as of good quality, which showed an
average hysteresis loss of 3070 ergs per c.cm. per cycle at an
induction of 8000, being 1-6 times the loss shown by Ewing's
specimen at the same induction.
The standard induction in reference to determinations of
hysteresis is generally taken as 2500, while the loss is expressed
in watts per ll> at a frequency of 100 double reversals, or cycles,
per second. In many experiments, however, different inductions
and frequencies are employed, and the hysteresis-loss is often
expressed as ergs per cubic centimetre per cycle and sometimes
as horse-power per ton. In order to save arithmetical labour
it is convenient to be provided with conversion factors for reduc-
ing variously expressed results to the standard form. The rate
at which energy is lost being proportional to the frequency, it
is obvious that the loss at frequency 100 may be deduced
from that at any other frequency n by simply multiplying
by 100 n. Taking the density of iron to be 7-7, the factor for
reducing the loss in ergs per c.cm. to watts per Ib with a frequency
of too is 0-000589 (Ewing). Since i horse-power =746 watts,
and i ton = 2240 Ib, the factor for reducing horse-power per ton
to watts per Ib is 746/2240, or just 1/3. The loss for any induc-
tion B within the range for which Steinmetz's law holds may be
converted into that for the standard induction 2500 by dividing
it by B 1 ' 6 /2soo 1 ' 6 . The values of this ratio for different values
of B, as given by Fleming (Phil. Mag., 1897), are contained in
the second column of the annexed table. The third column
shows the relative amount of hysteresis deduced by Ewing as a
general mean from actual tests of many samples (Journ. Inst.
Elec. Eng., 1895). Incidentally, these two columns furnish an
undesigned test of the accuracy of Steinmetz's law: the greatest
difference is little more than i %.
Induction
B.
B''
Observed relative
Hysteresis.
2500' "'
2OOO
0-700
0-702
2500
I-OOO
I-OOO
3000
1-338
1-340
4OOO
2-118
2-128
5000
3-031
3-000
6000
4-058
4-022
7000
5-193
5-129
8OOO
6-430
6-384
Curves of Permeability and Susceptibility. The relations of
H ( = B/H) to B, and of K ( = I/H) to I may be instructively
exhibited by means of curves, a method first employed by H. A.
Rowland. 1 The dotted curve for (i and B in fig. 18 is copied
from Rowland's paper. The actual experiment to which it
relates was carried only as the point marked X, corresponding
to a magnetizing force of 65, and an induction of nearly 17,000.
Rowland, believing that the curve would continue to fall in a
straight line meeting the horizontal axis, inferred that the induc-
tion corresponding to the point B about 1 7,500 was the highest
1 Phil. Mag., 1873, 46, 140.
334
MAGNETISM
[MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS
that could be produced by any magnetizing force, however great.
It has, however, been shown that, if the magnetizing force is
carried far enough, the curve always becomes convex to the axis
instead of meeting it. The full line shows the result of an experi-
ment in which the magnetizing force was carried up to 585,'
2.000
1000
1000
topoo
0,000
FIG. 1 8.
but though the force was thus increased ninefold, the induction
only reached 19,800, and the ultimate value of the permeability
was still as much as 33-9.
Ballistic Method with Yoke. J. Hopkinson (Phil. Trans.,
1885, 176, 455) introduced a modification of the usual ballistic
arrangement which presents the following advantages: (i)
very considerable magnetizing forces can be applied with ordi-
nary means; (2) the samples to be tested, having the form of
cylindrical bars, are more easily prepared than rings or wires;
(3) the actual induction at any time can be measured, and not
only changes of in-
duction. On the
other hand, a very
high degree of ac-
curacy is not claimed
for the results. Fig.
19 shows the appa-
ratus by which the
FlG - J 9- ends of the bar are
prevented from
exerting any material demagnetizing force, while the permeance
of the magnetic circuit is at the same time increased. A A,
called the " yoke," is a block of annealed wrought iron
about 18 in. long, 6^ in. wide and 2 in. thick, through
which is cut a rectangular opening to receive the two
magnetizing coils B B. The test bar C C, which slides
through holes bored in the yoke, is divided near the
middle into two parts, the ends which come into contact
being faced true and square. Between the magnetizing coils
is a small induction coil D, which is connected with a ballistic
galvanometer. The induction coil is carried upon the end of
one portion of the test bar, and when this portion is suddenly
drawn back the coil slips off and is pulled out of the field by
an india-rubber spring. This causes a ballistic throw propor-
tional to the induction through the bar at the moment when the
two portions were separated. With such an arrangement it is
possible to submit the sample to any series of magnetic forces,
and to measure its magnetic state at the end. The uncertainty
with which the results are affected depends chiefly upon the im-
perfect contact between the bar and the yoke and also between
the ends of the divided bar. It is probable that Hopkinson did
not attach sufficient importance to the demagnetizing action of
the cut (cf. Ewing, Phil. Mag., Sept. 1888, p. 274), and that the
values which he assigned to H are consequently somewhat too
high. He applied his method with good effect, however, in
testing a large number of commercial specimens of iron and steel,
the magnetic constants of which are given in a table accompany-
ing his paper. When it is not required to determine the residual
magnetization there is no necessity to divide the sample bar,
and ballistic tests may be made in the ordinary way by steps
1 S. Bidwell, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1886, 40, 495.
or by reversals the source of error due to the transverse cut
thus being avoided. Ewing (Magnetic Induction, 194) has de-
vised an arrangement in which two similar test bars are placed
side by side; each bar is surrounded by a magnetizing coil, the
two coils being connected to give opposite directions of magneti-
zation, and each pair of ends is connected by a short massive
block of soft iron having holes bored through it to fit the bars,
which are clamped in position by set-screws. Induction coils
are wound on the middle parts of both bars, and are connected
in series. With this arrangement it is possible to find the actual
value of the magnetizing force, corrected for the effects of joints
and other sources of error. Two sets of observations are taken,
one when the blocks are fixed at the ends of the bars, and another
when they are nearer together, the clear length of the bars
between them and of the magnetizing coils being reduced to
one-half. If HI and Hz be the values of qirin/l and qni' / for the
2/ 2
same induction B, it can be shown that the true magnetizing
force is H = HI (H 2 HI). The method, though tedious
in operation, is very accurate, and is largely employed for
determining the magnetic quality of bars intended to serve as
standards.
Traction Methods. The induction of the magnetization may
be measured by observing the force required to draw apart the
two portions of a divided rod or ring when held together by their
mutual attraction. If a transverse cut is made through a bar
whose magnetization is I and the two ends are placed in contact,
it can be shown that this force is 2ir I 2 dynes per unit of area
(Mascart and Joubert, Electricity and Magnetism, 322; and if
the magnetization of the bar is due to an external field H produced
by a magnetizing coil or otherwise, there is an additional force
equal to HI. Thus the whole force, when the two portions of
the bar are surrounded by a loosely-fitting magnetizing coil, is
expressed as dynes per square centimetre. If each portion of
the bar has an independent magnetizing coil wound tightly
upon it, we have further to take into account the force due to
the mutual action of the two magnetizing coils, which assists
the forces already considered. This is equal to H 2 8w per unit
of sectional area. In the case supposed therefore the total force
per square centimetre is
(4*-I+H) 2
Sw
= 8T
The equation F = B 2 /87r is often said to express " Maxwell's
law of magnetic traction " (Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism,
642-646). It is, of course, true for permanent magnets, where
H = o, since then F = 2xP; but if the magnetization is due t
electric currents, the formula is only applicable in the special
case when the mutual action of the two magnets upon one
another is supplemented by the electromagnetic attraction
between separate magnetizing coils rigidly attached to them. 2
The traction method was first employed by S. Bidwell (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1886, 40, 486), who in 1886 published an account of
some experiments in which the relation of magnetization t
magnetic field was deduced from observations of the force in
grammes weight which just sufficed to tear asunder the two
halves of a divided ring electro-magnet when known currents
were passing through the coils. He made use of the expression
where W is the weight in grammes per square centimetre of
sectional area, and g is the intensity of gravity which was taken as
981. The term for the attraction between the coils was omitted
as negligibly small (see Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 440). The values
assigned to H were calculated from H=2ni/r, and ranged
from 3-9 to 585, but inasmuch as no account was taken of any
* Since in most practicable experiments H 2 is negligible in com-
parison with B 2 , the force may be taken as B 2 /8?r without scnsit
error.
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS)
MAGNETISM
335
demagnetizing action which might be due to the two transverse
cuts, it is probable that they are somewhat too high. The results,
nevertheless, agree very well with those for annealed wrought
iron obtained by other methods. Below is given a selection from
Bidwell's tables, showing corresponding values of magnetizing
force, weight supported, magnetization, induction, susceptibility
and permeability:
cr
n
X
w
V
:a
to
a
th
H.
W.
I.
B.
K.
M-
bi
s
di
th
th
B
w
III
a
*1
b;
al
3-9
5-7
10-3
22-2
40
"5
208
362
465
55
2,210
3.460
5400
8,440
9,680
12,170
13,810
H.740
15,275
15.905
587
735
918
"47
1226
1370
1452
1489
1508
1530
7.390
9,240
",550
14.450
15460
17,330
18,470
19,080
19,420
19,820
I5I-0
128-9
8 9 -I
51-7
30-7
n-9
7-0
4-1
3-2
2-6
1889-1
1621-3
1121-4
650-9
386-4
150-7
88-8
52-7
41-8
33-9
A few months later R. H. M. Bosanquet (Phil. Mag., 1886,
22, 535) experimented on the relation of tractive force to
magnetic induction. Instead of a divided ring he
employed a divided straight bar, each half of which
was provided with a magnetizing coil. The joint
was surrounded by an induction coil connected
with a ballistic galvanometer, an arrangement
which enabled him to make an independent
measurement of the induction at the moment
when the two portions of the bar were separated.
He showed that there was, on the whole, a fair
agreement between the values determined ballistic-
ally and those given by the formula B = "^8TrF.
The greatest weight supported in the experiments
was 14,600 grammes per square cm., and the cor-
responding induction 18,500 units. Taylor Jones
subsequently found a good agreement between the
theoretical and the observed values of the tractive
force in fields ranging up to very high intensities
2O<
(Phil. Mag., 1895, 39, 254, and 1896, 41, 153).
Permeameters. Several instruments in which the traction method
is applied have been devised for the rapid measurement of induction
or of magnetization in commercial samples of iron and steel. The
earliest of these is S. P. Thompson's permeameter (Journ. Sci. Arts,
1890, 38, 885), which consists of a rectangular block of iron shaped
like Hopkinson's yoke, and slotted out in the same way to receive
a magnetizing coil (fig. 20) ; the block is bored through at the upper
end only, and its inner face opposite the hole is made quite flat and
smooth. The sample has the form of a thin rod, one end of which
is faced true; it is slipped into the magnetizing coil from above, and
when the current is turned on its smooth end adheres tightly to the
surface of the yoke. The force required to detach it is measured by
a registering spring balance, which is clamped to the upper end of the
rod, and thence the induction or the magnetization is deduced by
applying the formula
where P is the pull in grammes weight, S the sectional area of
the rod in square cm., and g = 98l. If the pull is measured in
pounds and the area in square inches, the formula may be written
B = i3i7xVP7S+H. The instrument exhibited by Thompson
would, without undue heating, take a current of 30 amperes, which
was sufficient to produce a magnetizing force of 1000 units. A
testing apparatus of a similar type devised by Gisbert Kapp (Journ
Inst. Elec. Eng. xxiii. 199) differs only in a few details from
Thompson's permeameter. Ewing has described an arrangement
in which the test bar has a soft-iron pole piece clamped to each
of its ends; the pole pieces are joined by a long well-fitting block
of iron, which is placed upon them (like the " keeper ' of a
magnet), and the induction is measured by the force required tc
detach the block. In all such measurements a correction shoulc
be made in respect of the demagnetizing force due to the joint
and unless the fit is very accurate the demagnetizing action wil
be variable. In the magnetic balance of du Bois (Magnetic Circuit
p. 346) the uncertainty arising from the presence of a joint is
avoided, the force measured being that exerted between two pieces o
iron separated from each other by a narrow air-gap of known width
The instrument is represented diagrammatically in fig. 21. Th(
test-piece A, surrounded by a magnetizing coil, is clamped between
two soft-iron blocks B, B'. Y Y' is a soft iron yoke, which rocks
upon knife-edges K and constitutes the beam of the balance. The
yoke has two projecting pieces C, C' at unequal distances from the
Y
V"
r
fi
JLl
LJ
-^A?.
. . t
5>L
B
A
J
FIG. 21.
cnife-edges, and separated from the blocks B, B' by narrow air-gaps.
The play of the beam is limited by a stop S and a screw R, the latter
>eing so adjusted that when the end Y of the beam is held down the
air-gaps are of equal
width. W is a weight |-D-, W
capable of sliding from end
end of the yoke along
graduated scale. When
here is no magnetization, R
:he yoke is in equilibrium;
jut as soon as the current
turned on the block C is
drawn downwards as far as
the screw R will allow, for,
:hough the attractive forces F between B and C and between
B' and C' are equal, the former has a greater moment. The
weight W is moved along the scale until the yoke just tilts over
upon the stop S; the distance of W from its zero position is then, as
can easily be shown, proportional to F, and therefore to B ! , and
approximately to I 1 . The scale is graduated in such a manner that
ay multiplying the reading by a simple factor (generally 10 or 2) the
absolute value of the magnetization is obtained. The actual
magnetizing force H is of course less than that due to the coil ; the
corrections required are effected automatically by the use of a set of
demagnetization lines drawn on a sheet of celluloid which is supplied
with the instrument. The celluloid sheet is laid upon the squared
paper, and in plotting a curve horizontal distances are reckoned
from the proper demagnetization line instead of from the vertical
axis. An improved but somewhat more complex form of the instru-
ment is described in Ann. d. Phys., 1900, 2, 317.
the'
magnetizing 1 .
men, which has the form of a turned rod, 4 in. long and \ in. in dia-
meter, is laid across the poles of a horseshoe electromagnet, excited
by a current of such strength as to produce in the rod a magnetizing
force H =20. One pole has a V-shaped notch for the rod to rest in;
the surface of the other is slightly rounded, forming a portion of a
cylinder, the axis of which is perpendicular to the direction of the
length of the rod. The rod touches this pole at a single point, and
is pulled away from it by the action of a lever, the long arm of
which is graduated and carries a sliding weight. The position of the
weight at the moment when contact is broken indicates the induc-
tion in the rod. The standard force H=2O was selected as being
sufficiently low to distinguish between good and bad specimens, and
at the same time sufficiently high to make the order of merit the
same as it would be under stronger forces.
Permeability Bridges. Several pieces of apparatus have been
invented for comparing the magnetic quality of a sample with that
of a standard iron rod by a zero method, such as is employed in the
comparison of electrical resistances by the Wheatstone bridge. An
excellent instrument of the class is Ewing's permeability bridge.
The standard rod and the test specimen, which must be of the same
dimensions, are placed side by side within two magnetizing coils,
and each pair of adjacent ends is joined by a short rectangular block
or " yoke " of soft iron. An iron bar shaped like an inverted I
projects upwards from each of the yokes, the horizontal portions of
the bars being parallel to the rods, and nearly meeting at a height
of about 8 in. above them (thus J~ ~|). A compass needle placed .
in the gap serves to detect any flow of induction that may exist
between the bent bars. For simplicity of calculation, the clear length
of each rod between the yokes is made 12-56 (=4r) centimetres,
while the coil surrounding the standard bar contains loo turns;
hence the magnetizing force due to a current of n amperes will be
ion C.G.S. units. The effective number of turns in the coil sur-
rounding the test rod can be varied by means of three dial switches
(for hundreds, tens and units), which also introduce compensating
resistances as the number of effective turns in the coil is reduced,
thus keeping the total resistance of the circuit constant. The two
coils are connected in series, the same current passing through both.
Suppose the switches to be adjusted so that the effective number of
turns in the variable coil is 100; the magnetizing forces in the two
coils will then be equal, and if the test rod is of the same quality as
the standard, the flow of induction will be confined entirely to the
iron circuit, the two yokes will be at the same magnetic potential,
and the compass needle will not be affected. If, however, the per-
meability of the test rod differs from that of the standard, the number
of lines of induction flowing in opposite directions through the two
rods will differ, and the excess will flow from one yoke to the other,
partly through the air, and partly along the path provided by the
bent bars, deflecting the compass needle. But a balance may still
be obtained by altering the effective number of turns in the test coil,
and thus increasing or decreasing the magnetizing force acting on the
test rod, till the induction in the two rods is the same, a condition
which is fulfilled when reversal of the current has no effect on the
compass needle. Let m be the number of turns in use, and Hi and
Hi the magnetizing forces which produce the same induction B in
the test and the standard rods respectively; then Hi =HjXwi/ioo.
The value of B which corresponds to Hjm/ioo can be found from the
MAGNETISM
[MAGNETIZATION: STRONG FIELDS
(B, H) curve for the standard, which is assumed to have been deter-
mined; and this same value corresponds to the force H in the case
of the test bar. Thus any desired number of corresponding values
of H and B can be easily and quickly found.
Measurement of Field Strength. Exploring Coil. Since
in air B = H, the ballistic method of measuring induction
described above is also available for determining the strength
of a magnetic field, and is more often employed than any
other. A small coil of fine wire, connected in series with a
ballistic galvanometer, is placed in the field, with its windings
perpendicular to the lines of force, and then suddenly reversed
or withdrawn from the field, the integral electromotive force
being twice as great in the first case as in the second. The
strength of the field is proportional to the swing of the galvano-
meter-needle, and, when the galvanometer is calibrated, can
be expressed in C.G.S. units. Convenient arrangements have
been introduced whereby the coil is reversed or withdrawn from
the field by the action of a spring.
Bismuth Resistance. The fact, which will be referred to
later, that the electrical resistance of bismuth is very greatly
affected by a magnetic field has been applied in the construction
of apparatus for measuring field intensity. A little instrument,
supplied by Hartmann and Braun, contains a short length of
fine bismuth wire wound into a flat double spiral, half an inch
or thereabouts in diameter, and attached to a long ebonite
handle. Unfortunately the effects of magnetization upon
the specific resistance of bismuth vary enormously with changes
of temperature; it is therefore necessary to take two readings
of the resistance, one when the spiral is in the magnetic field,
the other when it is outside.
Electric Circuit. If a coil of insulated wire is suspended
so that it is in stable equilibrium when its plane is parallel
to the direction of a magnetic field, the transmission of a known
electric current through the coil will cause it to be deflected
through an angle which is a function of the field intensity.
One of the neatest applications of this principle is that described
by Edser and Stansfield (Phil. Mag., 1893, 34, 186), and used by them
to test the stray fields of dynamos. An oblong coil about an inch
in length is suspended from each end by thin strips of rolled German
silver wire, one of which is connected with a spiral spring for regulat-
ing the tension, the other being attached to a torsion-head. Inside
the torsion-head is a commutator for automatically reversing the
current, so that readings may be taken on each side of zero, and the
arrangement is such that when the torsion-head is exactly at zero
the current is interrupted. To take a reading the torsion-head is
turned until an aluminium pointer attached to the coil is brought
to the zero position on a small scale ; the strength of the field is then
proportional to the angular torsion. The small current required
is supplied to the coil from a single dry cell. The advantages of
portability, very considerable range (from H = l upwards), and fair
. accuracy are claimed for the instrument.
Polarized Light. The intensity of a field may be measured
by the rotation of the plane of polarization of light passing
in the direction of the magnetic force through a transparent
substance. If the field is uniform, H=0/axf, where is the
rotation, d the thickness of the substance arranged as a plate
at right angles to the direction of the field, and w Verdet's
constant for the substance.
For the practical measurement of field intensity du Bois has used
plates of the densest Jena flint glass. These are preferably made
slightly wedge-shape, to avoid the inconvenience resulting from
multiple internal reflections, and they must necessarily be rather
thin, so that double refractions due to internal strain may not exert
a disturbing influence. Since Verdet's constant is somewhat un-
certain for different batches of glass even of the same quality, each
plate should be standardized in a field of known intensity. As the
source of monochromatic light a bright sodium burner is used, and
the rotation, which is exactly proportional to H, is measured by an
accurate polarimeter. Such a plate about I mm. in thickness is said
to be adapted for measuring fields of the order of 1000 units. A
part of one surface of the plate may be silvered, so that the polarized
ray, after haying once traversed the glass, is reflected back again;
the rotation is thus doubled, and moreover, the arrangement is, for
certain experiments, more convenient than the other.
4. MAGNETIZATION IN STRONG FIELDS
Fields due to Coils. The most generally convenient arrange-
ment for producing such magnetic fields as are required for
FIG. 22.
experimental purposes is undoubtedly a coil of wire through
which an electric current can be caused to flow. The field
due to a coil can be made as nearly uniform as we please through-
out a considerable space; its intensity, when the constants
of the coil are known, can be calculated with ease and certainty
and may be varied at will through wide ranges, while the appara-
tus required is of the simplest character and can be readily
constructed to suit special purposes. But when exceptionally
strong fields are desired, the use of a coil is limited by the heat-
ing effect of the magnetizing current, the quantity of heat
generated per unit of time in a coil of given dimensions increasing
as the square of the magnetic field produced in its interior.
In experiments on magnetic strains carried out by H. Nagaoka
and K. Honda (Phil. Mag., 1900, 49, 329) the intensity of
the highest field reached in the interior of a coil was 2200
units; this is probably the strongest field produced by a coil
which has hitherto been employed in experimental work.
In 1890 some experiments in which a coil was used were made
by du Bois (Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 253, 293) on the magnetiza-
tion of iron, nickel, and i
cobalt under forces
ranging from about 100
to 1250 units. Since the w
demagnetizing factor
was 0-052, the strongest
field due to the coil was "
about 1340; but though
arrangements were pro-
vided for cooling the
apparatus by means of
ice, great difficulty was
experienced owing to
heating. Du Bois's results, which, as given in his papers, show
the relation of H to the magnetic moment per unit of mass,
have been reduced by Ewing to the usual form, and are indi-
cated in fig. 22, the earlier portions of the curves being
sketched in from other data.
Fields due to Electromagnets. The problem of determining
the magnetization of iron and other metals in the strong fields
formed between the poles of an electromagnet was first attacked
by J. A. Ewing and W. Low. An account of their preliminary
experiments by what they call the isthmus method was pub-
lished in 1887 (Proc. Roy. Soc. 42, 200), and in the following
year they described a more complete and perfect series (Phil.
Trans., 1889, 180, 221).
The sample to be inserted between the magnet poles was prepared
in the form of a bobbin resembling an ordinary cotton reel, with a
short narrow neck (constituting the " isthmus ") and conical ends.
Upon the central neck was wound a coil consisting of one or two
layers of very fine wire, which was connected with a ballistic galvano-
meter for measuring the induction in the iron; outside this coil, and
separated from it by a small and accurately determined distance, a
second coil was wound, serving to measure the induction in the iron,
together with that in a small space surrounding it. The difference
of the ballastic throws taken with the two coils measured the inten-
sity of the field in the space around the iron, and it also enabled a
correction to be made for the non-
ferrous space between the iron neck
and the centre of the thickness of^the
inner coil. The pole pieces of the
electromagnet (see fig. 23) were fur-
nished with a pair of truncated cones
b b, of soft iron forming an extension of
the conical ends of the bobbin c. The
most suitable form for the pole faces
is investigated in the paper, and the
conclusion arrived at is that to pro-
duce the greatest concentration of
force upon the central neck, the cones
should have a common vertex in the
FIG. 23.
middle of the neck with a semi-vertical angle of 54 44', while the con-
dition for a uniform field is satisfied when the cones have a semi-
vertical angle of 39 14'; in the latter case the magnetic force in the
air just outside is sensibly equal to that within the neck. A pair of
cones having a semi-vertical angle of 45 were considered to combine
high concentrative power with a sufficient approximation to uni-
formity of field. In most of the experiments the measurements
were made by suddenly withdrawing the bobbin from its place
MAGNETIZATION: WEAK FIELDS]
MAGNETISM
337
between the pole pieces. Two groups of observations were recorded,
one giving the induction in the inner coil and the other that in the
outer coil. The value of the residual induction which persisted
when the bobbin was drawn out was added to that of the induction
measured, and thus the total induction in the iron was determined.
The highest induction reached in these experiments was 45,35O units,
more than twice the value of any previously recorded. The cor-
responding intensity of the outside field was 24,500, but, owing to
the wide angle of the cones used (about 2X63), this was probably
greater than the value of the magnetic force within the metal. The
Following table shows some results of other experiments in which
H was believed to have sensibly the same value inside as outside the
metal. Values of I are derived from (B H)/4ir and of p from B/H.
Metal.
H
B
I
M
t|(
KiSl
" I
1,490
6,070
8,600
19.45
19,880
22,650
27.130
30,270
40,820
41,140
1680
1680
1720
1700
1700
15-20
4-47
3-52
2-10
2-07
3l(
4-56o
13,460
16,200
16,900
20,070
28,710
30,920
31,760
1230
I2IO
I17O
1180
4.40
2-13
I-9I
1-88
TS f
j|
t\
6,210
9,970
12,170
14,660
15.530
25,480
29,650
31,620
34,550
35,820
1530
1570
1550
1580
1610
4-10
2-97
2-60
2-36
2-31
a "53
J-.M 1
ii|
2,220
4,440
7,940
14,660
16,000
7,100
9,210
12,970
19,640
21,070
390
380
400
400
400
3-20
2-09
1-63
J-34
1-32
Cobalt
1.350
4,040
8,930
14,990
16,000
18,870
23,890
30,210
1260
1280
1290
1310
12-73
4-98
2-82
2-10
These results are of extreme interest, for they show that
under sufficiently strong magnetizing forces the intensity of
magnetization I reaches a maximum value, as required by
W. E. Weber's theory of molecular magnetism. There appears
to be no definite limit to the value to which the induction B
may be raised, but the magnetization I attains a true saturation
value under magnetizing forces which are in most cases com-
paratively moderate. Thus the magnetization which the
sample of Swedish iron received in a field of 1490 was not
increased (beyond the limits of experimental error) when the
intensity of the field was multiplied more than thirteen-fold,
though the induction was nearly doubled. When the saturation
value of I has been reached, the relation of magnetic induction
to magnetic force may be expressed by
B = H -{-constant.
The annexed table gives the saturation values of I for the par-
ticular metals examined by Ewing and Low:
Saturation
Value of I
Wrought iron 1,700
Cast iron 1,240
Nickel (0-75% iron) 515
.. (0-56% ) 400
Cobalt (1-66% .. ) 1,300
It is shown in the paper that the greatest possible force which the
isthmus method can apply at a point in the axis of the bobbin is
F = 11-137 I. logic b/a,
I. being the saturation value of the magnet pofes, a the radius of the
neck on which the cones converge, and 6 the radius of the bases of
the cones.
Some experiments made by H. du Bois (Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 293)
'ith an electromagnet specially designed for the production of
strong fields, confirm Ewing's results for iron, nickel and cobalt.
I he method employed did not admit of the production of such high
magnetizing forces, but was of special interest in that both B and I
were measured optically B by means of the rotation of a polarized
ray inside a glass plate, as before described, and I by the rotation
of a polarized ray reflected from the polished surface of the magnet-
ized metal (see " Kerr's constant," MAGNETO-OPTICS). H( = B 4*-!)
was calculated from corresponding values of I and B. Taylor Jones
(Wied. Ann., 1896,57, 258, and Phil. Mag., 1896,41, 153), working
with du Bois's electromagnet and using a modification of the isthmus
method, succeeded in pushing the induction B up to 74,200 with
H=5i,6oo, the corresponding value of I being 1798, and of ji only
1-44. The diameter of the isthmus was 0-241 mm., and the electro-
magnet was excited by a current of 40 amperes.
Tractive Force of a Magnet. Closely connected with the
results just discussed is the question what is the greatest tractive
force that can be exerted by a magnet. In the year 1852
J. P. Joule (Phil. Mag., 1852, 3, 32) expressed the opinion
that no " force of current could give an attraction equal to
200 Ib per sq. in.," or 14,000 grms. per square centimetre,
and a similar view prevailed among high authorities more
than twenty years later. For the greatest possible " lifting
power " of permanent magnets this estimate is probably not
very far from the truth, but it is now clearly understood that
the force which can be exerted by an electromagnet, or by
a pair of electromagnets with opposite poles in contact, is
only limited by the greatest value to which it is practically
possible to raise the magnetizing force H. This is at once
evident when the tractive force due to magnetization is ex-
pressed as 27rP+HI. For fields of moderate intensity the
first term of the expression is the more important, but when
the value of H exceeds 12,000 or thereabouts, the second pre-
ponderates, and with the highest values that have been actually
obtained, HI is several times greater than 2irP. If H could
be increased without limit, so also could the tractive force.
The following table shows the greatest " lifting powers " experi-
mentally reached at the dates mentioned:
Observer.
Kilos per
sq. cm.
R) per
sq. in.
Date.
Joule
Bidwell .
Wilde
T. Jones .
12-3
15-9
26-8
114-9
'75
226
38i
1634
1852
1886
1891
1896
5. MAGNETIZATION IN VERY WEAK FIELDS
Some interesting observations have been made of the
effects produced by very small magnetic forces. It was first
pointed out by C. Baur (Wied. Ann., 1880, n, 399) that in weak
fields the relation of the magnetization I to the magnetizing
force H is approximately expressed by an equation of the
form
or
I=aH+6H,
= I/H=o+6H,
whence it appears that within the limits of Baur's experiments
the magnetization curve is a parabola, and the susceptibility
curve an inclined straight line, <c being therefore a known
function of H. If these equations could be assumed to hold
when H is indefinitely small, it would follow that K has a finite
initial value, from which there would be no appreciable deviation
in fields so weak that 6H was negligibly small in comparison
with a. Such an assumption could not, however, without
dangerous extrapolation, be founded upon the results of Baur's
experiments, which did not go far enough to justify it. In
some experiments carried out in 1887, Lord Rayleigh (Phil.
Mag., 1887, 23, 225) approached very much more nearly than
Baur to the zero of magnetic force. Using an unannealed
Swedish iron wire, he found that when H was gradually dimin-
ished from 0-04 to 0-00004 C.G.S. unit, the ratio of magnet-
ization to magnetizing force remained sensibly constant at
6-4, wihch may therefore with great probability be assumed
to represent the initial value of K for the specimen in question.
Experiments with annealed iron gave less satisfactory results,
on account of the slowness with which the metal settled down
into a new magnetic state, thus causing a " drift " of the magnet-
ometer needle, which sometimes persisted for several seconds.
Apart from this complication, it appeared that I w as pro-
portional to H when the value of H was less than 0-02.
338
MAGNETISM
[DIMENSIONS AND MAGNETIZATION
The observations of Baur and Rayleigh have been confirmed and
discussed by (amongst others) W. Schmidt (Wied. Ann., 1895, 54,655),
who found the limiting values of K to be 7-5 to 9-5 for iron, and 11-2
to 13-5 for steel, remaining constant up to H = -06 ; by P. Culmann
(Elekt. Zeit., 1893, 14, 345; Wied. Ann., 1895, 56, 602); and by L.
Holborn (Berl. Ber., 1897, p. 95, and Wied. Ann., 1897, 61, 281).
The latter gives values of the constants a and b for different samples
of iron and steel, some of which are shown in the following table:
a
8-90
2-23
8-66
8-30
11-28
3' 16
16-6
5-88
b
0-264
0-032
0-384
0-400
1-92
o-2if>
18-6
1-76
Metal.
English tungsten steel .
Tungsten steel, hardened
Silver steel
Tool steel .
Refined steel
Cast iron .
Soft iron .
Hard drawn iron
For most samples of steel the straight-line law was found to
hold approximately up to H=3; in the case of iron and of soft
steel the approximation was less close.
The behaviour of nickel in weak fields has been observed
by Ewing (Phil. Trans., 1888, I79A, 325), who found that the
initial value of K was 1-7, and that it remained sensibly constant
until H had reached a value of about five units. While there-
fore the initial susceptibility of nickel is less than that of iron
and steel, the range of magnetic force within which it is approxi-
mately constant is about one hundred times greater. Ewing
has also made a careful study (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1889, 46, 269)
of " magnetic viscosity " under small forces the cause of
the magnetometer " drift " referred to by Rayleigh. On the
application of a small magnetizing force to a bar of soft annealed
iron, a certain intensity of magnetization is instantly produced;
this, however, does not remain constant, but slowly increases
for some seconds or even minutes, and may ultimately attain
a value nearly twice as great as that observed immediately
after the force was applied. 1 When the magnetizing current
is broken, the magnetization at once undergoes considerable
diminution, then gradually falls to zero, and a similar sudden
change followed by a slow one is observed when a feeble current
b reversed. Ewing draws attention to a curious consequence
of this time-lag. By the alternate application and withdrawal
of a small magnetizing force a cyclic condition may be estab-
lished in an iron rod. If now the alternations are performed so
rapidly that time is not allowed for more than the first sudden
change in the magnetization, there will be no hysteresis loss,
the magnetization exactly following the magnetizing force.
Further, if the alternations take place so slowly that the full
maximum and minimum values of the magnetization are
reached in the intervals between the reversals, there will again
be no dissipation of energy. But at any intermediate fre-
quency the ascending and descending curves of magnetization
will enclose a space, and energy will be dissipated. It is
remarkable that the phenomena of magnetic viscosity are
much more evident in a thick rod than in a thin wire, or even
in a large bundle of thin wires. In hardened iron and steel
the effect can scarcely be detected, and in weak fields these
metals exhibit no magnetic hysteresis of any kind.
6. CHANGES or DIMENSIONS ATTENDING MAGNETIZATION
It is well known that the form of a piece of ferromagnetic
metal is in general slightly changed by magnetization. The
phenomenon was first noticed by J. P. Joule, who in 1842 and
1847 described some experiments which he had made upon
bars of iron and steel. His observations were for the most
part confirmed by a number of subsequent workers, notably
by A. M. Mayer; but with the single exception of the discovery
by W. F. Barrett in 1882 that a nickel bar contracts when
magnetized, nothing of importance was added by Joule's results
for nearly forty years. Later researches have however thrown
much new light upon a class of phenomena which cannot fail
to have an important bearing upon the complete theory of
1 The same phenomenon is exhibited in a less marked degree when
soft iron is magnetized in stronger fields (Ewing, Phil. Trans., 1885,
176,
molecular magnetism. 2 According to Joule's observations,
the length of a bar of iron or soft steel was increased by magnet-
ization, the elongation being proportional up to a certain
point to the square of the intensity of magnetization; but
when the " saturation point " was approached the elongation
was less than this law would require, and a stage was finally
reached at which further increase of the magnetizing force
produced little or no effect upon the length. From data
contained in Joule's paper it may be calculated that the strongest
external field HO produced by his coil was about 126 C.G.S.
units, but since the dimensional ratio of his bars was com-
paratively small, the actual magnetizing force H must have
been materially below that value. In 1885 it was shown
by Bidwell, in the first of a series of papers on the subject,
that if the magnetizing force is pushed beyond the point at
which Joule discontinued his experiments, the extension of
the bar does not remain unchanged, but becomes gradually
less and less, until the bar, after first returning to its original
length, ultimately becomes actually shorter than when in the
unmagnetized condition. The elongation is generally found
to reach a maximum under a magnetizing force of 50 to 120
units, and to vanish under a force of 200 to 400, retraction
occurring when still higher forces are applied. In order to
meet the objection that the phenomenon might be due to
electromagnetic action between the coil and the rod, Bidwell
made some experiments with iron rings, and found that the
length of their diameters varied under magnetization in pre-
cisely the same manner as the length of a straight rod. Experi-
ments were afterwards made with rods of iron, nickel, and
cobalt, the external field
being carried up to the
high value of 1500 units. I
The results are indicated |
in Fig. 24. It appears **
that the contraction -*
which followed the initial
extension of the iron
reached a limit in fields
of toco or i ico. Nickel
exhibited retraction
FIG. 24.
from the very beginning (as observed by Barrett), its greatest
change of length considerably exceeding that undergone by
iron; in a field of 800 the original length was diminished by
as much as 1/40,000 part, but stronger forces failed to
produce any further effect. The curve for cobalt is a very
remarkable one. Little or no change of length was observed
until the strength of the field H reached about 50; then
the rod began to contract, and after passing a minimum at
Ho=4co, recovered its original length at H =7So; beyond
this point there was extension, the amount of which was still
increasing fast when the experiment was stopped at H =i4OO.
Similar results were obtained with three different samples
of the metal. Roughly speaking, therefore, cobalt behaves
oppositely to iron.
1 Principal publications: J. P. Joule, Scientific Papers, pp. 46,
235; A. M. Meyer, Phil. Mag., 1873, 46, 177; W. F. Barrett, Nature,
1882, 26, 585; S. Bidwell, Phil. Trans., 1888, I79A, 205; Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1886, 40, 109 and 257; 1888, 43, 406; 1890, 47, 469; 1892, 51,
495; 1894,55,228; 1894,56,94; 1904,74,60; Nature, 1899, 60,222;
M. Cantone, Mem. d. Ace. d. Lincei, 1889, 6, 487; Rend. d. Ace. d.
Lincei, 1890, 6, 252; A. Berget, C.R., 1892, 115, 722; S. J. Lochner,
Phil. Mag., 1893, 36, 498; H. Nagaoka, Phil. Mag., 1894, 37, 131;
Wied. Ann., 1894, 53, 487; C. G. Knott, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1891,
18, 315; Phil. Mag., 1894, 37, 141; Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1896, 38,
527; 1898, 39, 457; C. G. Knott and A. Shand, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.,
1892, 19, 85 and 249; 1894,20,295; L.T. More, Phil. Mag., 1895, 40,
-145; G. Klingenberg, Rostock Univ. Thesis, Berlin, 1897; E. T.
Jones, Phil. Trans., 1897, iSgA, 189; B. B. Brackett, Phys. Rev.,
1897, 5, 257; H. Nagaoka and K. Honda, Phil. Mag., 1898, 46, 261 ;
1900, 49, 329; Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1900, 13, 57; 1903, 19, art.
ii ; J. S. Stevens, Phys. Rev., 1898, 7, 19; E. Rhoads, Phys. Rev.,
1898, 7, 5; Phil. Mag., 1901, 2, 463; G. A. Shakespear, Phil. Mag.,
1899, 17, 539; K. Honda, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1900, 13, 77!
L W. Austin, Phys. Rev., 1900, 10, 180; Deutsch. Phys. Cesell. Verh.,
1904, 6, 4, 211 ; K. Honda and S. Shimizu, Phil. Mag., 1902, 4, 338;
1905. 10. 548.
DIMENSIONS AND MAGNETIZATION]
MAGNETISM
339
Joule and others experimented with hardened steel, but
failed to find a key to the results they obtained, which are
rather complex, and have been thought to be inconsistent.
The truth appears to be that a hardened steel rod generally
behaves like one of iron or soft steel in first undergoing extension
under increasing magnetizing force, and recovering its original
length when the force has reached a certain critical value,
beyond which there is contraction. But this " critical value "
of the force is found to depend in an unexpected manner upon
the hardness of the steel; the critical value diminishes as the
hardness becomes greater up to a certain point, corresponding
to a yellow temper, after which it increases and with the hardest
steel becomes very high. For steel which has been made red-
hot, suddenly cooled, and then let down to a yellow temper,
the critical value of the magnetizing force is smaller than for
steel which is either softer or harder; it is indeed so small that
the metal contracts like nickel even under weak magnetizing
forces, without undergoing any preliminary extension that
can be detected.
Joule also made experiments upon iron wires under tension,
and drew the erroneous inference (which has been often quoted
as if it were a demonstrated fact) that under a certain critical
tension (differing for different specimens of iron but independent
of the magnetizing
force) magnetization
would produce no
effect whatever upon
the dimensions of the
wire. What actually
happens when an iron
wire is loaded with
various weights is
dearly shown in Fig.
25. Increased tension
FlG - 2 5- merely has the effect
of diminishing the maximum elongation and hastening the
contraction; with the two greatest loads used in the experiment
there was indeed no preliminary extension at all. 1 The effects
of tension upon the behaviour of a nickel wire are of a less
simple character. In weak fields the magnetic contraction is
always diminished by pulling stress; in strong fields the con-
traction increases under a small load and diminishes under a
heavy one. Cobalt, curiously enough, was found to be quite
unaffected by tensile stress.
Certain experiments by C. G. Knott on magnetic twist,
which will be referred to later, led him to form the conclusion
that in an iron wire carrying an electric current the magnetic
elongation would be increased. This forecast was shown by
Bidwell to be well founded. The effect produced by a current
is exactly opposite to that of tension, raising the elongation
curve instead of depressing it. In the case of a wire 0-75 mm.
in diameter the maximum elongation was nearly doubled when
a current of two amperes was passing through the iron, while
the " critical value " of the field was increased from 130 to
200. Yet notwithstanding this enormous effect in iron, the
action of a current upon nickel and cobalt turned out to be
almost inappreciable.
Some experiments were next undertaken with the view
of ascertaining how far magnetic changes of length in iron
were dependent upon the hardness of the metal, and the un-
expected result was arrived at that softening produces the
same effect as tensile stress; it depresses the elongation curve,
diminishing the maximum extension, and reducing the " critical
value " of "the magnetizing force. A thoroughly well annealed
ring of soft iron indeed showed no extension at all, beginning
to contract, like nickel, under the smallest magnetizing forces.
The experiments were not sufficiently numerous to indicate
whether, as is possible, there is a critical degree of hardness
for which the height of the elongation curve is a maximum.
Finally, experiments were made to ascertain the effect of
The loads were successively applied in decreasing order of magni-
tude. They are indicated in fig. 25 as kilos per sq. cm.
magnetization upon the dimensions of iron rings in directions
perpendicular to the magnetization, and upon the volume of
the rings. 2 It was found that the curve showing the relation
of transverse, changes of dimensions to magnetizing force was
similar in general character to the familiar elongation curves,
but the signs were reversed; the curve was inverted, indicating
at first retraction, which, after passing a maximum and vanish-
ing in a critical field, was succeeded by elongation. The curve
showing the circumferential (or longitudinal) changes was
also plotted, and from the two curves thus obtained it was
easy, on the assumption that the metal was isotropic in direc-
tions at right angles to the magnetization, to calculate changes
of volume; for if circumferential elongation be denoted by
/i, and transverse elongation by k, then the cubical dilatation
(+ or-)=/i + 2/2 approximately. If / t were exactly equal to
- 2/2 for all values of the magnetizing force, it is clear that the
volume of the ring would be unaffected by magnetization.
In the case of the ring in question, the circumferential changes
were in weak fields less than twice as great as the transverse
ones, while in strong fields they were more than twice as great ;
under increasing magnetic force therefore the volume of the
ring was first diminished, then it regained its original value
(for H = 9o), and ultimately increased. It was also shown
that annealing, which has such a large effect upon circum-
ferential (or longitudinal) changes, has almost none upon
transverse ones. Hence the changes of volume undergone by
a given sample of wrought iron under increasing magnetization
must depend largely upon the state of the metal as regards
hardness; there may be always contraction, or always expan-
sion, or first one and then the other.
Most of the experiments described above have been repeated
and the results confirmed by other workers, some of whom
have added fresh observations. The complicated hysteresis
effects which attend magnetic elongation and retraction have
been studied by H. Nagaoka, who also, in conjunction with
K. Honda, measured the changes of length of various metals
shaped in the form of ovoids instead of cylindrical rods, and
determined the magnetization curves for the same specimens;
a higher degree of accuracy was thus attained, and satis-
factory data were provided for testing theories. Among
other things, it was found that the behaviour of cast cobalt
was entirely changed by annealing; the sinuous curve shown
in Fig. 24 was converted into an almost perfectly straight
line passing through the origin, and lying below the horizontal
axis; while the permeability of the metal was greatly dimin-
ished by the operation. They also tested several varieties
of nickel-steel in the form of both ovoids and wires. With a
sample containing 25% of nickel no appreciable change was
detected; others containing larger percentages, and tested in
fields up to 2000, all exhibited elongation, which tended to
an asymptotic value as the field was increased. The influence
of temperature varying between wide limits has formed the
subject of a research by K. Honda and S. Shimizu. For soft
iron, tungsten-steel and nickel little difference appeared to
result from lowering the temperature down to - 186 C. (the
temperature of liquid air); at sufficiently high temperatures,
600 to 1000 or more, it was remarked that the changes of
length in iron, steel and cobalt tended in every case to become
proportional to the magnetic force, the curves being nearly
straight lines entirely above the axis. The retraction of nickel
was diminished by rising temperature, and at 400 had almost
vanished. The influence of high temperature on cobalt was
very remarkable, completely altering the character of the
change of length: the curves for annealed cobalt show that
at 450 this metal behaves just like iron at ordinary tempera-
tures, lengthening in fields up to about 300 and contracting
in stronger ones. The same physicists have made some addi-
tional experiments upon the effect of tension on magnetic
change of length. Bidwell's results for iron and nickel were
confirmed, and it was further shown that the elongation of
nickel-steel was very greatly diminished by tension; when
J Joule believed that the volume was unchanged.
340
MAGNETISM
[STRESS AND MAGNETIZATION
magnetized under very heavy loads, the wire was indeed found
to undergo slight contraction. Honda subjected tubes of
iron, steel and nickel to the simultaneous action of circular
and longitudinal fields, and observed the changes of length
when one of the fields was varied while the other remained
constant at different successive values from zero upwards.
The experimental results agreed in sign though not in magnitude
with those calculated from the changes produced by simple
longitudinal magnetization, discrepancies being partly accounted
for by the fact that the metals employed were not actually
isotropic. Heusler's alloy has been tested for change of length
by L. Austin, who found continuous elongation with increasing
fields, the curves obtained bearing some resemblance to curves
of magnetization.
As regards the effect of magnetization upon volume there
are some discrepancies. Nagaoka and Honda, who employed
a fluid dilatometer, found that the volume of several specimens
of iron, steel and nickel was always slightly increased, no
diminution being indicated in low fields; cobalt, on the other
hand, was diminished in volume, and the amount of the change,
though still very small, was greater than that shown by the
other metals. Various nickel-steels all expanded under magnet-
ization, the increase being generally considerable and propor-
tional to the field; in the case of an alloy containing 29% of
nickel the change was nearly 40 times greater than in soft iron.
C. G. Knott, who made an exhaustive series of experiments
upon various metals in the form of tubes, concluded that in
iron there was always a slight increase of volume, and in nickel
and cobalt a slight decrease. It is uncertain how far these
various results are dependent upon the physical condition of
the metals.
Attempts have been made to explain magnetic deformation by
various theories of magnetic stress, 1 notably that elaborated by
G. R. Kirchhoff (Wied. Ann., 1885, 24, 52, and 1885, 25, 601), but
so far with imperfect success. E. Taylor Jones showed in 1897 that
only a small proportion of the contraction exhibited by a nickel
wire when magnetized could be accounted for on Kirchhoff's
theory from the observed effects of pulling stress upon magnetiza-
tion; and in a more extended series of observations Nagaoka and
Honda found wide quantitative divergences between the results
of experiment and calculation, though in nearly all cases there was
agreement as to quality. .They consider, however, that Kirchhoff's
theory, which assumes change of magnetization to be simply pro-
portional to strain, is still in its infancy, the present stage of its
evolution being perhaps comparable with that reached by the theory
of magnetization at the time when the ratio I/H was supposed to be
constant. In the light of future researches further development
may reasonably be expected.
It has been suggested 2 that an iron rod under magnetization may
be in the same condition as if under a mechanically applied .longitu-
dinal stress tending to shorten the iron. If a long magnetized rod
is divided transversely and the cut ends placed nearly in contact,
the magnetic force inside the narrow air gap will be B = H+4irI.
The force acting on the magnetism of one of the faces, and urging
this face towards the other, will be less than B by 2irl, the part of
the total force due to the first face itself; hence the force per unit
of area with which the faces would press against each other if in
contact is
The width of the gap may be diminished until it is no greater than
the distance between two neighbouring molecules, when it will
cease to be distinguishable, but, assuming the molecular theory of
magnetism to be true, the above statement will still hold good for
the intermolecular gap. The same pressure P will be exerted across
any imaginary section of a magnetized rod, the stress being sustained
by the intermolecular springs, whatever their physical nature may
be, to which the elasticity of the metal is due. The whole of the rod
will therefore be subject to a compressive longitudinal stress P,
the associated contraction R, expressed as a fraction of the original
length, being
R = p/M = (B'-H')/8 ) rM,
where M is Young's modulus. This was found to be insufficient to
account for the whole of the retraction exhibited by iron in strong
fields, but it was pointed out by L. T. More 3 that R ought to be
1 For a discussion of theories of magnetic stress, with copious
references, see Nagaoka, Rap. du Congres International de Physique
(Paris, 1900), ii. 545. Also Nagaoka and Jones, Phil. Mag., 1896, 41,
454-
S S. Bidwell, Phil. Trans., 1888, 1793, 321.
' Phil. Mag., 1895, 40, 345.
regarded as a " correction " to be applied to the results of experi-
ments on magnetic change of length, the magnetic stress being no
less an extraneous effect than a stress applied mechanically. Those
who support this view generally speak of the stress as " Maxwell's
stress," and assume its value to be B 2 /8ir. The stress in question
seems, however, to be quite unconnected with the " stress in the
medium " contemplated by Maxwell, and its value is not exactly
B 2 /8?r except in the particular case of a permanent ring magnet,
when H =O. Further, Maxwell's stress is a tension along the lines
of force, and is equal to B 2 /8jr only when B = H, and there is no
magnetization. 4 Some writers have indeed contended that the
stress in magnetized iron is not compressive, but tensile, even when,
as in the case of a ring-magnet, there are no free ends. The point
at issue has an important bearing upon the possible correlation of
magnetic phenomena, but, though it has given rise to much dis-
cussion, no accepted conclusion has yet been reached. 6
7. EFFECTS OF MECHANICAL STRESS UPON MAGNETIZATION
The effects of traction, compression and torsion in relation
to magnetism have formed the subject of much patient investi-
gation, especially at the hands of J. A. Ewing, C. G. Knott
and the indefatigable physicists of Tokyo University. The
results of their experiments embrace a multiplicity of details
of which it is impossible to give an adequate summary. Only
a few of the most important can be mentioned here; the reader
who wishes for fuller information should consult the original
papers. 6
It was first discovered by E. Villari in 1868 that the magnetic
susceptibility of an iron wire was increased by stretching when
the magnetization was below a certain value, but diminished
when that value was exceeded; this phenomenon has been
termed by Lord Kelvin, who discovered it independently,
the " Villari reversal," the value of the magnetization for
which stretching by a given load produces no effect being
known as the " Villari critical point " for that load. The
Villari critical point for a given sample of iron is reached with
a smaller magnetizing force when the stretching load is great
than when it is small; the reversal also occurs with smaller
loads and with weaker fields when the iron is soft than when
it is hard. The following table shows the values of I and H
corresponding to the Villari critical point in some of Ewing's
experiments:
Soft Iron.
Hard Iron.
Kilos per sq. mm.
I.
H.
Kilos per sq. mm.
I.
H.
2-15
ft
12-9
1 220
1040
840
690
7-3
4'3
3-4
3-05
27-6
32-2
37-3
42-5
1180
1150
mo
1 020
34
32
29
25
The effects of pulling stress may be observed either when
the wire is stretched by a constant load while the magnetizing
force is varied, or when the magnetizing force is kept constant
while the load is varied. In the latter case the first appli-
cation of stress is always attended by an increase often a
very great one of the magnetization, whether the field is
weak or strong, but after a load has been put on and taken
off several times the changes of magnetization become cyclic.
From experiments of both classes it appears that for a given
field there is a certain value of the load for which the magnet-
ization is a maximum, the maximum occuring at a smaller
load the stronger the field. In very strong fields the maximum
may even disappear altogether, the effect of the smallest stress
4 J. C. Maxwell, Treatise, 643.
6 See correspondence in Nature, 1896, 53, pp. 269, 316, 365, 462,533 ;
1906, 74, pp. 317, 539; B. B. Brackett, loc. cit., quotes the opinion
of H. A. Rowland in support of compressive stress.
' J. A. Ewing, Phil. Trans., 1885, 176, 580; 1888, 179, 333; Mag-
netic Induction, 1900, ch. ix. ; J. A. Ewing and G. C. Cowan, Phil.
Trans., 1888, 1793, 325 ; C. G. Knott, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1882-1883,
32, 193; 1889, 35, 377; 1891, 36, 485; Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1899,
586; H. Nagaoka, Phil. Mag., 1889, 27, 117; 1890, 29, 123 ;H. Nagaoka
and K. Honda, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1900, 13, 263; 1902, 16, art.
8 ; Phil. Mag., 1898, 46, 261 ; 1902, 4, 45 ; K. Honda and S. Shimizu,
Ann. d. Phys., 1904, 14, 791; Tokyo Physico-Math. Soc. Rep., 1904,
2, No. 13 ; K. Honda and T. Terada, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1906, 21,
art. 4.
STRESS AND MAGNETIZATION]
MAGNETISM
being to diminish the magnetization; on the other hand, with
very weak fields the maximum may not have been reached
with the greatest load that the wire can support without per-
manent deformation. When the load on a hardened wire
is gradually increased, the maximum value of I is found to
correspond with a greater stress than when the load is gradually
diminished, this being an effect of hysteresis. Analogous changes
are observed in the residual magnetization which remains after
the wire has been subjected to fields of different strength. The
effects of longitudinal pressure are opposite to those of traction;
when the cyclic condition has been reached, pressure reduces the
magnetization of iron in weak fields and increases it in strong
fields (Ewing, Magnetic Induction, 1900, 223).
The influence of traction in diminishing the susceptibility
of nickel was first noticed by Kelvin (W. Thomson), and was
subsequently investigated by Ewing and Cowan. The latter
found the effect to be enormous, not only upon the induced
magnetization, but in a still greater degree upon the residual.
Even under so " moderate " a load as 33 kilogrammes per
square mm., the induced magnetization of a hard-drawn nickel
wire in a field of 60 fell from 386 to 72 units, while the residual
was reduced from about 280 to 10. Ewing has also examined
the effects produced by longitudinal compression upon the
susceptibility and retentiveness of nickel, and found, as was
to be expected, that both were greatly increased by pressure.
The maximum susceptibility of one of his bars rose from 5-6
to 29 under a stress of 19-8 kilos per square mm. There were
reasons for believing that no Villari reversal would be found
in nickel. Ewing and Cowan looked carefully for it, especially
in weak fields, but failed to discover anything of the kind. 1
Some experiments by A. Heydweiller, 2 which appeared to
indicate a reversal in weak fields (corresponding to 1=5, or
thereabouts), have been shown by Honda and Shimizu to be
vitiated by the fact that his specimen was not initially in a
magnetically neutral state; they found that when the applied
field had the same direction as that of the permanent magnet-
ization, Heydweiller's fallacious results were easily obtained;
but if the field were applied in the direction opposite to that
of the permanent magnetization, or if, as should rightly be
the case, there were no permanent magnetization at all, then
there was no indication of any Villari reversal. Thus a very
important question, which has given rise to some controversy,
appears to be now definitely settled.
The effects of longitudinal pressure upon the magnetization
of cast cobalt have been examined by C. Chree, 3 and also
by J. A. Ewing. 4 Chree's experiments were undertaken at
the suggestion of J. J. Thomson, who, from the results of
Bidwell's observations on the magnetic deformation of cobalt,
was led to expect that that metal would exhibit a reversal
opposite in character to the effect observed in iron. The
anticipated reversal was duly found by Chree, the critical point
corresponding, under the moderate stress employed, to a field
of about 1 20 units. Ewing's independent experiments showed
that the magnetization curve for a cobalt rod under a load of
16-2 kilogrammes per square mm. crossed the curve for the
same rod when not loaded at [ = 53. Both observers noticed
analogous effects in the residual magnetization. The effect
of tension was subsequently studied by Nagaoka and Honda,
who in 1902 confirmed, mutatis mutandis, the results obtained
by Chree and Ewing for cast cobalt, while for annealed cobalt
it turned out that tension always caused diminution of magnet-
ization, the diminution increasing with increasing fields. They
also investigated the magnetic behaviour of various nickel-
steels under tension, and found that there was always increase
of magnetization. Thus it has been proved that in annealed
cobalt and in nickel-steel there is no Villari reversal.
1 H. Tomlinson found a critical point in the " temporary magnet-
ization " of nickel (Proc. Phys. Soc., 1890, 10, 367, 445), but this
does not correspond to a Villari reversal. Its nature is made clear
by Ewing and Cowan's curves (Phil. Trans., 1888, 179, plates 15, 16).
Wied. Ann., 1894, 52, 462; Electrician, 1894, 34, 143.
5 Phil. Trans., 1890, 131, 329.
4 Magnetic Induction, 1900, 222.
It has been pointed out by J. J. Thomson (Applications of
Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, 47) that on dynamical
principles there must be a reciprocal relation between the
changes of dimensions produced by magnetization and the
changes of magnetization attending mechanical strain. Since,
for example, stretching diminishes the magnetization of nickel,
it follows from theory that the length of a nickel rod should be
diminished by magnetization and conversely. So, too, the
Villari reversals in iron and cobalt might have been predicted
as indeed that in cobalt actually was from a knowledge
of the changes of length which those metals exhibit when
magnetized.
The complete reciprocity of the effects of magnetization
upon length and of stretching upon magnetization is shown by
the following parallel statements:
Iron.
Magnetization produces in- Tension produces increase of
crease of length in weak fields, magnetization in weak fields,
decrease in strong fields. decrease in strong fields.
Cast Cobalt.
Magnetization produces de- Tension produces decrease of
crease of length in weak fields, magnetization in weak fields,
increase in strong fields. increase in strong fields.
Nickel and Annealed Cobalt.
Magnetization produces de- Tension produces decrease of
crease of length in all fields. magnetization in all fields.
Nickel-Steel.
Magnetization produces in- Tension produces increase of
crease of length in all fields. magnetization in all fields.
Nagaoka and Honda (Phil. Mag., 1898, 46, 261) have investigated
the effects of hydrostatic pressure upon magnetization, using the
same pieces of iron and nickel as were employed in their experiments
upon magnetic change of volume. In the iron cylinder and ovoid,
which expanded when magnetized, compression caused a diminution
of magnetization; in the nickel rod, which contracted when magnet-
ized, pressure was attended by an increase of magnetization. The
amount of the change was in both cases exceedingly small, that in
iron being less than o-i C.G.S. unit with a pressure of 250 atmo-
spheres and H = 54. It would hardly be safe to generalize from these
observations; the effects may possibly be dependent upon the
physical condition of the metals. In the same paper Nagaoka and
Honda describe an important experiment on the effect of transverse
stress. An iron tube, having its ends closed by brass caps, was placed
inside a compressing vessel into which water was forced until the
pressure upon the outer surface of the tube reached 250 atmospheres.
The experiment was the reverse of one made by Kelvin with a gun-
barrel subjected to internal hydrostatic pressure (Phil. Trans., 1878,
152, 64), and the results were also the reverse. Under increasing
magnetizing force the magnetization first increased, reached a maxi-
mum, and then diminished until its value ultimately became less
than when the iron was in the unstrained condition. Experiments
on the effect of external hydrostatic pressure upon the magnetization
of iron rings have also been made by F. Frisbie, 6 who found that for
the magnetizing forces used by Nagaoka and Honda pressure pro-
duced a small increase of magnetization, a result which appears to
be in accord with theory.
The relations of torsion to magnetization were first carefully
studied by G. Wiedemann, whose researches are described in
his Elektricital, iii. 671. The most interesting of his dis-
coveries, now generally known as the " Wiedemann effect," is
the following: If we magnetize longitudinally a straight wire
which is fixed at one end and free at the other, and then pass
an electric current through the wire (or first pass the current
and then magnetize), the free end of the wire will twist in a
certain direction depending upon circumstances: if the wire is
of iron, and is magnetized (with a moderate force) so that its
free end has north polarity, while the current through it passes
from the fixed to the free end, then the free end as seen from
the fixed end will twist in the direction of the hands of a watch;
if either the magnetization or the current is reversed, the direc-
tion of the twist will be reversed. To this mechanical pheno-
menon there is a magnetic reciprocal. If we twist the free end
of a ferromagnetic wire while a current is passing through it,
the wire becomes longitudinally magnetized, the direction of
the magnetization depending upon circumstances: if the wire
is of iron and is twisted so that its free end as seen from the
fixed end turns in the direction of the hands of a watch, while
1 Phys. Rev., 1904, 18, 432.
342
MAGNETISM [TEMPERATURE AND MAGNETIZATION
the current passes from the fixed to the free end, then the direc-
tion of the resulting magnetization will be such as to make the
free end a north pole. The twist effect exhibited by iron under
moderate longitudinal magnetization has been called by Knott
a positive Wiedemann effect; if the twist were reversed, the other
conditions remaining the same, the sign of the Wiedemann effect
would be negative. An explanation of the twist has been given
by Maxwell (Electricity and Magnetism, 448). The wire is
subject to two superposed magnetizations, the one longitudinal,
the other circular, due to the current traversing the wire; the
resultant magnetization is consequently in the direction of a
screw or spiral round the wire, which will be right-handed or
left-handed according as the relation between the two magnet-
izations is right-handed or left-handed; the magnetic expansion
or contraction of the metal along the spiral lines of magnetization
produces the Wiedemann twist. Iron (moderately magnetized)
expands along the lines of magnetization, and therefore for a
right-handed spiral exhibits a right-handed twist. This explana-
tion was not accepted by Wiedemann, 1 who thought that the
effect was accounted for by molecular friction. Now nickel
contracts instead of lengthening when it is magnetized, and an
experiment by Knott showed, as he expected, that caeteris
paribus a nickel wire twists in a sense opposite to that in which
iron twists. The Wiedemann effect being positive for iron is
negative for nickel. Further, although iron lengthens in fields
of moderate strength, it contracts in strong ones; and if the wire
is stretched, contraction occurs with smaller magnetizing forces
than if it is unstretched. Bidwell 2 accordingly found upon trial
that the Wiedemann twist of an iron wire vanished when the
magnetizing force reached a certain high value, and was
reversed when that value was exceeded; he also found that the
vanishing point was reached with lower values of the magnet-
izing force when the wire was stretched by a weight. These
observations have been verified and extended by Knott, whose
researches have brought to light a large number of additional
facts, all of which are in perfect harmony with Maxwell's
explanation of the twist.
Maxwell has also given an explanation of the converse effect,
namely, the production of longitudinal magnetization by twisting
a wire when circularly magnetized by a current passing through
it. When the wire is free from twist, the magnetization at any
point P is in the tangential direction PB (see fig. 26).
Suppose the wire to be fixed at the top and twisted
at the bottom in the direction of the arrow-head T;
then the element of the wire at P will be stretched
in the direction Pe and compressed in the direction
Pr. But tension and compression produce opposite
changes in the magnetic susceptibility; if the metal
is iron and its magnetization is below the Villari
critical point, its susceptibility will be greater along
Pe than along Pr; the direction of the magnetiza-
FIG. 26. ti n therefore tends to approach Pe and to recede
from Pr, changing, in consequence of the twist,
from PB to some such direction as PB', which has a vertical
component downwards; hence the lower and upper ends will
respectively acquire north and south polarity, which will dis-
appear when the wire is untwisted. This effect has never been
actually reversed in iron, probably, as suggested by Ewing,
because the strongest practicable circular fields fail to raise the
components of the magnetization along Pe and Pr up to the
Villari critical value. Nagaoka and Honda have approached
very closely to a reversal, and consider that it would occur if
a sufficiently strong current could be applied without undue
heating.
One other effect of torsion remains to be noticed. If a longi-
tudinally magnetized wire is twisted, circular magnetization is
developed; this is evidenced by the transient electromotive force
induced in the iron, generating a current which will deflect a
galvanometer connected with the two ends of the wire. The
explanation given of the last described phenomenon will with
the necessary modification apply also to this; it is a consequence
1 Phil. Mag., 1886, 22, 50. * Ibid. 251.
of the aeolotropy produced by the twist. There are then three
remarkable effects of torsion:
A. A wire magnetized longitudinally and circularly becomes
twisted.
B. Twisting a circularly magnetized wire produces longi-
tudinal magnetization.
C. Twisting a longitudinally magnetized wire produces circu-
lar magnetization.
And it has been shown earlier that
D. Magnetization produces change of length.
E. Longitudinal stress produces change of magnetization.
Each of these five effects may occur in two opposite senses.
Thus in A the twist may be right-handed or left-handed; in B
the polarity of a given end may become north or south; in C the
circular magnetization may be clockwise or counter-clockwise;
in D the length may be increased or diminished ; in E the mag-
netization may become stronger or weaker. And, other condi-
tions remaining unchanged, the " sense " of any effect depends
upon the nature of the metal under test, and (sometimes) upon
the intensity of its magnetization. Let each of the effects
A, B, C, D and E be called positive when it is such as is exhibited
by moderately magnetized iron, and negative when its sense is
opposite. Then the results of a large number of investigations
may be briefly summarized as follows:
(W) = weakly magnetized.
Metal.
Iron(W) ....
Unannealed Cobalt (S)
Nickel-Steel (W) .
Nickel ....
Annealed Cobalt .
Iron(S) . . .
Unannealed Cobalt
Effects.
A, B, C, D, E
A,
A,
A, B, C,
(S) = strongly magnetized.
Sign.
A,
A,
D, E
D, E
D, E
D.E
D, E
D, E
Several gaps remain to be filled, but the results so far recorded
can leave no doubt that the five effects, varied as they may at
first sight appear, are intimately connected with one another.
For each of the metals tabulated in the first column all the effects
hitherto observed have the same sign; there is no single instance
in which some are positive and others negative. Until the
mysteries of molecular constitution have been more fully ex-
plored, perhaps D may be most properly regarded as the funda-
mental phenomenon from which the others follow. Nagaoka
and Honda have succeeded in showing that the observed
relations between twist and magnetization are in qualitative
agreement with an extension of Kirchhoff's theory of magneto-
striction.
The effects of magnetization upon the torsion of a previously
twisted wire, which were first noticed by Wiedemann, have been
further studied by F. J. Smith 3 and by G. Moreau. 4 Nagaoka 6 has
described the remarkable influence of combined torsion and tension
upon the magnetic susceptibility of nickel, and has made the extra-
ordinary observation that, under certain conditions of stress, the
magnetization of a nickel wire may have a direction opposite to that
of the magnetizing force.
8. EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE UPON MAGNETISM
High Temperature. It has long been known that iron, when
raised to a certain " critical temperature " corresponding to dull
red heat, loses its susceptibility and becomes magnetically
indifferent, or, more accurately, is transformed from a ferro-
magnetic into a paramagnetic body. Recent researches have
shown that other imporant changes in its properties occur at
the same critical temperature. Abrupt alterations take place
in its density, specific heat, thermo-electric quality, electrical
conductivity, temperature-coefficient of electrical resistance, and
in some at least of its mechanical properties. Ordinary magnet-
izable iron is in many respects an essentially different substance
from the non-magnetizable metal into which it is transformed
when its temperature is raised above a certain point (see Brit.
Assoc. Report, 1890, 145). The first exact experiments demon-
strating the changes which occur in the permeability of iron,
Phil. Mag., 1891,32,383.
4 C.R., 1896, 122, 1192; 1898, 126, 463.
Phil. Mag., 1889, 27, 117.
TEMPERATURE AND MAGNETIZATION] MAGNETISM
343
steel and nickel when heated up to high temperatures were
those of J. Hopkinson (Phil. Trans., 1889, 180, 443; Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1888, 44, 317). The metal to be tested was prepared
in the form of a ring, upon which were wound primary and
secondary coils of copper wire insulated with asbestos. The
primary coil carried the magnetizing current; the secondary,
which was wound inside the other, could be connected either with
a ballistic galvanometer for determining the induction, or with
a Wheatstone's bridge for measuring the resistance, whence the
temperature was calculated. The ring thus prepared was placed
in a cast-iron box and heated in a gas furnace. The following
are the chief results of Hopkinson's experiments: For small
magnetizing forces the magnetization of iron steadily increases
with rise of temperature till the critical temperature is ap-
proached, when the rate of increase becomes very high, the
permeability in some cases attaining a value of about 11,000;
the magnetization then with remarkable suddenness almost
entirely disappears, the permeability falling to about 1-14. For
strong magnetizing forces (which in these experiments did not
exceed H = 48-9) the permeability remains almost constant at its
initial value (about 400), until the temperature is within nearly
100 of the critical point; then the permeability diminishes more
and more rapidly until the critical point is reached and the
magnetization vanishes. Steel behaves in a similar manner,
but the maximum permeability is not so high as in iron, and
the fall, when the critical point is approached, is less abrupt.
The critical temperature for various samples of iron arid steel
ranges from 690 C. to 870 C.; it is the temperature at which
Barrett's " recalescence " occurs. The critical temperature for
the specimen of nickel examined (which contained nearly 5%
of impurities) was 310 C. F. Lydall and A. W. Pocklington
found that the critical temperature of nearly pure iroa was
874 C. (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1893, 52, 228).
An exhaustive research into the effects of heating on the
magnetic properties of iron has been carried out by D. K. Morris
(Proc. Phys. Soc., 1897, 15, 134; and Phil. Mag., 1897, 44, 213),
the results being embodied in a paper containing twelve pages
of tables and upwards of 120 curves. As in Hopkinson's experi-
ments, ring magnets were employed; these were wound with pri-
mary and secondary coils of insulated platinum wire, which would
bear a much higher temperature than copper without oxidation
or fusion. A third platinum coil, wound non-inductively between
the primary and the secondary, served to carry the current by
which the ring was heated; a current of 4-6 amperes, with 16
volts across the terminals, was found sufficient to maintain the
ring at a temperature of 1 1 50 C. In the ring itself was embedded
a platinum-thermometer wire, from the resistance of which the
temperature was determined. The whole was wrapped in several
coverings of asbestos and placed in a glass vessel from which
the air was partially exhausted, additional precautions being
taken to guard against oxidation of the iron.
Some preliminary experiments showed the striking difference in
the effects of annealing at a red heat (840 C.) and at a low white
heat (H50C.). After
one of the rings had
been annealed at 840,
its maximum permea-
bility at ordinary tem-
peratures was 4000 for
H = 1-84; when it had
been subsequently an-
nealed at 1150, the
maximum permea-
bility rose to .3.680 for
H = i-48, while the
hysteresis loss for
B= 4000 was under
500 ergs per c.cm. As
regards the effects of
p IG 2 - temperature, Morris's
results are in general
agreement with those of Hopkinson, though no doubt they indicate
details with greater clearness and accuracy. Specimens of curves show-
ing the relation of induction to magnetic field at various temperatures,
and of permeability to temperature with fields of different intensities,
are given in figs. 27 and 28. The most striking feature presented
by these is the enormous value, 12,660, which, with H =0-153, > s
attained by the permeability at 765 C., followed by a drop so pre-
cipitous that when the temperature is only 15 higher, the value
of the permeability has become quite insignificant. The critical
temperatures for three different specimens of iron were 795,
780 , and 770 respectively. Above these temperatures the little
permeability that remained was found to be independent of the
magnetizing force, but it ^
appeared to vary a little HPOO<-
with the temperature,
one specimen showing a
permeability of 100 at uf<x>
820, 2-3 at 950, and
17 at 1050. These last
observations are, how-
ever, regarded as uncer-
tain. The effects of tem-
perature upon hysteresis
were also carefully
studied, and many
hysteresis loops were
plotted. The results of
a typical experiment are
given in the annexed
table, which shows how
greatly the hysteresis
loss is diminished as the
critical temperature is
approached. The coer-
cive force at 764-5 is
stated to have been little
more than o-l C.G.S.
apoo
o'C
FIG. 28.
unit ; above the critical temperature no evidence of hysteresis could
be obtained.
Hysteresis Loss in Ergs per c.cm. Max. H. = 6-83.
Temp. C.
764-
748
73
695
634
554
Ergs.
120
328
426
797
1010
1345
Temp. C.
457
352
249
137-5
24
Ergs
2025
2565
3500
3660
A paper by H. Nagaoka and S. Kusakabe ' generally confirms
Morris's results for iron, and gives some additional observations for
steel, nickel and cobalt. The magnetometric method was employed,
and the metals, in the form of ovoids, were heated by a specially
designed burner, fed with gas and air under pressure, which directed
90 fine jets of flame upon the asbestos covering the ovoid. The
temperature was determined by a platinum-rhodium and platinum
thermo-j unction in contact with the metal. Experiments were made
at several constant temperatures with varying magnetic fields, and
also at constant fields with rising and falling temperatures. For
ordinary steel the critical temperature, at which magnetization
practically disappeared, was found to be about 830, and the curious
fact was revealed that, on cooling, magnetization did not begin to
reappear until the temperature had fallen 40 below the critical
value. This retardation was still more pronounced in the case of
tungsten-steel, which lost its magnetism at 910 and remained non-
magnetic till it was cooled to 570, a difference of 240. For nearly
pure nickel the corresponding temperature-difference was about
100. This phenomenon is of the same nature as that first dis-
covered by J. Hopkinson for nickel-steel. The paper contains tables
and curves showing details of the magnetic changes, sometimes very
complex, at different temperatures and with different fields. The
behaviour of cobalt is particularly noticeable; its permeability
increased with rising temperature up to a maximum at 500, when it
was about twice as great as at ordinary temperatures, while at 1600,
corresponding to white heat, there was still some magnetization
remaining.
Further contributions to the subject have been made by K. Honda
and S. Shimizu, 1 who experimented at temperatures ranging from
186 to 1200. As regards the higher temperatures, the chief point
of interest is the observation that the curve of magnetization for
annealed cobalt shows a small depression at about 450 , the tempera-
ture at which they had found the sign of the length-change to be
reversed for all fields. In the case pfall the metals tested a small
but measurable trace of magnetization remained after the so-called
critical temperature had been exceeded ; this decreased very slightly
up to the highest temperature reached (1200) without undergoing
any such variation as had been suspected by Morris. When the
curve after its steep descent has almost reached the axis, it bends
aside sharply and becomes a nearly horizontal straight line; the
authors suggest that the critical temperature should be defined as
that corresponding to the point of maximum curvature. As thus
defined the critical temperatures for iron, nickel and cobalt were
1 Journ. Coll. Set. Tokyo, 1904, 19, art. 9.
'Phil. Uag., 1905, 10, 548; Tokyo Phys.-Math. Soc. Rep., 1904,
2, No. 14; Journ. Coll. Set. Tokyo, 1905, 20, art. 6.
344
MAGNETISM [TEMPERATURE AND MAGNETIZATION
found to be 780, 360 and 1090 respectively, but these values are
not quite independent of the magnetizing force.
Experiments on the effect of high temperatures have also been
made by M. P. Ledeboer, 1 H. Tomlinson, 2 P. Curie, 3 and W. Kunz, 4
R. L. Wills, 6 J. R. Ashworth 6 and E. P. Harrison.'
Low Temperature. J. A. Fleming and J. Dewar (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1896, 60, 81) were the first to experiment on the permeability
and hysteresis of iron at low temperatures down to that of liquid
air (-186 C.). Induction curves of an annealed soft-iron ring
were taken first at a temperature of 15 C., and afterwards when
the ring was immersed in liquid air, the magnetizing force
ranging from about o'8 to 22. After this operation had been
repeated a few times the iron was found to have acquired
a stable condition, and the curves corresponding to the two
temperatures became perfectly definite. They showed that
the permeability of this sample of iron was considerably dimin-
ished at the lower temperature. The maximum permeability
(for H =2) was 3400 at 15 and only 2700 at -186, a reduction
of more than 20%; but the percentage reduction became less
as the magnetizing force departed from the value corresponding
to maximum permeability. Observations were also made of
the changes of permeability which took place as the temperature
of the sample slowly rose from -186 to 15, the magnetizing
force being kept constant throughout an experiment. The
values of the permeability corresponding to the highest and
lowest temperatures are given in the following table. Most
of the permeability-temperature curves were more or less convex
Sample of Iron.
H.
V- at 15.
Mat 1 86.
Annealed Swedish
1-77
2835
2332
Unannealed
1-78
917
1272
II II
979
1210
1293
Hardened
2-66
56
132
,, i)
4-92
106-5
502
ii ,,
11-16
447-5
823
n a
127-7
109
124
Steel wire .
7-50
86
64-5
. .
20-39
36i
144
towards the axis of temperature, and in all the experiments,
except those with annealed iron and steel wire, the permeability
was greatest at the lowest temperature. 8 The hysteresis of
the soft annealed iron turned out to be sensibly the same for
equal values of the induction at -186 as at 15, the loss in ergs
per c.cm. per cycle being approximately represented by -0-002 B 1 ' 66
when the maximum limits of B were + 9000. Experiments
with the sample of unannealed iron failed to give satisfactory
results, owing to the fact that no constant magnetic condition
could be obtained.
Honda and Shimizu have made similar experiments at the tempera-
ture of liquid air, employing a much wider range of magnetizing
forces (up to about 700 C.G.S.) and testing a greater variety of metals.
They found that the permeability of Swedish iron, tungsten-steel
and nickel, when the metals were cooled to 186, was diminished
in weak fields but increased in strong ones, the field in which the
effect of cooling changed its sign being 115 for iron and steel and
580 for nickel. The permeability of cobalt, both annealed and
unannealed, was always diminished at the low temperature. The
hysteresis-loss in Swedish iron was decreased for inductions below
about 9000 and increased for higher inductions; in tungsten-steel,
nickel and cobalt the hysteresis-loss was always increased by cooling.
The range of + B within which Steinmetz's formula is applicable
becomes notably increased at low temperature. It may be remarked
that, whereas Fleming and Dewar employed the ballistic method,
their specimens having the form of rings, Honda and Shimizu
worked magnetometrically with metals shaped as ovoids.
Permanent Magnets. Fleming and Dewar (loc. cit. p. 57)
also investigated the changes which occurred in permanently
1 C.R., 1888, 106, 129.
'Proc. Phys. Soc., 1888, 9, 181.
3 C.R., 1892, 115, 805; 1894, 118, 796 and 859.
'Elekt. Zeits., 1894, 15, 194.
6 Phil. Mag., 1900, 50, i.
'Phil. Trans., 1903, 201, I.
''Phil. Mag., 1904, 8, 179.
A. M. Thiessen (Phys., 1899, 8, 65) and G. Claude (C. R., 1899,
129, 409) found that for considerable inductions (8 = 15,000) the
permeability and hysteresis-loss remained nearly constant down to
i 86; for weak inductions both notably diminished with tempera-
ture.
magnetized metals when cooled to the temperature of liquid air.
The metals, which were prepared in the form of small rods, were
magnetized between the poles of an electromagnet and tested
with a magnetometer at temperatures of -186 and 15. The
first immersion into liquid air generally produced a permanent
decrease of magnetic moment, and there was sometimes a
further decrease when the metal was warmed up again; but
after a few alternations of temperature the changes of moment
became definite and cyclic. When the permanent magnetic
condition had been thus established, it was found that in the
case of all the metals, except the two alloys containing large
percentages of nickel, the magnetic moment was temporarily
increased by cooling to -186. The following table shows the
principal results. It is suggested that a permanent magnet
might conveniently be " aged " (or brought into a constant
condition) by dipping it several times into liquid air.
Metal.
Percentage Gain or Loss
of Moment at 1 86 C.
First Effect.
Cyclic Effect.
Carbon steel, hard
,, medium
annealed
Chromium steels (four samples) .
Aluminium steels (three samples)
Nickel steels, up to 7-65 % ...
., 19-64%
29% ....
Pure nickel
-6
Decrease
i ~ 33
Increase
2
Small
-50
20
Decrease
None
Decrease
i,
+ 12
+ 22
+33
+ 12
+ 10
+ 10
-25
IO
+3
4
+2-5
+ 10
+6
+ 10
+ 12
Silicon steel, 2-67%
Iron, soft
,, hard.
Tungsten steel, 15% .
-- - 7-5%
i%
Other experiments relating to the effect of temperature upon
permanent magnets have been carried out by J. R. Ashworth,'
who showed that the temperature coefficient of permanent magnets
might be reduced to zero (for moderate ranges of temperature)
by suitable adjustment of temper and dimension ratio; also by R.
Pictet, 10 A. Durward 11 and J. Trowbridge."
Alloys of Nickel and Iron. A most remarkable effect of tem-
perature was discovered by Hopkinson (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 47,
23; 1891, 48, i) in 1889. An alloy containing about 3 parts of
iron and i of nickel both strongly magnetic metals is under
ordinary conditions practically non-magnetizable (n = i '4 for
any value of H). If, however, this non-magnetic substance is
cooled to a temperature a few degrees below freezing-point, it
becomes as strongly magnetic as average cast-iron ((1=62 for
H = 4o), and retains its magnetic properties indefinitely at ordi-
nary temperatures. But if the alloy is heated up to 580 C. it loses
its susceptibility rather suddenly when H is weak, more gradu-
ally when H is strong and remains non-magnetizable till it is
once more cooled down below the freezing-point. This material
can therefore exist in either of two perfectly stable conditions, in
one of which it is magnetizable, while in the other it is not. When
magnetizable it is a hard steel, having a specific electrical
resistance of 0-000052; when non-magnetizable it is an extremely
soft, mild steel, and its specific resistance is 0-000072. Alloys
containing different proportions of nickel were found to exhibit
the phenomenon, but the two critical temperatures were less
widely separated. The following approximate figures for small
magnetizing forces are deduced from Hopkinson's curves:
Percentage of Susceptibility lost Susceptibility gained
Nickel. at temp. C. at temp. C.
0-97 890
4-7 820 660
4-7 780 600
24-5 680 -10
30-0 140 125
33-o 207 193
73-0 202 202
9 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1898, 62, 210.
" C.R., 1895, 120, 263.
11 Amer. Journ. Set., 1898, 5, 245.
a Phys. Rev., 1901, 14, 181.
ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS OF IRON]
MAGNETISM
345
Honda and Shimizu (loc. cit.) have determined the two critical tem-
peratures for eleven nickel-steel ovoids, containing from 24-04 to
70-32 % of nickel, under a magnetizing force of 400, and illustrated
by an interesting series of curves, the gradual transformation of
the magnetic properties as the percentage of nickel was decreased.
They found that the hysteresis-loss, which at ordinary temperatures
is very small, was increased in liquid air, the increase for the alloys
containing less than 30% of nickel being enormous. Steinmetz's
formula applies only for very weak inductions when the alloys are
at the ordinary temperature, but at the temperature of liquid air
it becomes applicable through a wide range of inductions. Accord-
ing to C. E. Guillaume 1 the temperature at which the magnetic
susceptibility of nickel-steel is recovered is lowered by the presence
of chromium ; a certain alloy containing chromium was not rendered
magnetic even by immersion in liquid air. Experiments on the
subject have also been made by E. Dumont* and F. Osmond."
9. ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS or IRON
In 1885 Hopkinson (Phil. Trans., 1885, 176, 455) employed
his yoke method to test the magnetic properties of thirty-five
samples of iron and steel, among which were steels containing
substantial proportions of manganese, silicon, chromium and
tungsten. The results, together with the chemical analysis of
each sample, are given in a table contained in this paper, some
of them being also represented graphically. The most striking
phenomenon which they bring into prominence is the effect
of any considerable quantity of manganese in annihilating the
magnetic property of iron. A sample of Hadfield's manufacture,
containing 12-36% of manganese, differed hardly at all from
a non-magnetic substance, its permeability being only 1-27.
According to Hopkinson's calculation, this sample behaved as
if 91% of the iron contained in it had completely lost its mag-
netic property. 4 Another point to which attention is directed
is the exceptionally great effect which hardening has upon the
magnetic properties of chrome steel; one specimen had a coercive
force of 9 when annealed, and of no less than 38 when oil-
hardened. The effect of the addition of tungsten in increasing
the coercive force is very clearly shown; in two specimens
containing respectively 3-44 and 2-35% of tungsten the coercive
force was 64-5 and 70-7. These high values render hardened
tungsten-steel particularly suitable for the manufacture of per-
manent magnets. Hopkinson (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, i) also
noticed some peculiarities of an unexpected nature in the
magnetic properties of the nickel-steel alloys already referred
to. The permeability of the alloys containing from i to 4-7%
of nickel, though less than that of good soft iron for magnetizing
forces up to about 20 or 30, was greater for higher forces, the
induction reached in a field of 240 being nearly 21,700. The
induction for considerable forces was found to be greater in a
steel containing 73% of nickel than in one with only 33%,
though the permeability of pure nickel is much less than that
of iron.
The magnetic qualities of various alloys of iron have been
submitted to a very complete examination by W. F. Barrett,
W. Brown and R. A. Hadfield (Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., 1900, 7,
67; Journ. Inst. EJ.ec. Eng., 1902, 31, 674)." More than fifty
different specimens were tested, most of which contained a
known proportion of manganese, nickel, tungsten, aluminium,
chromium, copper or silicon; in some samples two of the sub-
stances named were present. Of the very numerous results
published, a few of the most characteristic are collected in the
following table. The first column contains the symbols of the
various elements which were added to the iron, and the second
the percentage proportion in which each element was present;
the sample containing 0-03% of carbon was a specimen of the
best commercial iron, the values obtained for it being given for
comparison. All the metals were annealed.
A few among several interesting points should be specially noticed.
The addition of 15-2% of manganese produced an enormous effect
J C.R., 1897, 124, 176 and 1515; 1897, 125, 235; 1898, 126, 738.
1 Ibid., 1898, 126, 741.
* Ibid., 1890, 128, 304 and 1395.
4 See also J. Hopkinson, Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng., 1890, 19, 20,
and J. A. Ewmg, Phil. Trans., 1889, 180, 239.
1 Many of the figures which, through an error, were inaccurately
stated in the first paper are corrected in the second.
upon the magnetism of iron, while the presence of only 2-25% was
comparatively unimportant. When nickel was added to the iron in
increasing quantities the coercive force increased until the proportion
of nickel reached 20%; then it diminished, and when the propor-
tion of nickel was 32 % the coercive force had fallen to the exceed-
ingly low value of 0-5. In the case of iron containing 7-5 % of tungsten
Element.
Per cent.
B
for H=45.
B
residual.
for H =8.
Coercive
Force.
C
0-03
16800
9770
1625
1-66
Cu
2-5
14300
10410
5-4
Mn
2-25
14720
10460
1080
6-0
Mn
15-2
o
Ni
3-82
16190
9320
1375
276
Ni
19-64
777
4770
90
2O-O
Ni
3i-4
4460
1720
357
o-5
W
7-5
15230
13280
500
9-02
Al
2-25
16900
10500
1700
I-O
Cr
3-25
12-25
Si
2-5
16420
4080
1680
0-9
Si
5-5
15980
3430
1630
0-85
(W), the residual induction had a remarkably high value ; the coercive
force, however, was not very great. The addition of silicon in small
quantities considerably diminished permeability and increased coer-
cive force; but when the proportion amounted to 2-5 % the maximum
permeability (^ = 5100 for H =2) was greater than that of the nearly
pure iron used for comparison, while the coercive force was only
0-9.' A small percentage of aluminium produced still higher per-
meability (jt =6000 for H =2), the induction in fields up to 60 being
greater than in any other known substance, and the hysteresis-loss
for moderate limits of B far less than in the purest commercial iron.
Certain non-magnetizable alloys of nickel, chromium-nickel and
chromium-manganese were rendered magnetizable by annealing.
Later papers' give the results of a more minute examination of
those specimens which were remarkable for very low and very high
permeabilities, and were therefore likely to be of commercial im-
portance. The following table gives the exact composition of some
alloys which were found to be non-magnetizable, or nearly so, in
a field of 320.
An. = Annealed. Un. = Unannealed.
State.
Percentage Composition.
I, for H=32O.
Un.
An.
An.
Un.
Un.
An.
Fe, 85-77; C, 1-23; Mn, 13.
Fe, 84-64; C, 0-15; Mn, 15-2
Fe, 80-16; C,o-8;Mn, 5-04; Ni, 14-55.
Ditto
Fe. 75-36; C, 0-6; Mn, 5-04; Ni, 19.
Fe, 86-61 ;C, i-o8;Mn, 10-2; W, 2-11.
o
3
3
5
A very small difference in the constitution often produces a remark-
able effect upon the magnetic quality, and it unfortunately happeas
that those alloys which are hardest magnetically are generally also
hardest mechanically and extremely difficult to work; they might
however be used rolled or as castings. The specimens distinguished
by unusually high permeability were constituted as follows:
Silicon-iron. Fe, 97-3; C, 0-2; Si, 2-5.
Aluminium-iron. Fe, 97-33; C, 0-18; Al, 2-25.
The silicon-iron had, in fields up to about 10, a greater permeability
than a sample of the best Swedish charcoal-iron, and its hysteresis-
loss for max. B =9000, at a frequency of 100 per second, was only
0-254 watt per pound, as compared with 0-382 for the Swedish iron.
The aluminium-iron attained its greatest permeability in a field
of 0-5, about that of the earth's force, when its value was 9000, this
being more than twice the maximum permeability of the Swedish
iron. Its hysteresis-loss for B =9000 was 0-236 per pound. It was,
however, found that the behaviour of this alloy was in part due to a
layer of pure iron (" ferrke ") averaging o-l mm. in thickness, which
occurred on the outside of the specimen, and the exceptional magnetic
quality which has been claimed for aluminium-iron cannot yet be
regarded as established.
A number of iron alloys have been examined by Mme. Curie
(Bull. Soc. d" Encouragement, 1898, pp. 36-76), chiefly with the
object of determining their suitability for the construction of
permanent magnets. Her tests appear to show that molybdenum
is even more effective than tungsten in augmenting the coercive
force, the highest values observed being 70 to 74 for tungsten-
steel, and 80 to 85 for steel containing 3-5 to 4% of molybdenum.
For additional information regarding the composition and
qualities of permanent magnet steels reference may be made
6 The marked effect of silicon in increasing the permeability of
cast iron has also been noticed by F. C. Caldwell, Elect. World, 1898,
32, 619.
7 Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., 1902-4, 8, I and 123.
346
MAGNETISM [MAGNETIZATION: MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS
to the publications cited below. 1 Useful instructions have
been furnished by Carl Barus (Terrestrial Magnetism, 1897,
2, n) for the preparation of magnets calculated to withstand
the effects of time, percussion and ordinary temperature varia-
tions. The metal, having first been uniformly tempered glass-
hard, should be annealed in steam at 100 C. for twenty or thirty
hours; it should then be magnetized to saturation, and finally
" aged " by a second immersion in steam for about five hours.
Magnetic Alloys of Non-Magnetic Metals. The interesting
discovery was made by F. Heusler 2 in 1903 that certain alloys
of the non-magnetic metal manganese with other non-magnetic
substances were strongly magnetizable, their susceptibility
being in some cases equal to that of cast iron. The metals
used in different combinations included tin, aluminium, arsenic,
antimony, bismuth and boron; each of these, when united in
certain proportions with manganese, together with a larger
quantity of copper (which appears to serve merely as a men-
struum), constituted a magnetizable alloy. So far, the best
results have been attained with aluminium, and the permeability
was greatest when the percentages of manganese and aluminium
were approximately proportional to the atomic weights of
the two metals. Thus in an alloy containing 26-5% of
manganese and 14-6% of aluminium, the rest being copper,
the induction for H=2O was 4500, and for H=iso, 5550.
When the proportion of aluminium to manganese was made
a little greater or smaller, the permeability was diminished.
Next to aluminium, tin was found to be the most effective of the
metals enumerated above. In all such magnetizable alloys the
presence of manganese appears to be essential, and there can
be little doubt that the magnetic quality of the mixtures is
derived solely from this component. Manganese, though belong-
ing (with chromium) to the iron group of metals, is commonly
classed as a paramagnetic, its susceptibility being very small in
comparison with that of the recognized ferromagnetics; but it
is remarkable that its atomic susceptibility in solutions of its
salts is even greater than that of iron. Now iron, nickel and
cobalt all lose their magnetic quality when heated above certain
critical temperatures which vary greatly for the three metals, and
it was suspected by Faraday 3 as early as 1845 that manganese
might really be a ferromagnetic metal having a critical tempera-
ture much below the ordinary temperature of the air. He
therefore cooled a piece of the metal to 105 C., the lowest
temperature then attainable, but failed to produce any change
in its magnetic quality. The critical temperature (if there is
one) was not reached in Faraday's experiment; possibly even the
temperature of -250 C., which by the use of liquid hydrogen
has now become accessible, might still be too high. 4 But it
has been shown that the critical temperatures of iron and nickel
may be changed by the addition of certain other substances.
Generally they are lowered, sometimes, however, they are raised 5 ;
and C. E. Guillaume 6 explains the ferromagnetism of Heusler's
alloy by supposing that the naturally low critical temperature of
the manganese contained in it is greatly raised by the admixture
of another appropriate metal, such as aluminium or tin; thus
the alloy as a whole becomes magnetizable at the ordinary
temperature. If this view is correct, it may also be possible to
prepare magnetic alloys of chromium, the only other para-
magnetic metals of the iron group.
J. A. Fleming and R. A. Hadfield 7 have made very careful experi-
ments on an alloy containing 22-42% of manganese, 11-65% of
1 J. Trowbridge and S. Sheldon, Phil. Mag., 1890, 29, 136; W. H.
Preece, Journ. Insl. Elec. Eng., 1890, 19, 62; Electrician, 1890, 25,
546; I. Klemengig, Wien. Ber., 1896, 105, Ha, 635; B. O. Peirce,
Am. Journ. Sci., 1896, 2, 347; A. Abt, Wied. Ann., 1898, 66, 116;
F. Osmond, C. R., 1899, 128, 1513.
1 Deutsch. phys. Gesell. Verh., 1903, 5, 220 and 224.
* Exp. Res., lii. 440.
4 No record can be found of experiments with manganese at the
temperature of liquid air or hydrogen; probably, however, negative
results would not be published.
The critical temperature of iron, for instance, is raised more than
IOO by the addition of a little carbon and tungsten.
$ Bull. Soc. Int. des Electriciens, 1906, 6, 301.
7 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1905, 76A, 271.
aluminium and 60-49% of copper. The magnetization curve was
found to be of the same general form as that of a paramagnetic
metal, and gave indications that with a sufficient force magnetic
saturation would probably be attained. There was considerable
hysteresis, the energy-loss per cycle being fairly represented by
W=o-ooo5495B 2 ' 238 . The hysteretic exponent is therefore much
higher than in the case of iron, nickel and cobalt, for which its
value is approximately 1-6.
10. MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS OF MAGNETIZATION
Electrical Conductivity. The specific resistance of many
electric conductors is known to be temporarily changed by the
action of a magnetic field, but except in the case of bismuth
the effect is very small.
A. Gray and E. Taylor Jones (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1900, 67, 208) found
that the resistance of a soft iron wire was increased by about 1/700
in a field of 320 C.G.S. units. The effect appeared to be closely
connected with the intensity of magnetization, being approximately
proportional to I. G. Barlow (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 71, 30), experi-
menting with wires of iron, steel and nickel, showed that in weak fields
the change of resistance was proportional to a function oI 2 +6I 4 -|-cI 6 ,
where a, b and care constants for each specimen. W. E. Williams (Phil.
Mag., 1902, 4, 430) found that for nickel the curves showing changes
of resistance in relation to magnetizing force were strikingly similar
in form to those showing changes of length. H. Tomlinson (Phil.
Trans., 1883, Part I., 153) discovered in 1881 that the resistance of a
bismuth rod was slightly increased when the rod was subjected to
longitudinal magnetic force, and a year or two later A. Righi (Atti
R. A. Lincei, 1883-1884, 19, 545) showed that a more considerable
alteration was produced when the magnetic force was applied trans-
versely to the bismuth conductor; he also noticed that the effect
was largely dependent upon temperature (see also P. Lenard, Wied.
Ann., 1890, 39, 619). Among the most important experiments on
the influence of magnetic force at different temperatures are those
of J. B. Henderson and of Dewar and Fleming. Henderson (Phil.
Mag., 1894, 3 8> 4 88 ) use d a l' ttle s P' ral f tne P ure electrolytic
bismuth wire prepared by Hartmann and Braun; this was placed
between the pole-pieces of an electromagnet and subjected to fields
of various strengths up to nearly 39,000 units. At constant tempera-
ture the resistance increased with the field ; the changes in the resist-
ance of the spiral when the temperature was 18 C. are indicated in
the annexed table, from which it will be seen that in the strongest
H.
o
6310
12500
20450
R.
I-OOO
1-253
1-630
2-160
H.
27450
32730
38900
R.
2-540
2-846
3-334
transverse field reached the resistance was increased more than
threefold. Other experiments showed the relation of resistance
to temperature (from o to about 90) in different constant fields.
It appears that as the temperature rises the resistance decreases to
a minimum and then increases, the minimum point occurring at
a higher temperature the stronger the field. For H = 11,500 the
temperature of minimum resistance was about 50; for much lower
or higher values of H the actual minimum did not occur within the
range of temperature dealt with. Dewar and Fleming (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1897, 60, 425) worked with a similar specimen of bismuth,
and their results for a constant temperature of 19 agree well with
those of Henderson. They also experimented with constant tem-
peratures of 79, 185 and 203, and found that at these low
temperatures the effect of magnetization was enormously increased.
The following table gives some of their results, the specific resistance
of the bismuth being expressed in C.G.S. units.
Field
Strength.
Temp. 19 C.
Temp.-i85 C.
Spec. Res.
Comp. Res.
Spec. Res.
Comp. Res.
o
1375
2750
8800
14150
21800
116200
118200
123000
149200
186200
257000
000
017
059
284
602
2-212
41000
103300
191500
738000
1730000
6190000
I-OO
2-52
4-67
18-0
42-2
151
At the temperature of liquid air ( 185) the application of a field
of 21,800 multiplied the resistance of the bismuth no less than ISO-
times. Fig. 29 shows the variations of resistance in relation to
temperature for fields of different constant values. It will be seen
that for H=2450 and H=5soo the minimum resistance occurs at
temperatures of about 80 and 7 respectively.
Hall Efect. If an electric current is passed along a strip
of thin metal, and the two points at opposite ends of an equi-
potential line are connected with a galvanometer, its needle will
of course not be deflected. But the application of a magnetic
field at right angles to the plane of the metal causes the equi-
potential lines to rotate through a small angle, and the points at
MAGNETIZATION: MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS] MAGNETISM
347
which the galvanometer is connected being no longer at* the
ne potential, a current is indicated by the galvanometer. 1
Change of Resjstivity wi
[Tempera 1 ure of Electrolytic ~
when ransversely magne
rotational coefficient of tellurium is more than fifty times greater
than that of bismuth, its sign being positive. Several experi-
menters have endeavoured to find a Hall effect in liquids, but
such results as have been hitherto obtained are by no means
free from doubt. E. A. Marx (Ann. d. Phys., 1900, 2, 798)
observed a well-defined Hall effect in incandescent gases. A
large effect, proportional to the field, has been found by H. A.
Wilson (Cam. Phil. Soc. Proc., 1902, n, pp. 249, 391) in oxygen,
hydrogen and air at low pressures, and by C. D. Child (Phys.
Rev., 1904, 18, 370) in the electric arc.
Electro-Thermal Relations. The Hall electromotive force is
only one of several so-called " galvano-magnetic effects " which
are observed when a magnetic field acts normally upon a thin
plate of metal traversed by an electric current. It is remarkable
that if a flow of heat be substituted for a current of electricity
a closely allied group of " thermo-magnetic effects " is presented.
The two classes of phenomena have been collated by M. G. Lloyd
(Am. Journ. Sci., 1901, 12, 57), as follows:
Galvano- Magnetic Effects. Thermo- Magnetic Effects.
I. A transverse difference of i. A transverse difference of
electric potential (Hall^ effect). electric potential (Nernst effect).
2. A transverse difference of
temperature(Ettinghausen effect).
3. Longitudinal change of
electric conductivity.
4. Longitudinal difference of
temperature.
of
n. A transverse difference
temperature (Leduc effect).
iii. Longitudinal change
thermal conductivity.
iv. Longitudinal difference of
electric potential.*
of
If in the annexed diagram ABCD represents the metallic plate
through which the current of electricity or heat flows in the
1 E. H. Hall, Phil. Mag., 1880, 9, 225; 1880, 10, 301; 1881, 12,
IS?: 1883, 15, 341; 1885, 19, 419.
The large Hall effect in bismuth was discovered by Riehi, Journ
de Phys., 1884, 3, 127.
1 REFERENCES. (2) A. von Ettinghausen, Wied. Ann., 1887, 31,
737- (4) H. W. Nernst, ibid., 784. (i.) and (iv.); A. von Etting-
hausen and H. W. Nernst, Wied. Ann., 1886, 29, 343. (ii.) and
<ui.); A. Righi. Rend. Ace. Line., 1887, 3 II, 6 and I, 481; and A
Leduc, Journ.de Phys., 1887,6,78. Additional authorities are quotec
by Lloyd, loc. cit.
D
FIG.
The tranverse electromotive fore
is the current, H the strength of
metal, and K a constant which
power or rotational coefficient.
1880, 10, 430). The following \
are given by E. H. Hall, the p<
electromotive force is in the sai
force acting upon the conduct<
Metal. KXio 16
Antimony + 1 1 4000
Steel +12060
Iron +7850
Cobalt +2460
Zinc +820
W. Nernst (Wien. Ber., 1886,
29.
e is equal to KCH/D, where C
the field, D the thickness of the
has been termed the rotatory
(See Hopkinson, Phil. Mag.,
values of K for different metals
Dsitive sign indicating that the
ne direction as the mechanical
)r. A. von Ettinghausen and
Metal. KXio 15
Copper 520
Gold -660
Nickel 14740
Bismuth 2 -8580000
94, 560) have found that the
direction AB, then effects (i), (2), (i.) and (ii.) are exhibited at
C and D, effects (4) and (iv.) at A and
B, and effects (3) and (iii.) along AB.
The transverse effects are reversed in
direction when either the magnetic
ield or the primary current (electric or
thermal) is reversed, but the longitudinal effects are inde-
pendent of the direction of the field. It has been shown by
G. Moreau (C. R., 1900, 130, pp. 122, 412, 562) that if K is the
coefficient of the Hall effect (i) and K' the analogous coefficient
of the Nernst effect (i.) (which is constant for small values of H),
then K' = Kff/p, a being the coefficient of the Thomson effect
tor the metal and p its specific resistance. He considers that
Hall's is the fundamental phenomenon, and that the Nernst
effect is essentially identical with it, the primary electromotive
Force in the case of the latter being that of the Thomson effect
in the unequally heated metal, while in the Hall experiment it
is derived from an external source.
Attempts have been made to explain these various effects by
the electron theory. 4
Thermo-electric Quality. The earliest observations of the
effect of magnetization upon thermo-electric power were those
of W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), who in. 1856 announced that
magnetization rendered iron and steel positive to the unmagnet-
ized metals. 6 It has been found by Chassagny, 6 L. Houllevigue 7
and others that when the magnetizing force is increased, this
effect passes a maximum, while J. A. Ewing 8 has shown that
it is diminished and may even be reversed by tensile stress.
Nickel was believed by Thomson to behave oppositely to iron,
becoming negative when magnetized; but though his conclusion
was accepted for nearly fifty years, it has recently been shown
to be an erroneous one, based, no doubt, upon the result of an
experiment with an impure specimen. Nickel when magnetized
is always positive to the unmagnetized metal. So also is
cobalt, as was found by H. Tomlinson. 9 The curves given by
Houllevigue for the relation of thermo-electric force to magnetic
field are of the same general form as those showing the relation of
change of length to field. E. Rhoads I0 obtained a cyclic curve
for iron which indicated thermo-electric hysteresis of the kind
exhibited by Nagaoka's curves for magnetic strain. He also
experimented with nickel and again found a resemblance to
the strain curve. The subject was further investigated by
S. Bidwell, 11 who, adopting special precautions against sources
of error by which former work was probably affected, measured
the changes of thermo-electric force for iron, steel, nickel and
cobalt produced by magnetic fields up to 1500 units. In the
case of iron and nickel it was found that, when correction was
made for mechanical stress due to magnetization, magnetic
change of thermo-electric force was, within the limits of experi-
mental error, proportional to magnetic change of length.
Further, it was shown that the thermo-electric curves were
modified both by tensile stress and by annealing in the same
manner as were the change-of-length curves, the modification
being sometimes of a complex nature. Thus a close connexion
between the two sets of phenomena seems to be established.
In the case of cobalt no such relation could be traced ; it appeared
that the thermo-electric power of the unmagnetized with respect
to the magnetized cobalt was proportional to the square of the
magnetic induction or of the magnetization. Of nickel six
4 P. Drude, Ann. d. Phys., 1900, i, 566; 1000, 3, 369; 1902, 7, 687.
See also E. van Everdingen, Arch. Nierlandaises, 1901, 4, 371;
G. Barlow, Ann. d. Phys., 1903, 12, 897; H. Zahn, ibid. 1904, 14, 886;
1905, 16, 148.
1 Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 722. According to the nomenclature adopted
by the best modern authorities, a metal A is said to be thermo-elec-
trically positive to another metal B_ when the thermo-current passes
from A to B through the cold junction, and from B to A through the
hot (see THERMO-ELECTRICITY).
'C.R., 1893, 116,997.
7 Journ. de Phys., 1896, 5, 53.
8 Phil. Trans., 1887, 177, 373.
Proc. Roy. Soc., 1885, 39, 513.
10 Phys. Rev., 1902, 15, 321. The sign of the thermo-electric
effect for nickel, as given by Rhoads, is incorrect.
u Proc. Roy. Soc., 1904, 73, 413.
348
MAGNETISM
[FEEBLY SUSCEPTIBLE SUBSTANCES
different specimens were tested, all of which became, like iron,
thermo-electrically positive to the unmagnetized metals.
As to what effect, if any, is produced upon the thermo-electric
quality of bismuth by a magnetic field there is still some doubt.
E. van Aubel l believes that in pure bismuth the thermo-electric
force is increased by the field; impurities may neutralize this effect,
and in sufficient quantities reverse it.
Elasticity. The results of experiments as to the effect of
magnetization were for long discordant and inconclusive,
sufficient care not having been taken to avoid sources of error,
while the effects of hysteresis were altogether disregarded.
The subject, which is of importance in connexion with theories
of magnetostriction, has been investigated by K. Honda and
T. Terada in a research remarkable for its completeness and the
ingenuity of the experimental methods employed. 2 The results
are too numerous to discuss in detail; some of those to which
special attention is directed are the following: In Swedish
iron and tungsten-steel the change of elastic constants (Young's
modulus and rigidity) is generally positive, but its amount
is less than 0-5%; changes of Young's modulus and of
rigidity are almost identical. In nickel the maximum change
of the elastic constants is remarkably large, amounting to
about 15% for Young's modulus and 7 % for rigidity;
with increasing fields the elastic constants first decrease and
then increase. In nickel-steels containing about 50 and
70 % of nickel the maximum increase of the constants is
as much as 7 or 8%. In a 29% nickel-steel, magnetization
increases the constants by a small amount. Changes of elas-
ticity are in all cases dependent, not only upon the field, but
also upon the tension applied; and, owing to hysteresis, the
results are not in general the same when the magnetization
follows as when it precedes the application of stress; the latter
is held to be the right order.
Chemical and Voltaic Effects. If two iron plates, one of
which is magnetized, are immersed in an electrolyte, a current
will generally be indicated by a galvanometer connected with
the plates.
As to whether the magnetized plate becomes positive or negative
to the other, different experimenters are not in agreement. It has,
however, been shown by Dragomir Hurmuzescu (Rap. du Congres
Int. de Phys., Paris, 1900, p. 561) that the true effect of magnetization
is liable to be disguised by secondary or parasitic phenomena, arising
chiefly from polarization of the electrodes and from local variations
in the concentration and magnetic condition of the electrolyte;
these may be avoided by working with weak solutions, exposing
only a small surface in a non-polar region of the metal, and sub-
stituting a capillary electrometer for the galvanometer generally
used. When such precautions are adopted it is found that the
" electromotive force of magnetization is, for a given specimen,
perfectly definite both in direction and in magnitude; it is indepen-
dent of the nature of the corrosive solution, and is a function of the
field-strength alone, the curves showing the relation of electromotive
force to field-intensity bearing a rough resemblance to the familiar
I-H curves. The value of the E.M.F. when H =2000 is of the order
of i/ioo volt for iron, i/iooo volt for nickej and 1/10,000 for bismuth.
When the two electrodes are ferro-magnetic, the direction of the cur-
rent through the liquid is from the unmagnetized to the magnetized
electrode, the latter being least attacked; with diamagnetic elec-
trodes the reverse is the case. Hurmuzescu shows that these results
are in accord with theory. Applying the principle of the conserva-
tion of internal energy, he demonstrates that for iron in a field of
looo units and upwards the E.M.F. of magnetization is
E = j approximately,
/ being the electrochemical equivalent and S the density of the metal.
Owing to the difficulty of determining the magnetization I and the
susceptibility K with accuracy, it has not yet been possible to submit
this formula to a quantitative test, but it is said to afford an indica-
tion of the results given by actual experiment. 1 1 has been discovered
by E. L. Nichols and W. S. Franklin (Am. Journ. Sci., 1887, 34, 419;
1888, 35, 290) that the transition from the " passive " to the active
state of iron immersed in strong nitric acid is facilitated by magnetiz-
ation, the temperature of transition being lowered. This is attri-
buted to the action of local currents set up between unequally
magnetized portions of the iron. Similar results have been obtained
by T. Andrews (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, 116).
1 C.R., 1903, 136, 1131.
* Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 1906, 21, art. 4. The paper contains
40 tables and 85 figures.
ii. FEEBLY SUSCEPTIBLE SUBSTANCES
Water. The following are recent determinations
magnetic susceptibility of water:
of the
Observer.
G. Quincke
H. du Bois
P. Curie
J. Townsend
*XIO. Publication.
-0-797 at 18 C. Wied. Ann., 1885,
-0-837 (l -0-0025 <- 15 )Wied.
-0-790 at 4 C.
-0-77
Ann.,
24,
1888, 35,
J: A. Fleming
and J. Dewar
G. Jager and
S. Meyer
J. Koenigsberger 0-781 at 22
-0-74
0-689 (i o-ooi6/)
C.
C.R., 1893, "6, 136.
Phil. Trans., 1896, 187,
544-
Proc. Roy. Soc., 1898,
63, 3"-
Wied. Ann., 1899, 67,
707.
Ann. d. Phys., 1901, 6,
506.
Phys. Rev., 1903, 16, I.
Phys. Rev., 1905,20, 188.
H. D. Stearns 0-733 a t 22 C.
A. P. Wills -0-720 at 18 C.
Wills found that the suceptibility was constant in fields
ranging from 4200 to 1 5,000.
Oxygen and Air. The best modern determinations of the
value of K for gaseous oxygen agree very fairly well with that
given by Faraday in 1853 (Exp. Res. Ill, 502). Assuming
that for water K= - o-8XicT*, his value of K for oxygen at
15 C. reduces to o-isXicr 6 . Important experiments on the
susceptibility of oxygen at different pressures and temperatures
were carried out by P. Curie (C.R. 1892, 115, 805; 1893, 116, 136).
Journ. de Phys., 1895, 4, 204. He found that the susceptibility
for unit of mass, K, was independent of both pressure and mag-
netizing force, but varied inversely as the absolute temperature,
0, so that io 6 K = 337oo/0. Since the mass of i cub. cm. of
oxygen at o C. and 760 mm. pressure is o'ooi4i grm., the mass at,
any absolute temperature 6 is by Charles's law 0-00141X2736=
0-3849/0 grm.; hence the susceptibility per unit of volume at
760 mm. will be
K = io- Xo-3849 X33700/9 1
= io~ 6 Xi297o/0 2 .
At 15 C. = 273 + 15 = 288, and therefore K = 0-156 X lo" 6 ,
nearly the same as the value found by Faraday. At o C.,
K=o-i74Xio~*. For air Curie calculated that the sus-
ceptibility per unit mass was io'K = 7830/0; or, taking the
mass of i c.c. of air at o C. and 760 mm. as 0-001291
grm., K = io~ 6 X 2760/0" for air at standard atmospheric
pressure. It is pointed out that this formula may be used as a tem-
perature correction in magnetic determinations carried out in air.
Fleming and Dewar determined the susceptibility of liquid
oxygen (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1896, 60, 283; 1898, 63, 311) by two
different methods. In the first experiments it was calculated from
observations of the mutual induction of two conducting circuits
in air and in the liquid; the results for oxygen at 182 C. were
H = 1-00287, K = 228 X IO-".
In the second series, to which greater importance is attached,
measurements were made of the force exerted in a divergent
field upon small balls of copper, silver and other substances,
first when the balls were in air and afterwards when they were
immersed in liquid oxygen. If V is the volume of a ball, H the
strength of the field at its centre, and K' its apparent suscepti-
bility, the force in the direction x is /= x'VH X dH/dx; and if '
and K' are the apparent susceptibilities of the same ball in air
and in liquid oxygen, '*' is equal to the difference between
the susceptibilities of the two media. The susceptibility of air
being known practically it was negligible in these experiments
that of liquid oxygen can at once be found. The mean of 36
experiments with 7 balls gave
IJL = 1-00407, K = 324 X 10-".
A small but decided tendency to a decrease of susceptibility
in very strong fields was observed. It appears, therefore,
that liquid oxygen is by far the most strongly paramagnetic
liquid known, its susceptibility being more than four times
greater than that of a saturated solution of ferric chloride.
On the other hand, its susceptibility is about fifty times less
than that of Hadfield's 12% manganese steel, which is
commonly spoken of as non-magnetizable.
FEEBLY SUSCEPTIBLE SUBSTANCES]
MAGNETISM
349
Bismuth. Bismuth is of special interest, as being the most
strongly diamagnetic substance known, the mean value of the
best determinations of its susceptibility being about 14X10"'
(see G. Meslin, C. R., 1905, 140, 449). The magnetic properties
of the metal at different temperatures and in fields up to 1350
units have been studied by P. Curie (loc. /.), who found that
its " specific susceptibility " (K) was independent of the strength
of the field, but decreased with rise of temperature up to the
melting-point, 273 C. His results appear to show the relation
-KXio = 1-381 -0-OOI55/ .
Assuming the density of Bi to be 9-8, and neglecting corrections
for heat dilatation, his value for the susceptibility at 20 C.
is equivalent to K= i3-23Xio~ 6 . As the temperature was
raised up to 273, K gradually fell to 9'38Xio~ 6 , rising
suddenly when fusion occurred to o-37Xio~ 6 , at which
value it remained constant when the "fluid metal was further
heated. Fleming and Dewar give for the susceptibility the
values 13-7 Xio~ 6 at 15 C. and is-gXio" 4 at 182, the
latter being approximately equivalent to KXio 6 = 1-62.
Putting t= 182 in the equation given above for Curie's
results, we get KXio 6 = 1-66, a value sufficiently near that
obtained by Fleming and Dewar to suggest the probability that
the diamagnetic susceptibility varies inversely as the tempera-
ture between 182 and the melting-point.
Other Diamagnelics. The following table gives Curie's
determinations (Journ. de Phys., 1895, 4> 2 4) f tne specific
susceptibility K of other diamagnetic substances at different
temperatures. It should be noted that K. = K/density.
Substance. Temp. C. -KXio".
Water 15-189
Rnck salt 16 455
Potassium chloride 18465
,, sulphate 17460
nitrate (fusion 350) . . . 18 420
Quartz 18 430
Sulphur, solid or fused 18 225
Selenium, solid or fused .... 20200
fused 240415
Tellurium 20 305
Element. Xio'.
Element. *Xio*.
Copper
-0-82
Tellurium .
2'IO
Silver
-i'5
Graphite .
+ 2
Gold
3*07
Aluminium
-1- i -80
Zinc
0-96
Platinum .
+22
Tin
+0-46
Palladium .
+50 to 60
Lead
no
Tungsten .
+ 14
Thallium
Sulphur
4'6i
-0-86
Magnesium
Sodium
+ 4
+ 2-2
Selenium (red)
-0-50
Potassium.
+ 3'6
Bromine
Iodine, solid or fused
Phosphorus, solid or fused
,, amorphous .
Antimony, electrolytic .
20
18-164
19-71
20-275
20
540
2O
273
273-405
0790
0-580
0-550
0-430
0-330
0-441
0-510
0-320
0-307
0-311
0-410
0-385
0-920
0-730
0'68o
0-470
i '350
0-957
0-038
Bismuth, solid
,, fused ......
For all diamagnetic substances, except antimony and bismuth,
the value of K was found to be independent of the temperature.
Paramagnetic Substances. Experiments by J. S. Townsend
(PhU. Trans., 1896, 187, 533) show that the susceptibility of
solutions of salts of iron is independent of the magnetizing
force, and depends only on the quantity of iron contained in
unit volume of the liquid. If W is the weight of iron present
per c.c. at about 10 C., then for ferric salts
io 6 <c=266W 077
and for ferrous salts
io'ic=2o6W 077,
the quantity 0-77 arising from the diamagnetism of the water
of solution. Annexed are values of IO'K for the different salts
examined, w being the weight of the salt per c.c. of the solution.
Salt.
.
Fei(SO 4 ),
Fe,(NO,),
io 6 K+o77
9i'6i
74-510
Salt.
Fed,
FeSO 4
90-870
Susceptibility was found to diminish greatly with rise of tempera-
ture. According to G. Jager and S. Meyer (Wien. Akdd. Sitz.,
1897, 106, II.o, p. 623, and 1898, 107, Il.a, p. 5) the atomic
susceptibilities k of the metals nickel, chromium, iron, cobalt
and manganese in solutions of their salts are as follows:
Metal. *Xio. Metal.
Ni 4-95 = 2-5X2 Co . .
Cr . . 6-25 = 2-5X2-5 Fe(2) .
Fe(i) . . 7-5 =2-5X3 Mn. .
10-0 = 2-5X4
12-5=2-5X5
Fe(i) is iron contained in FeCh and Fe(2) iron contained in
Fe 2 (N0 3 ),.
Curie has shown, for many paramagnetic bodies, that the
specific susceptibility K is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature 0. Du Bois believes this to be an important
general law, applicable to the case of every paramagnetic
substance, and suggests that the product KB should be known
as " Curie's constant " for the substance.
Elementary Bodies and Atomic Susceptibility. Among a
large number of substances the susceptibilities of which have
been determined by J. Koenigsberger (Wied. Ann., 1898, 66,
698) are the following elements:
In a table accompanying Koenigsberger's paper the elements
are arranged upon the periodic system and the atomic suscep-
tibility (product of specific susceptibility into atomic weight)
is given for each. It appears that the elements at about the
middle of each row are the most strongly paramagnetic; towards
the ends of a row the susceptibility decreases, and ultimately
becomes negative. Thus a relation between susceptibility and
atomic weight is clearly indicated. Tables similarly arranged,
but much more complete, have been published by S. Meyer
(Wied. Ann., 1899, 68, 325 and 1899, 69, 236), whose researches
have filled up many previously existing gaps. The values assigned
to the atomic susceptibilities of most of the known elements are
appended. According to the notation adopted by Meyer the
atomic susceptibility k = KX atomic- weight/ (density X 1000).
Meyer thinks that the susceptibilities of the metals praseodymium,
neodymium, ytterbium, samarium, gadolinium, and erbium, when
obtained in a pure form, will be found to equal or even exceed those
of the well-known ferromagnetic metals. Many of their compounds
are very strongly magnetic, erbium, for example, in EriO being
four times as strong as iron in the familiar magnetite or lodestone,
FeaO. The susceptibilities of some hundreds of inorganic compounds
have also been determined by the same investigator (loc. cit.).
Among other researches relating to atomic and molecular magnetism
are those of O. Liebknecht and A. P. Wills (Ann. d. Phys., 1900,
i, 178), H. du Bois and O. Liebknecht (ibid. p. 189), and Meyer
(ibid. p. 668). An excellent summary regarding the magnetic
properties of matter, with many tables and references, has been
compiled by du Bois (Report to the Congres Int. de Phys., Paris,
1900, ii. 460).
Element icfk
Element lo'jfe
Element i(Pk
Be
B
C
N
O
F
+0-72
+0-05
-0-05
f-O'Ol 1
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
0-006
O'OIO
-0-025
-0-033
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sa
Gd
- 0-03'
O'O2*
+ I3-0
+34'0
+ |l
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
-0-005'
+0*014
+0-002
O'007
O'OI I
0'02'
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
ca
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
0-02 1
0-02 1
O-OI4
+o-4 9 (?)
+0-024
+0-55
0-016
-0-015
O'OI 1
+0-004'
0-069
-0-039
0-040
Er
+41 -8(?)
Yb
Ta
W
Os
If
Pt
Au
Hg
TI
Pb
Bi
+ I'02<?)
+ o-i
+ 0-074
+ 0-227
- 0-031
0-030
- 0-93
0-025
- 0-023
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
O'OOI 1
O-003'
+0-09
+0-17
tlf
jjf
Th
U
+ i6-o(?)
+ 0-21
1
Calculated.
350
i2. MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM
According to W. E. Weber's theory, the molecules of a ferro-
magnetic metal are small permanent magnets, the axes of
which under ordinary conditions are turned indifferently in
every direction, so that no magnetic polarity is exhibited
by the metal as a whole; a magnetic force acting upon the
metal tends to turn the axes of the little magnets in one direction,
and thus the entire piece acquires the properties of a magnet.
If, however, the molecules could turn with perfect freedom,
it is clear that the smallest magnetizing force would be sufficient
to develop the highest possible degree of magnetization, which
is of course not the case. Weber therefore supposed each
molecule to be acted on by a force tending to preserve it in its
original direction, the position actually assumed by the axis
being in the direction of the resultant of this hypothetical
force and the applied magnetizing force. Maxwell (Electricity
and Magnetism, 444), recognizing that the theory in this
form gave no account of residual magnetization, made the
further assumption that if the deflection of the axis of the
molecule exceeded a certain angle, the axis would not return to
its original position when the deflecting force was removed, but
would retain a permanent set. Although the amended theory
as worked out by Maxwell is in rough agreement with certain
leading phenomena of magnetization, it fails to account for many
others, and is in some cases at variance with observed facts.
J. A. Ewing (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, 342) has demonstrated
that it is quite unnecessary to assume either the directive force
of Weber, the permanent set of Maxwell, or any kind of frictional
resistance, the forces by which the molecular magnets are con-
strained being simply those due to their own mutual attractions
and repulsions. The effect of these is beautifully illustrated
by a model consisting of a number of little compass needles
pivoted on sharp points and grouped near to one another upon
a board, which is placed inside a large magnetizing coil. When
no current is passing through the coil and the magnetic field
is of zero strength, the needles arrange themselves in positions
of stable equilibrium under their mutual forces, pointing in
many different directions, so that there is no resultant magnetic
moment. This represents the condition of the molecules in
unmagnetized iron. If now a gradually increasing magnetizing
force is applied, the needles at first undergo a stable deflection,
giving to the group a small resultant moment which increases
uniformly with the force; and if the current is interrupted while
the force is still weak, the needles merely return to their initial
positions. This illustrates the first stage in the process of
magnetization, when the moment is proportional to the field
and there is no hysteresis or residual magnetism (see ante).
A somewhat stronger field will deflect many of the needles
beyond the limits of stability, causing them to turn round and
form new stable combinations, in which the direction assumed
by most of them approximates to that of the field. The re-
arrangement is completed within a comparatively small range
of magnetizing force, a rapid increase of the resultant moment
being thus brought about. When the field is removed, many
of the newly formed combinations are but slightly disturbed,
and the group may consequently retain a considerable resultant
moment. This corresponds to the second stage of magnetiza-
tion, in which the susceptibility is large and permanent magneti-
zation is set up. A still stronger magnetizing force has little
effect except in causing the direction of the needles to approach
still more nearly to that of the field; if the force were infinite,
every member of the group would have exactly the same direction
and the greatest possible resultant moment would be reached;
this illustrates " magnetic saturation " the condition approached
in the third stage of magnetization. When the strong magnetiz-
ing field is gradually diminished to zero and then reversed, the
needles pass from one stable position of rest to another through
a condition of instability; and if the field is once more reversed,
so that the cycle is completed, the needles again pass through a
condition of instability before a position of stable equilibrium
is regained. Now the unstable movements of the needles are
of a mechanically irreversible character; the energy expended
MAGNETISM [MOLECULAR THEORY
in dissociating the members of a combination and placing them
in unstable positions assumes the kinetic form when the needles
turn over, and is ultimately frittered down into heat. Hence
in performing a cycle there is a waste of energy corresponding
to what has been termed hysteresis-loss.
Supposing Ewing's hypothesis to be correct, it is clear that
if the magnetization of a piece of iron were reversed by a strong
rotating field instead of by a field alternating through zero, the
loss of energy by hysteresis should be little or nothing, for the
molecules would rotate with the field and no unstable movements
would be possible. 1 Some experiments by F. G. Baily (Phil.
Trans., 1896, 187, 715) show that this is actually the case. With
small magnetizing forces the hysteresis was indeed somewhat
larger than that obtained in an alternating field, probably on
account of the molecular changes being forced to take place in
one direction only; but .at an induction of about 16,000 units
in soft iron and 15,000 in hard steel the hysteresis reached a
maximum and afterwards rapidly diminished. In one case the
hysteresis loss per cubic centimetre per cycle was 16,100 ergs
for 6 = 15,900, and only 1200 ergs for 6 = 20,200, the highest
induction obtained in the experiment; possibly it would have
vanished before B had reached 2i,ooo. 2 These experiments
prove that actual friction must be almost entirely absent, and,
as Baily remarks, the agreement of the results with the pre-
viously suggested deduction affords a strong verification of
Ewing's form of the molecular theory. Ewing has himself
also shown how satisfactorily this theory accords with many
other obscure and complicated phenomena, such as those
presented by coercive force, differences of magnetic quality,
and the effects of vibration, temperature and stress; while as
regards simplicity and freedom from arbitrary assumptions it
leaves little to be desired.
The fact being established that magnetism is essentially a
molecular phenomenon, the next step is to inquire what is the
constitution of a magnetic molecule, and why it is that some
molecules are ferromagnetic, others paramagnetic, and others
again diamagnetic. The best known of the explanations that
have been proposed depend upon the magnetic action of an
electric current. It can be shown that if a current * circulates
in a small plane circuit of area S, the magnetic action of the
circuit for distant points is equivalent to that of a short magnet
whose axis is perpendicular to the plane of the circuit and whose
moment is t'S, the direction of the magnetization being related
to that of the circulating current as the thrust of a right-handed
screw to its rotation. Ferromagnetism was explained by Am-
pere on the hypothesis that the magnetization of the molecule
is due to an electric current constantly circulating within it.
The theory now most in favour is merely a development of
Ampere's hypothesis, and applies not only to ferromagnetics,
but to paramagnetics as well. To account for diamagnetism,
Weber supposed that there exist within the molecules of dia-
magnetic substances certain channels around which an electric
current can circulate without any resistance. The creation of
an external magnetic field H will, in accordance with Lenz's law,
induce in the molecule an electric current so directed that the
magnetization of the equivalent magnet is oppose?! to the
direction of the field. The strength of the induced current
is -HScos0/L, where is the inclination of the axis of the
circuit to the direction of the field, and L the coefficient of
self-induction; the resolved part of the magnetic moment in
the direction of the field is equal to -HS 2 cos'0/L, and if there
are molecules in a unit of volume, their axes being distributed
indifferently in all directions, the magnetization of the substance
will be-^HS 2 /L, and its susceptibility -S 2 /L (Maxwell,
Electricity and Magnetism, 838). The susceptibility is there-
fore constant and independent of the field, while its negative
;ign indicates that the substance is diamagnetic. There being
no resistance, the induced current will continue to circulate
1 This deduction from Ewing's theory appears to have been first
suggested by J. Swinburne. See Industries, 1890, 289.
2 R. Beattie (Phil. Mag., 1901, i, 642) has found similar effects
in nickel and cobalt.
HISTORICAL]
MAGNETISM
35*
round the molecule until the field is withdrawn, when it will
be stopped by the action of an electro-motive force tending to
induce an exactly equal current in the opposite direction. The
principle of Weber's theory, with the modification necessitated
by lately acquired knowledge, is the basis of the best modern
explanation of diamagnetic phenomena.
There are strong reasons for believing that magnetism is a
phenomenon involving rotation, and as early as 1876 Rowland,
carrying out an experiment which had been proposed by Maxwell,
showed that a revolving electric charge produced the same
magnetic effects as a current. Since that date it has more than
once been suggested that the molecular currents producing
magnetism might be due to the revolution of one or more of the
charged atoms or " ions " constituting the molecule. None of
the detailed hypotheses which were based on this idea stood the
test of criticism, but towards the end of the igth century the
researches of J. j. Thomson and others once more brought the
conception of moving electric charges into prominence. Thomson
has demonstrated the existence under many different conditions
of particles more minute than anything previously known to
science. The mass of each is about y^^th part of that of a
hydrogen atom, and with each is indissolubly associated a charge
of negative electricity equal to about 3-1 XicT 10 C.G.S. electro-
static unit. These particles, which were termed by their dis-
coverer corpuscles, are more commonly spoken of as electrons, 1
the particle thus being identified with the charge which it carries.
An electrically neutral atom is believed to be constituted in part,
or perhaps entirely, of a definite number of electrons in rapid
motion within a " sphere of uniform positive electrification " not
yet explained. One or more of the electrons may be detached
from the system by a finite force, the number so detachable
depending on the valency of the atom; if the atom loses an
electron, it becomes positively electrified; if it receives additional
electrons, it is negatively electrified. The process of electric con-
duction in metals consists in the movement of detached electrons,
and many other phenomena, both electrical and thermal, can be
more or less completely explained by their agency. It has been
supposed that certain electrons revolve like satellites in orbits
around the atoms with which they are associated, a view which
receives strong support from the phenomena of the Zeeman effect,
and on this assumption a theory has been worked out by
P. Langevin, 2 which accounts for many of the observed facts of
magnetism. As a consequence of the structure of the molecule,
which is an aggregation of atoms, the planes of the orbits around
the latter may be oriented in various positions, and the direction
of revolution may be right-handed or left-handed with respect
to the direction of any applied magnetic field. For those orbits
whose projection upon a plane perpendicular to the field is right-
handed, the period of revolution will be accelerated by the field
(since the electron current is negative) , and the magnetic moment
consequently increased; for those which are left-handed, the
period will be retarded and the moment diminished. The
effect of the field upon the speed of the revolving electrons, and
therefore upon the moments of the equivalent magnets, is
necessarily a very small one. If S is the area of the orbit
described in time r by an electron of charge e, the moment of
the equivalent magnet is M = eSr; and the change in the value
of M due to an external field H is shown to be AM= Hc*S/4'irm,
m being the mass of the electron. Whence
AM = _HT e :
M 4*- m
1 The charge associated with a corpuscle is the same as that carried
by a hydrogen atom. G. J. Stoney in 1881 (Phil. Mag., 1881, 11,387)
pointed out that this latter constituted the indivisible " atom of
electricity " or natural unit charge. Later he proposed (Trans. Roy.
Dub. Soc., 1891, 4, 583) that such unit charge should be called an
" electron." The application of this term to Thomson's corpuscle
implies, rightly or wrongly, that notwithstanding its apparent mass,
the corpuscle is in fact nothing more than an atom of electricity.
The question whether a corpuscle actually has a material gravitating
nucleus is undecided, but there are strong reasons for believing that
its mass is entirely due to the electric charge.
1 Jour, de Phys., 1905, 4, 678; translated in Electrician, 1905, 56,
108 and 141.
According to the best determinations the value of e/m does not
exceed 1-8X10', and T is of the order of io~ li second, the
period of luminous vibrations; hence AM/M must always be less
than icT'H, and therefore the strongest fields yet reached
experimentally, which fall considerably short of io 6 , could not
change the magnetic moment M by as much as a ten-thousandth
part. If the structure of the molecule is so perfectly symmetrical
that, in the absence of any external field, the resultant magnetic
moment of the circulating electrons is zero, then the application
of a field, by accelerating the right-handed (negative) revolutions,
and retarding those which are left-handed, will induce in the
substance a resultant magnetization opposite in direction to
the field itself; a body composed of such symmetrical molecules
is therefore diamagnetic. If however the structure of the mole-
cule is such that the electrons revolving around its atoms
do not exactly cancel one another's effects, the molecule
constitutes a little magnet, which under the influence of an
external field will tend to set itself with its axis parallel to the
field. Ordinarily a substance composed of asymmetrical mole-
cules is paramagnetic, but if the elementary magnets are so
conditioned by their strength and concentration that mutual
action between them is possible, then the substance is ferro-
magnetic. In all cases however it is the diamagnetic condition
that is initially set up even iron is diamagnetic though the
diamagnetism may be completely masked by the superposed
paramagnetic or ferromagnetic condition. Diamagnetism, in
short, is an atomic phenomenon; paramagnetism and ferro-
magnetism are molecular phenomena. Hence may be deduced
an explanation of the fact that, while the susceptibility of all
known diamagnetics (except bismuth and antimony) is inde-
pendent of the temperature, that of paramagnetics varies
inversely as the absolute temperature, in accordance with the
law of Curie.
13. HISTORICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL NOTES
The most conspicuous property of the lodestone, its attraction
for iron, appears to have been familiar to the Greeks at least as
early as 800 B.C., and is mentioned by Homer, Plato, Aristotle,
Theophrastus and others. A passage in De rerum nalura (vi.
910-915) by the Roman poet, Lucretius (96-55 B.C.), in which it
is stated that the stone can support a chain of little rings, each
adhering to the one above it, indicates that in his time the pheno-
menon of magnetization by induction had also been observed.
The property of orientation, in virtue of which a freely suspended
magnet points approximately to the geographical north and
south, is not referred to by any European writer before the I2th
century, though it is said to have been known to the Chinese at a
much earlier period. The application of this property to the
construction of the mariner's compass is obvious, and it is in
connexion with navigation that the first references to it occur
(see COMPASS). The needles of the primitive compasses, being
made of iron, would require frequent re-magnetization, and a
" stone " for the purpose of " touching the needle " was therefore
generally included in the navigator's outfit. With the constant
practice of this operation it is hardly possible that the repulsion
acting between like poles should have entirely escaped recogni-
tion ; but though it appears to have been noticed that the lode-
stone sometimes repelled iron instead of attracting it, no clear
statement of the fundamental law that unlike poles attract while
like poles repel was recorded before the publication in 1581 of the
New Attractive by Robert Norman, a pioneer in accurate magnetic
work. The same book contains an account of Norman's dis-
covery and correct measurement of the dip (1576). The down-
ward tendency of the north pole of a magnet pivoted in the usual
way had been observed by G. Hartmann of Nuremberg in 1544,
but his observation was not published till much later.
The foundations of the modern science of magnetism were laid
by William Gilbert (?..). His De magnele magneticisque
corporibus et de magno magnele tellure physiologia nova (1600),
contains many references to the expositions of earlier writers from
Plato down to those of the author's own age. These show that
the very few facts known with certainty were freely supplemented
352
MAGNETISM
[HISTORICAL
by a number of ill-founded conjectures, and sometimes even
by " figments and falsehoods, which in the earliest times, no
less than nowadays, used to be put forth by raw smatterers
and copyists to be swallowed of men." 1 Thus it was taught
that " if a lodestone be anointed with garlic, or if a diamond be
near, it does not attract iron," and that " if pickled in the salt
of a sucking fish, there is power to pick up gold which has
fallen into the deepest wells." There were said to be " various
kinds of magnets, some of which attract gold, others silver, brass,
lead; even some which attract flesh, water, fishes;" and stories
were told about " mountains in the north of such great powers of
attraction that ships are built with wooden pegs, lest the iron
nails should be drawn from the timber." Certain occult powers
were also attributed to the stone. It was " of use to thieves by its
fume and sheen, being a stone born, as it were, to aid theft," and
even opening bars and locks; it was effective as a love potion, and
possessed " the power to reconcile husbands to their wives, and
to recall brides to their husbands." And much more of the same
kind, which, as Gilbert says, had come down " even to [his] own
day through the writings of a host of men, who, to fill out their
volumes to a proper bulk, write and copy out pages upon pages
on this, that and the other subject, of which they know almost
nothing for certain of their own experience." Gilbert himself
absolutely disregarded authority, and accepted nothing at
second-hand. His title to be honoured as the " Father of
Magnetic Philosophy " is based even more largely upon the
scientific method which he was the first to inculcate and practise
than upon the importance of his actual discoveries. Careful
experiment and observation, not the inner consciousness, are,
he insists, the only foundations of true science. Nothing has
been set down in his book " which hath not been explored and
many times performed and repeated " by himself. " It is very
easy for men of acute intellect, apart from experiment and
practice, to slip and err." The greatest of Gilbert's discoveries
was that the globe of the earth was magnetic and a magnet;
the evidence by which he supported this view was derived chiefly
from ingenious experiments made with a spherical lodestone or
lerrella, as he termed it, and from his original observation that an
iron bar could be magnetized by the earth's force. He also carried
out some new experiments on the effects of heat, and of screen-
ing by magnetic substances, and investigated the influence of
shape upon the magnetization of iron. But the bulk of his
work consisted in imparting scientific definiteness to what was
already vaguely known, and in demolishing the errors of his
predecessors.
No material advance upon the knowledge recorded in Gilbert's
book was made until the establishment by Coulomb in 1785 of
the law of magnetic action. The difficulties attending the ex-
perimental investigation of the forces acting between magnetic
poles have already been referred to, and indeed a rigorously exact
determination of the mutual action could only be made under
conditions which are in practice unattainable. Coulomb, 4 how-
ever, by using long and thin steel rods, symmetrically magnetized,
and so arranged that disturbing influences became negligibly
small, was enabled to deduce from his experiments with reason-
able certainty the law that the force of attraction or repulsion
between two poles varies inversely as the square of the distance
between them. Several previous attempts had been made to
discover the law of force, with various results, some of which
correctly indicated the inverse square; in particular the German
astronomer, J. Tobias Mayer (Gott. Anzeiger, 1760), and the
Alsatian mathematician, J. Heinrich Lambert (Hist, de I'Acad.
Roy. Berlin, 1766, p. 22), may fairly be credited with having
anticipated the law which was afterwards more satisfactorily
established by Coulomb. The accuracy of this law was in 1832
confirmed by Gauss,* who employed an indirect but more perfect
method than that of Coulomb, and also, as Maxwell remarks,
1 The quotations are from the translation published by the
Gilbert Club, London, 1900.
1 C. A. Coulomb, Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris, 1785, p. 578.
* Intensitas vis magneticae, 21, C. F. Gauss's Werke, 5, 79.
See also J. J. Thomson, Electricity and Magnetism, 132.
by all observers in magnetic observatories, who are every day
making measurements of magnetic quantities, and who obtain
results which would be inconsistent with each other if the law of
force had been erroneously assumed.
Coulomb's researches provided data for the development of a
mathematical theory of magnetism, which was indeed initiated
by himself, but was first treated in a complete form by Poisson
in a series of memoirs published in 1821 and later. 4 Poisson
assumed the existence of two dissimilar magnetic fluids, any
element of which acted upon any other distant element in accord-
ance with Coulomb's law of the inverse square, like repelling and
unlike attracting one another. A magnetizable substance was
supposed to consist of an indefinite number of spherical particles,
each containing equivalent quantities of the two fluids, which
could move freely within a particle, but could never pass from
one particle to another. When the fluids inside a particle were
mixed together, the particle was neutral; when they were more
or less completely separated, the particle became magnetized to
an intensity depending upon the magnetic force applied; the
whole body therefore consisted of a number of little spheres
having north and south poles, each of which exerted an elementary
action at a distance. On this hypothesis Poisson investigated
the forces due to bodies magnetized in any manner, and also
originated the mathematical theory of magnetic induction. The
general confirmation by experiment of Poisson's theoretical
results created a tendency to regard his hypothetical magnetic
fluids as having a real existence; but it was pointed out by
W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) in 1849 that while no
physical evidence could be adduced in support of the hypothesis,
certain discoveries, especially in electromagnetism, rendered
it extremely improbable (Reprint, p. 344). Regarding it as impor-
tant that all reasoning with reference to magnetism should be
conducted without any uncertain assumptions, he worked out a
mathematical theory upon the sole foundation of a few well-
known facts and principles. The results were substantially
the same as those given by Poisson's theory, so far as the latter
went, the principal additions including a fuller investigation of
magnetic distribution, and the theory of magnetic induction
in aeolotropic or crystalline substances. The mathematical
theory which was constructed by Poisson, and extended and
freed from doubtful hypotheses by Kelvin, has been elaborated
by other investigators, notably F. E. Neumann, G. R. Kirchhoff,
and Maxwell. The valuable work of Gauss on magnetic theory
and measurements, especially in relation to terrestrial magnetism,
was published in his Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris, 1833,
and in memoirs communicated to the Resultate aus den Beobacht-
ungen des magnetischen Vereins, 1838 and 1839, which, with
others, are contained in vol. 5 of the collected Werke. Weber's
molecular theory, which has already been referred to, appeared
in 1852.'
An event of the first importance was the discovery made in
1819 by H. C. Oersted 6 that a magnet placed near a wire carrying
an electric current tended to set itself at right angles to the wire,
a phenomenon which indicated that the current was surrounded
by a magnetic field. This discovery constituted the foundation
of electromagnetism, and its publication in 1820 was immediately
followed by A. M. Ampere's experimental and theoretical inves-
tigation of the mutual action of electric currents, 7 and of the
equivalence of a closed circuit to a polar magnet, the latter
suggesting his celebrated hypothesis that molecular currents were
the cause of magnetism. In the same year D. F. Arago 8 suc-
ceeded in magnetizing a piece of iron by the electric current, and
in 1825 W. Sturgeon 9 publicly exhibited an apparatus "acting
*S. D. Poisson, Mem. de I'lnstitut, 1821 and 1822, 5, 247, 488;
1823, 6, 441 ; 1838, 16, 479.
6 For outlines of the mathematical theory of magnetism and
references see H. du Bois, Magnetic Circuit, chs. iii. and iv.
6 Gilbert's Ann. d. phys., 1820, 6, 295.
7 Ann. de chim. et de phys., 1820, 15, 59, 170; Recueil d'observa-
tions electrodynamiques, 1822; Theories des phenomenes electro-
dynamiques, 1826.
8 Ann. de chim. et de phys., 1820, 15, 93.
9 Trans. Soc. Arts, 1825, 43, 38.
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
on the principle of powerful magnetism and feeble galvanism '
which is believed to have constituted the first actual electro
magnet. Michael Faraday's researches were begun in 1831 anc
continued for more than twenty years. Among the most splendie
of his achievements was the discovery of the phenomena and laws
of magneto-electric induction, the subject of two papers com-
municated to the Royal Society in 1831 and 1832. Another was
I the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization of light, which
effected in 1845, and for the first time established a relation
between light and magnetism. This was followed at the close
of the same year by the discovery of the magnetic condition ol
all matter, a discovery which initiated a prolonged and fruitful
study of paramagnetic and diamagnetic phenomena, including
magnecrystallic action and " magnetic conducting power," now
known as permeability. -Throughout his researches Faraday
paid special regard to the medium as the true seat of magnetic
action, being to a large extent guided by his pregnant conception
of " lines of force," or of induction, which he considered to be
<^-d curves passing in one part of the course through the
magnet to which they belong, and in the other part through
space," always tending to shorten themselves, and repelling one
another when they were side by side (Exp. Res. 3266-8,
3271). In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his classical
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, in which Faraday's ideas
were translated into a mathematical form. Maxwell explained
electric and magnetic forces, not by the action at a distance
lined by the earlier mathematicians, but by stresses in a
medium filling all space, and possessing qualities like those
attributed to the old luminiferous ether. In particular, he found
that the calculated velocity with which it transmitted electro-
magnetic disturbances was equal to the observed velocity of light ;
hence he was led to believe, not only that his medium and the
ether were one and the same, but, further, that light itself was an
electromagnetic phenomenon. Since the experimental confir-
mation of Maxwell's views by H. R. Hertz in 1888 (Weid. Ann.,
1888, 34, 155, 551, 609; and later vols.) they have commanded
universal assent, and his methods are adopted in all modern work
on electricity and magnetism.
The practice of measuring magnetic induction and perme-
ability with scientific accuracy was introduced in 1873 by H. A.
Rowland, 1 whose careful experiments led to general recognition
of the fact previously ignored by nearly all investigators, that
magnetic susceptibility and permeability are by no means
constants (at least in the case of the ferromagnetic metals) but
functions of the magnetizing force. New light was thrown upon
many important details of magnetic science by J. A. Ewing's
ihnrntal Researches of 1885; throughout the whole of his
work special attention was directed to that curious lagging action
o which the author applied the now familiar term "hysteresis." 2
well-known modification* of Weber's molecular theory,
published in 1800, presented for the first time a simple and suffi-
:ient explanation of hysteresis and many other complexities of
magnetic quality. The amazing discoveries made by J. J.
Thomson in 1897 and 1898 resulted in the establishment of the
Ttr,.n theory, which has already effected developments of an
almost revolutionary character in more than one branch of
science. The application of the theory by P. Langevin to the
rase of molecular magnetism has been noticed above, and there
can be little doubt that in the near future it will contribute to
the solution of other problems which are still obscure.
See W. Gilbert, De magnete (London, 1600; trans, by P. F. Motte-
ay, New York, 1893, and for the Gilbert Club, London, 1900)- M
araday, Experimental Researches in Electricity, 3 vols. (London
1839,1844 and 1855) : W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Reprint of Paper's
Electrostatics and Magnetism (London, 1884, containing papers
} magnetic theory originally published between 1844 and l8ss
ith additions) ; T. C. Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
1,3 ,* Oxford, 1892); E. Mascart and J. Joubert, Lecons sur
electricity et le magnetisme (and ed., Paris, 1896-1897 ; trans., not free
trom errors, by E. Atkinson, London, 1883); J. A. Ewing, Magnetic
|>AiV. Mag., 1873, 46, 140; 1874, 48, 321-
Phil. Trans., 1885, 176, 523; Magnetic Induction, 1900.
Proc Roy. Soc., 1890, 48, 342.
>htl. Mag., 1897, 44, 293; 1898, 46, 528.
xvn. 12
353
Induction in Iron and other Metals (yd ed., London, 1900); I. J.
Thomson, Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism (Oxford'
1893) ; Elements of Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism
3rd ed., Cambridge, 1904); H. du Bois, The Magnetic Circuit (trans
by E. Atkinson, London, 1896) ; A. Gray, Treatise on Magnetism and
Electricity, vol. i. (London, 1898) ; J. A. Fleming, Magnets and Electric
Currents (London, 1898); C. Maurain, Le magnetisme du fer (Paris,
1899; a lucid summary of the principal facts and laws, with special
regard to their practical application); Rapports presents au
Congres international de physique, vol. ii. (Paris, 1900); G. C.
Foster and A. W. Porter, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
(London, 1903) ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, vol. v. part i.
(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1905 ; the most exhaustive compendium of magnetic
science yet published, containing references to all important works
and papers on every branch of the subject). (S. Bl.)
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL, the science which has for
its province the study of the magnetic phenomena of the
earth.
i. Terrestrial magnetism has a long history. Its early
growth was slow, and considerable uncertainty prevails as to its
earliest developments. The properties of the magnet HlstoHc ,,
(see MAGNETISM) were to some small extent known to '
the Greeks and Romans before the Christian era, and compasses
(see COMPASS) of an elementary character seem to have been
employed in Europe at least as early as the i2th century. In
China and Japan compasses of a kind seem to have existed at a
much earlier date, and it is even claimed that the Chinese were
aware of the declination of the compass needle from the true
north before the end of the nth century. Early scientific know-
ledge was usually, however, a mixture of facts, very imperfectly
ascertained, with philosophical imaginings. When an early
writer makes a statement which to a modern reader suggests a
knowledge of the declination of the compass, he may have had
no such definite idea in his mind. So far as Western civilization
is concerned, Columbus is usually credited with the discovery
in 1492 during his first voyage to America that the pointing of
the compass needle to the true north represents an exceptional
state of matters, and that a declination in general exists, varying
from place to place. The credit of these discoveries is not, how-
ever, universally conceded to Columbus. G. Hellmann * con-
siders it almost certain that the departure of the needle from the
true north was known in Europe before the time of Columbus.
There is indirect evidence that the declination of the compass
was not known in Europe in the early part of the isth century,
through the peculiarities shown by early maps believed to have
been drawn solely by regard to the compass. Whether Columbus
was the first to observe the declination or not, his date is at least
approximately that of its discovery.
The next fundamental discovery is usually ascribed to Robert
Norman, an English instrument maker. In The Newe Attractive
(1581) Norman describes his discovery made some years before
of the inclination or dip. The discovery was made more or less
by accident, through Norman's noticing that compass needles
which were truly balanced so as to be horizontal when unmagnet-
ized, ceased to be so after being stroked with a magnet. Norman
devised a form of dip-circle, and found a value for the inclination
in London which was at least not very wide of the mark.
Another fundamental discovery, that of the secular change of
the declination, was made in England by Henry Gellibrand,
srofessor of mathematics at Gresham College, who described it
n his Discourse Mathematical on the Variation of the Magneticail
Needle together with its Admirable Diminution lately discovered
(1635). The history of this discovery affords a curious example
of knowledge long delayed. William Borough, in his Discourse
on the Variation of the Compos or Magneticail Needle (1581),
gave for the declination at Limehouse in October 1380 the value
nJ E. approximately. Observations were repeated at Lime-
louse, Gellibrand tells us, in 1622 by his colleague Edmund
Gunter, professor of astronomy at Gresham College, who found
he much smaller value 6 13'. The difference seems to have been
ascribed at first to error on Borough's part, and no suspicion of
he truth seems to have been felt until 1633, when some rough
observations gave a value still lower than that found by Gunter.
*For explanation of these numbers, see end of article.
354-
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
It was not until midsummer 1634 that Gellibrand felt sure of his
facts, and yet the change of declination since 1580 exceeded 7.
The delay probably arose from the strength of the preconceived
idea, apparently universally held, that the declination was
absolutely fixed. This idea, it would appear, derived some of its
strength from the positive assertion made on the point by Gilbert
of Colchester in his De magnete (1600).
A third fundamental discovery, that of the diurnal change in
the declination, is usually credited to George Graham (1675-
1751), a London instrument maker. Previous observers, e.g.
Gellibrand, had obtained slightly different values for the de-
clination at different hours of the day, but it was natural to
assign them to instrumental uncertainties. In those days the
usual declination instrument was the compass with pivoted
needles, and Graham himself at first assigned the differences he
observed to friction. The observations on which he based his
conclusions were made in 1722; an account of them was com-
municated to the Royal Society and published in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1724.
The movements of the compass needle throughout the
average day represent partly a regular diurnal variation, and
partly irregular changes in the declination. The distinction,
however, was not at first very clearly realized. Between 1736
and 1759 J. Canton observed the declination-changes on some
600 days, and was thus able to deduce their general character.
He found that the most prominent part of the regular diurnal
change in England consisted of a westerly movement of the north-
pointing pole from 8 or 9 a.m. to i or 2 p.m., followed by a more
leisurely return movement to the east. He also found that the
amplitude of the movement was considerably larger in summer
than in winter. Canton further observed that in a few days the
movements were conspicuously irregular, and that aurora was
then visible. This associationof magnetic disturbance and aurora
had, however, been observed somewhat before this time, a de-
scription of one conspicuous instance being contributed to the
Royal Society in 1 7 50 by Pehr Vilhelm Wargentin (1717-1783), a
Swede.
Another landmark in the history of terrestrial magnetism was
the discovery towards the end of the i8th century that the inten-
sity of the resultant magnetic force varies at different parts of the
earth. The first observations clearly showing this seem to be
those of a Frenchman, Paul de Lamanon, who observed in 1785-
1787 at Teneriffe and Macao, but his results were not published
at the time. The first published observations seem to be those
made by the great traveller Humboldt in tropical America be-
tween 1798 and 1803. The delay in this discovery may again
be attributed to instrumental imperfections. The method first
devised for comparing the force at different places consisted in
taking the time of oscillation of the dipping needle, and even with
modern circles this is hardly a method of high precision. Another
discovery worth chronicling was made by Arago in 1827. From
observations made at Paris he found that the inclination of the
dipping needle and the intensity of the horizontal component of
the magnetic force both possessed a diurnal variation.
2. Whilst Italy, England and France claim most of the
early observational discoveries, Germany deserves a large
share of credit for the great improvement in instruments and
methods during the first half of the igth century. Measure-
ments of the intensity of the magnetic force were somewhat
crude until Gauss showed how absolute results could be obtained,
and not merely relative data based on observations with some
particular needle. Gauss also devised the bifilar magnetometer,
which is still largely represented in instruments measuring
changes of the horizontal force; but much of the practical
success attending the application of his ideas to instruments
seems due to Johann von Lament (1805-1879), a Jesuit of
Scottish origin resident in Germany.
The institution of special observatories for magnetic work is
largely due to Humboldt and Gauss. The latter's observatory
at Gottingen, where regular observations began in 1834, was
the centre of the Magnetic Union founded by Gauss and Weber
for the carrying out of simultaneous magnetic observations
and it was long customary to employ Gottingen time in schemes
of international co-operation.
In the next decade, mainly through the influence of Sir Edward
Sabine (1788-1883), afterwards president of the Royal Society,
several magnetic observatories were established in the British
colonies, at St Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Hobarton (now
Hobart) and Toronto. These, with the exception of Toronto,
continued in full action for only a few years; but their records
from their widely distributed positions threw much fresh light
on the differences between magnetic phenomena in different
regions of the globe. The introduction of regular magnetic
observatories led ere long to the discovery that there are
notable differences between the amplitudes of the regular daily
changes and the frequency of magnetic disturbances in different
years. The discovery that magnetic phenomena have a period
closely similar to, if not absolutely identical with, the " eleven
year " period in sunspots, was made independently and nearly
simultaneously about the middle of the igth century by
Lament, Sabine and R. Wolf.
The last half of the igth century showed a large increase in
the number of observatories taking magnetic observations.
After 1890 there was an increased interest in magnetic work.
One of the contributory causes was the magnetic survey of the
British Isles made by Sir A. Riicker and Sir T. E. Thorpe, which
served as a stimulus to similar work elsewhere; another was the
institution by L. A. Bauer of a magazine, Terrestrial Magnetism,
specially devoted to the subject. This increased activity added
largely to the stock of information, sometimes in forms of
marked practical utility; it was also manifested in the publication
of a number of papers of a speculative character. For historical
details the writer is largely indebted to the works of E. Walker 1
and L. A. Bauer. 3
3. All the more important magnetic observatories are provided
with instruments of two kinds. Those of the first kind give the
absolute value of the magnetic elements at the time of Observa-
observation. 'The unifilar magnetometer (q.v.), for tional
instance, givestheabsolute values of the declination and Methods and
horizontal force, whilst the inclinometer (q.v.) or dip Records.
circle gives the inclination of the dipping needle. Instruments of
the second kind, termed magnetographs (q.v.), are differential and
self-recording, and show the changes constantly taking place in the
magnetic elements. The ordinary form of magnetograph records
photographically. Light reflected from a fixed mirror gives a base
line answering to a constant value of the element in question; the
light is cut off every hour or second hour so that the base line also
serves to make the time. Light reflected from a mirror carried
by a magnet gives a curved line answering to the changes
in position of the magnet. The length of the ordinate or
perpendicular drawn from any point of the curved line on
to the base line is proportional to the extent of departure of
the magnet from a standard position. If then we know the
absolute value of the element which corresponds to the base
line, and the equivalent of I cm. of ordinate, we can deduce the
absolute value of the element answering to any given instant of time.
In the case of the declination the value of I cm. of ordinate is usually
dependent almost entirely on the distance of the mirror carried by
the magnet from the photographic paper, and so remains invariable
or very nearly so. In the case of the horizontal force and vertical
force magnetographs these being the two force components usually
recorded the value of I cm. of ordinate alters with the strength
of the magnet. It has thus to be determined from time to time by
observing the deflection shown on the photographic paper when an
auxiliary magnet of known moment, at a measured distance, deflects
the magnetograph magnet. Means are provided for altering the
sensitiveness, for instance, by changing the effective distance in
the bifilar suspension of the horizontal force magnet, and by all-
the height of a small weight carried by the vertical force ma
It is customary to aim at keeping the sensitiveness as constai
possible. A very common standard is to have I cm. of ordinate
corresponding to 10' of arc in the declination and to 5T
(17 = 0-00001 C.G.S.) in the horizontal and vertical force magneto-
graphs.
As an example of how the curves are standardized, suppose tha
absolute observations of declination are taken four times a month,
and that in a given month the mean of the observed values is i634''6
W. The curves are measured at the places which correspond to
the times of the four observations, and the mean length of the four
ordinates is, let us say, 2-52 cms. If I cm. answers to 10', then 2'5^
cms. represents 25'-2, and thus the value of the base line i.e. the
value which the declination would have if the curve came down to
the base line is for the month in question 16 34'-6 less 25' -2 or
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
355
"*
i
16 9' 4. If now we wish to know the declination at any instant in
this particular month all we have to do is to measure the correspond-
ing ordinate and add its value, at the rate of 10' per cm., to the base
1 6 ct'-.\ just found. Matters are a little more complicated in
of the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs. Both
::nents usually possess a sensible temperature coefficient, i.e.
Hi of the magnet is dependent to some extent on the
rature it happens to possess, and allowance has thus to be
for the difference from a standard temperature. In the case
of the vertical force an " observed " value is derived by combining
.^rved value of the inclination with the simultaneous value
of the horizontal force derived from the horizontal force magneto-
graph after the base value of the latter has been determined.
In themselves the results of the absolute observations are of minor
interest. Their main importance is that they provide the means
of fixing the value of the base line in the curves. Unless they
are made carefully and sufficiently often the information de-
rivable from the curves suffers in accuracy, especially that relating
to the secular change. It is from the curves that informa-
tion is derived as to the regular diurnal variation and irregular
changes. In some observatories it is customary to publish a com-
plete record of the values of the magnetic elements at every hour
ich day of the year. A useful and not unusual addition to this
tatement of the absolutely largest and smallest values of each
element recorded during each day, with the precise times of their
<xTurrence. On days of large disturbance even hourly readings give
but a very imperfect idea of the phenomena, and it is customary at
some observatories, e.g. Greenwich, to reproduce the more disturbed
curves in the annual volume. In calculating the regular diurnal
variation it is usual to consider each month separately. So far as
is known at present, it is entirely or almost entirely a matter of
accident at what precise hours specially high or low values of an
element may present themselves during an individual highly dis-
turbed day; whilst the range of the element on such a day may be
5, 10 or even 20 times as large as on the average undisturbed day
of the month. It is thus customary when calculating diurnal in-
equalities to omit the days of largest disturbance, as their inclusion
would introduce too large an element of uncertainty. Highly
disturbed days are more than usually common in some years, and
in some months of the year, thus their omission may produce effects
other than that intended. Even on days of lesser disturbance
difficulties present themselves. There may be to and fro move-
ments of considerable amplitude occupying under an hour, and the
hour may come exactly at the crest or at the very lowest part of the
trough. Thus, if the reading represents in every case the ordinate
at the precise hour a considerable element of chance may be intro-
duced. If one is dealing with a mean from several hundred days
such " accidents " can be trusted to practically neutralize one
another, but this is much less fully the case when the period is as
short as a month. To meet this difficulty it is customary at some
observatories to derive hourly values from a freehand curve of
continuous curvature, drawn so as to smooth out the apparently
ilar movements. Instead of drawing a freehand curve it has
been proposed to use a planimeter, and to accept as the hourly value
of the ordinate the mean derived from a consideration of the area
included between the curve, the base line and ordinates at the thirty
minutes before and after each hour.
5 4. Partly on account of the uncertainties due to disturbances,
and partly with a view to economy of labour, it has been the practice
at some observatories to derive diurnal inequalities from a com-
paratively small number of undisturbed or quiet days. Beginning
with 1890, five days a month were selected at Greenwich by the
astronomer royal as conspicuously quiet. In the selection regard
iid to the desirability that the arithmetic mean of the five dates
should answer to near the middle of the month. In some of the other
English observatories the routine measurement of the curves was
limited to these selected quiet days. At Greenwich itself diurnal
inequalities were derived regularly from the quiet days alone and also
from all the days of the month, excluding those of large disturbance.
If a quiet day differed from an ordinary day only in that the diurnal
variation in the latter was partly obscured by irregular disturbances,
then supposing enough days taken to smooth out irregularities, one
would get the same diurnal inequality from ordinary and from quiet
It was found, however, that this was hardly ever the case
29 and 30). The quiet day scheme thus failed to secure
: ly what was originally aimed at ; on the other hand, it led to the
very of a number of interesting results calculated to throw
valuable sidelights on the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism.
The idea of selecting quiet days seems due originally to H. Wild.
s selected quiet days for St Petersburg and Pavlovsk were
cry few in number, in some months not even a single day
reaching his standard of freedom from disturbance. In later years
the International Magnetic Committee requested the authorities
Jf each observatory to arrange the days of each month in three
groups representing the quiet, the moderately disturbed and the
highly disturbed. The statistics are collected and published on
behalf of the committee, the first to undertake the duty being
M. Snellen. The days are in all cases counted from Greenwich mid-
night, so that the results are strictly synchronous. The results
promise to be of much interest.
Charts.
5. The intensity and direction of the resultant magnetic force
at a spot i.e. the force experienced by a unit magnetic pole are
known if we know the three components of force parallel to any set
of orthogonal axes. It is usual to take for these axes the vertical
at the spot and two perpendicular axes in the horizontal plane; the
latter are usually taken in and perpendicular to the geographical
meridian. The usual notation in mathematical work is X to the
north, Y to the west or east, and Z vertically downwards. The
international magnetic committee have recommended that Y be
taken positive to the east, but the fact that the declination is westerly
over most of Europe has often led to the opposite procedure, and
writers are not always as careful as they should be in stating their
choice. Apart from mathematical calculations, the more usual
course is to define the force by its horizontal and vertical components
usually termed Hand V and by the declination or angle which the
horizontal component makes with the astronomical meridian. The
declination is sometimes counted from o to 360, o answering to
the case when the so-called north pole (or north seeking pole) is
directed towards geographical north, 90 to the case when it is directed
to the east, and so on. It is more usual, however, to reckon declina-
tion only from o to 180, characterizing it as easterly or westerly
according as the north pole points to the east or to the west of the
geographical meridian. The force is also completely defined by H
or V, together with D the declination, and I the inclination to the
horizon of the dipping needle. Instead of H and D some writers
make use of N the northerly component, and W the westerly (or E
the easterly). The resultant force itself is denoted sometimes by R,
sometimes by T (total force). The following relationships exist
between the symbols
X=N, Y=W or E, Z=V, R=T,
H = V(X 2 +Y Z ), R = V(X J +Y'+Z'),
tanD = Y/X, tanI=V/H.
The term magnetic element is applied to R or any of the components,
and even to the angles D and I.
6. Declination is the element concerning which our know-
ledge is most complete and most reliable. With a good
unifilar magnetometer, at a fixed observatory distant
from the magnetic poles, having a fixed mark of
known azimuth, the observational uncertainty in a single
observation should not exceed o'-5 or at most i'-o. It cannot be
taken for granted that different unifilars, even by the best makers,
will give absolutely identical values for the declination, but as a
matter of fact the differences observed are usually very trifling.
The chief source of uncertainty in the observation lies in the
torsion of the suspension fibre, usually of silk or more rarely of
phosphor bronze or other metal. A very stout suspension must
be avoided at all cost, but the fibre must not be so thin as to have
a considerable risk of breaking even in skilled hands. Near a
magnetic pole the directive force on the declination magnet is
reduced, and the effects of torsion are correspondingly increased.
On the other hand, the regular and irregular changes of declina-
tion are much enhanced. If an observation consisting of four
readings of declination occupies twelve minutes, the chances are
that in this time the range at an English station will not exceed
i', whereas at an arctic or antarctic station it will frequently
exceed 10'. Much greater uncertainty thus attaches to declina-
tion results in the Arctic and Antarctic than to those in temperate
latitudes. In the case of secular change data one important
consideration is that the observations should be taken at an
absolutely fixed spot, free from any artificial source of disturb-
ance. In the case of many of the older observations of which
records exist, the precise spot cannot be very exactly fixed, and
not infrequently the site has become unsuitable through the
erection of buildings not free from iron. Apart from buildings,
much depends on whether the neighbourhood is free from basal-
tic and other magnetic rocks. If there are no local disturbances
of this sort, a few yards difference is usually without
appreciable influence, and even a few miles difference is of minor
importance when one is calculating the mean secular change
for a long period of years. When, however, local disturbances
exist, even a few feet difference in the site may be important, and
in the absence of positive knowledge to the contrary it is only
prudent to act as if the site were disturbed. Near a magnetic
pole the declination naturally changes very rapidly when one
travels in the direction perpendicular to the lines of equal
declination, so that the exact position of the site of observation
is there of special importance.
356
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
The usual method of conveying information as to the value of the
declination at different parts of the earth's surface is to draw curves
on a map the so-called isogonals such that at all points on any
one curve the declination at a given specified epoch has the same
value. The information being of special use to sailors, the pre-
paration of magnetic charts has been largely the work of naval
authorities more especially of the hydrographic department of the
British admiralty. The object of the admiralty world charts four
of which are reproduced here, on a reduced scale, by the kind per-
mission of the Hydrographer is rather to show the general features
boldly than to indicate minute details. Apart from the immediate
necessities of the case, this is a counsel of prudence. The observa-
tions used have mostly been taken at dates considerably anterior
to that to which the chart is intended to apply. What the sailor
wants is the declination now or for the next few years, not what it
was five, ten or twenty years ago. Reliable secular change data, for
reasons already indicated, are mainly obtainable from fixed observ-
atories, and there are enormous areas outside of Europe where no such
observatories exist. Again, as we shall see presently, the rate of the
secular change sometimes alters greatly in the course of a compara-
tively few years. Thus, even when the observations themselves
are thoroughly reliable, the prognostication made for a future date
by even the most experienced of chart makers may be occasionally
somewhat wide of the mark. Fig. I is a reduced copy of the British
admiralty declination chart for the epoch 1907. It shows the iso-
gonals between 70 N. and 65 S. latitude. Beyond the limits of
this chart, the number of exact measurements of declination is
whose centre is the pole. At all points on the circle the positions
of the needle will be parallel ; but whereas the north pole of the magnet
will point exactly towards the centre of the circle at one of the points
where the straight line drawn on the ground cuts the circumference,
it will at the opposite end of the diameter point exactly away from
the centre. The former part is clearly on the isogonal where the
declination is o, the latter on the isogonal where it is 180. Iso-
gonals will thus radiate out from the north geographical pole (and
similarly of course from the south geographical pole) in all directions.
If we travel along an isogonal, starting from the north magnetic pole,
our course will generally take us, often very circuitpusly, to the north
geographical pole. If, for example, we select the isogonal of 10 E.,
we at first travel nearly south, but then more and more westerly,
then ncrth-westerly across the north-east of Asia; the direction then
gets less northerly, and makes a dip to the south before finally
making for the north geographical pole. It is possible, however,
according to the chart, to travel direct from the north magnetic to
the south geographical pole, provided we select an isogonal answering
to a small westerly or easterly declination (from about 19 W. to
7E.).
Special interest attaches to the isogonals answering to declination
o. These are termed agonic lines, but sailors often call them lines
of no variation, the term variation having at one time been in common
use in the sense of declination. If we start from the north magnetic
pole the agonic line takes us across Canada, the United States and
South America in a fairly straight course to the south geographical
pole. A curve continuous with this can be drawn from the south
E. lioE. 180 !6oW uoW
iooW. 8o*W. ' Uo'W. 4o'W.
a'E. 40 E. 6o*E. 80 E. iooE. I3OE. i4o"E. ifioE
t*m clMrt, by ptnrlwten of tb JUwd* Owoiui.lloMn f tl AJmiridlJ Til* pardon or.r 111. Bnli.fa Ilia
Eoitry Wmlket K.
"Fia. I. Isogonals, or lines of equal magnetic declination.
somewhat limited, but the general nature of the phenomena is easily
inferred. The geographical and the magnetic poles where the
dipping needle is vertical are fundamental points. The north
magnetic pole is situated in North America near the edge of the
chart. We have no reason to suppose that the magnetic pole is
really a fixed point, but for our present purpose we may regard it
as such. Let us draw an imaginary circle round it, and let us travel
round the circle in the direction, west, north, east, south, starting
from a point where the north pole of a magnet (i.e. the pole which
in Europe or the United States points to the north) is directed exactly
towards the astronomical north. The point we start from is to the
geographical south of the magnetic pole. As we go round the circle
the needle keeps directed to the magnetic pole, and so points first
slightly to the east of geographical north, then more and more to
the east, then directly east, then to south of east, then to due south,
to west of south, to west, to north-west, and finally when we get
round to our original position due north once more. Thus, during
our course round the circle the needle will have pointed in all possible
directions. In other words, isogonals answering to all possible values
of the declination have their origin in the north magnetic pole. The
same remark applies of course to the south magnetic pole.
Now, suppose ourselves at the north geographical pole of the earth.
Neglecting as before diurnal variation and similar temporary changes,
and assuming no abnormal local disturbance, the compass needle
at and very close to this pole will occupy a fixed direction relative
to the ground underneath. Let us draw on the ground through the
pole a straight line parallel to the direction taken there by the com-
pass needle, and let us carry a compass needle round a small circle
geographical to the south magnetic pole at every point of which the
needle points in the geographical meridian; but here the north pole
of the needle is pointing south, not north, so that this portion of curve
is really an isogonal of 180. In continuation of this there emanates
from the south magnetic pole a second isogonal of o, or agonic line,
which traverses Australia, Arabia and Russia, and takes us to the
north geographical pole. Finally, we have an isogonal of 180,
continuous with this second isogonal of o which takes us to the north
magnetic pole, from which we started. Throughout the whole area
included within these isogonals of o and 180 excluding locally
disturbed areas the declination is westerly; outside this area the
declination is in general easterly. There is, however, as shown in the
chart, an isogonal of o enclosing an area in eastern Asia inside which
the declination is westerly though small.
7. Fig. 2 is a reduced copy of the admiralty chart of inclina-
tion or dip for the epoch 1907. The places where the dip has the
same value lie on curves called isoclinals. The dip is northerly (north
pole dips) or southerly (south pole dips) according as the place is
north or south of the isoclinal of o. At places actually on this
isoclinal the dipping needle is horizontal. The isoclinal of c
is nowhere very far from the geographical equator, but lies t(
the north of it in Asia and Africa, and to the south of it in South
America. As we travel north from the isoclinal of o along the
meridian containing the magnetic pole the dipping needle's north
pole dips more and more, until when we reach the magnetic pole the
needle is vertical. Going still farther north, we have the dip dimin-
ishing. The northerly inclination is considerably less in Europe
than in the same latitudes of North America; and correspondingly
th,
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
357
. .ie southerly inclination is less in South America than in the same
latitudes of Africa.
Kiy. 3 is a reduced copy of the admiralty horizontal force chart
for 1907. The curves, called isomagnetics, connect the places where
force. The total force is least in equatorial regions, where values
slightly under 0-4 C.G.S. are encountered. In the northern hemis-
phere there are two distinct maxima of total force. One of these
so-called foci is in Canada, the other in the north-east of Siberia, the
***
nj i> iff t&f itf if at
FIG. 2 Isoclinals, or lines of equal magnetic dip.
the horizontal force has the same value; the force is expressed in
C.G.S. units. The horizontal force vanishes of course at the magnetic
poles. The chart shows a maximum value of between 0-39 and 0-40
in an oval including the south of Siam and the China Sea. The
horizontal force is smaller in North America than in corresponding
latitudes in Europe.
Charts are sometimes drawn for other magnetic elements, especi-
ally vertical force (fig. 4) and total force. The isomagnetic of zero
vertical force coincides necessarily with that of zero dip, and there
is in general considerable resemblance between the forms of lines of
equal vertical force and those of equal dip. The highest values of
the vertical force occur in areas surrounding the magnetic poles,
and are fully 50% larger than the largest values of the horizontal
former having the higher value of the force. There are, however,
higher values of the total force than at either of these foci throughout
a considerable area to the south of Australia. In the northern
hemisphere the lines of equal total force-|-called isodynamic lines
form two sets more or less distinct, consisting of closed ovals, one
set surrounding the Canadian the other the Siberian focus.
8. As already explained, magnetic charts for the world or for
large areas give only a general idea of the values of the elements.
If the region is undisturbed, very fairly approximate values are
derivable from the charts, but when the highest accuracy is necessary
the only thing to do is to observe at the precise spot. In disturbed
areas local values often depart somewhat widely from what one
would infer from the chart, and occasionally there are large differences
8o*W. 6cf\V.
x>*E. 4oE. 6o'E. eo'E. i<x>E. tao'E. uo'E. tte'E. itb* ito'W.
ixfw. too'W. to'W.
icrr * ..K t
FIG. 3. Isomagnetics, lines of equal horizontal force.
358
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
between places only a few miles apart. Magnetic observatories
usually publish the mean value for the year of their magnetic
elements. It has been customary for many years to
collect and publish these results in the annual report
of the Kew Observatory (Observatory Department
of the National Physical Laboratory). The data in
Tables I. and II. are mainly derived from this
source. The observatories are arranged in order of
latitude, and their geographical co-ordinates are given in Table
II., longitude being reckoned from Greenwich. Table I. gives
the mean values of the declination, inclination and horizontal
force for January I, 1901; they are in the main arithmetic means
of the mean annual values for the two years 1900 and 1901. The
mean annual secular changes given in this table are derived from a
short period of years usually 1898 to 1903 the centre of which fell
Magnetic
Elements
and their
Secular
Change.
east all over Europe, and the rate at which it is moving seems not
to vary much throughout the continent. The needle is also moving
to the east throughout the western parts of Asia, the north and east
of Africa, and the east of North America. It is moving to the west
in the west of North America, in South America, and in the south
and east of Asia, including Japan, south-east Siberia, eastern China
and most of India.
9. The information in figs. I, 2, 3 and 4 and in Tables I. and
II. applies only to recent years. Owing to secular change, recent
charts differ widely from the earliest ones constructed. The first
charts believed to have been constructed were those of Edmund
Halley the astronomer. According to L. A. Bauer, 7 who has made
a special study of the subject, Halley issued two declination charts
for the epoch 1700; one, published in 1701, was practically confined
to the Atlantic Ocean, whilst the second, published in 1702, contained
*?-
W. 6o'W. 4 oW. roW. o' xTE. ffE. 6o*E. 8oE. Foo'E. infE, i4o'E. F6oE. Fte* iSo'W. F4O*W. jao'W. too'W. 8cfW.
FIG. 4. Isomagnetics, lines of equal vertical force.
at the beginning of 1901. Table II. is similar to Table I., but in-
cludes vertical force results; it is more extensive and contains more
recent data. In it the number of years is specified from which the
mean secular change is derived ; in all cases the last year of the period
employed was that to which the absolute values assigned to the ele-
ment belong. The great majority of the stations have declination
west and inclination north; it has thus been convenient to attach
the + sign to increasing westerly (or decreasing easterly) declination
and to increasing northerly (or decreasing southerly) inclination. In
other words, in the case of the declination + means that the north
end of the needle is moving to the west, while in the case of the in-
clination + means that the north end (whether the dipping end
or not) is moving towards the nadir. In the case, however, of the
vertical force 4- means simply numerical increase, irrespective of
whether the north or the south pole dips. The unit employed in
the horizontal and vertical force secular changes is 17, i.e. o-ooooi
C.G.S. Even in the declination, at the very best observatories, it
is hardly safe to assume that the apparent change from one year to
the next is absolutely truthful to nature. This is especially the case
if there has been any change of instrument or observer, or if any
alteration has been made to buildings in the immediate vicinity.
A change of instrument is a much greater source of uncertainty in
the case of horizontal force or dip than in the case of declination,
and dip circles and needles are more liable to deterioration than
magnetometers. Thus, secular change data for. inclination and
vertical force are the least reliable. The uncertainties, of course, are
much less, from a purely mathematical standpoint, for secular
changes representing a mean from five or ten years than for those
derived from successive years' values of the elements. The longer,
however, the period of years, the greater is the chance that one of
the elements may in the course of it have passed through a maximum
or minimum value. This possibility should always be borne in
mind in cases where a mean secular change appears exceptionally
small.
As Tables I. and II. show, the declination needle is moving to the
also data for the Indian Ocean and part of the Pacific. These charts
showed the isogonic lines, but only over the ocean areas. Though
the charts for 1700 were the first published, there are others which
apply to earlier epochs. W. van Bemmelen 8 has published charts
for the epochs 1500, 1550, 1600, 1650 and 1700, whilst H. Fritsche'
has more recently published charts of declination, inclination and
horizontal force for 1600, 1700, 1780, 1842 and 1915. A number
of early declination charts were given in Hansteen's Atlas and in
G. Hellmann's reprints, Die Altesten Karten der Isogonen, Isoklinen,
Isodynamen (Berlin, 1895). The data for the earlier epochs, especi-
ally those prior to 1700, are meagre, and in many cases probably of
indifferent accuracy, so that the reliability of the charts for these
epochs is somewhat open to doubt.
If we take either Hansteen's or Fritsche's declination chart for
1600 we notice a profound difference from fig. I. In 1600 the agonic
line starting from the north magnetic pole, after finding its way south
to the Gulf of Mexico, doubled back to the north-east, and passed
across or near Iceland. After getting well to the north of Iceland
it doubled again to the south, passing to the east of the Baltic,
second agonic line which now lies to the west of St Petersburg
appears in 1600 to have continued, after traversing Australia, in a
nearly northerly direction through the extreme east of China. The
nature of the changes in declination in western Europe will be under-
stood from Table III., the data from which, though derived from a
variety of places in the south-east of England, 10 may be regarded as
approximately true of London. The earliest result is that obtained
by Borough at Limehouse. Those made in the i6th century
are due to Gunter, Gellibrand, Henry Bond and Halley. The
observations from 1787 to 1805 were due to George Gilpin, wh<
published particulars of his own and the earlier observations in the
Phil. Trans, for 1806. The data for 1817 and 1820 were obtained
by Col. Mark Beaufoy, at Bushey, Herts. They seem to come pre-
cisely at the time when the needle, which had been continuous!
moving to the west since the earliest observations, began to retrace
its steps. The data from 1860 onwards apply to Kew.
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
359
TABLE I. Magnetic Elements and their Rate of Secular Change for
January I, 1901.
Place.
Absolute values.
Secular change.
D.
I.
H.
D.
I.
H.
/
/
/
/
y
Pavlovsk
o 39-8E
70 36-8N
16553
- 4-1
-0-8
+ 7
ICkatarinburg .
10 6-3E
70 40-sN
17783
- 4-6
+0-5
-13
Copenhagen
10 io-4\V
68 38- S N
17525
Stonyhurst .
i 8 io-3\V
68 48-oN
17330
- 4-0
+22
Wilhelmshaven.
12 26'OW
67 39-7N
18108
- 4-1
2-1
+20
Potsdam
954-2W
66 2 4 . 5 N
18852
- 4-2
-1-6
+ 16
Irkutsk . .
2 l-oE
70 I5-8N
2OI22
+ 0-5
+ 1-6
-14
de Bilt . . .
13 48-3W
66 55-sN
18516
- 4 . 4
2-2
+ 14
Kew. . . .
1 6 50- 8 W
67 io-6N
18440
- 4-2
2-2
+ 25
nwich .
l627-5\V
67 7-3N
18465
- 4-0
2-2
+2 3
Uccle . . .
14 n-oW
66 8-8N
18954
- 4-2
2-1
+ 23
Falmouth .
18 27-3W
66 44-oN
18705
- 3-8
-2-7
+ 26
Prague .
9 4'4W
19956
- 4'4
+20
St Helier . .
1658-iW
65 44-iN
- 3'5
-2-7
Pare St Maur .
Val Joyeux.
14 43-4W
15 I3-7W
64 52-3N
65 o-oN
19755}
19670$
- 4-0
2-2
+2 3
Munich.
10 25-8W
63 i8-iN
20629
- 4-8
-2-7
+21
OV.valla . .
7 26-iW
21164
- 4-8
+ 13
Pola. . . .
9 22-7W
60 I4-5N
22216
- 4-0
+23
Toulouse
14 i6-4\V
60 55-9N
21945
- 3'9
-2-5
+25
Perpignan .
13 34-7W
59 57-6N
22453
di Monte.
9 8-oW
56 22-3N
- 5-2
-2-3
Madrid .
15 39-oW
Coimbra
17 i8-iW
59 22-oN
22786
- 3'7
-4'3
+34
Lisbon .
17 I5-7W
57 53-oN
23548
Athens .
5 38-2W
52 7-sN
26076
San Fernando .
15 57-5W
55 8-8N
24648
Tokyo . . .
4 34-9\V
49 o-3N
29932
Zi-ka-wci .
2 2 3 . 5 W
45 43-5N
32875
+ i-5
-1-5
+37
IlrKvan .
3 39-7W
40 30-8N
30136
- 7-0
-0-4
- 7
llony-Kong.
Kolaba .
o I7-5E
23-2E
31 22-8N
21 26-sN
36753
37436
+ 1-8
+ 2-2
-4'3
+7'0
+45
- 9
Manila .
52-2E
16 I3-5N
38064
+ O-I
-5'3
+47
Bat ivia
i 7-3E
30 35-5S
36724
+ 3-o
-7'3
ii
Mauritius .
9 25-2W
54 9-4S
23820
- 4-7
+4'6
-39
Rio de Janeiro.
8 2-9W
13 20- iS
2501
+ 10-4
-2-3
Melbourne .
8 2 5 -6E
67 24-6S
23295
The rate of movement of the needle to the east at London and
throughout Europe generally fell off markedly subsequent to 1880.
The change of declination in fact between 1880 and 1895 was only
about 75% of that between 1865 and 1880, and the mean annual
change from 1895 to 1900 was less than 75% of the mean annual
change of the preceding fifteen years. Thus in 1902 it was at least
open to doubt whether a change in the sign of the secular change
\vi TI- not in immediate prospect. Subsequent, however, to that date
there was little further decline in the rate of secular change, and
since 1905 there has been very distinct acceleration. Thus, if we
derive a mean value from the eighteen European stations for which
declination secular changes are given in Tables I. and II.
we find
mean value from table I. -4-18
.. , II. -5-21
The epoch to which the data in Table II. refer is somewhat variable,
but is in all cases more recent than the epoch, January I, 1901, for
Table I., the mean difference being about 5 years.
10. At Paris there seems to have been a maximum of easterly
declination (about 9) about 1580; the needle pointed to true north
about 1662, and reached its extreme westerly position between 1812
and 1814. The phenomena at Rome resembled those at Paris and
London, but the extreme westerly position is believed to have been
attained earlier. The rate of change near the turning point seems
to have been very slow, and as no fixed observatories existed in those
days, the precise time of its occurrence is open to some doubt.
_ Perhaps the most complete observations extant as to the declina-
tion phenomena near a turning point relate to Kolaba observatory
at Bombay ; they were given originally by N. A. F. Moos, 11 the director
of the observatory. Some of the more interesting details are given
in Table IV. ; nere W denotes movement to be west, and so answers
to a numerical diminution in the declination, which is easterly.
Prior to 1880 the secular change at Kolaba was unmistakably to
the east, and subsequent to 1883 it was clearly to the west; but be-
tween these dates opinions will probably differ as to what actually
happened. The fluctuations then apparent in the sign of the annual
change may be real, but it is at least conceivable that they are of
instrumental origin. From 1870 to 1875 the mean annual change
was - 1 -2 ; from 1885 to 1890 it was +l'-5, from 1890 to 1895 it was
2 -o, while from 1895 to 1905 it was +2'-35, the + sign denoting
movement to the west. Thus, in this case the rate of secular change
has increased fairly steadily since the turning point was reached.
Table V. contains some data for St Helena and the Cape
of Good Hope," both places having a long magnetic history.
The remarkable feature at St Helena is the uniformity in
the rate of secular change. The figures for the Cape show
a reversal in the direction of the secular change about 1840,
but after a few years the arrested movement to the west
again became visible. According, however, to J. C. Beattie's
Magnetic Survey of South Africa the movement to the west
ceased shortly after 1870. A persistent movement to the
east then set in, the mean annual change increasing from
i'-8 between 1873 and 1890 to 3'-8 between 1890 and
1900.
II. Secular changes of declination have been par-
ticularly interesting in the United States, an area about
which information is unusually complete, thanks to the
labours and publications of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey." At present the agonic line passes in a
south-westerly direction from Lake Superior to South
Carolina. To the east of the agonic line the declination is
westerly, and to the west it is easterly. In 1905 the
declination varied from about 21 W. in the extreme north-
east to about 24 E. in the extreme north-west. At present
the motion of the agonic line seems to be towards the west,
but it is very slow. To the east of the agonic line westerly
declination is increasing, and to the west of the line, with
the exception of a narrow strip immediately adjacent to
it, easterly declination is increasing. The phenomena in
short suggest a motion southwards in the north magnetic
pole. Since 1750 declination has always been westerly in
the extreme east of the States, and always easterly in the
extreme west, but the position of the agonic line has
altered a good deal. It was to the west of Richmond,
Virginia, from 1750 to about 1772, then to the east of it
until about 1838 when it once more passed to the west;
since that time it has travelled farther to the west. Table VI.
is intended to show the nature of the secular change
throughout the whole country. As before, + denotes that
the north pole of the magnet is moving to the west, that it
is moving to the east.
The data in Table VI. represent the mean change of
declination per annum, derived from the period (ten years,
except for 1900-1905) which ended in the year put at the
top of the column. The stations are arranged in four groups,
the first group representing the extreme eastern, the last
group the extreme western states, the other two groups
being intermediate. In each group the stations are arranged,
at least approximately, in order of latitude. The data are derived
from the values of the declination given in tne (jeoiu-uc survey's
Report for 1906, appendix 4, and Magnetic Tables and Magnetic Charts
by L. A. Bauer, 1908. The values seem, in most cases, based to some
extent on calculation, and very probably the secular change
was not in reality quite so regular as the figures suggest. For
the Western States the earliest data are comparatively recent,
but for some of the eastern states data earlier than any in the
table appear in the Report of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for
1902. These data indicate that the easterly movement of the
magnet, visible in all the earlier figures for the Eastern States in
Table VI., existed in all of them at least as far back as 1700. There
is not very much evidence as to the secular change between 1700
and 1650, the earliest date to which the Coast and Geodetic Survey's
figures refer. The figures show a maximum of westerly declination
about 1670 in New Jersey and about 1675 in Maryland. They
suggest that this maximum was experienced all along the Atlantic
border some time in the 17th century, but earlier in the extreme
north-east than in New York or Maryland.
Examination of Table VI. shows that the needle continued to
move to the east for some time after 1750 even in the Eastern
States. But the rate of movement was clearly diminishing, and
about 1765 the extreme easterly position was reached in Eastport,
Maine, the needle then beginning to retrace its steps to the west.
The phenomena visible at Maine are seen repeating themselves at
places more and more to the west, in Boston about 1785, in Albany
about 1800, in Washington, D.C., about 1805, in Columbus (Ohio)
about 1815, in Montgomery (Alabama) about 1825, in Bloomington
(111.) about 1830, in DesMoines (Iowa) about 1840, in Santa Rosa (New
Mexico) about 1860 and in Salt Lake about 1870. In 1885 the needle
was moving to the west over the whole United States with the
exception of a comparatively narrow strip along the Pacific coast.
Even an acute observer would have been tempted to prophesy in
1885 that at no distant date the secular change would be pronoun-
cedly westerly right up to the Pacific. But in a few years a complete
change took place. The movement to the east, which had become
exceedingly small, if existent, in the Pacific states, began to ac-
celerate; the movement to the west continued in the central, as in
the eastern states, but perceptibly slackened. In 1905 the area
throughout which the movement to the west still continued had
greatly contracted and lay to the east of a line drawn from the west
end of Lake Superior to the west of Georgia. If we take a station
like Little Rock (Arkansas), we have the secular change to the
3 6
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
TABLE II. Recent Values of the Magnetic Elements and their Rate of Secular Change.
Place.
Geographical position.
Absolute Values of Elements.
Secular change (mean per annum).
Latitude.
Longitude.
Year.
D.
i
I.
H.
V.
Interval
in years.
D.
I.
H.
V.
o /
o /
o /
o /
/
/
Pavlovsk
594IN
30 2gE
1906
i 4-2E
70 36-6N
16528
46963
5
-4'5
+0-1
- 6
-14
Sitka (Alaska) . .
57 3N
135 20W
1906
30 3-3E
744I-7N
15502
56646
4
-3-0
-1-6
+ 18
-38
Ekatarinburg .
5649N
60 38E
1906
10 31 -oE
70 49-sN
17664
50796
5
-4'5
+ 1-7
-23
+ 18
Rude Skov
(Copenhagen)
55 5'N
12 27E
1908
9 43-3W
68 4 sN
17406
44759
Stonyhurst .
53 5iN
2 28W
1909
17 28-6W
68 42-8N
17424
44722
5
-5'9
i-i
+ 6
-25
Hamburg
5333N
959E
1903
II IO-2W
67 23-5N
18126
43527
Wilhelmshaven .
5332N
8 gE
1909
.11 46-8W
18129
5
-5-2
7
Potsdam.
5223N
13 4E
1909
9 io-6W
66 20-oN
18834
42971
5
-5'8
+0-1
- 9
-19
Irkutsk ....
52 i6N
104 i6E
1905
i 58-iE
70 25-oN
2OOII
56250
5
+0-6
+2-0
-24
+39
deBilt ....
52 5N
5 nE
1907
13 ig-oW
66 49-gN
18559
43368
5
-4'7
-0-6
+ 2
-16
Valencia.
Si 56N
10 isW
1909
20 50-3\V
68 is-iN
17877
44812
5
-5-0
1-2
+ 7
-25
Kew. ....
51 28N
o igW
1909
16 io-8W
66 59-7N
18506
43588
5
-5'4
I-I
+ 2
-35
Greenwich .
51 28N
1909
15 47-6W
66 53- 9 N
18526
43432
5
-5-5
-0-7
+ I
20
Uccle ....
5048N
42iE
1908
13 36-7W
66 i-6N
19061
42867
4
-5'3
-0-8
~~ 3
-35
Fal mouth .
50 gN
5 5W
1909
17 48-4\V
66 30-6N
18802
43266
5
-4.7
-1-4
+ 9
-30
Prague ....
5 5N
I425E
1908
8 ao-gW
5
-6-5
Cracow ....
50 4N
I958E
1909
5 35'iW
64 i8N
3
-7'3
St Helier . . .
49 I2N
2 5W
1907
16 27-4W
65 34-5N
5
-5'3
1-2
Val Joyeux .
48 49N
2 IE
1909
14 32-9W
64 43-gN
19727
41792
5
-5'4
-1-7
+ i
-5i
Vienna ....
48 I5N
16 2iE
1898
8 24-iW
Munich ....
48 gN
ii 37 E
1906
9 59-5W
63 io-oN
20657
40835
5
-4-8
-i-3
+ 4
-31
O'Gyalla . . .
47 53N
18 I2E
1909
6 43-gW
21094
5
-5-o
10
Odessa ....
46 26N
30 46E
1899
4 36-7W
62 I8-2N
21869
41660
Pola
44 52N
I55IE
1908
8 43-2W
60 6-8N
222O7
38640
5
-5-5
-0-6
- 4
-23
Agincourt (Toronto)
43 47 N
79 i6W
1906
5 45-3W
74 35-6N
16397
59502
4
+3'4
+0-9
-23
-24
Nice
43 43N
7 i6E
1899
12 4-oW
60 H-7N
22390
39087
Toulouse
43 37 N
i 28E
1905
13 56-3W
60 49-iN
22025
39439
5
-4'5
-i-5
+ 2
2
Perpignan .
42 42 N
253E
1907
13 4'4W
7
-4'7
Tiflfs. ....
41 43N
4448E
1905
2 4I-6E
56 2-8N
25451
37799
7
-5'2
+ i'7
-26
+ 2
Capo di Monte.
40 52 N
14 isE
1906
8 40- 3 W
56 I3-5N
5
-5-1
-i-5
Madrid ....
40 2sN
34 oW
1901
I5'35'6W
Coimbra.
40 I2N
82 5 W
1908
16 46-2W
58 57-3N
22946
38120
5
-4-6
-2-9
+ 17
-45
Baldwin (Kansas) .
3 8 47 N
95 loW
1906
830-iE
68 45- iN
21807
56081
4
-1-7
+ 1-8
-36
- 8
Cheltenham
(Maryland)
3 844N
76 5 oW
1906
5 22-oW
70 27-3N
20035
56436
4
+3-8
+ 1-2
-38
-45
Lisbon ....
343N
9 gW
1900
17 i8-oW
57 54-8N
23516
37484
Athens ....
3758N
21 2 3 E
1908
4 52 -9\V
52 H-7N
26197
33613
5
-5-5
San Fernando .
36 28N
6 I2W
1908
15 25-6W
54 48-4N
24829
35206
5
-4-6
-2-8
+26
-24
Tokyo ....
354iN
139 45E
1901
436-iW
49 o-oN
29954
34459
Zi-ka-wei
31 I2N
121 26E
1906
2 32 -OW
45 35-3N
33040
33726
5
+i-5
-1-3
+30
+ 6
Dehra Dun .
30 igN
7 3E
1907
2 38-3E
43 36- i N
33324
31736
4
+0-8
+5-5
-26
+77
Helwan ....
29 52 N
31 2iE
1909
2 49-2W
40 4O-4N
30031
25804
5
-5'7
+ 1-2
- 6
+ 13
Havana ....
23 8N
82 25W
1905
2 25-OE
52 57-4N
3 53I
40452
Barrackpore
22 46N
8822E
1907
i 9 - 9 E
30 30-2N
37288
21967
3
+4-2
+3'4
+21
+62
Hong- Kong .
22 I8N
114 loE
1908
o 3'9E
31 2-sN
37047
22292
5
+ 1-9
+43
i
Honolulu
21 igN
158 4 W
1906
9 2I-7E
40 I-8N
2922O
24545
4
-0-9
-3'2
-19
-62
Kolaba ....
I854N
72 49E
1905
o 14-oE
21 58-5N
37382
15084
5
+2-1
+7-2
ii
+86
Alibagh ....
I839N
7252E
1909
i o- 3 E
23 29-oN
36845
16008
3
+ 1-7
+6-8
IO
+82
Vieques (Porto Rice)
18 9N
65 26W
1906
i 33-2W
49 47-7N
28927
34224
2
+7-2
+6-8
-49
+66
Manila ....
H35N
120 sgE
1904
05I-4E
16 o-2N
38215
10960
5
+0-1
-3'9
+47
-34
Kodaikanal .
10 I4N
7728E
1907
o 4O-7W
3 27-2N
37431
02259
4
+4'3
+5-5
+16
+61
Batavia ....
6 nS
106 49E
1906
054-iE
30 48-5S
36708
21889
4
+2-1
-7'7
2
+ 110
Dar es Salaam .
6498
39 i8E
1903
7 35-2W
Mauritius .
20 6S
57 33E
1908
9 I4-3W
53 44-9S
23415
31932
5
-0-3
+2-9
-53
-131
Rio de Janeiro .
2255S
43 "W
1906
8 55-3W
13 57-iS
24772
06164
5
+9-1
-6-8
-42
+44
Santiago (Chile)
33 278
70 42\V
1906
14 I8-7E
30 H-8S
3
+6-1
+9-9
Melbourne .
3750S
144 5 8E
1901
8 26-7E
67 25-08
23305
56024
Christchurch, N.Z.
43 32S
172 37E
1903
16 I8-4E
67 42-38
22657
55259
1
west lasting for about sixty years. Further west the period shortens.
At Pueblo (Colorado) it is about forty years, at Salt Lake under
thirty years, at Prescott (Arizona) about twenty years. Considering
how fast the area throughout which the secular change is easterly
has extended to the east since 1885, one would be tempted to infer
that at no distant date it will include the whole of the United
States. In the extreme north-east, however, the movement of the
needle to the west, which had slackened perceptibly after 1860 or
1870, is once more accelerating. Thus the auspices do not all
point one way, and the future is as uncertain as it is interesting.
12. Table VII. gives particulars of the secular change of hori-
zontal force and northerly inclination at> London. Prior to the
middle of the igth century information as to the value of H is of
uncertain value. The earlier inclination data 14 are due to Norman,
Gilbert, Bond, Graham, Heberden and Gilpin. The data from
1857 onwards, both for H and I, refer to Kew. " London " is
rather a vague term, but the differences between the values of H
and I at Kew and Greenwich in the extreme west and east
are almost nil. For some time after its discovery by Robert Norman
inclination at London increased. The earlier observations are not
sufficient to admit of the date of the maximum inclination or its
absolute value being determined with precision. Probably the date
was near 1723. This view is supported by the fact that at Paris
the inclination fell from 72 15' in 1754 to 71 48' in 1780. The
TABLE III. Declination at London.
Date.
Declination.
Date.
Declination.
Date.
Declination.
o /
o /
/
1580
ii I5E
1773
21 9W
1860
21 38-9\V
1622
6 o
1787
23 19
1865
20 58-7
1634
4 6
1795
23 57
1870
20 18-3
1657
o o
1802
24 6
1875
19 35-6
1665
I 22W
1805
24 8
1880
18 52-1
1672
2 30
1817
24 36
1885
18 19-2
1692
6
1818
24 38
1890
17 50-6
1723
14 17
1819
24 36
1895
17 16-8
1748
17 40
1820
24 34
1900
16 52-7
1905
16 32-9 J
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
361
earlier observations in London were probably of no very high
accuracy, and the rates of secular change deducible from them are
correspondingly uncertain. It is not improbable that the average
annual change o'-8 derived from the thirteen years 1773-1786 is
ti*> Miiall, and the value 6'-2 derived from the fifteen years 1786-
1801 too large. There is, however, other evidence of unusually
TABLE IV. Declination at Kolaba (Bombay).
Year.
Declina-
tion East.
Change since
previous year.
Year.
Declina-
tion East.
Change since
previous year.
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
ait
o 55 58
56 39
57 6
57 30
57 9
/ *
037E
041 E
o 27 E
o 24 E
021 W
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
O 1
o 57 12
o 56 50
57 2
55 39
55 3
/ V
o 3 E
022 W
12 E
i 23 W
036 W
rapid secular change of inclination towards the end of the l8th
century in western Europe; for observations in Paris show a fall
of 56' between 1780 and 1791, and of 90' between 1791 and 1806.
Between 1801 and 1901 inclination in London diminished by
3 26'-5, or on the average by 2'-! per annum, while between 1857
and 1900 H increased on the average by 227 a year. These
values differ but little from the secular changes given in Table I.
as applying at Kew for the epoch Jan. i, 1901. Since the beginning,
however, of the 2Oth century a notable change has set in, which
seems shared by the whole of western Europe. This is shown in a
striking fashion by contrasting the data from European stations
in Tables I. and II. There are fifteen of these stations which give
secular change data for H in both tables, while thirteen give secular
data for I. The mean values of the secular changes derived from
these stations are as follows :
I H
From Table I. -2'-35 +21-07
From Table II. -1-12 + 1-67
The difference in epoch between the two sets of results is only
about 5 years, and yet in that short time the mean rate of annual
increase in H fell to a thirteenth of its original value. During 1908-
1909 H diminished throughout all Europe except in the extreme
wi->t. Whether we have to do with merely a temporary phase, or
whether a general and persistent diminution in the value of H is
about to set in over Europe it is yet hardly possible to say.
13. It is often convenient to obtain a formula to express the
mean annual change of an element during a given period throughout
an area of some size. The usual method is to assume that the
change at a place whose latitude is / and longitude X is given by
an expression of the type c+a(l I )+b(\ X ), where
a, b, c are constants, / and X denoting some fixed latitude and
longitude which it is convenient to take as point of departure.
Supposing observational data available from a series of stations
throughout the area, a, b and c can be determined by least squares.
As an example, we may take the following slightly modified formula
given by Ad. Schmidt 16 as applicable to Northern Europe for the
period 1890 to 1900. AD, AI and AH represent the mean annual
changes during this period in westerly declination, in inclination
and in horizontal force :
t i t
AD = -5-24-o-07l(/-5o)+o-033(X 10),
AI = i-58+o-oio(/ 5o)+o-036(X 10),
AH = +23-5-0-59 (/-5o)-o-35 (X-io).
Longitude X is here counted positive to the east. The central
position assumed here (lat. 50, long. 10 E.) falls in the north of
TABLE V. Declination at St Helena and Cape of Good Hope.
St Helena.
Cape of Good Hope.
Date.
Declination.
Date.
Declination.
/
o /
1610
7 13 E
1605
o 30 E
1677
o 40
1609
12 W
1691
i o W
1675
8 14
1724
7 30
1691
II
1775
12 18
1775
21 14
1789
1796
15 30
15 48
1792
1818
24 31
26 31
1806
17 18
1839
29 9
1839
22 I?
1842
29 6
1840
22 53
1846
29 9
1846
23 II
1850
29 19
1890
23 57
1857
29 34
1874
30 4
1890
29 32
1903
28 44
Bavaria. In the case of the horizontal force unity represents
17. Schmidt found the above formulae to give results in very
close agreement with the data at the eight stations which he had
employed in determining the constants. These stations ranged
from Pavlovsk to Perpignan, and from Stonyhurst to Ekaterin-
burg in Siberia. Formulae involving the second as well as the
first powers of / / and X X_ have also been used, e.g., by
A. Tanakadate in the Magnetic Survey of Japan.
TABLE VI. Secular Change of Declination in the United States (+ to the West).
Place.
spoch
1760
70
80
90
1800
10
20
3
i 40
50
60
70
So
90
1900
50
/
/
/
t
/
t
/
/
f
/
/
/
/
/
i
/
'Eastport, Maine .
1-2
o-o
+ 1-2
+ 2-1
+3-2
+4-0
+4-5
+4'9
+5-o
+5-6
+4-5
+3-o
+2-1
+ 1-0
+ 1-8
+2-4
Boston, Mass. .
-2-7
-1-9
I-O
o-o
+I-I
+ 1-9
+2-7
+3'5
+4-2
+4'4
+4-0
+3'3
+3-1
+3-o
+3-2
+3-4
Albany, New York.
-4-2
-3-6
-2-7
-1-6
-0-6
+0-6
+ 1-6
+2-7
+3-6
+4-6
+4-6
+3-9
+4-7
+2-3
+3-4
+3-6
Philadelphia, Penn.
-4-6
-4-2
-3-5
-2-3
-1-3
+0-1
+ 1-3
+2-5
+3-4
+4-3
+4-2
+4-6
+4-4
+3-4
+3-5
+3-4
Baltimore, Maryland .
-3-9
-3'4
-2-7
2-0
-0-9
o-o
+0-9
+2-0
+2-7
+3-4
+3-9
+4'0
+3-9
+3-6
+3-5
+3-2
Richmond, Virginia
-3-6
-3'2
-2-5
-1-8
-0-9
o-o
+0-9
+ 1-8
+2-5
+3'i
+3-6
+3-9
+3-8
+3-7
+3-4
+3-2
Columbia, S. Carolina .
-3'7
-3'4
-2-9
2-2
-1-3
-0-5
+0-5
+ 1-3
+2-2
+2-9
+3-4
+3-8
+3-8
+.3-8
+3-6
+ 1-8
Macon, Georgia .
-3'7
-3-6
-3'2
-2-5
-1-8
-0-9
o-o
+0-9
+ 1-8
+2-5
+3-2
+3-6
+3-9
+3-5
+3'i
+ 1-2
iTampa, Florida
-3-0
-2-5
2-O
I'l
-0-4
+0-4
+I-I
+2-0
+2-5
+3-o
+3-2
+3-5
+3-7
+2-8
+2-9
+ 1-6
Marquette, Michigan .
o-o
+ 1-4
+2-6
+37
+4-7
+5-1
+4-9
+3-8
+2-4
Columbus, Ohio
-0-9
o-o
+0-9
+2-0
+2-9
+3-4
+3-6
+3-7
+3-9
+4-0
+2-4
Bloomington, Illinois .
-2-4
-i-5
-0-4
+0-4
+ 1-5
+2-4
+2-8
+4-2
+3-9
+2-9
+ 1-0
Lexington, Kentucky .
-0-9
o-o
+0-9
+ 1-8
+2-5
+3-2
+3-6
+3-8
+3-8
+3-4
+ 1-8
Chattanooga.Tennessee
-0-9
o-o
+0-9
+ 1-8
+2-5
+3-2
+3-6
+4-0
+3-5
+3-1
+ 1-6
Little Rock, Arkansas
-2-3
-1-5
-0-9
+0-1
+0-8
+ 1-7
+ 2-0
+3-6
+3-7
+2-3
1-2
Montgomery, Alabama
-3-6
-3'5
-3-1
-2-8
2-2
-i-5
-0-8
+0-1
+0-8
+ 1-6
+2-2
+2-8
+3-8
+3'9
+2-6
+0-2
Alexandria, Louisiana .
2-1
-1-6
-0-8
+0-1
+0-8
+ 1-6
+ 2-2
+3-6
+3'3
+2-0
-1-4
Northome, Minnesota .
-1-7
-0-6
+0-6
+ 1-7
+ 2-8
+4-2
+4'4
+3-5
o-o
Jamestown, N. Dakota
+ 1-0
+ 1-9
+3'
+4-8
+ 1-9
2-2
DCS Moines, Iowa.
-i-5
-0-6
+0-6
+ 1-5
+2-5
+3-8
+4-5
+2-7
-0-6
Douglas, Wyoming
-0-8
o-o
+ 1-2
+2-3
+0-5
-1-6
IKmpnria, Kansas .
+0-6
+ 1-6
+2-7
+3-8
+ 1-7
-1-8
Purlilo, Colorado .
-0-3
+0-4
+ 1-5
+3-'
+0-7
2-2
Okmulgee, Oklahoma .
+0-9
+ 1-5
+2-7
+3'9
+ 1-4
-2-4
Santa Rosa, New Mexico
-0-4
+0-4
+ 1-4
+2-6
+0-4
-2-4
San Antonio, Texas
i-i
-0-5
-0-5
+ 1-1
+ 1-8
+2-7
+0-9
-2-4
1 Seattle, Washington .
-3'3
-3-5
-37
-37
-3-5
-3'3
-3-
-2-6
2-1
-i-3
-1-9
2-O
-3'2
Wilson Creek.Washing
ton ....
-2-1
-i-5
-0-4
I-O
- -6
-3-2
Detroit, Oregon
-3-8
-3'9
-3-9
-37
-3'4
-2-9
-2-5
-1-8
-0-8
- -8
-3-8
Salt Lake, Utah .
I-I
0-4
+ 1-0
+ 1-0
-0-8
-2-8
Prescott, Arizona .
-1-4
-0-7
+0-4
+0-4
-2
-3-2 1
San Jos6, California
-2-6
-2-9
-2-9
-2-9
-2-7
-2-5
-2-3
2:0
-'5
-0-8
-0-4
- '9
-3-8
Los Angeles, ,,
-3-4
-3-4
-3-5
-3-2
-3-0
-2-7
2-1
-1-6
!!
-0-9
-0-3
- -6
-3-6
362
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
Formulae are also wanted to show how the value of an element,
or the rate of change of an element, at a particular place has
varied throughout a long period. For comparatively short periods
it is best to use formulae of the type E = a+bt+cP, where E
denotes the value of an ..element t years subsequent to some
convenient epoch; a, b, c are constants to be determined from
the observational data. For longer periods formulae of the type
E = o + 6 sin (mt+n), where a, b, m and n are constants, have
been used by Schott l6 and others with considerable success. The
following examples, due to G. W. Littlehales, " for the Cape of Good
Hope, will suffice for illustration :
Declination (West) = i4-63+i5-oo sin (o-6i(/-i85o)+77-8)
Inclination (South) =49 -i i + 8-75 sin (0-8 (<-i85o)+34-3J.
Here / denotes the date. It is perhaps hardly necessary to point
out that the extension of any of these empirical formulae whether
to places outside the surveyed area, or to times not included in the
period of observation is fraught with danger, which increases
rapidly the further the extra-polation is pushed.
Table VII. Inclination (northerly) and Horizontal Force at London.
Date.
I.
Date.
I.
Date.
I.
H.
Date.
I.
H.
1576
1600
1676
1723
1773
1786
t
71 50
72 o
73 30
74 42
72 19
72 9
1801
1821
1830
1838
1854
O /
70 36-0
70 3-4
69 38-0
69 17-3
68 31-1
1857
i860
1865
1870
1874
O /
68 24-9
69 19-8
68 8-7
67 58-6
67 50-0
17474
17550
17662
17791
17903
1891
1895
1900
1905
1908
/
67 33-2
67 25-4
67 n-8
67 3'8
67 0-9
18193
18278
18428
18510
18515
Bauer has employed a convenient graphical method of illustrating
secular change. Radii are drawn from the centre of a sphere
parallel to the direction of
the freely dipping needle,
and are produced to in-
7 tersect the tangent plane
drawn at the point which
answers to the mean posi-
tion of the needle during
the epoch under consider-
ation. The curve formed
by the points of intersec-
tion shows the character
of the secular change.
Fig. 5 (slightly modified
W
FIG. 5.
from Nature, vol. 57, p.
181) applies to London.
The curve is being
described in the clockwise direction. This, according to Bauer's"
own investigation, is the normal mode of description. Schott
and Littlehales have found, however, a considerable number
of cases where it is difficult to say whether the motion is clockwise
or not, while in some stations on both the east and west shores of
the Pacific it was clearly anti-clockwise. Fritsche u dealing with
the secular changes from 1600 to 1885 as given by his calculated
values of the magnetic elements at 204 points of intersection of
equidistant lines of latitude and longitude, found only sixty-three
cases in which the motion was unmistakably clockwise, while in
twenty-one cases it was clearly the opposite.
14. All the magnetic elements at any ordinary station show a
regular variation in the solar day. To separate this from the
irregular changes, means of the hourly readings must be formed
making use of a number of days. ,The amplitude of .
the diurnal change usually varies considerably with the 7,
season of the year. Thus a diurnal inequality derived
from all the days of the year combined, or from a smaller
number of days selected equally from all the months -of the
year, can give only the average effect through-
out the year. Also unless the hours of
maxima and minima at a given station
are but slightly variable with the season,
the result obtained by combining data
from all the months of the year may be a
hybrid which does not very closely resemble
the phenomena in the majority of individual
months. This remark applies in particular
to the declination at places within the tropics.
One consequence is obviously to make the
range of a diurnal inequality which answers
to the year as a whole less than the arithmetic mean of the twelve
ranges obtained for the constituent months. At stations in tem-
perate latitudes, whilst minor differences of type do exist between
the diurnal inequalities for different months of the year, the difference
is mainly one of amplitude, and the mean diurnal inequality from
all the months of the year gives a very fair idea of the nature of the
phenomena in any individual month.
Tables VIII. to XI. give mean diurnal inequalities derived from
all the months of the year combined, the figures representing the
algebraic excess of the hourly value over the mean for the twenty-
four hours. The + sign denotes in Table VIII. that the north
end of the needle is to the west of its mean position for the day;
in Tables IX. to XI. it denotes that the element the dip being the
north or south as indicated is numerically in excess of the twenty-
four hour mean. The letter " a " denotes that all days have been
included except, as a rule, those characterized by specially large
disturbances. The letter " q " denotes that the results are derived
from a limited number of days selected as being specially quiet,
Table VIII. Diurnal Inequality of Declination, mean from whole year (+ to West).
Station.
Jan Mayen.
St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.
Greenwich.
Kew.
Pare
St Maur.
Tiflis.
Kolaba.
Batavia.
Mauritius.
South Vic-
toria Land.
Latitude.
71 o' N.
59 4 i'N.
5i28'N.
5i28'N.
48 49' N.
4 i43'N.
1 8 54' N.
6 n'S.
20 6'S.
77 5i'S.
Longitude.
8 28' W.
30 29' E.
0'.
o ig'W.
2 29' E.
44 48'E.
72 49' E.
106 49'E.
57 33' E.
166 45 E.
Period.
1882-1883.
1873-1885.
1890-1900.
1890-1900.
1883-1897.
1888-1898.
1894-1901.
1883-1894.
1876-1890.
1902-1903.
a.
q-
a.
q-
a.
a.
q-
a.
a.
q-
a.
a.
a.
q-
Hour.
i
/
i
t
/
t
/
i
t
/
/
/
/
i
I
-6-6
-4-2
- '3
-0-7
- .4
-i-5
-0-9
- '4
0-7
O-2
+0-1
+0-1
+2-O
+0-9
2
-10-5
-6-4
-2
-0-8
- -3
-1-4
-0-9
-2
-0-6
O-I
O-I
+0-1
2-1
-1-8
3
-15-2
-7-8
-2
I-O
- '3
-i-5
I-O
-2
-0-6
O-I
O-I
+0-1
-5-2
-4-5
4
16-9
-8-4
- '4
1-3
- -4
-1-7
1-3
-2
-0-5
O-I
o-o
+0-2
-9-4
-6-8
5
-17-0
-8-1
- -7
1-8
- -7
2-1
1-8
- -6
-0-7
O-I
o-o
+0-3
12-2
-9-0
6
-13-7
-7-0
- '9
-2-3
2-1
-2-4
-2-3
- .9
1-2
-0-6
+0-1
+0-4
-15-3
-H-7
7
-5-i
2-2
-2-8
-2-4
-2-7
-2-8
-2-4
1-9
I-O
+0-5
+0-6
-17-2
-15-0
8
-6-8
-3'2
-2-5
-3-2
-2-5
-2-8
-3-1
-2-7
-2-4
-1-2
+ i-3
+ 1-1
-21-5
-17-3
9
-3-7
-6-6
-2-3
-3-0
-1-9
2-1
-2-5
-2-3
-2-3
-0-7
+ 1-7
+ 1-8
-23-5
-18-1
to
2-4
+2-1
I-O
-1-7
0-2
-0-3
-0-7
-0-5
-0-9
o-o
+ i-5
+ 1-9
21-2
-15-8
ii
-0-5
+4'6
+1-0
+0-4
+2-1
+2-2
+ 1-7
+2-0
+ 1-0
+0-9
+0-9
+ 1-3
-15-3
-9-2
Noon
+2-5
+6-5
+3'i
+2-7
+4-2
+4-3
+3-9
+4-2
+ 2-6
+ 1-4
+0-1
o-o
-9-8
-4-9
i
+3-7
+7-3
+4-6
+4-3
+5-1
+5-3
+4-8
+5-3
+3-3
+ 1-2
-0-6
i-i
-3-2
O-I
2
+6-4
+7-1
+4-9
+4-5
+4-7
+4'9
+4'4
+4'9
+3'i
+0-6
i-i
2-0
+3-8
+5-9
3
+7-4
+5'9
+4-1
+3'6
+3-6
+3-7
+3-1
+3-7
+2-3
+0-1
-1-3
-2-3
+ U-I
+9-5
4
+8-5
+4-3
+2-7
+2-3
+2-2
+2-4
+ 1-8
+2-3
+ i-3
O-2
1-2
-1-8
+ 16-6
+ 12-9
+ 10-6
+3'0
+ i-5
+ 1-3
+ I-I
-I-I-2
+0-7
+ I-I
+0-6
O-I
-0-9
-0-9
+ 19-9
+ 14-6
6
+ 14-2
+2-3
+o-6
+0-7
+0-3
+0-4
+0-2
+O-2
+0-2
0-0
-0-6
o-
+ 22-O
+ 15-5
7
+ 15-2
+2-2
o-o
+0-4
-0-3
O-2
O-I
-0-4
-f-O-I
+0-1
-0-4
+0-
+22-0
+ 15-9
8
+ 15-8
+2-6
-0-4
+O-2
-0-9
-0-6
-0-3
-0-9
O-I
+0-2
O-2
+0-
+ 19-9
+ 14-6
9
+ 13-2
+2-6
I-O
o-o
1-2
I-O
-0-.5
-1-3
-0-4
+0-1
0-0
+0-
+ 16-0
+ 10-6
10
+7'4
+2-O
-1-4
O-2
-i-5
-1-3
-0-7
-1-5
-0-6
O-O
+0-1
+0-
-j-ii-6
+7-2
ii
+ 1-1
+0-5
-1-6
-0-4
-1-6
-1-4
-0-8
-1-6
-0-7
0-0
+0-1
+0-
+7-6
+4-2
12
-3'6
-i-5
-0-6
-1-6
-1-5
-0-9
-1-6
-0-8
O-I
+0-1
+0-
+3'3
+ 1-9
Range
32-8
15-7
7-4
7-7
7-6
8-1
7-9
8-0
5'7
2-6
3-o
4'2
45-5
34-o
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL 363
TABLE IX. Diurnal Inequality of Horizontal Force, mean from whole year (Unit IT = -OOOOI C.G.S.)
Station.
JanMayen.
St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.
Greenwich.
Kew.
Pare
St Maur.
Tiflis.
Kolaba.
Batavia.
Mauritius.
S. Victoria
Land.
Period.
1882-1883.
1873-1885.
1890-1900.
1890-1900.
1883-1897.
1888-1898.
1894-1901.
1883-1894.
1883-1890.
1902-1903.
a.
q-
a.
q-
a.
q-
a.
a.
q-
a.
a.
a.
Hour.
I
-57
22
+ 4
+ 5
+ 4
+ 4
+ 5
+ 3
10
II
- 3
12
2
-64
-24
+ 4
+ 4
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
+ 3
- 9
IO
i
-13
3
-74
-25
+ 4
+ 4
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
+ 3
- 9
8
+ i
-'4
4
-69
-24
+ 4
+ 4
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
+ 4
- 9
- 7
+ 2
-!5
5
-60
22
+ 5
+ 4
+ 3
+ 4
+ 6
+ 4
- 9
- 5
+ 3
15
6
-37
-19
+ 4
+ 4
+ I
+ 2
+ 4
+ 4
- 7
i
+ 4
12
7
-15
-15
+ 2
+ 2
~" 3
I
+ i
+ 2
i
+ 5
+ 7
- 9
8
i
-'3
- 3
- 4
- 9
- 7
-'5
3
+ 8
+ H
+ 9
- 7
9
+ 8
12
10
10
-16
-13
12
8
+ 19
+24
+ 9
- 3
10
+ 17
12
-16
-16
-20
-18
-17
-10
+26
+31
+ 9
+ 3
II
+32
10
-19
-20
-19
-18
-16
- 7
+30
+35
+ 9
+ 7
Noon
+49
4
17
-18
-13
12
12
i
+26
+31
+ 8
+ 12
i
+65
+ 8
12
-'3
- 7
- 7
- 7
+ 4
+ 19
+22
+ 7
+ 18
2
+78
+22
- 6
- 6
i
2
- 4
+ 5
+ 10
+ 10
+ 2
+20
3
+89
+37
o
o
+ 2
+ I
i
+ 3
+ 2
i
2
+ 19
4
+83
+43
+ 3
+ 3
+ 5
+ 3
o
i .
- 3
- 9
6
+ 18
5
+68
+49
+ 5
+ 5
+ 7
+ 5
+ 2
- 4
- 7
-13
- 7
+ 5
6
+37
+43
+ 6
+ 6
+ 9
+ 7
+ 4
- 6
- 8
-14
- 7
+ 11
7
+ 13
+30
+ 7
+ 7
+ 10
+ 8
+ 6
- 4
- 9
-15
7
+ 5
8
ii
+ 15
+ 8
+ 8
+ 10
+ 8
+ 7
i
10
-16
8
+ o
9
-33
+ I
+ 9
+ 9
+ 8
+ 7
+ 7
+ i
-11
-16
- 8
- 4
10
-36
10
+ 8
+ 9
+ 7
+ 6
+ 6
+ 2
ii
-16
- 8
- 7
ii
-40
-16
+ 7
+ 8
+ 6
+ 6
+ 6
+ 3
IO
-15
- 7
- 9
12
-51
20
+ 6
+ 6
+ 5
+ 5
+ 6
+ 3
10
-13
- 5
ii
Range
163
74
28
29
30
26
24
IS
41
51
17
35
i.e. free from disturbance. In all cases the aperiodic or non-cyclic
element indicated by a difference between the values found for
the first and second midnights of the day has been eliminated in
the usual way, i.e. by treating it as accumulating at a uniform
rate throughout the twenty-four hours. The years from which
the data were derived are indicated. The algebraically greatest
and least of the hourly values are printed in heavy type; the range
thence derived is given at the foot of the tables.
When comparing results from different stations, it must be
remembered that the disturbing forces required to cause a change
of i' in declination and in dip vary directly, the former as the
horizontal force, the latter as the total force. Near a magnetic
pole the horizontal force is relatively very small, and this accounts,
at least partly, for the difference between the declination phenomena
at Jan Mayen and South Victoria Land on the one hand and at Kolaba,
Batavia and Mauritius on the 1 other. There is, however, another
cause, already alluded to, viz. the variability in the type of the
diurnal inequality in tropical stations. With a view to illustrating
this point Table XII. gives diurnal inequalities of declination for
June and December for a number of stations lying between 45 N.
and45S. latitude. Some of the results are represented graphically
in fig. 6, plus ordinates representing westerly deflection. At the
northmost station, Toronto, the difference between the two months
is mainly a matter of amplitude, the range being much larger at
midsummer than at midwinter. The conspicuous phenomenon at
both seasons is the rapid swing to the west from 8 or o a.m. to
TABLE X. Diurnal Inequality of Vertical Force, mean from whole year (Unit 17).
Station.
JanMayen.
St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.
Greenwich.
Kew.
Pare St
Maur.
Tiflis.
Kolaba.
Batavia.
Mauritius.
South Vic-
toria Land.
Period.
1882-1883.
1873-1885.
1890-1900.
1891-1900.
1883-1897.
1888-1898.
1894-1901.
1883-1894.
1884-1890.
1902-1903.
a.
q.
a.
q-
a.
q-
a.
a.
q-
a.
a.
a.
Hour
I
+65
+ 3
- 7
i
- 3
+ i
O
+ 2
+ 4
+ 7
+ 2
+ 13
2
+65
+ 2
- 7
i
- 4
+ i
o
+ 2
+ 4
+ 5
+ 2
+ 12
3
+56
i
- 7
i
- 4
i
+ I
+ 3
+ 4
+ 2
+ 10
4
+37
- 5
- 6
o
3
o
+ I
+ 3
+ 3
+ 2
+ 8
5
+ 16
- 7
- 5
o
2
+ I
o
+ 2
+ 5
+ 2
+ 2
+ 3
6
- 7
- 8
- 4
o
I
+ I
+ i
+ 3
+ 7
+ i
+ 2
7
-17
- 6
- 3
o
O
+ I
+ 3
+ 6
+ 3
8
-14
4
2
o
O
I
+ 3
o
- 3
+ 4
2
9
- 9
- 3
I
- 3
- 4
- 4
i
- 8
1 1
+ 5
- 6
10
- 6
+ 5
2
2
- 6
- 8
- 8
- 7
-14
20
+ 3
-13
ii
- 6
+ 10
- 3
- 4
- 9
II
12
n
-15
-26
o
-17
Noon
IO
+ 16
- 3
5
-10
-11
-12
-11
10
-27
- 4
-20
i
-3
+21
i
- 4
- 6
Q
- 9
- 9
- 3
21
- 7
20
2
-24
+23
+ 2
i
o
~~ 3
- 3
5
+ I
-13
- 9
-16
3
-3
+20
+ 8
+ 2
+ 5
+ 2
+ 2
i
+ 4
- 4
- 8
12
4
-40
+ '3
+ 9
+ 3
+ 8
+ 5
+ 6
+ i
+ 3
+ 4
- 5
- 6
5
-48
+ 2
+ 10
+ 3
+ 9
+ 6
+ 7
+ 3
o
+ 10
- 3
I
6
-53
9
+ 10
+ 3
+ 10
+ 7
+ 8
+ 4
o
+ 13
+ 3
7
-47
-18
+ 9
+ 3
+ 9
+ 6
+ 7
+ 3
+ 14
o
+ 6
8
-36
-20
+ 8
+ 3
+ 7
+ 5
+ 6
+ 3
+ I
+ 14
+ i
+ 9
9
- 7
-19
+ 6
+ 2
+ 5
+ 5
+ 5
+ 3
+ 2
+ 14
+ 2
+ 11
10
+ 18
-'3
+ 3
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 3
+ 3
+ 3
+ 13
+ 2
+ 12
ii
+42
- 5
2
o
+ 3
+ 2
+ 3
+ 3
+ n
+ 2
+ 12
12
+54
o
- 5
I
2
+ 2
+ I
+ 2
+ 3
+ 9
+ 2
+ 13
Range
118
43
i?
8
2O
18
2O
15
22
41
14
33
364
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
TABLE XI. Diurnal Inequality of Inclination mean from whole year.
Station.
Jan Mayen.
St. Petersburg
and Pavlovsk.
Greenwich.
Kew.
Pare
St Maur.
Tiflis.
Kolaba.
Batavia.
Mauritius.
1
South Vic-
toria Land.
End Dipping.
North.
North.
North.
North.
North.
North.
North.
South.
South.
South.
Period.
1882-1883.
1873-1885.
1890-1900.
1891-1900.
1883-1897.
1888-1898.
1894-1901.
1883-1894.
1884-1890.
1902-1903.
a.
q-
a.
q-
a.
q-
a.
a.
q-
a.
a.
a. |
Hour
/
/
/
/
i
/
/
r
/
i
/
/
I
+4-6
+ 1-5
-0-5
-0-3
-0-4
-0-3
-0-3
O-I
+0-6
+0-9
+0-3
+0-6
2
+5-o
+ 1-6
-0-5
-0-3
-0-3
0-2
-0-3
O-I
+0-6
+0-8
+0-2
+0-7
3
+5-6
+ 1-6
-0-5
-0-3
-0-3
O-2
-0-3
O-I
+0-5
+0-6
o-o
+0-7
4
+5-o
+ 1-5
-0-4
-0-3
-0-3
O-2
-0-4
O-2
+0-5
+0-5
0-0
+0-7
5
+4-2
+ 1-4
-0-5
-0-3
O-2
O-2
-0-4
O-2
+0-7
+0-3
O-I
+0-7
6
+2-4
+ 1-2
-0-4
-0-3
O-I
O-I
-0-3
O-I
+0-8
+0-1
0-2
+0-5
7
+0-7
+0-9
O-2
O-I
+0-2
+0-1
o-o
O-O
+0-5
O-2
-0-3
+0-4
8
O-I
+0-8
+0-1
+0-3
+0-6
+0-4
+0-4
+0-3
O-2
-0-8
-0-4
+0-3
9
-0-7
+0-8
+0-6
+0-6
+ 1-0
+0-8
+0-7
+0-5
1-2
-1-7
-0-4
+0-1
10
1-2
+0-9
+ 1-0
+ 1-0
+1-1
+ 1-0
+0-9
+0-3
-i-9
-2-7
-0-5
0-2
ii
2-2
+0-8
+ 1-2
+ 1-2
+ 1-0
+0-9
+0-7
o-o
-2-1
-3-3
-0-6
-0-4
Noon
-3'4
+0-4
+ i-i
+ 1-1
+0-6
+0-6
+0-4
-0-5
-1-6
-3-1
-0-7
-0-7
I
-4-5
O-2
+0-7
+0-7
+0-3
+0-2
+0-2
-0-6
-0-8
-2-4
-0-8
-0-9
2
-5-6
1-2
+0-4
+0-4
+0-1
+0-1
+0-2
-0-5
O-2
-1-3
-0-6
-1-0
3
-6-3
2-2
+0-2
+0-1
o-o
o-o
+0-2
-0-3
+0-3
0-2
-0-3
I-O
4
-6-1
-2-9
0-0
O-I
O-I
O-I
+0-2
+0-1
+0-3
+0-7
+0-1
-0-9
5
-5-1
-3-2
O-I
-0-3
O-2
0-2
+0-1
+0-4
+0-2
+ i-3
+0-4
-0-7
6
-3-1
-2-9
0-2
-0-3
-0-3
-0-3
0-0
+0-5
+0-2
+ i-5
+0-5
-0-5
7
-i-7
2-2
-0-3
-0-4
-0-4
-0-4
O-2
+0-4
+0-3
+ 1-6
+0-5
O-2
8
+0-3
-1-3
-0-3
-0-5
-0-4
-0-4
-0-3
+0-2
+0-4
+ 1-6
+0-6
0-0
9
+2-0
-0-3
-0-4
-0-6
-0-4
-0-4
-0-3
+0-1
+0-5
+ 1-6
+0-6
+0-2
10
+2-5
+0-5
-0-5
-0-6
-0-4
-0-3
-0-3
o-o
+0-6
+ 1-5
+0-6
+0-4
ii
+3-o
+ 1-0
-0-5
-0-6
-0-4
-0-3
-0-3
o-o
+0-6
+ 1-4
+0-5
+0-5
12
+4-0
+ 1-3
-0-5
-0-4
-0-4
-0-3
-0-3
O-I
+0-6
+ 1-2
+0-4
+0-6
Range
11-9
4-8
i-7
1-8
1-5
1-4
i-3
I-I
2-9
4-9
1-4
1-7
I or 2 p.m. At the extreme southern station, Hobart at nearly
equal latitude the rapid diurnal movement is to the east, and so
in the opposite direction to that in the northern hemisphere, but
it again takes place at nearly the same hours in June (midwinter)
as in December. If, however, we take a tropical station such as
Trivandrum or Kolaba, the phenomena in June and December are
widely different in type. At Trivandrum situated near the
magnetic equator in India we have in June the conspicuous
forenoon swing to the west seen at Toronto, occurring it is true
slightly earlier in the day; but in December at the corresponding
hours the needle is actually swinging to the east, just as it is
doing at Hobart. In June the diurnal inequality of declination
at tropical stations whether to the north of the equator like
Trivandrum, or to the south of it like Batavia is on the whole
of the general type characteristic of temperate regions in the northern
hemisphere; whereas in December the inequality at these stations
resembles that of temperate regions in the southern hemisphere.
Comparing the inequalities for June in Table XII. amongst them-
selves, and those for December amongst themselves, one can trace
a gradual transformation from the phenomena seen at Toronto to
those seen at Hobart. At a tropical station the change from the
June to the December type is probably in all cases more or less
gradual, but at some stations the transition seems pretty rapid.
15. In the case of the horizontal force there are, as Table IX.
shows, two markedly different types of diurnal inequality. In the
one type, exemplified by Pavlovsk or Greenwich, the force is below
its mean value in the middle of the day; it has a principal minimum
about IO or II a.m., and morning and evening maxima, the latter
usually the largest. In the other type, exemplified by Kolaba or
Batavia, the horizontal force is above its mean in the middle of the
TABLE XII. Diurnal Inequality of Declination (+ to West).
Station.
Toronto.
Kolaba.
Trivandrum.
Batavia.
St Helena.
Mauritius.
Cape.
Hobart.
Month.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
June.
Dec.
Hour
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
'
/
/
/
/
/
I
-0-4
O-I
-0-3
o-o
-0-3
O-I
+0-1
+0-1
O-I
-0-4
0-0
+0-1
-0-4
-0-7
+0-8
+ 1-1
2
O-2
+0-4
-0-3
+0-1
-0-4
+0-1
O-I
+0-1
0-2
O-I
O-2
+0-2
-0-5
-0-4
+0-3
+ 1-1
3
0-2
O-I
-0-3
+0-1
-0-4
+0-3
O-2
+0-2
0-2
+0-1
O-2
+0-4
-0-7
O-I
O-I
+ 1-0
4
1-2
-0-4
-0-3
+0-3
-0-5
+0-5
-0-3
+0-3
-0-3
+0-3
0-2
+0-7
-0-6
+0-3
O-I
+ 1-1
5
-2-9
-0-6
-0-7
+0-4
-0-7
+0-7
-0-3
+0-5
-0-5
+0-6
-0-3
+ 1-0
-0-7
+ !-0
0-0
+ i-7
6
-5'2
-0-6
-1-6
+0-5
-1-6
+ 1-1
-0-5
+ 1-2
I-O
+o-9
-0-4
+ i-7
I-O
+2-2
0-0
+2-7
7
-6-2
-0.9
-2-2
+0-7
-1-7
+ 1-4
-1-1
+2-O
-2-2
+ 1-9
I-I
+2-6
-1-6
+3'3
O-I
+4'4
8
-6-0
1-2
2-1
+0-2
i-i
+0-9
-0-4
+2-3
-i-5
+2-2
I-O
+2-4
-0-8
+3-6
+0-1
+5-6
9
-4-4
-1-8
I-I
O-I
O-2
+0-5
+0-5
+2-0
-0-3
+ 1-3
+0-2
+ 2-0
+0-7
+3-i
+0-6
+5-6
10
-'5
i-i
O-O
O-2
+0-6
+0-3
+0-9
+ 1-3
+0-3
+0-2
+ 1-2
+ I-I
+ 1-6
+ 1-6
+ 1-2
+3'6
ii
+2-1
+0-6
+ 1-2
O-O
+ 1-2
+0-1
+ 1-0
+0-4
+0-5
I-O
+ 1-4
O-O
+ 1-5
+0-1
+ 1-0
+0-7
Noon
+4-8
+ 2-2
+2-1
O-O
+ 1-4
-0-4
+0-7
-0-6
+0-3
-1-4
+ 1-0
-1-4
+0-8
I-O
O-I
-2-6
i
+6-1
+ 3-2
+2-0
O-2
+ I-I
-0-8
+0-3
- -4
+0-3
1-2
+0-1
2-2
+0-3
-1-8
-1-4
-5-1
2
+6-1
+3-2
+ 1-6
-0-3
+0-7
-0-9
O-2
- -8
+0-2
-0-4
-0-9
-2-5
-0-3
-1-9
2-2
-6-2
3
+5-2
+2-4
+0-9
-0-3
+0-3
-0-9
-0-7
- -9
+0-2
+0-4
-1-5
2-2
-0-3
-1-4
-2-4
-5-8
4
+3-6
+ i-5
+0-2
-0-3
+0-1
-0-8
-0-8
- -6
+0-7
+0-6
-1-3
-1-6
+0-2
-0-8
-1-6
-4-8
5
+ 1-8
+0-5
0-0
O-2
o-o
-0-4
-0-5
-2
+ 1-1
+0-4
-0-3
I-O
+0-5
-0-8
-0-7
-3-3
6
+0-7
O-I
+0-1
0-2
+0-2
-0-4
O-I
-0-7
+ 1-0
+0-1
+0-5
-0-5
+0-5
-0-6
-0-4
-1-9
7
0-0
-0-8
+0-3
O-2
+0-5
-0-4
+0-1
-0-6
+0-6
-0-4
+0-7
-0-3
+0-4
-0-8
o-o
I-O
8
0-0
1-2
+0-4
O-I
+0-5
-0-3
+0-2
-0-5
+0-5
-0-7
+0-7
-0-3
+0-3
-0-9
+0-5
-0-3
9
-0-5
-1-4
+0-3
O-I
+0-4
O-2
+0-4
-0-3
+0-4
-0-9
+0-6
O-2
+0-2
-0-9
+ 1-1
o-o
10
0-5
1-7
-f-o-i
0-0
+0-2
O-I
+0-4
O-I
+0-2
I-O
+0-4
O-I
+0-1
I-O
+ 1-3
+0-6
ii
0-7
i-i
O-I
O-I
o-o
O-I
+0-3
o-o
+0-1
-0-8
+0-3
O-O
o-o
I-O
+ 1-3
+0-9
12
-0-6
-0-7
0-2
O-I
0-2
O-I
+0-2
+0-1
O-I
-0-6
+0-1
+0-1
O-2
I-O
+ 1-1
+ 1-2
Range
12-3
5-o
4-3
I-O
3-1
2-3
2-1
4-2
3-3
3-6
2-9
5-1
3'2
5-5
3-7
11-8
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
365
day, and has a maximum about II a.m. The second type may be
regarded as the tropical type. At tropical stations, such as Kolaba,
Batavia, Manila and St Helena, the type is practically the same in
summer as in winter, and is the same whether the station is north
or south of the equator. Similarly, what we may call the temperate
typi- is seen with comparatively slight modifications both in
summer and winter at stations such as Greenwich or Pavlovsk. In
winter, it is true, the pronounced daily minimum is a little later
and the early morning maximum is relatively more important than
in .summer. There is not, as in the case of the declination, any
iiial difference between the phenomena at temperate stations
in the northern and southern hemispheres.
.JUNE
DECEMBER
+6
+4
+2
/
/
L
Toronto
1
o'
-2
A
1
^^*fc
N/
^
+2
+ 2
Q
/
\
Kolaba
-^
-\
o'
-2'
,/
J
/
\.
^*^
rS
v
+2
^
j
s_x
-2'
r
^^ ^
Batavia
,x
\
o'
J
V y
-^
+>'
^
-2'
r
^-^
Mauritius
^
^
o'
\j
V
\
>
^
-2'
+4
r\
+2
o'
^
^
r
-J
V
H
/
-z'
-4'
-6'
Midi 6 Moon 6 .Midi. Mult. .6 Noon 6 Midi.
FIG. 6.
With diminishing latitude, there is a gradual transition from the
temperate to the tropical type of horizontal force diurnal variation,
and at stations whose latitude is under 45 there is a very appreciable
variation in type with the season. The mean diurnal variation for
the year at Tiflis in Table IX. really represents a struggle between
the two types, in which on the whole the temperate type prevails.
If we take the diurnal variations at Tiflis for midsummer and mid-
winter, we find the former essentially of the temperate, the latter
essentially of the tropical type. A similar conflict may be seen in
the mean diurnal inequality for the year at the Cape of Good Hope,
but there the tropical type on the whole predominates, and it
KTvails more at midwinter than at midsummer. Toronto and
obart, though similar in latitude to Tiflis, show a closer approach
to the temperate type. Still at both stations the hours during
which the force is below its mean value tend to extend back towards
midnight, especially at midsummer. The amplitude of the hori-
zontal force range appears less at intermediate stations, such as
Tiflis, than at stations in either higher or lower latitudes. There is
a very great difference in this respect between the north and the
south of India.
16. In the case of the vertical force in higher temperate latitudes
at Pavlovsk for instance the diurnal inequalities from " all "
and from " quiet " days differ somewhat widely in amplitude and
slightly even in type. In mean latitudes, e.g. at Tiflis, there is
often a well marked double period in the mean diurnal inequality
for the whole year; but even at Tiflis this is hardly, if at all, ap-
parent in the winter months. In the summer months the double
period is distinctly seen at Kew and Greenwich, though the evening
maximum is always pre-eminent. Speaking generally, the time of the
minimum, or principal minimum, varies much less with the season
than that of the maximum. At Kew, for instance, on quiet days
the minimum falls between 1 1 a.m. and noon in almost all the
months of the year, but the time of the maximum varies from about
4 p.m. in December to 7 p.m. in June. At Kolaba the time of the
minimum is nearly independent of the season ; but the changes from
positive to negative in the forenoon and from negative to positive
in the afternoon are some hours later in winter than in summer.
At Batavia the diurnal inequality varies very little in type with the
season, and there is little evidence of more than one maximum and
minimum in the day. At Batavia, as at Kolaba, negative values
occur near noon ; but it must be remembered that while at Kolaba
and more northern stations vertical force urges the north pole of a
magnet downwards, the reverse is true of Batavia, as the dip is
southerly. At St Helena vertical force is below its mean value
in the forenoon, but the change from to + occurs at noon,
or but little later, both in winter and summer. At the Cape of
Good Hope the phenomena at midsummer are similar to those at
Kolaba, the force being below its mean value from about 9 a.m. to
3 p.m. and above it throughout the rest of the day; but at mid-
winter there is a conspicuous double period, the force being below
its mean from I a.m. to 7 a.m. as well as from n a.m. to 3 p.m.,
and thus resembling the all-day annual results at Greenwich. At
Hobart vertical force is below its mean value from I a.m. to 9 a.m.
at midsummer, and from 4 a.m. to noon at midwinter; while the
force is above its mean persistently throughout the afternoon both
in summer and winter, there is at midwinter a well marked secondary
minimum about 6 p.m., almost the same hour as that at which the
maximum for the day is observed in summer.
17. Variations of inclination are connected with those of hori-
zontal and vertical force by the relation
61 = J sin 2l[V-' 5V-H- 1 oH).
Thus in temperate latitudes where V is considerably in excess of H,
whilst diurnal changes in V are usually less than those in H, it is
the latter which chiefly dominate the diurnal changes in inclination.
When the H influence prevails, I has its highest values at hours
when H is least. This explains why the dip is above its mean value
near midday at stations in Table XI. from Pavlovsk to Pare St
Maur. Near the magnetic equator the vertical force has the greater
influence. This alone would tend to make a minimum dip in the
late forenoon, and this minimum is accentuated owing to the altered
type of the horizontal force diurnal variation, whose maximum now
coincides closely with the minimum in the vertical force. This
accounts for the prominence of the minimum in the diurnal varia-
tion of the inclination at Kolaba and Batavia, and the large ampli-
tude of the range. Tiflis shows an intermediate type of diurnal
variation; there is a minimum near noon, as in tropical stations,
but inclination is also below its mean for some hours near midnight.
The type really varies at Tiflis according to the season of the year.
In June as in the mean equality from the whole year there is a
well marked double period; there is a principal minimum at 2 p.m.
and a secondary one about 4 a.m.; a principal maximum about
9 a.m. and a secondary one about 6 p.m. In December, however,
only a single period is recognizable, with a minimum about 8 a.m.
and a maximum about 7 p.m. The type of diurnal inequality seen
TABLE XIII. Range of the Diurnal Inequality of Declination.
Place.
Period.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
/
/
/
/
i
/
/
t
/
/
,
/
Pavlovsk
1890-19003
4-93
6-15
8-58
10-93
12-18
12-27
11-82
11-38
8-70
6-87
5-54
4-63
Ekatarinburg
q
1890-19003
2-96
3-33
4-20
4-32
8-73
7-63
11-28
11-19
12-89
11-82
13-28
11-58
12-31
11-09
11-70
10-45
9-37
8-13
6-91
5-6o
3-95
3-73
2-66
3-I4
Greenwich
1865-18963
5-87
7-07
9.40
11-42
10-55
10-90
10-82
10-93
9-66
8-15
6-41
5-15
Kew ....
1890-19003
4-92
6-06
9-08
10-95
10-66
10-92
10-59
II-OI
9-49
7-73
' 5-37
4-46
Toronto
Manila
Trivandrum .
Batavia
St Helena . .
Mauritius
.. q
1842-18483
1890-19003
1853-18643
1884-18993
1842-18473
1876-18903
4-07
5-96
1-79
2-06
4-18
3-72
5-2
4-76
6-05
1-09
1-48
4-64
5-19
6-1
8-82
9-18
2-13
0-79
3-57
4-93
6-3
10-57
'('14
. 3-02
1-67
2-93
3-30
4'7
10-92
"55
3-84
2-90
2-38
2-64
4-1
10-62
12-34
3-94
3-06
2-03
3-24
2-9
10-18
12-21
4-21
3-06
2-31
3-42
3*4
II-OI
13-14
4-89
3-64
3-16
3-59
4'9
9-76
10-76
4-53
3-31
3-8o
2-40
5-o
7-51
6-96
1-83
1-27
4-51
4-43
5'5
4-75
6-32
0-85
2-14
4-50
4-05
5-6
3-34
4-97
1-33
2-33
4-19
3-54
5-1
Cape ....
Hobart
1841-18463
1841-18483
5-14
11-66
8-21
11-80
7-27
9-50
5-00
7-26
3-91
4-56
3-21
3-70
3-54
4-61
4-98
5-89
4-33
5-2 4
5-96
II-OI
6-36
12-05
5-47
11-81
3 66
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
at the Cape of Good Hope does not differ much from that seen at
Batavia. Only a single period is clearly shown. The maximum
occurs about 8 or 9 p.m. throughout the year. The time of the
minimum is more variable; at midsummer it occurs about II a.m.,
but at midwinter three or four hours later. At Hpbart the type
varies considerably with the season. In June (midwinter) a double
period is visible. The principal minimum occurs about 8 a.m., as
at the Cape. But, corresponding to the evening maximum seen at
the Cape, there is now only a secondary maximum, the principal
maximum occurring about I p.m. At midsummer the principal
maximum is found as at Kew or Greenwich about 10 or II a.m.,
the principal minimum about 4 p.m.
1 8. Even at tropical stations a considerable seasonal change
is usually seen in the amplitude of the diurnal inequality in at least
one of the magnetic elements. At stations in Europe, and generally
in temperate latitudes, the amplitude varies notably in all the
elements. Table XIII. gives particulars of the inequality range of
declination derived from hourly readings at selected stations,
arranged in order of latitude from north to south. The letters
" a " and " q " are used in the same sense as before. At temperate
stations in either hemisphere e.g. Pavlovsk, Greenwich or Hobart
the range is conspicuously larger in summer than in winter. In
northern temperate stations a decided minimum is usually apparent
in December. There is, on the other hand, comparatively little
variation in the range from April to August. Sometimes, as at Kew
and Greenwich, there is at least a suggestion of a secondary minimum
at midsummer. Manila and Trivandrum show a transition from
the December minimum, characteristic of the northern stations,
to the June minimum characteristic of the southern, there being two
conspicuous minima in February or March and in November or
October. At St Helena there are two similar minima in May and
September, while a third apparently exists in December. It will be
noticed that at both Pavlovsk and Kew the annual variation in the
range is specially prominent in the quiet day results.
Table XIV. gives a smaller number of data analogous to those of
Table XIII., comprising inequality ranges for horizontal force,
vertical force and inclination. In some cases the number of years
from which the data were derived seems hardly sufficient to give
a smooth annual variation. It should also be noticed that unless
the same group of years is employed the data from two stations are
not strictly comparable. The difference between the all and quiet
day vertical force data at Pavlovsk is remarkably pronounced.
The general tendency in all the elements is to show a reduced
range at midwinter; but in some cases there is also a distinct
reduction in the range at midsummer. This double annual period
is particularly well marked at Batavia.
| 19. When discussing diurnal inequalities it is sometimes con-
venient to consider the components of the horizontal force in and
perpendicular to the astronomical meridian, rather than the hori-
zontal force and declination. If N and W be the components of H
to astronomical north and west, and D the westerly declination,
N = H cos D, W = H sin D. Thus corresponding small variations
in N, W, H and D are connected by the relations:
N= cosD5H-H sinDSD, SW= sinD5H+H ccsDiD.
If SH and SD denote the departures of H and D at any hour of
the day from their mean values, then 8N and 3W represent
the corresponding departures of N and W from their mean values.
In this way diurnal inequalities may be calculated for N and W
when those for H and D are known. The formulae suppose 5D
to be expressed in absolute measure, i.e. i' of arc has to be replaced
by 0-0002909. If we take as an example a station at which H is
185 then H8p = -oooo538(number of minutes in D). In other
words, employing 17 as unit of force, one replaces H5D by 5'38SD,
where SD represents declination change expressed as usual in
minutes of arc. In calculating diurnal inequalities for N and VV,
one ought, strictly speaking, to assign to H and D the exact mean
values belonging to these elements for the month or the year being
dealt with. For practical purposes, however, a slight departure
from the true mean values is immaterial, and one can make use of a
constant value for several successive years without sensible error.
As an example, Table XV. gives the mean diurnal inequality for the
whole year in N and W at Falmouth, as calculated from the 12 years
1891 to 1902. The unit employed is l-y-
The data in Table XV. are closely similar to corresponding Kew
data, and are presumably fairly applicable to the whole south of
England for the epoch considered. At Falmouth there is com-
paratively little seasonal variation in the type of the diurnal varia-
tion in either N or W. The amplitude of the diurnal range varies,
however, largely with the season, as will appear from Table XVI.,
which is based on the same 12 years as Table XV.
Diurnal inequalities in N and W lend themselves readily to the
construction of what are known as vector diagrams. These are
curves showing the direction and intensity at each hour of the day
of the horizontal component of the disturbing force to which the
diurnal inequality may be regarded as due. Figs. 7 and 8, taken
from the Phil. Trans, vol. 2O4A, will serve as examples. They
refer to the mean diurnal inequalities for the months stated at
Kew (1890 to 1900) and Falmouth (1891 to 1902), thick lines relating
to Kew, thin to Falmouth. NS and EW represent the geographical
north-south and east- west directions; their intersection answers
to the origin (thick lines for Kew, thin for Falmouth). The line
from the origin to M represents the magnetic meridian. The line from
the origin to any cross the number indicating the corresponding
hour counted from midnight as o represents the magnitude and
direction at that hour of the horizontal component of the disturb-
ing force to which the diurnal inequality may be assigned. The
cross marks the point whose rectangular co-ordinates are the values
of 5N and 5VV derived from the diurnal inequalities of these
elements. In figs. 7 and 8 the distances of the points N, E, S, W
from their corresponding origin represents lo-y. The tendency
to form a loop near midnight, seen in the November and December
TABLE XIV. Ranges in the Diurnal Inequalities.
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
H (unit 17)
Pavlovsk . . . 1890-1900 a
12
20
32
46
47
49
49
44
39
32
17
ii
...... q
12
17
31
42
45
45
42
40
37
31
17
10
Ekatannburg . . a
ii
15
29
37
40
40
39
36
33
27
13
9
Kew q
15
17
26
36
38
39
38
38
35
27
20
II
Toronto . . . 1843-1848 a
23
21
24
28
29
29
26
28
41
25
21
20
Batavia .... 1883-1898 a
49
47
54
60
51
48
50
53
58
52
43
40
St Helena . . . 1843-1847 a
43
41
48
53
46
40
40
45
41
40
40
32
Mauritius . . . 1883-1890 a
21
15
21
23
20
21
20
22
20
21
21
20
Cape of Good Hope 1841-1846 a
13
10
13
13
15
16
14
18
21
H
17
20
Hobart .... 1842-1848 a
42
43
34
28
19
17
22
23
23
35
39
42
V (unit I y)
Pavlovsk . . . 1890-1900 a
15
27
29
24
26
20
23
19
23
20
18
14
., q
4
5
9
13
13
12
13
10
9
7
5
4
Ekatarinburg . . a
10
IS
17
21
22
19
20
16
14
13
ii
9
Kew .... 1891-1900 q
7
10
20
25
31
27
28
23
20
15
9
6
Toronto . . . 1843-1848 a
12
14
17
23
26
H
27
32
34
25
19
18
Batavia .... 1883-1898 a
42
48
4 8
45
31
31
32
29
41
50
40
33
St Helena . . . 1843-1847 a
16
13
12
14
13
II
17
ii
i?
II
15
18
Mauritius . . . 1884-1890 a
12
16
18
15
H
13
15
21
20
1 6
13
ii
Cape of Good Hope 1841-1846 a
29
47
41
38
21
12
14
19
19
35
33
28
Hobart .... 1842-1848 a
25
27
22
23
24
21
22
28
26
22
23
27
Inclination
1
/
1
i
/
'
'
/
/
'
f
Pavlovsk . . . 1890-1900 a
0'97
1-24
2*07
279
272
2'88
2-8 5
2*64
2-52
2-18
I'2O
0-89
Ekatarinburg . . ,, a
079
0-94
1-70
2-08
2-25
2-19
2'l8
2-08
2'OO
1-70
0-88
0-69
Kew .... q
0-98
I '01
1-38
1-86
2-05
2'02
2-05
2-15
1-98
i-57
1-27
0-63
Toronto . . . 1843-1848 a
i'i5
0-94
1-19
1-23
i'3i
i '37
1*13
1-26
I-8 7
1-16
ro9
1-05
Batavia .... 1883-1898 a
4-88
5'22
5-56
5-62
4-21
4'05
4-24
4'I7
5'i3
5-58
4'5i
3-85
Cape of Good Hope 1842-1846 a
i '55
2'29
2-23
2-23
i "60
1-41
i - 54
170
r86
2-03
i'55
2 '04
Hobart .... 1842-1848 a
i '95
2-16
172
1-62
1-23
1-16
1-28
1-42
i "39
i-75
2*04
2'10
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
367
Table XV. Diurnal Inequalities in N. and W. at Falmouth (unit IT)-
Hour.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
M J a ' m -
+ 6
+ 5
+ 5
+ 5
+ 6
+ 6
+ 5
+ I
- 6
-14
20
2O
N 'jp.m.
-17
12
- 6
+ 3
+ 6
+ 9
+ 9
+ 9
+ 8
+ 7
+ 7
w Ja.m.
2
2
- 3
- 4
- 6
- 9
-13
-17
-19
-13
- 3
+ n
W'jp.m.
+20
+ 22
+ 17
+ M
+ 6
+ 4
+ 2
+ i
I
2
2
curves, is characteristic of the winter months at Kew and Falmouth.
The shape is less variable in summer than in winter; but even in
summer the portion answering to the hours 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. varies
a good deal. The object of presenting the Kew and Falmouth
curves side by side is to emphasize the close resemblance between
the magnetic phenomena at places in similar latitudes, though
over 200 miles apart and exhibiting widely different ranges for
their meteorological elements. With considerable change of lati-
tude however the shape of vector diagrams changes largely.
20. Any diurnal inequality can be analysed into a series of
Fourier harmonic terms whose periods are 24 hours and sub-
multiples thereof. The series may be expressed in either
of the equivalent forms:
Ji cos <+6i sin <+Oj cos 2t+bi sin 2/+ ... (i]
:, sin (/+oi)+c sin (2t+a t )+ (ii)
Table XVI. Ranges in Diurnal Inequalities at Falmouth (unit 17).
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
N.
W.
21
20
23
24
30
46
39
54
39
55
37
55
37
54
39
56
36
51
32
39
24
24
15
15
In both forms t denotes time, counted usually from midnight, one
hour of time being interpreted as 15 of angle. Form (i) is that
utilized in actually calculating the constants a, b, . . . Once the a. 6, ...
constants are known, the c, a, . . . constants are at once derivable
from the formulae:
tan a,=a,/b n ; c = o n /sin o = 6/cos a.
The a, b, c, a constants are called sometimes Fourier, sometimes
Bessel coefficients.
By taking a sufficient number of terms a series can always be
obtained which will represent any set of diurnal inequality figures;
but unless one can obtain a close approach to the observational
June.
months of one year, or for all the Januarys of a series
of years, we have only to take their arithmetic means
to obtain the corresponding constants for the mean
diurnal inequality of the year, or for the diurnal in-
equality of the average January of the series of years.
This, however, is obviously not true of the c or a con-
stants, unless the phase angle is absolutely unchanged
throughout the contributory months or years. This is a
point requiring careful attention, because when giving
values of c and a for the whole year some authorities
give the arithmetic mean of the c's and o's calculated from the
diurnal inequalities of the individual months of the year, others
give the values obtained for c and a from the mean diurnal inequality
of the whole year. The former method inevitably supplies a
larger value for c than the latter, supposing o to vary with the
season. At some observatories, e.g. Greenwich and Batavia, it has
long been customary to publish every year values of the Fourier
coefficients for each month, and to include other elements besides
the declination. For a thoroughly satisfactory comparison of
different stations, it is necessary to have data from one and the same
epoch; and preferably that epoch should include at least one
ii-year period. There are, however, few stations which can supply
the data required for such a comparison and we have to make
the best of what is ayailable. Information is naturally most
copious for the declination. For this element E. Engelenburg *
gives values of c\, it, ct, c<, and of <u, o s , oj, u< for each month of
the year for about 50 stations, ranging from
Fort Rae (62 6' N. lat.) to Cape Horn (55 5' S.
lat.). From the results for individual sta-
tions, Engelenburg derives a series of means
which he regards as representative of 1 1 differ-
ent zones of latitude. His data for individual
stations refer to different epochs, and some
are based on only one year's observations.
The original observations also differ in reliability; thus the results
are of somewhat unequal value. The mean results for Engelenburg's
zones must naturally have some of the sources of uncertainty reduced ;
but then the fundamental idea represented by the arrangement in
zones is open to question. The majority of the data in Table XVII.
are taken from Engelenburg, but the phase angles have been altered
so as to apply to westerly declination. The stations are arranged in
order of latitude from north to south ; in a few instances results are
given for quiet days. The figures represent in all cases arithmetic
means derived from the 12 monthly values. In the table, so far as is
known, the local mean time of the observatory has been employed.
This is a point requiring attention, because most observatories
July.
(From Pkil. Trans.)
FIG. 7.
figures from the terms possessing the periods 24, 12, 8 and 6 hours
ic physical significance and general utility of the analysis is some-
what problematical. In the case of the magnetic elements, the 24
and 12 hour terms are usually much the more important; the
4-hour term is generally, but by no means always, the larger of
: two. The c constants give the amplitudes of the harmonic
terms or waves, the a constants the phase angles. An advance
f I hour in the time of occurrence of the first (and subsequent, if
any) maximum and minimum answers to an increase of 15 in on
D in aj, of 45 in a,, of 60 in a and so on. In the case of
nagnetic elements the phase angles not infrequently possess a
somewhat large annual variation. It is thus essential for a minute
study of the phenomena at any station to carry out the analysis
the different seasons of the year, and preferably for the individual
months. If the a and b constants are known for all the individual
employ Greenwich time, or time based on Greenwich or some other
national observatory, and any departure from local time enters into
the values of the constants. The data for Victoria Land refer to
the" Discovery's" 1902-1903 winter quarters, where the declination,
taken westerly, was about 2O7-5.
As an example of the significance of the phase angles in Table
XVII., take the ordinary day data for Kew. The times of occur-
rence of the maxima are given by t +234 =450 for the 24-hour
term, 2/+39-7=9O or =450 for the 12-hour term, and so on,
taking an hour in t as equivalent to 15.
Thus the times of the maxima are:
24-hour term, 2 h. 24 m. p.m.; 1 2-hour term, I h. 41 m. a.m.
and p.m.
8-hour term, 4 h. 41 m. a.m., o h. 41 m. p.m., and 8 h. 41 m. p.m.
6-hour term, o h. 33 m. a.m. and p.m., and 6 h. 33 m. a.m. and p.m.
3 68
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
The minima, or extreme easterly positions in the waves, lie midway
between successive maxima. All four terms, it will be seen, have
maxima at some hour between oh. 3om. and 2h. 3om. p.m. They
thus reinforce one another strongly from I to 2 p.m., accounting
for the prominence of the maximum in the early afternoon.
November.
M\
December.
N
E W
(From Phil. Trans.)
FIG. 8.
The utility of a Fourier analysis depends largely on whether the
several terms have a definite physical significance. If the 24-hour
and 12-hour terms, for instance, represent the action of forces whose
distribution over the earth or whose seasonal variation is essen-
tially different, then the analysis helps to distinguish these forces,
and may assist in their being tracked to their ultimate source.
Suppose, for example, one had reason to think the magnetic diurnal
variation due to some meteorological phenomenon, e.g. heating of
the earth's atmosphere, then a comparison of Fourier coefficients,
if such existed, for the two sets of phenomena would be a powerful
method of investigation.
TABLE XVII. Amplitudes and Phase Angles for Diurnal Inequality of
Declination.
midsummer, in addition to one near midwinter. On the other hand,
the phase angle phenomena vary much for the different elements.
The 24-hour term, for instance, has its maximum earlier in winter
than in summer in the case of the declination and vertical force,
but the exact reverse holds for the inclination and the horizontal
force.
TABLE XVIII. Kew Declination: Amplitudes and Phase Angles
(local mean time).
Month.
4.
Cl.
Cs-
c t .
l.
a 2 .
as-
04.
*
i
t
/
o
o
o
January .
1-79
0-86
0-41
0-27
25I-2
29-8
254
64
February
2-41
i-ii
o-57
0-30
242-0
27-7
235
39
March
3-05
1-98
I'll
o-45
233-2
36-1
223
49
April .
3-35
2-48
1-17
o-39
224-8
39-2
228
61
May .
3-57
2-38
0-87
0-17
221-3
50-8
245
89
June . . .
3-83
2-39
0-74
0-05
212-6
46-7
239
72
July . . .
3-72
2-30
0-77
O-II
214-6
48-1
233
8
August
3-64
2-43
1-05
0-18
228-2
57-2
244
51
September
3-35
2 -O2
1-04
o-35
236-9
55-3
245
70
October .
2-69
1-69
0-92
0-48
240-I
35-6
235
65
November
1-94
I -06
0-51
0-32
248-3
28-3
247
61
December
1-61
0-81
o-35
O-2O
255-1
22-0
243
56
22. If secular change proceeded uniformly throughout the year,
the value E n of any element at_the middle of the nth month of the
year would be connected with E, the mean value for the
whole year, by the formula = E + (2-i 3)5/24, <""
where i is the secular change per annum. For the pre-
sent purpose, difference in the lengths of the months may be neglected.
If one applies to E n E the correction (2n 13)5/24 one eliminates
a regularly progressive secular change; what remains is known as
Place.
Epoch.
Cl.
Cf
Cl.
c t .
Ol.
02-
03-
a*.
Fort Rae (all) . .
1882-1883
1
18-49
/
8-22
/
1-99
1
2-07
156-5
o
41-9
o
308
o
104
(quiet) .
M
9-09
4-51
1-32
o-73
166-5
37-5
225
35
Ekatarinburg
1841-1862
2-57
81
o-73
O-22
223-3
7-4
2O4
351
Potsdam
1890-1899
2-81
90
0-83
0-31
239-9
32-6
237
49
Kew (ordinary)
1890-1900
2-91
79
0-79
0-27
234-0
39-7
239
57
Kew (quiet)
2-37
82
0-90
0-30
227-3
42-1
240
55
Falmouth (quiet) .
1891-1902
2-18
82
0-91
O-29
226-2
4-5
238
56
Pare St Maur .
1883-1899
2-70
87
0-85
0-30
238-6
32-5
235
95
Toronto . .
1842-1848
2-65
2-34
I-OO
o-33
213-7
34-9
2 3 8
350
Washington
1840-1842
2-38
1-86
0-65
o-33
223-0
26-6
223
53
Manila . . . .
1890-1900
o-53
0-58
o-43
0-17
266-3
50-7
226
89
Trivandrum
1853-1864
o-54
0-46
0-29
O-IO
289-0
49-6
114
Batavia ....
1883-1899
0-80
0-88
o-43
0-13
332-0
163-2
5
236
St. Helena . . .
1842-1847
0-68
0-61
0-63
o-34
275-8
171-4
27
244
Mauritius .
1876-1890
0-86
I'll
0-76
0-22
21-6
172-7
350
161
C. of G. Hope . .
1841-1846
I-I5
I-I3
0-80
o-35
287-7
156-0
35i
193
Melbourne .
1858-1863
2-52
2-45
1-23
o-35
27-4
176-7
9
193
Hobart .
1841-1848
2-29
2-15
0-87
0-32
33-6
170-8
349
185
S. Georgia .
1882-1883
2-13
1-28
0-76
0-31
30-3
185-3
7
1 80
Victoria Land (all).
1902-1903
20-51
4-81
I-2I
1-32
I58-7
306-9
292
303
,, (quieter).
..
15-34
4-5
1-24
1-18
163-8
312-9
261
21. Fourier coefficients of course often vary much with the season
of the year. In the case of the declination this is especially true
of the phase angles at tropical stations. To enter on details for a
number of stations would unduly occupy space. A fair idea of the
variability in the case of declination in temperate latitudes may be
derived from Table XVIII., which gives monthly values for Kew
derived from ordinary days of an 1 1 -year period 1890^-1900.
Fourier analysis has been applied to the diurnal inequalities of
the other magnetic elements, but more sparingly. Such results are
illustrated by Table XIX., which contains data derived from quiet
days at Kew from 1890 to 1900. Winter includes November to
February, Summer May to August, and Equinox the remaining
four months. In this case the data are derived from mean diurnal
inequalities for the season specified. In the case of the c or ampli-
tude coefficients the unit is I ' for I (inclination), and 17 for H and V
(horizontal and vertical force). At Kew the seasonal variation in the
amplitude is fairly similar for all the elements. The 24-hour and
12-hour terms tend to be largest near midsummer, and least near
midwinter; but the 8-hour and 6-hour terms have two well-marked
maxima near the equinoxes, and a clearly marked minimum near
the annual inequality. If only a short period of years is dealt with,
irregularities in the secular change from year to year, or errors of
observation, may obviously simulate the effect of a real annual in-
equality. Even when a long series of years is included, there is
always a possibility of a spurious inequality arising from annual
variation in the instruments, or from annual change in
the conditions of observation. J. Liznar, 21 from a study
of data from a number of stations, arrived at certain mean
results for the annual inequalities in declination and incli-
nation in the northern and southern hemispheres, and
J. Hann K has more recently dealt with Liznar's and
newer results. Table XX. gives a variety of data, includ-
ing the mean results given by Liznar and Hann. In the
case of declination + denotes westerly position ; in the
case of inclination it denotes a larger dip (whether the
inclination be north or south). According to Liznar
declination in summer is to the west of the normal posi-
tion in both hemispheres. The phenomena, however, at
Pare St Maur are, it will be seen, the exact opposite of
what Liznar regards as normal ; and whilst the Potsdam
results resemble his mean in type, the range of the in-
equality there, as at Pare St Maur, is relatively small.
Of the three sets of data given for Kew the first two are
derived in a similar way to those for other stations; the
first set are based on quiet days only, the second on all
but highly disturbed days. Both these sets of results
are fairly similar in type to the Pare St Maur results,
but give larger ranges; they are thus even more opposed
to Liznar's normal type. The last set of data for Kew
is of a special kind. During the II years 1890 to 1900
the Kew declination magnetograph showed to within l'
the exact secular change as derived from the absolute
observations; also, if any annual variation existed
in the position of the base lines of the curves it was
exceedingly small. Thus the accumulation of the daily non-cyclic
changes shown by the curves should closely represent the combined
TABLE XIX. Kew Diurnal Inequality: Amplitudes and Phase
Angles (local mean time).
Cl.
Cl.
c,.
c t .
i-
02.
03.
a t .
[Winter .
I <. Equinox
[ Summer
0-240
0-601
0-801
0-222
O-29O
0-322
0-104
0-213
0-172
0-076
0-127
0-070
o
250-0
290-3
312-5
91-8
135-5
155-5
o
344
4
39
o
194
207
238
("Winter .
H*l Equinox
[ Summer
3-62
10-97
14-85
3-86
5-87
6-23
1-81
3-32
2-35
I-I3
1-84
o-95
82-9
109-6
130-3
277-3
303-5
3I6-5
154
167
199
6
16
41
["Winter .
V-^ Equinox
|_ Summer
2-46
6-15
8-63
1-67
4-70
6-45
0-86
2-51
2-24
0-42
0-94
o-55
153-9
117-2
I22-O
300-8
272-3
272-4
1 08
99
IOO
280
289
285
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
369
effects of secular change and annual inequality. Eliminating the
secular change, we arrive at an annual inequality, Abased on all days
of the year including the highly disturbed. It is this annual in-
equality which appears under the heading i. It is certainly very
unlike the annual inequality derived in the usual way. Whether the
ililTerence is to be wholly assigned to the fact that highly disturbed
clays contribute in the one case, but not in the other, is a question
for future research.
In the case of the inclination, Liznar found that in both hemispheres
the dip (north in the northern, south in the southern hemisphere)
was larger than the normal when the sun was in perihelion, correspond-
ing to an enhanced value of the horizontal force in summer in the
northern hemisphere.
In the case of annual inequalities, at least that of the declination,
also in the case of the horizontal force at least in the case of the
annual term both at Kew and Falmouth. The phenomena at the
two stations show a remarkably close parallelism. At both, and
this is true also of the absolute ranges, the maximum of the annual
term falls in all cases near midsummer, the minimum near mid-
winter. The maxima of the 6-month terms fall near the equinoxes.
24. Allusion has already been made in 14 to one point which
requires fuller discussion. If we take a European station such as
Kew, the general character of, say, the declination does Absolute
not vary very much with the season, but still it does Range
vary. The principal minimum of the day, fof instance,
occurs from one to two hours earlier in summer than in winter. Let us
suppose for a moment that all the days of a month are exactly alike,
the difference in type between successive months coming in per
TABLE XX. Annual Inequality.
Declination.
Inclination.
Liznar,
N. Hemi-
sphere.
Potsdam,
1891-1906.
Pare St
Maur,
1888-1897.
Kew (1890-1900).
Batavia,
1883-1893.
Mauritius.
Liznar &
Hann's
mean.
Potsdam.
Pare St.
Maur.
Kew.
9-
0.
5.
i
i
/
/
f
/
/
/
/
/
t
f
January
-0-25
+0-04
+O-OI
+0-08
+0-03
+0-32
+0-23
+0-06
+0-49
+0-32
+0-44
-0-03
February
-0-54
O-II
o-oo
+0-48
+0-25
O-2O
+0-19
+0-29
+Q-39
+0-56
+0-29
0-07
March
-0-27
+0-04
+0-17
+0-03
+0-05
I -O2
0-12
+0-27
+O-2O
+0-38
+0-13
+0-53
April
May
-0-03
+0-19
-fO-IO
+0-07
+O-I2
O-II
-0-31
-0-39
0-14
-0-28
0-90
+0-29
O-II
-0-30
+0-30
+0-08
O-08
-0-43
O-O2
0-29
-0-13
-o-37
+0-1 8
-0-15
June
+0-46
+0-13
O-I4
-0-47
-0-39
+0-78
-0-13
0-19
0-70
-0-77
-0-59
-o-35
uly
+0-48
+0-14
-0-17
-0-30
-0-13
+0-44
-0-08
-0-44
-0-72
0-67
-0-27
-0-13
August
+0-47
+O-II
+0-01
+0-08
+0-05
+0-52
-0-18
-0-38
-0-47
-0-23
0-05
0-19
September
+0-31
+O-OI
o-oo
+0-29
+0-24
0-02
+0-06
0-06
0-06
+0-16
+O-OI
+0-2O
October
0-07
O-II
+0-09
+0-06
-fo-oi
0-26
+0-03
0-04
+0-31
-fo-27
+0-19
0-00
November
-0-30
-0-28
-0-05
+0-17
+O-II
O-O2
+0-08
O-OI
+0-51
+0-30
+0-43
+0-1 8
December
-0-36
0-14
+0-05
+0-26
+0-23
+0-05
+0-35
+0-06
+0-55
+0-19
+0-24
0-29
Range
i -02
0-42
o-34
o-95
0-64
I -80
0-65
0-74
1-27
1-33
1-03
0-88
it is a somewhat suggestive fact that the range seems to become less
as we pass from older to more recent results, or from shorter to longer
periods of years. Thus for Paris from 1821 to 1830 Arago deduced
a range of 2' 9". Quiet days at Kew from 1890 to 1894 gave a range
of i'-2, while at Potsdam Ludeling got a range 30% larger than that
in Table XX. when considering the shorter period 1891-1899. Up
to the present, few individual results, if any, can claim a very high
degree of certainty. With improved instruments and methods it
may be different in the future.
23. The inequalities in Table XX. may be analysed as has in
fact been done by Hann in a series of Fourier terms, whose periods
are the year and its submultiples. Fourier series can
also be formed representing the annual variation in the
Annual
to " amplitudes of the regular diurnal inequality, and its
cffkkats.
"component 24-hour, 12-hour, &c. waves, or of the
amplitude of the absolute daily range ( 24). To secure
the highest theoretical accuracy, it would be necessary in calculating
the Fourier coefficients to allow for the fact that the " months "
from which the observational data are derived are not of uniform
h. The mid-times, however, of most months of the year a*re
but slightly displaced from the position they would occupy if the
12 months were exactly equal, and these displacements are usually
neglected. The loss of accuracy cannot be but trifling, and the
simplification is considerable.
The Fourier series may be represented by
Pi sin (<+9i)+Pj sin (2/+0 2 ) +
where t is time counted from the beginning of the year, one month
being taken as the equivalent of 30, PI, Pj represent the amplitudes,
and 0i, 81 the phase angles of the first two terms, whose periods
are respectively 12 and 6 months. Table XXI. gives the values of
these coefficients in the case of the range of the regular diurnal
inequality for certain specified elements and periods at Kew "
and Falmouth."" In the case of PI and P the 'unit is i' for D and
I, and ly for H and V. M denotes the mean value of the range for
the 12 months. The letters q and o represent quiet and ordinary day
results. S max. means the years 1892-1895, with a mean sun spot
frequency of 75-0. S min. for Kew means the years 1890, 1899 and
1900 with a mean sun spot frequency of 9-6; for Falmouth it means
the years 1899-1902 with a mean sun spot frequency of 7-25.
Increase in 9i or 0j means an earlier occurrence of the maximum
or maxima, i answering roughly to one day in the case of the 12-
month term, and to half a day in the case of the 6-month term.
Pi/M and Pj/M both increase decidedly as we pass from years of
many to years of few sun spots; i.e. relatively considered the range
of the regular diurnal inequality is more variable throughout the
year when sun spots are few than when they are many.
The tendency to an earlier occurrence of the maximum as we pass
from quiet days to ordinary days, or from years of sun spot minimum
to years of sun spot maximum, which appears in the table, appears
saltum. Suppose further that having formed twelve diurnal inequal-
ities from the days of the individual months of the year, we deduce
a mean diurnal inequality for the whole year by combining these
twelve inequalities and taking the mean. The hours of maximum
and minimum being different for the twelve constituents, it is
obvious that the resulting maximum will normally be less than the
arithmetic; mean of the twelve maxima, and the resulting minimum
(arithmetically) less than the arithmetic mean of the twelve minima.
The range or algebraic excess of the maximum over the minimum
in the mean diurnal inequality for the year is thus normally less than
the arithmetic mean of the twelve ranges from diurnal inequalities
for the individual months. Further, as we shall see later, there are
differences in type not merely between the different months of the
year, but even between the same months in different years. Thus
the range of the mean diurnal inequality for, say,' January based
on the combined observations of, say, eleven Januarys may be and
generally will be slightly less than the arithmetic mean of the
ranges obtained from the Januarys separately. At Kew, for instance,
taking the ordinary days of the n years 1890-^1900, the arithmetic
mean of the diurnal inequality ranges of declination from the 132
months treated independently was 8'-52, the mean range from the
12 months of the year (the eleven Januarys being combined into one,
TABLE XXI. Annual Variation of Diurnal Inequality Range.
Fourier Coefficients.
P,.
P,.
01.
0.
Pi/M
P./M.
Kew
1890-1900
Do
g-
ifc
3-36
3'8i
'0-67
13-6
11-7
0-94
1-22
0-16
3-o
2-2
279
275
264
269
282
280
273
269
261
242"
0-40
0-47
0-42
0-48
0-63
O-II
0-15
O-IO
O-II
0-12
Smax.
D,
Kew
Falmouth
4-50
4-10
1-26
I-4O
277 l
277
282"
286
0-47
o-43
0-13
0-15
Smin.
D,
Kew
Falmouth
3-35
3'9
I-IO
1-14
274
275
269
277
0-49
0-49
0-16
0-17
and so on) was 8'-44, but the mean range from the whole 4,000 odd
days superposed was only S'-oi. Another consideration is this:
a diurnal inequality is usually based on hourly readings, and the
range deduced is thus an under-estimate unless the absolute
maximum and minimum both happen to come exactly at an hour.
These considerations would alone suffice to show that the absolute
range in individual days, i.e. the difference between the alge-
braically largest and least values of the element found any
time during the 24 hours, must on the average exceed the
37
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
range in the mean diurnal inequality for the year, however
this latter is formed. Other causes, moreover, are at work
tending in the same direction. Even in central Europe, the
magnetic curves for individual days of an ordinary month often
differ widely amongst themselves, and show maxima and minima at
different times of the day. In high latitudes, the variation from day
to day is sometimes so great that mere eye inspection of magneto-
graph curves may leave one with but little idea as to the probable
shape of the resultant diurnal curve for the month. Table XXII.
gives the arithmetic mean of the absolute daily ranges from a few
stations. The values which it assigns to the year are the arithmetic
25. The variability of the absolute daily range of declination is
illustrated by Table XXIII., which contains data for Kew " derived
from all days of the ll-year period 1890-1900. It gives the total
number of times during the II years when the absolute range lay
within the limits specified at the heads of the first nine columns of
figures. The two remaining columns give the arithmetic means of
the five largest and the five least absolute ranges encountered each
month. The mean of the twelve monthly diurnal inequality ranges
from ordinary days was only 8'-44, but the absolute range during the
1 1 years exceeded 20' on 492 days, 15' on 1196 days, and 10' on 2784
days, i.e. on 69 days out of every loo.
TABLE XXII. Mean Absolute Daily Ranges (Units i' for Declination, 17 for H and V).
Declination.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year.
Pavlovsk
Ekatarinburg
13-42
7-^3
17-20
Q-S4
18-22
II-OO
17-25
12-89
17-76
I v6^
I5-9I
IVO1
16-89
12-78
16-57
12-21
16-75
1 1 '2\
I5-70
9 >A A
1387
7-86
12-37
6-8=
'5-99
Kew. All days
Ordinary days
Quiet
Zi-ka-wei
11-16
10-14
6-12
V88
13-69
II-87
7-57
V25
15-93
14-19
10-59
6-22
15-00
14-24
11-84
7 -O4
14-90
I3-85
12-09
7-15
I3-65
13-26
"95
7-4O
I4-I3
13-47
1 1 -60
7-77
I4-22
I3-67
"93
8-06
H-57
13-71
10-86
6-7-?
14-07
13-10
9-16
4-68
11-71
10-40
6-54
2-Ql
9-80
9-00
5-08
2-C2
13-57
12-58
9-61
c.A-l
6'Q1
7-7Q
7-II
5-75
4-8?
4-OA
4-^6
6-00
6-28
6-71
6-78
6-11
Horizontal force.
Pavlovsk
Ekatarinburg
Mauritius
52-4
33-2
17-Q
74-5
43-i
ivo
79-1
48-4
16-2
80- 1
5'-7
?7'6
86-2
56-2
^S'O
79-0
54-1
^4-1
86-7
56-7
-8
77-6
5i-7
"?4-S
76-7
49-3
16-6
67-3
44-1
-17-4.
55-7
34-i
37-8
45-9
29-3
ic.i
tj
71-8
46-0
7C.Q
Vertical force.
Pavlovsk
Ekatarinburg
27-0
17-4
5-4
26-6
54-7
2Q-2
43-2
lO'I
45-3
29-6
34-8
27-6
42-1
2O-6
35-5
26-1
42-5
2V2
37-5
22' I
33-5
IQ'6
25-5
l6'4
39-3
I7-I
ID'S
2O- 1
17-^
i6-s
I^-S
I7-I
22-O
22-7
IQ'J.
16-7
I ^-2
18-2
means of the 12 monthly values. The Mauritius data are for differ-
ent periods, viz. declination 1875, 1880 and 1883 to 1890, horizontal
force 1883 to 1890, vertical force 1884 to 1890. The other data
are all for the period 1890 to 1900.
A comparison of the absolute ranges in Table XXII. with the
inequajity ranges for the same stations derivable from Tables VIII.
to X. is most instructive. At Mauritius the ratio of the absolute
to the inequality range is for D 1-38, for H 1-76, and for V 1-19.
At Pavlovsk the corresponding ratios are much larger, viz. 2-16 for
D, 2-43 for H, and 2-05 for V. The declination data for Kew in
Table XXII. illustrate other points. The first set of data are derived
from all days of the year. The second omit the highly disturbed
days. The third answer to the 5 days a month selected as typically
quiet. The yearly mean absolute range from ordinary days at Kew
in Table XXI I. is I -49 times the mean inequality range in Table VIII.;
comparing individual months the ratio of the absolute to the in-
equality range varies from 2-06 in January to 1-21 in June. Even
confining ourselves to the quiet days at Kew, which are free from any
but the most trifling disturbances, we find that the mean absolute
range for the year is I -20 times the arithmetic mean of the inequality
ranges for the individual months of the year, and 1-22 times the
range from the mean diurnal inequality for the year. In this case
the ratio of the absolute to the inequality range varies from 1-55 in
December to only 1-09 in May.
26. Magnetic phenomena, both regular and irregular, at any station
vary from year to year. The extent of this variation is illustrated
in Tables XXIV. and XXV., both relating to the period
1890 to 1900." Table XXIV. gives the amplitudes of *
the regular diurnal inequality in the elements stated at p"
the head of the columns. The ordinary day declination '"*'
data (D.) for Kew represent arithmetic means from the twelve
months of the year; the other data all answer to the mean diurnal
inequality for the whole year. Table XXV. gives the arithmetic
means for each year of the absolute daily range, of the monthly
range (or difference between the highest and lowest values in the
month), and of the yearly range (or difference between the highest
and lowest values of the year). The numerals attached to the years
in these tables indicate their order as regards sun-spot frequency
according to Wolf and Wolfer (see AURORA POLARIS), 1893 being
the year of largest frequency, and 1890 that of least. The differ-
ence in sun-spot frequency between 1897 and 1898 was microscopic;
the differences between 1890, 1900 and 1899 were small, and those
between 1893, 1894 and 1892 were not very large.
The years 1892-1895 represent high sun-spot frequency, while
1890, 1899 and 1900 represent low frequency. Table XXIV. shows
that 1892 to 1895 were in all cases distinguished by the large size of
the inequality ranges, and 1890, 1899 and 1900 by the small size.
The range in 1893 is usually the largest, and though the H and V
TABLE XXIII. Absolute Daily Range of Declination at Kew.
Number of occasions during n years when absolute range was:
Means from the 5 largest
and 5 least ranRcs of the
month on the average of
ii years.
o' to 5'.
5'toio'.
lo'tois'.
1 5' to 20'.
20' to 25'.
25' to 30'.
30' to 35'.
35' to 40'.
over 40'.
5 largest.
5 least.
/
t
January ....
February ....
2i
H5
99
69
84
37
51
24
26
7
10
4
4
3
2
I
8
22-90
27-21
5-07
6-55
March
I
72
138
61
32
21
8
I
7
29-87
8-93
April
O
43
167
73
27
IO
6
3
i
23-69
10-31
May
O
57
157
85
20
12
3
o
7
25-36
9-50
June
56
185
67
15
I
3
i
2
19-92
9-89
July
59
185
70
14
5
2
2
4
22-49
9.96
August ....
O
37
202
75
22
i
2
2
21-27
10-05
September
I
68
153
71
19
5
4
5
4
24-55
9-52
October ....
3
'03
III
67
34
IO
ii
2
o
23-92
8-01
November ....
December ....
42
64
140
166
81
56
28
29
H
14
9
7
8
I
5
i
3
3
23-58
20-43
5-64
4-36
Totals ....
1 88
1045
1588
7H
261
98
56
25
42
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
ranges at Ekaterinburg are larger in 1892 than in 1893, the excess
is trifling. The phenomena apparent in Table XXIV. are fairly
representative ; other stations and other periods associate large
inequality ranges with high sun-spot frequency. The diurnal
inequality range it should be noticed is comparatively little influenced
by irregular disturbances. Coming to Table XXV., we have ranges
of a different character. The absolute range at Kew on quiet days
is almost as little influenced by irregularities as is the range of the
diurnal inequality, and in its case the phenomena are very similar
to those observed in Table XXIV. As we pass from left to right
in Table XXV., the influence of disturbance increases. Simul-
taneously with this, the parallelism with sun-spot frequency is less
close. The entries relating to 1892 and 1894 become more and more
TABLE XXIV. Ranges of Diurnal Inequalities.
Pavlovsk.
Ekatarinburg.
Kew.
D.
I.
H.
D.
I.
H.
V.
D,.
I,.
H,
D..
/
/
7
f
'
T
7
t
/
y
/
1890,,
6-32
'33
22
5-83
05
18
9
6-90
20
7-32
1891,
7-31
1-79
30
6-85
38
25
14
8-04
52
28
8-48
18923
8-75
2-21
37
7-74
72
32
19
9-50
66
31
9-85
18931
9-64
2-24
38
8-83
80
3'
17
10-06
96
35
10-74
18942
8-58
2-17
38
7-80
73
30
17
9-32
94
34
9-80
18954
8-22
2-08
33
7-29
64
28
15
8-59
66
3
9-54
1896*
7-39
77
29
6-50
38
25
15
7'77
31
25
8-50
1897,
6-79
59
26
6-01
16
21
12
6-71
14
22
7-76
1898,
6-25
56
26
5-76
19
21
II
6-85
07
21
7-59
1890.
6-O2
44
24
5-33
12
2O
II
6-69
or
21
7-30
190010
6-2O
28
22
5-88
o-93
17
8
6-52
06
21
6-83
prominent compared to those for 1893. The yearly range may de-
pend on but a single magnetic storm, the largest disturbance of the
year possibly far outstripping any other. But taking even the
monthly ranges the values for 1893 are, speaking roughly, only half
those for 1892 and 1894, and very similar to those of 1898, though
the sun-spot frequency in the latter year was less than a third of that
in 1893. Ekatarinburg data exactly analogous to those for Pav-
lovsk show a similar prominence in 1892 and 1894 as compared to
TABLE XXV. Absolute Ranges.
paper gives curves representing the phenomena over the whole
56 years. This period covered five complete sun-spot periods, and
the approximate synchronism of the maxima and minima, and the
general parallelism of the magnetic and sun-spot changes is patent
to the eye. Ellis 27 has also applied an analogous method to investi-
gate the relationship between sun-spot frequency and the number of
days of magnetic disturbance at Greenwich. A decline in the num-
ber of the larger magnetic storms near sun-spot minimum is recog-
nizable, but the application of the method is less successful than
in the case of the inequality range. Another method, initiated by
Professor Wolf of Zurich, lends itself more readily to the investigation
of numerical relationships. He started by supposing an exact
proportionality between corresponding changes in sun-spot frequency
and magnetic range. This is expressed mathematically by the
formula
Kew Declina-
tion. Daily.
Daily.
Monthly.
Yearly.
9-
0.
a.
D.
H.
V.
D.
H.
V.
D.
H.
V.
/
1
r
7
y
/
y
y
/
y
y
1890,,
8-3
10-5
10-7
I2-I
49
21
28-2
118
80
42-1
169
179
1891,
10-0
12-8
13-7
16-0
7
39
46-3
218
233
92-3
550
614
18923
12-3
15-4
i'-7
21-0
in
73
93-6
698
575
194-0
2416
1385
18931
u-8
15-2
15-6
I 7 -8
79
4i
48-3
241
210
87-1
5H
457
18942
"3
14-7
16-5
20-4
97
62
84-1
493
493
145-6
1227
878
1895.
10-6
14-8
15-6
18-1
80
46
47-4
220
223
73'9
395
534
I896 S
9'5
12-9
14-5
17-5
74
43
52-4
232
236
88-7
574
608
18979
8-2
1 1 -5
I2-I
14-6
61
30
43-8
201
170
IOI-I
449
480
1898,
8-2
II-2
12-3
14-7
67
35
46-6
2 7 6
242
118-9
1136
888
1899,
7'9
1 0-5
"3
I3'l
58
27
38-3
I 7 8
150
63-8
382
*27
1900,0
7'4
8-9
9-2
10-5
44
16
32-8
134
89
94-2
457
365
Means
9-6
12-6
13-6
16-0
72
39
5i-i
274
246
100-2
752
629
1893. The retirement of 1893 from first place, seen in the absolute
ranges at Kew, Pavlovsk and Ekatarinburg, is not confined to the
northern hemisphere. It is visible, for instance, in the amplitudes
of the Batavia disturbance results. Thus though the variation from
year to year in the amplitude of the absolute ranges is relatively not
less but greater than that of the inequality ranges, and though the
general tendency is for all ranges to be larger in years of many than
in years of few sun-spots, still the parallelism between the changes
in sun-spot frequency and in magnetic range is not so close for the
absolute ranges and for disturbances as for the inequality ranges.
i 27. The relationship between magnetic ranges and sun-spot
frequency has been investigated in several ways. W. Ellis 2 * has
employed a graphical method which has advantages, especially for
tracing the general features of the resemblance, and is besides inde-
pendent of any theoretical hypothesis. Taking time for the axis
of abscissae, Ellis drew two curves, one having for its ordinates the
sun-spot frequency, the other the inequality range of declination
or of horizontal force at Greenwich. The value assigned in the
magnetic curve to the ordinate for any particular month represents
a mean from 12 months of which it forms a central month, the object
being to eliminate the regular annual variation in the diurnal in-
equality. The sun-spot data derived from Wolf and Wolfer were
similarly treated. Ellis originally dealt with the period 1841 to
1877, but subsequently with the period 1878101896, and his second
where R denotes the magnetic range, S the corresponding sun-spot
frequency, while a and b are constants. The constant a represents
the range for zero sun-spot frequency, while bja is the proportional
increase in the range accompanying unit rise in sun-spot frequency.
Assuming the formula to be true, one obtains from the observed
values of R and S numerical values for a and b, and can thus investi-
gate whether or not the sun-spot influence is the same for the different
magnetic elements and for different places. Of course, the useful-
ness of Wolf's formula depends largely on the accuracy with which
it represents the facts. That it must be at least a rough approxima-
tion to the truth in the case of the diurnal inequality at Greenwich
might be inferred Yrom Ellis's curves. Several possibilities should
be noticed. The formula may apply with high accuracy, a and 6
having assigned values, for one or two sun-spot cycles, and yet not
be applicable to more remote periods. There are only three or four
stations which have continuous magnetic records extending even
50 years back, and, owing to temperature correction uncertainties,
there is perhaps no single one of these whose earlier records of
horizontal and vertical force are above criticism. Declination is
less exposed to uncertainty, and there are results of eye observations
of declination before the era of photographic curves. A change,
however, of i' in declination has a significance which alters with the
intensity of the horizontal force. During the period 1850-1900
horizontal force in England increased about 5%, so that the force
requisite to produce a declination change of 19' in 1900 would in
1850 have produced a deflection of 20'. It must also be re-
membered that secular changes of declination must alter the
angle between the needle and any disturbing force acting in
a fixed direction. Thus secular alteration in a and a is
rather to be anticipated, especially in the case of the declina-
tion. Wolf's formula has been applied by Rajna a to the
yearly mean diurnal declination ranges at Milan based on
readings taken twice daily from 1836 to 1894, treating the
whole period together, and then the period 1871 to 1894
separately. During two sub-periods, 1837-1850 and 1854-
1867, Rama's calculated values for the range differ very
persistently in one direction from those observed; Wolf's
formula was applied by C. Chree 24 to these two periods
separately. He also applied it to Greenwich inequality
ranges for the years 1841 to 1896 as published by Ellis,
treating the whole period and the last 32 years of it separ-
ately, and finally to all (a) and quiet (q) day Greenwich
ranges from 1889 to 1896. The results of these applications
of Wolf's formula appear in Table XXVI.
The Milan results are suggestive rather of heterogeneity
in the material than of any decided secular change in a or
6. The Greenwich data are suggestive of a gradual fall in a,
and rise in b, at least in the case of the declination.
Table XXVII. gives values of a, 6 and b/a in Wolf's formula
calculated by Chree 26 for a number of stations. There are two sets
of data, the first set relating to the range from the mean diurnal
inequality for the year, the second to the arithmetic mean of the
ranges in the mean diurnal inequalities for the twelve months.
It is specified whether the results were derived from all or from quiet
days.
TABLE XXVI. Values of a and b in Wolf's Formula.
Milan.
Greenwich.
Epoch.
Declination
(unit i').
Epoch.
Declination
(unit I').
Horizontal Force
(unit 17).
a.
6.
a.
b.
a.
6.
1836-94
1871-94
1837-50
1854-67
5-31
5-39
6-43
4-62
047
047
041
047
1841-96
1865-96
1889-96(0)
1889-96(5)
7-29
7-07
6-71
6-36
377
0396
0418
0415
26-4
23-6
23-7
25-0
190
215
218
213
As explained above, a would represent the range in a year of no
sun-spots, while 100 b would represent the excess over this shown by
the range in a year when Wolfer's sun-spot frequency is 100. Thus
372
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
TABLE XXVII. Values of a and b in Wolf's Formula.
Declination
(unit l').
Inclination
(unit l')-
Horizontal Force
(unit 17).
Vertical Force
(unit 17).
Diurnal Inequality for the Year.
a.
6.
too b/a.
a.
b.
loo b/a.
a.
b.
ioob/a.
a.
b.
1 00 ft/0.
Pavlovsk, 1890-1900 all
Pavlovsk, 1890-1900 quiet
Ekatarinburg, 1890-1900 . . . .all
Irkutsk . . . all
Kew . . . quiet
Falmouth, 1891-1902 quiet
Kolaba, 1894-1901 quiet
Batavia 1887-1898 all
5-74
6-17
5-29
4-82
6-10
5-90
2-37
2-47
4-06
0400
0424
0342
0358
0433
0451
0066
0179
0164
70
69
65
74
9
28
72
40
1-24
0-93
0-97
0-87
3-60
0126
0105
0087
0125
0218
I -01
I-I3
0-90
1-45
0-61
20-7
2O-6
16-8
18-2
18-1
20-1
31-6
38-7
15-0
211
195
182
I9O
194
233
28l
274
096
I-O2
o-95
1-09
1-04
1-07
1-16
0-89
0-71
0-64
8-1
5'9
8-6
6-5
H-3
19-4
30-1
n-9
265
027
117
071
081
072
156
069
3-26
0-46
i'37
1-09
0-56
o-37
0-52
0-58
*/f <.- < 1875-1880 )
Mauritius j , 8 ^_ l89O | -all
Mean from individual months :
Pavlovsk, 1890-1900 all
quiet
Ekatarinburg, 1890-1900 . . .all
Greenwich, 1865-1896 . . . .all
Kew, 1890-1900 all
,, quiet
6-81
6-52
6-18
7-07
6-65
6-49
6-16
0446
0442
0355
0396
0428
0410
0450
66
68
' 5 f
56
64
63
73
1-44
I-I2
I-I7
0151
OI2O
0130
1-05
i -06
i-n
22-8
22-2
I9-2
23-6
2i-'s
20-9
243
208
195
215
191
236
1-07
0-94
I-OI
0-91
0-89
1-13
9'7
7-0
9-2
16-0
287
044
156
072
2-97
0-63
1-70
o-45
Falmouth, 1891-1902 quiet
b/a seems the most natural measure of sun-spot influence. Accept-
ing it, we see that sun-spot influence appears larger at most places
for inclination and horizontal force than for declination. In the
case of vertical force there is at Pavlovsk, and probably in a less
measure at other northern stations, a large difference between all
and quiet days, which is not shown in the other elements. The
difference between the values of b/a at different stations is also
exceptionally large for vertical force. Whether this last result is
wholly free from observational uncertainties is, however, open to
some doubt, as the agreement between Wolf's formula and observa-
tion is in general somewhat inferior for vertical force. In the case
of the declination, the mean numerical difference between the
observed values and those derived from Wolf's formula, employing
the values of a and b given in Table XXVI I., represented on the aver-
age about 4 % of the mean value of the element for the period con-
sidered, the probable error representing about 6 % of the difference
between the highest and lowest values observed. The agreement
was nearly, if not quite, as good as this for inclination and horizontal
force, but for vertical force the corresponding percentages were
nearly twice as large.
Applying Wolf's formula to the diurnal ranges for different months
of the year, Chree found, as was to be anticipated, that the constant
a had an annual period, with a conspicuous minimum at midwinter;
but whilst ft also varied, it did so to a much less extent, the conse-
quence being that 6/a showed a minimum at midsummer. The
annual variation in b/a alters with the place, with the element, and
with the type of day from which the magnetic data are derived.
Thus, in the case of Pavlovsk declination, whilst the mean value of
loo b/a for the 12 months is, as shown in Table XXVII., 0-66 for all
and 0-68 for quiet days values practically identical if we take the
four midwinter and the four midsummer months separately.we have
loo b/a, varying from 0-81 in winter to 0-52 in summer on all days,'
but from 1-39 in winter to 0-52 in summer on quiet days. In the
case of horizontal force at Pavlovsk the corresponding figures to
these are for all days winter 1-77, summer 0-98, but for quiet days
winter 1-83, summer 0-71.
Wolf's formula has also been applied to the absolute daily ranges,
to monthly ranges, and to various measures of disturbance. In
these cases the values found for b/a are usually larger than those
found for diurnal inequality ranges, but the accordance between
observed values and those calculated from Wolf's formula is less
good. If instead of the range of the diurnal inequality we take the
sum of the 24-hourly differences from the mean for the day or,
what comes to the same thing, the average departure throughout the
24 hours from the mean value for the day we find that the resulting
Wolf's formula gives at least as good an agreement with observation
as in the case of the inequality range itself. The formulae obtained
in the case of the 24 differences, at places as wide apart as Kew and
Batavia, agreed in giving a decidedly larger value for ft/a than that
obtained from the ranges. This indicates that the inequality curve
is relatively less peaked in years of many than in years of few sun-
spots.
28. The applications of Ellis's and Wolf's methods relate directly
only to the amplitude of the diurnal changes. There is, however, a
change not merely in amplitude but in type. This is clearly seen
when we compare the values found in years of many and of few sun-
spots for the Fourier coefficients in the diurnal inequality. Such
a comparison is carried out in Table XXVIII. for the declination
on ordinary days at Kew. Local mean time is used. The heading
S max. (sun-spot maximum) denotes mean average results from the
four years 1892-1895, having a mean sun-spot frequency of 75-0, whilst
S min. (sun-spot minimum) applies similarly to the years 1890, 1899
and 1900, having a mean sun-spot frequency of only 9-6. The data
relate to the mean diurnal inequality for the whole year or for the
season stated. It will be seen that the difference between the c,
or amplitude, coefficients in the S max. and S min. years is greater
for the 24-hour term than for the 12-hour term, greater for the 12-
hour than for the 8-hour term, and hardly apparent in the 6-hour
term. Also, relatively considered, the difference between the ampli-
tudes in S max. and S min. years is greatest in winter and least in
summer. Except in the case of the 6-hour term, where the differences
are uncertain, the phase angle is larger, i.e. maxima and minima
occur earlier in the day, in years of S min. than in years of S max.
Taking the results for the whole year in Table XXVIII., this advance
of phase in the S min. years represents in time 15-6 minutes for the
24-hour term, 9-4 minutes for the 12-hour term, and 14-7 minutes
for the 8-hour term. The difference in the phase angles, as in the
amplitudes, is greatest in winter. Similar phenomena are shown
by the horizontal force, and at Falmouth 24 as well as Kew.
TABLE XXVIII. Fourier Coefficients in Years of many and few
Sun-spots.
Year.
Winter.
Equinox.
Summer.
Smax.
Smin.
S max.
Smin.
Smax.
Smin.
Smax.
Smin.
Cl
3'47
2-04
0-89
0-28
2-21
I-5I
0-72
0-27
2-41
I-I5
o-55
0-30
1-43
0-78
0-42
0-27
3-76
2-33
1-16
0-42
2-41
1-71
0-97
0-42
4-38
2-73
o-97
O-II
'2-06
0-77
O-II
O
O
O
o
o
o
o
ai
a 3
228-5
41-7
232-6
58-0
232-4
46-6
243-6
57-3
243-0
23-5
234-0
52-3
256-0
257-6
60-8
231-3
40-6
228-4
62-0
233-7
43-9
236-2
58-2
218-2
50-6
236-8
57-4
220-3
52-5
245-4
45-2
29. There have already been references to quiet days, for instance
in the tables of diurnal inequalities. It seems to have been originally
supposed that quiet days differed from other days only Ou/et Day
in the absence of irregular disturbances, and that mean p.
annual values, or secular change data, or diurnal inequal-
ities, derived from them might be regarded as truly normal or repre-
sentative of the station. It was found, however, by P. A. Miiller **
that mean annual values of the magnetic elements at St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk from 1873 to 1885 derived from quiet days alone
differed in a systematic fashion from those derived from all days,
and analogous results were obtained by Ellis * at Greenwich for the
period 1889-1896. The average excesses for the quiet-day over the
all-day means in these two cases were as follows:
Westerly
Declination.
Inclination.
Horizontal
Force.
Vertical
Force.
St Petersburg
Greenwich
+0-24
+0-08
-0-23
+3-27
+3-37
-o-8r
-0-97
The sign of the difference in the case of D, I and H was the same in
each year examined by Miiller, and the same was true of H at Green-
wich. In the case of V, and of D at Greenwich, the differences are
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
small and might be accidental. In the case of D at Greenwich 1891
differed from the other years, and of two more recent years examined
by Kills" one, 1904, agreed with 1891. At Kew, on the average of
the 1 1 years 1890 to 1900, the quiet-day mean annual value of declina-
tion exceeded the ordinary day value, but the apparent excess o -02
is too small to possess much significance.
Another property more recently discovered in quiet days is the
non-cyclic change. The nature of this phenomenon will be readily
understood from the following data from the u-year
Non-cyclic period iggo to 1900 at Kew 32 . The mean daily change
Change. f or a n j ays ; s calculated from the observed annual
change.
D.
I.
H.
V.
Mean annual change
-5-79
-2-38
+25-97
22-67
Mean daily change, all days
Meandaily change, quiet days
0-016
+0-044
0-007
-0-245
+0-077
+3-347
0-067
-0-847
Thus the changes during the representative quiet day differed from
those of the average day. Before accepting such a phenomenon
as natural, instrumental peculiarities must be carefully considered.
The secular change is really based on the absolute instruments, the
diurnal changes on the magnetographs, and the first idea likely to
occur to a critical mind is that the apparent abnormal change on
quiet days represents in reality change of zero in the magnetographs.
If, however, the phenomenon were instrumental, it should appear
equally on days other than quiet days, and we should thus have a
shift of zero amounting in a year to over 1,2007 in H, and to about
90' in I. Under such circumstances the curve would be continually
drifting off the sheet. In the case of the Kew magnetographs, a
careful investigation showed that if any instrumental change occurred
in the declination magnetograph during the 1 1 years it did not exceed
a few tenths of a minute. In the case of the H and V magnetographs
at Kew there is a slight drift, of instrumental origin, due to weaken-
ing of the magnets, but it is exceedingly small, and in the case of
H is in the opposite direction to the non-cyclic change on quiet
days. It only remains to add that the hypothesis of instrumental
origin was positively disproved by measurement of the curves on
ordinary days.
It must not be supposed that every quiet day agrees with the aver-
age quiet day in the order of magnitude, or even in the sign, of the
non-cyclic change. In fact, in not a few months the sign of the non-
cyclic change on the mean of the quiet days differs from that
obtained for the average quiet day of a period of years. At
Kew, between 1890 and 1900, the number of months during which
the mean non-cyclic change for the five quiet days selected by the
astronomer royal (Sir W. H. M. Christie) was plus, zero, or minus,
was as follows :
Element.
D.
I.
H.
V.
Number +
o
63
14
55
13
16
IOI
112
II
9
47
9
74
The + sign denotes westerly movement in the declination, and in-
creasing dip of the north end of the needle. In the case of I and
H the excess in the number of months showing the normal sign is
overwhelming. The following mean non-cyclic changes on quiet
days are from other sources :
Element.
Greenwich
(1890-1895).
Falmouth
(1898-1902).
Kolaba
(1894-1901).
D
H
/
+ 0-03
+ 4-3-X
/
+ 0-05
+ 3-07
/
+ 0-07
+ 3-97
The results are in the same direction as at Kew, + meaning in
the case of D movement to the west. At Falmouth 32 , as at
Kew, the non-cyclic change showed a tendency to be small in years
of few sun-spots.
30. In calculating diurnal inequalities from quiet days the non-
cyclic effect must be eliminated, otherwise the result would depend
on the hour at which the " day " is supposed to commence. If the
value recorded at the second midnight of the average day exceeds
that at the first midnight by N, the elimination is effected by apply-
ing to each hourly value the correction N(i2-n)/24, where n is the
hour counted from the first midnight (o hours). This assumes
the change to progress uniformly throughout the 24 hours. Unless
this is practically the case a matter difficult either to prove or
disprove the correction may not secure exactly what is aimed at.
This method has been employed in the previous tables. The fact
that differences do exist between diurnal inequalities derived from
quiet days and all ordinary days was stated explicitly in 4, and is
obvious in Tables VIII. to XI. An extreme case is represented by
373
the data for Jan Mayen in these tables. Figs. 9 and 10 are vector
diagrams for this station, for all and for quiet days during May, June
and July 1883, according to data got put by Liideling. As shown
sy the arrows, fig. 10 (quiet days) is in the main described in the
normal or clockwise direction, but fig. 9 (all days) is described in
;he opposite direction. Liideling found this peculiar difference
21
FIG. 9. FIG. 10.
aetween all and quiet days at all the north polar stations occupied
.n 1882-1883 except Kingua Fjord, where both diagrams were
described clockwise.
In temperate latitudes the differences of type are much less, but
still they exist. A good idea of their ordinary size and character
in the case of declination may be derived from Table XXIX., con-
taining data for Kew, Greenwich and Pare St Maur.
The data for Greenwich are due to W. Ellis' , those for Pare
St Maur to T. Moureaux ". The quantity tabulated is the algebraic
excess of the all or ordinary day mean hourly value over the corre-
ponding quiet day value in the mean diurnal inequality for the
year. At Greenwich and Kew days of extreme disturbance have
been excluded from the ordinary days, but apparently not at Pare
St Maur. The number of highly disturbed days at the three stations
is, however, small, and their influence is not great. The differences
disclosed by Table XXIX. are obviously of a systematic character,
which would not tend to disappear however long a period was
utilized. In short, while the diurnal inequality from quiet days
may be that most truly representative of undisturbed conditions,
it does not represent the average state of conditions at the station.
To go into full details respecting the differences between all and quiet
days would occupy undue space, so the following brief summary of
the differences observed in declination at Kew must suffice. While
the inequality range is but little different for the two types of days,
the mean of the hourly differences from the mean for the day is
considerably reduced in the quiet days. The 24-hour term in the
Fourier analysis is of smaller amplitude in the quiet days, and its
phase angle is on the average about 6-75 smaller than on ordinary
days, implying a retardation of about 27 minutes in the time of maxi-
mum. The diurnal inequality range is more variable throughout the
year in quiet days than on ordinary days, and the same is true of
the absolute ranges. The tendency to a secondary minimum in the
range at midsummer is considerably more decided on ordinary than
on quiet days. When the variation throughout the year in the
diurnal inequality range is expressed in Fourier series, whose periods
are the year and its submultiples, the 6-month term is notably larger
for ordinary than for quiet days. Also the date of the maximum in
the 12-month term is about three days earlier for ordinary than for
quiet days. The exact size of the differences between ordinary and
quiet day phenomena must depend to some extent on the criteria
employed in selecting quiet days and in excluding disturbed days.
This raises difficulties when it comes to comparing results at different
stations. For stations near together the difficulty is trifling. The
astronomer royal's quiet days nave been used for instance at Pare
St. Maur, Val Joyeux, Falmouth and Kew, as well as at Greenwich.
But when stations are wide apart there are two obvious difficulties:
first, the difference of local time; secondly, the fact that a day may
be typically quiet at one station but appreciably disturbed at the
other.
If the typical quiet day were simply the antithesis of a disturbed
day, it would be natural to regard the non-cyclic change on quiet
days as a species of recoil from some effect of disturbance. This view
derives support from the fact, pointed out long ago by Sabine",
that the horizontal force usually, though by no means always, is
lowered by magnetic disturbances. Dr van Bemmelen" who has
examined non-cyclic phenomena at a number of stations, seems
disposed to regard this as a sufficient explanation. There are,
however, difficulties in accepting this view. Thus, whilst the non-
cyclic effect in horizontal force and inclination at Kew and Falmouth
appeared on the whole enhanced in years of sun-spot maximum,
the difference between years such as 1892 and 1894 on the one hand,
and 1890 and 1900 on the other, was by no means proportional
to the excess of disturbance in the former years. Again, when the
average non-cyclic change of declination was calculated at Kew for
207 days, selected as those of most marked irregular disturbance
between 1890 and 1900, the sign actually proved to be the same as for
the average quiet day of the period.
374
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
TABLE XXIX. All or Ordinary, less Quiet Day Hourly Values ( +
Forenoon.
Afternoon.
Hour.
Kew
Greenwich
Pare St Maur
Kew
Greenwich
Pare St Maur
1890-1900.
1890-1894.
1883-1897.
1890-1900.
1890-1894.
1893-1897.
I
-0-58
-0-59
-0-63
+0-42
+0-44
+0-40
2
-0-54
-0-47
-0-47
+0-52
+0-45
+0-50
3
-0-51
-0-31
-0-32
+o-57
+0-52
+0-59
4
0-41
-0-23
0-16
+0-60
+0-51
+0-55
5
-0-28
O-IO
O-OI
+0-46
+0-34
+0-38
6
-0-08
+O-I2
+0-I8
+O-2I
+0-04
+0-07
7
+0-13
+0-30
+0-34
O-O6
0-24
-0-25
8
+0-29
+0-48
-f-o-47
-0-27
-0-50
-0-54
9
+0-40
+0-56
+0-53
-0-47
-0-68
-0-74
10
+0-44
+0-58
+0-51
0-61
-0-78
-0-79
n
+0-48
+0-50
+0-44
0-62
-0-77
-0-79
12
+0-45
+0-44
+0-38
-0-54
0-61
0-67
Disturb-
ances.
31. A satisfactory definition of magnetic disturbance is about
as difficult to lay down as one of heterodoxy. The idea in its
fc generality seems to present no difficulty, but it is a very
different matter when one comes to details. Amongst
the chief disturbances recorded since 1890 are those of
February 13-14 and August 12, 1892; July 20 and
August 20, 1894; March 15-16, and September 9, 1898; October 31,
1903; February 9-10, 1907; September 11-12, 1908 and Sep-
tember 25, 1909. On such days as these the oscillations shown
by the magnetic curves are large and rapid, aurora is nearly always
visible in temperate latitudes, earth currents are prominent, and
there is interruption sometimes very serious in the transmission
of telegraph messages both in overhead and underground wires.
At the other end of the scale are days on which the magnetic curves
show practically no movement beyond the slow regular progression
of the regular diurnal inequality. But between these two extremes
there are an infinite variety of intermediate cases. The first serious
attempt at a precise definition of disturbance seems due to General
Sabine 36 . His method had once an extensive vogue, and still
continues to be applied at some important observatories. Sabine
regarded a particular observation as disturbed when it differed from
the mean of the observations at that hour for the whole month
by not less than a certain limiting value. His definition takes
account only of the extent of the departure from the mean, whether
the curve is smooth at the time or violently oscillating makes no
difference. In dealing with a particular station Sabine laid down
separate limiting values for each element. These limits were the
same, irrespective of the season of the year or of the sun-spot
frequency. A departure, for example, of 3'-3 at Kew from the mean
value of declination for the hour constituted a disturbance, whether
it occurred in December in a year of sun-spot minimum, or in June
in a year of sun-spot maximum, though the regular diurnal inequality
range might be four times as large in the second case as in the first.
The limiting values varied from station to station, the size depending
apparently on several considerations not very clearly defined. Sabine
subdivided the disturbances in each element into two classes: the
one tending to increase the element, the other tending to diminish
it. He investigated how the numbers of the two classes varied
throughout the day and from month to month. He also took
account of the aggregate value of the disturbances of one sign, and
traced the diurnal and annual variations in these aggregate values.
He thus got two sets of diurnal variations and two sets of annual
variations of disturbance, the one set depending only on the number
of the disturbed hours, the other set considering only the aggregate
value of the disturbances. Generally the two species of disturbance
variations were on the whole fairly similar. The aggregates of the
+ and disturbances for a particular hour of the day were seldom
equal, and thus after the removal of the disturbed values the mean
value of the element for that hour was generally altered. Sabine's
complete scheme supposed that after the criterion was first applied,
the hourly means would be recalculated from the undisturbed
values and the criterion applied again, and that this process would
be repeated until the disturbed observations all differed by not less
than the accepted limiting value from the final mean based on
undisturbed values alone. If the disturbance limit were so small
that the disturbed readings formed a considerable fraction of the
whole number, the complete execution of Sabine's scheme would
be exceedingly laborious. As a matter of fact, his disturbed readings
were usually of the order of 5 % of the total number, and unless in
the case of exceptionally large magnetic storms it is of little conse-
quence whether the first choice of disturbed readings is accepted
as final or is reconsidered in the light of the recalculated hourly
means.
Sabine applied his method to the data obtained during the decade
1840 to 1850 at Toronto, St Helena, Cape of Good Hope and Hobart,
also to data for Pekin, Nertchinsk, Point Barrow, Port Kennedy
and Kew. C. Chambers " applied it to data from Bombay. The
yearly publication of the Batavia observatory gives corresponding
to the West), results for that station, and Th. Moureaux 33 has
published similar data for Pare St Maur. Tables
XXX. to XXXII. are based on a selection of these
data. Tables XXX. and XXXI. show the annual
variation in Sabine's disturbances, the monthly
values being expressed as percentages of the arith-
metic mean value for the 12 months. The Pare
St Maur and Batavia data, owing to the long periods
included, are especially noteworthy. Table XXX
deals with the east (E) and west (W) disturbances
of declination separately. Table XXXI., dealing
with disturbances in horizontal and vertical force,
combines the + and disturbances, treated numeri-
cally. At Pare St Maur the limits required to
qualify for disturbance were 3'-o in D, 207 in H,
and 127 in V; the corresponding limits for Batavia
were i'-3, 117 and 117. The limits for D at
Toronto, Bombay and Hobart were respectively 3'-6,
I '-4 and 2'-4-
At Pare St Maur the disturbance data from
all three elements give distinct maxima near the
equinoxes; a minimum at midwinter is clearly
shown, and also one at midsummer, at least in D and H. A
decline in disturbance at midwinter is visible at all the stations,
but at Batavia the equinoctial values for D and V are inferior to
those at midsummer.
Table XXXII. shows in some cases a most conspicuous diurnal
variation in Sabine's disturbances. The data are percentages of
TABLE XXX. Annual Variation of Disturbances
(Sabine's numbers).
Pare St Maur
Toronto'
Bombay
Batavia
Hobart
1883-97.
1841-48.
1859-65-
1883-99.
1843-48.
Month.
E.
W.
E.
W.
E.
W.
E.
W.
E.
W.
January .
February .
78
1 16
60
92
55
75
66
86
89
94
89
67
1 80
138
223
144
165
121
182
116
March
126
107
92
94
129
97
102
87
114
104
April . .
105
"3
"5
114
106
129
67
73
110
1 02
May .
101
118
101
IOI
63
99
72
71
62
53
June .
77
89
95
72
78
81
45
27
32
37
July . .
82
104
140
126
121
173
62
46
50
49
August .
88
"3
137
133
154
131
69
69
86
78
September
134
137
163
139
III
1 08
135
144
135
114
October .
119
"5
IOI
in
140
128
95
88
124
123
November
99
94
73
85
43
43
1 06
91
79
in
December
75
58
5i
72
72
55
124
137
123
'30
the totals for the whole 24 hours. But whilst at Batavia the easterly
and westerly disturbances in D vary similarly, at Pare St Maur
they follow opposite laws, the easterly showing a prominent maximum
near noon, the westerly a still more prominent maximum near mid-
night. The figures in the second last line of the table, if divided
by 0-24, will give the percentage of hours which show the species of
disturbance indicated. For instance, at Pare St Maur, out of 100
hours, 3 show disturbances to the west and 3-7 to the east; or in all
6-7 show disturbances of declination. The last line gives the average
size of a disturbance of each type, the unit being i' in D and 17 in
H and V.
At Batavia disturbances increasing and decreasing the element are
about equally numerous, but this is exceptional. Easterly disturb-
ances of declination predominated at Toronto, Point Barrow, Fort
Kennedy, Kew, Pare St Maur, Bombay and the Falkland Islands
whilst the reverse was true of St Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Pekin
and Hobart. At Kew and Pare St Maur the ratios borne by the
TABLE XXXI. Annual Variation of Disturbances.
Pare St Maur.
Toronto.
Batavia.
Month.
Numbers.
Aggregates.
Numbers.
Aggregates.
H.
V.
H.
V.
H.
V.
H.
V.
January .
February
81
96
51
133
58
94
56
74
96
105
151
123
89
no
154
125
March
126
118
94
108
116
105
"7
103
April . .
94
in
150
149
104
76
105
73
May .
1 08
133
90
112
IOI
92
IOS
95
June . . .
90
85
36
5
82
6p
79
66
July . . .
99
128
61
71
90
83
95
81
August .
H3
92
75
1 08
9i
91
98
QI
September .
119
122
171
160
"3
III
114
H5
October . .
November .
IOI
104
94
81
148
98
129
75
114
99
89
I O2
104
IOO
86
IOI
December
70
5i
128
IOO
89
1 08
84
no
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
TABLE XXXII. Diurnal Variation of Disturbances (Sabine's numbers).
Pare St Maur.
Batavia.
Hour.
D.
H.
V.
D.
H.
V.
E.
W.
+
-
+
-
E.
W.
4-
-
+
-
o-3
IO-I
20-3
9-0
8-3
5-7
9-2
i-i
5-8
13-1
6-6
4-0
7-4
3-6
12-3
8-2
8-4
8-0
6-4
10-4
7-6
7'3
14-2
4-8
6-3
IO-0
6-9
15-7
3-8
14-1
12-5
7-2
9-0
24-9
16-8
I2-I
9.9
21-2
21-7
9 noon
16-2
5-1
18-0
i.S'6
12-9
15-4
38-5
33-o
8-6
15-8
19-8
16-4
noon 3
19-3
6-7
15-3
16-5
18-2
18-3
18-8
24-7
16-8
2I-I
23-5
22-1
3-6
14-8
97
12-5
'5-4
22-9
21-8
6-4
5-4
13-3
16-9
12-6
12-7
6-9
5-7
21-2
11-4
13-2
18-9
II-2
2-3
3-4
9'9
13-6
7'I
4-1
9-12
5-9
25-0
II-2
10-5
7-8
4-7
0-4
3-8
12-0
II'I
5-6
5-4
Mean number /
0-88
0-72
MS
1-56
1-04
0-96
0-46
0-44
1-62
1-61
1-19
1-13
per day . ]
Mean size
1-72
1-09
18-0
'9-5
ib-7
15-5
eastern to the western disturbances were 1-19 and 1-23 respectively,
and so not much in excess of unity ; but the preponderance of easterly
disturbances at the North American " stations was considerably
larger than this.
32. From the point of view of the surveyor there is a good deal
to be said for Sabine's definition of disturbance, but it is less satis-
factory from other standpoints. One objection has been already
indicated, viz. the arbitrariness of applying the same limiting value
at a station irrespective of the size of the normal diurnal range at
the time. Similarly it is arbitrary to apply the same limit between
10 a.m. and noon, when the regular diurnal variation is most rapid,
as between 10 p.m. and midnight, when it is hardly appreciable.
There seems a distinct difference of phase between the diurnal
inequalities on different types of days at the same season; also
the phase angles in the Fourier terms vary continuously throughout
the year, and much more rapidly at some stations and at some
seasons than at others. Thus there may be a variety of phenomena
which one would hesitate to regard as disturbances which contribute
to the annual and diurnal variations in Tables XXX. to XXXII.
Sabine, as we have seen, confined his attention to the departure
of the hourly reading from the mean for that hour. Another and
equally natural criterion is the apparent character of the magneto-
graph curve. At Potsdam curves are regarded as " I " quiet, " 2 "
moderately disturbed, or " 3 " highly disturbed. Any hourly value
to which the numeral 3 is attached is treated as disturbed, and the
annual Potsdam publication contains tables giving the annual and
diurnal variations in the number of such disturbed hours for D, H and
V. According to this point of view, the extent to which the hourly
value departs from the mean for that hour is immaterial to the
results. It is the greater or less sinuosity and irregularity of the curve
that counts. Tables XXXIII. and XXXIV. give an abstract of
the mean Potsdam results from 1892 to 1901. The data are per-
centages: in Table XXXIII. of the mean monthly total, in Table
XXXlV. of the total for the day. So far as the annual variation
is concerned, the results in Table XXXIII. are fairly similar to those
in Table XXX. for Pare St Maur. There are pronounced maxima
near the equinoxes, especially the spring equinox. The diurnal
TABLE XXXIII. Annual Variation of Potsdam Disturbances.
375
variations, however, in Tables XXXII.
and XXXIV. are dissimilar. Thus in
the case of H the largest disturbance
numbers at Pare St Maur occurred be-
tween 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., whereas in
Table XXXIV. they occur between
4 p.m. and midnight. Considering the
comparative proximity of Pare St
Maur and Potsdam, one must conclude
that the apparent differences between
the results for these two stations are
due almost entirely to the difference
in the definition of disturbance.
One difficulty in the Potsdam pro-
cedure is the maintenance of a uniform
standard. Unless very frequent refer-
ence is made t, the curves of some
standard year there must be a ten-
dency to enter under " 3 " in quiet
years a number of hours which would
be entered under " 2 " in a highly
disturbed year. Still, such a source of
uncertainty is unlikely to have much influence on the diurnal, or
even on the annual, variation.
33. A third method of investigating a diurnal period in disturb-
ances is to form a diurnal inequality from disturbed days alone, and
compare it with the corresponding inequalities from ordinary or
from quiet days. Table XXXV. gives some declination data for Kew,
the quantity tabulated being the algebraic excess of the disturbed
day hourly value over that for the ordinary day in the mean diurnal
inequality for the year, as based on the n years 1890 to 1900.
The disturbed day inequality was corrected for non-cyclic change
in the usual way. Fig. 1 1 shows the results of Table XXXV. graphi-
cally. The irregularities are pre-
sumably due to the limited number, +2"
209, of disturbed days employed ; to
get a smooth curve would require
probably a considerably longer period
of years. The differences between
disturbed and ordinary days at Kew
are of the same general character as
those between ordinary and quiet
days in Table XXIX.; they are,
however, very much larger, the range
in Table XXXV. being fully si times
that in Table XXIX. If quiet days
had replaced ordinary days in Table
XXXV., the algebraic excess of the
disturbed day would have varied
from +2'-7 at 2 p.m. to 4'-! at
ii p. m., or a range of 6'-8.
at
Element.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
D
H
V
129
109
1 06
170
133
171
149
131
170
90
102
1 08
86
109
121
57
82
56
62
94
64
64
9i
74
99
89
93
118
101
87
94
75
78
82
84
70
Mean
"5
158
ISO
IOO
105
65
73
76
94
1 02
82
79
TABLE XXXIV. Diurnal Variation of Potsdam Disturbances.
Hours.
>-3-
4-6.
7-9-
lo-noon.
1-3-
4-6.
7-9-
IO-I2.
D
H
V
14-9
10-5
13-5
II-I
8-4
9-7
8-0
8-0
5'7
5-2
8-5
47
57
"3
8-5
'3-I
17-6
17-2
22-5
19-2
21-5
19-5
16-5
19-2
Mean
13-0
9-7
7-2
6-1
8-5
16-0
2I-I
18-4
TABLE XXXV. Disturbed Day less ordinary Day Inequality (Unit i',-f-to West).
Hour.
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
a.m.
p.m.
-3'4
+ 1-8
-2-6
+ 2-2
2-O
4-2-1
-0-3
4-1-7
+ i-6
+ 1-4
+ 1-9
o-o
+2-3
->-3
4-2-0
-2-8
4-2-1
-3-5
4-2-0
-2-6
4-1-6
-3-5
-t-i-8
-2-4
34. When the mean diurnal inequality in declination for the year
Kew is analysed into Fourier waves, the chief difference, it will
be remembered, between ordinary and quiet days was that the ampli-
tude of the 24-hour term was enhanced in the ordinary days, whilst
its phase angle indicated an earlier occurrence of the maximum.
Similarly, the chief difference between the Fourier waves for the
disturbed and ordinary day inequalities at Kew is the increase in
the amplitude of the 24-hour term in the former by over 70%, and
the earlier occurrence of its maximum by
about i hour 50 minutes. It is clear from
these results for Kew, and it is also a neces-
sary inference from the differences ob-
tained by Sabine's method between east
and west or + and disturbances, that
there is present during disturbances some
influence which affects the diurnal inequality
in a regular systematic way, tending to
make the value of the element higher during
some hours and lower during others than it
is on days relatively free from disturbance.
At Kew the consequence is a notable in-
crease in the range of the regular diurnal
inequality on disturbed days; but whether
this is the general rule or merely a local
peculiarity is a subject for further research.
35. There are still other ways of attack-
ing the problem of disturbances. W. Ellis n
made a complete list of disturbed days at
Greenwich from 1848 onwards, arranging
them in classes according to the amplitude
of the disturbance shown on the curves.
Of the 18,000 days which he considered,
Ellis regarded 2,119, or only about 12%,
as undisturbed. On 11,898 days, 01
66%, the disturbance movement in de-
clination was under 10'; on 3614, or
20%, the disturbance, though exceeding
10', was under 30'; on 294 days it lay
376
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
between 30' and 60'; while on 75 days it exceeded 60'. Taking each
class of disturbances separately, Ellis found, except in the case oi
his " minor " disturbances those under 10' a distinct double
annual period, with maxima towards the equinoxes. Subsequently
C. W. Maunder, 38 making use of these same data, and of subsequent
data up to 1902, put at his disposal by Ellis, came to similar conclu-
sions. Taking all the days with disturbances of declination over
10', and dealing with 15-day periods, he found the maxima of fre-
quency to occur the one a little before the spring equinox, the other
apparently after the autumnal equinox; the two minima were found
to occur early in June and in January. When the year is divided into
three seasons winter (November to February), summer (May to
August), and equinox Maunder's figures lead to the results assigned
to Greenwich disturbed days in Table XXXVI. The frequency
in winter, it will be noticed, though less than at equinox, is con-
siderably greater than in summer. This greater frequency in winter
is only slightly apparent in the disturbances over 60', but their
number is so small that this may be accidental. The next figures
in Table XXXVI. relate to highly disturbed days at Kew. The
larger relative frequency at Kew in winter as compared to summer
probably indicates no real difference from Greenwich, but is simply
a matter of definition. The chief criterion at Kew for classifying
the days was not so much the mere amplitude of the largest move-
ment, as the general character of the day's curve and its departure
from the normal form. The data in Table XXXVI. as to magnetic
storms at Greenwich are based on the lists given by Maunder 39 in the
Monthly Notices, R.A.S. A storm may last for any time from a few
hours to several days, and during part of its duration the disturbance
may not be very large; thus it does not necessarily follow that the
frequencies of magnetic storms and of disturbed days will follow
the same laws. The table shows, however, that so far as Greenwich
is concerned the annual variations in the two cases are closely alike.
In addition to mean data for the whole 56 years, 1848 to 1903, Table
XXXVI. contains separate data for the 14 years of that period which
represented the highest sun-spot frequency, and the 15 years which
represented lowest sun-spot frequency. It will be seen that rela-
tively considered the seasonal frequencies of disturbance are more
nearly equal in the years of many than in those of few sun-spots.
Storms are more numerous as a whole in the years of many sun-spots,
and this preponderance is especially true of storms of the largest size.
This requires to be borne in mind in any comparisons between larger
and smaller storms selected promiscuously from a long period.
An unduly large proportion of the larger storms will probably come
from years of large sun-spot frequency, and there is thus a risk of
assigning to differences between the laws obeyed by large and small
storms phenomena that are due in whole or in part to differences
between the laws followed in years of many and of few sun-spots.
The last data in Table XXXVI. are based on statistics for Batavia
given by W. van Bemmelen, 40 who considers separately the storms
which commence suddenly and those which do not. These sudden
movements are recorded over large areas, sometimes probably all
over the earth, if not absolutely simultaneously, at least too nearly
so for differences in the time of occurrence to be shown by ordinary
magnetographs. It is ordinarily supposed that these sudden move-
ments, and the storms to which they serve as precursors, arise from
some source extraneous to the earth, and that the commencement
of the movement intimates the arrival, probably in the upper atmo-
sphere, of some form of energy transmitted through space. In the
storms which commence gradually the existence of a source external
to the earth is not so prominently suggested, and it has been some-
times supposed that there is a fundamental difference between the
two classes of storms. Table XXXVI. shows, however, no certain
difference in the annual variation at Batavia. At the same time,
this possesses much less significance than it would have if Batavia
were a station like Greenwich, where the annual variation in magnetic
storms is conspicuous.
Besides the annual period, there seems to be also a well-marked
diurnal period in magnetic disturbances. This is apparent in Tables
XXXVII. and XXXVIII., which contain some statistics for Batavia
due to van Bemmelen, and some for Greenwich derived from the
data in Maunder's papers referred to above. Table XXXVII.
gives the relative frequency of occurrence for two hour intervals,
starting with midnight, treating separately the storms of gradual
(g) and sudden (s) commencement. In Table XXXVIII. the day
is subdivided into three equal parts. Batavia and Greenwich agree
in showing maximum frequency of beginnings about the time of
minimum frequency of endings and conversely; but the hours at
which the respective maxima and minima occur at the two places
differ rather notably.
36. There are peculiarities in the sudden movements ushering
in magnetic storms which deserve fuller mention. According to
van Bemmelen the impulse consists usually at some stations of a
sudden slight jerk of the magnet in one direction, followed
by a larger decided movement in the opposite direction, the former
being often indistinctly shown. Often we have at the very com-
mencement but a faint outline, and thereafter a continuous movement
which is only sometimes distinctly indicated, resulting after some
minutes in the displacement of the trace by a finite amount from
the position it occupied on the paper before the disturbance began.
TABLE XXXVI. Disturbances, and their Annual Distribution.
Total
I
'ercentage
Number.
Winter.
Equinox.
Summer.
Greenwich disturbed days,
all, 1848-1902 .
Greenwich disturbed davs,
4.2H
33-9
39-2
26-9
range 10' to 30', 1848-
1902 ....
38^O
1 1'd
Greenwich disturbed days,
>o u
06 9
39'
27-1
range 30' to 60', 1848-
1902 ....
3O7
1A C
Greenwich disturbed days,
O u /
o4 5
41 *o
24-4
range over 60', 1848-
1902
77
on.n
A T.A
oft A
Kew highly disturbed days,
/ /
*9 y
4 i o
2o'D
1890-1900 ....
Greenwich magnetic
209
38-3
4 i-6
20-1
storms, all, 1848^-1903 .
Greenwich magnetic
726
32-1
42-3
25-6
storms, range 20' to 30',
1848-1903 ....
Greenwich magnetic
392
30-1
43-6
26-3
storms, range over 30',
1848-1903 ....
Greenwich magnetic
334
34-4
40-7
24-9
storms, all, 14 years of
S. max. .
2 c8
1 C- 1
lfl,f\
/r T
Greenwich magnetic
-=00
35 3
30'O
2t>'7
storms, all, 15 years of
S. min. .
127
28-4
yift.n
O-7 A
Batavia magnetic storms,
x */
40 u
23-0
all, 1883-1899 . . .
Batavia magnetic storms
1,008
32-9
34-9
32-2
of gradual commence-
ment.
6*70
I'y A
5-1. ft
f> ft
Batavia magnetic storms
/y
3 2 4
34 "o
3 2 o
of sudden commence-
ment.
1?O
1 1 *7
o^y
33 7
35'3
31-0
This may mean, as van Bemmelen supposes, a small preliminary
movement in the opposite direction to the clearly shown displace-
ment-^ but it may only mean that the magnet is initially set in
vibration, swinging on both sides of the position of equilibrium,
the real displacement of the equilibrium position being all the
time in the direction of the displacement apparent after a few
minutes. To prevent misconception, the direction of the dis-
placement apparent after a few minutes has been termed the direc-
TABLE XXXVII. Batavia Magnetic Storms, Diurnal
Distribution (percentages).
Hour.
2
4
6
8
IO
12
H
16
18
20
22
Beginning
S
g
5
7
5
5
5
7
6
10
20
IO
16
ii
7
IO
5
8
6
8
9
9
8
8
8
7
Maximum
12
10
6
5
4
9
9
6
6
6
12
15
End
ill
H
15
16
b
19
2
13
2
5
9
3
9
6
5
5
8
4
IO
5
13
4
16
5
tion of the first decided movement in Table XXXIX., which contains
some data as to the direction given by Ellis 41 and van Bemmelen.*
The + sign means an increase, the sign a decrease of the element.
The sign is not invariably the same, it will be anderstood, but there
are in all cases a marked preponderance of changes in the direction
shown in the table. The fact that all the stations indicated an
increase in horizontal force is of special significance.
TABLE XXXVIII. Greenwich Magnetic Storms, Diurnal
Distribution.
Epoch.
End
( 1848-1903
j 1882-1903
Class.
all
sudden
all
sudden
Total
Number.
721
276
77
720
276
77
Percentages.
1-8 p.m.
60- 1
58-0
45-4
9-4
7'2
11-7
9 p. m.-
4a.m.
21-9
18-8
27-3
44-6
41-7
35-1
5 a.m.-
noon.
18-0
23-2
27-3
46-0
5i-i
53-2
37. That large magnetic disturbances occur simultaneously
over large areas was known in the time of Gauss, on whose initiative
observations were taken at 5-minute intervals at a number of stations
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
on prearranged term days. During March 1879 and August 1880
some large magnetic storms occurred, and the magnetic curve?
showing these at a number of stations fitted with Kew pattern
magnetographs were compared by W. G. Adams." He found the
more characteristic movements to be, so far as could be judged,
simultaneous at all the stations. At comparatively near stations
TABLE XXXIX. Direction of First Decided Movement.
Place.
Declination.
Horizontal Force.
Vertical Force.
Pavlovsk
dam
( Irrenwich
Xi-ka-wei
Kolaba
Hatavia
Mauritius
Cape Horn
West
West
West
East
East
West
East
West
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
such as Stonyhurst and Kew, or Coimbra and Lisbon, the curves
were in general almost duplicates. At Kew and St Petersburg
there were usually considerable differences in detail, and the move-
ments were occasionally in opposite directions. The differences
brtwcen Toronto, Melbourne or Zi-ka-wei and the European
stations were still more pronounced. In 1896, on the initiative
of M. Eschenhagen, 43 eye observations of declination and horizontal
force were taken at 5-second intervals during prearranged hours at
Batavia, Manila, Melbourne and nine European stations. The data
from one of these occasions when appreciable disturbance prevailed
\\riv published by Eschenhagen, and were subsequently analysed
by Ad\ Schmidt." Taking the stations in western Europe, Schmidt
drew several series of lines, each series representing the disturbing
forces at one instant of time as deduced from the departure of the
elements at the several stations from their undisturbed value.
The lines answering to any one instant had a general sameness of
direction with more or less divergence or convergence, but their
general trend varied in a way which suggested, to Schmidt the
passage of a species of vortex with large but finite velocity.
The conclusion that magnetic disturbances tend to follow one
another at nearly equal intervals of time has been reached by
several independent observers. J. A. Broun* 6 pronounced for a
periijd of about 26 days, and expressed a belief that a certain zone,
or zones, of the sun's surface might exert a prepotent influence on
the earth's magnetism during several solar rotations. Very similar
views were advanced in 1904 by E. W. Maunder, 39 who was wholly
unaware of Broun's work. Maunder concluded that the period
was 27-28 days, coinciding with the sun's rotation period relative
to an observer on the earth. Taking magnetic storms at Greenwich
from 1882 to 1903, he found the interval between the commencement
of successive storms to approach closely to the above period in a
considerably larger number of instances than one _would have
expected from mere chance. He found several successions of three
or four storms, and in one instance of as many as six storms, showing
his interva). In a later paper Maunder reached similar results
for magnetic storms at Greenwich from 1848 to 1881. Somewhat
earlier than Maunder, Arthur Harvey 46 deduced a period of 27-246
days from a consideration of magnetic disturbances at Toronto.
A. Schuster, 47 examining Maunder's data mathematically, concluded
that they afforded rather strong evidence of a period of about
i (27-28) or 13-6 days. Maunder regarded his results as demon-
strating that magnetic disturbances originate in the sun._ _He
regarded the solar action as arising from active areas of limited
extent on the sun's surface, and as propagated along narrow, well
defined streams. The active areas he believed to be also the seats
of the formation of sun-spots, but believed that their activity
might precede and outlive the visible existence of the sun-spot.
Maunder did not discuss the physical nature of the phenomenon,
but his views are at least analogous to those propounded somewhat
earlier by Svante Arrhenius, 48 who suggested that small negatively
charged particles are driven from the sun by the repulsion of light
and reach the earth's atmosphere, setting up electrical currents,
manifest in aurora and magnetic disturbances. Arrhenius's cal-
culations, for the size of particle which he regarded as most probable,
make the time of transmission to the earth slightly under two days.
Amongst other theories which ascribe magnetic storms to direct
solar action may be mentioned that of Kr. Birkeland, 49 who believes
the vehicle to be cathode rays. Ch. Nordmann 60 similarly has
suggested Rontgen rays. Supposing the sun the ultimate source,
it would be easier to discriminate between the theories if the exact
time of the originating occurrence could be fixed. For instance, a
disturbance that is propagated with the velocity of light may be
due to Rontgen rays, but not to Arrhenius's particles. In support of
his theory, Nordmann mentions several cases when conspicuous
visual phenomena on the sun have synchronized with magnetic
movements on the earth the best known instance being the ap-
parent coincidence in time of a magnetic disturbance at Kew on
the ist of September 1859 with a remarkable solar outburst seen
by R. C. Carrington. Presumably any electrical phenomenon on
the sun will set up waves in the aether, so transmission of electric
377
and magnetic disturbances from the sun to the earth with the
velocity of light is a certainty rather than a hypothesis; but it
by no means follows that the energy thus transmitted can give
rise to sensible magnetic disturbances. Also, when considering
Nordmann's coincidences, it must be remembered that magnetic
movements are so numerous that it would be singular if no apparent
coincidences had been noticed. Another consideration is that the
movements shown by ordinary magnetographs are seldom very
rapid. During some storms, especially those accompanied by
unusually bright and rapidly varying auroral displays, large to and fro
movements follow one another in close succession, the changes being
sometimes too quick to be registered distinctly on the photographic
paper. This, however, is exceptional, even in polar regions where
disturbances are largest and most numerous. As a rule, even
when the change in the direction of movement in the declination
needle seems quite sudden, the movement in one direction usually
lasts for several minutes, often for 10, 15 or 30 minutes. Thus the
cause to which magnetic disturbances are due seems in many cases
to be persistent in one direction for a considerable time.
38. Attempts have been made to discriminate between the
theories as to magnetic storms by a critical examination of the
phenomena. A general connexion between sun-spot frequency
and the amplitude of magnetic movements, regular and irregular,
is generally admitted. If it is a case of cause and effect, and the
interval between the solar and terrestrial phenomena does not
exceed a few hours, then there should be a sensible connexion
between corresponding daily values of the sun-spot frequency and
the magnetic range. Even if only some sun-spots are effective,
we should expect when we select from a series of years two groups
of days, the one containing the days of most sun-spots, the other
the days of least, that a prominent difference will exist between
the mean values of the absolute daily magnetic ranges for the
two groups. Conversely, if we take out the days of small and the
days of large magnetic range, or the days that are conspicuously
quiet and those that are highly disturbed, we should expect a
prominent difference between the corresponding mean sun-spot
areas. An application of this principle was made by Chree" to.
the five quiet days a month selected by the astronomer royal between
1890 and 1900. These days are very quiet relative to the average
day and possess a much smaller absolute range. One would thus have
expected on Birkeland's or Nordmann's theory the mean sun-spot
frequency derived from Wolfer's provisional values for these days
to be much below his mean value, 41-22, for the eleven years. It
proved, however, to be 41-28. This practical identity was as visible
in 1892 to 1895, the years of sun-spot maximum, as it was in the
years of sun-spot minimum. Use was next made of the Greenwich
projected sun-spot areas, which are the result of exact measurement.
The days of each month were divided into three groups, the first
and third each normally of ten days containing respectively the
days of largest and the days of least sun-spot area. The mean
sun-spot area from group I was on the average about five times
that for group 3. It was then investigated how the astronomer
royal's quiet days from 1890 to 1900, and how the most disturbed
days of the period selected from the Kew 14 magnetic records, dis-
tributed themselves among the three groups of days. Nineteen
months were excluded, as containing more than ten days with no
sun-spots. The remaining 113 months contained 565 quiet and 191
highly disturbed days, whose distribution was as follows:
Quiet days
Disturbed days
Group I.
Group 2.
Group 3.
1/9
68
195
65
191
58
The group of days of largest sun-spot area thus contained slightly
under their share of quiet days and slightly over their share of
disturbed days. The differences, however, are not large, and in
three years, viz. 1895, 1897 and 1899, the largest number of dis-
turbed days actually occurred in group 3, while in 1895, 1806 and
1899 there were fewer quiet days in group 3 than in group I. Taking
the same distribution of days, the mean value of the absolute daily
range of declination at Kew was calculated for the group I and the
group 3 days of each month. The mean range from the group I
days was the larger in 57% of the individual months as against
43% in which it was the smaller. When the days of each month
were divided into groups according to the absolute declination range
at Kew, the mean sun-spot area for the group I days (those of
largest range) exceeded that for the group 3 days (those of least
range) in 55% of the individual months, as against 45% of cases
in which it was the smaller.
Taking next the five days of largest and the five days of least
range in each month, sun-spot areas were got out not merely for
these days themselves, but also for the next subsequent day and the
four immediately preceding days in each case. On Arrhenius's
theory we should expect the magnetic range to vary with the sun-spot
area, not on the actual day but two days previously. The following
figures give the percentage excess or deficiency of the mean sun-spot
area for the respective groups of days, relative to the average value
for the whole epoch dealt with, n denotes the day to which the
magnetic range belongs, n+i the day after, n-i the day before, and
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
so on. Results are given for 1894 and 1895, the years which were
on the whole the most favourable and the least favourable for
Arrhenius's hypothesis, as well as for the whole eleven years.
TABLE XL.
Day.
n-4
-3
n2
ni
n
n+i
, ] 1894
Five days of 11895
+ 12
-16
+ 9
-17
+n
+ 12
12
+ n
II
+6
10
largest range j 1 1 yrs .
+ 9
+ 8
+ 8
+ 7
+ 5
+ 0-5
Five days of 1 ?|J94
least range J,?^
-15
+ 17
- 4
-I?
+ 10
- 4
-19
+ i
- 7
21
2
- 7
21
2
- 7
-19
- 4
- 6
Taking the II -year-means we have the sun-spot area practically
normal on the day subsequent to the representative day of large
magnetic range, but sensibly above its mean on that day and still
more so on the four previous days. This suggests an emission
from the sun taking a highly variable time to travel to the earth.
The n-year mean data for the five days of least range seem at first
sight to point to the same conclusion, but the fact that the deficiency
in sun-spot area is practically as prominent on the day after the
representative day of small magnetic range as on that day itself,
or the previous days, shows that the phenomenon is probably a
secondary one. On the whole, taking into account the extraordinary
differences between the results from individual years, we seem unable
to come to any very positive conclusion, except that in the present
state of our knowledge little if any clue is afforded by the extent
of the sun's spotted area on any particular day as to the magnetic
conditions on the earth on that or any individual subsequent day.
Possibly some more definite information might be extracted by
considering the extent of spotted area on different zones of the
sun. On theories such as those of Arrheniuspr Maunder, effective
bombardment of the earth would be more or less confined to spotted
areas in the zones nearest the centre of the visible hemisphere,
whilst all spots on this hemisphere contribute to the total spotted
area. Still the projected area of a spot rapidly diminishes as it
approaches the ed?e of the visible hemisphere, i.e. as it recedes
from the most effective position, so that the method employed
above gives a preponderating weight to the central zones. One
rather noteworthy feature in Table XL. is the tendency to a sequence
in the figures in any one row. This seems to be due, at least in
large part, to the fact that days of large and days of small sun-
spot area tend to occur in groups. The same is true to a certain
extent of days of large and days of small magnetic range,_but it is
unusual for the range to be much above the average for more than
3 or 4 successive days.
39. The records from ordinary magnetographs, even when run
at the usual rate and with normal sensitiveness, not infrequently show
Pulsations. a reP 61 ' 1 ' 011 f regular or nearly regular small rhythmic
movements, lasting sometimes for hours. The amplitude
and period on different occasions both vary widely. Periods of 2 to 4
minutes are the most common. W. van Bemmelen 61 has made a
minute examination of these movements from several years' traces
at Batavia, comparing the results with corresponding
statistics sent him from Zi-ka-wei and Kew. Table
XLI. shows the diurnal variation in the frequency
of occurrence of these small movements called
pulsations by van Bemmelen at these three stations.
The Batavia results are from the years 1885 and
1892 to 1898. Of the two sets of data for Zi-ka-
wei (i) answers to the years 1897, 1898 and 1900,
as given by van Bemmelen, while (ii) answers to
the period 1900-1905, as given in the Zi-ka-wei
Bulletin for 1905. The Kew data are for 1897. The
results are expressed as percentages of the total for
the 24 hours. There is a remarkable contrast be-
tween Batavia and Zi-ka-wei on the one hand and
Kew on the other, pulsations being much more
numerous by night than by day at the two former
stations, whereas at Kew the exact reverse holds.
Van Bemmelen decided that almost all the occasions
of pulsation at Zi-ka-wei were also occasions of
pulsations at Batavia. The hours of commence-
ment at the two places usually differed a little, oc-
casionally by as much as 20 minutes; but this he
ascribed to the fact that the earliest oscillations were
too small at one or other of the stations to be visible
on the trace. Remarkable coincidence between
pulsations at Potsdam and in the north of Norway
has been noted by Kr. Birkeland. 49
With magnetographs of greater sensitiveness and
more open time scales, waves of shorter period be-
come visible. In 1882 F. Kohlrausch 62 detected
waves with a period of about 12 seconds. Eschen-
hagen" observed a great variety of short period
waves, 30 seconds being amongst the most common.
Some of the records he obtained suggest the
superposition of regular sine waves of different
periods. Employing a very sensitive galvanometer to
record changes of magnetic induction through a coil traversed by
the earth's lines of force, H. Ebert 64 has observed vibrations whose
periods are but a small fraction of a second. The observations of
Kohlrausch and Eschenhagen preceded the recent great develop-
ment of applications of electrical power, while longer period waves
are shown in the Kew curves of 50 years ago, so that the existence
of natural waves with periods of from a few seconds up to several
minutes can hardly be doubted. Whether the much shorter period
waves of Ebert are also natural is more open to doubt, as it is
becoming exceedingly difficult in civilized countries to escape
artificial disturbances.
TABLE XLI. Diurnal Distribution of Pulsations.
Hours.
0-3-
3-6.
6-9.
9-Noon.
Noon-3.
3-6-
6-9.
9-12.
Batavia
Zi-ka-wei(i)
(J
Kew .
28
33
23
4
9
5
6
8
2
2
8
19
6
7
ii
H
8
4
7
22
6
4
5
18
13
10
14
ii
28
35
26
4
40. The fact that the moon exerts a small but sensible effect
on the earth's magnetism seems to have been first discovered in
1841 by C. Kreil. Subsequently Sabine 65 investigated
the nature of the lunar diurnal variation in declination
at Kew, Toronto, Pekin, St Helena, Cape of Good Hope
and Hobart. The data in Table XLII. are mostly due to Sabine.
They represent the mean lunar diurnal inequality in declination
for the whole year. The unit employed is o'-ooi, and as in our
previous tables + denotes movement to the west. By " mean
departure " is meant the arithmetic mean of the 24 hourly
departures from the mean value for the lunar day; the range is
the difference between the algebraically greatest and least of the
hourly values. Not infrequently the mean departure gives the
better idea of the importance of an inequality, especially when as
in the present case two maxima and minima occur in the day.
This double daily period is unusually prominent in the case of the
lunar diurnal inequality, and is seen in the other elements as well
as in the declination.
Lunar action has been specially studied in connexion with
observations from India and Java. Broun 66 at Trivandrum and
C. Chambers 67 at Kolaba investigated lunar action from a variety of
aspects. At Batavia van der Stok M and more recently S. Figee w
have carried out investigations involving an enormous amount of
computation. Table XLI 1 1. gives a summary of Figee "s results for
the mean lunar diurnal inequality at Batavia, for the two half-
yearly periods April to September (Winter or W.), and October to
March (S.). The + sign denotes movement to the west in the case
of declination, but numerical increase in the case of the other
elements. In the case of H and T (total force) the results for the
two seasons present comparatively small differences, but in the
case of D, I and V the amplitude and phase both differ widely.
Consequently a mean lunar diurnal variation derived from all the
months of the year gives at Batavia, and presumably at other
TABLE XLII. Lunar Diurnal Inequality of Declination (unit o'-ooi).
Lunar
Kew.
Toronto.
Batavia.
St Helena.
Cape.
Hobart.
Hour.
1858-1862.
1843-1848.
1883-1899.
1843-1847.
1842-1846.
1841-1848.
+ 103
+315
-70
- 43
148
- 98
I
+ 160
+275
-63
-~ 5
-107
-138
2
+ 140
+ 158
-39
+ 37
- 35
-142
3
+ 33
+ 2
- 8
+ 70
+ 43
-107
4
+ 10
-'S3
+38
+ 85
+ 108
- 45
5
- 67
-265
+63
+ 77
+ 140
+ 27
6
-150
-302
+87
+ 48
+ 132
+ 88
7
-188
-255
+77
+ 5
+ 82
+ 122
8
160
-137
+40
- 43
+ 5
+ I2O
9
- 78
+ 7
~ 4
- 82
+ 82
10
+ 2
+ 178
-45
102
-143
+ 17
ii
+ 92
+288
-80
- 9 8
-177
- 57
12
+ 160
+323
-87
- 73
-165
120
13
+ 188
+272
-68
- 32
112
-152
H
+ 158
+ 148
-43
+ 13
- 30
-147
15
+ 90
- 17
- 8
+ 52
+ 58
-105
16
+ 10
-180
+30
+ 73
+ 132
- 35
17
- 85
-297
+62
+ 73
+ 172
+ 45
18
-142
-337
+72
+ 52
+ 168
+ 112
19
-163
290
+68
+ 17
+ 122
+ 152
20
-147
-170
+52
- 25
+ 45
+ 152
21
-123
- 7
+ 8
- 58
- 40
+ 113
22
- 40
+ 155
-28
112
+ 47
23
+ 27
+265
-56
- 68
-153
- 30
Mean De-)
parture )
105
200
50
54
IO4
93
Range
376
660
174
187
349
34
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
379
TABLE XLIII. Lunar DiuTnal Inequality at Batavia in Winter and Summer.
Declination
Inclination, S.
H.
V.
T.
(unito'-ooi).
(unito'-ooi).
(unit 0-017).
(unit 0-017).
(unit 0-017).
Lunar
Hour.
W.
S.
W.
S.
W.
S.
W.
S.
W.
S.
+30
-170
i
+25
-IS
- 56
- 9
+ 4
- 17
-47
I
+21
-147
-23
+49
-40
- 87
-54
+20
- 61
-67
2
+ 5
- 83
-49
+69
-25
-107
-82
+37
- 62
-76
3
- 5
12
-51
+47
21
- 76
-83
+24
- 59
-55
4
+ i
+ 76
-37
+43
-13
- 59
-58
+ 18
- 39
-38
- 8
+ 134
-23
+ 12
+ 10
- 9
-27
+ n
- 4
- 3
6
7
+ 181
2
21
+21
+ 43
+ 9
- 6
+ 23
+35
7
10
+ 164
+30
12
+23
+ 45
+55
+ 8
+ 47
+43
8
7
+ 86
+36
21
+38
+ 52
+71
i
+ 68
+45
9
8
o
+28
-23
+46
+ 30
+64
-16
+ 71
+ 19
10
- 5
- 85
+34
20
+ 13
+ 13
+54
21
+ 38
+ i
ii
-15
-144
+27
II
-12
- 6
+3i
-19
+ 5
-15
12
- 9
-164
+ 19
- 5
-47
- 23
o
-19
- 41
-29
13
+ i
-136
- 3
+ 17
-59
- 46
-36
2
- 69
-41
'4
- 7
- 79
-13
+27
-66
- 44
-55
+ 14
- 84
-32
'5
- 8
- 8
-32
+25
-53
- 37
-74
+ 14
- 82
-26
16
12
+ 72
-37
+25
-34
- 17
-70
+ 26
- 64
2
17
-13
+ 137
-33
+ 4
i
+ 28
-47
+21
- 24
+35
18
21
+ 165
2
10
+20
+ 47
+ 8
+ 12
+ 21
+47
19
12
+ 147
+21
-42
+44
+ 81
+53
-14
+ 64
+64
20
+ 10
+ 95
+21
-62
+75
+ 107
+71
-28
+ IOO
+80
21
+ 13
+ 4
+26
-70
+65
+ 98
+72
-44
+ 92
+65
22
+ 25
- 82
+35
-41
+35
+ 35
+68
-38
+ 64
+ 12
23
+36
-147
+34
- 4
- 7
- 14
+44
-13
+ 15
-19
MeanDe- 1
parture {
12
15
26
29
33
48
50
18
51
37
Range
57
35i
87
139
141
214
155
81
184
156
tropical stations, an inadequate idea of the importance of the
lunar influence. In January Figee finds for the range of the lunar
diurnal inequality 0-62 in D, 3-17 in H and 3-57 in V, whereas
the corresponding ranges in June are only o'-!3, 1-17 and 2-27
respectively. The difference between summer and winter is essen-
tially due to solar action, thus the lunar influence on terrestrial
magnetism is clearly a somewhat complex phenomenon. From
a study of Trivandrum data, Broun concluded that the action
of the moon is largely dependent on the solar hour at the time,
being on the average about twice as great for a day hour as for a
night hour. Fieee s investigations at Batavia point to a similar
conclusion. Following a method suggested by Van der Stok,
Figec arrives at a numerical estimate of the " lunar activity " for
each hour of the solar day, expressed in terms of that at noon taken
>o. In summer, for instance, in the case of D he finds the
" activity " varying from 114 at IO a.m. to only 8 at 9 p.m.; the
corresponding extremes in the case of H are 139 at 10 a.m. and 54
at 6 a.m.
The question whether lunar influence increases with sun-spot
frequency is obviously of considerable theoretical interest. Balfour
Stf\vart in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia gave some data
indicating an appreciably enhanced lunar influence at Trivandrum
(hiring years of sun-spot maximum, but he hesitated to accept the
result as finally proved. Figee recently investigated this point
at Batavia, but with inconclusive results. Attempts have also been
made to ascertain how lunar influence depends on the moon's
declination and phase, and on her distance from the earth. The
difficulty in these investigations is that we are dealing with a small
effect, and a very long series of data would be required satisfactorily
to eliminate other periodic influences.
41. From an analysis of seventeen years data at St Petersburg
and Pavlovsk, Leyst 60 concluded that all the principal planets
Planetary sensibly influence the earth's magnetism. According to
Influence ^' s fig ures ' a " tne planets except Mercury whose in-
fluence he found opposite to that of the others when
nearest the earth tended to deflect the declination magnet at St
Petersburg to the west, and also increased the range of the diurnal
inequality of declination, the latter effect being the more con-
spicuous. Schuster, 61 who has considered the evidence advanced
by Leyst from the mathematical standpoint, considers it to be
inconclusive.
42. The best way of carrying out a magnetic survey depends on
where it has to be made and on the object in view. The object that
Magnetic P r bably still comes first in importance is a knowledge
Surveys. ?' tne declination, of sufficient accuracy for navigation
in all navigable waters. One might thus infer that
magnetic surveys consist mainly of observations at sea. This
cannot however be said to be true of the past, whatever it may
be of the future, and this for several reasons. Observations at sea
entail the use of a ship, specially constructed so as to be free from
disturbing influence, and so are inherently costly;
they are also apt to be of inferior accuracy. It
might be possible in quiet weather, in a large vessel
free from vibration, to observe with instruments of
the highest precision such as a unifilar magneto-
meter, but in the ordinary surveying ship apparatus
of less sensitiveness has to be employed. The
declination is usually determined with some form
of compass. The other elements most usually
found directly at sea are the inclination and the
total force, the instrument employed being a special
form of inclinometer, such as the Fox circle, which
was largely used by Ross in the Antarctic, or in
recent years the Lloyd-Creak. This latter instru-
ment differs from the ordinary dip-circle fitted for
total force observations after H. Lloyd's method
mainly in that the needles rest in pivots instead
of on agate edges. To overcome friction a pro-
jecting pin on the framework is scratched with a
roughened ivory plate.
The most notable recent example of observations
at sea is afforded by the cruises of the surveying
ships" Galilee "and" Carnegie "under the auspices
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, which
includes in its magnetic programme a general
survey. To see where the ordinary land survey
assists navigation, let us take the case of a country
with a long sea-board. If observations were taken
every few miles along the coast results might be
obtained adequate for the ordinary wants of coast-
ing steamers, but it would be difficult to infer what
the declination would be 50 or even 20 miles off
shore at any particular place. If, however, the
land area itself is carefully surveyed, one knows
the trend of the lines of equal declination, and
can usually extend them with considerable accuracy
many miles out to sea. One also can tell what
places if any on the coast suffer from local disturb-
ances, and thus decide on the necessity of special
observations. This is by no means the only imme-
diately useful purpose which is or may be served by magnetic surveys
on land. In Scandinavia use has been made of magnetic observations
in prospecting for iron ore. There are also various geological and
geodetic problems to whose solution magnetic surveys may afford
valuable guidance. Among the most important recent surveys may
be mentioned those of the British Isles by A. Riicker and T. E.
Thorpe, 62 of France and Algeria by Moureaux, 63 of Italy by Chistoni
and Palazzo, 64 of the Netherlands by Van Ryckevorsel, 66 of South
Sweden by Carlheim Gyllenskiold, 66 of Austria-Hungary by Liznar,"
of Japan by Tanakadate, 68 of the East Indies by Van Bemmelen,
and South Africa by J. C. Beattie. A survey of the United States has
been proceeding for a good many years, and many results have
appeared in the publications of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
especially Bauer's Magnetic Tables and Magnetic Charts, 1908.
Additions to our knowledge may also be expected from surveys of
India, Egypt and New Zealand.
For the satisfactory execution of a land survey, the observers
must have absolute instruments such as the unifilar magnetometer
and dip circle, suitable for the accurate determination of the magnetic
elements, and they must be able to fix the exact positions of the spots
where observations are taken. If, as usual, the survey occupies
several years, what is wanted is the value of the elements not at the
actual time of observation, but at some fixed epoch, possibly some
years earlier or later. At a magnetic observatory, with standardized
records, the difference between the values of a magnetic element at
any two specified instants can be derived from the magnetic curves.
But at an ordinary survey station, at a distance from an observatory,
the information is not immediately available. Ordinarily the reduc-
tion to a fixed epoch is done in at least two stages, a correction
being applied for secular change, and a second for the departure from
the mean value for the day due to the regular diurnal inequality
and to disturbance.
The reduction to a fixed epoch is at once more easy and more accur-
ate if the area surveyed contains, or has close to its borders, a well
distributed series of magnetic observatories, whose records are com-
parable and trustworthy. Throughout an area of the size of France
or Germany, the secular change between any two specified dates
can ordinarily be expressed with sufficient accuracy by a formula of
the type
S = i,+o(/-/o)+6(X-Xo) . . (i),
where 5 denotes secular change, / latitude and X longitude, the letters
with suffix o relating to some convenient central position. The
constants So, a, b are to be determined from the observed secular
changes at the fixed observatories whose geographical co-ordinates
are accurately known. Unfortunately, as a rule, fixed observatories
are few in number and not well distributed for survey purposes;
thus the secular change over part at least of the area has usually
to be found by repeating the observations after some years at several
of the field stations. The success attending this depends on the
3 8o
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
exactitude with which the sites can be recovered, on the accuracy of
the observations, and on the success with which allowance is made
for diurnal changes, regular and irregular. It is thus desirable that the
observations at repeat stations should be taken at hours when the
regular diurnal changes are slow, and that they should not be
accepted unless taken on days that prove to be magnetically quiet.
Unless the secular change is exceptionally rapid, it will usually be
most convenient in practice to calculate it from or to the middle of
the month, and then to allow for the difference between the mean
value for the month and the value at the actual hour of observation.
There is here a difficulty, inasmuch as the latter part of the correction
depends on the diurnal inequality, and so on the local time of the
station. No altogether satisfactory method of surmounting this
difficulty has yet been proposed. Rlicker and Thorpe in their
British survey assumed that the divergence from the mean value
at any hour at any station might be regarded as made up of a regular
diurnal inequality, identical with that at Kew when both were
referred to local time, and of a disturbance element identical with
that existing at the same absolute time at Kew. Suppose, for
instance, that at hour h G.M.T. the departure at Kew from the mean
value for the month is d, then the corresponding departure from the
mean at a station X degrees west of Kew is d e, where e is the in-
crease in the element at Kew due to the regular diurnal inequality
between hour h X/I5 and hour h. This procedure is simple, but
is exposed to various criticisms. If we define a diurnal inequality
as the result obtained by combining hourly readings from all the days
of a month, we can assign a definite meaning to the diurnal inequality
for a particular month of a particular year, and after the curves
have been measured we can give exact numerical figures answering
to this definition. But the diurnal inequality thus obtained differs,
as has been pointed out, from that derived from a limited number of
the quietest days of the month, not merely in amplitude but in phase,
and the view that the diurnal changes on any individual day can be
regarded as made up of a regular diurnal inequality of definite char-
acter and of a disturbance element is an hypothesis which is likely at
times to be considerably wide of the mark. The extent of the error
involved in assuming the regular diurnal inequality the same in the
north of Scotland, or the west of Ireland, as in the south-east of
England remains to be ascertained. As to the disturbance element,
even if the disturbing force were of given magnitude and direction
all over the British Isles which we now know is often very far from
the case^ its effects would necessarily vary vejy sensibly owing to
the considerable variation in the direction and intensity of the local
undisturbed force. If observations were confined to hours at which
the regular diurnal changes are slow, and only those taken on days
of little or no disturbance were utilized, corrections combining
the effects of regular and irregular diurnal changes could be derived
from the records of fixed observations, supposed suitably situated,
combined in formulae of the same type as (i).
4^5. The field results having been reduced to a fixed epoch, it
remains to combine them in ways likely to be useful. In most cases
the results are embodied in charts, usually of at least two kinds, one
set showing only general features, the other the chief local peculiar-
ities. Charts of the first kind resemble the world charts (figs. I to 4)
in being free from sharp twistings and convolutions. In these
the declination for instance at a fixed geographical position on a
particular isogonal is to be regarded as really a mean from a
considerable surrounding area.
Various ways have been utilized for arriving at these terrestrial
isomagnetics as Rucker and Thorpe call them of which an elabor-
ate discussion has been made by E. Mathias. 69 from a theoretical
standpoint the simplest method is perhaps that employed by Liznar
for Austria-Hungary. Let I and X represent latitude and longitude
relative to a certain central station in the area. Then assume that
throughout the area the value E of any particular magnetic element
is given by a formula
E = E,,+al+b\+cP+d\ t +el\,
where Eo, a, b, c, d, e are absolute constants to be determined from
the observations. When determining the constants, we write for
E in the equation the observed value of the element (corrected for
secular change, &c.) at each station, and for / and X the latitude and
longitude of the station relative to the central station. Thus each
station contributes an equation to assist in determining the six con-
stants. They can thus be found by least squares or some simpler
method. In Liznar's case there were 195 stations, so that the labour
of applying least squares would be considerable. This is one objec-
tion to the method. A second is that it may allow undesirably large
weight to a few highly disturbed stations. In the case of the British
Isles, Rucker and Thorpe employed a different method. The area
was split up into districts. For each district a mean was formed of
the observed values of each element, and the mean was assigned
to an imaginary central station, whose geographical co-ordinates
represented the mean of the geographical co-ordinates of the actual
stations. Want of uniformity in the distribution of the stations
may be allowed for by weighting the results. Supposing E the
value of the element found for the central station of a district, it
was assumed that the value E at any actual station whose latitude
and longitude exceeded those of the central station by I and X was
given by E = Eo+a/+6X, with a and b constants throughout the
district. Having found Eo, a and 6, Rucker and Thorpe calculated
values of the element for points defined by whole degrees of longitude
(from Greenwich) and half degrees of latitude. Near the common
border of two districts there would be two calculated values, of
which the arithmetic mean was accepted.
The next step was to determine by interpolation where isogonals
or other isomagnetic lines cut successive lines of latitude. The
curves formed by joining these successive points of intersection were
called district lines or curves. Rucker and Thorpe's next step was to
obtain formulae by trial, giving smooth curves of continuous curva-
ture terrestrial isomagnetics approximating as closely as possible
to the district lines. The curves thus obtained had somewhat
complicated formulae. For instance, the isogonals south of 54-5
latitude were given for the epoch Jan. I, 1891 by
D = i8 37' + i8'-5('-49'5)-3'-5 cos i45 ('-49'5))
+ [26'-3 + i'-5('-49-5))(X-4)+o'-oi(X- 4 ) 2 (/-54-5) 2 ,
where D denotes the westerly declination. Supposing, what is at
least approximately true, that the secular change in Great Britain
since 1891 has been uniform south of lat. 54'5, corresponding
formulae for the epochs Jan. I, 1901, and Jan. i, 1906, could be
obtained by substituting for 18 37' the values 17 44' and 17 24'
respectively. In their very laborious and important memoir
E. Mathias and B. Baillaud 69 have applied to Rucker and Thorpe's
observations a method which is a combination of Rucker and
Thorpe's and of Liznar's. Taking Rucker and Thorpe's nine
districts, and the magnetic data found for the nine imaginary central
stations, they employed these to determine the six constants of
Liznar's formula. This is an immense simplification in arithmetic.
The declination formula thus obtained for the epoch Jan. I, 1891, was
+ -000343^ - -000239/ 2 ,
where i+(53 3o'-s) represents the latitude, and (X+s 35'-2) the
west longitude of the station. From this and the corresponding
formulae for the other elements, values were calculated for each of
Riicker and Thorpe's 882 stations, and these were compared with t"he
observed values. A complete record is given of the differences
between the observed and calculated values, and of the corresponding
differences obtained by Rucker and Thorpe from their own formulae.
The mean numerical (calculated ~ observed) differences from the
two different methods are almost exactly the same being approxi-
mately 10' for declination, 5'j for inclination, and 707 for horizontal
force. The applications by Mathias 69 of his method to the survey
data of France obtained by Moureaux, and those of the Netherlands
obtained by van Rijckevorsel, appear equally successful. The
method dispenses entirely with district curves, and the parabolic
formulae are perfectly straightforward both to calculate and to apply ;
they thus appear to possess marked advantages. Whether the
method could be applied equally satisfactorily to an area of the size
of India or the United States actual trial alone would show.
44. Rucker and Thorpe regarded their terrestrial isomagnetics
and the corresponding formulae as representing the normal field
that would exist in the absence of disturbances
Local Dis-
turbances.
peculiar to the neighbourhood. Subtracting the forces
derived from the formulae from those observed, we
obtain forces which may be ascribed to regional disturbance.
When the vertical disturbing force is downwards, or the observed
vertical component larger than the calculated, Rucker and Thorpe
regard it as positive, and the loci where the largest positive values
occur they termed ridge lines. The corresponding loci where the
largest negative values occur were called valley lines. In the British
Isles Rucker and Thorpe found that almost without exception, in
the neighbourhood of a ridge line, the horizontal component of the
disturbing force pointed towards it, throughout a considerable
area on both sides. The phenomena are similar to what would
occur if ridge lines indicated the position of the summits of under-
ground masses of magnetic material, magnetized so as to attract
the north-seeking pole of a magnet. Rucker and Thorpe were
inclined to believe in the real existence of these subterranean mag-
netic mountains, and inferred that they must be of considerable
extent, as theory and observation alike indicate that thin basaltic
sheets or dykes, or limited masses of trap rock, produce no measur-
able magnetic effect except in their immediate vicinity. In support
of their conclusions, Rucker and Thorpe dwell on the fact that in
the United Kingdom large masses of basalt such as occur in Skye,
Mull, Antrim, North Wales or the Scottish coalfield, are according
to their survey invariably centres of attraction for the north-seeking
pole of a magnet. Various cases of repulsion have, however, been
described by other observers in the northern hemisphere.
45. Rucker and Thorpe did not make a very minute examination
of disturbed areas, so that purely local disturbances larger than any
noticed by them may exist in the United Kingdom. But any that
exist are unlikely to rival some that have been observed elsewhere,
notably those in the province of Kursk in Russia described by
Moureaux and by E. Leyst. 71 In Kursk Leyst observed declina-
tions varying from O to 360, inclinations varying from 39- 1 to
90 ; he obtained values of the horizontal force varying from o to
0-856 C.G.S., and values of the vertical force varying from 0-371 to
1-836. Another highly disturbed Russian district Krivoi Rog
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
(48 N. lat. 33 E. long.) was elaborately surveyed by Paul Passalsky. 72
The extreme values observed by him differed, the declination by
282 40', the inclination by 41 53', horizontal force by 0-658, and
vertical force by 1-358. At one spot a difference of n6J was observed
between the declinations at two positions only 42 metres apart.
In cases such as the last mentioned, the source of disturbance
comes presumably very near the surface. It is improbable that any
such enormously rapid changes of declination can be experienced
anywhere at the surface of a deep ocean. But in shallow water
disturbances of a not very inferior order of magnitude have been
met with. Possibly the most outstanding case known is that of an
area, about 3 m. long by ij m. at its widest, near Port Walcott. off
the N.W. Australian coast. The results of a minute survey made
here by H.M.S. " Penguin " have been discussed by Captain E. W.
:k." Within the narrow area specified, declination varied from
26 W. to 56 E., and inclination from 50 to nearly 80, the observa-
tions being taken some 80 ft. above sea bottom. Another note-
worthy case, though hardly comparable with the above, is that of
Loch Roag at Lewis in the Hebrides. A survey by H.M.S.
" Research " in water about loo ft. deep discussed by Admiral
A. M. Field 74 showed a range of 11 in declination. The largest
observed disturbances in horizontal and vertical force were of the
order 0-02 and 0-05 C.G.S. respectively. An interesting feature in
this case was that vertical force was reduced, there being a well-
marked valley line.
In some instances regional magnetic disturbances have been found
to be associated with geodetic anomalies. This is true of an elon-
gated area including Moscow, where observations were taken by
Friische." Again, Eschenhagen 76 detected magnetic anomalies in
an area including the Harz Mountains in Germany, where deflections
of the plumb line from the normal had been observed. He found a
magnetic ridge line running approximately parallel to the line of no
deflection of the plumb line.
46. A question of interest, about which however not very much
is known, is the effect of local disturbance on secular change and on
the diurnal inequality. The determination of secular change in a
highly disturbed locality is difficult, because an unintentional
slight change in the spot where the observations aremade may
wholly falsify the conclusions drawn. When the disturbed area
is very limited in extent, the magnetic field may reasonably be
ded as composed of the normal field that would have existed
in the absence of local disturbance, plus a disturbance field arising
from magnetic material which approaches nearly if not quite to the
surface. Even if no sensible change takes place in the disturbance
field, one would hardly expect the secular change
to be wholly normal. The changes in the rect-
angular components of the force may possibly be
the same as at a neighbouring undisturbed station,
but this will not give the same change in declination
and inclination. In the case of the diurnal in-
equality, the presumption is that at least the de-
clination and inclination changes will be influenced
by local disturbance. If, for example, we suppose
the diurnal inequality to be due to the direct in-
fluence of electric currents in the upper atmo-
sphere, the declination change will represent the
action of the component of a force of given magnitude which is
perpendicular to tne position of the compass needle. But when
local disturbance exists, the direction of the needle and the intensity
of the controlling field are both altered by the local disturbance,
so it would appear natural for the declination changes to be in-
fluenced also. This conclusion seems borne out by observations
made by Passalsky 72 at Krivoi Rog, which showed diurnal inequal-
ities differing notably from those experienced at the same time
at Odessa, the nearest magnetic observatory. One station where
the horizontal force was abnormally low gave a diurnal range of
declination four times that at Odessa ; on the other hand, the range
of the horizontal force was apparently reduced. It would be unsafe
to draw general conclusions from observations at two or three
stations, and much completer information is wanted, but it is
obviously desirable to avoid local disturbance when selecting a site
for a magnetic observatory, assuming one's object is to obtain data
reasonably applicable to a large area. In the case of the older
observatories this consideration seems sometimes to have been lost
sight of. At Mauritius, for instance, inside of a circle of only 56 ft.
radius, having for centre the declination pillar of the absolute
magnetic hut of the Royal Alfred Observatory, T. F. Claxton 77
found that the declination varied from 4 56' to 13 45' W., the in-
clination from 50 21' to 58 34' S., and the horizontal force from
0-197 to 0-244 C.G.S. At one spot he found an alteration of ii
in the declination when the magnet was lowered from 4 ft. above the
ground to 2. Disturbances of this order could hardly escape even
a rough investigation of the site.
47. If we assume the magnetic force on the earth's surface
derivable from a potential V, we can express V as the sum of two
Gaussian scries of solid spherical harmonics, one containing nega-
Poteniial tive, the other positive integral powers of the radius
and Coo- vector r from the earth's centre. Let X denote east
starts. longitude from Greenwich, and let M = cos(Jir /),
where / is latitude; and also let
where n and m denote any positive integers, m being not greater than
n. Then denoting the earth's radius by R, we have
V/R = S (R/r) +1 [HI (g m a cos mX +A? sin m\)]
+S(r/R)[H;T(g_S cos mX+A-S sin mX)],
where S denotes summation of m from o to n, followed by summa-
tion of n from o to oo. In this equation g, &c. are constants,
those with positive suffixes being what are generally termed Gaussian
constants. The series with negative powers of r answers to forces
with a source internal to the earth, the series with positive powers
to forces with an external source. Gauss found that forces of the
latter class, if existent, were very small, and they are usually left
out of account. There are three Gaussian constants of the first
order, gi, gi 1 , Ai 1 , five of the second order, seven of the third, and so
on. The coefficient of a Gaussian constant of the w th order is a
spherical harmonic of the n"> degree. If R be taken as unit length,
as is not infrequent, the first order terms are given by
Vi =r-*uTi sin l+fo 1 cos X+Ai 1 sin X) cos/].
The earth is in reality a spheroid, and in his elaborate work on
the subject J. C. Adams n develops the treatment appropriate to
this case. Here we shall as usual treat it as spherical. We then
have for the components of the force at the surface
X = R ~'(i M s )* (dV/din) towards the astronomical north,
Y=-R- 1 (i-M 2 )-!(<*V/<&) west,
Z = dV/dr vertically downwards.
Supposing the Gaussian constants known, the above formulae would
give the force all over the earth's surface. To determine the Gaus-
sian constants we proceed of course in the reverse direction, equating
the observed values of the force components to the theoretical
values involving g, &c. If we knew the values of the component
forces at regularly distributed stations all over the earth's surface,
we could determine each Gaussian constant independently of the
others. Our knowledge however of large regions, especially in the
Arctic and Antarctic, is very scanty, and in practice recourse is had
to methods in which the constants are not determined independently.
The consequence is unfortunately that the values found for some of
the constants, even amongst the lower orders, depend very sensibly
on how large a portion of the polar regions is omitted from the
TABLE XLIV. Gaussian Constants of the First Order.
1829
Erman-
Petersen.
1830
Gauss.
A 1 ,? 45
Adams.
1880
Adams.
1885
Neumayer.
1885
Schmidt.
1885
Fritsche.
?;.'
AV
+ 32007
+ 02835
06011
+ 32348
+ 03111
06246
+ 32187
+02778
-05783
+31684
+ 02427
06030
+ 31572
+ 02481
06026
+31735
+ 02356
-05984
+ 31635
+ 02414
-05914
calculations, and on the number of the constants of the higner
orders which are retained.
Table XLIV. gives the values obtained for the Gaussian constants
of the first order in some of the best-known computations, as
collected by W. G. Adams. 79
48. Allowance must be made for the difference in the epochs,
and for the fact that the number of constants assumed to be worth
retaining was different in each case. Gauss, for instance, assumed
24 constants sufficient, whilst in obtaining the results given in the
table J. C. Adams retained 48. Some idea of the uncertainty thus
arising may be derived from the fact that when Adams assumed
24 constants sufficient, he got instead of the values in the table the
following:
ft ft 1 A,'
1842-1845 +-32I73 +-02833 --05820
1880 +-31611 +-02470 06071
Some of the higher constants were relatively much more affected.
Thus, on the hypotheses of 48 and of 24 constants respectively, the
values obtained for gj in 1842-1845 were '00127 and '00057, and
those obtained for A>' in 1880 were +-00748 and +-00573. It must
also be remembered that these values assume that the series in positive
powers of r, with coefficients having negative suffixes, is absolutely
non-existent. If this be not assumed, then in any equation deter-
ming X or Y, g" must be replaced by g?+g!5i, and in any
equation determining Z by g~ (/(n + i)j gj; similar remarks
apply to A* and A^. It is thus theoretically possible to check the
truth of the assumption that the positive power series is non-existent
by comparing the values obtained for gj and A from the X and
Y or from the Z equations, when g^ and A^are assumed zero.
If the values so found differ, values can be found for g!^, and AJJ
which will harmonize the two sets of equations. Adams gives the
values obtained from the X, Y and the Z equations separately for the
3 8 2
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
Gaussian constants. The following are examples of the values thence
deducible for the coefficients of the positive power series :
g_, g-, 1 fe-, 1 g-4 gV g-e"
1842-1845 +'0018 '0002 '0014 +'0064 +'0072 +'0124
l880 'O002 'OOI2 + - OOI5 '0043 '0021 'OOI3
Compared to g 4 , gs and g e the values here found for g- 4 , -5 and
g-e are far from insignificant, and there would be no excuse for
neglecting them if the observational data were sufficient and reliable.
But two outstanding features claim attention, first the smallness of
g-i, g-i 1 and h-i 1 , the coefficients least likely to be affected by obser-
vational deficiencies, and secondly the striking dissimilarity between
the values obtained for the two epochs. The conclusion to which these
and other facts point is that observational deficiencies, even up to
the present date, are such that no certain conclusion can be drawn
as to the existence or non-existence of the positive power series.
It is also to be feared that considerable uncertainties enter into the
values of most of the Gaussian constants, at least those of the
higher orders. The introduction of the positive power series neces-
sarily improves the agreement between observed and calculated
values of the force, but it is more likely than not to be disadvan-
tageous physically, if the differences between observed values and
those calculated from the negative power series alone arise in large
measure from observational deficiencies.
TABLE XLV. Axis and Moment of First Order Gaussian
Coefficients.
Epoch.
Authority for
Constants.
North
Latitude.
West
Longitude.
M/R 3 in
G.C.S. units.
1650
1836
1845
1880
1885
1885
H.Fritsche . . .
J. C. Adams .
Neumayer-Petersen
and Bauer .
Neumayer, Schmidt
/
82 50
78 27
78 44
78 24
78 3
78 34
o /
42 55
63 35
64 20
68 4
67 3
68 31
3260
3262
3282
3234
3224
3230
49. The first order Gaussian constants have a simple physical
meaning. The terms containing them represent the potential
arising from the uniform magnetization of a sphere parallel to a fixed
axis, the moment M of the spherical magnet being given by
where R is the earth's radius. The position of the north end of
the axis of this uniform magnetization and the values of M/R 3 ,
derived from the more important determinations of the Gaussian
constants, are given in Table XLV. The data for 1650 are of some-
what doubtful value. If they were as reliable as the others, one
would feel greater confidence in the reality of the apparent move-
ment of the north end of the axis from east to west. The table
also suggests a slight diminution in M since 1845, but it is open to
doubt whether the apparent change exceeds the probable error in the
calculated values. It should be carefully noticed that the data in
the table apply only to the first order Gaussian terms, and so only
to a portion of the earth's magnetization, and that the Gaussian
constants have been calculated on the assumption that the negative
power series alone exists. The field answering to the first order
terms or what Bauer has called the normal field constitutes
much the most important part of the whole magnetization. Still
what remains is very far from negligible, save for rough calculations.
It is in fact one of the weak points in the Gaussian analysis that when
one wishes to represent the observed facts with high accuracy one
is obliged to retain so many terms that calculation becomes burden-
some.
50. The possible existence of a positive power series is not the
only theoretical uncertainty in the Gaussian analysis. There is
_ the further possibility that part of the earth's magnetic
harth-i g^j may nQt answer to a potential at all. Schmidt 80
in his calculation of Gaussian constants regarded this
as a possible contingency, and the results he reached implied that as
much as 2 or 3 % of the entire field had no potential. If the magnetic
force F on the earth's surface comes from a potential, then the line
integral^Fds taken round any closed circuit s should vanish. If the
integral does not vanish, it equals 471-!, where I is the total electric
current traversing the area bounded by s. A+ sign in the result of
the integration means that the current is downwards (i.e. from air
to earth) or upwards, according as the direction of integration round
the circuit, as viewed by an observer above ground, has been clock-
wise or anti-clockwise. In applications of the formula by W. von
Bezold 81 and Bauer K the integral has been taken along parallels of
latitude in the direction west to east. In this case a + sign indicates
a resultant upward current over the area between the parallel of
latitude traversed and the north geographical pole. The difference
between the results of integration round two parallels of latitude
gives the total vertical current over the zone between them.
Schmidt's final estimate of the average intensity of the earth-air
current, irrespective of sign, for the epoch 1885 was 0-17 ampere per
square kilometre. Bauer employing the same observational data
as Schmidt, reached somewhat similar conclusions from the differ-
ences between integrals taken round parallels of latitude at 5
intervals from 60 N. to 60 S. H. Fritsche 83 treating the problem
similarly, but for two epochs, 1842 and 1885, got conspicuously
different results for the two epochs, Bauer 84 has more recently
repeated his calculations, and for three epochs, 1842-1845 (Sabine's
charts), 1880 (Creak's charts), and 1885 (Neumayer's charts), obtain-
ing the mean value of the current per sq. km. for 5 zones. Table
XLVI. is based on Bauer's figures, the unit being o'ooi ampere, and
+ denoting an upwardly directed current.
TABLE XLVI. Earth-air Currents, after Bauer.
Latitude.
Northern Hemisphere.
Southern Hemisphere.
1842-5.
1880.
1885.
1842-5.
1880.
1885.
15,- 30
30,, 45
45,, 60
I
-TO
+ 3
-32
-59
21
-34
-68
22
+78
+66
+ 2
+26
+ 5
+ 30
- 62
ii
+276
+ 36
- 63
- M
+213
In considering the significance of the data in Table XLVI., it
should be remembered that the currents must be regarded as mean
values derived from all hours of the day, and all months of the year.
Currents which were upwards during certain hours of the day, and
downwards during others, would affect the diurnal inequality;
while currents which were upwards during certain months, and down-
wards during others, would cause an annual inequality in the absolute
values. Thus, if the figures be accepted as real, we must suppose
that between 15 N. and 30 N. there are preponderatingly down-
ward currents, and between o S. and 15 S. preponderatingly upward
currents. Such currents might arise from meteorological conditions
characteristic of particular latitudes, or be due to the relative dis-
tribution of land and sea ; but, whatever their cause, any considerable
real change in their values between 1842 and 1885 seems very im-
probable. The most natural cause to which to attribute the differ-
ence between the results for different epochs in Table XLVI. is
unquestionably observational deficiencies. Bauer himself regards
the results for latitudes higher than 45 as very uncertain, but
he seems inclined to accept the reality of currents of the average
intensity of 1/30 ampere per sq. km. between 45 N. and 45 S.
Currents of the size originally deduced by Schmidt, or even those
of Bauer's latest calculations, seem difficult to reconcile with the
results of atmospheric electricity (<?..).
51. There is no single parallel of latitude along the whole of
which magnetic elements are known with high precision. Thus
results of greater certainty might be hoped for from the application
of the line integral to well surveyed countries. Such applications
have been made, e.g. to Great Britain by Riicker, 86 and to Austria
by Liznar, 86 but with negative results'. The question has also been
considered in detail by Tanakadate 68 in discussing the magnetic
survey of Japan. He makes the criticism that the taking of a line
integral round the boundary of a surveyed area amounts to utilizing
the values of the magnetic elements where least accurately known,
and he thus considers it preferable to replace the line integral by
the surface integral.
He applied this formula not merely to his own data for Japan, but
also to British and Austrian data of Riicker and Thorpe and of
Liznar. The values he ascribes to X and Y are those given by the
formulae calculated to fit the observations. The result reached
was "a line of no current through the middle of the country; in
Japan the current is upward on the Pacific side and downward on
the Siberian side; in Austria it is upward in the north and downward
in the south ; in Great Britain upward in the east and downward in
the west." The results obtained for Great Britain differed con-
siderably according as use was made of Riicker and Thorpe's own
district equations or of a series of general equations of the type subse-
quently utilized by Mathias. Tanakadate points out that the fact
that his investigations give in each case a line of no current passing
through the middle of the surveyed area, is calculated to throw doubt
on the reality of the supposed earth-air currents, and he recom-
mends a suspension of judgment.
52. A question of interest, and bearing a relationship to the
Gaussian analysis, is the law of variation of the magnetic elements
with height above sea-level. If F represent the value at sea-level,
and F+6F that at height h, of any component of force answering
to Gaussian constants of the n th order, then i +5F/F = (i +h/R)-^-*,
where R is the earth's radius. Thus at heights of only a few miles
we have very approximately 8F/F= (n+2)hfR. As we have
seen, the constants of the first order are much the most important,
thus we should expect as a first approximation 3X/X = SY/Y
= Z/Z= 3/t/R. This equation gives the same rate of decrease in
all three components, and so no change in declination or inclination.
Liznar M (<) compared this equation with the observed results of his
Austrian survey, subdividing his stations into three groups according
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
383
to altitude. He considered the agreement not satisfactory. It
must be remembered that the Gaussian analysis, especially when
only lower order terms are retained, applies only to the earth's field
freed from local disturbances. Now observations at individual
high level stations may be sepously influenced not merely by regional
disturbances common to low level stations, but by magnetic material
in the mountain itself. A method of arriving at the vertical change
in the elements, which theoretically seems less open to criticism, has
been employed by A. Tanakadate. 68 If we assume that a potential
exists, or if admitting the possibility of earth-air currents we assume
their effort negligible, we have dX./dz = dZ/dx, dY/dz = dZ/dy. Thus
from the observed rates of change of the vertical component of force
along the parallels of latitude and longitude, we can deduce the rate
of change in the vertical direction of the two rectangular components
of horizontal force, and thence the rates of change of the hori-
zontal force and the declination. Also we have dZ/<fz = 4irp
(d\ldx+dY Idy), where p represents the density of free magnetism
at the spot. The spot being above ground we may neglect p, and
thus deduce the variation in the vertical direction of the vertical
component from the observed variations of the two horizontal com-
ponents in their own directions. Tanakadate makes a comparison
of the vertical variations of the magnetic elements calculated in the
two ways, not merely for Japan, but also for Austria-Hungary and
Great Britain. In each country he took five representative points,
those for Great Britain being the central stations of five of Riicker
and Thorpe's districts. TableXLVII. gives the mean of the five
values obtained. By method (i.) is meant the formula involving
.V' R. by method (ii.) Tanakadate's method as explained above.
II, V, D, and I are used as defined in 5. In the case of H and V
unity represents 17.
TABLE XLVII. Change per Kilometre of Height
Great Britain.
Austria-Hungary.
Japan.
Method.
(i.)
(H.)
0.)
(ii.)
(i.)
(ii.)
H
V . .
D (west)
- 8-1
21-2
- 6-7
-19.4
0-04
- o'-os
IO-I
19-0
- 8-7
-18-1
+ o'-io
- o'-o6
-13-9
-17-1
14-0
-17-4
- 0-27
o'-oi
Diurnal
Variation
Potential.
The sign in Table XLVII. denotes a decrease in the numerical
values of H, V and I, and a diminution in westerly declination. If
we except the case of the westerly component of force not shown
in the table the accordance between the results from the two
methods in the case of Japan is extraordinarily close, and there is
no very marked tendency for the one method to give larger values
"than the other. In the case of Great Britain and Austria the differ-
ences between the two sets of calculated values though not large
are systematic, the 3/i/R formula invariably showing the larger
reduction with altitude in both H and V. Tanakadate was so
lied with the accordance of the two methods in Japan, that he
employed his method to reduce all observed Japanese values to sea-
level. At a few of the highest Japanese stations the correction thus
introduced into the value of H was of some importance, but at the
great majority of the stations the corrections were all insignificant.
I 53- Schuster " has calculated a potential analogous to the
Gaussian potential, from which the regular diurnal changes of the
& . ^ magnetic elements all over the earth may be derived.
From the mean summer and winter diurnal variations
of the northerly and easterly components of force during
1870 at St Petersburg, Greenwich, Lisbon and Bombay,
he found the values of 8 constants analogous to Gaussian
constants; and from considerations as to the hours of occur-
rence of the maxima and minima of vertical force, he concluded
that the potential, unlike the Gaussian, must proceed in positive
powers of r, and so answer to forces external to the earth.
S(-lui-,ter found, however, that the calculated amplitudes of the
diurnal vertical force inequality did not accord well with observa-
tion; and his conclusion was that while the original cause of
the diurnal variation is external, and consists probably of electric
currents in the atmosphere, there are induced currents inside the
earth, which increase the horizontal components of the diurnal
inequality while diminishing the vertical. The problem has also
been dealt with by H. Fritsche, 88 who concludes, in opposition to
Schuster, that the forces are partly internal and partly external,
the two sets being of fairly similar magnitude. Fritsche repeats
the criticism (already made in the last edition of this encyclopaedia)
that Schuster's four stations were too few, and contrasts their number
with the 27 from which his own data were derived. On the other
hand, Schuster's data referred to one and the same year, whereas
Fritsche's are from epochs varying from 1841 to 1896, and represent
in some cases a single year's observations, in other cases means from
several years. It is clearly desirable that a fresh calculation should be
made, using synchronous data from a considerable number of well dis-
tributed stations; and it should be done for at least two epochs,
one representing large, the other small sun-spot frequency. The
year 1870 selected by Schuster had, as it happened., a sun-spot
frequency which has been exceeded only once since 1750; so that
the magnetic data which he employed were far from representative
of average conditions.
54. It was discovered by Folgheraiter * that old vases from
Etruscan and other sources are magnetic, and from combined ob-
servation and experiment he concluded that they acquired
their magnetization when cooling after being baked, and /,*"
retained it unaltered. From experiments, he derived "
formulae connecting the magnetization shown by new clay
vases with their orientation when cooling in a magnetic field, and
applying these formulae to the phenomena observed in the old vases he
calculated the magnetic dip at the time and place of manufacture. His
observations led him to infer that in Central Italy inclination was
actually southerly for some centuries prior to 600 B.C., when it changed
sign. In 400 B.C. it wasabout 20 N. ; since 100 B.C. the change has been
relatively small. L. Mercanton * similarly investigated the magnet-
ization of baked clay vases from the lake dwellings of Neuchatel,
whose epoch is supposed to be from 600 to 800 B.C. The results
he obtained were, however, closely similar to those observed in recent
vases made where the inclination was about 63 N., and he concluded
in direct opposition to Folgheraiter that inclination in southern
Europe has not undergone any very large change during the last
2500 years. Folgheraiter's methods have been extended to natural
rocks. Thus B. Brunhes M found several cases of clay metamor-
phosed by adjacent lava flows and transformed into a species of
natural brick. In these cases the clay has a determinate direction
of magnetization agreeing with that of the volcanic rock, so it is
natural to assume that this direction coincided with that of the dip
when the lava flow occurred. In drawing inferences, allowance
must of course be made for any tilting of the strata since the volcanic
outburst. From one case in France in the district of St Flour, where
the volcanic action is assigned to the Miocene Age, Brunhes inferred
a southerly dip of some 75. Until a variety of cases have been
critically dealt with, a suspension of judgment is advisable, but if
the method should establish its claims to reliability it obviously
may prove of importance to geology as well as to terrestrial
magnetism.
55. Magnetic phenomena in the polar regions have received
considerable attention of late years, and the observed results are
of so exceptional a character as to merit separate consideration.
One feature, the large amplitude of the regular diurnal _ . _.,
inequality, is already illustrated by the data for Jan
Mayen and South Victoria Land in Tables VIII. to XI. "
In the case, however, of declination allowance must be made for the
small size of H. If a force F perpendicular to the magnetic meridian
causes a change AD in D then AD=F/H. Thus at the " Dis-
covery's " winter quarters in South Victoria Land, where the value
of H is only about 0-36 of that at Kew, a change of 45' in D would
be produced by a force which at Kew would produce a change of
only 16'. Another feature, which, however, may not be equally
general, is illustrated by the data for Fort Rae and South Victoria
Land' in Table XVII. It will be noticed that it is the 24-hour term
in the Fourier analysis of the regular diurnal inequality which is
specially enhanced. The station in South Victoria Land the
winter quarters of the " Discovery " in 1902-1904 was at 77 si' S.
lat.; thus the sun did not set from November to February (mid-
summer), nor rise from May to July (midwinter). It might not thus
have been surprising if there had been an outstandingly large seasonal
variation in the type of the diurnal inequality. As a matter of fact,
however, the type of the inequality showed exceptionally small
variation with tne season, and the amplitude remained large through-
out the whole year. Thus, forming diurnal inequalities for the three
midsummer months and for the three midwinter months, we obtain
the following amplitudes for the range of the several elements' 1 :
D. H. V. I.
Midsummer 64'- 1 577 587 2'-87
Midwinter 26'-8 257 187 l'-23
The most outstanding phenomenon in high latitudes is the fre-
quency and large size of the disturbances. At Kew, as we saw in
25, the absolute range in D exceeds 20' on only 12% of the total
number of days. But at the " Discovery's " winter quarters, about
sun-spot minimum, the range exceeded i on 70%, 2 on 37%, and
3 on fully 15% of the total number of days. One day in 25 had
a range exceeding 4. During the three midsummer months, only
one day out of III had a range under 1, and even at midwinter
only one day in eight had a range as small as 30'. The H range at
the " Discovery's' station exceeded 1007 on 40% of the days, and
the V range exceeded loo-y on 32 % of the days.
The special tendency to disturbance seen in equinoctial months
in temperate latitudes did not appear in the " Discovery's " records
in the Antarctic. D ranges exceeding 3 occurred on II % of equi-
noctial days, but on 40 % of midsummer days. The preponderance
of large movements at midsummer was equally apparent in the other
elements. Thus the percentage of days having a V range over
2007 was 21 at midsummer, as against 3 in the four equinoctial
months.
At the " Discovery's " station small oscillations of a few minutes'
duration were hardly ever absent, but the character of the larger
disturbances showed a marked variation throughout the 24 hours.
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
Those of a very rapid oscillatory character were especially numerous
in the morning between 4 and 9 a.m. In the late afternoon and
evening disturbances of a more regular type became prominent,
especially in the winter months. In particular there were numerous
occurrences of a remarkably regular type of disturbance, half the
total number of cases taking place between 7 and 9 p.m. This
" special type of disturbance " was divisible into two phases, each
lasting on the average about 20 minutes. During the first phase
all the elements diminished in value, during the second phase they
increased. In the case of D and H the rise and fall were about equal,
but the rise in V was about 35 times the preceding fall. The dis-
turbing force on the north pole to which the first phase might
be attributed was inclined on the average about 5 $ below the horizon,
the horizontal projection of its line of action being inclined about
41 j to the north of east. The amplitude and duration of the dis-
turbances of the " special type " varied a good deal ; in several cases
the disturbing force considerably exceeded 2007. A somewhat
similar type of disturbance was observed by Kr. Birkeland 93 at
Arctic stations also in 1902-1903, and was called by him the " polar
elementary " storm. Birkeland's record of disturbances extends
only from October 1902 to March 1903, so it is uncertain whether
" polar elementary " storms occur during the Arctic summer. Their
usual time of occurrence seems to be the evening. During their
occurrence Birkeland found that there was often a great difference
in amplitude and character between the disturbances observed at
laces so comparatively near together as Iceland, Nova Zembla and
pitzbergen. This led him to assign the cause to electric currents
in the Arctic, at heights not exceeding a few hundred kilometres,
and he inferred from the way in which the phenomena developed
that the seat of the disturbances often moved westward, as if related
in some way to the sun's position. Contemporaneously with the
" elementary polar " storms in the Arctic Birkeland found smaller
but distinct movements at stations all over Europe; these could
generally be traced as far as Bombay and Batavia, and sometimes
as far as Christchurch, New Zealand. Chree, 92 on the other hand,
working up the 1902-1904 Antarctic records, discovered that during
the larger disturbances of the " special type " corresponding but
much smaller movements were visible at Christchurch, Mauritius,
Kolaba, and even at Kew. He also found that in the great majority
of cases the Antarctic curves were specially disturbed during the
times of Birkeland's " elementary polar " storms, the disturbances in
the Arctic and Antarctic being of the same order of magnitude,
though apparently of considerably different type.
Examining the more prominent of the sudden commencements
of magnetic disturbances in 1902-1903 visible simultaneously in
the curves from Kew, Kolaba, Mauritius and Christchurch, Chree
found that these were all represented in the Antarctic curves by
movements of a considerably larger size and of an oscillatory char-
acter. In a number of cases Birkeland observed small simultaneous
movements in the curves of his co-operating stations, which appeared
to be at least sometimes decidedly larger in the equatorial than the
northern temperate stations. These he described as " equatorial "
perturbations, ascribing them to electric currents in or near the plane
of the earth's magnetic equator, at heights of the order of the earth's
radius. It was found, however, by Chree that in many, if not all,
of these cases there were synchronous movements in the Antarctic,
similar in type to those which occurred simultaneously with the
sudden commencements of magnetic storms, and that these Antarctic
movements were considerably larger than those described by Birke-
land at the equatorial stations. This result tends of course to suggest
a somewhat different explanation from Birkeland's. But until our
knowledge of facts has received considerable additions all'explana-
tions must be of a somewhat hypothetical character.
In 1831 Sir James Ross 94 observed a dip of 89 59' at 70 5' N.,
96 46' W., and this has been accepted as practically the position of
the north magnetic pole at the time. The position of
Magnetic tne south magnetic pole in 1840 as deduced from the
Poles - Antarctic observations made by the " Erebus " and
" Terror " expedition is shown in Sabine's chart as about 73 30' S.,
J 47 3' E. In the more recent chart in J. C. Adams's Collected
Papers, vol. 2, the position is shown as about 73 40' S., 147 7' E.
Of late years positions have been obtained for the south magnetic
pole by the " Southern Cross " expedition of 1898-1900 (A), by the
Discovery " in 1902-1904 (B), and by Sir E. Shackleton's
expedition 1908-1909 (C). These are as follow:
(A) 72 40' S., 152 30' E.
(B) 72 51' S., 156 25' E.
(C) 72 25' S., 155 16' E.
Unless the diurnal inequality vanishes in its neighbourhood, a some-
what improbable contingency considering the large range at the
" Discovery's " winter quarters, the position of the south magnetic
pole has probably a diurnal oscillation, with an average amplitude
of several miles, and there is not unlikely a larger annual oscillation.
Thus even apart from secular change, no single spot of the earth's
surface can probably claim to be a magnetic pole in the sense popu-
larly ascribed to the term. If the diurnal motion were absolutely
regular, and carried the point where the needle is vertical round a
closed curve, the centroid of that curve though a spot where the
needle is never absolutely vertical would seem to have the best
claim to the title. It should also be remembered that when the dip
is nearly 90 there are special observational difficulties. There are
thus various reasons for allowing a considerable uncertainty in
positions assigned to the magnetic poles. Conclusions as to change
of position of the south magnetic pole during the last ten years based
on the more recent results(A), (B) and (C) would, for instance, possess
a very doubtful value. The difference, however, between these re-
cent positions and that deduced from the observations of 1840-1841
is more substantial, and there is at least a moderate probability that
a considerable movement towards the north-east has taken place
during the last seventy years.
See publications of individual magnetic observatories, more
especially the Russian (Annales de I' Obsenaloire Physique Central),
the French (Annales du Bureau Central Meteorologique de France),
and those of Kew, Greenwich, Falmouth, Stonyhurst, Potsdam,
Wilhelmshaven, de Bilt, Uccle, O'Gyalla, Prague, Ppla, Coimbra,
San Fernando, Capo di Monte, Tiflis, Kolaba, Zi-ka-wei, Hong- Kong,
Manila, Batavia, Mauritius, Agincourt (Toronto), the observatories
of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rio de Janeiro, Melbourne.
In the references below the following abbreviations are used:
B.A.=British Association Reports; Batavia = Observations made
at the Royal . . . Observatory at Batavia; M.Z. = Meteorologische
Zeitschrift, edited by J. Hann and G. Hellman; P.R S. = Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London ; P T. = Philosophical Transactions ;
R. = Repertorium fur Meteorologie, St Petersburg; T.M. = Terrestrial
Magnetism, edited by L. A. Bauer; R.A.S. Notices = Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Treatises are referred to
by the numbers attached to them; e.g. (i) p. 100 means p. 100 of
Walker's Terrestrial Magnetism.
1 E. Walker, Terrestrial and Cosmical Magnetism (Cambridge
and London, 1866). la H. Lloyd, A Treatise on Magnetism General
and Terrestrial (London, 1874). 2 E. Mascart, Traite de magnetisme
terrestre (Paris, 1900). 3 L. A. Bauer, United States Magnetic
Declination Tables and Isogonic Charts, and Principal Facts relating
to the Earth's Magnetism (Washington, 1902). 4 Balfour Stewart,
" Terrestrial Magnetism " (under " Meteorology "), Ency. brit. gth
ed. 6 C. Chree, " Magnetism, Terrestrial," Ency. brit. loth ed.
'M.Z. 1906, 23, p. 145. '(3) p. 62. 8 K. Akad. van Weten-
schappen (Amsterdam, 1895; Batavia, 1899, &c.). 9 Atlas des
Erdmagnetismus (Riga, 1903). 10 (i) p. 16, &c. u Kolaba (Colaba)
Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, 1896, Appendix Table
II. u (i) p. 21. "Report for 1906, App. 4, see also (3) p. 102.
14 (i) p. 166. 15 Ergebnisse der mag. Beobachtungen in Potsdam,
1901, p. xxxvi. 16 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for
1895, App. i, &c. 17 T.M. i, pp. 62, 89, and 2, p. 68. u (3) p. 45.
19 Die Elemente des Erdmagnetismus, pp. 104-108. 20 Zur taglichen
Variation der mag. Deklination (aus Heft II. des Archivs des Erd-
magnetismus) (Potsdam, 1906). 21 M.Z. 1888, 5, p. 225. a M.Z.
1904, 21, p. 129. " P.T. 202 A, p. 335. 23a Camb. Phil. Soc.
Trans. 20, p. 165. u P.T. 208 A, p. 205. P.T. 203 A, p. 151.
26 P.T. 171, p. 541 ; P.R.S. 63, p. 64. R.A.S. Notices 60, p. 142.
28 Rendiconti del R. 1st. Lomb. 1902, Series II. vol. 35. R. 1889,
vol. 12, no. 8. *B.A. Report, 1898, p. 80. 31 P.R.S. (A) 79,
p. 151. 32 P.T. 204 A, p. 373. 83 Ann. du Bureau Central Meteoro-
logique, annee 1897, i Mem. p. 665. i4 P.T. 161, p. 307. 36 M.Z.
1895, 12, p. 321. 36 P.T. 1851, p. 123; and 1852, p. 103, see also
(4) 38. *P.T. 159, p. 363. *> (i) p. 92. R.A.S. Notices 65,
p. 666. R.A.S. Notices, 65, pp. 2 and 538. > K. Akad. van
Wetenschappen (Amsterdam, 1906) p. 266. 41 R.A.S. Notices 65,
p. 520. B.A. Reports, 1880, p. 201 and 1881, p. 463. 43 Anhang
Ergebnisse der mag. Beob. in Potsdam, 1896. 44 M.Z. 1899, 16,
p. 385. P.T. 166, p. 387. Trans. Can. Inst. 1898-1899, p. 345,
and Proc. Roy. Ast. Soc. of Canada, 1902-1903, p. 74, 1904, p. xiv., &c.
"R.A.S. Notices 65, p. 186. T.M. 10, p. i. Expedition
norvegienne de 1899-1000 (Christiania, 1901). M Theses presentees
a la Faculte des Sciences (Paris, 1903). 61 Nat. Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie, 1902, p. 71. M Wied. Ann. 1882, p. 336.
63 Sitz. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss., 24th June 1897, &c.
" T.M. 12, p. I. * P.T. 143, p. 549 ;'St Helena Observations, vol. ii.,
p. cxlvi., &c., (i) 62. Trans. R.S.E. 24, p. 669. "P.T. 178
A, p. I. M Batavia, vol. 16, &c. 69 Batavia, Appendix to vol. 26.
60 .R. vol. 17, no. i. * T.M. 3, p. 13, &c. " P.T. 181 A, p. 53
and 1 88 A. 63 Ann. du Bureau Central Met. vol. i. for years 1884
and 1887 to. 1895. M Ann. dell' Uff. Centrale Met. e Geod. vol. 14,
pt. i. p. 57. 65 A Magnetic Survey of the Netherlands for the Epoch
1st Jan. 1891 (Rotterdam, 1895). M Kg. Svenska Vet. Akad. Hand-
lingar, 1895, vol. 27, no. 7. 67 Denkschriften der math, naturunss.
Classe der k. Akad. des Wiss. (Wien), vols. 62 and 67. M Journal of
the College of Science, Tokyo, 1904, vol. 14. M Ann. de I'observatoire
. . . de Toulouse, 1907, vol. 7. Ann. du Bureau Central Met.
1897, I. p. 636. n T.M. 7, p. 74. B Bull. Imp. Univ. Odessa
85, p. i, and T.M. 7, p. 67. "P.T. 187 A, p. 345. ' P.R.S. 76
A, p. 181. Bull. Soc. Imp. des Naturalistes de Moskau, 1893, no. 4,
p. 381, and T.M. i, p. 50. " Forsch. zur deut. Landes- u. Volkskunde,
1898, Bd. xi, i, and T.M. 3, p. 77. '"P.R.S. 76 A, p. 57-
78 Adams, Scientific Papers, II. p. 446. n B.A. Report for 1898,
p. 109. *> Abhand. der bayer. Akad. der Wiss., 1895, vol. 19. n Sitz.
k. Akad. der Wiss. (Berlin), 1897, no. xviii., also T.M. 3, p. 19'-
82 T.M. 2, p. 1 1. S3 Die Elemente des Erdmagnetismus (St Petersburg,
MAGNETITE MAGNETOGRAPH
385
1899), p. 103. " T.M. 9, p. 113. " T.M. I, p. 77, and Nature, 57,
p. 160 and 180. M.Z. 15, p. 175. " Sitz. der k. k. Akad. der
Viss. Wien, math. nat. Classe, 1898, Bd. cvii., Abth. ii. *> P.T.
\) 1 80, p. 467. M Die Tagliche Periode der erdmagnetischen Ele-
tnte (St Petersburg, 1902). * R. Accad. Lincei Atti, viii. 1899,
i. 121, 176, 269 and previous volumes, see also Seances de la Soc.
Franc, de Physique, 1899, p. 118. Bull. Soc. Vaud., Sc. Nat. 1906,
j, p. 225. " Comptes rendus, 1905, 141, p. 567. "National
intarctic Expedition 1901-1904, " Magnetic Observations." M The
Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902-1903, vol. i. " (i)
p. 163. (C. CH.)
MAGNETITE, a mineral forming the natural magnet (see
MAGNETISM), and important also as an iron-ore. It is an iron-
black, opaque mineral, with metallic lustre; hardness about 6,
sp. gr. 4-9 to 5-2. When scratched, it yields a black streak. It
is an oxide of iron having the formula FeaOi, corresponding
with 72-4% of metal, whence its great value as an ore. It may
be regarded as a ferroso-ferric oxide, FeO.FezOs, or as iron
ferrate, Fe"Fe 2 "'O4. Titanium is often present, and occasionally
the mineral contains magnesium, nickel, &c. It is always
strongly magnetic. Magnetite crystallizes in the cubic system,
usually in octahedra, less commonly in rhombic dodecahedra,
and not infrequently in twinsof the" spinel type " (fig. i). The
rhombic faces of the dodecahedron are
often striated parallel to the longer
diagonal. There is no distinct cleav-
age, but imperfect parting may be
obtained along octahedral planes.
Magnetite is a mineral of wide dis-
tribution, occurring as grains in many
massive and volcanic rocks, like
granite, diorite and dolerite. It ap-
pears to have crystallized from the
magma at a very early period of con-
solidation. Its presence contributes to
FIG. i.
the dark colour of many basalts and other basic rocks, and may
cause them to disturb the compass. Large ore-bodies of granular
and compact magnetite occur as beds and lenticular masses in
Archean gneiss and crystalline schists, in various parts of Norway,
!en, Finland and the Urals; as also in the states of New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Michigan, as well as in Canada.
In some cases it appears to have segregated from a basic eruptive
magma, and in other cases to have resulted from metamorphic
action. Certain deposits appear to have been formed, directly
or indirectly, by wet processes. Iron rust sometimes contains
magnetite. An interesting deposit of oolitic magnetic ore occurs
in the Dogger (Inferior Oolite) of Rosedale Abbey, in Yorkshire;
and a somewhat similar pisolitic ore, of Jurassic age, is known on
the continent as chamoisite, having been named from Chamoison
(or Chamoson) in the Valais, Switzerland. Grains of magnetite
occur in serpentine, as an alteration -product of the olivine. In
emery, magnetite in a granular form is largely associated with
the corundum; and in certain kinds of mica magnetite occurs
as thin dendritic enclosures. Haematite is sometimes magnetic,
and A. Liversidge has shown that magnetite is probably present.
By deoxidation, haematite may be converted into magnetite,
as proved by certain pseudomorphs; but on the other hand
magnetite is sometimes altered to haematite. On weathering,
magnetite commonly passes into limonite, the ferrous oxide
having probably been removed by carbonated waters. Closely
related to magnetite is the rare volcanic mineral from Vesuvius,
called magnoferrite, or magnesioferrite, with the formula
MgFejO 4 ; and with this may be mentioned a mineral from
Jakobsberg, in Vermland, Sweden, called jakobsite, containing
MnFe 2 O 4 . (F. W. R.*)
MAGNETOGRAPH, an instrument for continuously recording
the values of the magnetic elements, the three universally chosen
being the declination, the horizontal component and the vertical
component (see TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM). In each case the
magnetograph only records the variation of the element, the
absolute values being determined by making observations in
the neighbourhood with the unifilar magnetometer (q.v.) and
inclinometer (q.v.).
xvn. 13
Declination. The changes in declination are obtained by means
of a magnet which is suspended by a long fibre and carries a mirror,
immediately below which a fixed mirror is attached to the base of
the instrument. Both mirrors are usually concave; if plane, a concave
lens is placed immediately before them. Light passing through
a vertical slit falls upon the mirrors, from which it is reflected,
and two images cf the slit are produced, one by the movable mirror
attached to the magnet and the other by the fixed mirror. These
images would be short lines of light; but a piano-cylindrical lens is
placed with its axis horizontal just in front of the recording surface.
In this way a spot of light is obtained from each mirror. The record-
ing surface is a sheet of photographic paper wrapped round a drum
which is rotated at a constant speed by clockwork about a horizontal
axis. The light reflected from the fixed mirror traces a straight line
on the paper, serving as a base line from which the variations in
declination are measured. As the declination changes the spot of
light reflected from the magnet mirror moves parallel to the axis of
the recording drum, and hence the distance between the line traced
by this spot and the base line gives, for any instant, on an arbitrary
scale the difference between the declination and a constant angle,
namely, the declination corresponding to the base line. The value
of this constant angle is obtained by comparing the record with the
value for the declination as measured with a magnetometer. The
value in terms of arc of the scale of the record can be obtained by
measuring the distance between the magnet mirror and the recording
drum, and in most observations it is such that a millimetre on thr
record represents one minute of arc. The time scale ordinarily
employed is 15 mm. per hour, but in modern instruments provision
is generally made for the time scale to be increased at will to 1 80 mm.
per hour, so that the more rapid variations of the declination can be
followed. The advantages of using small magnets, so that their
moment of inertia may be small and hence they may be able to
respond to rapid changes in the earth's field, were first insisted upon
by E. Mascart, 1 while M. Eschenhagen 2 first designed a set of
magnetographs in which this idea of small moment of inertia was
carried to its useful limit, the magnets only weighing 1-5 gram each,
and the suspension consisting of a very fine quartz fibre.
Horizontal Force. The variation of the horizontal force is obtained
by the motion of a magnet which is carried either by a bifilar sus-
pension or by a fairly stiff metal wire or quartz fibre. The upper
end of the suspension is turned till the axis of the magnet is at
right angles to the magnetic meridian. In this position the magnet
is in equilibrium under the action of the torsion of the suspension
and the couple exerted by the horizontal component, H, of the
earth's field, this couple depending on the product of H into the
magnetic moment, M, of the magnet. Hence if H varies the magnet
will rotate in such a way that the couple due to torsion is equal to the
new value of H multiplied by M. Since the movements of the
magnet are always small, the rotation of the magnet is propor-
tional to the change in H, so long as M and the couple.0, correspond-
ing to unit twist of the suspension system remain constant. When
the temperature changes, however, both M and 6 in general change.
With rise of temperature M decreases, and this alone will produce
the same effect as would a decrease in H. To allow for this effect
of temperature a compensating system of metal bars is attached
to the upper end of the bifilar suspension, so arranged that with
rise of temperature the fibres are brought nearer together and hence
the value of 8 decreases. Since such a decrease in 8 would by
itself cause the magnet to turn in the same direction as if H had
increased, it is possible in a great measure to neutralize the effects
of temperature on the reading of the instrument. In the case of
the unifilar suspension, the provision of a temperature compensation
is not so easy, so that what is generally done is to protect the in-
strument from temperature variation as much as possible and then
to correct the indications so as to allow for the residual changes, a
continuous record of the temperature being kept by a recording
thermograph attached to the instrument. In the Eschenhagen
pattern instrument, in which a single quartz fibre is used for the
suspension, two magnets are placed in the vicinity of the suspended
magnet and are so arranged that their field partly neutralizes the
earth's field; thus the torsion required to hold the magnet with its
axis perpendicular to the earth's field is reduced, and the arrange-
ment permits of the sensitiveness being altered by changing the
position of the deflecting magnets. Further, by suitably choosing
the positions of the deflectors and the coefficient of torsion of the
fibre, it is possible to make the temperature coefficient vanish.
(See Adolf Schmidt, Zeits. fur Instrumentenkunde, 1907, 27, 145.)
The method of recording the variations in H is exactly the same
as that adopted in the case of the declination, and the sensitiveness
generally adopted is such that i mm. on the record represents a
change in H of -00005 C.G.S., the time scale being the same as that
employed in the case of the declination.
Vertical Component. To record the variations of the vertical
component use is made of a magnet mounted on knife edges so
that it can turn freely about a horizontal axis at right angles to its
1 Report British Association, Bristol, 1898, p. 741.
1 Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft, 1899,
i, 147; or Terrestrial Magnetism, 1900, 5, 59.
386
MAGNETOMETER
length (H. Lloyd, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., ^839, i, 334). The
magnet is so weighted that its axis is approximately horizontal, and
any change in the inclination of the axis is observed by means of
an attached mirror, a second mirror fixed to the stand serving to
give a base line for the records, which are obtained in the same
way as in the case of the declination. The magnet is in equilibrium
under the influence of the couple VM due to the vertical component
V, and the couple due to the fact that the centre of gravity is slightly
on one side of the knife-edge. Hence when, say, V decreases the
couple VM decreases, and hence the north end of the balanced
magnet rises, and vice versa. The chief difficulty with this form of
instrument is that it is very sensitive to changes of temperature,
for such changes not only alter M but also in general cause the
centre of gravity of the system to be displaced with reference to
the knife-edge. To reduce these effects the magnet is fitted with
compensating bars, generally of zinc, so adjusted by trial that as
far as possible they neutralize the effect of changes of temperature.
In the Eschenhagen form of vertical force balance two deflecting
magnets are used to partly neutralize the vertical component, so
that the centre of gravity is almost exactly over the support. By
varying the positions of these deflecting magnets it is possible to
compensate for the effects of changes of temperature (A. Schmidt,
loc. cit.). In order to eliminate the irregularity which is apt to be
introduced by dust, &c., interfering with the working of the knife-
edge, W. Watson (Phil. Mag., 1904 [6], 7, 393) designed a form of
vertical force balance in which the magnet with its mirror is attached
to the mid point of a horizontal stretched quartz fibre. The tem-
perature compensation is obtained by attaching a small weight to
the magnet, and then bringing it back to the horizontal position by
twisting the fibre.
The scale values of the records given by the horizontal and
vertical force magnetographs are determined by deflecting the
respective needles, either by means of a magnet placed at a known
distance or by passing an electric current through circular coils
of large diameter surrounding the instruments.
The width of the photographic sheet which receives the spot of
light reflected from the mirrors in the above instruments is generally
so great that in the case of ordinary changes the curve does not go
off the paper. Occasionally, however, during a disturbance such
is not the case, and hence a portion of the trace would be lost. To
overcome this difficulty Eschenhagen in his earlier type of instru-
ments attached to each magnet two mirrors, their planes being
inclined at a small angle so that when the spot reflected from one
mirror goes off the paper, that corresponding to the other comes on.
In the later pattern a third mirror is added of which the plane is
inclined at about 30 to the horizontal. The light from the slit
is reflected on to this mirror by an inclined fixed mirror, and after
reflection at the movable mirror is again reflected at the fixed mirror
and so reaches the recording drum. By this arrangement the angu-
lar rotation of the reflected beam is less than that of the magnet,
and hence the spot of light reflected from this mirror yields a trace
on a much smaller scale than that given by the ordinary mirror
and serves to give a complete record of even the most energetic
disturbance.
See also Balfour Stewart, Report of the British Association, Aber-
deen, 1859, 200, a description of the type of instrument used in the
older observatories; E. Mascart, Traite de magn&isme terrestre,
p. 191; W. Watson, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1901, 6, 187, describing
magnetographs used in India; M. Eschenhagen, Verhandlungen
der deutschen physikalischen Gesettschaft, 1899, i, 147; Terrestrial
Magnetism, 1900, 5, 59; and 1901, 6, 59; Zeits. fur Instrumenten-
kunde, 1907, 27, 137; W. G. Cady, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1904,
9, 69, describing a declination magnetograph in which the record
is obtained by means of a pen acting on a moving strip of paper,
so that the curve can be consulted at all times to see whether a
disturbance is in progress.
The effects of temperature being so marked on the readings of
the horizontal and vertical force magnetographs, it is usual to place
the instruments either in an underground room or in a room which,
by means of double walls and similar devices, is protected as much
as possible from temperature changes. For descriptions of the
arrangements adopted in some observatories see the following:
U.S. observatories, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1903, 8, n; Utrecht,
Terrestrial Magnetism, 1900, 5, 49;-St Maur, Terrestrial Magnetism,
1898, 3, i; Potsdam, Verojfentlichungen des k. preuss. meteorol.
Instituts, " Ergebnisse der magnetischen Beobachtungen in Potsdam
in den Jahren 1890 und 1891;- Pavlovsk, " Das Konstantinow'sche
meteorologische und magnetische Observatorium in Pavlovsk,"
Ausgabe der kaiserl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu St Petersburg,
1895- (W. WN.)
MAGNETOMETER, a name, in its most general sense, for
any instrument used to measure the strength of any magnetic
field; it is, however, often used in the restricted sense of an
instrument for measuring a particular magnetic field, namely,
that due to the earth's magnetism, and in this article the instru-
ments used for measuring the value of the earth's magnetic
field will alone be considered.
The elements which are actually measured when determining
the value of the earth's field are usually the declination, the dip
and the horizontal component (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
For the instruments and methods used in measuring the dip
see INCLINOMETER. It remains to consider the measurement
of the declination and the horizontal component, these two ele-
ments being generally measured with the same instrument,
which is called a unifilar magnetometer.
Measurement of Declination. The measurement of the decli-
nation involves two separate observations, namely, the determi-
nation of (a) the magnetic meridian and (6) the geographical meri-
dian, the angle between the two being the declination. In order
to determine the magnetic meridian the orientation of the magnetic
FIG. I. Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to indicate declination.
axis of a freely suspended magnet is observed ; while, in the absence
of a distant mark of which the azimuth is known, the geographical
meridian is obtained from observations of the transit of the sun
or a star. The geometrical axis of the magnet is sometimes defined
by means of a mirror rigidly attached to the magnet and having the
normal to the mirror as nearly as may be parallel to the magnetic
axis. This arrangement is not very convenient, as it is difficult to
protect the mirror from accidental displacement, so that the angle
between the geometrical and magnetic axes may vary. For this
reason the end of the magnet is sometimes polished and acts as the
mirror, in which case no displacement of the reflecting surface with
reference to the magnet is possible. A different arrangement, used
in the instrument described below, consists in having the magnet
hollow, with a small scale engraved on glass firmly attached at one
end, while to the other end is attached a lens, so chosen that the
scale is at its principal focus. In this case the geometrical axis is
the line joining the central division of the scale to the optical centre
of the lens. The position of the magnet is observed by means of a
small telescope, and since the scale is at the principal focus of the
lens, the scale will be in focus when the telescope is adjusted to
observe a distant object. Thus no alteration in the focus of the
telescope is necessary whether we are observing the magnet, a distant
fixed mark, or the sun.
The Kew Observatory pattern unifilar magnetometer is shown in
figs. I and 2. The magnet consists of a hollow steel cylinder fitted
with a scale and lens as described above, and is suspended by a long
thread of unspun silk, which is attached at the upper end to the
torsion head H. The magnet is protected" from draughts by the
box A, which is closed at the sides by two shutters when an observa-
tion is being taken. The telescope B serves to observe the scale
MAGNETOMETER
387
attached to the magnet when determining the magnetic meridian,
and to observe the sun or star when determining the geographical
meridian.
When making a determination of declination a brass plummet
having the same weight as the magnet is first suspended in its place,
and the torsion of the fibre is taken out. The magnet haying been
attached, the instrument is rotated about its vertical axis till the
centre division of the scale appears to coincide with the vertical
cross-wire of the telescope. The two verniers on the azimuth circle
having been read, the magnet is then inverted, i.e. turned through
180 about its axis, and the setting is repeated. A second setting
with the magnet inverted is generally made, and then another
setting with the magnet in its original position. The mean of all
the readings of the verniers gives the reading on the azimuth circle
corresponding to the magnetic meridian. To obtain the geographical
meridian the box A is removed, and an image of the sun or a star is
reflected into the telescope B by means of a small transit mirror N.
This mirror can rotate about a horizontal axis which is at right
FIG 2. Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to show deflexion.
angles to the line of collimation of the telescope, and is parallel
to the surface of the mirror. The time of transit of the sun or star
across the vertical wire of the telescope having been observed by
means of a chronometer of which the error is known, it is possible to
calculate the azimuth of the sun or star, if the latitude and longitude
of the place of observation are given. Hence if the readings of
the verniers on the azimuth circle are made when the transit is
observed we can deduce the reading corresponding to the geographical
meridian.
The above method of determining the geographical meridian has
the serious objection that it is necessary to know the error of the
chronometer with very considerable accuracy, a matter of some
difficulty when observing at any distance from a fixed observatory.
, however, a theodolite, fitted with a telescope which can rotate
about a horizontal axis and having an altitude circle, is employed,
so that when observing a transit the altitude of the sun or star
can be read off, then the time need only be known to within a minute
or so. Hence in more recent patterns of magnetometer it is usual
to do away with the transit mirror method of observing and either
to use a separate theodolite to observe the azimuth of some distant
object, which will then act as a fixed mark when making the declina-
tion observations, or to attach to the magnetometer an altitude
ope and circle for use when determining the geographical
meridian.
The chief uncertainty in declination observations, at any rate at a
fixed observatory, lies in the variable torsion of the silk suspension,
as it is found that, although the fibre may be entirely freed from
torsion before beginning the declination observations, yet at the
conclusion of these observations a considerable amount of torsion
may have appeared. Soaking the fibre with glycerine, so that the
moisture it absorbs docs not change so much with the hygrometric
state of the air, is of some advantage, but does not entirely remove
the difficulty. For this reason some observers use a thin strip
of phosphor bronze to suspend the magnet, considering that the
absence of a variable torsion more than compensates for the increased
difficulty in handling the more fragile metallic suspension.
Measurement of the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Field.
The method of measuring the horizontal component which is
almost exclusively used, both in fixed observatories and in the
field, consists in observing the period of a freely suspended
magnet, and then obtaining the angle through which an auxiliary
suspended magnet is deflected by the magnet used in the first part
of the experiment. By the vibration experiment we obtain the
value of the product of the magnetic moment (M) of the magnet
into the horizontal component (H), while by the deflexion experi-
ment we can deduce the value of the ratio of M to H, and hence the
two combined give both M and H.
In the case of the Kew pattern unifilar the same magnet that is
used for the declination is usually employed for determining H,
and for the purposes of the vibration experiment it is mounted as
for the observation of the magnetic meridian. The time of vibra-
tion is obtained by means of a chronometer, using the eye-and-ear
method. The temperature of the magnet must also be observed,
for which purpose a thermometer C (fig. i) is attached to the box A.
When making the deflection experiment the magnetometer is
arranged as shown in fig. 2. The auxiliary magnet has a plane
mirror attached, the plane of
which is at right angles to the
axis of the magnet. An image
of the ivory scale B is observed
after reflection in the magnet
mirror by the telescope A. T~he
magnet K used in the vibration
experiment is supported on a
carriage L which can slide along
the graduated bar D. The axis
of the magnet is horizontal and
at the same level as the mirror
magnet, while when the central
division of the scale B appears
to coincide with the vertical
cross-wire of the telescope the
axes of the two magnets are at
right angles. During the ex-
periment the mirror magnet is
protected from draughts by two
wooden doors which slide in
grooves. What is known as the
method of sines is used, for since
the axes of the two magnets are
always at right angles when the
mirror magnet is in its zero posi-
tion, the ratio M/H is propor-
tional to the sine of the angle
between the magnetic axis of the
mirror magnet and the magnetic
meridian. When conducting a
deflexion experiment the de-
flecting magnet K is placed
with its centre at 30 cm. from
the mirror magnet and to the east of the latter, and the whole
instrument is turned till the centre division of the scale B coincides
with the cross-wire of the telescope, when the readings of the
verniers on the azimuth circle are noted. The magnet K is then
reversed in the support, and a new setting taken. The difference
between the two sets of readings gives twice the angle which the
magnetic axis of the mirror magnet makes with the magnetic
meridian. In order to eliminate any error due to the zero of the
scale D not being exactly below the mirror magnet, the support L
is then removed to the west side of the instrument, and the settings
are repeated. Further, to allow of a correction being applied for the
finite length of the magnets the whole series of settings is repeated with
the centre of the deflecting magnet at 40 cm. from the mirror magnet.
Omitting correction terms depending on the temperature and on
the inductive effect of the earth's magnetism on the moment of
the deflecting magnet, if 9 is the angle which the axis of the de-
flected magnet makes with the meridian when the centre of the
deflecting magnet is at a distance r, then
in which P and Q are constants depending on the dimensions
and magnetic states of the two magnets. The value of the constants
P and Q can be obtained by making deflexion experiments at three
distances. It is, however, possible by suitably choosing the pro-
portions of the two magnets to cause either P or Q to be very small.
Thus it is usual, if the magnets are of similar shape, to make the
deflected magnet 0-467 of the length of the deflecting magnet, in
which case Q is negligible, and thus by means of deflexion experi-
ments at two distances the value of P can be obtained. (See C.
Borgen, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1896, i. p. 176, and C. Chree, Phil.
Mag., 1904 [6], 7, p. 1 13-)
In the case of the vibration expenment correction terms have to
be introduced to allow for the temperature of the magnet, for the
inductive effect of the earth's field, which slightly increases the
magnetic moment of the magnet, and for the torsion of the suspension
fibre, as well as the rate of the chronometer. If the temperature of
the magnet were always exactly the same in both the vibration and
3 88
MAGNETO-OPTICS
deflexion experiment, then no correction on account of the effect of
temperature in the magnetic moment would be necessary in either
experiment. The fact that the moment of inertia of the magnet
varies with the temperature must, however, be taken into account.
In the deflexion experiment, in addition to the induction correction,
and that for the effect of temperature on the magnetic moment, a
correction has to be applied for the effect of temperature on the
length of the bar which supports the deflexion magnet.
.See also Stewart and Gee, Practical Physics, vol. 2, containing a
description of the Kew pattern unifilar magnetometer and detailed
instructions for performing the experiments; C. Chree, Phil. Mag.,
1901 (6), 2, p. 613, and Proc. Roy. Soc., 1899, 65, p. 375, containing
a discussion of the errors to which the Kew unifilar instrument is
subject; E. Mascart, Traits de magnetisme terrestre, containing a
description of the instruments used in the French magnetic survey,
which are interesting on account of their small size and consequent
easy portability; H. E. D. Fraser, Terrestrial Magnetism, 1901,
6, p. 65, containing a description of a modified Kew pattern unifilar
as used in the Indian survey; H. Wild, Mem. Acad. imp. sc. St
Petersbourg, 1896 (viii.), vol. 3, No. 7, containing a description of a
most elaborate unifilar magnetometer with which it is claimed
results can be obtained of a very high order of accuracy ; K. Haufs-
mann, Zeits. fur Instrumentenkunde, 1906, 26, p. 2, containing a
description of a magnetometer for field use, designed by M. Eschen-
hagen, which has many advantages.
Measurements of the Magnetic Elements at Sea. Owing to the
fact that the proportion of the earth's surface covered by sea is
so much greater than the dry land, the determinaton of the
magnetic elements on board ship is a matter of very considerable
importance. The movements of a ship entirely preclude the
employment of any instrument in which a magnet suspended by
a fibre has any part, so that the unifilar is unsuited for such
observations. In order to obtain the declination a pivoted
magnet is used to obtain the magnetic meridian, the geographical
meridian being obtained by observations on the sun or stars.
A carefully made ship's compass is usually employed, though
in some cases the compass card, with its attached magnets, is
made reversible, so that the inclination to the zero of the card
of the magnetic axis of the system of magnets attached to the
card can be eliminated by reversal. In the absence of such a
reversible card the index correction must be determined by com-
parison with a unifilar magnetometer, simultaneous observations
being made on shore, and these observations repeated as often as
occasion permits. To determine the dip a Fox's dip circle ' is
used. This consists of an ordinary dip circle (see INCLINOMETER)
in which the ends of the axle of the needle are pointed and rest
in jewelled holes, so that the movements of the ship do not
displace the needle. The instrument is, of course, supported on
a gimballed table, while the ship during the observations is kept
on a fixed course. To obtain the strength of the field the method
usually adopted is that known as Lloyd's method. 2 To carry out
a determination of the total force by this method the Fox dip
circle has been slightly modified by E. W. Creak, and has been
found to give satisfactory results on board ship. The circle is
provided with two needles in addition to those used for deter-
mining the dip, one (a) an ordinary dip needle, and the other (b)
a needle which has been loaded at one end by means of a small
peg which fits into one of two symmetrically placed holes in the
needle. The magnetism of these two needles is never reversed,
and they are as much as possible protected from shock and from
approach to other magnets, so that their magnetic state may re-
main as constant as possible. Attached to the cross-arm which
carries the microscopes used to observe the ends of the dipping
needle is a clamp, which will hold'the needle b in such a way that
its plane is parallel to the vertical circle and its axis is at right
angles to the line joining the two microscopes. Hence, when
the microscopes are adjusted so as to coincide with the points
of the dipping needle a, the axes of the two needles must be at
right angles. The needle a being suspended between the jewels,
and the needle b being held in the clamp, the cross-arm carrying
the reading microscopes and the needle b is rotated till the ends
of the needle a coincide with the cross-wires of the microscopes.
The verniers having been read, the cross-arm is rotated so as to
deflect the needle a in the opposite direction, and a new setting
is taken. Half the difference between the two readings gives
1 Annals of Electricity, 1839, 3, p. 288.
1 Humphrey Lloyd, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 1848, 4, p. 57.
the angle through which the needle a has been deflected under
the action of the needle b. This angle depends on the ratio of
the magnetic moment of the needle b to the total force of the
earth's field. It also involves, of course, the distance between
the needles and the distribution of the magnetism of the needles;
but this factor is determined by comparing the value given by
the instrument, at a shore station, with that given by an ordi-
nary magnetometer. Hence the above observation gives us a
means of obtaining the ratio of the magnetic moment of the needle
b to the value of the earth's total force. The needle b is then
substituted for a, there being now no needle in the clamp attached
to the microscope arm, and the difference between the reading
now obtained and the dip, together with the weight added to the
needle, gives the product of the moment of the needle b into the
earth's total force. Hence, from the two observations the value
of the earth's total force can be deduced. In an actual observation
the deflecting needle would be reversed, as well as the deflected
one, while different weights would be used to deflect the needle b.
For a description of the method of using the Fox circle for obser-
vations at sea consult the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry,
p. 116, while a description of the most recent form of the circle,
known as the Lloyd-Creak pattern, will be found in Terrestrial
Magnetism, 1901, 6, p. 119. An attachment to the ordinary ship's
compass, by means of which satisfactory measurements of the
horizontal component have been made on board ship, is described
by L. A. Bauer in Terrestrial Magnetism, 1906, n, p. 78. The
principle of the method consists in deflecting the compass needle
by means of a horizontal magnet supported vertically over the
compass card, the axis of the deflecting magnet being always
perpendicular to the axis of the magnet attached to the card. The
method is not strictly an absolute one, since it presupposes a know-
ledge of the magnetic moment of the deflecting magnet. In practice
it is found that a magnet can be prepared which, when suitably pro-
tected from shock, &c., retains its magnetic moment sufficiently
constant to enable observations of H to be made comparable in
accuracy with that of the other elements obtained by the instruments
ordinarily employed at sea. (W. \Vx. )
MAGNETO-OPTICS. The first relation between magnetism
and light was discovered by Faraday, 1 who proved that the
plane of polarization of a ray of light was rotated when the ray
travelled through certain substances parallel to the lines of mag-
netic force. This power of rotating the plane of polarization in a
magnetic field has been shown to be possessed by all refracting
substances, whether they are in the solid, liquid or gaseous state.
The rotation by gases was established independently by H.
Becquerel, 2 and Kundt and Rontgen, 3 while Kundt 4 found that
films of the magnetic metals, iron, cobalt, nickel, thin enough to
be transparent, produced enormous rotations, these being in iron
and cobalt magnetized to saturation at the rate of 200,000 per
cm. of thickness, and in nickel about 89,000. The direction
of rotation is not the same in all bodies. If we call the rotation
positive when it is related to the direction of the magnetic force,
like rotation and translation in a right-handed screw, or, what is
equivalent, when it is in the direction of the electric currents
which would produce a magnetic field in the same direction as
that which produces the rotation, then most substances produce
positive rotation. Among those that produce negative rotation
are ferrous and ferric salts, ferricyanide of potassium, the salts
of lanthanum, cerium and didymium, and chloride of titanium.'
The magnetic metals iron, nickel, cobalt, the salts of nickel and
cobalt, and oxygen (the most magnetic gas) produce positive
rotation.
For slightly magnetizable Substances the amount of rotation in a
space PQ is proportional to the difference between the magnetic
potential at P and Q ; or if 8 is the rotation in PQ, flp, OQ, the
magnetic potential at P and Q, then = R(n P HQ), where R is a
constant, called Verdet's constant, which depends upon the refract-
ing substance, the wave length of the light, and the temperature.
The following are the values of R (when the rotation is expressed
in circular measure) for the D line and a temperature of 18 C. :
Substance.
Carbon bisulphide .
Water ....
Alcohol . . . .
Ether ....
Oxygen (at I atmosphere)
Faraday's heavy glass
RXio'.
J 1-222
1 1-225
5-377
( -3808
330
315
000179
1-738
Observer.
Lord Rayleigh 6 and Kopsel. 7
Rodger and Watson. 8
Arons. 9
Rodger and Watson. 8
Du Bois. 10
Du Bois. 10
Kundt and Rontgen (loc.cit.).
MAGNETO-OPTICS
389
The variation of Verdet's constant with temperature has been
determined for carbon bisulphide and water by Rodger and Watson
i it.). They find if R<, R<> are the values of Verdet's constant
at /C. and oC. respectively, then for carbon bisulphide R : = R
(i -0016961), and for water R ( = Ro (i -oooo3O5< -00000305^).
lor the magnetic metals Kundt found that the rotation did not
i rapidly as the magnetic force, but that as this force was
increased the rotation reached a maximum value. This suggests
that the rotation is proportional to the intensity of magnetization,
iot to the magnetic force.
The amount of rotation in a given field depends greatly upon the
wave length of the light; the shorter the wave length the greater
the rotation, the rotation varying a little more rapidly than the
inverse square of the wave length. Verdet 11 has compared in the
of carbon bisulphide and creosote the rotation given by the
formula
with those actually observed; in this formula 6 is the angular
rotation of the plane of polarization, m a constant depending on
the medium, X the wave length of the light in air, and i its index
of refraction in the medium. Verdet found that, though the agree-
ment is fair, the differences are greater than can be explained by
errors of experiment.
Vcrdel 12 has shown that the rotation of a salt solution is the
sum of the rotations due to the salt and the solvent; thus, by
mixing a salt which produces negative rotation with water which
produces positive rotation, it is possible to get a solution which
does not exhibit any rotation. Such solutions are not in general
magnetically neutral. By mixing diamagnetic and paramag-
netic substances we can get magnetically neutral solutions,
which, however, produce a finite rotation of the plane of polari-
zation. The relation of the magnetic rotation to chemical
consitution has been studied in great detail by Perkin, 3 Wachs-
muth, 4 Jahn s and Schonrock. 6
The rotation of the plane of polarization may conveniently
be regarded as denoting that the velocity of propagation of
circular-polarized light travelling along the lines of magnetic force
depen Is upon the direction of rotation of the ray, the velocity
when the rotation is related to the direction of the magnetic
force, like rotation and translation on a right-handed screw
being different from that for a left-handed rotation. A plane-
polarized ray may be regarded as compounded of two oppositely
circularly-polarized rays, and as these travel along the lines of
magnetic force with different velocities, the one will gain or
in phase on the other, so that when they are again com-
pounded they will correspond to a plane-polarized ray, but in
consequence of the change of phase the plane of polarization
will not coincide with its original position.
Reflection from a Magnet. Kerr 17 in 1877 found that when
plane-polarized light is incident on the pole of an electromagnet,
polished so as to act like a mirror, the plane of polarization of
the reflected light is rotated by the magnet. Further experi-
ments on this phenomenon have been made by Righi, 18 Kundt, 19
Du Bois, 20 Sissingh, 21 Hall," Hurion, 23 Kaz 24 and Zeeman. 26 The
simplest case is when the incident plane-polarized light falls
normally on the pole of an electromagnet. When the magnet
is not excited the reflected ray is plane-polarized; when the
magnet is excited the plane of polarization is rotated through a
small angle, the direction of rotation being opposite to that of
the currents exciting the pole. Righi found that the reflected
light was slightly elliptically polarized, the axes of the ellipse
being of very unequal magnitude. A piece of gold-leaf placed
over the pole entirely stops the rotation, showing that it is not
produced in the air near the pole. Rotation takes place from
magnetized nickel and cobalt as well as from iron, and is in the
same direction (Hall). Righi has shown that the rotation at
reflection is greater for long waves than for short, whereas, as we
have seen, the Faraday rotation is greater for short waves than
for long. The rotation for different coloured light from iron,
nickel, cobalt and magnetite has been measured by Du Bois; in
magnetite the direction of rotation is opposite to that of the
other metals. When the light is incident obliquely and not nor-
mally on the polished pole of an electromagnet, it is elliptically
polarized after reflection, even when the plane of polarization
is parallel or at right angles to the plane of incidence.
According to Righi, the amount of rotation when the plane
of polarization of the incident light is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence reaches a maximum when the angle of
incidence is between 44 and 68, while when the light is polar-
ized in the plane of incidence the rotation steadily decreases as
the angle of incidence is increased. The rotation when the light
is polarized in the plane of incidence is always less than when it is
polarized at right angles to that plane, except when the incidence
is normal, when the two rotations are of course equal.
Reflection from Tangentially Magnetized Iron. In this case
Kerr 26 found : (i ) When the plane of incidence is perpendicular
to the lines of magnetic force, no rotation of the reflected light
is produced by magnetization: (2) no rotation is produced when
the light is incident normally; (3) when the incidence is oblique,
the lines of magnetic force being in the plane of incidence, the
reflected light is elliptically polarized after reflection, and the axes
of the ellipse are not in and at right angles to the plane of inci-
dence. When the light is polarized in the plane of incidence, the
rotation is at all angles of incidence in the opposite direction to
that of the currents which would produce a magnetic field of the
same sign as the magnet. When the light is polarized at right
angles to the plane of incidence, the rotation is in the same direc-
tion as these currents when the angle of incidence is between o
and 75 according to Kerr, between o and 80 according to
Kundt, and between o and 78 54' according to Righi. When
the incidence is more oblique than this, the rotation of the
plane of polarization is in the opposite direction to the electric
currents which would produce a magnetic field of the same sign.
The theory of the phenomena just described has been dealt
with by Airy, 27 C. Neumann, 28 Maxwell, 29 Fitzgerald ,*> Rowland , n
H. A. Lorentz, 32 Voight, 33 Ketteler," van Loghem," Potier,"
Basset, 37 Goldhammer, 38 Drude, 39 J. J. Thomson, 40 and Leatham ;
for a critical discussion of many of these theories we refer the
reader to Larmor's * British Association Report. Most of these
theories have proceeded on the plan of adding to the expression
for the electromotive force terms indicating a force similar in
character to that discovered by Hall (see MAGNETISM) in metallic
conductors carrying a current in a magnetic field, i.e. an electro-
motive force at right angles to the plane containing the magnetic
force and the electric current, and proportional to the sine of the
angle between these vectors. The introduction of a term of
this kind gives rotation of the plane of polarization by trans-
mission through all refracting substance, and by reflection from
magnetized metals, and shows a fair agreement between the
theoretical and experimental results. The simplest way of
treating the questions seems, however, to be to go to the equa-
tions which represent the propagation of a wave travelling
through a medium containing ions. A moving ion in a magnetic
field will be acted upon by a mechanical force which is at right
angles to its direction of motion, and also to the magnetic force,
and is equal per unit charge to the product of these two vectors
and the sine of the angle between them. For the sake of brevity
we will take the special case of a wave travelling parallel to the
magnetic force in the direction of the axis of z.
Then supposing that all the ions are of the same kind, and that
there are n of these each with mass m and charge e per unit volume,
the equations representing the field are (see ELECTRIC WAVES) :
</X . <? dB
- -
<iX d0
~ ~
</Y
T
<TVo
~
da
where H is the external magnetic field, X , Yo the components of
the part of the electric force in the wave not due to the charges on
the atoms, a and j3 the components of the magnetic force, { and t)
39
MAGNETO-OPTICS
the co-ordinates of an ion, Ri the coefficient of resistance to the
motion of the ions, and o the force at unit distance tending to
bring the ion back to its position of equilibrium, KO the specific
inductive capacity of a vacuum. If the variables are proportional
to e '('"~ q ' ) we find by substitution that g is given by the equation
where P = (a - Jirne 2 ) + R,i/> - m>,
or, by neglecting R, 'P = m(s* /> 2 ), where s is the period of the
free ions. If, g 2 , ql are the roots of this equation, then corre-
sponding to 31 we have Xo = tY and to qi Xo= iY . We
thus get two oppositely circular-polarized rays travelling with the
velocities p/qi and p/qi respectively. Hence if Vi, t) 2 are these
velocities, and v the velocity when there is no magnetic field, we
obtain, if we neglect terms in H 2 ,
i i 4irne 3 Hp
ti?~^~j 2 (i- 2 -f> 2 ) 2 '
The rotation r of the plane of polarization per unit length
Since l/v 1 = Ko-\-^irne t /m(s 1 2 ), we have if p is the refractive
index for light of frequency p, and t>o the velocity of light in
vacuo.
M 2 -i=4ireV /m(s 2 - 2 ) ...... (i)
So that we may put
r = (M 2 -i) 2 /> 2 H/S7rMnCT 3 ...... (2)
Becquerel (Comptes rendus, 125, p. 683) gives for r the expression
^HdM
*m i' d\'
where X is the wave length. This is equivalent to (2) if n is given
by (i). He has shown that this expression is in good agreement
with experiment. The sign of r depends on the sign of e, hence the
rotation due to negative ions would be opposite to that for positive.
For the great majority of substances the direction of rotation is
that corresponding to the negation ion. We see from the equations
that the rotation is very large for such a value of p as makes P = o:
this value corresponds to a free period of the ions, so that the
rotation ought to be very large in the neighbourhood of an absorp-
tion band. This has been verified for sodium vapour by Macaluso
and Corbino. 43
If plane-polarized light falls normally on a plane face of the
medium containing the ions, then if the electric force in the incident
wave is parallel to x and is equal to the real part of At'' 1 ""'*),
if the reflected beam in which the electric force is parallel to x is
represented by Be'( p ' +<! ' ) and the reflected beam in which the
electric force is parallel to the axis of y by Ce' (pl+< " ) , then the
conditions that the magnetic force parallel to the surface is con-
tinuous, and that the electric forces parallel to the surface in the air
are continuous with Y , X in the medium, give
or approximately, since
Thus in transparent bodies for which n is real, C and B differ in
phase by -r/2, and the reflected light is elliptically polarized, the
major axis of the ellipse being in the plane of polarization of the
incident light, so that in this case there is no rotation, but only
elliptic polarization; when there is strong absorption so that M
contains an imaginary term, C/B will contain a real part so that
the reflected light will be elliptically polarized, but the major axis
is no longer in the plane of polarization of the incident light; we
should thus have a rotation of the plane of polarization superposed
on the elliptic polarization.
Zeeman's Effect. Faraday, after discovering the effect of a
magnetic field on the plane of polarization of light, made numer-
ous experiments to see if such a field influenced the nature of
the light emitted by a luminous body, but without success. In
1885 Fievez, 44 a Belgian physicist, noticed that the spectrum of a
sodium flame was changed slightly in appearance by a magnetic
field; but his observation does not seem to have attracted much
attention, and was probably ascribed to secondary effects.
In 1896 Zeeman 4S saw a distinct broadening of the lines of
lithium and sodium when the flames containing salts of these
metals were between the poles of a powerful electromagnet;
following up this observation, he obtained some exceedingly
remarkable and interesting results, of which those observed with
the blue-green cadmium line may be taken as typical. He found
that in a strong magnetic field, when the lines of force are parallel
to the direction of propagation of the light, the line is split up
into a doublet, the constituents of which are on opposite sides
of the undisturbed position of the line, and that the light in the
constituents of this doublet is circularly polarized, the rotation in
the two lines being in opposite directions. When the magnetic
force is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the light,
the line is resolved into a triplet, of which the middle line occupies
the same position as the undisturbed line; all the constituents
of this triplet are plane-polarized, the plane of polarization of
the middle line being at right angles to the magnetic force, while
the outside lines are polarized on a plane parallel to the lines of
magnetic force. A great deal of light is thrown on this pheno-
menon by the following considerations due to H. A. Lorentz. 46
Let us consider an ion attracted to a centre of force by a force
proportional to the distance, and acted on by a magnetic force
parallel to the axis of z: then if m is the mass of the particle
and e its charge, the equations of motion are
d ' x _u<*2:
-H,-:
' He dt
ffiy
The solution of these equations is
x = Acos
y = A sin
z = C cos (pt+y)
where a mp?=
a. mpf = Hep?
He
,He.
1 m
or approximately pi
Thus the motion of the ion on the xy plane may be regardi
made up of two circular motions in opposite directions described
with frequencies pi and p^ respectively, while the motion along z
has the period p, which is the frequency for all the vibrations
when H=o. Now suppose that the cadmium line is due to the
motion of such an ion; then if the magnetic force is along the
direction of propagation, the vibration in this direction has its
period unaltered, but since the direction of vibration is perpen-
dicular to the wave front, it does not give rise to light. Thus we
are left with the two circular motions in the wave front with fre-
quencies pi and fa giving the circularly polarized constituents of
the doublet. Now suppose the magnetic force is at right angles
to the direction of propagation of the light; then the vibration
parallel to the magnetic force being in the wave front produces
luminous effects and gives rise to a plane-polarized ray of un-
disturbed period (the middle line of the triplet), the plane of polariza-
tion being at right angles to the magnetic force. The components
in the wave-front of the circular orbits at right angles to the magnetic
force will be rectilinear motions of frequency pi and pi at right
angles to the magnetic force so that they will produce plane-
polarized light, the plane of polarization being parallel to thi
magnetic force ; these are the outer lines of the triplet.
If Zeeman's observations are interpreted from this point
view, the directions of rotation of the circularly-polarized light
in the doublet observed along the lines of magnetic foi;ce show
that the ions which produce the luminous vibrations are nega-
tively electrified, while the measurement of the charge of fre-
quency due to the magnetic field shows that ejm is of the order
io 7 . This result is of great interest, as this is the order of the
value of efm in the negatively electrified particles which consti-
tute the Cathode Rays (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC III. Through
Gases). Thus we infer that the " cathode particles " are found in
bodies, even where not subject to the action of intense electrical
fields, and are in fact an ordinary constituent of the molecule.
Similar particles are found near an incandescent wire, and also
near a metal plate illuminated by ultra-violet light. The value
of elm deduced from the Zeeman effect ranges from io 7 to
3-4 X io 7 , the value of e/m for the particle in the cathode rays is
1-7- X io 7 . The majority of the determinations of e/m from the
Zeeman effect give numbers larger than this, the maxim
being about twice this value.
:
MAGNOLIA
39 1
A more extended study of the behaviour of the spectroscopic
lines has afforded examples in which the effects produced by a
magnet are more complicated than those we have described,
(1 the simple cases are much less numerous than the more
: >lex. Thus Preston 47 and Cornu w have shown that under
the action of a transverse magnetic field one of the D lines splits
up into four, and the other into six lines; Preston has given
many other examples of these quartets and sextets, and has
shown that the change in the frequency, which, according to
thi- simple theory indicated, should be the same for all lines,
illy varies considerably from one line to another, many lines
showing no appreciable displacement. The splitting up of a
single line into a quartet or sextet indicates, from the point of
view of the ion theory, that the line must have its origin in a
system consisting of more than one ion. A single ion having
only three degrees of freedom can only have three periods.
When there is no magnetic force acting on the ion these periods
are equal, but though under the action of a magnetic force they
are separated, their number cannot be increased. When there-
fore we get four or more lines, the inference is that the system
giving the lines must have at least four degrees of freedom, and
therefore must consist of more than one ion. The theory of a
system of ions mutually influencing each other shows, as we
should expect, that the effects are more complex than in the case
of a single ion, and that the change in the frequency is not
necessarily the same for all systems (see J. J. Thomson, Proc.
( \irnb. Phil. Soc. 13, p. 39). Preston 49 and Runge and Paschen
have proved that, in some cases at any rate, the change in the
frequency of the different lines is of such a character that they
can be grouped into series such that each line in the series has
the same change in frequency for the same magnetic force, and,
moreover, that homologous lines in the spectra of different metals
belonging to the same group have the same change in frequency.
A very remarkable case of the Zeeman effect has been dis-
covered by H. Becquerel and Deslandres (Comptes rendus, 127,
p. 1 8). They found lines in iron when the most deflected com-
ponents are those polarized in the plane at right angles to the
magnetic force. On the simple theory the light polarized in
this way is not affected. Thus the behaviour of the spectrum
in the magnetic field promises to throw great light on the nature
of radiation, and perhaps on the constitution of the elements.
The study of these effects has been greatly facilitated by the
invention by Michelson "> of the echelon spectroscope.
There are some interesting phenomena connected with the
Zeeman effect which are more easily observed than the effect
itself. Thus Cotton M found that if we have two Eunsen flames,
A and B, coloured by the same salt, the absorption of the light
of one by the other is diminished if either is placed between the
poles of a magnet: this is at once explained by the Zeeman effect,
for the times of vibration of the molecules of the flame in the
magnetic field are not the same as those of the other flame,
and thus the absorption is diminished. Similar considerations
explain the phenomenon observed by Egoroff and Georgiewsky, 62
that the light emitted from a flame in a transverse field is par-
tially polarized in a plane parallel to the magnetic force; and also
Righi's 53 observation that if a sodium flame is placed in a longi-
tudinal field between two crossed Nicols, and a ray of white light
sent through one of the Nicols, then through the flame, and then
through the second Nicol, the amount of light passing through
the second Nicol is greater when the field is on than when it is off.
Voight and Wiechert (Wied. Ann. 67, p. 345) detected the double
refraction produced when light travels through a substance
exposed to a magnetic field at right angles to the path of the
light; this result had been predicted by Voight from theoretical
considerations. Jean Becquerel has made some very interesting
experiments on the effect of a magnetic field on the fine absorp-
tion bands produced by xenotime, a phosphate of yttrium and
erbium, and tysonite, a fluoride of cerium, lanthanum and
didymium, and has obtained effects which he ascribes to the
presence of positive electrons. A very complete account of
magneto- and electro-optics is contained in Voight's Magneto-
and Elcktro-optik.
1 Experimental Researches, Series 19. * Comptes rendus, 88, p. 709.
' Wied. Ann. 6, p. 332; 8, p. 278; 10, p. 257. 4 Wied. Ann. 23,
p. 228; 27, p. 191. ''Wied. Ann. 31, p. 941. Phil. Trans.,
A. 1885, Pt. II, p. 343. 7 Wied. Ann. 26, p. 456. Phil. Trans., A.
1895, Pt. 17, p. 621. * Wied. Ann. 24, p. 161. l Wied. Ann. 31,
p. 970. " Comptes rendus, 57, p. 670. " Comptes rendus, 43,
p. 529; 44, p. 1209. "Journ. Chem. Soc. i88\, p. 421 ; 1886, p. 177;
1887, pp. 362 and 808; 1888, p. 561; 1889, pp. 680 and 750;
1891, p. 981; 1892, p. 800; 1893, pp. 75, 99 and 488. u Wied.
Ann. 44, p. 377. " Wied. Ann. 43, p. 280. " Zeitschrift f. physikal.
Chem. ii, p. 753. "Phil. Mag. [5] 3, p. 321. a Ann. de chim. et
de phys. [6] 4, p. 433; 9, p. 65; 10, p. 200. w Wied. Ann. 23,
p. 228; 27, p. 191. K Wied. Ann. 39, p. 25. " Wied. Ann. 42, p. 115.
a Phil. Mag. [5] 12, p. 171. " Journ. de Phys. 1884, p. 360.
14 Beiblatter zu Wied. Ann. 1885, p. 275. ** Messungen fiber d.
Kerr'sche Erscheinung. _ Inaugural Dissert. Leiden, 1893. u Phil.
Ann. 1885, p. 275. K Messungen fiber d.
, Inaugural Dissert. Leiden, 1893. u Phil.
J- [5] 5- P- l61 - n -P* 1 '- Aft*?- [3] 28 > P- 469- M > wagn. Dre-
hung d. Polarisationsebene des Lichts, Halle, 1863. a Electricity and
Magnetism, chap. xxi. *> Phil. Trans. 1880 (2), p. 691. "Phil.
Mag. (5) ii, p. 254, 1881. x Arch. Neerl. 19, p. 123. " Wied. Ann.
23, P- 493; 67, p. 345. " Wied. Ann. 24, p. 119. " Wied. Bei-
blatter, 8, p. 869. M Comptes rendus, 108, p. 510. " Phil. Trans.
182, A. p. 371, 1892; Physical Optics, p. 393. " Wied. Ann. 46,
p. 71; 47, p. 345; 48, p. 740; 50, p. 722. * Wied. Ann. 46, p. 353;
48, p. 122; 49, p. 690. * Recent Researches, p. 489 et seq. tl Phil.
Trans., A. 1897, p. 89. a Brit. Assoc. Report, 1893. " Comptes
Belt. '
Laboratory, Leiden, Mo. 33, 1090; rmu, Mag. 43, p. 226; 44, pp.
55 and 255; and 45, p. 197. "Arch. Neerl. 25, p. 190. " Phil.
Mag. 45, p. 325; 47, p. 165. ** Comptes rendus, 126, p. 181.
49 Phil. Mag. 46, p. 187. M Phil. Mag. 45, p. 348. " Comptes ren-
dus, 125, p. 865. K Comptes rendus, pp. 748 and 949, 1897.
" Comptes rendus, 127, p. 216; 128, p. 45. (j. J. T.)
MAGNOLIA, the typical genus of the botanical order Magno-
liaceae, named after Pierre Magnol (1638-1715), professor of
medicine and botany at Montpellier. It contains about twenty
species, distributed in Japan, China and the Himalayas, as well
as in North America.
Magnolias are trees or shrubs with deciduousor rarely evergreen
foliage. They bear conspicuous and often large, fragrant, white,
rose or purple flowers. The sepals are three in number, the petals
six to twelve, in two to four series of three in each, the stamens
and carpels being numerous. The fruit consists of a number of
follicles which are borne on a more or less conical receptacle, and
dehisce along the outer edge to allow the scarlet or brown seeds
to escape; the seeds however remain suspended by a long slender
thread (the funicle). Of the old-world species, the earliest in
cultivation appears to have been M. Yulan (or M. conspitua) of
China, of which the buds were preserved, as well as used medici-
nally and to season rice; together with the greenhouse species,
M. fuscata, it was transported to Europe in 1789, and thence to
North America, and is now cultivated in the Middle States.
There are many fine forms of M. conspicua, the best being
Soulangeana, white tinted with purple, Lenni and stricta. Of the
Japanese magnolias, M. Kobus and the purple-flowered M.
obovata were met with by Kaempfer in 1690, and were introduced
into England in 1709 and 1804 respectively. M. pumila, the
dwarf magnolia, from the mountains of Amboyna, is nearly
evergreen, and bears deliciously scented flowers; it was intro-
duced in 1786. The Indian species are three in number, M.
globosa, allied to M. conspicua of Japan, M. sphenocarpa, and,
the most magnificent of all magnolias, M. Campbellii, which
forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery and vegetation of
Darjeeling. It was discovered by Dr Griffith in Bhutan, and
is a large forest tree, abounding on the outer ranges of Sikkim,
80 to 150 ft. high, and from 6 to 12 ft. in girth. The flowers
are 6 to 10 in. across, appearing before the leaves, and vary
from white to a deep rose colour.
The first of the American species brought to Europe (in 1688
by John Banister) was M. glauca, a beautiful evergreen species
about 1 5 ft. high with obtuse leathery leaves, blue-green above,
silvery underneath, and globular flowers varying from creamy
white to pale yellow with age. It is found in low situations
near the sea from Massachusetts to Louisiana more especially
in New Jersey and the Carolinas. M . acuminata, the so-called
" cucumber tree," from the resemblance of the young fruits to
small cucumbers, ranges from Pennsylvania to Carolina. The
392
MAGNUS MAGNY
wood is yellow, and used for bowls; the flowers, 3 to 4 in. across,
are glaucous green tinted with yellow. It was introduced into
England from Virginia about 1736. M. tripetala (or M. um-
brella), is known as the " umbrella tree " from the arrangement
of the leaves at the ends of the branches resembling somewhat
that o f the ribs of an umbrella. The flowers, 5 to 8 in. across, are
white and have a strong but not disagreeable scent. It was
brought to England in 1752. M. Fraseri (or M. auriculata),
Magnolia grandiflora, shoot with flower; rather less than \ nat. size.
1. Flower after removal of the sepals and petals, showing the in-
definite stamens, s, and carpels, c; f nat. size.
2. Fruit the ripe carpels are splitting, exposing the seeds, some of
which are suspended by the long funicle; J nat. size.
3. Floral diagram, 6, bract.
discovered by John Bartram in 1773, is a native of the
western parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, extending southward
to western Florida and southern Alabama. It grows 30 to
50 ft. high, has leaves a foot or more long, heart-shaped and
bluntly auricled at the base, and fragrant pale yellowish-
white flowers, 3 to 4 in. across. The most beautiful species
of North America is M. grandiflora, the " laurel magnolia,"
a native of the south-eastern States, and introduced into
England in 1 734. It grows a straight trunk, 2 ft. in diameter and
upwards of 70 ft. high, bearing a profusion of large, powerfully
lemon-scented creamy-white flowers. It is an evergreen tree,
easily recognized by its glossy green oval oblong leaves with a
rusty-brown under surface. In England it is customary to train
it against a wall in the colder parts, but it does well as a bush tree;
and the original species is surpassed by the Exmouth varieties,
which originated as seedlings at Exeter from the tree first raised
in England by Sir John Colliton, and which flower much more
freely than the parent plant. Other fine magnolias now to be
met with in gardens are M . cordata, a North American deciduous
tree 40 to 50 ft. high, with heart-shaped leaves, woolly beneath,
and yellow flowers lined with purple; M. hypoleuca, a fine
Japanese tree 60 ft. high or more, with leaves a foot or more
long, 6 to 7 in. broad, the under surface covered with hairs;
M. macrophytta, a handsome deciduous North American tree,
with smooth whitish bark, and very large beautiful green
leaves, i to 3 ft. long, 8 to 10 in. broad, oblong-obovate and
heart-shaped at the base; the open sweet-scented bell-shaped
flowers 8 to 10 in. across, are white with a purple blotch at
the base of the petals; M. stellata or Halleana, a charming
deciduous Japanese shrub remarkable for producing its pure
white starry flowers as early as February and March on
leafless stems; and M. Walsoni, another fine deciduous Japanese
bush or small tree with very fragrant pure white flowers 5 to
6 in. across.
The tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, a native of North
America, frequently cultivated in England, is also a member of
the same family. It reaches a height of over too ft. in a native
condition, and as much as 60 to 80 ft. in England. It resembles
the plane tree somewhat in appearance, but is readily recognized
by lobed leaves having the apical lobe truncated, and by its
soft green and yellow tulip-like flowers which however are rarely
borne on trees under twenty years of age.
For a description of the principal species of magnolia under
cultivation see J. Weathers, Practical Guide to Garden Plants, pp. 174
seq., and for a detailed account of the American species see C. S
Sargent, Silva of North America, vol. i.
MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870), German chemist
and physicist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of May 1802. His
father was a wealthy merchant; and of his five brothers one,
Eduard (1790-1872), became a celebrated painter. After study-
ing at Berlin, he went to Stockholm to work under Berzelius, and
later to Paris, where he studied for a while under Gay-Lussac and
Thenard. In 1831 he returned to Berlin as lecturer on technology ,
and physics at the university. As a teacher his success was rapid
and extraordinary. His lucid style and the perfection of his
experimental demonstrations drew to his lectures a crowd of
enthusiastic scholars, on whom he impressed the importance of
applied science by conducting them round the factories and work-
shops of the city; and he further found time to hold weekly
" colloquies " on physical questions at his house with a small
circle of young students. From 1827 to 1833 he was occupied
mainly with chemical researches, which resulted in the discovery
of the first of the platino-ammonium compounds (" Magnus's
green salt " is Ptllj, 2NH 3 ), of sulphovinic, ethionic and isethionic
acids and their salts, and, in conjunction with C. F. Ammermuller,
of periodic acid. Among other subjects at which he subsequently
worked were the absorption of gases in blood (1837-1845), the
expansion of gases by heat (1841-1844), the vapour pressures of
water and various solutions (1844-1854), thermo-electricity
(1851), electrolysis (1856), induction of currents (1858-1861),
conduction of heat in gases (1860), and polarization of heat (1866-
1868). From 1861 onwards he devoted much attention to the
question of diathermancy in gases and vapours, especially to the
behaviour in this respect of dry and moist air, and to the thermal
effects produced by the condensation of moisture on solid
surfaces.
In 1834 Magnus was elected extraordinary, and in 1845
ordinary professor at Berlin. He was three times elected dean
of the faculty, in 1847, 1858 and 1863; and in 1861, rector
magnificus. His great reputation led to his being entrusted by
the government with several missions; in 1865 he represented
Prussia in the conference called at Frankfort to introduce a
uniform metric system of weights and measures into Germany.
For forty-five years his labour was incessant; his first memoir was
published in 1825 when he was yet a student; his last appeared
shortly after his death on the 4th of April 1870. He married in
1840 Bertha Humblot, of a French Huguenot family settled in
Berlin, by whom he left a son and two daughters.
See Allgemeine deutsche Biog. The Royal Society's Catalogue
enumerates 84 papers by Magnus, most of which originally appeared
in Poggendorjfs Annalen.
MAGNY, CLAUDE DRIGON, MARQUIS DE (1797-1879).
French heraldic writer, was born in Paris. After being employed
for some time in the postal service, he devoted himself to the
study of heraldry and genealogy, his work in this direction being
rewarded by Pope Gregory XVI. with a marquisate. He
founded a French college of heraldry, and wrote several works on
heraldry and genealogy, of which the most important were
Archives nobiliaires universelles (1843) and Liwe d' or de la
noblesse de France (1844-1852). His two sons, Edouard Drigon
and Achille Ludovice Drigon, respectively comte and vicomte
de Magny, also wrote several works on heraldry.
MAGO MAGYARS
393
MAGO, the name of several Carthaginians, (i) The reputed
founder of the military power of Carthage, fl. 550-500 B.C.
(Justin xviii. 7, six. i). (2) The youngest of the three sons of
Hamilcar Barca. He accompanied Hannibal into Italy, and
held important commands in the great victories of the first three
years. After the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) he sailed to Carthage
to report the successes gained. He was about to return to Italy
with strong reinforcements for Hannibal, when the government
ordered him to go to the aid of his other brother, Hasdrubal, who
was hard pressed in Spain. He carried on the war there with
varying success in concert with the two Hasdrubals until, in 209,
his brother marched into Italy to help Hannibal. Mago remained
in Spain with Hasdrubal, the son of Cisco. In 207 he was
defeated by M. Junius Silanus, and in 206 the combined forces of'
Mago and Hasdrubal were scattered by Scipio Africanus in the
decisive battle of Silpia. Mago maintained himself for some time
in Gades, but afterwards received orders to carry the war into
Liguria. He wintered in the Balearic Isles, where the harbour
Porlus Magonis (Port Mahon) still bears his name. Early in
204 he landed in Liguria, where he maintained a desultory
warfare till in 203 he was defeated in Cisalpine Gaul by the
Roman forces. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to return to
Carthage, but on the voyage home he died of wounds received
in battle.
See Polybius iii. ; Livy xxi.-xxiii.; xxviii., chs. 23-37; xxix., xxx. ;
Appian, Ilispanica, 25-37 ; T. Friedrich, Biographic des Barkiden
it ago; H. Lchmann, Der Angriff der drei Barkiden auf Jlalien
(Leipzig, 1905); and further J. P. Mahaffy, in Hermathena, vii.
29-36 (1890).
(3) The name of Mago is also attached to a great work on
agriculture which was brought to Rome and translated by order
of the senate after the destruction of Carthage. The book
Was regarded as a standard authority, and is often referred to by
later writers.
See Pliny, Nat. Hist, xviii. 5; Columella, i. i; Cicero, De
oratore, i. 58.
MAGPIE, or simply PIE (Fr. pie), the prefix being the abbrevi-
ated form of a human name (Margaret 1 ), a bird once common
throughout Great Britain, though now nearly everywhere scarce.
Its pilfering habits have led to this result, yet the injuries it
causes are exaggerated by common report; and in many countries
of Europe it is still the tolerated or even the cherished neighbour
of every farmer, as it formerly was in England if not in Scotland
also. It did not exist in Ireland in 1617, when Fynes Morison
wrote his Itinerary, but it had appeared there within a hundred
years later, when Swift mentions its occurrences in his Journal to
Stella, gth July 1711. It is now common enough in that country,
and there is a widespread but unfounded belief that it was intro-
duced by the English out of spite. It is a species that when
not molested is extending its range, as J. Wolley ascertained in
Lapland, where within the last century it has been gradually
pushing its way along the coast and into the interior from one
lishing-station or settler's house to the next, as the country has
Inrn peopled.
Since the persecution to which the pie has been subjected in
Great Britain, its habits have altered greatly. It is no longer
the merry, saucy hanger-on of the homestead, but is become
the suspicious thief, shunning the gaze of man, and knowing that
danger may lurk in every bush. Hence opportunities of observ-
ing it fall to the lot of few, and most persons know it only as a
curtailed captive in a wicker cage, where its vivacity and natural
beauty are lessened or wholly lost. At large few European birds
possess greater beauty, the pure white of its scapulars and inner
web of the flight-feathers contrasting vividly with the deep glossy
black on the rest of its body and wings, while its long tail is
lustrous with green, bronze, and purple reflections. The pie's
nest is a wonderfully ingenious structure, placed either in high
trees or low bushes, and so massively built that it will stand for
years. Its foundation consists of stout sticks, turf and clay,
" Magot " and " Madge," with the same origin, are names,
requently given in England to the pie; while in France it is com-
monly known as Margot, if not termed, as it is in some districts,
Jaquette.
wrought into a deep, hollow cup, plastered with earth, and lined
with fibres; but around this is erected a firmly interwoven,
basket-like outwork of thorny sticks, forming a dome over the
nest, and leaving but a single hole in the side for entrance and
exit, so that the whole structure is rendered almost impregnable.
Herein are laid from six to nine eggs, of a pale bluish-green
freckled with brown and blotched with ash-colour. Superstition
as to the appearance of the pie still survives even among many
educated persons, and there are several versions of a rhyming
adage as to the various turns of luck which its presenting itself,
either alone or in company with others, is supposed to betoken,
though all agree that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow.
The pie belongs to the same family of birds as the crow, and is
the Corvus pica of Linnaeus, the Pica caudata, P. melanoleuca, or
P. ruslica of modern ornithologists, who have recognized it as
forming a distinct genus, but the number of species thereto
belonging has been a fruitful source of discussion. Examples
from the south of Spain differ slightly from those inhabiting the
rest of Europe, and in some points more resemble the P. mauri-
lanica of north-western Africa; but that species has a patch of
bare skin of a fine blue colour behind the eye, and much shorter
wings. No fewer than five species have been discriminated from
various parts of Asia, extending to Japan; but only one of them,
the P. leucoptera of Turkestan and Tibet, has of late been
admitted as valid. In the west of North -America, and in some
of its islands, a pie is found which extends to the upper valleys
of the Missouri and the Yellowstone, and has long been thought
entitled to specific distinction as P. hudsonia; but its claim
thereto is now disallowed by some of the best ornithologists
of the United States, and it can hardly be deemed even a
geographical variety of the Old- World form. In California,
however, there is a permanent race if not a good species,
P. nuttalli, easily distinguishable by its yellow bill and the bare
yellow skin round its eyes; on two occasions in the year 1867 a
bird apparently similar was observed in Great Britain (Zoologist,
ser. 2, pp. 706, 1016. (A. N.)
MAGWE, a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma.
Area, 2913 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 246,708, showing an increase
of 12-38% in the decade. Magwe may be divided into two
portions: the low, flat country in the Taungdwingyi subdivision,
and the undulating high ground extending over the rest of the
district. In Taungdwingyi the soil is rich, loamy, and extremely
fertile. The plain is about 45 m. from north to south. At its
southern extremity it is about 30 m. wide, and lessens in width
to the north till it ends in a point at Natmauk. On the east are
the Pegu Yomas, which at some points reach a height of 1500 ft.
A number of streams run westwards to the Irrawaddy, of which
the Yin and the Pin, which form the northern boundary, are the
chief. The only perennial stream is the Yanpe. Rice is the
staple product, and considerable quantities are exported. Sesa-
mum of very high quality, maize, and millet are also cultivated,
as well as cotton in patches here and there over the whole
district.
In this district are included the well-known Yenangyaung petro-
leum wells. The state wells have been leased to the Burma Oil
Company. The amount of oil-bearing lands is estimated at 80 sq. m.
and the portion not leased to the company has been demarcated
into blocks of i sq. m. and offered on lease. The remaining land
belongs to hereditary Burmese owners called twinsa, who dig wells
and extract their oil by the rope and pulley system as they have
always done. Lacquered wood trays, bowls and platters, and cart-
wheels, are the only manufactures of any note in the district.
The annual rainfall averages about 27 inches. The maximum
temperature rises to a little over 100 in the hot season, and falls
to an average minimum of 53 and 54 in the cold season.
The town of MAGWE is the headquarters of the district; pop.
(1901), 6232. It is diagonally opposite Minbu, the headquarters
of the division, on the right bank of the Irrawaddy.
MAGYARS, the name of the dominant race in Hungary, or
Hungarians proper. Though they have become physically
assimilated to the western peoples, they belong in origin and
language to the Finno-Ugrian (q.v.) division of the Ural-Altaic
race. They form barely half of the population of Hungary, but
are by far the largest and most compact of all its racial groups.
394
MAHABALESHWAR MAHANADI
Magyar is the official language of Hungary, the official name of
which (Magyarorzdg, or " country of the Magyars ") enshrines
the Magyar claim to predominance. While all Magyars are
properly Hungarians, all Hungarians are not necessarily Mag-
yars. " Hungarian " may be used as a generic term covering
all the various races of Hungary, while " Magyar " is strictly
specific to a single group. The Magyars themselves, indeed,
sometimes apply the name Magyarorzdg to Hungary " proper, "
excluding Croatia-Slavonia, the whole kingdom being called
Magyarbirodalom, the Magyar monarchy or realm. See
HUNGARY.
MAHABALESHWAR, or MALCOLMPETH, a hill station in
Satara district, and the principal sanatorium in the Bombay
presidency, India. Pop. (1901), 5299. It is reached by
carriage from Wathar railway station (39 m.) or by motor car
from Poona (119 m.). Mahabaleshwar occupies the summit
of a ridge of the Western Ghats, with a general elevation of
4500 ft. above sea-level. It was established in 1828 by Sir
John Malcolm, governor of Bombay, who obtained the site from
the raja of Satara in exchange for another patch of territory.
The superior elevation of Mahabaleshwar renders it much cooler
than Matheran (2460 ft.), a sanatorium about 50 m. E. of
Bombay, but its heavy rainfall (292 in. annual average) makes
it almost uninhabitable during the rainy season. The mean
annual temperature h 67 F. In the hottest season (March-
April) an extreme of a little over 90 is reached during the
day. Mahabaleshwar forms the retreat usually during spring,
and occasionally in autumn, of the governor of Bombay, and the
chief officers of his establishment, and has the usual public
buildings of a first-class sanatorium.
MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- ), Irish classical
scholar, was born in Switzerland on the i2th of July 1839. He
received his early education in Switzerland and Germany, and
later at Trinity College, Dublin, where he held the professorship
of ancient history. Mahaffy, a man of great versatility, published
numerous works, some of which, especially those dealing with
what may be called the Silver age of Greece, became standard
authorities. The following deserve mention : History of Classical
Greek Literature (4th ed., 1903 seq.); Social Life in Greece from
Homer to Menander (4th ed., 1903); The Silver Age of the Greek
World (1906); The Empire of the Ptolemies (1896); Greek Life and
Thought from Alexander to the Roman Conquest (2nd ed., 1896);
The Greek World under Roman Sway from Polybius to Plutarch
(1890). His translation of Kuno Fischer's Commentary on Kant
(1866) and his own exhaustive analysis, with elucidations, of
Kant's critical philosophy are of great value. He also edited the
Petrie papyri in the Cunningham Memoirs (3 vols. 1891-1905).
M AH ALL AT, a province of central Persia, situated between
Kashan and Irak. Pop. about 20,000; yearly revenue about
2500. Until 1890 it was one of the five " central provinces "
(the other four being Irak, Ferahan, Kezzaz, and Savah), which
were under a governor appointed by the shah; since then it has
formed part of the Isfahan government. It is traversed by the
Anarbar or Kum River, and comprises the city of Mahallat,
divided into upper and lower, or Rivkan and Zanjirvan, and
twenty-two flourishing villages. It was known in former times
as Anar, the Anarus of Peutinger's tables. The city, capital of
the province, is situated at an elevation of 5850 ft. in 33 51' N.,
50 30' E.; pop. about 9000.
MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840- ), American naval
officer and historian, was born on the 27th of September 1840
at West Point, New York. His father, Dennis Hart Mahan
(1802-1871) was a professor in the military academy, and the
author of textbooks on civil and military engineering. The son
graduated at the naval academy in 1859, became lieutenant in
1861, served on the " Congress," and on the " Pocahontas,"
" Seminole," and "James Adger" during the Civil War, and was
instructor at the naval academy for a year. In 1865 he was made
lieut.-commander, commander in 1872, captain in 1885. Mean-
while he saw service in the Gulf of Mexico, the South Atlantic, the
Pacific,' and Asia, and did shore duty at Boston, New York and
Annapolis. In 1 886-89 he was president of the naval war college at
Newport, Rhode Island. Between 1889 and 1892 he was
engaged in special service for the bureau of navigation, and in
1893 was made commander of the " Chicago," of the European
squadron. In 1896 he retired from active service, but was a
member of the naval board of strategy during the war between
the United States and Spain. He was a member of the peace
congress at the Hague in 1899. This long and varied service
gave him extensive opportunities for observation, which he sup-
plemented by constant study of naval authorities and reflection
on the interpretation of the problems of maritime history. His
first book was a modest and compact story of the affairs in The
Gulf and Inland Waters (1883), in a series of volumes by various
writers, entitled The Navy in the Civil War; in 1890 he suddenly
acquired fame by the appearance of his masterly work entitled
The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783. Having
been impressed by the failure of historians to allow for the in-
fluence of sea power in struggles between nations, he was led to
make prolonged investigations of this general theme (see SEA
POWER). The reception accorded the volume was instant and
hearty; in England, in particular, it was deemed almost an epoch-
making work, and was studied by naval specialists, cabinet
ministers and journalists, as well as by a large part of the general
public. It was followed by The Influence of Sea Power upon the
French Revolution and Empire (2 vols. 1892); The Life of Nelson,
the Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain (1897) ; and Sea
Power in its Relations to the War of 1812 (1905). The author's
general aim in these works some of which have been translated
into French, German and Japanese was to make the consider-
ation of maritime matters paramount to that of military, political
or economic movements, without, however, as he himself says
" divorcing them from their surroundings of cause and effect in
general history, but seeking to show how they modified the latter,
and were modified by them." He selected the year 1660 as the
beginning of his narrative, as being the date when the " sailing-
ship era, with its distinctive features, had fairly begun." The
series as a whole has been accepted as finally authoritative, sup-
planting its predecessors of similar aim, and almost in the
words of Theodore Roosevelt founding a new school of naval
historical writing.
Other works by Mahan are a Life of Admiral Farragut (1892);
The Interest of America in Sea Power (1897) ; Lessons of the War with
Spain (1899); The Story of the War with South Africa and The
Problem of Asia (1900); Types of Naval Officers drawn from the
History of the British Navy (1901); Retrospect and Prospect, studies
of international relations (1902).
MAHANADI, or MAHANUDDY ("The Great River"), a river
of India. It rises in 20 10' N., 82 E., 25 m. S. of Raipur
town, in the wild mountains of Bastar in the Central Provinces.
At first an insignificant stream, taking a northerly direction,
it drains the eastern portion of the Chhattisgarh plain, then
a little above Seorinarayan it receives the waters which its
first great affluent, the Seonath, has collected from the western
portion of the plain; thence flowing for some distance due
E., its stream is augmented by the drainage of the hills of
Uprora, Korba, and the ranges that separate Sambalpur from
Chota Nagpur. At Padampur it turns towards the south,
and struggling through masses of rock, flows past the town of
Sambalpur to Sonpur. From Sonpur it pursues a tortuous
course among ridges and rocky crags towards the range of
the Eastern Ghats. This mountain line it pierces by a gorge
about 40 m. in length, overlooked by forest-clad hills. Since
the opening of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, the Mahanadi
is little used for navigation. It pours down upon the Orissa
delta at Naraj, about 7 m. west of Cuttack town; and after
traversing Cuttack district from west to east, and throwing off
numerous branches (the Katjori, Paika, Biropa, Chitartala,
&c.) it falls into the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several
channels.
The Mahanadi has an estimated drainage area of 43,800 sq. m.,
and its rapid flow renders its maximum discharge in time of flood
second to that of no other river in India. During unusually high
floods 1,500,000 cub. ft. of water pour every second through tl
Naraj gorge, one-half of which, uncontrolled by the elaborate
MAHANOY CITY MAHDIA
395
embankments, and heavily laden with silt, pours over the delta,
filling the swamps, inundating the rice-fields, and converting the
plains into a sea. In the dry weather the discharge of the Mahanadi
dwindles to 1125 cub. ft. per second. Efforts have been made to
husband and utilize the vast water supply thrown upon the Orissa
il, ha during seasons of flood. Each of the three branches into
which the parent stream splits at the delta head is regulated by a
weir. Of the four canals which form the Orissa irrigation system,
two take off from the Biropa weir, and one, with its branch, from
the Mahanadi weir. On the 3ist of December 1868 the government
took over the whole canal works from the East Indian Irrigation
Company, at a cost of 941,368. The canals thus taken over and
since completed, are the high-level canal, the Kendrapara canal,
the Taldanda canal and the Machgaon canal, irrigating 275,000
acres.
MAHANOY CITY, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., 56 m. N.E. of Harrisburg. Pop, (1890), 11,286;
(1900), 13,504, of whom 3877 were foreign-born, mostly Slavs;
(1910 census) 15,936. It is served by branches of the Lehigh
Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. The borough
is situated in the valley of Mahanoy Creek, and has an elevation
of 1240 ft. above the sea; Broad Mountain (1795 ft.), a ridge
extending through Schuylkill county, overlooks it on the S.E.
The valley is a part of the anthracite coal region of Pennsyl-
vania, fire clay abounds in the vicinity, and the borough's
principal industries are the mining and shipping of coal, and
the manufacture of shirts and foundry products. Mahanoy
City, originally a part of Mahanoy township (pop. in 1910,
6256), was incorporated as a borough in 1863.
MAHAR, the name of a servile caste in the Deccan, India.
Their special function, apart from that of scavenger, is to act
as village watchman, as guardian of the village boundaries,
and as public messenger. In some parts they are also weavers
of coarse cotton cloth. In 1901 their total number in all India
was just under three millions.
MAHARAJPUR, a village in Gwalior state, Central India.
Pop. (1901), 366. It was the scene of a battle (Dec. 29, 1843)
in which Sir Hugh Gough, accompanied by the governor-
general, Lord Ellenborough, defeated the insurgent army of
the Gwalior state.
MAHAVAMSA, the Great Chronicle, a history of Ceylon
from the 5th century B.C. to the middle of the 5th century
A.D., written in Pali verse by Mahanama of the Dighasanda
Hermitage, shortly after the close of the period with which
it deals. In point of historical value it compares well with
early European chronicles. In India proper the decipher-
ment of early Indian inscriptions was facilitated to a very great
extent by the data found only in the Mahavamsa. It was
composed on the basis of earlier works written in Sinhalese,
which are now lost, having been supplanted by the chronicles
and commentaries in which their contents were restated in
Pali in the course of the 5th century. The particular one
on which our Mahavamsa was mainly based was also called
the Mahavamsa, and was written in Sinhalese prose with Pali
memorial verse interspersed. The extant Pali work gives
legends of the Buddha and the genealogy of his family; a sketch
of the history of India down to Asoka; an account of Buddhism
in India down to the same date; a description of the sending
out of missionaries after Asoka's council, and especially of
the mission of Mahinda to Ceylon; a sketch of the previous
history of Ceylon; a long account of the reign of Devanam-piya
Tissa, the king of Ceylon who received Mahinda, and estab-
lished Buddhism in the island; short accounts of the kings
succeeding him down Jto DuUha Gamiin (Dadagamana or
Dutegemunu); then a long account, amounting to an epic
poem, of the adventures and reign of that prince, a popular
hero, born in adversity, who roused the people, and drove
the Tamil invaders out of the island. Finally we have short
notices of the subsequent kings down to the author's time.
The Mahavarnsa was the first Pali book made known to Europe.
It was edited in 1837, with English translation and an elaborate
introduction, by George Tumour, then colonial secretary
in Ceylon. Its vocabulary was an important part of the material
utilized in Childer's Pali Dictionary. Its relation to the sources
from which it drew has been carefully discussed by various
scholars and in especial detail by Geiger. It is agreed that
it gives a reasonably fair and correct presentation of the tradi-
tion preserved in the lost Sinhalese Mahavamsa; that, except
in the earliest period, its list of kings, with the years of each
reign, is complete and trustworthy; and that it gives throughout
the view, as to events in Ceylon, of a resident in the Great
Minster at Anuradhapura.
See The Mahavamsa, ed. by Geo. Tumour (Colombo, 1837); ed.
by W. Geiger (London, 1908); H. Oldenberg, in the introduction
to his edition of the Dlpavamsa (London, 1879) ; O. Franke, in
Wiener Zeitschrift fur dte Kunde des Morgenlandes (1907) ; W
Geiger, Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa (Leipzig, 1905, trans, by Ethel
M.Coomaraswamy, Colombo, 1908). (T. W. R. D.)
MAHAYANA (" Great Vehicle "), the name given to the
later Buddhism, the popular religion which embraced all the
people and had its pantheon of Buddhas and Bodhisatvas,
with attendant deities and demons, spacious temples and
images, pompous ceremonial and noisy festivals. It was
thus contrasted with the Hinayana (" Little Vehicle ") of
the primitive Buddhism which had been only for the select
few. (See BUDDHISM.)
HAHDI (Arab. " he who is guided aright "), a title assumed
by the third Abbasid caliph (see CALIPHATE: Abbasids, 3).
According to Moslem traditionists Mahomet declared that
one of his descendants, the imam of God, who would fill the
earth with equity and justice, would bear the name of al-mahdi.
The Sunnis hold that this mahdi has not yet appeared. The
name of mahdi is also given by the Shi'ite Mahommedans
to the last of the imams of the house of 'AH. It was under
the name of al-mahdi that Mokhtar proclaimed 'Ali's son
Mahommed as the opponent of the caliph Abdalmalik, and,
according to Shahrastani, the doctrine of the mahdi, the hidden
deliverer who is one day to appear and fill the oppressed world
with righteousness, first arose in connexion with a belief that
this Mahommed had not died but lived concealed at Mount
Radwa, near Mecca, guarded by a lion and a panther. The
hidden imam of the common Shi'ites is, however,. the twelfth
imam, Mahommed Abu'l-Qasim, who disappeared mysteriously
in 879. The belief in the appearance of the mahdi readily
lent itself to imposture. Of the many pretenders to this dignity
known in all periods of Moslem history the most famous was
the first caliph of the Fatimite dynasty in North Africa, 'Obaid-
allah al-Mahdi, who reigned 909-933. After him was named
the first capital of the dynasty, the once important city of
Mahdia (q.v.). Another great historical movement, headed
by a leader who proclaimed himself the mahdi (Mahommed
ibn Abdallah ibn Tumart), was that of the Almohades (q.v.).
In 1 88 1 Mahommed Ahmed ibn Seyyid Abdullah (q.v.), a
Dongolese, proclaimed himself al-mahdi and founded in the
eastern Sudan the short-lived empire overthrown by an Anglo-
Egyptian force at the battle of Omdurman in 1898. Con-
currently with the claim of Mahommed Ahmed to be the
mahdi the same title was claimed by, or for, the head of the
Senussites, a confraternity powerful in many regions of North
Africa.
MAHDIA (also spelt Mehdia, Mehedia, &c.), a town of Tunisia,
on the coast between the gulfs of Hammamet and Gabes, 47 m.
by rail S.S.E. of Susa. Pop. about 8000. Mahdia is built
on a rocky peninsula which projects eastward about a mile
beyond the normal coast line, and is not more than a quarter
of a mile wide. The extremity of the peninsula is called Ras
Mahdia or Cape Africa Africa being the name by which
Mahdia was designated by Froissart and other European
historians during the middle ages and the Renaissance. In
the centre of the peninsula and occupying its highest point
is a citadel (i6th century); another castle farther west is now
used as a prison and is in the centre of the native town. The
European quarter and the new port are on the south-west side of
the peninsula. The port is available for small boats only;
steamers anchor in the roadstead about a quarter of a mile from
the shore. On the south-east, cut out of the rock, is the ancient
harbour, or cothon, measuring about 480 ft by 240 ft., the
entrance being 42 ft. wide. There are manufactories of olive
39 6
MAHE MAHMUD II.
oil, but the chief industry is sardine fishing, largely in the
hands of Italians.
Mahdia occupies the site of a Phoenician settlement and
by some authorities is identified with the town called Turris
Hannibalis by the Romans. Hannibal is said to have embarked
here on his exile from Carthage. After the Arab conquest
of North Africa the town fell into decay. It was refounded
in 912 by the first Fatimite caliph, 'Obaidallah-al-Mahdi,
after whom it was named. It became the port of Kairawan
and was for centuries a city of considerable importance, largely
owing to its great natural strength, and its position on the
Mediterranean. It carried on an active trade with Egypt,
Syria and Spain. The town was occupied by the Normans
of Sicily in the izth century, but after holding it for about
twelve years they were driven out in 1159 by the Almohades.
In 1390 a joint English and French force vainly besieged Mahdia
for sixty-one days. In the early part of the i6th century the
corsair Dragut seized the town and made it his capital, but
in 1550 the place was captured by the Spaniards, who held
it until 1574. Before evacuating the town the Spaniards
dismantled the fortifications. Under the rule of the Turks
and, later, the beys of Tunis Mahdia became a place of little
importance. It was occupied by the French in 1881 without
opposition, and regained some of its former commercial import-
ance.
During 1908 numbers of bronzes and other works of art were
recovered from a vessel wrecked off Mahdia in the 5th century A.D.
(see Classical Review, June 1909).
MAH, a French settlement in the Malabar district of Madras,
India, situated in 11 43' N. and 75 33' E., at the mouth of
a river of the same name. Area, 26 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 10,298.
It is the only French possession on the west coast of India,
and is in charge of a chef de service, subordinate to the governor-
general at Pondicherry. It is now a decaying place.
MAHESHWAR, a town in Indore state, Central India, on
the N. bank of the Narbada (Nerbudda). Pop. (1901), 7042.
Though of great antiquity and also of religious sanctity, it
is chiefly noted as the residence of Ahalya Bai, the reigning
queen of the Holkar dynasty during the last half of the i8th
century, whose ability and munificence are famous throughout
India. Close by her cenotaph stands the family temple of
the Holkars.
MAHI, a river of western India, which rises in Central India
and, after flowing through south Rajputana, enters Gujarat and
falls into the sea by a wide estuary near Cambay; total length,
300 m. ; estimated drainage area, 16,000 sq. m. It has given
its name to the Mahi Kantha agency of Bombay, and also
to the mehwasis, marauding highlanders often mentioned in
Mahommedan chronicles.
MAHI KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native
states in India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. Over
half the territory is covered by the native state of Idar. There
are eleven other chiefships, and a large number of estates belong-
ing to Rajput or Koli thakurs, formerly feudatories of Baroda.
Several of the states are under British administration. Total
area, 3125 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 361,545, showing a decrease
of 38%in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, 76,000;
tribute (mostly to the gaekwar of Baroda), 9000. Many
of the inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis.
In 1897 a metre-gauge railway was opened from Ahmedabad
through Parantij 16 Ahmednagar. At Sadra is the Scott
College for the education of the sons of chiefs on the lines of
an English public school. There are also Anglo-vernacular
schools at Sadra, Idar and Mansa. The famine of 1899-1900
was severely felt in this tract.
MAHMUD I. (1696-1754), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
Mustafa II., and succeeded his uncle Ahmed III. in 1730. After
the suppression of a military revolt the war with Persia was
continued with varying success, and terminated in 1736 by
a treaty of peace restoring the status quo ante helium. The
next enemy whom Turkey was called upon to face was Russia,
later joined by Austria. War went on for four years; the
successes gained by Russia were outweighed by Austria's
various reverses, terminating by the defeat of Wallis at Krotzka.
and the peace concluded at Belgiade was a triumph for Turkish
diplomacy. The sultan, throughout desirous for peace, is
said to have been much under the influence of the chief eunuch,
Haji Beshir Aga. In 1754 Mahmud died of heart-disease
when returning from the Friday service at the mosque. He
had a passion for building, to which are due numberless
kiosques, where nocturnal orgies were carried on by him and
his boon companions. In this reign the system of appoint-
ing Phanariote Greeks to the principalities of Moldavia and
Wallachia was instituted. (See PHANARIOTES.)
MAHMUD II. (1785-1839), sultan of Turkey, was the son
of Abu-ul-Hamid I., and succeeded his brother, Mustafa IV.,
in 1808. He had shared the captivity of his ill-fated cousin,
the ex-sultan, Selim III., whose efforts at reform had ended
in his deposition by the janissaries. Mahmud was thus early
impressed with the necessity for dissembling his intention to
institute reforms until he should be powerful enough to carry
them through. The reforming efforts of the grand vizier
Bairakdar, to whom he had owed his life and his accession,
broke on the opposition of the janissaries; and Mahmud had
to wait for more favourable times. Meanwhile the empire
seemed in danger of breaking up. Not till 1812 was the war
with Russia closed by the treaty of Bucharest, which restored
Moldavia and. the greater part of Wallachia to the Ottoman
government. But though the war was ended, the terms of the
treaty left a number of burning questions, both internal and
external, unsettled. This was notably the case with the claim
of Russia to Poti and the valley of the Rion (Phasis) , which was
still outstanding at the time of the congress of Vienna (1814-
1815) and prevented the question of a European guarantee of
the integrity of Turkey from being considered.
Meanwhile, within the empire, ambitious valis were one by
one attempting to carve out dominions for themselves at the
expense of the central power. The ambitions of Mehemet AH
of Egypt were not yet fully revealed; but AH (q.v.) of Jannina,
who had marched to the aid of the sultan against the rebellious
pasha Pasvan Oglu of Widdin, soon began to show his hand,
and it needed the concentration of all the forces of the Turkish
empire to effect his overthrow and death (1822). The pre-
occupation of the sultan with AH gave their opportunity to
the Greeks whose disaffection had long been organized in the
great secret society of the Hetaeria Philike, against which
Metternich had in vain warned the Ottoman government.
In 1821 occurred the abortive raid of Alexander Ypsilanti
into the Danubian principalities, and in May of the same year
the revolt of the Greeks of the Morea began the war of Greek
Independence (see GREECE: History). The rising in the north
was easily crushed; but in the south the Ottoman power was
hampered by the defection of the sea-faring Greeks, by whom
the Turkish navy had hitherto been manned. After three
abortive campaigns Mahmud was compelled, infinitely against
his will, to summon to his assistance the already too powerful
pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, whom he had already employed
to suppress the rebellious Wahhabis in Arabia. The disciplined
Egyptian army, supported by a well organized fleet, rapidly
accomplished what the Turks had failed to do; and by 1826
the Greeks were practically subdued on land, and Ibrahim
was preparing to turn his attention to the islands. But for
the intervention of the powers and -the battle of Navarino
Mahmud's authority would have been restored in Greece.
The news of Navarino betrayed Mahmud into one of those
paroxysms"of rage to which he was Hable, and which on critical
occasions were apt fatally to cloud his usual good sense. After
in vain attempting to obtain an apology for " the unparalleled
outrage against a friendly power" he issued on the 2oth of
December a solemn hatti sheriff summoning the faithful to a
holy war. This, together with certain outstanding grievances
and the pretext of enforcing the settlement of the Greek Ques-
tion approved by the powers, gave Russia the excuse for declar-
ing war against Turkey. After two hardly fought campaigns
MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA MAHMUD OF GHAZNI
397
(1828, 1829) Mahmud was at length, on the I4th of September
1829, compelled to sign the peace of Adrianople. From this
loment until his death Mahmud was, to all intents and purposes,
he " vassal of Russia," though not without occasional desperate
fforts to break his chains. (For the political events of the
period between the first revolt of Mehemet Ali (Sept. 1832) and
the death of Mahmud see MEHEMET ALI.) The personal attitude
of the sultan, which alone concerns us here, was determined
throughout by his overmastering hatred of the upstart pasha,
of whom he had stooped to ask aid, and who now defied his
will; and the importance of this attitude lies in the fact that,
as the result of the success of his centralizing policy, and notably
of the destruction of the janissaries (q.v.), the supreme authority,
hitherto limited by the practical power of the ministers of the
Porte and by the turbulence of the privileged military caste,
had become concentrated in his own person. It was no longer
the Porte that decided, but the Seraglio, and the sultan's
private secretary had more influence on the policy of the Otto-
man empire than the grand vizier.
This omnipotence of the sultan in deciding the policy of
the government was in striking contrast with his impotence
in enforcing his views on his subjects and in his relations
with foreign powers. Mahmud, in spite of or rather because
of his well-meant efforts it reform, was hated by his
Mussulman subjects and stigmatized as an " infidel " and a
traitor to Islam. He was, in fact, a victim to those " half-
measures " which Machiavelli condemns as fatal to success.
Ibrahim, the conqueror of Syria, scoffed at the sultan's idea
" that reform consisted in putting his soldiers into tight
trousers and epaulettes." The criticism is not entirely un-
just. Mahmud's policy was the converse of that recommended
by Machiavelli, viz. in making a revolution to change the
Substance while preserving the semblance of the old order.
Metternich's advice to Mahmud to " remain a Turk " was
sound enough. His failure to do so in externals left him
isolated in his empire: rayahs and true believers alike dis-
trusted and hated him. Of this hatred he was fully conscious;
he knew that his subjects, even many of his own ministers,
regarded Mehemet Ali as the champion of Islam against the
"infidel sultan;" he suspected the pasha, already master
of the sacred cities, of an intention to proclaim himself caliph
in his stead. This, together with the weakness due to military
reforms but recently begun, drove him to rely on foreign aid;
which, in the actual conditions of Europe, meant the aid of
Russia. The long tradition of French friendship for Turkey
had been broken, in 1830, by the conquest of Algiers. Austria
was, for the time, but the faithful ally of the tsar. On the
pth of August 1832 Mahmud made, through Stratford Canning,
a formal proposal for an alliance with Great Britain, which
Palmerston refused to consider for fear of offending France.
Mahmud bitterly contrasted the fair professions of England
with the offers of effective help from Russia. His old ally
having deserted him, he accepted the aid of his hereditary
foe. The Russian expedition to the Bosporus, the convention
of Kutaiah, and the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8, 1833)
followed. Mahmud was under no illusion as to the position
in which the latter placed him towards Russia; but his fear
of Mehemet Ali and his desire to be revenged upon him out-
weighed all other considerations. He resented the action
of France and England in forcing the settlement of Kutaiah
upon him, and remained shut up in his palace, inaccessible
to all save his favourites and the representative of Russia.
With his single aim in view he busied himself with the creation
of a national militia, with the aid of Moltke and other German
officers. In 1834 the revolt of Syria against Ibrahim seemed
to give him his opportunity. He pleaded the duty of a sultan
to go to the aid of his subjects when oppressed by one of his
servants; but the powers were obdurate, even Russia, much
occupied in affairs nearer home, leaving him in the lurch. He
was astute enough to take advantage of the offence given to
the powers by Mehemet Ali's system of monopolies, and in
1838 signed with" Great Britain, and afterwards with others,
a commercial treaty which cut at the root of the pasha's system.
A few months later his passionate impatience overcame his
policy and his fears. The hand of death was upon him, and
he felt that he must strike now or never. In vain the powers,
now united in their views, warned him of the probable con-
sequences of any aggressive action on his part. He would
rather die, he exclaimed, or become the slave of Russia, than
not destroy his rebellious vassal. On his sole initiative, without
consulting his ministers or the council of the empire, he sent
instructions to Hafiz Pasha, commanding the Ottoman troops
concentrated at Bir on the Euphrates, to advance into Syria.
The fatal outcome of the campaign that followed he did
not live to hear. When the news of Ibrahim's overwhelming
victory at Nessib (June 24, 1839) reached Constantinople,
Mahmud lay dying and unconscious. Early in the morning
of the ist of July his proud and passionate spirit passed away.
Mahmud II. cannot be reckoned among the great sultans,
neither had he any of the calculating statecraft which character-
ized Abd-ul-Hamid II.; but his qualities of mind and heart,
none the less, raised him far above the mass of his predecessors
and successors. He was well versed in state affairs and loyal
to those who advised and served him, personally brave, humane
and kindly when not maddened by passion, active and energetic,
and always a man of his word. Unhappily, however, the
taint of the immemorial corruption of Byzantium had fallen
upon him too, and the avenue to his favour and to political
power lay too often through unspeakable paths. In view of
the vast difficulty of the task before him at his succession it
is less surprising that he failed to carry out his ideas than
that he accomplished so much. When he came to the throne
the empire was breaking up from within; one by one he freed
the provinces from the tyrannical rulers who, like Ali of Jannina,
were carving out independent, or quasi-independent, empires
within the empire. If he failed in his wider schemes of reform,
this was only one more illustration of a truth of which other
" enlightened " sovereigns besides himself had experienced
the force, namely, that it is impossible to impose any system,
however admirable, from above on a people whose deepest
convictions and prejudices it offends.
There is a great deal of valuable material for the history of
Mahmud and his policy in the unpublished F.O. records (1832-
'839), volumes of correspondence marked Turkey. From Sir
Stratford Canning. From Mr. Mandeville. From Lord Ponsonby.
See further works mentioned under TURKEY : History ; and MEHEMET
An. (W. A. P.)
MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA (c. 1818-1883), Turkish statesman,
was the son of Nejib Pasha, ex-governor-general of Bagdad.
After occupying various subordinate posts at the Porte he became
successively under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, governor-
general of Syria and Smyrna, minister of commerce, and gover-
nor-general of Tripoli; minister successively of justice and of
marine (1869); grand vizier from 1871 to 1872 and from 1875 to
1876. He was high in favour with Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz and fell
much under the influence of General Ignatiev, the forceful
Russian ambassador before the war of 1877-78, his subserviency
to Russia earning for him the nickname of " Mahmudoff."
His administration was most unsuccessful from every point of
view, and he was largely responsible for the issue of the decree
suspending the interest on the Turkish funds. He was minister
of the interior from 1879 to 1883.
MAHMUD 1 OF GHAZNI (971-1030), son of Sabuktagin,
Afghan conqueror, was born on the 2nd of October 971. His
fame rests chiefly on his successful wars, in particular his
numerous invasions of India. His military capacity, inherited
from his father, Nasir-ud-din Sabuktagin, was strengthened by
youthful experience in the field. Sabuktagin, a Turki slave of
Alptagln, governor of Khorasan under Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh of
the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, early brought himself to notice
(see SAMANIDS). He was raised to high office in the state by
Alptagin's successor, Abu Ishak, and in A.H. 366 (A.D. 977), by
the choice of the nobles of Ghazni, he became their ruler. He
soon began to make conquests in the neighbouring countries,
1 The name is strictly Mabmud.
39
MAHMUD OF GHAZNI
and in these wars he was accompanied by his young son Mahmud.
Before he had reached the age of fourteen he encountered in two
expeditions under his father the Indian forces of Jaipal, raja of
Lahore, whom Sabuktagln defeated on the Punjab frontier.
In 994 Mahmud was made governor of Khorasan, with the
title of Saif addaula (ud-daula) (" Sword of the State ") by the
Samanid Nuh II. Two years later, his father Sabuktagln died
in the neighbourhood of Balkh, having declared his second son,
Ismail, who was then with him, to be his successor. As soon as
Ismail had assumed the sovereignty at Balkh, Mahmud, who was
at Nishapur, addressed him in friendly terms, proposing a divi-
sion of the territories held by their father at his death. Ismail
rejected the proposal, and was immediately attacked by Mahmud
and defeated. Retreating to Ghazni, he there yielded, and
was imprisoned, and Mahmud obtained undisputed power as
sovereign of Khorasan and Ghazni (997).
The Ghaznevid dynasty is sometimes reckoned by native
historians to commence with Sabuktagln's conquest of Best
and Kosdar (978). But Sabuktagln, throughout his reign at
Ghazni, continued to acknowledge the Samanid suzerainty, as did
Mahmud also, until the time, soon after succeeding to his father's
dominions, when he received from Qadir, caliph of Bagdad
(see CALIPHATE, C. 25), a khttat (robe of honour), with a letter
recognizing his sovereignty, and conferring on him the titles
Yamln-addaida (" Right hand of the State "), and Amin-ul-
Millat (" Guardian of the Faith "). From this time it is the
name of the caliph that is inscribed on Mahmud's coins, together
with his own new titles. P-eviously the name of the Samanid
sovereign, Mansur II. b. Nuh is given along with his own former
title, Saif addaula Mahmud. The earliest of those of the new
form gives his name Mahmud bin Sabuktagln. Thereafter his
father's name does not appear on his coins, but it is inscribed
again on his tomb.
The new honours received from the caliph gave fresh impulse
to Mahmud's zeal on behalf of Islam, and he resolved on an
annual expedition against the idolaters of India. He could not
quite carry out this intention, but a great part of his reign was
occupied with his Indian campaigns. In 1000 he started on
the first of these expeditions, but it does not appear that he
went farther than the hill country near Peshawar. The hostile
attitude of Khalaf ibn Ahmad, governor of Seistan, called
Mahmud to that province for a short time. He was appeased
by Khalaf's speedy submission, together with the gift of a
large sum of money, and further, it is said, by his subdued
opponent addressing him as sultan, a title new at that time,
and by which Mahmud continued to be called, though he
did not formally adopt it, or stamp it on his coins. Four years
later Khalaf, incurring Mahmud's displeasure again, was im-
prisoned, and his property confiscated.
Mahmud's army first crossed the Indus in 1001, opposed by
Jaipal, raja of Lahore. Jaipal was defeated, and Mahmud,
after his return from this expedition, is said to have taken the
distinctive appellation of Chazi (" Valiant for the Faith "), but
he is rarely so-called. On the next occasion (1005) Mahmud
advanced, as far as Bhera on the Jhelum, when his adversary
Anang-pal, son and successor of Jaipal, fled to Kashmir. The
following year saw Mahmud at Multan. When he was in the
Punjab at this time, he heard of the invasion of Khorasan by
the Ilek Khan Nasr I. ruler of Transoxiana whose daughter
Mahmud had married. After a rapid march back from India,
Mahmud repelled the invaders. The Ilek Khan, having re-
treated across the Oxus, returned with reinforcements, and took
up a position 'a few miles from Balkh, where he was signally
defeated by Mahmud.
Mahmud again entered the Punjab in 1008, this time for the
express purpose of chastising Sewah Pal, who, having become
a Mussulman, and been left by Mahmud in charge of Multan,
had relapsed to Hinduism. The Indian campaign of 1009 was
notable. Near the Indus Mahmud was opposed again by Anang-
pal, supported by powerful rajas from other parts of India.
After a severe fight, Anang-pal 's elephants were so terror-struck
by the fire-missiles flung amongst them by the invaders that they
turned and fled, the whole army retreating in confusion and
leaving Mahmud master of the field. Mahmud, after this victory,
pushed on through the Punjab to Nagar-kot (Kangra), and car-
ried off much spoil from the Hindu temples to enrich his treasury
at Ghazni. In ion Mahmud, after a short campaign against
the Afghans under Mahommed ibn Sur in the hill country of
Ghur, marched again into the Punjab. The next time (1014)
he advanced to Thanesar, another noted stronghold of Hinduism,
between the Sutlej and the Jumna. Having now found his way
across all the Punjab rivers, he was induced on two subsequent
occasions to go still farther. But first he designed an invasion
of Kashmir (1015), which was not carried out, as his progress
was checked at Loh-kot, a strong hill fort in the north-west of
the Punjab. Then before undertaking his longer inroad into
Hindustan he had to march north into Khwarizm (Khiva)
against his brother-in-law Mamun, who had refused to acknow-
ledge Mahmud's supremacy. The result was as usual, and Mah-
mud, having committed Khwarizm to a new ruler, one of Mamun's
chief officers, returned to his capital. Then in 1018, with a very
large force, he proceeded to India again, extending his inroad
this time to the great Hindu cities of Mathra on the Jumna and
Kanauj on the Ganges. He reduced the one, received the sub-
mission of the other, and carried back great stores of plunder.
Three years later he went into India again, marching over nearly
the same ground, to the support, this time, of the raja of Kanauj,
who, having made friendship with the Mahommedan invader
on his last visit, had been attacked by the raja of Kalinjar. But
Mahmud found he had not yet sufficiently subdued the idolaters
nearer his own border, between Kabul and the Indus, and the
campaign of 1022 was directed against them, and reached no
farther than Peshawar. Another march into India the following
year was made direct to Gwalior.
The next expedition (1025) is the most famous of all. The
point to which it was directed was the temple of Somnath on the
coast of the Gujarat peninsula. After an arduous journey by
Multan, and through part of Rajputana, he reached Somnath,
and met with a very vigorous but fruitless resistance on the part
of the Hindus of Gujarat. Moslem feet soon trod the courts of
the great temple. The chief object of worship it contained was
broken up, and the fragments kept to be carried off to Ghazni.
The story is often told of the hollow figure, cleft by Mahmud's
battle-axe, pouring out great store of costly jewels and gold.
But the idol in this Sivite temple was only a tall block or pillar
of hewn stone, of a familiar kind. The popular legend is a very
natural one. Mahmud, it was well known, made Hindu temples
yield up their most precious things. He was a determined idol-
breaker. And the stone block in this temple was enriched with
a crown of jewels, the gifts of wealthy worshippers. These data
readily give the Somnath exploit its more dramatic form. For
the more recent story of the Somnath gates see SOMNATH.
After the successes at Somnath, Mahmud remained some
months in India before returning to Ghazni. Then in 1026
he crossed the Indus once more into the Punjab. His brilliant
military career closed with an expedition to Persia, in the third
year after this, his last, visit to India. The Indian campaigns
of Mahmud and his father were almost, but not altogether,
unvarying successes. The Moslem historians touch lightly on
reverses. And, although the annals of Rajputana tell how
Sabuktagln was defeated by one raja of Ajmere and Mahmud by
his successor, the course of events which followed shows how
little these and other reverses affected the invader's progress.
Mahmud's failure at Ajmere, when the brave raja Bisal-deo
obliged him to raise the siege but was himself slain, was when
the Moslem army was on its way to Somnath. Yet Mahmud's
Indian conquests, striking and important in themselves, were,
after all, in great measure barren, except to the Ghazni treasury.
Mahmud retained no possessions in India under his own direct
rule. But after the repeated defeats, by his father and himself,
of two successive rajas of Lahore, the conqueror assumed the
right of nominating the governors of the Punjab as a dependency
of Ghazni, a right which continued to be exercised by seven of
his successors. And for a time, in the reign of Masa'ud II.
MAHOBA MAHOMET
399
i
enei
(1098-1114), Lahore was the place of residence of the Ghaz-
nevid sovereign.
Mahmud died at Ghazni in 1030, the year following his ex-
ition to Persia. He is conspicuous for his military ardour,
ambition, strong will, perseverance, watchfulness and
energy, combined with great courage and unbounded self-
reliance. But his tastes were not exclusively military. His
love of literature brought men of learning to Ghazni, and his
acquaintance with Moslem theology was recognized by the
learned doctors.
The principal histories of Mahmud's reign are Kit&b-i-Yamini
i); Tarlkh-us-Subuktizln (Baihaki); Tabak&t i Nasin (Minhaj
cl-Siraj) ; Rauzat-us-Safa (Mir Khond) ; Hablb-us-Sivar (Khon-
damir). Sv Elliot, History of India; Elphinstone, History of
India; and Roos-Keppel's translation of the Tarikh-i-Sidtan
Mahmud-i-Ghaznavi (1901).
MAHOBA, an ancient town in India, in Hamirpur district of
the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 10,074. As the capital of
the Chandel dynasty, who ruled over Bundelkhand from the gth
to the I3th century, the neighbourhood is covered with archi-
tectural antiquities, prominent among which are artificial lakes,
formed by banking up valleys with masonry dams. The largest
of these is more than 4 m. in circuit.
MAHOGANY, a dark-coloured wood largely used for household
furniture, the product of a large tree indigenous to Central
America and the West Indies. It was originally received from
Jamaica; 521,300 ft. were exported from that island in 1753.
It is known botanically as Swietenia Mahogani, and is a member
of the order Meliaceae. It bears compound leaves, resembling
those of the ash, and clusters of small flowers, with five sepals and
petals and ten stamens which are united into a tube. The fruit
is a pear-shaped woody capsule, and contains many winged
seeds. The dark-coloured bark has been considered a febrifuge,
and the seeds were used by the ancient Aztecs with oil for a cos-
metic, but the most valuable product is the timber, first noticed
by the carpenter on board Sir Walter Raleigh's ship in 1595 for
its great beauty, hardness and durability. Dr Gibbons brought
it into notice as well adapted for furniture in the early part of
the 1 8th century, and its use as a cabinet wood was first practi-
cally established by a cabinet-maker named Wollaston, who was
employed by Gibbons to work up some mahogany brought to
England by his brother. It was introduced into India in 1795,
and is now cultivated in Bengal and as far north as Saharunpur.
The timber of species of Cedrela and Melia, other members of the
order Meliaceae, are used as Mahogany, and the product of the
\\Vst African Khaya senegalensis is known as African mahogany.
There is some confusion between the product of these various
trees. Herbert Stone (The Timbers of Commerce, 1904) says:
" The various species of mahogany and cedar are so confusing that
it is difficult to make precise statements as to their structure or
origin. I know of no convincing proof that any of the American
kinds met with on the English market are the wood of Swietenia
Mahogani, nor that those shipped from Africa are the wood of
Khaya senegalensis. These two genera are very nearly allied to
Cedrela and Melia, and it is difficult to separate any of the four from
the rest by the characters of the wood. After giving the most
careful attention to every detail, I lean to the view that most if
not all of the mahoganies commonly met with are Cedrelas."
Kiggelaria Dregeana (natural order Bixineae), a native of South
Africa, is known as Natal mahogany.
MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED),
founder of the religious system called in Europe %iter him
Mahommedanism, and by himself Islam or Hanifism. He died,
according to the ordinary synchronism, on the 7th of June 632
(12 Rabia, A.H. n), and his birthday was exactly sixty-three
or sixty-five years earlier, the latter number being evidently
an interpretation in lunar years of a number thought to refer
to solar years. The lunar system was introduced into Arabia
by Mahomet himself quite at the close of his career; that which
existed before was certainly solar, as it involved a process of
intercalation which, however, seems to have been arbitrarily
manipulated by priests, whence certain synchronisms cannot be
got for the events in the Prophet's career. The number 63 for
the years of his life may rest on tradition, though it is unlikely
that such matters were accurately noted; it can also be accounted
for by a priori combination. A Meccan, it is said, became a full
citizen at the age of 40; this then would be the age at which the
mission might be started. The Medina period (of which count
was kept) lasted ten to eleven years; for the Meccan period
ten years would seem a likely length. Finally it was known that
for some years about three the mission had been conducted
secretly. The only event in contemporary history to which the
Koran alludes in its earlier parts is the Persian conquest of
Palestine in 616. Clearly Mahomet had begun to prophesy at
that date.
Before the rise of Islam, Mahomet's native place, Mecca,
appears to figure nowhere in historical records, unless there
be a reference to it in the " valley of Baca " (Psalm
Ixxxiv. 6). Its sacred, and therefore archaic, name country.
is Bakkah; hence the identification of the name with
that of the sanctuary Makoraba, known to the Greek geo-
graphers, is not philologically tenable; although so eminent a
linguist as Dozy evolved a theory of the origin of the city from
this name, which appears to be South Arabian for " sanc-
tuary," and has no connexion with Hebrew (as Dozy supposed).
In the 3rd century of Islam the mythology of Mecca was
collected and published in book form, but we learn little more
from it than names of tribes and places; it is clear that there
was no record of the mode in which the community inhabiting
the place had got there, and that little was remembered with
accuracy of the events which preceded the rise of its prophet.
The city had a sanctuary, called the Cube (ka'ba), of which
the nucleus was the " Black Stone," probably to be identified
with Allah, the god of the community; both still exist, or rather
their legitimate substitutes, as the Ka'ba has been repeatedly
reconstructed, and the original Black Stone was stolen by the Car-
mathians in the 4th century of Islam; they afterwards returned
one, but it may or may not have been the same as that which
they removed. At some time in the 6th century said to have
been the birth-year of the Prophet, but really much earlier
an Abyssinian invader raided Mecca with the view of abolishing
this sanctuary; but for some reason had to desist. This expedi-
tion, known as the "Raid of the Elephant," one of these animals
being employed in it, seems to be of great importance for ex-
plaining the rise of Islam; for a sanctuary which can repel an
invader acquires tremendous reputation. Some verses in the
Koran which are perhaps not genuine, record the miracle whereby
Allah repelled the " People of the Elephant." The sanctuary
was apparently in the possession of the tribe Koreish (Quraish),
the origin of whose name is unknown, said to have come origi-
nally from Cutha in Mesopotamia. They were known (we are
told) as the people of Allah, and, by wearing a badge, were
sacrosanct throughout Arabia. If this be true, it was probably
a privilege earned by the miraculous defence of the Ka'ba, and
is sufficient to account for the rise of Meccan commerce of
which we hear much in the biography of the Prophet, and to
which some verses of the earliest part of the Koran allude; for
merchants who were safe from attacks by bandits would have
an enormous advantage. The records seem, however, to be
inconsistent with this assertion; and the growth of the Meccan
commerce is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that after
the Abyssinian invasion pilgrimage to the Ka'ba became the
practice of numerous Arab tribes, and for four months in the
year (selected by Meccan priests) raiding was forbidden, in order
to enable the pilgrimage to be safely made. In addition to this
it would seem that all Mecca counted as sanctuary i.e. no blood
might under any circumstances be shed there. The community
lived by purveying to pilgrims and the carrying trade; and both
these operations led to the immigration of strangers.
There seems to be no doubt that Mahomet was himself a mem-
ber of the tribe Koreish, and indeed too many of his relatives figure
in history to permit of his parentage being questioned.
His cousin 'Ali, fourth caliph, was the son of Abu
Talib, whose name attests the historical character of
the kindred name 'Abd al-Mottalib, Mahomet's grandfather: for
the fact that this name is in part enigmatical is certainly no
argument against its genuineness. In the 3rd century of Islam
MAHOMET
a document was shown in which a man of San'a in Yemen
acknowledged that he had borrowed from 'Abd al-Mottalib 1000
silver dirhems of the Hudaida standard, and Allah with the
two " angels " (probably a euphemism for the goddesses Al-lat
and al-'Uzza) served as witness; it is difficult to see why such a
document should have been forged. The name Hashim (for
'Abd al-Mot^alib's father) may or may not be historical; here, as
in the ascending line throughout, we have subjects without
predicates. The name of 'Abd al-Mottalib's son, who was
Mahomet's father, is given as 'Abdallah; the correctness of this
has been questioned, because " Servant of Allah " would seem
to be too appropriate, and the name was often given by the
Prophet to converts as a substitute for some pagan appellation.
This, however, is hypercritical, as the name of the father could
not easily be altered, when relatives abounded, and it would seem
that at one time the Prophet made no theological use of the name
Allah, for which he intended to substitute Rahman. The name
of his mother is given as Aminah, and with this one of his own
titles, Arnin, agrees; although the Arabs do not appear to bring
the two into connexion. Her father's name is given as Wahb,
and she is brought into relation with a Medinese tribe called the
Banu 'Adi b. al-Najjar, to whom she is said to have brought her
son in his early infancy. The circumstances may have been
suggested by his later connexion with that place; yet in what
seems a historical narrative her grave is mentioned as known
to be at Abwa, midway between the two cities, whence this early
bond between the Prophet and his future home may have really
existed.
His own name is given in the Koran in the forms Ahmad and
the familiar Muhammad; in contemporary poetry we also find
the form Mahmud. Similar variation between derivatives from
the same root is found in proper names which occur in early
poetry; the meaning of all would be " the praised," if the root
be given its Arabic signification " the desired " if interpreted
from the Hebrew.
The form Mubammad (ordinarily transliterated Mohammed ;
Mahomet, Mehmet, &c., represent the Turkish pronunciation) is
found in a pre-Islamic inscription, and appears to have been fairly
common in Arabia. In Hag. ii. 7 a derivative of the Hebrew
equivalent root occurs in the prophecy " and the desired of all
nations shall come," and this passage has suggested the idea that
the name may have been taken by the Prophet as the equivalent
of " Messiah," while the Moslems themselves find its equivalent in
the Paraclete of the Fourth Gospel, though this identification re-
quires more ingenuity. His kunyah (i.e. the Arab title of respect,
in which a man is called after'his son) is Abu'l-Qasim; other names
by which he is called are titles of honour, e.g. Mustafa " chosen."
(See further the genealogical table, ad fin.)
In the Koran, Allah says that He found the Prophet an
orphan, poor and astray; it is possible that all these expressions
Early Life. snou ld be understood figuratively, like the " poor,
naked, blind " of Christian hymns; the Arabs, how-
ever, take them literally, and Mahomet is said to have been a
posthumous child, whose mother died a few months or years after
his birth, and who was brought up first by his grandfather, and
then by his uncle Abu Talib, one of the poorer members of the
family; in the controversy between the Alid and Abbasid pre-
tenders of the 2nd century of Islam the Abbasid Mansur claims
that his ancestor fed the ancestor of 'Ali, i.e. Abu Talib, other-
wise he would have had to beg. There was evidently an
apparent inconsistency between Mahomet's being a poor orphan
and the favourite grandchild of the eminent and wealthy 'Abd
al-Mottalib; and it was solved in this way. There was a tradition
that in his early years he was sent into the desert to acquire the
habits and the language of the Bedouins; and this seems to have
been attested by the Prophet himself. In a tribal fight he is said
to have acted as armour-bearer to one of his uncles, Zubair.
There seems no doubt that he often accompanied Meccan
caravans to the countries with which the Meccans had trade
relations; such especially were Syria and south Arabia, and
perhaps Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is conceivable that he may
have visited Abyssinia by sea. For though accurate knowledge
is nowhere to be found in the Koran, it exhibits a large amount of
miscellaneous information, such as a trader might well pick up.
His career as a caravan-conductor appears to have terminate
with his marriage to Khadija, daughter of Khuwailid, represented
by the tradition as a wealthy widow, fifteen years his senior
and forty years of age at the time of the union. As she became
the mother of a numerous family, a special rule was discovered
by Moslem physiologists extending the child-bearing period of
Korashite women beyond that of others. Since it is claimed
for Mahomet that he first gave Arab women the right to inherit
property, the difficulty noticed is not the only one connected
with this marriage; and Robertson Smith has called attention
to some others, unconnected with his theory of " marriage and
kinship in early Arabia." After his marriage Mahomet appears
to have been partner in a shop in Mecca; where he apparently
sold agricultural produce. His style is strongly marked by
phrases and metaphors drawn from trade, though as a statesman
he never displayed any financial ability.
Writing in the monumental script of South Arabia had been
known for centuries in the peninsula; and shortly before the rise
of Islam a cursive script the parent of the ordinary Educatl
Arabic character had been started in the Christian
state of Hira, with which the beginnings of modern Arabic
literature are connected. A modification of this had been intro-
duced into Mecca, and was probably used for contracts and
similar documents. The word ummi, literally " popular " or
" plebeian " (according to one etymology) , applied to Mahomet in
the Koran, is said to mean " one who can neither read nor write,"
and the most generally accepted view is that he could do neither,
a supposition which enters into the doctrine of the miraculous
nature of the Koran. According to another interpretation the
word means " Meccan," i.e. native of " the Mother of the
Villages " (Umm al-Qura) ; and the most probable theory is that
he could do both, but unskilfully. Indeed on one historic
occasion he erased certain words in a document; and where in
the Koran he rebuts the charge of " taking notes," he does not
employ the obvious retort that he could not write, but gives a
far less convincing answer. For poetry, which seems to have
been cultivated in Arabia long before his time, he possessed no
ear; but we have little reason for supposing that either writing
or versification had yet entered into Arabian education. The
former would be acquired by those who needed it, the latter was
regarded as a natural gift. There is reason for thinking the
language of the Koran incorrect and ungrammatical in parts,
but as it afterwards became the ultimate standard of classical
Arabic, this point is not easy to prove. On the whole then his
early life seems to have been such as was normal in the case of a
man belonging to one of the more important families in a com-
munity which had not long been started on a career of prosperity.
Of the organization of that community we unfortunately
know very little, though we hear of a council-chamber, and, as
has been seen, of an age-qualification for admission
to it. It is, however, certain that the theory of
decision by majority was absolutely unknown to
Mahomet's second successor, whence we learn little from this
tradition (even if it be authentic) of the mode whereby
the tribes who together formed the Meccan population
managed their common concerns, whether commercial or
political. The form of government seems to have been
a rudimentary oligarchy, directed by some masterful indi-
vidual; before the Flight we read of various prominent
personages, after the Flight and the battle of Badr (A.H. 2)
one chieftain, Abu Sofian (see CALIPHATE, ad inil.), appears
to take the lead whether in war or in policy. It would
seem, however, that the right of independent action belonged
to the individual tribes, even to the extent of refusing to take
part in a campaign. For the settlement of ordinary disputes
recourse was had (it appears) rather to soothsayers, near or dis-
tant, than to any regularly constituted authority or tribunal.
On the other hand we are furnished with a list of officials who
were concerned with different parts of the festal performances
and the ordinary worship. Of these we may mention the
Custodian of the Ka'ba, and the official whose duty was siqayah
(" watering "), said to mean furnishing the pilgrims with water,
Social
System.
MAHOMET
401
but more ingeniously interpreted in recent times as " rain-bring-
a function which even in the 2nd century of Islam the
vernor in some places was supposed to exercise.
Of Arabian paganism we possess no trustworthy or complete
count; since we hear of no theological literature belonging to it,
aings probably no such account could have been given.
There were doubtless a variety of practices, many of
iss/on. which have been continued to this day in the cere-
lonies of the pilgrimage, and offerings of different sorts to vari-
us deities, interpreted variously by the worshippers in accordance
th their spiritual, intellectual and moral levels; e.g. as actual
.ones, or as men (or more often women) residing in the stones
otherwise connected with them, or bearing a similar relation
trees, or stars, &c. In general every tribe had its patron of
he kind, and where there were aggregations of tribes, connexions
were established between these deities, and affiliation-theories
excogitated; hence the theory attributed in the Koran to the
Meccans that the goddesses al-'Uzza, &c. were the daughters of
Allah, may well represent the outcome of such speculation.
These, however, were known to few, whereas the practices were
familiar to all. Some of these were harmless, others barbarous;
many offensive, but not very reprehensible, superstitions.
Before Mahomet's time Arabian paganism had already been
attacked both from the outside and from the inside. On the
one hand the northern tribes had gradually been
fnucnces christianized, owing to the influence of the Byzantine
empire; on the other hand south Arabia had fallen
successively under Jewish, Abyssinian and Persian influence;
and the last, though little is known of Persian rule, is un-
likely to have favoured pagan cults. Christianity had also
some important representation in Najran far south of
Mecca, while Jewish settlements were prospering north of
Mecca in the Prophet's future home Yathrib and its neigh-
bourhood. Power, civilization and learning were thus asso-
ciated with monotheism (Judaism), dualism (Mazdaism) and
tritheism (as the Arabs interpreted Christianity); paganism
was the religion of ignorance (jahiliyyah, interpreted by Goldziher
as " barbarism," but the difference is not very considerable).
Mecca itself and the neighbouring and allied Taif are said to have
produced some monotheists or Christians, who identified the
Allah of Mecca with the Allaha or God of the Syrian Christians,
called by the Abyssinian Christians " Lord of the Regions,"
and by the Jews " the Merciful " (Rahmdna); one such is said
to have been a cousin of Khadija, Mahomet's wife; his name is
given as Waraqah, son of Naufal, and he is credited with copying
or translating a Gospel. We even hear of flagellant monks and
persons vowed to total. abstinence among the precursors of
Islam.
With these persons Mahomet had little in common, since they
do not appear to have claimed to enforce their views upon others,
or to have interfered with politics. He appears mainly to have
been struck by the personality of the founders of the systems
dominant in the civilized world, and to have aspired from the first
to occupy the place of legislator or mouthpiece of the Deity; and
that he was this was and is the main proposition of the Mahom-
medan creed. The " Prophet " or " Apostle " (at different
times he employed both the Jewish and the Christian phrase)
was the divinely appointed dictator of his community; if he were
not obeyed, divine vengeance would overtake the disobedient.
At this proposition Mahomet arrived by induction from the re-
cords of the Biblical prophets, as well as others who seem to have
figured in Arabian mythology, e.g. the destruction of the tribe
Thamud (mentioned by Pliny, and therefore historical) for their
disobedience to their prophet Salih, and of 'Ad (probably mythi-
cal) for their similar treatment of Hud. The character of the
message did not affect the necessity for obedience; at times it
was condemnation of .some moral offence, at others a trivial
order. Divine vengeance overtook those who disobeyed either.
This is the theory of the prophetic office which pervades the
Koran, wherein the doctrine is formulated that every nation
had its divine guide and that Mecca before Mahomet's time had
none. This place, then, Mahomet felt a divine call to fill.
But we are never likely to ascertain what first put the idea into
his mind. The fables which his biographers tell on this
subject are not worth repeating; his own system, in The
which he is brought into direct communication with Prophet's
the Deity, though at a later period the angel Gabriel CaU -
appears to have acted as intermediary, naturally leaves no room
for such speculations; and since his dispensation was thought
to be absolutely new, and to make a tabula rasa of the pagan
past, his first followers, having broken with that past, left no
intelligible account of the state of affairs which preceded their
master's call. Some generations therefore elapsed before that
past was studied with any sort of sympathy, and details could
not then be recovered, any more than they can now be supplied
by conjecture.
So far as Mahomet may be said from the first to have formu-
lated a definite notion of his work, we should probably be right
in thinking it to be the restoration of the religion of Abraham, or
(as the Koran calls him) Ibrahim. Though we have no reason
for supposing the name of Abraham or Ishmael to have been
known in Mecca generally before Mahomet's time, the Biblical
ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were
told of it, and there are stories, not necessarily apocryphal, of
precursors of Mahomet going abroad in search of the " religion
of Abraham." One feature of that system, associated in the
Bible with the name of Ishmael as well, was circumcision, which
was actually observed by the Meccan tribes, though it -would
appear with technical differences from the Jewish method; the
association of monotheism with it would seem reasonable enough,
in view of Jewish traditions, such as Mahomet may have heard
on his travels; why the doctrine of the future life should be
coupled with it is less obvious. That the Meccan temple and its
rites had been founded by these two patriarchs appears to have
been deduced by Mahomet himself, but perhaps at a later stage
of his career. That these rites, so far as they were idolatrous,
were in flagrant defiance of the religion of Abraham must have
struck any one who accepted the accounts of it which were
current among Jews and Christians. The precursors, however,
appear to have felt no call to reform their fellow-citizens; whereas
it is evident that Mahomet regarded himself as charged with a
message, which he was bound to deliver, and which his God
would in some way render effective.
As it was obvious that the claim to be God's mouthpiece
was to claim autocracy, Mahomet employed the utmost caution
in his mode of asserting this claim ; on the question of his sin-
cerity there have been different opinions held, and it is not
necessary to take any view on this matter. For three years
his followers were a secret society; and this period appears to
have been preceded by one of private preparation, the first
revelation being received when the Prophet was in religious
retirement a ceremony called tahannuth, of which the mean-
ing is uncertain, but which can have no connexion with the
Hebrew tehinnoth ("supplications") on Mount Hira, near
Mecca.
If the traditional dates assigned to the suras (chapters) of
the Koran (q.v.) are correct, the earliest revelations took the form
of pages or rolls which the Prophet was to read by the " grace of
God," as Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon community,
said of the power given him to read the "Egyptian" flieKona.
characters on the gold plates which he had found.
The command to read is accompanied by the statement that " his
most generous Lord had taught man by the pen (calamus) that
which he did not know." Waraqah, to whom the event is said
to have been communicated by Khadija, called these communi-
cations " the Greater Law (nomos)." The Prophet was directed
to communicate his mission at the first only to his nearest
relatives. The utterances were from the first in a sort of rhyme,
such as is said to have been employed for solemn matter in
general, e.g. oracles or prayers. At an early period the produc-
tion of a written communication was abandoned for oral com-
munications, delivered by the Prophet in trance; their delivery
was preceded by copious perspiration, for which the Prophet
prepared (in accordance with instructions found in the Koran)
402
MAHOMET
by wrapping himseW in a blanket. Trusty followers were in-
structed to take these utterances down, but the phenomena which
accompanied their delivery at least in one case suggested im-
posture to the scribe, who apostatized in consequence. It is
extraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official
record was ever kept. of these revelations; the Prophet treated
them somewhat as the Sibyl did her leaves. This carelessness
is equally astounding whether the Prophet was sincere or
insincere.
If the matter afterwards collected in the Koran be genuine,
the early revelations must have been miscellaneous in content,
magical, historical and homiletic. To some strange oaths are
prefixed. Apparently the purpose to be compassed was to
convince the audience of their miraculous origin. The formula-
tion of doctrines belongs to a later period and that of jurispru-
dence to the latest of all. In that last period also, when Mahomet
was despot of Medina, the Koran served as an official chronicle,
well compared by Sprenger to the leading articles on current
events in a ministerial organ. Where the continuous para-
graph is substituted for the ejaculation, the divine author
apologizes for the style.
Certain doctrines and practices (e.g. washing of the person
and the garments) must have been enjoined from the first, but
our authorities scarcely give us any clear notion what they were.
The doctrines to which the Prophet himself throughout assigned
most value seem to have been the unity of God and the future
life, or resurrection of the body. The former necessitated the
abandonment of the idolatrous worship which formed part of
the daily life of Mecca, and in which Mahomet and Khadija had
been accustomed to take their part. Yet it seems to have been
due to the initiative of the proselytes themselves rather than to
the Prophet's orders that the Meccan worship was actually
flouted by them; for the anecdote which represents the Prophet
and his young cousin attempting to pull down the images in or
about the Ka'ba appears to be apocryphal. The first Moslem
ceremony would appear to have been the religious meeting for
the purpose of hearing the delivery of revelations, of which
after the Prophet's death the sermon (khutbah) took the place.
After various provisional meeting-places, the house of one al-
Arqam on Mt. Safa was adopted for this purpose; and here
proselytes were initiated.
The names which the new community received from its
founder are both philological puzzles; for the natural sense of
Growth of Moslem (Muslim) appear to be " traitors," and to
the Early this a contemporary war-song of Mahomet's enemies
Commun/0'. a ]i U( j es . wn jj e ]j an i] (especially applied in the Koran
to Abraham) seems to be the Hebrew word for " hypocrite."
The former is explained in the Koran to mean " one who hands
over his face or person to God," and is said to have been invented
by Abraham; of the latter no explanation is given, but it seems
to signify from the context " devotee." Since the divine name
Rahman was at one time favoured by Mahomet, and this was
connected with one Maslama of the tribe Hanlfa, who figures in
politics at the end of Mahomet's career but must have been a
religious leader far earlier, it has been suggested that the names
originally belonged to Maslama's community. The honour
of having been Mahomet's first convert is claimed for three
persons: his wife Khadija, his cousin Ali, who must have been
a lad at the commencement of the mission, and Abu Bekr, son
of Abu Quhafah, afterwards Mahomet's first successor. This
last person became Mahomet's alter ego, and is usually known as
the Siddiq (Heb. word signifying " the saint," but to the Arabs
meaning " faithful friend)". His loyalty from first to last was
absolutely unswerving; he was selected to accompany Mahomet
on the most critical occasion of his life, the Flight from Mecca;
Mahomet is said to have declared that had he ever made a
confidant of any one, that person would have been Abu Bekr;
implying that there were things which were not confided even to
him. The success of the Prophet's enterprise seems to have been
very largely due to the part played by this adherent, who pos-
sessed a variety of attainments which he put at Mahomet's service ;
who when an intermediary was required was always ready to
represent him, and who placed the commendation of the Prophet
above every other consideration, private or public. The two
appear to have regularly laid siege to those persons in Mecca
whose adherence was desirable; and the ability which many
of the earlier converts afterwards displayed, whether as states-
men or generals, is a remarkable testimony to their power of
gauging men. It seems clear that the growth of wealth in Mecca
had led to the accentuation of the difference between persons of
different station, and that many were discontented with the olig-
archy which governed the city. Converts could, therefore, be
won without serious difficulty among the aliens and in general
those who suffered under various disqualifications. Some
members of the Jewish community seem also to have joined;
and some relics of the Abyssinian expedition (i.e. descendants of
the invaders). Among the most important converts of the
Meccan period were Mahomet's uncle Hamza, afterwards for
his valour called " the Lion of God "; 'Abd al-Rahman (Abdar-
rahman) son of 'Auf ; Othman, son of 'Affan, who married two
of the Prophet's daughters successively, and was Mahomet's
third successor; and, more important than any save Abu Bekr,
Omar, son of al-Khattab, a man of extraordinary force of charac-
ter, to whom siege seems to have been laid with extraordinary
skill. At some time he received the honourable title Faruq
(" Deliverer"); he is represented as regularly favouring force,
where Abu Bekr favoured gentle methods; unlike Abu Bekr,
his loyalty was not always above suspicion. His adherence is
ascribed to the period of publicity.
The secrecy which marked its early years was of the greatest
value for the eventual success of the mission; for when Mahomet
came forward publicly he was already the head of a band of
united followers. His own family appear to have been either
firm adherents, or violent enemies, or lukewarm and temporizing
this is the best which can be said for 'Abbas, eponymus of the
Abbasid dynasty; or finally espousers of his cause, on family
grounds, but not as believers.
Rejecting accounts of Mahomet's first appearance as a public
preacher, which are evidently comments on a text of the Koran,
we have reason for supposing that his hand was forced pint
by ardent followers, who many times in his career Period ot
compelled him to advance. The astute rulers of Publ1
the community perceived that the claim made by Mahomet
was to be dictator or autocrat; and while this was naturally
ridiculed by them, some appear to have been devoted adherents
of the gods or goddesses whom he attacked. The absence of
dated documents for the period between this open proclamation
(which in any case commenced before 616) and the Flight to
Medina in 622 renders the course of events somewhat conjectural,
though certain details appear to be well established. Apparently
there was a war of words, followed by a resort to diplomacy and
then to force; and then a period in which Mahomet's attention
was directed to foreign conversions, resulting in his being offered
and accepting the dictatorship of Yathrib.
Of the war of words we have an imperfect record in the Meccan
suras of the Koran, which occasionally state the objections urged
by the opponents. In the course of the debate the theological
position of both parties seems to have shifted, and the knowledge
of both was probably increased in various ways. The miracle
of the Koran, which at first consisted in its mode of production,
was transformed into a marvel connected with its contents; first
by Mahomet's claiming to tell historical narratives which had
previously been unknown to him; afterwards by the assertion
that the united efforts of mankind and Jinn would be unable to
match the smallest passage of the Koran in sublimity. Probably
the first of these claims could not be long maintained, though
A. J. Davis, " the Seer of Poughkeepsie," in our own time brought
a similar one in regard to his Principles of Nature. Indeed both
parties evidently resorted to external aid. To those who under-
took to name the man who dictated stories of the ancients to
Mahomet day and night, he replied that the individual whom
they had in mind was a foreigner, whereas the Koran was in pure
Arabic. This was obviously a quibble, for it was scarcely
asserted that he delivered the matter dictated to him without
MAHOMET
403
The Exiles
la Axam.
alteration. The purity of the Arabic also appears to have been
cry questionable; for several expressions appear to be Ethiopic
ther than Arabic, and the person whom the Meccans had in
ind is likely to have been an Abyssinian Christian, since the
ristian technicalities of the Koran are mainly derived from
e Ethiopic Gospels and Acts. On one occasion when some
i-stions suggested by learned foreigners had been propounded
the Prophet he required a fortnight's delay before the revela-
n which solved them came; the matter contained in his reply
certainly such as required research. His sources of informa-
in seem at all times to have been legendary rather than canoni-
1; and the community which seemed to his opponents to agree
,t with his views was that of the Sabians or Mandaeans (qq.v.).
It has been suggested that Mahomet first threatened the
ieccans with temporal punishment, and only when this threat
failed to take effect resorted to the terrors of the Day of Judgment
and the tortures of Hell; it seems however a mistake to distinguish
between the two. These threats provided the Prophet with his
most powerful sermons. The boasts of incomparable eloquence
which the Koran contains are evidence that his oratorical power
was effective with his audiences, since the more successful among
the Arabic poets talk of their compositions somewhat in the same
way. These discourses certainly led to occasional conversions,
perhaps more frequently among women than men.
The diplomatic war seems to have been due to the Prophet's
increasing success, which led to serious persecution of Mahomet's
less influential followers, though, as has been seen, no
blood could be shed in Mecca. Abu Talib, moreover,
prevented him from being exiled, though he probably
had to endure many personal insults. Something' however had
to be done for the persecuted Moslems, and (perhaps at the sugges-
tion of his_ Abyssinian helper) Mahomet endeavoured to find a
refuge for them in the realm of Axum. Abyssinia was doubtless
connected in every Meccan mind with the " Expedition of the
Elephant "; and such an alliance secured by Mahomet was a
menace to the existence of the Meccan community. A deputation
was therefore sent by the Meccan leaders to demand extradition
of the exiles; and as chief of this expedition the future conqueror
of Egypt, 'Amr b. al-'A (see 'AMR IBN EL-Ass), first figures in
history. To frustrate his efforts Mahomet sent his cousin Ja'far
armed with an exposition of the Prophet's beliefs and doctrines
afterwards embodied in the Koran as the Sura of Mary (No. XIX.;
though with the addition of some anti-Christian matter). The
original document contained an account of the Nativity of Christ
with various miracles not known to either the canonical or even
the apocryphal gospels which have been preserved, but which
would be found edifying rather than unorthodox by a church one
of whose most popular books is The Miracles of the Virgin Mary.
To this there were added certain notices of Old Testament
prophets. The Abyssinian king and his ecclesiastical advisers
took the side of Mahomet and his followers, whom they appear
to have regarded as persecuted Christians; and an attempt made
probably by the astute 'Amr to embroil them with the Abys-
sinians on the difficult question of the Natures of Christ failed
completely. There seems reason for thinking that the Abyssinian
king contemplated bringing back the exiles by force, but was
diverted from this purpose by frontier wars; meanwhile they
were safely harboured, though they seem to have suffered from
extreme poverty. The want of an Abyssinian chronicle for this
period is a serious disadvantage for the study of Islamic origins.
The sequel shows that regular correspondence went on between
the exiles and those who remained in Mecca, whence the former
were retained within the fold of Islanl, with occasional though
rare apostasies to Christianity.
Mahomet's diplomatic victory roused the Meccan leaders to
fury, and they decided on the most vigorous measures to which
they could rise; Abu Talib, Mahomet's protector, and the clan
which acknowledged him as sheikh, including the Prophet and his
family, were blockaded in the quarter which they occupied; as
in other sanctuaries, though blood might not be shed, a culprit
might be starved to death. That this did not occur, though the
siege appears to have lasted some months at least, was due to the
weak good nature of the Meccans, but doubtless also to the fact
that there were enlisted on Mahomet's side many men of great
physical strength and courage (as their subsequent careers
proved), who could with impunity defy the Meccan embargo.
After a time however the besieged found the situation intolerable,
and any assistance which they might have expected from the
king of Axum failed to come. The course adopted by Mahomet
was retractation of those of his utterances which had most
offended the Meccans, involving something like a return to
paganism. A revelation came acknowledging the effectiveness
of the Meccan goddesses as well as Allah, and the Meccans raised
the siege. News of the reconciliation reached the Abyssinian
exiles and they proceeded to return.
By the time they reached the Arabian coast the dispute
had recommenced. The revelation was discovered to be a
fabrication of the Devil, who, it appears, regularly interpolates
in prophetic revelations; such at least is the apology preserved
in the Koran, whence the fabricated verses have been expunged.
Since our knowledge of this episode (regarded as the most dis-
graceful in the Prophet's career) is fragmentary, we can only
guess that the Prophet's hand had once more been forced by the
more earnest of his followers, for whom any compromise with
paganism was impossible. The exiles went back to Abyssinia;
and about this time both Abu falib and Khadija died, leaving
the Prophet unprotected.
He fled to the neighbouring oasis of Taif, where wealthy
Meccans had possessions, and where the goddess al-'Uzza was
worshipped with special zeal where she is said still to exist in
the form of a block of stone. He had but little success there in
proselytizing, and indeed had to cease preaching; but he opened
negotiations with various Meccan magnates for a promise of
protection in case of his return. This was at last obtained with
difficulty from one Mofim b. 'Adi. It would appear that his
efforts were now confined to preaching to the strangers who
assembled at or near Mecca for the ceremonies connected with
the feasts. He received in consequence some invitations to
come and expound his views away from Mecca, but had to wait
some time before one came of a sort which he could wisely
accept.
The situation which led to Mahomet's Flight (hijra, anglicized
incorrectly hejira, q.v.) was singularly favourable to Mahomet's
enterprise, and utilized by him with extraordinary
caution and skill. At the palm plantation called to yatbrib
Yathrib, afterwards known as ol-Medina, Medina,
" the City" (i.e. of the Prophet), there were various tribes, the
two most important, called Aus and Khazraj, being pagan, and
engaged in an internecine feud, while under their protection there
were certain Jewish tribes, whose names have come down to us
as Qainuqa, Nadir and Quraiza implying that the Israelites,
as might be expected, imitated' the totem nomenclature of their
neighbours. The memory of these Israelites is exclusively
preserved by the Moslem records; the main stream of Jewish
history flowed elsewhere. In the series of combats between the
Aus and Khazraj the former had generally been worsted; the
Jews, as usual, had avoided taking any active part in the fray.
Finally, owing to an act of gross perfidy, they were compelled
to fight in aid of the Aus; and in the so-called battle of Bu'ath
the Aus aided by the Jews had won a victory, doubtless attributed
to the God of the Jews. As has been seen, the divine name
employed by Mahomet (Rahman) was one familiar to the Jews;
and the Yathribites who visited Mecca at feast-time were
naturally attracted by a professed representative of al-Rahman.
The first Yathribite converts appear to have been Khazrajites,
and one As'ad, son of Zurarah, is the most prominent figure.
Their idea may have been in the first place to secure the aid of the
Israelitish Deity in their next battle with the Aus, and indeed the
primary object of their visit to Mecca is said to have been to re-
quest assistance for their war. For this the plan was substituted
of inviting the Prophet to come to Mecca as dictator, to heal the
feud and restore order, a procedure to which Greek antiquity
offers parallels. The new converts were t'old to carry on secret
propaganda in Yathrib with this end in view. At the next feast
44
MAHOMET
some of the rival faction embraced Islam. A trusty follower of
Mahomet, Mus'ab b.'Umair, who resembled Mahomet in personal
appearance, was sent to Yathrib to assist in the work. The
correspondence between this person and the Prophet would, if
we possessed it, be of the greatest value for the study of Islamic
antiquity. We first hear at this time of the conditions of Islam, i.e.
a series of undertakings into which the convert entered: namely,
to abstain from adultery, theft, infanticide and lying, and to obey
Mahomet in licitis et honestis. The wholesale conversion of
Yathrib was determined by that of two chieftains, Usaid b.
Huraith and Sa'd b. Mu'adh, both Ausites. The example of
these was quickly followed, and iconoclasm became rife in the
place. At the next Meccan feast a deputation of seventy Yathrib-
ites brought Mahomet a formal invitation, which he accepted,
after imposing certain conditions. The interviews between
Mahomet and the Yathribites are known as the 'Aqabah (prob-
ably with reference to a text of the Koran). The attitude of the
Jews towards the project appears to have been favourable.
Among the conditions imposed by Mahomet on his new ad-
herents appears to have been the protection and harbouring of
the older proselytes, whom Mahomet most wisely determined to
send before him to Yathrib, where, in the event of the
Refugees. Yathribite loyalty wavering, they could be counted
on with certainty. The welcome given these refugees
(muhajirun), as they were from this time known in contra-
distinction to the helpers (ansar) or allies from Yathrib, is said
to have been of the warmest; a Helper with two wives would
hand one over to a wifeless Refugee. A yet more important
condition which preceded the Flight was readiness to fight men
of all colours in defence of the faith.
Although the transactions with the people of Yathrib had been
carried on with profound secrecy, the nature of Mahomet's
contract with his new adherents was somewhat divulged to the
Meccan magnates, and the danger of allowing an implacable
enemy to establish himself on the high-road of their north-bound
caravans flashed upon them. ' The rule which forbade bloodshed
in the sacred city had at last to be suspended; but elaborate pre-
cautions were to be taken whereby every tribe (except Mahomet's
own clan) should have their share in the guilt, which would thus
be spread over the whole community fairly. When the com-
mittee appointed to perpetrate the crime reached Mahomet's
house, they found that it was too late; Mahomet had already
departed, leaving Ali in his bed.
The actual Flight from Mecca to Yathrib has naturally been
a favourite subject for romance, and indeed appears to have been
executed with the greatest cunning. Accompanied by Abu Bekr
only, Mahomet took refuge in a cave of Mt Thaur, in the opposite
direction to that which he intended to take finally, and there
remained for three days; provision had been made of every
requisite, food, powerful camels, a trusty and competent guide.
The date at which he reached Kuba, on the outskirts of Yathrib,
where there was already some sort of Moslem oratory, is given as
8 Rabia I., of the year A.H. i; the fact that he arrived there on
the Jewish Day of Atonement gives us the date September
20, 622. The Meccans, who had employed professional trackers
to hunt down the fugitives, proceeded to confiscate the houses
and goods of Mahomet and of his followers who had fled.
The safe arrival of Mahomet at his destination marks the
turning-point in his career, which now became one of almost
Mahomet as unDr k en success; his intellectual superiority over
Despot of both friends and enemies enabling him to profit by
Yathrib. defeat little less than by victory. His policy appears
to have been to bind his followers to himself and them to each
other by every possible tie; he instituted brotherhoods between
the Refugees and Helpers, which were to count as relationships
for legal purposes, and having himself no sons, he contracted
numerous marriages partly with the same end in view; e.g. with
the infant daughter of Abu Bekr, Ayesha ('A'ishah), whose
ability he appears to have discerned; and the unamiable Hafsa,
daughter of Omar. Of his own daughters three were given to
faithful allies, the one by whom his line is supposed to have
been continued to our time, Fatima, was reserved for his cousin
Ali. Owing to his efforts the alliance between the Refugees
and Helpers resisted numerous attempts on the part of enemies
to break it up, and only towards the end of the Prophet's life,
when he appeared to favour Meccans unduly, do we hear of
any bitterness between the two communities.
The population of Yathrib, or,asit maynow be called, Medina,
soon divided into three groups: Mahomet's united followers;
the Jews; and a party known as the " Hypocrites,"
i.e. professing Moslems, who were lukewarm, or dis- commu
affected, among whom the most prominent is
'Abdallah b. Ubayy, a Khaziajite chieftain, who is said to have
himself aspired to be despot of Yathrib, and who till nearly the
end of Mahomet's career figures somewhat as a leader of the
opposition; of his importance there is no question, but the reason
for it and the mode whereby he made it felt are often obscure.
It would seem that the pagans remaining in Yathrib speedily
adopted Islam after the Prophet's arrival, whence we hear little
of serious opposition on their part. Coming in the capacity of
prophet of the Israelitish God, Mahomet at first seems to have
courted alliance with the Jews, and to have been ready to adopt
their system with very slight modifications similar to those
which, according to his opinion, Jesus had come to introduce.
The Jews met these advances by submitting him to examination
in the intricacies of the Torah, and, finding him very poorly
equipped, proceeded to denounce him as an imposter; one of his
examiners is said to have even translated the Torah into Arabic
with a view of convicting him of ignorance and imposture. They
are further charged with exercising their magical arts on the
Prophet and his followers, and to have succeeded thereby in
producing barrenness among the Moslem women. Their conduct
must not of course be judged by the statement of their enemies;
it is however clear that Mahomet soon found that there was no
possibility of compromising with them on religious questions,
or of obtaining their loyal support; meanwhile he discovered
that they were incapable of united and persistent action, and
useless as warriors except against each other. He therefore
resolved on their extermination. His ruthlessness in their case
compared with his patience and forbearance in the case of the
" Hypocrites" was consistent with his principle (always faith-
fully observed) that no inquiry was permissible into the motives
of conversion, and with his division of mankind into the two
antagonistic factions Believers and Unbelievers. The latter
principle, as will be seen, was somewhat modified before the
end of his life.
Mahomet's failure to effect a compromise with the Jews
caused a reaction in his mind towards paganism, and after about
a year's residence at Medina the direction of prayer,
which had till then been towards Jerusalem, was V
turned southward to the pagan temple at Mecca.
With this change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the
namely/a/! for the Diety; in the Moslem formula "in the Name
of Allah the Rahman the Merciful," the translation attached to
the word Rahman, and the prefixing to it of the name Allah
furnish clear evidence of theological transition, though the stages
are not recorded; we know, however, that the Meccans approved
of the name Allah, but objected to the name Rahman. Prayer
(ja/o/), said to have been prescribed on the occasion of the
Prophet's ascent into heaven after a miraculous journey from
Mecca to Jerusalem, began to assume a stereotyped form in the
place of assembly built by Mahomet immediately after his arrival;
the attitudes of prayer in use among many communities (e.g. the
Jewish standing, the prostration of some Christian sects) were
combined. In general it 'was Mahomet's principle, while taking
over a practice from some other sect, to modify it so as to rendef
the Moslem method absolutely distinct; thus when a summons
to prayer became requisite, a new mode (by the voice of a crier
called muaddhin or muezzin) was preferred to the Christian
hammer; a new sacred day was adopted, in lieu of the Jewish
Saturday and the Christian Sunday, in the weekday on which he
had safely reached Kuba, Friday; but the sanctity was reduced to
the actual time occupied by public worship. On the subject of
food he was satisfied with the regulations of the Council of
MAHOMET
405
Jerusalem, recorded in Acts xv.; which were observed by few if
ny Christian sects. The prohibition of wine, which was enacted
i A.H. 3, is said to have been occasioned by the riotous conduct
one of his followers when under the influence of liquor;
Palgrave saw in it (perhaps with justice) a deliberate attempt to
prevent harmony between Moslems and Christians, in whose
nost sacred rite wine is used. The Fast of Ramadan, in which
ood both liquid and solid is forbidden from sunrise to sunset, is
lid to be a pagan or semi-pagan institution; its importance for
ailitary training and discipline is not likely to have been over-
oked by the Prophet. When the direction of prayer was
Jtered, it is probable that Mahomet already intended to intro-
duce into his system the whole of the pagan pilgrimage with its
intique ceremonial (with, of course, a new interpretation);
before this he is supposed to have aimed at the abolition of
the Ka'ba and all that appertained to it.
The difference between religious and civil law has never been
recognized by Islamic jurists, whose manuals deal equally with
the law of contract and the amount of the body to be washed
before prayer; the Prophet's ordinances on both subjects were
suggested by the occasion in each case, and it would seem that the
opinions of trusted advisers were regularly heard before a revela-
tion was issued. Even when this had been done the ordinance
might be cancelled by an abrogating revelation; it being " easy
for Allah " to substitute for a text already revealed another that
was better or at least as good.
As Islam began to spread outside the limits of Medina both
conversion to Islam and persistence therein were reduced to
simple tests; the pronunciation of the double formula of belief
in Allah and Mahomet was sufficient to indicate conversion,
whilst payment of an income-tax, called by the Jewish names for
alms (zakat and sadaqah), was evidence of loyalty. This income-
tax, of which the definite assessment perhaps belongs to a later
period, was for the support of necessitous converts an element
in the community whose presence accounts for the mode in which
the development of the Islamic state proceeded.
The industries in which the Meccan Refugees had been engaged
were not of a sort which they could exercise at Medina, where the
First palm took the place of the camel as the basis of
Campaigns society. Moreover the Prophet seems to have given
r Mahomet. some disastrous advice on the subject of palmiculture,
and thereby to have accentuated the poverty of the place.
He had, therefore, to find some fresh source of revenue in order
to deal with this difficulty, and one of the Helpers is said to
have suggested the plan which he adopted, viz. of attacking
the Meccan caravans. With this view he organized a series of
expeditions, taking the lead himself sometimes, while at others
he gave it to one of his veteran followers; and at first only
Refugees took part in them. The leaders of the caravans, how-
ever, were expert in evading attacks of this sort, which were
doubtless regularly attempted by the desert tribes; and in the
first year of his despotism Mahomet did not score a single success
of the kind intended. The attempts were not wholly fruitless;
for while on the one hand he accustomed his followers to campaign-
ing, on the other he made a series of agreements with the chief-
tains of the tribes through whose territory the caravans ordinarily
passed. Finding continued failure intolerable, he resolved to
take advantage of his power to bind and to loose by sending an
expedition of seven men under his cousin 'Abdallah b. Jahsh to
attack a caravan at the beginning of the sacred month Rajab,
when, as raiding during such a season was unknown, success was
practically certain. The commander on this, the Nakhlah raid,
was given sealed orders, to be opened after two days' march;
the men were then to be given the option of retiring, if they dis-
approved. Of this no one seems definitely to have availed him-
self, and the raid ended successfully, for considerable booty was
captured, while of the four persons who escorted the caravan two
were made prisoners, one escaped, and one, "Amr b. al-Hadrami,
was killed; he was the first person slain fighting against an
Islamic force. The violation of the sacred month seems to have
caused considerable scandal in Arabia, but led to no serious con-
sequence; on the other hand the shedding of blood created a feud
between the people of Mecca and the Refugees, with whom the
Meccans long declined to identify the people of Medina. The
fact that the man who had been killed was a client, not a citizen,
made no difference. The circumstance that booty had been
actually acquired appears to have helped the Prophet's cause
very considerably.
Both these consequences, the Meccan desire to avenge the
blood that had been shed and the anxiety of the Medinese to take
part in a successful raid, manifested themselves a few Attack
months later, when an expedition was organized by <" Meccaa
Mahomet to attack a caravan returning from Syria, Carava ".
which had escaped him the previous year. Many desired to take
part in the raid, and finally some 300 persons were selected,
including a large number of " Helpers." The leader of the
caravan learned somehow that an attack was being organized by
Mahomet on a large scale, and sent to Mecca for aid, while hurry-
ing home by forced marches. This is the first historical appear-
ance of Abu Sofian (the leader of the caravan) , who now for some
years played the part of president in the Meccan opposition to
Mahomet, and whose son was destined to found the second
Mahommedan dynasty (see CALIPHATE, B). The day before the
battle to be fought at Badr, near the point where the northern
road leaves the coast to turn eastwards to Mecca, the Moslem
army learned that the Meccan succour (some 1000 strong) was
near, but that the caravan had escaped. The Meccans, it is
asserted, would have returned home now that their object was
secured, but the patrons of the man who had been killed in the
former raid were compelled to strike for vengeance.
The battle (Ramadan 19, A.H. 2, usually made to synchronize
with March 17, 624) ended in a complete victory for Mahomet,
whose followers killed seventy of the enemy and took seventy
prisoners if we may trust what seem to be round numbers; it
was attributed by him to divine co-operation, taking the form of
an illusion wrought on the enemy, and the despatch of a regiment
of angels to the assistance of the Believers, while on the other
hand the treachery of the Devil did mischief to the Meccans.
The popular tradition attributed it to the prowess of some of
Mahomet's followers, especially his uncle Hamza and his cousin
Ali. In the narratives which have come down and which seem
to be authentic the result is amply accounted for by the excellence
of the Moslem discipline and the complete absence of any on the
Meccan side. Mahomet himself is said to have fainted at the
first sight of blood, and to have remained during the battle in a
hut built for him to which swift camels were tied, to be used in
case of a defeat; yet these accounts make him responsible for
the tactics, whilst assigning the credit for the strategy to one
Hobab b. al-Mondhir. Several of Mahomet's old enemies and
friends of Meccan days perished on this occasion; notably one
Abu Jahl, his uncle, but represented as an implacable enemy;
another hostile uncle, Abu Lahab, who is cursed in the Koran,
was not present but died shortly after the battle.
The day is called in the Koran by a Syriac expression the
" Day of Deliverance," and both for internal and external politics
it was of incalculable advantage to Islam. The booty and the
ransoms of the prisoners provided the means for dealing with
distress; the story of supernatural aid soothed the feelings of the
defeated Meccans and had a tendency to disarm resistance else-
where; whilst Mahomet in the popularity acquired by his victory
was able to strike forcibly at his enemies in Medina. One of
the sequels to the victory was a series of assassinations whereby
critics of his actions were removed.
The defeat at Badr naturally led to efforts on the part of the
Meccans to avenge their dead and besides to secure the commerce,
by which they lived, from an enemy who was gradu-
ally getting all the seaboard that lay between Jeddah
and Yanbo within his sphere of influence; and the
year after Badr (A.H. 3) Abu Sofian was able to lead a force
said to be three times as great as that which had been defeated,
and so numbering some 3000 men, against Medina itself; part
of it was under Khalid b. al-Walid, one of the greatest of Arab
captains, afterwards conqueror of Syria. It is said that Maho-
met's plan was to remain in Medina itself, and leave it to the
406
MAHOMET
Meccan commander to discover some way of taking the place;
but that his hand was forced by his more ardent followers.
Others, however, assign this advice to Abdallah b. Ubayy, and
make the Prophet anxious to fight from the first. A battle was
in consequence fought under Mt Uhud (or Ohod), north-west of
Medina, wherein Khalid succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat
on Mahomet's forces; his uncle Hamza, hero of Badr, was killed
on this occasion. Fortunately for the Moslems, the Meccans
considered that they had finished their task when they discovered
that they had killed a number of the former equal to those who
had fallen at Badr on their own side ; instead therefore of pursuing
their victory they went home. The immediate effect on Arabia
appears to have been to dissipate the illusion that the Prophet
could count on supernatural assistance in his wars; and we hear
of some blows being dealt him from outside. Meanwhile his rela-
tions towards the Medinese Jews had grown more and more hostile,
and these are credited with doing their best to rouse the Meccans
to a sense of the danger which threatened them in the continu-
ance of the Prophet's power, and in general to stir up hostility
against him in Arabia. Whether this part was played by them
or not, in the fifth year of the Prophet's stay at Medina a fresh
invasion of the territory took place by a vast confederate force
of Meccans with their allies, the tribes Fazarah, Asad, Murrah,
&c., to the number, it is said, of 10,000. This time the intention
of the leaders was undoubtedly to stamp out Islam. For the
first time in Arab warfare Mahomet resorted to the expedient
of defending his city by a trench, called by a Persian name, and
suggested by a Persian convert. But he also employed agents
to sow dissension among the confederates, and succeeded with
this no less than with the other expedient. After a brief stay,
and scarcely striking a blow, the confederacy dispersed, leaving
the Jews who still remained in Medina to the summary vengeance
of the Prophet. The want of records written from the Meccan
standpoint renders the abortiveness of this last attempt at
storming the Prophet's stronghold scarcely intelligible.
From this time, however, the road towards the eventual taking
of Mecca became easy, and we are told that such was the impor-
tance attached to that city throughout Arabia that its acquisition
meant for the Prophet the acquisition of the whole peninsula.
The next year (A.H. 6) he deemed it advisable to make a truce
with the Meccans (the Truce of Hodaibiyah), whereby he secured
for his followers the right of performing the pilgrimage in the
following year; on this occasion he even consented to forgo his
title " Prophet of Allah," when the Meccans refused to sigft a
deed in which it was employed, greatly to the scandal of his more
earnest followers, including Omar; they were however too deeply
committed to Islam to be able to defy the Prophet. When the
pilgrimage was performed (A.H. 7), Mahomet not only won
important converts in the persons of Khalid and the no less
able "Amr b. al-'As, but in general impressed the population
with the idea that his was the winning side. An excuse was easily
found for invading Mecca itself in the following year, when Abu
Sofian took the opportunity of embracing Islam before it was too
late. Very little resistance was now made by the Meccans,
whose chiefs were already in Mahomet's canip, and Mahomet
used his victory with great moderation; his proscription list
was finally reduced to two. The theory that all offences were
cancelled by conversion was loyally observed. Moreover the
Prophet incurred the displeasure .of his Medinese friends by the
anxiety which he displayed to soothe the feelings of his former
enemies and antagonists. The Medinese, however, prevailed
upon him to maintain their city as his political capital,
while making Mecca the religious centre of his system; and
this arrangement accounts perhaps more than anything else
for the persistence of the system amid so many dynastic
changes.
In the main he appears to have introduced little alteration
into the government of Mecca, and it is said that he even declined
to retaliate on those who had confiscated the possessions of the
Refugees. Even the Ka'ba was left in the keeping of its former
custodian, though of course its interior as well as its precincts
were cleansed of all that could offend monotheists. In the
following year the pilgrimage was for the first time conducted by
a Moslem official, Abu Bekr. A proclamation was made on that
occasion, forbidding idolaters in future to take part in the pil-
grimage, and giving all Arabs who were not as yet converted
four months' grace before force was to be brought to bear upon
them. In the following year Mahomet conducted the Pilgrimage
himself. This solemn occasion (the " Farewell Pilgrimage ")
was also employed for the delivery of an important proclamation,
wherein the Prophet declared that God had completed their
religion. The principle whereon he specially insisted was the
brotherhood of Islam; but there is some difficulty in enucleating
the original sermon from later additions.
It would seem that Mahomet's enterprise originally comprised
the conversion of Mecca only, and that he thought of himself
as sent to his fellow-citizens only, as had been the
case with earlier prophets, whose message was for
their " brethren." His views took a somewhat
different direction after his brief exile to Taif, and the conquest
of Arabia was in a way forced upon him in the course of his
struggle with the Meccans. It is not indeed perfectly clear by
what process he arrived at the resolution to exclude paganism
from Arabia; at first he appears to have tolerated it at Medina,
and in some of his earlier contracts with neighbouring tribes he
is represented as allowing it, though some of our texts make him
reserve to himself the right of enforcing Islam if he chose; only
the Meccans were at first, according to the most authentic
documents, excluded from all truce or treaty. At the battle of
Badr he appears to have formulated the rule that no one might
fight on his side who had not embraced Islam; and when once
he had won fame as a successful campaigner, those who wished
to share his adventures had to pass the Islamic test. After the
battle of Uhud (Ohod) we hear of a tribe demanding missionaries
to instruct them in Islamic principles; and though in the case
recorded the demand was treacherous, the idea of sending mis-
sionaries appears not to have been unfamiliar even then, albeit
the number sent (70) , if rightly recorded, implies that the Prophet
suspected the good faith of the applicants. After the taking of
Mecca, whereby the chief sanctuary at any rate of north Arabia
had been cleared of all idolatrous associations, and consecrated
to monotheism, paganism in general was conscious of being
attacked; and the city had scarcely been brought under the
new regime before the Prophet had to face a confederation of
tribes called Hawazin and Thaqif. The battle which ensued,
known as the Day of Honain, was near ending disastrously for
Islam; some of Mahomet's sturdiest followers fled; but the
terrible danger of a defeat in the neighbourhood of recently
conquered Mecca roused the Prophet and Ali to heroism, and they
saved the day. Emissaries were now sent far and wide demand-
ing the destruction of idols, and only Taif appears to have made
any considerable resistance; against this place for the first time
the Prophet made use of siege artillery, such as was employed by
the Byzantines; though compelled by the bravery of the inhabi-
tants to raise the siege, he was afterwards able to take the city
by capitulation. It has been observed that here only do we
read of much attachment to the old deities; in most places they
were discarded with few regrets when once their impotence had
been found out. After the taking of Mecca and the victory of
Honain there appears to have been a general desire, extending
even to the extreme south of Arabia, to make the best terms with
the conqueror so soon as possible; iconoclasm became general.
Flatterers of various kinds, including poets, came to seek the
favour of the sovereign; and a mock war of words appears to
have been substituted by some tribes for more serious fighting,
to terminate in surrender. For warfare of his sort Mahomet
had a powerful helper in the poet Hassan b. Thabit, for whose
effusions a pulpit was erected in the Medina mosque, and whose
verses were said to be inspired by the Holy Spirit; though, as
has been seen, Mahomet was not himself able to judge of their
artistic merit. It was not, however, found easy to enforce the
payment of the alms on these new converts; and this taxation
caused an almost general revolt so soon as Mahomet's death had
been ascertained.
MAHOMET
407
Although the central portions of the peninsula in Mahomet's
time were practically independent, large portions of the north-
Piaa of west and south-east were provinces of the Byzantine
World- and Persian empires respectively, whence any scheme
oaqucst. or tne con q ues t { Arabia would necessarily involve
he conqueror in war with these great powers. The conquest of
'ersia is said to have been contemplated by the Prophet as
rly as A.H. 5, when the famous Trench was being dug; but it was
lot till the year A.H. 7, on the eve of the taking of Mecca, that
he Prophet conceived the idea of sending missives to all known
vereigns and potentates, promising them safety if, but only if,
icy embraced Islam. The text of these letters, which only
varied in the name of the person addressed, is preserved (doubt-
faithfully) by the Moslem Oral Tradition; in the middle of
the last century a French explorer professed to discover in Egypt
the original of one of them addressed to the mysterious person-
age called the Muqauqis(Mukaukis)of Egypt and this,it appears,
is still preserved amid other supposed relics of the Prophet in
Constantinople, though there is little reason for believing it to
be genuine. The anecdotes dealing with the reception of these
letters by their addressees are all fabulous in character. Two
appear to have sent favourable replies: the king of Axum, who
now could send the exiles whom he had so long harboured to
their successful master; and the Egyptian governor, who sent
Mahomet a valuable present, including two Coptic women for
his harem. The emperor Heraclius is claimed as a secret convert
to Islam, on whom pressure had to be put by his advisers to
conceal his convictions. The Persian king is said to have sent
orders to have Mahomet arrested; his messengers arrived in
Medina, but were unable to carry out the commands of their
master, who died while they were there. Two of the letters are
said to have had important results. One was addressed to the
Himyarite chiefs (called by the south Arabian appellation qail)
in Yemen, and effected their conversion; another to the governor
of Bostra in Roman Arabia, who put the bearer of this insolent
message to death; a force was despatched by Mahomet imme-
diately afterwards (beginning of A.H. 8) to avenge this outrage;
and though the Moslems were defeated in their first encounter
with the Byzantine forces at Mutah, they appear to have given
a good account of themselves; it was here that Ja'far, cousin of
the Prophet, met his death. In A. H. 9 a successful .expedition
was led by the Prophet himself northward, in which, though
no Byzantine force was encountered, a considerable region was
withdrawn from the Byzantine sphere of influence, and made
either Islamic or tributary to Islam. At the time of his death
(of fever, after a short illness) he was organizing an expedition
for the conquest of Syria.
The Prophet claimed throughout that his revelation confirmed
the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, and this claim is on the
Jewish aaa whole reasonable, though his acquaintance with both
Christian was in the highest degree vague and inaccurate.
Commuol- Still he reproduced the Old Testament as faithfully
as he could, and though he patriotically endeavours
to shed some lustre on his supposed ancestor Ishmael, he does not
appear to have questioned the Biblical theory according to which
the founder of the north Arabian nations was the son of a slave
girl. On neither the truth of the Biblical history and miracles nor
the validity of the Mosaic legislation does he appear to have cast
any doubt. He even allows that Israel was the chosen people.
The Gospel was known to him chiefly through apocryphal and
heretical sources, which cannot certainly be identified; but he
accepted the doctrine of the Virgin-birth, the miracles of healing
the sick and raising the dead, and the ascension; the crucifixion
and resurrection were clearly denied by the sect from whom he
had received his information, and rejected by him, though
certainly not because of any miracle which the latter involved.
His quarrel with the Jews at Medina appears to have been by no
means of his own seeking, but to have arisen unavoidably, owing
to his particular view of his office being such as they could not
accept; and his attempt to discredit, not the Mosaic Law, but
the form in which they presented it, was an expedient to which
he resorted in self-defence. An attempt was made shortly after
his arrival at Medina to settle the relations between the two
communities by a treaty, according to which, while their equality
was guaranteed there should be little interference between the
two; this, however, was found unworkable, and each victory of
Mahomet over the Meccans was followed by violent measures
against the Medinese Israelites. When experience had shown
him their military incompetence he appears to have been unable
to resist the temptation to appropriate their goods for the benefit
of his followers; and his attack on the flourishing Jewish settle-
ment of Khaibar, after the affair of Hodaibiyah, appears to have
been practically unprovoked, and designed to satisfy his discon-
tented adherents by an accession of plunder. Yet the conscious-
ness that this process was economically wasteful suggested to him
an idea which Islamic states are only now abandoning, viz.
that of a tolerated caste, who should till the soil and provide
sustenance for the Believers who were to be the fighting caste.
Whereas then his former plan in dealing with Israelites had been
to banish or massacre, he now left the former owners of Khaibar
(who had survived the capture of the place) in possession of the
soil, of whose produce they were to pay a fixed proportion to
the Islamic state. The same principle was adopted in the case
of later conquests of Jewish settlements.
Disputes with Christians occur somewhat later in the Prophet's
career than those with Jews, for neither at Mecca nor Medina were
the former to be found in any numbers; individuals are likely
to have been found in both cities, and we hear of one Medinese
" Abu' Amir the Monk," who after Mahomet's arrival at Medina
branded him as an impostor, and, going himself into exile, made
many an abortive attempt to discredit and injure Mahomet's
cause. The notices of him are meagre and obscure. Mahomet's
manifesto to the world, about the time of the taking of Khaibar,
appears to represent his definite breach with Christianity; and
when in the " year of the embassies " the Christians of Najran
sent a deputation to him, they found that the breach between
the two systems was not to be healed. Of the three alternatives
open to them conversion, internecine war, and tribute, they
chose the last. The Christian tribes of north Arabia showed
greater inclination towards the first. The Prophet's policy was to
give Christians lighter terms than Jews, and though the Koran
reflects the gradual adoption by the Prophet of an attitude of
extreme hostility to both systems, its tone is on the whole
far more friendly to the former than to the latter. Some other
communities are mentioned in the Koran, but merely in casual
allusions: thus we know that Mahomet's sympathy was with the
Byzantines in their struggle with Persia, but in his most tolerant
utterance the Magians or Mazdians as well as the Sabians
(with whom his followers were identified by the Meccans) are
mentioned with respect.
The financial requirements of Mahomet's state were of the
simplest kind, for there is no trace of any form of governmental
department having been instituted by him, even Mahomet'*
when he was master of the peninsula; nor can we
name any permanent officials in his employ except
his muaddhin Bilal, and perhaps his court-poet Hassan. A staff
of scribes was finally required both to take down his revelations
and to conduct correspondence; but although he encouraged the
acquisition of penmanship (indeed some of the prisoners at Badr
are said to have been allowed to ransom themselves by teaching
it to the Medinese), we know of no regular secretaries in his
employ. As despot of Medina he combined the functions of
legislator, administrator, general and judge; his duties in the
last three capacities were occasionally delegated to others, as
when he appointed a governor of Medina during his absence, or
leaders for expeditions, with provision for successors in case
of their falling, but we hear of no permanent or regular dele-
gation of them. Till near the end of his career at Medina he
maintained the principle that migration to that city was a con-
dition of conversion; but when, owing to the extension of his
power, this was no longer practicable, his plan was in the main
to leave the newly converted communities to manage their in-
ternal affairs as before, only sending occasional envoys to dis-
charge special duties, especially instruction in the Koran and
a "'
408
MAHOMET
the principles of Islam, and to collect the. Alms; quite towards
the end of his life he appears to have sent persons to the provinces
to act as judges, with instructions to judge according to the
Koran, and where that failed, the practice (sunna), i.e. the practice
of the community, for which a latsr generation substituted the
practice of the Prophet. There were, therefore, no regular
payments to permanent officials; and the taxation called Alms,
which developed into an income-tax, but was at first a demand
for voluntary contributions, was wholly for the support of the
poor Moslems; it might not be used for the maintenance of the
state, i.e. Mahomet and his family. For them, and [for public
business, e.g. the purchase of war material and gratuities to
visitors, provisio: was made out of the booty, of which Mahomet
claimed one-fifth (the chieftain's share had previously, we are
told, been one-fourth), while the remainder or at least the bulk
of it was distributed among the fighting men; the Prophet
appears to have prided himself on the justice of his distribu-
tion on these occasions, and doubtless won popularity thereby,
though we hear occasionally of grumbling; for difficulties occurred
when a defeated tribe embraced Islam, and so could claim equal-
ity with their conquerors, or when portions of the spoil were
irregularly employed by Mahomet to allay resentment: the
persons whose allegiance was thus purchased were euphemisti-
cally termed " those whose hearts were united." What after-
wards proved the main source of revenue in Islamic states
dates from the taking of Khaibar; for the rent paid to the state
by tolerated communities for the right to work their land
developed long after Mahomet's time into a poll-tax for Unbe-
lievers (see CALIPHATE, e.g. B. 8 and MAHOMMEDAN INSTITU-
TIONS), and a land-tax for all owners of land. Immediately after
the taking of Khaibar certain communities, of which the most
notable was Fadak, sent tribute before they had been attacked
and reduced; their land was regarded by Mahomet as his
private domain, but after his death it was withdrawn from his
heirs by his successor Abu Bekr, in virtue of a maxim that
Prophets left no inheritance, which in the opinion of Fatima
was contrary to Koranic doctrine, and invented by Ayesha's
father expressly for the purpose of excluding her and her husband
from their rights; and this is likely to have been the case.
As a military organizer Mahomet, as has been seen, was
anxious to adopt the most advanced of contemporary methods,
and more than once is said to have scandalized the Arabs by
foreign innovations, as at a later time the Moslem chiefs who
first used gunpowder scandalized their co-religionists. The
unit in his armies seems to have been, as of old, the tribe,
under its natural leader; that he introduced no more scientific
division, and nothing like a hierarchy of officers was perhaps
due to the difficulty of reconciling such a system with the equality
of all Moslems.
As has been seen, the Koran only assumed the character of
a civil code as the need for one arose; and for some time after
Mahomet's arrival at Medina old-fashioned methods of settling
disputes continued in use, and doubtless in accordance with
precedent where such was known. For difficult cases, even in
Arab opinion, divine inspiration was required ; and since Mahomet
naturally claimed to be in sole enjoyment of this, his utterances
soon became the unique source of law, though he did not at first
think of organizing a code. Such a plan is said to have occurred
to him, and he even wished to dictate a code upon his death-
bed; but his friends supposed or professed to suppose him to be
delirious. A table regulating the " Alms " was left by him, it is
said, in the possession of Abu Bekr; but other traditions assign
another origin to this document.
Just as there were no regular officials for the arrangement of
business, so there were none for its execution; when punishment
was to be administered, any follower of Mahomet might be called
upon to administer it. In the case of the massacre of the
Banu Quraizah care was taken to see that some of the heads
were struck off by their former allies, in order that the latter
might be unable at any time to bring a demand for vengeance.
The Prophet hoped by the mere terror of his name to make
complete security reign throughout Arabia, and there is no
evidence that any system of policing either it or even Medina
occurred to him.
Until the death of Khadija the Prophet's private life seems to have
been normal and happy, for though the loss of his sons in infancy is
said to have earned him a contemptuous epithet, he was
fortunate in his adoption of Zaidb. rlarithah, apparently Doa >estlc
a prisoner ransomed by Khadija or one of her relatives, Ll/e '
who appears as dutiful almost to excess and competent in affairs.
The marriages of his daughters seem all to have been happy, with,
curiously, the exception of that between Fatima and AH. His
domestic troubles, to which an unreasonable amount of space seems
to be devoted, even in the Koran, began after the Migration, when,
probably in the main for political reasons, he instituted a royal
harem. One of these political motives was the principle which long
survived, that the conquest of a state was consummated by posses-
sion of the former monarch's wife, or daughter; another, as has been
seen, the desire to obtain the securest possible hold on his ministers.
In his marriage with the daughter of his arch-enemy Abu Sofian,
before the latter's conversion, we can see a combination of the two.
Few, therefore, of these marriages occasioned scandal; yet public
morality seemed to be violated when the Prophet took to himself
the wife of his adopted son Zaid, whose name has in consequence
the honour of mention in the Koran in the revelation which was
delivered in defence of this act. Its purpose was, according to this,
to establish the difference between adoptive and real filiation.
Serious trouble was occasioned by a charge of adultery brought
against the youthful favourite Ayesha, and this had to be refuted
by a special revelation; the charge, which was backed up apparently
by Ali, seems to have been connected with some deeper scheme for
causing dissension between the Prophet and his friends. Yet an-
other revelation is concerned with a mutiny in the harem organized
by Omar's daughter Hafsa, owing to undue favour shown to a
Coptic concubine (Mary, mother of a son called Ibrahim, who died
in infancy; his death was marked by an eclipse, January 27, 632);
and various details of factions within the harem are told us by
Mahomet's biographers.
Of the members of this harem the only prominent one is Ayesha,
married to the Prophet shortly after the Flight, when she had scarcely
passed the period of infancy, but who appears to have been gifted
with astuteness and ambition that were quite beyond her years, and
who maintained her ascendancy over the Prophet in spite of the fact
that many carping criticisms of his revelations are attributed to her.
Some of this may have been due to the obligations (including pecuni-
ary obligations) under which her father had laid Mahomet; but her
reputation seems to have been greatly enhanced by the sending down
of a revelation to exonerate her (A.H. 6), for which she thanked Cud
and not the Prophet. Each accession to the harem rendered the
building of a house or room necessary for the newcomer's accom-
modation ; a fact in which Robertson Smith perhaps rightly saw a
relic of thetjlder system whereby the tent was the property of women.
The trouble noticed above seems to have arisen from the want of
asimilararrangement in the case of slave girls, with whom Mahomet's
system permits cohabitation. When Mahomet, whether in conse-
quence of the fatigue incurred by the " Farewell Pilgrimage," or,
as others thought, by the working of some poison put into his food
some years before by a Jewess of Khaibar, was attacked by the illness
which proved fatal, it was to the house of Ayesha that he was trans-
ferred (from that of another wife) to be nursed ; and he apparently
died in the arms of the favourite, on whose statements we have to
rely for what we know of his last hours.
The traditional description of Mahomet is " of middle height,
greyish, with hair that was neither straight nor curly; with a large
head, large eyes, heavy eyelashes, reddish tint in the n en enl
eyes, thick-bearded, broad-shouldered, with thick hands c
and feet " ; he was in the habit of giving violent expres- /sWcs
sion to the emotions of anger and mirth. The supposi-
tion that he at any time suffered from physical weakness seems
absolutely refuted by his career as a leader of difficult, dangerous
and wearisome expeditions, from his migration to Medina until his
death; indeed, during his last years he exhibited a capacity for both
physical and intellectual activity which implies a high degree of both
health and strength; and without these the previous struggle at
Mecca could scarcely have been carried on. The supposition that
he was liable to fits (epileptic or cataleptic) was intended to account
for certain of the phenomena supposed to accompany the delivery
of revelations; some of these however rest on very questionable
authority: and the greater number of the revelations give evidence
of careful preparation rather than spontaneity.
The literary matter ascribed to the Prophet consists of (i) the
Koran (g.r.); (2) certain contracts, letters and rescripts preserved
by his biographers; (3) a number of sayings on a vast variety of
topics, collected by traditionalists. The references in the Koran
to a form of literature called " Wisdom " (Ijikmah) suggest that even
in the Prophet's time some attempts had been made to collect or at
least preserve some of the last ; the general uncertainty of oral tradi-
tion and the length of time which elapsed before any critical treatment
of it was attempted, and the variety of causes, creditable and dis-
creditable, which led to the wilful fabrication of prophetic utterances,
MAHOMET
409
render the use to which No. 3 can be put very limited. Thus
ugthy description of the journey to Jieaven which Sprenger was
inclined to accept as genuine is regarded by most critics as a later
fabrication. It is very much to be regretted that the number of pieces
justificatives (No. 2) quoted by the. biographers is so small, and that
for these oral tradition was preferred! to a search for the actual
documents, some of which may well have been in existence when
the earliest biographies were written. Their style appears to have
been plain and straightforward, though the allusions which they
contain are not always intelligible.
In his personal relations with men Mahomet appears to have been
able to charm and impress in an extraordinary degree, whence we
find him able to control persons like Omar and Khalid, who appear
ito have been self-willed and masterful, and a single interview seems
to have been sufficient to turn many an enemy into a devoted
adherent. Cases (perhaps legendary) are quoted of his being able
by a look or a word to disarm intending assassins.
Although the titles which he took were religious in character, and
his office might not be described as sovereignty, his interests appear
to have lain far more in the building up and maintenance of empire
than in ecclesiastical matters. Thus only can we account for the
violent and sudden changes which he introduced into his system,
for his temporary lapse into paganism, and for his ultimate adoption
of the cult of the Black Stone, which, it is said, gave offence to some
of his sincere adherents (e.g. Omar), and seems hard to reconcile with
his tirades against fetish-worship. The same is indicated by his
remarkable doctrine that the utterance of the creed constituted a
Moslem and not its cordial acceptance, and his practice of at times
buying adhesion. Even an historian so favourable to the Prophet
as Prince Caetani recognizes that ultimately what he regarded as
most important was that his subjects should pay their taxes. And
in general his system was not favourable to fanaticism (al-ghulu
fi'l-din) ; he repeatedly gave permission for concealment of faith when
the profession of it was dangerous; he took care to avoid institutions
which, like the Jewish Sabbath, interfered seriously with military
expeditions and the conduct of business, and permitted considerable
irregularity in the matters of prayer and fasting when circumstances
rendered it desirable. In his theory that Koranic texts could be
abrogated he made wise provision against the danger of hasty legisla-
tion, though some of its usefulness was frustrated by his failure to
provide for such abrogation after his death.
As has been seen, Mahomet claimed to introduce a wholly new
dispensation, and a maxim of his law is that Islam cancels all
, that preceded it, except, indeed, pecuniary debts; it is
Reforms no(; certa ii that even this exception always held good.
Hence his system swept away a number of practices
(chiefly connected with the camel) that were associated with
pagan superstitions. The most celebrated of these is the arrow-
game, a form of gambling for shares in slaughtered camels, to
which poetic allusions are very frequent. More important than
this was his attitude towards the blood-feud, or system of tribal
responsibility for homicide (whether intentional or accidental),
whereby one death regularly led to protracted wars, it being
considered dishonourable to take blood-money (usually in the
form of camels) or to be satisfied with one death in exchange.
This system he endeavoured to break down, chiefly by sinking
all earlier tribal distinctions in the new brotherhood of Islam;
but also by limiting the vengeance to be demanded to such as
was no more than the equivalent of the offence committed, and
by urging the acceptance of money-compensation instead, or
complete forgiveness of the offence. The remembrance of pre-
Islamic quarrels was visited by him with condign punishment
on those who had embraced Islam; and though it was long before
the tribal system quite broke down, even in the great cities which
rose in the new provinces, and the old state of things seems to
have quickly been resumed in the desert, his legislation on this
subject rendered orderly government among Arabs possible.
Next in importance to this is the abolition of infanticide,
which is condemned even in early Suras of the Koran. The
scanty notices which we have of the practice are not altogether
consistent; at times we are told that it was confined to certain
tribes, and consisted in the burying alive of infant daughters; at
other times it is extended to a wider area, and said to have been
carried out on males as well as females. After the taking of Mecca
this prohibition was included among the conditions of Islam.
In the laws relating to women it seems Likely that he regulated
current practice rather than introduced much that was actually
new, though, as has been seen, he is credited with giving them the
right to inherit property; the most precise legislation in the Koran
deals with this subject, of which the main principle is that the
share of the male equals that of two females. Our ignorance of
the precise nature of the marriage customs prevalent in Arabia
at the rise of Islam renders it difficult to estimate the extent to
which his laws on this subject were an improvement on what
had been before. The pre-Islamic family, unless our records
are wholly misleading, did not differ materially from the Islamic;
in both polygamy and concubinage were recognized and normal;
and it is uncertain that the text which is supposed to limit the
number of wives to four was intended to have that meaning.
The " condition of Islam " whereby adultery was forbidden is
said to have been ridiculed at the time, on the ground that this
practice had never been approved. Yet it would seem that
certain forms of promiscuity had been tolerated, though the
subject is obscure. Against these services we must set the
abrogation of some valuable practices. His unfortunate essay
in astronomy, whereby a calendar of twelve lunar months,
bearing no relation to the seasons, was introduced, was in any
case a retrograde step; but it appears to have been connected
with the abrogation of the sanctity of the four months during
which raiding had been forbidden in Arabia, which, as has
been seen, he was the first to violate. He also, as has been
noticed, permitted himself a slight amount of bloodshed in
Mecca itself, and that city perhaps never quite recovered its
sacrosanct character. Of more serious consequences for the
development of the community was his encouragement of the
shedding of kindred blood in the cause of Islam; the consequences
of the abrogation of this taboo seem to have been felt for a great
length of time. His assassinations of enemies were afterwards
quoted as precedents in books of Tradition. No less unfortunate
was the recognition of the principle whereby atonement could be
made for oaths. On the question how far the seclusion of
women was enjoined or countenanced by him different views
have been held.
Besides the contemporary documents enumerated above (Koranic
texts, rescripts and authentic traditions) many of the events were
celebrated by poets, whose verses were ostensibly in- Sources
corporated in the standard biography of Ibn Ishaq; in
the abridgment of that biography which we possess many of these
are obelized as spurious, and, indeed, what we know of the procedure
of those who professed to collect early poetry gives us little confidence
in the genuineness of such odes. A few, however, seem to stand
criticism, and the diwan (or collection of poems) attributed to Hassan
b. Thabit is ordinarily regarded as his. Though they rarely give
detailed descriptions of events, their attestation is at times of value,
e. g. for the story that the bodies of the slain at Badr were cast by the
Prophet into a pit. Besides this, the narratives of eyewitnesses
of important events, or of those who had actually taken part in them,
were eagerly sought by the second generation, and some of these
were committed to writing well before the end of the 1st century.
The practice instituted by the second Caliph, of assigning pensions
proportioned to the length of time in which the recipient had been
a member of the Islamic community, led to the compilation of certain
rolls, and to the accurate preservation of the main sequence of events
from the commencement of the mission, and for the detailed sequence
after the Flight, which presently became an era (beginning with the
first month of the year in which the Flight took place). The pro-
cedure whereby the original dates of the events (so far as they were
remembered) were translated into the Moslem calendar for some-
thing of this sort must have been done is unknown, and is unlikely
to have been scientific.
Mahomet's conduct being made the standard of right and wrong,
there was little temptation to " whitewash " him, although the
original biography by Ibn Ishaq appears to have contained details
which the author of the abridgment omitted as scandalous. The
preservation of so much that was historical left little room for the
introduction of miraculous narrations; these therefore either belong
to the obscure period of his life or can be easily eliminated ; thus the
narratives of the Meccan council at which the assassination of
Mahomet was decided, of the battles of Badr, Ubud and Honain, and
the death of Sa'd b. Mu 'adh, would lose nothing by the omission of
the angels and the devil, though a certain part is assigned the one
or the other on all these occasions. We should have expected
biographies which were published when the 'Abbasids were reigning
to nave falsified history for the purpose of glorifying 'Abbas, their
progenitor ; the very small extent to which this expectation is justified
is a remarkable testimony to their general trustworthiness.
RELATIVES OF THE PROPHET l
i. Family of AM al-Mo(talib, Mahomet's maternal grandfather:
*'Abbas(d. A.n.32or34),*r.Iamza(d. A.H. 3),'Abdallah,fatherof the
1 * is prefixed to names which figure on occasions which seem to
be historical. Female names are in italics.
410
MAHOMMED AHMED
Prophet, *Abu Talib (said to be named 'Abd Manaf), ? *Zubair,
Harith, Hajal, Moqawwam, Dirar, *Abu Lahab (said to be named
'Abd al-'_U'zza, d. A.H. 2), *Safiyyah (d. A.H. 20), Umm Hakim, al-
Baida, 'Atikah, Umaimah, Anva, Barrah.
2. Family of Abu Talib: *'Aqil (d. after A.H. 40), "Ja'far (d.
A.H. 8), Talib, T"laiq, ' All, the caliph, Umm Hani', Jumdnah,
Raifah.
3. Family of Mahomet. Wives: *Khadlja (Children: Qasim;
? 'Abd Manaf (Tahir, Tayyib) ; *Zainab m. Abu'l-'As b. Rabi', d.
A.H. 7; 'Ruqayyah, m. 'Othman b. 'Affan, d. A.H. 2; *UmmKulthum
m. 'Othman b. 'Affan, d. A.H. 9; *Fa(imah, m. 'Ali, d. A.H. n):
*SaudahbintZam'ah,?d.A.n.5A, *'A'ishah(Ayesha) bint Abi Bekr (d.
A.H. 56), *Hafsa bint 'Omar (d. A.H. 45 or 47), "Zainab bint Khu-
zaimah, d. before A.H. n, *Zainab bint Jahsh, d. A.H. 20, *Umm
Salimah, d. A.H. 59, *Maimunah, d. A.H. 38, *Juwairiyah, d. A.H. 56,
*Umm Habibah Ramlah bint Abi Sofian, d. A.H. 44.
Concubines: *Safiyyah bint Huyyay, d. A.H. 36, *Raihdnah bint
Zaid, *Mariyah ike Copt, d. A.H. 15 or 16, mother of Ibrahim. (Other
names given by Ibn Sa'd, vol. viii.)
Chronological Table of Chief Events in the Life of Mahomet. 1
? 570 Birth.
? 595 Marriage with Khadija.
? 610 Commencement of call.
? 613 Public appearance.
616 Persian conquest of the nearer East.
? 617 Flight of his followers to Abyssinia.
? 618-619 Siege in Mecca. Retractation and subsequent repudia-
tion. Death of Abu Talib and Khadija.
? 620 Flight toTaif.
622 July 16. Beginning of the Moslem era.
Sept. 20. Arrival at Kuba after the Flight.
632 Jan. 27. Death of his son Ibrahim.
632 June 7. Death of Mahomet.
The following dates are given by the Arabic historians according
to their own calendar. For the reasons which have been seen it is
impossible to obtain certain synchronisms.
A.H. 2. Rajab I. Raid of 'Abdallah b. Jahsh to Nakhlah.
Ramadan 19. Battle of Badr.
Shawwal 15. Attack on the Banu Qainuqa.
3. Rabia I. 14. Assassination of Ka'b b. al-Ashraf.
Shawwal 7. Battle of Uhud.
4. Saphar. Massacre of Mahomet's 70 missionaries at Bi'r
Ma'unah.
Rabia I. Attack on the Banu Nadir.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Abortive raid called " the lesser Badr."
5. Shaaban 2. Attack on the Banu'l-Mustaliq (according
to Waqidi).
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Battle of the Trench.
Massacre of the Banu Quraizah.
6. Jornada i. Capture of a caravan by Zaid b. rlarithah.
Futile attempt to assassinate Abu Sofian.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Affair of Hodaibiyah.
7. Jornada i. Taking of Khaibar. Mission extended to
the world.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. Pilgrimage to Mecca (called 'umrat al-
qadiyyah)
8 Jornada i. Expedition to Mutah.
Ramadan 20. Taking of Mecca.
Shawwal. Battle of Honain.
Attack on Ta'if.
9. Muharram. Tax-gatherers sent over Arabia.
Rajab. Expedition to Tabuk.
Rival Mosque built at Kuba, destroyed on
Mahomet's return to Medina.
Dhu'l-Hijja. Pilgrimage conducted by Abu Bekr.
Abolition of idolatry in Arabia.
10. Ramadan. Expedition of 'AH to Yemen.
Dhu'l-Qa'da. " Farewell Pilgrimage."
11. Suphur. Expedition ordered against the Byzantines.
Companions of the Prophet.
The sahabah, as they are called, are the subject of a vast literature,
and the biographical dictionaries devoted to them, of which the best
known are the Usd ul-ghaba of the historian Ibn Athir and the Isabah
of Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, enumerate many thousands. The follow-
ing two lists are of special groups.
(a) Naqibs, i.e. leaders selected by Mahomet from the Medinese
tribes: i. Khazrajites : As'ad b. Zurarah, Sa'd b. al-Rabi',
'Abdallah b. Rawahah, al-Bara' b. Ma'rur, 'Abdallah b. 'Amr b.
Haram, 'Ubadah b. al-amit, Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, al-Mondhir b. 'Amr;
ii. Ausites: Usaid b. Hudair, Sa'd b. Khaithamah, Rifa'ah b. 'Abd
al-Mondhir.
(b) Commanders of Expeditions: names occurring in (a) are not
repeated : 'Abdallah b. Jahsh, 'Abd ar- Rahman b. 'Auf , Abu Bekr,
Abu Qatadah, Abu 'Ubaidah b. al-Jarrah, 'Ali, 'Alqamah b. Mujaz-
ziz, 'Amr b. al-'As (ibn el- Ass), Bashir b. Sa'd, Dahhak b. Sofian,
Ghalib b. 'Abdallah, Ibn Abi'1-Auja, Ka'b b. 'Umair, Khalid b. al-
Walld, Kurz b. Jabir, Marthad b. Abi Marthad, Muhammad b.
1 Dates are given A.D.
Maslamah, Qutbah b. 'Amir, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, Sa'd d. Zaid,
Salama b. 'Abd al-Asad, Shuja' b. Wahb, 'Ubaidah b. al-Harith|
'Ukkashah b. Miljsan, 'Umar b. al-Khattab, Usamah b.' Zaidj
'Uyainah b. Hisn, Zaid b. Harithah.
AUTHORITIES. The biography of Ibn Ishaq was before the world
long before the two chief causes for the falsification of tradition had
begun to have serious effects; these were the need for legal pre-
cedents, and the concept of saintliness, combining those of
asceticism and thaumaturgy. These gave rise to the classical
works on the Evidences of Mohammed's Mission by Abu Nu'aim
(d. A.D. 1012-1013) and Baihaqi (d. A.D. 1066).
Lives of the Prophet (f indicates that the work is lost); t'Urwah b.
Zubair (d. 712-713) ; fMusa b. 'Ukbah (d. 758-759) ; fMohammed b.
Ishaq (d. 768) ; Mohammed b. Hisham (d. 828-829), ed. Wiistenfeld
(Gottingen, 1860) ; reprinted in Egypt by Zubair Pasha, a series of
excerpts from the last; Mohammed b. Omar al-Waqidi (d. 823),
portion published by Kremer (Calcutta, 1855), abridged trans, of
a fuller copy by Wellhausen, Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882);
Mohammed b. Sa'd (d. 844-845), anencyclopaedic work on the history
of Mahomet and his followers, called Tabaqat, ed. Sachau and others
(Berlin, foil.); Mohammed b. Jarir al-Tabari (see TABARI). Many
more writers on this subject are enumerated in the Fihrist, cf.
Sprenger's Leben Muhammads, iii. 54-76.
Among the most popular compilers of later times are: Ibn al-
A'thir (q.v.) al Jazari, the historian (d. 1233) ; Ahmad b. Ali al Kasta-
lani (d. A.D. 1517), whose al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah was published
with commentary (Cairo, !278);Hosainb. Mohammed al Diyarbakri
(d. 1574) whose work Ta'rikh oJ-Khamis was published in Cairo,
A.H. 1382; 'Ali b. Burhan al-din al-rjalabi (d, A.D. 1634), whose
biography called Insan al-'uyun was published in Cairo, A.H. 1292.
To these must be added all the collections of Tradition.
Modern Authorities. The critical study of the Life of Mahomet be-
gins in Europe with the publication by Th. Gagnier in 1723 of the Life
by Abulfeda (q.v.). Presently there appeared an apologetic biography
by Henri Cmte. de Bpulainvilliers (2nd ed., Amsterdam, 1731), to
which Gagnier replied in 1732 (LaVie de Mahomet, traduite, &c. ibid.).
The next considerable advance in the treatment of the subject is
marked by the biography of G. Weil (Muhammed der Prophet,
Stuttgart, 1843), which is wholly without religious bias; the popular
life by Washington Irving (London, 1849) is based on this. That
by J. L. Merrick (the Life and Religion of Mohammed, Boston, U.S.A.,
1850) rests on Shi'ite sources. The search for MSS. in India con-
ducted by A. Sprenger led to the discovery of fresh material, which
was utilized by Sprenger himself in his unfinished Life of Mohammad
(Pt. I, Allahabad, 1851), and his more elaborate Das Leben und die
Lehre des Mohammad (Berlin, 1861-1865), and by Sir William Muir
in his Life of Mahomet, London, 1858-1861) 4 vols. : afterwards
abridged in one volume and reprinted. These are still the standard
treatises on the subject; the pro-Christian bias of Muirisvery marked,
while Sprenger has hazarded numerous conjectures on subjects
with which he had little familiarity. The biography by S. VV.
Koelle, Mohammed and Mohammedanism (London, 1889), is pro-
Christian, the popular work of Syed Ameer Ali The Spirit of Islam,
(London, 1896) an apology for Mahommedanism. Later treatises,
resting on original authorities, are those by H. Grimme Mohamed,
(Miinster, 1892, and Munich, 1904), F. Buhl, Mohameds Lvo (Copen-
hagen, 1903 Danish: since translated into German), D. S. Margoli-
outh Mohammed and. the Rise of Islam (N.Y., 1905, &c.), and Prince ,
Caetani Annali del Islam, i. ii. (Milan, 1905-1907). For the direction
of public opinion in Mahomet's favour the Lecture on The Hero as
Prophet in Carlyle's Heroes and Hero-worship (London, 1846) was
singularly effective ; his views were enforced by R. Bosworth Smith
Mohammed and Mohammedanism, (London, 1873, &c.). A some-
what similar line was taken in France by J. Barthelemy Satnt-
Hilaire, Mahomet et le Coran, (Paris, 1865), while the Vie de Mahomet
d'aprks la Tradition of E. Lamairesse and G. Dujarric (Paris, 1897)
is written entirely from the Moslem standpoint.
See further CALIPHATE, ad init.; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS;
MAHOMMEDANLAW; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. (D. S. M.*)
MAHOMMED AHMED IBN SEYYID ABDULLAH (1848-1885),
Sudanese tyrant, known as " the Mahdi," was born in Dongola.
His family, known as excellent boat-builders, claimed to be
Ashraf (or Sherifs), i.e. descendants of Mahomet. His father
was a fiki or religious teacher, and Mahommed Ahmed devoted
himself early to religious studies. When about twenty years old
he went to live on Abba Island on the White Nile about 150 m.
above Khartum. He first acquired fame by a quarrel with the
head of the brotherhood which he had joined, Mahommed asser-
ting that his master condoned transgression of the divine law.
After this incident many dervishes (religious mendicants)
gathered round the young sheikh, whose reputation for sanctity
speedily grew. He travelled secretly through Kordofan, where
(with ample justification) he denounced to the villagers the extor-
tion of the tax-gatherer and told of the coming of the mahdi
who should deliver them from the oppressor. He also wrote a
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS
411
pamphlet summoning true believers to purify their religion
from the defilements of the " Turks " i.e. the Egyptian officials
and all non-native inhabitants of the Sudan. The influence he
gained at length aroused the anxiety of the authorities, and in
lay 1 88 1 a certain Abu Saud, a notorious scoundrel, was sent
to Abba Island to bring the sheikh to Khartum. Abu Saud's
nission failed, and Mahommed Ahmed no longer hesitated to
ill himself al-Mahdi al Montasir, " The Expected Guide." In
August he defeated another force sent to Abba Island to arrest
dim, but thereafter deemed it prudent to retire to Jebel Gedir,
the Nuba country south of Kordofan, where he was soon at
he head of a powerful force; and 6000 Egyptian troops under
I'usef Pasha, advancing from Fashoda, were nearly annihilated
i June 1882. By the end of 1882 the whole of the Sudan south
9f Khartum was in rebellion, with the exception of the Bahr-el-
Jha/.ul and the Equatorial Provinces. In January 1883 El
)beid, the capital of Kordofan, was captured. In the November
following Hicks Pasha's force of 10,000 men was destroyed at
Cashgil, and in the same year the mahdi's lieutenant, Osman
)igna, raised the tribes in the eastern Sudan, and besieged
Sinkal and Tokar, near Suakin, routing General Valentine
Baker's force of 2500 men at El Teb in February 1884. The
operations undertaken by Great Britain in face of this state
of affairs are narrated under EGYPT: Military Operations.
It need only be added that General Gordon (g.v.) was besieged
at Khartum by the mahdi and was killed there when the town
was captured by the mahdists on the 25th-26th of January 1885.
The mahdi himself died at Omdurman a few months later
(June 22, 1885), and was succeeded in power by his khalifa
Abdullah.
When he announced his divine mission Mahommed Ahmed
adopted the Shi'ite traditions concerning the mahdi, and thus
put himself in opposition to the sultan of Turkey as the only
true commander of the faithful. To emphasize his position the
mahdi struck coins in his own name and set himself to suppress
all customs introduced by the " Turks." His social and
religious reforms are contained in various proclamations, one of
which is drawn up in the form of ten commandments. They
concern, chiefly, such matters as ritual, prayers, soberness in food
and raiment, the cost of marriage and the behaviour of women.
How far the mahdi was the controller of the movement which
he started cannot be known, but from the outset of his public
career his right-hand man was a Baggara tribesman named
Abdullah (the khalifa), who became his successor, and after his
llight to Jebel Gedir the mahdi was largely dependent for his
support on Baggara sheikhs, who gratified one of his leading
tastes by giving him numbers of their young women. In the
few months between the fall of Khartum and his death the mahdi,
relieved from the incessant strain of toil, copied in his private
life all the vices of Oriental despots while maintaining in public
the austerity he demanded of his followers. His death is vari-
ously attributed to disease and to poisoning by a woman of his
harem. On the occupation of Omdurman by the British (Sept.
1898) the mahdi's tomb was destroyed, his body burnt and the
ashes thrown into the Nile (see SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian).
See Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan by F. R. Wingate (1891);
Ten Years' Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp (1882-1892) from the MS.
of Father Joseph Ohrwalder by F. R. Wingate (1892) and Fire and
Sword in the Sudan (1879-1895) by Slatin Pasha (trans. F. R.
Wingate, 1896). Both Ohrwalder and Slatin were personally
acquainted with the mahdi, and their narratives contain much
first-hand information. Wingate prints many translations of the
proclamations and correspondence of the mahdi.
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. Of all the institutions
of Islam the caliphate is the oldest, the most fundamental, and
in essence the most enduring. For its history see CALIPHATE;
the present subject is its origin and nature. Mahomet enjoyed
absolute rule over his people as a divinely inspired and guided
prophet. He led the public prayers; he acted as judge; he
juled. If he consulted with others or paid attention to public
feeling or local usage, it was as a matter of policy; the ultimate
decision lay with himself. He was the state. On his death a
leader was put in his place of similar authority, though without
the divine prophetic guidance. He was called the " successor "
(khalifa, caliph) of the Prophet, later also the amir-al-mu'minin,
commander of the faithful, and was elected by the The CaU-
Moslems, just as the Arab tribes had always elected pbatc.
their chiefs. He was thus an absolute ruler, but was democrati-
cally elected; and such is the essence of the caliphate among
Sunnite Moslems to this day. For them it has been a matter
of agreement (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) from the earliest times
that the Moslem community must appoint such a leader (see
IMAM). The Shi'ites, on the other hand, hold that the appoint-
ment lies with God, and that God always has appointed, though
his appointment may not always have been known and accepted.
Their position may be called a legitimist one. Some few hereti-
cal sects have held that the necessity of a leader was based on
reason, not on the agreement of the community. But, for all,
the rule of the leader thus appointed is absolute, and all authority
is delegated from him and, in theory, can be resumed by him at
any time. Just as God can require unreasoning obedience from
his creatures (his " slaves " in Arabic), so can the caliph, his
representative on earth.
But Abu Bekr, the first caliph, nominated his successor,
Omar, and that nomination was accepted and confirmed by the
people. So a second precedent was fixed, which was again
carried a step farther, when Moawiya I., the first Omayyad
caliph, nominated his son, Yazld I., as his successor, and caused
an oath of allegiance to be taken to him. The hereditary
principle was thus introduced, though some relics of the form of
election persisted and still persist. The true election possible
in the early days of the small community at Medina became first
a formal acceptance by the populace of the capital; then an
assertion, by the palace guard, of their power; and now, in the
investiture of the sultans of the Ottoman Turks, who claim the
caliphate, a formal ceremony by the 'ulema (q.v.) of Constanti-
nople. The Ottoman claim is based on an asserted nomination
by the last Abbasid, who died in exile in Egypt in 1538, of the
Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Great, as his successor. Such a
nomination in itself was a perfectly legal act, but in this case had
a fatal flaw. It is an absolute condition, laid down in tradition,
that the caliph must be of the tribe of Koreish (Quraish),
that of the Prophet.
The duties of this democratically elected autocrat are, in
theory, generally stated as follows. He shall enforce legal
decisions and maintain the divinely revealed restrictive ordi-
nances; guard the frontiers and equip armies; receive the alms;
put down robberies, thieving, highwaymen; maintain the
Friday services and the festivals; decide disputes and receive
evidence bearing on legal claims; marry minors, male and female,
who have no guardians; divide booty. He must be a free,
male, adult Moslem; must have administrative ability; must be
an effective governor and do justice to the wronged. So long as
he fulfils these conditions he is to be absolutely obeyed ; private
immorality or even tyranny are not grounds for deposing him.
This is a position reached by Islam practically. But a caliph
who openly denied the faith would be as impossible as an un-
believing pope. The caliph, therefore, is the highest executive
officer of a system assumed to be definite and fixed. He, in a
word, administers Islam; and the content of Islam is determined
by the agreement of the Moslem people, expressed immediately
through the 'ulema, and ultimately, if indirectly and half-
consciously, by the people. To depose him a.fatu-d (see MUFTI)
would be required in Turkey from the Sheikh-ul-Islam that
he had violated some essential of the Moslem faith, and no longer
fulfilled the conditions of a caliph.
But it was impossible for the caliph personally to administer
the affairs of the empire, and by degrees the supreme office was
gradually put into commission, until the caliph himself
became a mere figurehead, and vanished into the sacred
seclusion of his palace. The history of the creation of
government bureaus (dnaans; see DIVAN) must therefore now
be sketched. The first need which appeared was that of a
means of regulating and administering the system of taxation
and the revenues of the state. Immense sums flowed into
Medina from the Arab conquests; the surplus, after the require-
ments of the state were met, was distributed among the believers.
_.
412
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS
All Moslems had a right to a certain share of this, which was
regarded as booty. Omar, the second caliph, regulated this dis-
tribution and also the system of taxation, and the result was the
first divan and the constitution of Omar, looked back to now by all
Sunnite Moslems as an ideal. The sources of revenue were (i) the
poor-rate (zakdt), a tithe paid by every Moslem; (ii) the fifth of all
booty; (iii) the poll-tax (jizya) on non-Moslems; and (iv) the land-
tax (kharaj) also on non-Moslems. Thus the constitution determined
the position of all non-Moslems in a Moslem state. The ideal was
that the Moslems should be kept apart as a superior, fighting caste,
and that the non-Moslems should support them (cf. CALIPHATE, B.
8, on the reign of Omar II.). The Moslems, therefore, were for-
bidden to acquire land in conquered countries. The non-Moslems
must retain their lands, cultivate them and pay the land-tax (the
Arabic word is also used of revenue from the work of a slave) and
the poll-tax (the Arabic word means also " ransom "), and give
contributions in kind to support the local Moslem garrisons which
were massed in great camp-cities at strategic points. If a non-
Moslem embraced Islam he entered the ruling caste; his land was
distributed among his non-Moslem fellows, and he no longer paid
the land-tax but rather received support from the public funds.
The amount of these pensions varied with the standing of the
pensioner from 10,000 dirhems (a dirhem equalled about a franc)
to the widows and relations of the Prophet down to 300. This
bureau had, therefore, not only to keep the books of the state, but
also to maintain a list of all Moslems, classified genealogically and
socially. Its registers were kept by Greeks, Copts and Persians;
the Arabs, it may be said in general, adopted the method of ad-
ministration which they found in the captured countries and drew
upon the trained services of their inhabitants.
Such a system led naturally to wholesale conversions to Islam ;
and the consequent decline in revenue, combined witlfMarge dona-
tions of lands by Othman, the third caliph, to his own family,
gradually broke it down. The first patriarchal period of conquest,
unearned wealth and the simple life called by Moslems the period
of the " four rightly guided caliphs," and very happily by Sachau,
ein monchisches Imperium passed rapidly into the genuinely Arab
empire of the Omayyads, with whom came an immediate develop-
ment of organization in the state. The constructive genius in this
was Moawiya, the first Omayyad caliph. Under him the old sim-
plicity vanished. A splendid and ceremonious court was maintained
at Damascus. A chamberlain kept the door; a bodyguard sur-
rounded the caliph, and even in the mosque the caliph, warned by
the murder of Othman and of Ali, prayed in a railed-off enclosure.
The beginning of the seclusion of the caliph had come, and he no
longer walked familiarly among his fellow Moslems. This seclusion
increased still further when the administration of the state passed by
delegation into other hands, and the caliph himself became a sacro-
sanct figure-head, as in the case of the later Abbasids; when
theories of semi-divine nature and of theocratic rule appeared, as
in the case of the Fatimites; and finally when all the elaborate court
ritual of Byzantium was inherited by the Ottoman sultans.
But Moawiya I. was still a very direct and personal ruler. He
developed a post-system for the carrying of government despatches
by relays, and thus received secret information from and kept
control of the most distant provinces. He established a sealing-
bureau by which state papers were secured against change. He
dealt arbitrarily with the revenues of the state and the pensions of
the Moslems. Governors of provinces were given a much freer
hand, and were required to turn over to the central treasury their
surplus revenue only. As they were either conquerors or direct
successors of conquerors they had an essentially military govern-
ment, and were really semi-independent rulers, unhampered except
by direct action of the caliph, acting on information sent by the post-
master, who was his local spy. Being thus the heads of armies of
occupation, they were not necessarily charged with the control of
religious ritual and of justice. These, like every other function,
inhered in the office of the caliph and he generally appointed in each
province independent cadis over the courts and imams to be in
charge of religious services. Yet the governor was sometimes per-
mitted to hold these two other offices (see CADI; IMAM).
Further administrative developments came with the Abbasids.
They created a new city, Bagdad, between the Tigris and the
Euphrates, where the three races, Syrian, Arab and Persian, met
and sought with Bagdad as a capital to- consolidate the empire.
The Arab empire, it is true, had passed away with the Omayyads;
yet there might be a chance to create a world-empire of all the
Moslem peoples. But not even the genius and administrative
skill of the early Abbasids could hold together that unwieldy
mass. The semi-independent provinces soon became fully
independent, or at most acknowledged the caliph as a spiritual
head and paid a nominal tribute. His name might stand on the
coinage and prayers be offered for him in the Friday service,
the two signs of sovereignty to this day in Islam. With this
crumbling of the empire went a more elaborate organization;
bureaus took the place of principles and of -the energy of indi-
vidual rulers. As the system of Moslem law was built on that
of the Roman codes, so was the machinery of administration on
that of Persia. And with the Abbasids the chance of the Persians
had come. Abu '1-Abbas, the first Abbasid caliph, was the first
to appoint a vizier (wazir, " helper," so Aaron is The
viazlr to Moses in the Koran), a confidential minister vizierate.
to advise him and come between him and the people. Advisers
the caliphs had had before; but not a definite adviser with this
name. He must, we are told, have a strain of the ruler in him
and a strain of the people to be able to work with both. He
must know how to be acceptable; fidelity and truthfulness are his
capital; sagacity, firmness, generosity, clemency, dignity, effec-
tiveness of speech are essential. It is plain that the vizier became
as important as the caliph. But Abu '1-Abbas was fortunate
in early securing as his vizier the grandfather of the house of
the Barmecides (q.v.). On this Persian family the fortunes of
the Abbasids hung, and it secured for them and for Islam a short
golden age, like that of the Antonines, until the jealous madness
of Harun al-Rashid cast them down. Thereafter the vizierate
had many vicissitudes. Technically a vizier could be either
limited or unlimited. The limited vizier had no initiative; he
carried out the commands of the caliph. The unlimited vizier,
often afterwards called the grand vizier, exercised full authority
and was the alter ego of the caliph, to whom he was required
only to report. Naturally the formal distinction is a later
theorizing of history; for a weak ruler his vizier became absolute,
for a strong ruler his vizier remained subordinate. Here, as
with regard to all Moslem institutions, a marked distinction
must be made between the historic facts and the speculative
edifices raised by constitutional theorizers. Compare especially
MAHOMMEDAN LAW. Until the time of Radi (934-940) the
vizierate thus fluctuated in importance. In that caliphate the
vizier lost all authority, and in his place came the amir al-omara
equivalent to the major domus of the Franks the head of the
Turkish bodyguard, in terror of whom the caliph now stood.
When in 945 the Buyids captured Bagdad and the caliph became
a purely spiritual sovereign, they took the title " vizier " for
their own chief minister, and the caliphs retained only a secre-
tary (see CALIPHATE, C. 22). Under the Seljuks, however,
they regained their viziers and some real authority. Elsewhere,
also the vizierate had its vicissitudes. Under the Mamelukes
the vizier fell to be merely the court purveyor. Under the
Omayyads of Spain the title was given to several responsible
officers of the state, but their chief was called hajib, chamberlain.
Under the Almohades the chamberlain was called vizier. In the
modern Turkish empire the grand vizier (called generally sadr
A'zam) is the sultan's representative in secular matters, and
nominally stands between the sovereign and all the other offi-
cials. He is the president of the council of ministers, but Abd-ul
Hamid II. deprived the office of almost all its importance.
Under the early Abbasids the four most important ministers were
the chief cadi, the chief of police or head of the life guards, the
minister of finance and the postmaster, who was the
head of the system of information and espionage which
covered the empire. But at different times the different
bureaus varied greatly. Under Motawakkil we find the bureau
of taxes and finance; bureau of the crown estates; bureau of state
book-keeping; bureau of war, i.e. of hired troops; bureau which
kept reckoning and control of the pensions of the clients and
slaves of the ruling family; bureau of the post system; bureau of
expenditures. But in spite of this elaborate system, no Moslem
government has, except sporadically, been highly centralized. Pro-
vided the taxes are paid, a large measure of local autonomy has
always been enjoyed by the country districts. Under the Abbasids
almost the only exception was the necessarily centralized control
of the irrigation system of the Tigris and Euphrates. And
similarly elsewhere.
In the case of all these offices, we have delegation by the caliph,
under necessity, of his too heavy burdens. But one duty of an
Oriental ruler he could not so easily lay aside. It had always to be
possible for the oppressed to come into his presence and claim justice;
he must sit in the gate and judge. Therefore, when the caliph found
it necessary to delegate the ordinary administration of justice, he
found it also necessary to set up a special court of oppressions, which
developed, to a certain extent, into a court of appeals. The first
to establish such a separate court was Abdal-malik the Omayyad
MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS
(685-705), and his example was followed by the more vigorous of the
caliphs up to the time of Mohtadi the Abbasid (869-870). If any
other than the caliph presided over this court it had to be a man
whose dignity, independence and authority commanded respect. He
wai not bound by strict rules of evidence, method and literal appli-
cation of law as was the cadi. Rather, he applied a system of equity
suited to the absolute source of authority which he represented.
: he chief of police, mentioned above, was rather the head of the
li's bodyguard, there was also a police system after our ideas,
but more thoroughgoing. The muhtasib had charge in the broadest
of public order and morals in the streets, and had oversight as
i^hts, measures and adulterations; but had no right to interfere
privately or enter houses save in the clearest and most necessary cases.
He had a summary jurisdiction in all minor cases where no trial was
; but where witnesses and oaths entered the case must go
le cadi. Slaves and beasts of burden were under his guardian-
ship ; he prevented public scandals, such as the sale of wine; he regu-
lated the public conduct of Jews and Christians. In the interest
of public morals he had to find suitable husbands for widows and
see that they did not marry before the legal time; questions of
paternity also he had to investigate. The outdoor costume of the
people he could regulate. It should, of course, be remembered that
inon law of Islam covers minutely all sides of life (see MAHOM-
MEDAN LAW).
It is impossible in Islam to separate logically from the mass
of institutions those which we should call religious, as Islam on
all sides is for the Moslem equally religious. But perhaps the
following may practically be separated under that rubric. Islam ,
runs a tradition, is built on five things: testimony that there is
no god save Allah, and that Mahomet is the apostle of Allah;
prayer; the poor-rate; pilgrimage; fasting. For these see
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION.
The law and usage of religious foundations in perpetuity (waqf,
mortmain) became as important in Islam as monastic endowments
in medieval Europe, and such foundations tended similarly to absorb
the greater part of the national wealth. It was the only safe way
of providing for posterity. A pious foundation could be erected in
such a way that either so much from its funds would be paid yearly
in perpetuity to the descendants of the erector, or those descendants
would be employed as officials of the foundation.
When it became impossible for the caliph to lead the people
personally in prayer in the mosque, he delegated that part of his
- duties to another, hence called imam (q.v.). Naturally,
'" then, the appointment of the imam would lie with the
supreme ruler. This holds of the daily prayers in the principal
mosque (al-masjid al-jami') supported by the ruler where the Friday
service is held, but in the separate smaller mosques built by each
community the community chooses its own imam. With regard
to the Friday service, the schools of law disagree as to the necessity
of the presence of an imam appointed by the chief ruler. But the
imam should certainly make mention of the ruler in his sermon and
pray for him. At the occasional prayers, such as those for rain, &c.,
the presence of an imam appointed by the ruler is not necessary. The
imam appoints the muaddhin, the announcer of the hour of prayer
from the minaret, and both have a claim on the state treasury.
Another office exercised when possible by the caliph, but very
frequently delegated to some high dignitary, such as the heir to the
caliphate or a prince, was the leadership f the pilgrimage caravan
to Mecca and back. Sometimes this official, called amir-al-bajj , was
appointed imam as well. He then led all the pilgrimage ceremonies
at Mecca. When outside of towns where there was a cadi he
ed also over the caravan the rights of a judge.
Mahommedan law (q.v.) is treated separately. Here, again, as
judging is a duty of the caliph, a cadi is the delegate, or, when ap-
Tbe Cadi P' nte d "V a v 'zier or governor, a delegate of his delegate.
He examines into disputes brought before him arid
enforces his judgments, he names administrators of the estates of
minors, the insane, &c. ; he supervises the waqf property of mosques
and schools in his district and inspects highways and public buildings ;
he watches over the execution of wills; he inflicts the due legal
penalties for apostasy, neglect of religious duties, refusal to pay taxes,
theft, adultery, outrages, murder; he can inflict the penalties of
imprisonment, fine, corporal punishment, death; if there is no imam,
he can perform his duty, as in fact can anyone who has the requisite
knowledge. But it should be noticed that all this holds only of the
un-europeanized Moslem state.
For the existence of an army in Islam, there are two grounds,
the holy war (jihad, q.v.) against unbelievers without the state
The Army. &D ^ tne suppression of rebellion within. Under the
ordinance of Omar the entire community was pre-
served and used as a weapon for the subduing of the world to
Islam, and every able-bodied male Moslem was theoretically a
fighting man, part of the national militia. This army was
divided into corps situated in the conquered lands, as armies
of occupation, where they eventually came to form military
colonies in great camp-cities. The occupied countries had to
support them, and they were bound to render military service
at any time. But as the ideal of Omar broke down before facts
the use of mercenary and slave troops finally increased; although
there has always continued in Moslem armies acting against
unbelievers a proportion of volunteers not paid a fixed wage
but subsidized by the state from the poor-rate and alms funds.
The generals were appointed by the caliph, and had either
unlimited authority to act as his representatives, concluding
peace, acting as cadi and imam, distributing booty; or were
restricted within limits, e.g. to simple leading of the troops and
carrying on military operations. They, in turn, appointed their
subordinates; this principle of giving a head full powers and
full responsibility was very generally applied in Islam. It was
controlled of course by the espionage of the postal system. As
war by a Moslem power is essentially sacred war, the regulations
of jihad must be considered here. Unbelievers must first be
invited to embrace Islam and, if they follow a sacred book and
are not idol-worshippers, are given a choice between (a) becoming
Moslems; or (b) submitting to the Moslems and entering on a
treaty with them of protection and tribute; or (c) fighting. If
they accept Islam, their lives, families and property are secure,
and they form henceforth part of the Moslem community. The
ability of Islam to create a common feeling between highly
different races is one of its most striking features. If they
submit and enter on treaty relations, they pay a poll-tax, for
which their personal safety is assured, and assume a definitely
inferior status, having no technical citizenship in the state, only
the condition of protected clients (dhimmis). If they elect to
fight, the door of repentance is open, even when the armies are
face to face. But after defeat their lives are forfeit, their families
are liable to slavery, and all their goods to seizure. It is open
to the sovereign either to put them 'to death; or to enslave
them; or to give them their liberty; or to exchange them for
ransom or against Moslem prisoners. The sovereign will choose
that which is best for Islam. As for their families and wealth, the
sovereign can release them only with consent of the army that
has captured them. Apostates must be put to death. Four-
fifths of the booty after a battle goes to the conquering army.
The technical art of war seems to have been little studied
among Moslems; they have treatises on archery but very little
upon tactics. Their writers recognize, however, the essential
difference between the European and Persian methods of charging
in solid lines and holding the ground stubbornly, and the Arab
and Berber method of flying attacks and retreats by clouds of
cavalry. Therefore, one explained, the custom grew of using
a mass of European mercenaries as a fixed nucleus and rallying-
point. The early Moslem armies, too, had used the solid,
unyielding charge, which may have been the secret of their
success. For one of the greatest puzzles of history is the cause
which changed the erratic, untrustworthy swarms of Arab
horsemen with their childish strategy into the ever-victorious
legions of the first caliphs. They certainly learned rapidly.
Byzantium and Persia taught them the use of military engines
and the entrenched camp. Before that they had been, at the
best, single knights with mail-shirt, helmet, sword and lance.
Bowmen, too, they used, but the principal use of the bow seems
to have come with the Turks.
The glory of Moslem education was its university system, which
fed the higher learning and did not serve every-day needs. Its
primary system was very poor, almost non-existent; CAucstlott
and technical education has never been recognized in
Islam. Primary teachers were despised as ignorant and foolish.
Apparently, if we may trust the many stones of how ignorant
men set up for themselves, there was no control of them by the
state. Their pupils were young only; they taught the rudiments
of reading, Koran, catechism, prayer, writing and arithmetic, but
very little of the latter. Technical education was given by the
gilds through their apprentice system, teaching mechanical arts
and crafts. This was genuine instruction, but was not so regarded ;
it was looked upon rather as are the mysteries and secrets of operative
masonry. It produced artisans of independent character, but not
artists. Thus there was no distinction between architect and builder ;
there was no sculpture; and painting, so far as it went, was like
carving, a craft. All Moslem university education, like all Moslem
MAHOMMEDAN LAW
science, revolved round theology. There were, apparently, only two
outstanding exceptions to this rule, the academy of Maraun (813-
833) at Bagdad, and the hall of wisdom of the Fatimites at Cairo
(1004-1171); both of these are explained by their environment.
From the earliest times, independent scholars instructed classes
in mosques the common places of meeting for. the community
and gave their pupils personal certificates. Their subjects were
the reading and interpretation of the Koran; the body of tradi-
tions from the Prophet; the thence deduced system of theology;
the canon law. But the interpretation of the Koran involved
grammatical and lexicographical studies of early Arabic, and hence
of the early Arabic literature. Theology came to involve meta-
physical and logical studies. Canon law required arithmetic and
mensuration, practical astronomy, &c. But these last were strictly
ancillary ; the object of the instruction was primarily to give know-
ledge of value for the life of the next world, and, secondarily, to turn
out theologians and lawyers. Medicine was in Jewish and Christian
hands; engineering, architecture, &c., with their mathematical bases,
were crafts. Then this instruction was gradually subsidized and
organized by the state, or endowed by individuals. How early this
took place is uncertain. But the individual teacher, with his
certificate, remained the object of the student; there was nothing
corresponding to our general degrees. Thirdly, educational institu-
tions came to be equipped with scholarships of money or in kind
for the students. The first instance of this is generally ascribed to
Nishapur (Naisabur) in 1066; but it soon became general in the
system and afforded a means of control and centralization. A final,
and most important, characteristic was the wide journeying of the
students " in search of knowledge." Aided by Arabic as the univer-
sal language of learning, students journeyed from teacher to teacher,
and from Samarkand to the Atlantic, gathering on their way hundreds
of personal certificates. Scholars were thus kept in touch all over
the Moslem world, and intellectual unity was maintained.
To the democratic equality of Islam, in which the slave of
to-day may be the prime minister of to-morrow, there is one
outstanding exception. The descendants of the
Sa e ldg Prophet and of his relatives (the family of Hashim)
formed and form a special class, held in social
reverence, and guarded from contamination and injury. These
are the sayyids (lords), and genealogical registers of them are
carefully preserved. They are of all degrees of wealth and
poverty, but are guarded legally from misalliances with persons
of ignoble origin or equivocal occupation. Their influence is
very great, and in some parts of the Moslem world they have
the standing and reverence of saints.
See Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients, based largely on
Mawardi's Ahkam, trans, in part by Ostrorog; McG. de Slane's trans,
of Ibn Khaldun, Prolegomenes; Lane, Manners and Customs of the
Modern Egyptians; R. F. Burton, Pilgrimage to Mekka; Snouck
Hurgronje, Mekka; Hughes, Dictionary of Islam; Juynboll, De
Mohammedaansche Wet; Macdonald, Development of Muslim
Theology, &c. For women in Islam, see HAREM. (D. B. MA.)
MAHOMMEDAN LAW. The legal situation in the Moslem
world is of the highest complexity, and can be made intelligible
only by tracing its historical development. First came the
system (fiqh, shari'a) which takes the place in Islam of canon
law in Roman Christendom. It begins with Mahomet sitting
as judge over the primitive Moslem community at Medina. He
was, the Prophet of God, and judged, as he ruled, absolutely;
any decision of his was valid. But he found it, in general,
advisable and fitting to follow the local law or usage .of Medina
when the new faith did not require a change. It thus came
about that his decisions followed, at one time, the usage of the
Arab tribes of Medina; at another, the law respected by the
Jewish tribes there a rabbinic development of the law of Moses,
deeply affected by Roman law; at another, the more developed
commercial law of Mecca, known to his followers who had fled
thence with him; or, finally, his own personal judgment, stated
it might be as his own sense of right or as the decision of Allah
and even incorporated in the Koran. In his use of these he was
an eclectic opportunist, and evidently, except as regards such
frequently recurring subjects as inheritance, marriage, &c., had
no thought of building up a system or code. At his death he
left behind only a few specific prescriptions in the Koran and
a mass of recorded decisions of cases that had come before him.
He had used himself, in our terms, common law, equity, legisla-
tion; to guide his followers he left his legislative enactments and
the record of his use of common law. Since his death there has
been no new legislation in orthodox Islam.
With the death of Mahomet began the development and
codification of Moslem law. It was at first entirely practical.
Cases had to be decided, and to decide them there was, first
the Koran; secondly, if nothing ad rent was found in the Koran,
there were the decisions of the Prophet; thirdly, if these failed,
there was the common law of Medina; and, fourthly, if it, in
turn, failed, the common sense of the judge, or equity. A
knowledge of the decisions of Mahomet came thus to be of great
importance, and records of such decisions were eagerly sought and
preserved. But this was simply a part of a much wider movement
and tendency. As among primitive peoples in general, custom
and usage have always been potent among the Arabs. The
ways of the fathers, the old paths, they love to tread. Very
early there arose a special reverence for the path and usage
(sHnna) of Mahomet. Whatever he did or said, or left unsaid
or undone, and how he did it, has become of the first importance
to the pious Moslem, who would act in every way as did the
Prophet. There is evidence that for this purpose the immediate
companions of Mahomet took notes, either in memory or in
writing, of his table talk and wise sayings, just as they took
down or learned by heart for their private use the separate
fragments of the Koran. His sayings and doings, manners and
customs, his answers to questions on religious life and faith,
above all his decisions in legal disputes, came to be recorded on
odd sheets in private notebooks. This was the beginning of
the enormous literature of traditions (hadlth) in Islam. The
collecting and preserving of these, which was at first private,
for personal guidance and edification, finally became one of the
most powerful weapons of political and theological propaganda,
and coloured the whole method and fabric of Moslem thought.
All knowledge tended to be expressed in that form, and each
element of it to be traced back to, and given in the words of,
some master or other through a chain of transmitters. Above
all there grew up an enormous mass of evidently forged sayings
put into the mouth of Mahomet. At every important political
or theological crisis each party would invent and put into circu-
lation a tradition from him, supporting its view. By a study
of these flatly opposed " sayings " it is possible to reconstruct
the different controversies of Islam in the past, and to discover
what each party regarded as the essence of its position.
The first collecting of traditions was for private purposes, and the
first publication dealing with them was legal. This was the Muwafla.'
of Malik ibn Anas (d. 795), a corpus juris based partly on traditions,
and a protest in its methods against the too speculative character of
the books of canon law which preceded it. Thereafter came collec-
tions of two different types. The earlier kind was arranged accord-
ing to the companions of Mahomet, on whose authority the traditions
were transmitted ; after each companion came the traditions going
back to him. The best known example of this kind is the Musnad
of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. The other kind, called Mu$annaf (classified),
contains traditions arranged in chapters according to their subject
matter. That of Bukhari is the most famous, and is arranged to
give a traditional basis for a complete system of canon law; its
rubrics are those of such a system. Another is that of Muslim ibn
al-Hajjaj, who paid less attention to legal aspects and more to minute
accuracy. There are many others of more or less acceptance and
canonicity. Bukhara's book enjoys a reverence only second to that
of the Koran. But in all these publications the primary object was
to purify the mass of traditions of forged accretions and to give to
the believer a sound basis for his knowledge of the usages of the
Prophet, whether for his personal or for public use. These two kinds
were a natural development. In the Moslem community there were
from the first students of tradition proper whose interest lay in col-
lecting, testing and transmitting, not in combining, systematizing
and elucidating; whose preference was to take a single statement
from the Prophet and apply it to a case, without reasonings or
questionings. And there were students of canon law who were
interested rather in the system and results, and who, while they used
traditions, used them only to an end and insisted on the free applica-
tion of speculative principles. The conflict of the future was to be
between these traditionalists, on the one hand, and rationalists, on
the other; and the result was to be a compromise.
With the wide sweep of Moslem conquest another element
came into the development. This was Roman law, which the
Moslem jurist found at work in the conquered Roman provinces
and in the law courts of which they went to school. It is to
be remembered that the Arab armies were not devastating
hordes; they recognized the need of law and order wherever
MAHOMMEDAN LAW
they went, and it was the policy of their leaders to take over
the administrative systems of the countries which they seized.
Even the Arabic legal nomenclature shows evident signs of
literal translation from Latin, and many Moslem principles can
be traced to the Roman codes. One important development
was plainly influenced by the liberty involved in the Responsa
prudentium of Roman lawyers, and by the broad conception
of the law of nature in the Edict of the Praetor. In its earliest
s Moslem law recognized in the judge a liberty of opinion
) which went beyond even that of the Responsa and became
plain equity, in the English sense, and one school (the Hanifite)
established as a basis the right of preference (islihsdn) even when
the analogy of the code dictated otherwise; while another (the
Malikite) used the term istitfdh, "a seeking of (general) benefit"
to the community, in a similar situation. But these develop-
ments were bitterly contested, and the liberty of opinion was
in the end narrowed down to a principle of analogy (qiyas), the
nearest approach to which in Western law is legal fiction.
It is necessary now to return to the first successorsof Mahomet.
" For thirty years after my death," he is said to have declared,
" my people will tread in my path (sunna); thereafter will come
kings and princes." This tradition crystallizes the later feeling
of Islam. The first thirty years were a golden age; the centre of
the state was the Prophet's own city of Medina; the conditions
of the state continued in close conformity to those of his own
time. The study of tradition, i.e. of his usage, went hand in
hand with the study of law. They were vital functions of the
state, and it encouraged both.
Then came the great debdcle. The ancien regime, a semi-
monkish, theocratic empire, went down, and the Omayyad
dynasty, kings and princes of the old Arab type, took its place
(see CALIPHATE, B). The public life of the state was no longer
deeply religious; the pious said that it was godless. Under
these conditions law was indeed still needed; but it had to be
opportunist. Its development went on, but became speculative.
The study of tradition was now private, and its students were
more and more the personally pious. There were, thus, two
results. On the one hand, the framers of systems of canon
law as it now was no longer lived in contact with reality;
hypothetical and ideal structures were reared which could never
stand the touch of the practical law-court. And on another,
traditions and law, even this hypothetical law, came to take
separate roads. The interest of the students of tradition became
the gathering of traditions for their own sake, going no farther
than a striving to regulate each detail of life by some specific,
concrete, prophetic dictum. They had no use for systems that
went beyond the mere registering of these dicta. The feeling
also became widespread that any system of government which
did not simply reproduce the patriarchal form of Medina was
of the world and the devil a thing with which no religious man
could have aught to do. At every turn he would have to peril
his soul.
Here we must place the transition of this law with which we
have hitherto dealt from being the law of the land to being in
essence a variety of canon law. It was always broader than any
western secular law. It regulated all the aspects of life duty
to God, to one's neighbour, to one's self. It was really a system
of duties, ethical, legal, religious. It did not limit itself to
defining the forbidden (hardm); but designated actions also as
required (fard, wdjib), recommended (mandub, mustahabb),
indifferent (ja'iz, mubdk), disliked (makruh). It played the
part of, or rendered necessary, a religious director quite as much
as a lawyer. And for a time at Medina it was really the law
of the land. But from the Omayyad period on it has held the
position of the canon law of the Roman Church in countries that
will not recognize it and yet dare not utterly reject it. It
governs, in one or other of its four schools, the private lives of
all pious Moslems, it regulates some semi-public relationships
;. marriage, divorce, inheritance; it compels respect, if not
acceptance, from the state; and by its ideal standard the world,
filled with righteousness by the Mahdi, will be ruled in the
Moslem millennium.
The rise of the Abbasids brought a change, but not a great
one. They had promised a return to the old religious attitudes,
and the promise was formally kept. But in substance they
were as much as the Omayyads, and though the state was
outwardly on a pious footing, and the religious sentiment of
the people was respected, the old, absolute canon law was not
restored. It was made possible for more theologians and
lawyers to work with the state, but an irreconcilable party still
remained, and the situation was fixed as it is to this day. It is
true that the struggle to adapt such a single and detailed system
to all (he varying conditions, climates and times of the great
empire was impossible; but the failure marked the great rent
in the supposed unity of Islam between the church and the
world, religion and law.
Yet the Abbasids did, in their way, encourage legal studies,
and under them processes and results, long pursued in private,
became public. Almost within the first century of their dynasty
the four legal schools, or rites, were formed and the principles
established which survive to this day.
The first school to take definite form was the Hanifite, founded
by Abu Hanifa (d. 767), who left behind him a definite system and
many enthusiastic pupils. He was a man of means, in touch with
commercial, but not with practical legal life, a speculative or philo-
sophical jurist. Being of non-Arab origin, the usage of Medina had
small interest for him. He therefore used few traditions, and pre-
ferred to go back to the Koran, and extract from it by reasoning the
rulings which fitted his ideas. This he called the use of analogy
(qiyds);_ but, in his hands, it became practically legal fiction, the
application of a law in some sense undreamed by its first imposer.
But he had another, and still freer instrument. The effect of differ-
ences in local conditions had been early observed and admitted in
general terms. Abu Hanifa reduced it to a subjective formula.
Under such conditions he claimed the right of preference (istifisan) of
a ruling suited to the local needs, even when the strict analogy in-
dicated otherwise. This met and meets with vehement protest
when formally stated, but the usage of Islam has practically accepted
it. His system, finally, was not developed through the exigencies
of actual cases, but was worked out as a system of casuistry, though
in a good sense. He tried, that is, to construct a system of rules to
answer any conceivable question. After his death his pupils
elaborated it still further, and accepted public office. The 'Abbasids
adopted his school, and threw their influence on its side ; its philo-
sophic breadth and casuistic possibilities evidently commended it
to them. Later, the Ottoman Turks also adopted it, and it may
be said to hold now a leadership among the four legal rites. Its
influence has undoubtedly tended to broaden and humanize
Moslem law.
Twenty-eight years after Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, the founder
of the Malikite school, died at Medina. In many points his situation
was precisely opposite to that of Abu Hanifa, and yet his results
were very similar. He was a working jurist, in practical touch with
actual life; he was in the centre of the tradition of the usage of the
Prophet, in the line, one might say, of the apostolic succession. He,
therefore, used traditions much more generally than did Abu Hanifa,
and when he, under pressure, took refuge in opinion, he certainly
felt that he, under his conditions, had a better right to do so than
any outsider. But two of his principles marked a distinct advance
and showed that he was no mere traditionalist. For one, he laid
down the conception of public advantage (istislafi) ; when a rule
founded on even a valid analogy would work a general injury it was
to b set aside; justice must not be overcome by logic. And, for
the other, he laid stress on the conception of the agreement (tjma'),
an idea which was to have indefinite importance in the future.
When the surviving companions of the Prophet, after his death,
agreed upon any point as belonging to their store of tradition and
experience, their agreement was accepted as final. In the first
instance they agreed that such had been the statement of the Prophet.
That easily passed over into an agreement that such was the true
Moslem view, and finally into an acceptance of the principle that the
Moslem Church, when unanimous, could formulate truth practic-
ally as in the canon of Vincent of LeVins, Quod semper, quod ubiqur,
quod ab omnibus. But such a broadly catholic position was still in
the future, and for Malik, juristic agreement meant the agreement
of Medina, though there are signs that he permitted the same latitude
to other places also. It was a way of allowing for local conditions
rather than of reaching the voice of the Church. His law book, the
Muwafta', the earliest in our possession written bv the founder of
a school, has already been mentioned. It is a collection of about
seventeen hundred traditions of juristic importance, arranged
according to subject, with appended remarks on the usage of Medina
and on his own view of each matter.
So far opinion and local usage had fully held their own, and the
philosophical jurist had been free to work out his system. The
difference between the isiibsSn of Abu Hanifa and the istis_lali of
416
MAHOMMEDAN LAW
Malik was not great; students attended the lectures of both and
combined their systems. But a reaction now began, and the tradi-
tionalist party finally made itself felt. We have the inevitable
rivalry between the historical-empirical and the speculative-philo-
sophical schools of jurisprudence, rendered all the more bitter in that
the historical lawyers believed, in this case, that they were defending
a divine institution. There resulted, first, one of the most important
schools, the Shafi'ite; secondly, an extremely literal school for which
ash-Shafi'I did not go far enough, and which has now vanished; and
thirdly, the Hanbalite school, still surviving in small numbers, more
moderately traditional than the last.
The school founded by ash-Shafi'I (d. 820), a pupil of Malik, came
first in order of time. The others were really revolts against the
mildness of his compromise. His characteristics were a broad-
minded, steady grasp of means and ends, a perception of what could
and what could not be done, a willingness to admit all the tried
principles in due balance, and, at one point especially, the insight
of genius as to the possibilities of these principles. He laid great
stress on tradition ; a clear, authentic tradition he regarded as no less
valid than the Koran itself. If the tradition was chronologically
later than a Koranic passage and corrected that passage, he followed
the tradition. But in this he was only regulating a fixed tendency.
The Koran may be regarded theoretically as the first of all the
sources of law and theology; practically its clear statements have
been over-ridden in many cases. Most important of all, the principle
of agreement (ijmd') came finally with him to its full rights. The
agreement of the Moslem peoples was to be the voice of God. "My
people," said a tradition from Mahomet, " v/ill never agree in an
error." And so, over traditions and over the Koran itself, the
agreement tacitly or explicitly ruled and rules. It stamps as
authoritative that which the other principles lay down. At the
head of each section of a Shafi'ite law book we read, " The basis of
this, before the agreement, is such and such." But with the aid of
a principle of this breadth it was easy to reject the opinion which
was so objectionable to the traditionalist party. In its place he took
analogy (qiyas), which, discreetly used, could serve almost the same
purpose. The Koranic passage or the tradition with which an
analogy was suggested should, he taught, be examined to see if
there was a reason clearly stated for the command. If so, that reason
would give a basis for the analogy. Analogy based on the mechanical
or external could not hold.
The four bases thus laid down by ash-Shafi'I Koran; prophetic
usage as expressed in traditions; analogy; agreement have come
to be accepted by all existing schools. This applies to all spheres
of life, ethical, social, theological, legal, and it should never be for-
gotten that the Koran is only one of the sources for Moslem faith
and conduct.
Few words are needed for the other, reactionary schools. One,
now long extinct, was founded by a certain Da'ud u?-Zahiri, " David
the Literalist," born three or four years before the death of ash-
Shafi'I, and so called because he insisted upon an absolutely literal
interpretation of his texts Koran or tradition without account
of context or metaphor. In consequence he had to reject analogy,
and limited agreement to that of the companions of Mahomet ; the
Church of Islam was to have no constructive authority. In one
point he showed great sanity of judgment, namely in his rejection
of the principle jurare in veroa magislri, otherwise regnant in Islam.
His school had long and interesting consequences, mostly theological,
but is now extinct, and never took rank with the others. The Moslem
world found his positions too impossible, and now no one swears to
his words. The other, the Hanbalite school, was founded by the
scholars of Ahmad ibn Hanbal after his death in 885. He himself
would never have revolted against his master, ash-Shafi'i, but it was
soon felt that his system, so far as he had any, was in essential
opposition. He had been no lawyer, but a theologian and a collector
and student of traditions. All his life had been a protest against
speculation in divine things. Where the Koran and traditions were
silent, he, too, had been silent. For this agnostic principle he had
witnessed and suffered, and his standing with the people was that
of a saint. Naturally, then, the last still existent school of tradi-
tionalist protest was launched in his name. It minimizes agreement
and analogy, is literal in its interpretations, and is now by far the
smallest of the four surviving schools. Its external history is that
of a testifying and violent minority.
Other men, such as Tabari, the historian and commentator, have
had dreams that they, too, might join the Four Imams (see IMAM)
as founders of legal rites, but none has succeeded. The Four remain
the ultimate exponents of this canon law, and under the banner of
one or other of them every Moslem must range himself. As there
is a principle of unity in Islam, expressed in the alleged prophetic
saying, " My people will never agree in an error," so there is a principle
of variety, also expressed in an alleged prophetic saying, " The dis-
agreement of my people is a mercy from God." The four rites may
differ upon many points, yet the adherents of one never dream of
regarding the adherents of the others as outside the Church of Islam ;
they are not " dissenters " in the English sense. God is merciful
to his creatures, and gives them so much liberty of choice. Yet in
practice this liberty is not great. The principle of swearing to the
words of the master is a dead hand laid upon Islam. A man's legal
rite is generally settled by the place and other conditions of his birth
and after he has once accepted a rite, he must, if good and piou<
follow it in all its details. Only the avowed sceptic or the recognized
eccentric can be an eclectic.
The geographical distribution of the rites is roughly as follov
Moslems in Central Asia and northern India and the Turks evei
where are Hanifites; in Lower Egypt, Syria, southern India and
Malay Archipelago they are Shaft 'Ites; in Upper Egypt and in north
Africa, west of Egypt, they are Malikites; only the Wahhabis (q.v )
in central Arabia are Hanbalites. But the will of the sovereign has
also had a powerful influence and has frequently dictated the legal,
as well as the theological, affiliations of his subjects. The Turks, for
example, have thrown their weight almost everywhere on the
Hanifite side. Their policy is to appoint only Hanifite judges
(see CADI), although for private and personal questions they appoint
and pay Muftis (q.v.) of the other rites. In other cases, with a popu-
lation of mixed legal adherence, the government has been known to
appoint judges of different rites.
The Shi'ite canon law is dealt with separately, but some mention
of two outstanding sects is here in place. The Ibadites (see MAHOM-
MEDAN RELIGION : Sects) have a system of canon law which in essen-
tials is of older codification than that of any of the orthodox si -I
going back to Abdallah ibn Ib. ad himself, of the first century of the
Hijra (Hejira). Its basis is above all the Koran, then a sparing use
of traditions, natural to their early origin, and finally the agreement
of their own learned men, again natural to an extreme dissenting
sect, and it still rules the Ibadite communities at Oman, Zanzibar
and the Mzab in southern Algeria. At all these places they, the last
descendants of the Kharijites, hold severely apart, while the other
Moslems shrink from them as heretics of the worst. Not nearly
so far from ordinary Islam, but still of an extreme self-conscious
Puritanism are the Wahhabis. They are really Hanbalites, but
apply the rules of that school with uncompromising, reforming
energy. The doctrine of the agreement of the Church of Islam they
reject ; only that of the immediate companions of Mahomet is valid.
The people of Mahomet can err and has erred; each man must, on
his own responsibility, draw his doctrine from the Koran and thi
traditions. Here they follow the Zahirites.
All these schools of lav/ administer a scheme of duties, which,
as has already been remarked, comes nearest to the canon law
of the Roman Church, and which for centuries has had only a
partial connexion with the real legal systems of the Moslem
peoples. Among the Wahhabis and Ibadites alone is it the
whole of law. Elsewhere, since the Omayyad period, its courts
have been in great part pushed aside by others, and its scheme
has come to be regarded as an expression of impossible theory,
to be realized at best with the coming of the millennium. The
causes and methods of this change call now for detailed notice.
As Islam spread beyond the desert and the conditions in which
the life of Mahomet and his companions had been cast, it came
to regions, climates, customs, where the Arabian usages no
longer held. Not only were the prescripts of Medina ill adapted
to the new conditions; the new people had legal usages of their
own to which they clung and which nothing could make them
abandon. It was rather the Moslem leaders who were compelled to
abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of Islam
to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed
to the original legislation either of the Koran or of Mahomet's
recorded decisons. As in religion the faiths of the conquered
peoples were thinly veneered with Moslem phrases, so in law
there grew up a customary code ('adat) for each country, differing
from every other, which often completely obscured and annulled
the prescriptions of the canon law. The one was an ideal
system, studied and praised by the pious learned; the other
was the actual working of law in the courts.
But besides the obstinate adherence of various peoples t
their old paths, the will of individual rulers was a determining
factor. When these ceased to be saints and students of divine
things, and came to be worldly statesmen and opportunists,
followers of their own objects and pleasures, no system could
hold which set a limit to their authority. The Oriental ruler
must rule and judge on his own initiative, and the schools of
canon law tended to reduce everything to an academic fixedness.
There thus arose a new and specific statute law, emanating fro:
the sovereign. At first he judged in the gate as seemed
in his eyes and as was his right and duty (cf. " court of oppres-
sions "; see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS); later, his will was
codified as in the Turkish statute law (qawdnin) derived from
various European codes. Thus there has grown up in almos^
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
every Moslem country at least two systems of courts, the one
ministering this canon law, and taking cognisance of private
id family affairs, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, its
icials also giving rulings on purely personal religious questions,
ch as details of the ritual law, the law of oaths and vows, &c.;
lie other, the true law courts of the land, administering codes
on local custom and the decrees of the local rulers.
A rift almost as important entered the legal life of the Moslem
lands on another side. Non-Moslem communities, settled in
m territory, have been uniformly permitted to administer
nd judge themselves according to their own customs and laws,
ve when they come into direct contact and conflict with
oslems, they are left to themselves with a contemptuous
tolerance. The origin of this attitude in Islam appears to be
threefold: (i) The Islam of theory cannot conceive cf a mixed
state; it takes account, only, of a state containing none but
cms, and its ideal is that the whole world will, in the end,
form such a state. In practice, then, Moslems try to shut their
to the existence of non-Moslems in their midst and make no
provision for them until compelled. That a non-Moslem should
have the same civil position as a Moslem is unthinkable.
(ii) This, of course, produces an attitude of extreme contempt.
The only citizens are Moslems and all others are to be looked down
upon and left to themselves. What they do or think among
themselves does not matter; they are outside the ring-fence of
Islam, (iii) A different, but equally important, cause is the
Moslem indolence. When the Arabs conquered, they knew that
they must administer the conquered lands, and they, very
wisely, sought help from the machinery which they found in
operation. But besides the ordinary organization of the state,
they found also various ecclesiastical organizations, Christian
and Jewish, and to these they gave over the administration of
the non-Moslem sections of the community, making their rabbis
and bishops their responsible heads and the links of contact
with the Moslem rulers. They, unquestionably, found the same
method in use by the Byzantine government; but in Moslem
hands it went so far as to make a number of little states (millet,
within the state and effectually to preclude the possibility of
ever welding all the inhabitants of the land into one corporate life
Hut this indolence, when applied to resident aliens, had conse-
quences still more serious, because external as well as internal.
Following the same method of leaving the unbeliever to settle his
rs for himself, the European merchant, living and trading
in the East, was put first by usage and finally by treaty under
the jurisdiction and control of his own consul. Thus there
grew up the extra-territorial law of the capitulations and con-
ventions, by which the sanctity of the person and household
of an ambassador is extended to every European. And this
in turn, has reacted on the status of the non-Moslem subject
. and has come to be the indirect but chief support on
which they lean. Through it, an element has developed which
makes it practically impossible for a Moslem state to introduce
legal changes even remotely affecting its non-Moslem population,
alien or subject, without the consent of the European embassies.
Any change may be upset by their refusal to accept it as incom-
patible with the capitulations and conventions. The embassies
have thus, as interpreters of a part, at least, of the constitution,
come to hold a position remarkably, if absurdly, like that of
the Supreme Court of the United States (see Young, Corps de
droit Ottoman, passim).
There may be said, then, in short, to be three elements in
the legal life of a Moslem state: the sacred and fixed canon
>f Islam; the civil law, based on the usages of the different
peoples, Moslem and non-Moslem, and on statutes going back
to the will of rulers; the international law of the capitulations,
with a contractual sanction of its own. The hope for the future
in Islam, there can be little doubt, lies in the principle of the
agreement of the Moslem people, with its conception of catholic
unity, and its ability, through that unity, to make and abrogate
laws. As the Moslem peoples advance, their law can, thus,
advance with them, and the grasp of the dead hand of the canon
law be gradually and legally released,
xvn. 14
See I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, I. and II. (Halle
a.C., 1889-1890); Zahiriten (Leipzig, 1884) ; E. Sachau, Zur dltesten
Geschichte des muhammedanischen Rechts (Vienna Akad., 1870) and
Muhammedanisches Recht (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1897); Snouck
Hurgronje, review of preceding in Z.D.M.G. liii. 125 seq. and " Le
droit musulman " (Rev. de I' hist, des religions, xxxvii. I seq. and 174
seq.); Juynboll, Handleiding tot de Kennis von de mohammedaansche
Wet (Leiden, 1903) ; Von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients unter
den Chalifen, i. 470 seq. (Vienna, 1875-1877); Hughes, Dictionary of
Islam, pp. 285 seq. (London, 1896) ; D. B. Macdonald, Development of
Muslim Theology, &c., pp. 65 seq. (New York, 1903); Bukhari, Les
Traditions islamiques traduites . . . par O. Ploudas et W. Marcel
(Paris, 1906) ; N. B. E. Bailie, Digest of Moohummadan Law (2 vols.,
London, 1875-1887). A good bibliography appeared in the Bulletin
of the New York Public Library for January 1907. (D. B. MA.)
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. The Mahommedan religion is
generally known as Islam the name given to it by Mahomet
himself and meaning the resigning or submitting oneself to
God. The participle of the same Arabic verb, Muslim (in
English usually spelt Moslem), is used for one who professes this
religion. The expression " Mahommedan religion " has arisen
in the West probably from analogy with " Christian religion,"
but is not recognized as a proper one by Moslem writers. Islam
claims to be a divinely revealed religion given to the world by
Mahomet, who was the last of a succession of inspired prophets.
Its doctrine and practices are to be found in (i) the Book of
God the Koran which was sent down from the highest heaven
to Gabriel in the lowest, who in turn revealed it in sections to
Mahomet; (2) the collections of tradition (hadith) containing the
sayings and manner of life (sunna) of the Prophet; (3) the use
of analogy (qiyas) as applied to (i) and (2) ; and (4) the universal
consent (ijmd') of the believers. The worship of Islam consists
in (i) the recital of the creed; (2) the recital of the ordained
prayers; (3) the fast during the month of Ramadhan; (4) alms-
giving; (5) the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The theology of
Islam finds its first public expression among the orthodox in
the teaching of al-Ash'arl (d. after 932), but had its real beginning
among the sects that arose soon after the death of Mahomet.
Islam is the latest of the so-called world-religions, and as
several of the others were practised in Arabia at the time of
Mahomet, and the Prophet undoubtedly borrowed some of his
doctrines and some of his practices from these, it is necessary
to enumerate them and to indicate the extent to which they
prevailed in the Arabian world.
Relations with Other Religions. The religions practised in
Arabia at the time of Mahomet were heathenism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.
I. Heathenism was the religion of the majority of the Arabs. In
the cities of south Arabia it was a survival from the forms represented
in the Sabaean, Minaean and Himyaritic inscriptions of south Arabia
(see ARABIA: Antiquities). The more popular form current among
the nomads is known very imperfectly from the remains of pre-
Islamic poetry and such works as the Kitab ul-As.nam contained
in Yaqut's geography, from Shahrastani's work on the sects, and
from the few references in classical writers. From these we have
mostly names of local deities (cf. J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen
Heidentums, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897) and ancient religious customs,
which remained in part after the introduction of Islam (cf. W.
Robertson Smith, The Religion of the Semites, Edinburgh, 1889, and
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, Cambridge, 1885). From
these sources we learn that Arabian religion was a nature-worship
associated with fetishism. Sun, moon and stars were worshipped,
some tribes being devoted to the worship of special constellations.
Certain stones, wells and trees were regarded as sacred and as con-
taining a deity. Many (perhaps most) tribes had their own idols.
Hobal was the chief god of the Ka'ba in Mecca with its sacred stone,
but round him were grouped a number of other tribal idols. It was
against this association (shirk) of gods that Mahomet inveighed in
his attempt to unify the religion and polity of the Arabs. But there
were features in this heathenism favourable to unity, and these
Mahomet either simply took over into Islam or adapted for his
purpose. The popularity of the Ka'ba in Mecca as a place of resort
for worshippers from all parts of Arabia led Mahomet not only to
institute the hajj as a duty, but also to take over the customs con-
nected with the heathen worship of these visits, and later to make
Mecca the qibla, i.e. the place to which his followers turned when
they prayed]. The name of Allah, who seems to have been the god
of the Koreish (cf. D. S. Margoliouth, Mohammed, p. 19, London,
1905), was accepted by Mahomet as the name of the one God, though
abandoned the corresponding female deity Al-lat.
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
2. Judaism had long been known in Arabia at the time of the
Prophet. Whether Hebrews settled in Arabia as early as the time
of David (cf. R. Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mecca, Leipzig, 1864), or
not, is of little importance here as Judaism cannot be said to have
existed until the end of the 5th century B.C. The Seleucid persecu-
tions and the political troubles that ended with the fall of Jerusalem
(A.D. 70) probably sent many Jews to Arabia. In the sth and 6th
centuries the history of south Arabia and of Nejran is largely that
of the strife between Jews and Christians. In the north-west the
Jews possessed Tema, Khaibar, Yathrib (Medina), Fadak, and other
smaller settlements. In these they lived as self-contained com-
munities, not seeking to proselytize but working at their trades,
especially concerned with money and jewelry. Mahomet seems to
have expected their help in his proclamation of monotheism, and his
first qibla was Jerusalem. It was only when they refused to accept
him as prophet that he turned in anger against them. They had,
however, supplied him with much material from the Old Testament,
and the stories of creation, the patriarchs and early kings and pro-
phets occur continually in the Koran, told evidently as they were
recited by the common people and with many mistakes caused by
his own misunderstanding.
3. Christianity, though later than Judaism, had a sure footing
in Arabia. It had suffered persecution in Nejran and had been
supported in the south by the Abyssinian invasions. The kingdom
of Hira was largely Christian ; the same is true of the north Arabian
tribes of Bakr and Taghlib, and east of the Jordan and on the Syrian
boundary as well as in Yemama Christianity had made progress.
Pre-Islamic literature contains many allusions to the teaching and
practices of Christianity. Of the time of its introduction little is
known; little also of the form in which it was taught, save that it
came from the Eastern Church and probably to a large extent
through Monophysite and Nestorian sects. Tradition says that
Mahomet heard Christian preaching at the fair of Ukaz, and he
probably heard more when he conducted the caravans of Khadija.
Gospel stories derived apparently from uncanonical works, such as
the Gospel of the Nativity, occur in the Koran. The asceticism of
the monks attracted his admiration. A mistaken notion of the
Trinity was sharply attacked by him. It is curious that his followers
in the earliest times were called by the heathen Arabs, Sabians (q.v.),
this being the name of a semi-Christian sect. In the time of the
Omayyads Christianity led to some of the earliest theological sects
of Islam (see below).
4. Zoroasirianism was known to the Arab tribes in the north-east,
but does not seem to have exercised any influence in Mecca or Medina
except indirectly through Judaism in its angelology. As soon,
however, as the armies of Islam conquered Mesopotamia it began
to penetrate the thought and practices of Islam (see below).
Sources of Authority. Islam, as we have said, is founded on:
(i) the Koran; (2) the tradition or rather the sunna (manner of
life of Mahomet) contained in the tradition (JJadith) ; (3) ij ma ;
the universal agreement; (4) qiyas (analogy).
i. The Koran 1 (properly Qur'an from qara'a to collect, or
to read, recite) is the copy of an uncreated original preserved by
God (see below), sent down from the seventh heaven to Gabriel
in the first heaven, and revealed to Mahomet in sections as
occasion required. These revelations were recited by the
Prophet and in many cases written down at once, though from
ii. 100 it would seem that this was not always the case. God
is the speaker throughout the revelations. It seems probable
that the whole Koran was written in Mahomet's lifetime, but
not brought together as a whole or arranged in order.
As it exists now the Koran consists of 114 chapters called suras
(from sura, a row of bricks in a wall, a degree or step). The first
is the Fatiba (opening), which occupies the place of the Lord's Prayer
in Christianity. The others are arranged generally in order of
length, the longest coming first, the shortest (often the earliest in
date) coming at the end. Certain groups, however, indicated by
initial unvowelled letters, seem to have been kept together from the
time of the Prophet. At the head of each sura is a title, the place
of its origin (Mecca or Medina) arid the number of its verses (ayat)
together with the formula, " In the name of God the Merciful,
the Compassionate " (except in sura 9). For liturgical purposes the
whole book is divided into 60 sections (ahzab) or into 30 divisions
(ajzd), each subdivided into a number of prostrations (ruk'a or
sajda). The origin of the collected and written Koran is due to
Omar, who in the caliphate of Abu Bekr pointed out that many
possessors of suras were being slain in the battles of Islam and their
property lost, that there was a danger in this way that much of the
revelation might disappear, and that men were uncertain what was
to be accepted as genuine revelation. Accordingly Zaid ibn Thabit
who had been secretary to Mahomet, was commissioned to collect
all he could find of the revelation. His work seems to have been
simply that of a collector. He seems to have done his work thor-
oughly and made a copy of the whole for Abu Bekr. The collection
1 See also KORAN.
was thus chiefly a private matter, and this copy passed after Abu
Bekr's death into the hands of Omar, and after his death to Hafsa,
daughter of Omar, a widow of Mahomet. In the caliphate of Othman
it was discovered that there were serious differences between the
readings of the Koran possessed by the Syrian troops and those of
the Eastern soldiers, and Othman was urged to have a copy prepared
which should be authoritative for the Moslem world. He appointed
Zaid ibn Thabit and three members of the tribe of Koreish (Quraish)
to do the work. Each of these made a copy of Abu Bekr's collection,
carefully preserving Koreishite forms of words. How far the text
was amended by the help of other copies is doubtful ; in any case the
mode of procedure was undoubtedly very conservative. The four
similar manuscripts were sent, one each to Medina, Cufa (Kufa),
Basra and Damascus, and an order was issued that all differing
copies should be destroyed. In spite of the personal unpopularity
of Othman this recension was adopted by the Moslem world and
remains the only standard text. A few variant readings and differ-
ences of order of the suras in the collections of Ubay ibn Ka'b and
of Ibn Mas'ud were, however, known to later commentators. The
only variants after the time of Othman were owing to different
possible ways of pronouncing the consonantal text. These are
usually of little importance for the meaning. As the text is now
always vowelled, variations are found in the vowels of different
copies, and the opinions of seven leading " readers " are regarded
as worthy of respect by commentators (see Th. Noldeke, Geschichte
des Qorans, pp. 279 seq., Gottingen, 1860). Various characteristics
enable one to establish with more or less certainty the relative
chronological order of the suras in the Koran, at any rate so far as
to place them in the first or second Meccan period or that of Medina.
The form of the sentences is a guide, for the earliest parts are usually
written in the saj' form (see ARABIA: Literature). The expressions
used also help; thus the " O ye people " of the Meccan period is
replaced in the Medina suras by " O ye who believe." The oaths
in the first Meccan period are longer, in the second shorter, and are
absent in the Medinan. In the earliest period the style is more ele-
vated and passionate. Occasionally the time of origin is determined
by reference to historical events. In accordance with such principles
of criticism two leading scholars, Noldeke (loc. cit.) and H. Grimme
(in his Mohammed Zweiter Teil. Einleitung in den Koran. System der
koranischen Theologie, Munster, 1895), have arranged the suras us
follows :
Order of Suras in Koran.
NOLDEKE.
Mecca.
1st to sth yr. (a). 96. 74. in. 106. 108. 104. 107. 102. 105. 92. 90.
94- 93- 97- 86. 91. 80. 68. 87. 95. 103. 85. 73.
101. 99. 82. 81. 53. 84. 100. 79.77. 78. 88. 89.
75. 83. 69. 51. 52. 56. 70. 55. 112. 109. 113.
114. i.
5th and 6th yr. (ft). 54. 37. 71. 76. 44. 50. 20. 26. 15. 19. 38. 36. 43.
72. 67. 23. 21. 25. 17. 27. 18.
7th yr. to Flight (c). 32. 41. 45. 16. 30. n. 14. 12. 40. 28. 39. 29. 31.
42. 10. 34. 35. 7. 46. 6. 13.'
Medina. 2. 98. 64. 62. 8. 47. 3. 61. 57. 4.65. 59. 33.63. 24.
58. 22. 48. 66. 60. no. 49. 9. 5.
GRIMME.
Mecca, (i). ' In old saj' form : 1 1 1. 107. 106. 105. 104. 103.
102. 101. 100. 99. 108. 96. 95. 94. 93. 92. 91.
90. 89. 88._8j. 86. 83. 84. 83. 82. 8. 80. 79. 7_8.
77- Z 6 .- 75- B- Zi 70. 69. 68. 114. 113.56.55.
54- i- 52.51. 50. 15. 22. 14.
(2). In loosened saj' form : 46. 72. 45. 44. 41. 97. 40.
39- 38- 37- 36. 35- 34- 32. 31- 67. 3. 23. 2
27. 26. 71. 25. 20. 23. 43. 21. 19. I. 42. 18. 17.
Medina. 16. 13. 12. u. io._7_ : 6. 98. (112. 109).
From the Flight to 2.^62. 5i&-ss.io8-i20. 47 and some interpolations
Badr. in Meccan suras.
From Badr to Ohod 8. 24. 59.
From Ohod to cap- 3. 291-12. 4. 57- 64. 61. 60. 58. 65. 33. 63. 49.
ture of Mecca. no. 48. 5i_u. 66. 9i_2.
After capture of Mecca. 925-124.
On the supposition that the arrangements given above are
at any rate approximately correct, it is possible to trace a certain
development in the teaching of the Koran on some _. ol
of the chief dogmas. It must, however, be borne
in mind that orthodox Islam recognizes the Koran as the work
not of Mahomet but of God. Yet Moslem theologians recognize
that some revelations are inconsistent with others, and so have
developed the doctrine of nasikh and mansukh (" abrogating "
and " abrogated "), whereby it is taught that in certain definite
cases a later revelation supersedes an earlier. A critical study
of the Koran shows in the earlier revelations the marks of a
reflective mind trained under the influence of Arabian education
1 Underlined = with interpolations.
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
419
and stirred by an acquaintance (somewhat imperfect) with
Judaism and Christianity. The later revelations seem to be
in line IK wl by the now dominant position of the Prophet and a
re alter the capture of Mecca to incorporate such heathen
religious ceremonies as are national. God is one and universal
from the beginning. His unity is emphasized as against the
mistaken conception of the Christian Trinity. At first his
might is taught by the name Rabb (Lord) which is generally
d with an attribute as "the highest Lord," "Lord of the
worlds," " Lord of men," " Lord of heaven and earth," " Lord
of the East and West," or " our Lord." Then he is identified
with the god Allah (see above) and the first part of the later
lem creed is announced la ilaha illa-llaha, " there is no
K<1 but Allah." But every act of creation is a proof not only
of God's power but also of his beneficence (xiv. 37), and so he
becomes known as ar-Rahmdn, " the Compassionate." The
attributes of God may all be arranged in the three classes of
his power, unity and goodness. They are expressed by the
'y-nine "beautiful names" applied to him in the Koran
k. H. 1'almer, The Quran in " Sacred Books of the East,"
vol. vi., Introd. pp. 67-68, Oxford, 1880). In the Medina period
of Mahomet's life the nature of God is not so clear, and the
i iption of it varies according to the moods of the Prophet.
lii'side God are two other uncreated beings: (i) the original
of the Koran, the" mother of the Book" (xliii. 3) on a " preserved
Spirits. t ab ' et " ( lau f> mahfuz) (Ixxxv. 22), in accordance with
which God acts, and (2) the throne (hurst) (ii. 256).
When the heavens are created, God sits on his throne in the
seventh heaven; around him are angels, pure, sexless beings,
some of whom bear the throne, while some are engaged in praising
him continually. They are also his messengers and are sent to
fight with the believers against the heathen. Some are the
guardian angels of men, others are the watchmen of hell. Mediate
beings between God and man are the " word " (amr) and from
it the " spirit " (ruh) or " holy spirit " (ruh ul-qudus). Another
manifestation of God to the believers only is the " glory "
(soktna).
( ;od created the world in six days according to the plan of the
Book. Each new life was created by God's breathing into it a
Cosmology.
sou '-
duality of soul and body is maintained.
.
In each man is a good and a bad impulse. The bad
impulse which was latent in Adam was roused to action by Satan
(I Mis). Adam by his fall lost the grace of God, which was restored
to him solely by the gracious choice of God. Between men and
angels in their nature are the genii (jinn) male and female, in-
habitants of desert places, created from smokeless fire. They
had been accustomed to spy round heaven, but in Mahomet's
time could learn no more of its secrets. Some of them were
converted by the Prophet's teaching. Lowest of creation in his
state is Satan (Shaitdn), who was an angel but was expelled from
ijcaven because he refused to worship Adam at his Lord's com-
mand. God has revealed himself to man by (i) writing (kitab),
and (2) prophets. As he had given to the Jews the Law ( Taurdl)
and to the Christians the Gospel (Injil) so he revealed to Mahomet
the Koran (Qur'an, known also by other names, e.g. al-Furqdn, at-
Ta}$ti, &c.), each single revelation being called an aya. With his
evelation God has also sent an apostle or prophet to each people.
veral of these are mentioned in the Koran, Moses the prophet
of the Jews, Jesus (Isd) that of the Christians. Mahomet is not
only the apostle of the Moslems but the " seal of the prophets,"
*'.. the final member of the class. His mission at first was to
warn men of imminent judgment. Later he became more of a
teacher. At first he seems to have relied for the salvation of men
on his natural faculties, but later announced the doctrine of God's
election. The ethics of the Koran are based on belief (imdn) and
fittta. od works, the latter alone occurring in the early
Meccan suras. Fear of the judgment of God was a
motive of action; this is followed by repentance and turning to
God. A complete surrender to God's will (i$lam) is the necessary
Condition of religious life and is expressed in the phrase so com-
mon in everyday speech among the Moslems inshalla h, " if
God will." God has full power to overlook evil deeds if he will.
Unbelievers can acquire no merit, however moral their actions.
A short account of the chief ethical requirements of the Koran is
given in xvii. 23-40:
" Put not God with other gods, or thou wilt sit despised and
forsaken. Thy Lord has decreed that ye shall not serve other than
Him; and kindness to one's parents, whether one or both of them
reach old age with thee, and say not to them, ' Fie,' and do not
grumble at them, but speak to them a generous speech. And lower
to them the wing of humility out of compassion, and say, ' O Lord!
have compassion on them as they brought me up when I was little! '
Your Lord knows best what is in your souls if ye be righteous, and,
verily, He is forgiving unto those who come back penitent.
" And give thy kinsman his due and the poor and the son of the
road; and waste not wastefully, for the wasteful were ever the
devil's brothers, and the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord.
" But if thou dost turn away from them to seek after mercy from
thy Lord, which thou hopest for, then speak to them an easy speech.
" Make not thy hand fettered to thy neck, nor yet spread it out
quite open, test thou shouldest have to sit down blamed and
straightened in means. Verily, thy Lord spreads out provision
to whomsoever He will or He doles it out. Verily, He is ever well
aware of and sees His servants.
" And slay not your children for fear of poverty; we will provide
for them ; beware ! for to slay them is ever a great sin.
" And draw not near to fornication; verily, it is ever an abomina-
tion, and evil is the way thereof.
" And slay not the soul that God has forbidden you, except for just
cause; for he who is slain unjustly we have given his next of kin
authority; yet let him not exceed in slaying; verily, he is ever helped.
" And draw not near to the wealth of the orphan, save to improve
it, until he reaches the age of puberty, and fulfil your compacts;
verily, a compact is ever enquired of.
" And give full measure when ye measure out, and weigh with a
right balance ; that is better and a fairer determination.
" And do not pursue that of which thou hast no knowledge; verily,
the hearing, the sight and the heart, all of these shall be enquired of.
" And walk not on the earth proudly; verily, thou canst not cleave
the earth, and thou shall not reach the mountains in height.
" All this is ever evil in the sight of your Lord and abhorred."
(E. H. Palmer's translation.)
The eschatology of the Koran is especially prominent in its
earlier parts. The resurrection, last judgment, paradise and hell
are all described. At death the body again becomes _.
earth, while the soul sinks into a state of sleep or
unconsciousness. At a time decreed, known as " the hour "
(as-Sa'a), " the day of resurrection " (yaum ul-qiyydma), " day
of judgment " (yaum-ud-din) , &c., an angel will call or will sound
a trumpet, the earth will be broken up, and the soul will rejoin
the body. God will appear on his throne with angels. The great
book will be opened, and a list of his deeds will be given to every
man, to the good in his right hand, to the evil in his left (sura 69).
A balance will be used to weigh the deeds. The jinn will testify
against the idolaters. The righteous will then obtain eternal
peace and joy in the garden (al-janna) and the wicked will be
cast into the fiery ditch (Jahannam), where pains of body and of
soul are united.
2. The Tradition. The revelation of God is twofold in a
writing and by a prophet. The former was contained in the
Koran, the latter was known from the actions of Mahomet in the
different circumstances of life. The manner of life of the Prophet
(sunna) was contained in the tradition (al-hadil/i). The infor-
mation required was at first naturally obtained by word of mouth
from the companions and helpers of Mahomet. These in turn
bequeathed their information to their younger companions, who
quoted traditions and gave decisions in their names.
For long these traditions circulated orally, the authority of each
depending on the person who first gave it and the reliability of the
chain (isnad) of men who had passed it on from him. At first this
tradition was regarded as explanatory of, or at the most supple-
mentary to, the teaching of the Koran. Early Moslem teachers
pointed to the Jews as having two law-books the Taurdt and the
Mishna while Islam had only one-^-the Koran. But opinion
changed, the value of tradition as an independent revelation came
to be more highly esteemed until at last it was seriously discussed
whether a tradition might not abrogate a passage of the Koran
with which it was at variance. The writing of traditions was at
first strongly discouraged, and for more than a century the stories
of the Prophet's conduct passed from mouth to mouth. Had all
the narrators been pious men, this might have been tolerable, but
this was not the case. The Omayyad dynasty was not a pious
one. Men who were not religious but wished to appear so invented
420
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
traditions to justify their manner of life. The sectarians did not
hesitate to adopt the same means of spreading their own teaching.
Many Moslem writers testify to the fact that forged traditions were
circulated, and that religious opinion was confused thereby. The
need for some sort of authoritative collection seems to have been
felt by the one pious Omayyad caliph, Omar II. (717-720), who is
said to have ordered Ibn Shihab uz-Zuhrl to make such a collection.
Of this work, if it was carried out, we know nothing further. It was,
however, by a man born during this reign that the first systematic
collection of traditions was made the Muwatta' of Malik ibn Anas
(q.v.). Yet this work is not a book of tradition in the religious sense.
It is really a corpus juris and not a complete one. The object of
Malik was simply to record every tradition that had been used to
give effect to a legal decision. The work of sifting the vast mass
of traditions and arranging them according to their relation to the
different parts of religious life and practice was first undertaken in
the 3rd century of Islam (A.D. 815-912). In this century all the six
collections afterwards regarded as canonical by the Sunnites (ortho-
dox) were made. By this time an immense number of traditions
was in circulation. Bukhari in the course of sixteen years' journey-
ing through Moslem lands collected 600,000, and of these included
7275 (or, allowing for repetitions, 4000) in his work. The six collec-
tions of tradition received by the Sunnites as authoritative are:
(i) The Kildb ul-jami' us-Safcb of Bukhari (q.v.) (810-870). This is
the most respected throughout the Moslem world and most carefully
compiled (ed. L. Krehl and T. W. Juynboll, Leiden, 1862 and
frequently in the East; also with many commentaries. French
translation by O. Houdas and W. Marcais, Paris, 1903 sqq.). (ii) The
$afii>i of Muslim (817-875) with an introduction on the science of
tradition (ed. Calcutta, 1849, &c.). (iii) The Kildb us.-Sunan of
Abu Da'ud (817-888) (ed. Cairo, 1863, Lucknow, 1888, Delhi, 1890).
(iv) The Jami' uf-Safcli of Tirmidhi (q.v.). (v) The Kitab us.-Sunan
of Nasa' i (830-915) (ed. Cairo, 1894). (vi) The Kitab uf-Sunan of
Ibn Maja (824-866) (ed. Delhi, 1865 and 1889). The last four are
not held in the same repute as the first two.
3. Ijma' is the universal consent which is held to justify
practices or beliefs, although they are not warranted by the
Koran or tradition, and may be inconsistent with the apparent
teaching of one or both of these. These beliefs and practices,
which had often come from the pre-Islamic customs of those
who had become believers, seem to have escaped notice until
the Abbasid period. They were too deeply rooted in the lives
of men to be abolished. It became necessary either to find a
tradition to abrogate the earlier forbidding one, or to acknowledge
that ijma is higher than the tradition. The former expedient
was resorted to by some later theologians (e.g. Nawawl) by a
fiction that such a tradition existed though it was not found now
in writing. But in earlier times some (as Ibn Qutaiba) had
adopted the latter alternative, saying that the truth can be
derived much earlier from the ijma' than from the tradition,
because it is not open to the same chances of corruption in its
transmission as the latter. Tradition itself was found to confirm
this view, for the Prophet is related to have said, " My people
does not agree to an error."
But ijma' itself has been used in different senses: (i) The ijma'
of Medina was used to indicate the authority coming from the prac-
tices of the people of Medina (see below), (ii) The ijma' of the whole
community of Moslems is that most commonly recognized. It was
used to support fealty to the Abbasid dynasty. By it the six books
of tradition mentioned above are recognized as authoritative, and
it is the justification of the conception of Mahomet as superhuman,
(iii) Some of the more thoughtful theologians recognize only the ijma'
of the doctors or the teachers of Islam (the mujtahidun), these being
restricted by the orthodox to the first few generations after Mahomet,
while the Shi'ites allow the existence of such up to the present
time.
4. The fourth basis of Islam is qiyas, i.e. analogy. It is that
process by which a belief or practice is justified on the ground
of something similar but not identical in the Koran, the tradition
or ijma. Originally it seems to have been instituted as a check
upon the use of private opinion (ra'y) in the teaching of doctrine.
The extent to which it may be used is a subject of much
discussion among theologians. Some would apply it only to a
" material similarity," others to similarity of motive or cause as
well.
Worship and Ritual. The acts of worship required by Islam
are five in number: (i) the recital of the creed; (ii.) observance
of the five daily prayers; (iii) the fast in the month of Rama-
dhan; (iv) giving of the legal alms; (v) the pilgrimage to
Mecca.
i. The creed is belief " la ilaha illa-llahu, Muhammad rasul
allahi," "there is no god but God (Allah), Mahomet is the apostle
of God." It is required that this shall be recited at least
once in a lifetime aloud, correctly, with full understand-
ing of its meaning and with heartfelt belief in its truth. It is to be
professed without hesitation at any time until death.
ii. Every man who professes Islam is required in ordinary life
to pray five times in each day. In the Koran these prayers are
commanded, though four only are mentioned. " Where-
fore glorify God, when the evening overtaketh you, and
when ye rise in the morning, and unto Him be praise in Heaven and
earth; and in the evening and when ye rest at noon " (xxx. 16-17),
but commentators say the " evening " includes the sunset and after
sunset. The five times therefore are: (i) Dawn or just before sunrise,
(2) just after noon, (3) before sunset, (4) just after sunset, and (5) just
after the day has closed. Tradition decides within what limits the
recitals may be delayed without impairing their validity. Pra\
preceded by the lesser ablution (wadu) consisting in the washing of
face, hands (to the elbows) and feet in prescribed manner. Com-
plete washing of the body (ghusl) is required only after legal pollu-
tion. In prayer the worshipper faces the qibla (direction of prayer),
which was at first Jerusalem, but was changed by the Prophet to
Mecca. In a mosque the qibla is indicated by a niche (mifrrab) in
one of the walls. The prayers consist of prescribed ejaculations,
petitions, and the recital of parts of the Koran, always including
the first sura, accompanied by prostrations of the body. Detailed
physical positions are prescribed for each part of the worship; these
vary slightly in the four orthodox schools (see below). On a journey,
in time of war or in other special circumstances, the set form of
prayers may be modified in accordance with appointed rules. Besides
these private prayers, there is the prayer of the assembly, which is
observed on a Friday (yaum ul-jam'a, " the day of assembly" ) in a
mosque, and is usually accompanied by an address or declamation
(khutba) delivered from a step of the pulpit (minbar). Special
prayers are also prescribed for certain occasions, as on the eclipse of
the sun or the moon, &c. Among the Sufis special attention is
given to informal prayer, consisting chiefly in the continual repetition
of the name of God (dhikr) (see SUFI'ISM). This is still a character-
istic of some of the dervish (q.v.) communities.
iii. The command to fast begins with the words, " O ye who
believe! There is prescribed for you the fast, as it was prescribed
for those before you." The expression " those before P
you " has been taken to refer to the Jews, who fasted on
the day of atonement, but more probably refers to tiie long fast of
thirty-six days observed by the Eastern Christians. In the passage
of the Koran referred to (ii. 179-181) Moslems are required to fast
during the month of Ramadhan, " wherein the Koran was revealed,"
but if one is on a journey or sick he may fast " another number of
days," and if he is able to fast and does not, " he may redeem it
by feeding a poor man," but " if ye fast, it is better for you." This
fast was probably instituted in the second year at Medina. At that
time the corrected lunar year was in use and Ramadhan, the ninth
month, was always in the winter. A few years later Mahomet
decreed the use of the unconnected lunar year, which remains the
standard of time for the Moslem world, so that the month of fasting
now occurs at all seasons of the year in turn. The fast is severe, and
means entire abstinence from food and drink from sunrise to sunset
each day of the month. The fast is associated with the statement
that in this month God sent down the Koran from the seventh heaven
to Gabriel in the lowest that it might be revealed to the Proplirt.
iv. Alms are of two kinds: (i) the legal and determined
(zakdt), and (2) voluntary (?adaqat). The former were given in
cattle, grain, fruit, merchandise and money once a year
after a year's possession. For cattle a somewhat
elaborate scale is adopted. Of grain and fruit a tenth is given if
watered by rain, a twentieth if the result of irrigation. Of the
value of merchandise and of money a fortieth is prescribed. In the
early days of Islam the alms were collected by officials and used for
the building of mosques and similar religious purposes. At the
present time the carrying of these prescriptions is left to the
conscience of the believers, who pay the alms to any needy fellow-
Moslem. A good example of a adaqd is found in a gift to an un-
believer (see C.M. Doughty, A rabia deserta, 1.446, ii. 278, Cambridge,
1888).
v. The fifth religious duty of the Moslem is the pilgrimage (hajj)
to Mecca, which should be performed once by every Moslem " if he
is able," that is if he can provide or obtain the means to _ .
support himself on pilgrimage and his family during his
absence, and if he is physically capable. The pilgrimage is made at
one time of the (Moslem) year, namely, from the 7th to the loth
of the month Dhu'l-Hijja. For the arrangements for the journey
from various countries to Mecca see CARAVAN. When the pilgrim
arrives within five or six miles of the holy city he puts off his ordinary
dress after ablution and prayer, and puts on the two seamless wrap-
pers which form the dress of the pilgrim (the ihram), who goes with-
out head-covering or boots or shoes. He must not shave at all, or
trim the nails or anoint the head during the ceremonial period.
The chief parts of the ceremonial are the visit to the sacred mosque
masjid ul-ftardm), the kissing of the black stone, the compassing of
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
421
the Ka'ha (the Tawaf) seven times, three times running, four times
.lowly, tin- \i-il to tin- Ma(|fun Ibrahim, the ascent of Mount $afa
; mining from it to Mount Marwa seven times, the run to Mount
tt , hearing a sermon, and going to Muzdalifa, where he stays the
t In- throwing of stones at the three pillars in Mina on the great
il.iy, and the offering of sacrifice there (for the localities see
< A). After the accomplishment of these ceremonies the ordinary
I, the pilgrimage is finished, but the pilgrim usually
iih .mother three days in Mecca, then visits Medina to pay his
1 1 he tomb of Mahomet. Beside the hajj (great pilgrimage)
.1 also recognizes the merit of the 'umra (or lesser pilgrimage),
:ous visit to Mecca at any time accompanied by most of
lemonies of the hajj.
The ivremonies of the hajj have been described by several European
\lio have witnessed them, such as J. L. Burckhardt :n
IN 14, Sir Richard Burton in 1853 (see bibliography to MECCA). A
rotint of them is given in T. P. Hughes, Notes on Muham-
nism (3rd ed., London, 1894). Details in vol. i. of Bukhari's
traditions (Houdas and Marcais's French translation, i. 493-567).
The Development of Islam. The battle of Sifftn (657) between
'Ali and Moawiya was the occasion of the first breach in the
unity of Islam, and the results remain to this day. The occasion
was in the first case political, but politics were at that time too
intimately connected with religion to be considered apart from it.
r the battle (see CALIPHATE) 'All was practically compelled
to submit his claims to arbitration, whereupon a number of his
supporters broke away from him, saying that there should have
been no appeal save to the Book of God. These men were for
the most part country Arabs, and, inspired by the free spirit of
tin deseri. were democratic, claiming that the caliph should be
i ed by the whole community from any family (and not from
the Koreish alone), and that the caliph might be deposed for sin.
A few extremists were republicans and would do without a
caliph altogether. The whole party was known as the Kharijites
(Kharijiyya or Khawarij). The Moslems who disagreed with
them were regarded by them as renegades and were to be put to
ii. They were soon divided into extremists and moderates.
Tho former put to death the children of unbelievers and refused
to hold intercourse in daily life with unbelievers. The moderates,
who came to be known as Ibadites (from their leader 'Abdallah
ibn 'Ibad), would allow the children of unbelievers to grow up,
and would then deal with them according to their choice. In
ordinary life they would mix with all men, but marriage with
other Moslems outside their own ranks was forbidden. These still
remain in Oman, parts of Algeria and East Africa.
Another party, consisting mainly of city Arabs infected with
Persian ideas as to the divinity of the ruler, clung to 'All with
inconvenient affection. They regarded 'All and his descendants
as the only legitimate caliphs, and came to be known as Shi'ites
(q.v.). They remain to-day the largest part of Islam outside
orthodoxy. During the Omayyad caliphate (661-750) there
were three centres of religious thought and influence; students
and teachers often passed from one to the other, thus making
universal the teachings which in their origin were due to local
circumstances. These centres were Damascus (the seat of the
caliphate), Medina and the East (Irak, &c.). In Damascus the
court was worldly and indifferent to the interests of Islam. The
early Omayyads were distinguished for their striving after
dominion (mulk). Instead of attempting to propagate Islam,
they tolerated other religions and favoured Christians who were
'liM inguished as poets (e.g. Akhtal)orofncials (John of Damascus),
or men likely to be of use to them in any way. The doctrines
of Christianity began to influence even serious Moslems and to
t their way of stating Moslem belief. John of Damascus
(A. before 767), the Greek theologian, and his pupil, Theodorus
Abucara (d. 826), have written controversial works on Islam,
from which it seems probable that disputations on subjects per-
taining to religion were held between Christians and Moslems.
Two schools of heretical Moslem sects arose under these influ-
ences that of the Murjiites and that of the Qadarites. The
Murjiitcs (" postponers ") were so called because they postponed
the judgment of human actions until the Day of Judgment. In
politics they accepted the Omayyads as de facto rulers, since they
were Moslems, and left the judgment of their actions to God. As
theologians they taught that religion consists in belief (iman) in
the unity of God and in his apostle, and in that alone; conse-
quently no one who held this faith would perish eternally, though
he had been a sinner. This was opposed to the Kharijite
doctrine that the unrepentant sinner would perish eternally,
even though he had professed Islam.
The Qadarites were concerned with the doctrine of pre-
destination and free-will. So long as Moslems were fighting the
battles of Islam they naturally paid most attention to those
revelations which laid stress on the absolute determination of a
man's destiny by God. They fought with great bravery, because
they believed that God had foreordained their death or life and
they could not escape His will. In the quieter realm of town and
court life and in their disputations with Christians they were
called upon to reconcile this belief with the appeals made in the
Koran to man's own self-determination to good, to courage, &c.
Mahomet was not a systematic theologian and had done nothing
to help them. The Qadarites declared that man had power over
his own actions. But the teaching of predestination had gained
too great a hold on Moslems to be thus displaced. The teaching
of the Qadarites was held to be heresy, and one of its first pro-
fessors, Ma'bad ul-Juham, was put to death in 699.' During
this period Medina was the home of tradition. Those who had
been in closest relation with the Prophet dwelt there. The very
people of the city derived a certain splendour and authority
from the fact that Mahomet had lived and was buried there.
Free thought in religion had little chance of arising, less of ex-
pressing itself, in the holy city. But the Koran was diligently
studied, traditions were collected (and invented) though not yet
written in books, and innovation (bid'a) was resolutely avoided.
At the same time it really did contribute a new element to
religious practice, for the custom (ijma\ see above) of -Medina
gained a certain authority even in Syria and the East.
In the East, on the other hand, there was more mental activity,
and the religious teachers who came from Medina had to be pre-
pared to meet with many questions. The wits of the Moslems
were sharpened by daily contact with Christians, Buddhists,
Manichaeans and Zoroastrians. Hasan ul-Basrl (q.ii.), who has
been claimed as one of the first mystics, also as one of the first
systematic theologians of Islam, was remarkable alike for his
personal piety and his orthodoxy. Yet it was among his pupils
that the great rationalist movement originated. Its founder was
Wasil ibn 'Ata, who separated himself (whence his followers
were called Motazilites, strictly Mu'tazilites, " Separatists ")
from his teacher and founded a school which became numerous
and influential. The Mu'tazilites objected to the attributes
of God being considered in any way as entities beside God; they
explained away the anthropomorphisms used in speaking of the
deity; they regarded the Koran as created and as a product of
Mahomet writing under the divine influence. Briefly, they
asserted the supremacy of reason ('aql) as distinct from faith
received by tradition (naqt). They also called themselves " the
people of justice and unity " (Aid ul-'adl wat-lauhid). Such a
faith as this naturally found favour rather with the thinking
classes than with the uneducated multitude, and so went through
many vicissitudes. At the time of its appearance and until the
reign of Ma'mun its adherents were persecuted as heretics. After
discussions among the theologians Ma'mun took the decided
step of proclaiming that the Koran was created, and that a belief
in this dogma was necessary. Other Mu'tazilite doctrines were
proclaimed later. Mu'tazilites were appointed to official posts,
and an inquisition (mihna) was appointed to enforce belief in their
doctrines. This movement was strongly opposed by theortbodox
and especially by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (q.v.). By him the founding
of theology on reason was rejected, and he suffered persecution
for his faith (see W. N. Patton, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna,
Leiden, 1897). Mu'tazilism retained its sway until 849, when
the caliph Motawakkil again declared the Koran uncreate and
restored orthodoxy. It was during the early years of the Abbasid
1 For the doctrines of these two sects see Shahrastani's Book of
Sects, and for the Qadarites, A. de Vlieger's Kitab ul-Qadr, materiaux
pour servir a I'tlude de la doctrine de la predestination dans la thtologie
musulmane (Leiden, 1903).
422
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
rule that the four legal schools of Abu Hanlfa (d. 767), Malik ibn
Anas (d. 795), ash-Shafi'i (d. 819) and Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) came
into existence (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). As the bases of religion
and law were the same, so the methods applied in the treatment of
the one affected the other. Abu Hanlfa depended little on
tradition, but referred back to the Koran, making use of indi-
vidual opinion (ray) as controlled by analogy (qiyds) with a
written ordinance. Malik Ibn Anas supplemented the Koran
and Sunna by customary law founded largely on the custom
(ijma') of Medina, and by what he conceived to be for the public
good (isiisldh) . Shan 'I recognized tradition as equal to the Koran,
and even as being able to supersede its ordinances, while he also
recognized the universal custom (ijma) of the Moslem world as
divine and binding. His four bases of religion Koran, sunna,
qiyas and ijma' have been generally accepted in Islam (see
above). Ibn Hanbal's position has been already mentioned. All
these four schools are reckoned orthodox, and all orthodox
Moslems belong to one or another of them. Another teacher of
this time, who founded a school which did not succeed in being
recognized as orthodox, was Da'ud uz-Zahiri. Trained as a
Shafi'ite, he became too strict for this school, rejected analogy,
restricted ijma to the agreement or custom of the companions
of Mahomet, and accepted the whole of the Koran and tradition
in the most literal and external sense. His followers were called
Zahirites (i.e. externalists). After Ash'ari 's time these principles
were applied to theology by Ibn Hazm (q.v.) see I. Goldziher,
Die Zahirilen, ihr Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte (Leipzig, 1884).
Before turning to the reform of Ash'ari and the introduction
into orthodox theology of scholastic philosophy it is necessary to
notice another phase of religious life which became the common
property of orthodox and heretics. This was the introduction
of asceticism in religious practice and of mysticism in religious
thought. Sufi'ism (q.v..), which combined these 'two, is rightly
not counted among the sects of Islam. Asceticism seems to have
won a certain amount of approval from Mahomet himself, who
much respected the Christian monks. The attention paid in early
Islam to the joys and punishments of the future life led to self-
denial and simple living in this world. An Arabian writer, speak-
ing of the simplicity of manners of the first four caliphs, says
that their affairs were conducted with more consideration of the
future life than of this world. Many Moslems went even farther
than these caliphs, and gave up all concern as far as possible with
the affairs of this world and lived in poverty, in wanderings or in
retirement (see DERVISH). For the historical development of
this movement, with its accompanying mysticism, see SUFI'ISM.
Ash'ari (d. before 942) was for forty years a Mu'tazilite, then
became orthodox (see ASH'ARI),- and at once applied rational
methods for the support and interpretation of the orthodox
faith. Before him, reason had not been allowed any scope in
orthodox theology. He was not the first to use it ; some teachers
(as al-Junaid) had employed it in teaching, but only in secret and
for the few. The methods of scholastic philosophy were now
introduced into Moslem theology. The chief characteristic of
his religious teaching was the adoption of the via media between
materialistic grossness and the ideas of pure speculative philo-
sophy. Thus he taught, as to the attributes of God, that they
exist, but are not to be compared with human attributes; as to
His visibility, that He can be seen but without the limitations of
human sight. As to the great question of freewill, hedeniedman's
power b.ut asserted his responsibility. So he passed in review
the doctrines of God, faith, the Koran, sin, intercession, &c.,
and for the first time in the history of Islam produced a
systematic theology. The teaching of Ash'ari was taken up and
propagated by the Buyids soon after his death, and was developed
and perfected by Abu Bekr ul-Baqilanl, the Cadi (d. 1012), but
up to the middle of the 5th century of Islam (c. A.D. 1058) was
suspected elsewhere and confounded with Mu'tazilism. The
Ash'arlte al-Juwaini (known as Imam ul-Haramain) was perse-
cuted under Toghrul Beg (c. 1053) an d exiled, but was restored
under Alp Arslan by the vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who founded an
Ash'arite college (the Nizamiyya) . In the West, Ibn Hazm (q.v.)
fiercely opposed the system, but Ghazali established its orthodoxy
in the East, and it spread from Persia to Syria and Egypt under
the Ayyubites and Mamelukes and thence to the Almohades in
Africa under Ibn Tumart (1130). It remains the predominating
influence to the present day, its only serious rival being the
theological system of al-Mataridi, a Hanifite (d. 945), whose creed
as represented in that of an-Nasafi is still used largely by the
Turks. Since the isth century no great theological movement
has been made in Islam. The quiet of religious life has twice
been broken, once by Wahhabism (q.v.) in Arabia, once by Babism
(q.v.) in Persia.
THE SECTS
According to an early tradition Mahomet said that Islam
would be divided into seventy-three parties (sects), 1 of which
seventy-two would perish and one would be saved. The orthodox
Arabian writers on heretical sects of Islam feel compelled by this
tradition to make up their number to seventy-two, and, as
different writers adopt different divisions or are familiar with
different parties, the names of sects amount to some hundreds.
Each writer, however, adopts certain main classes under which
he attempts to group the others. Abu Muti' Makhul at the
beginning of the roth century in his " Refutation " (MS. in
Bodleian Library) has six such chief classes: Harurites (i.e.
Kharijites), Rafidites (i.e. Shi'ites), Qadarites, Jabarites,
Jahmites and Murjiites. Ibn Hazm (q.v.) adopts four classes:
Mu'tazilites (Motazilites), Murjiites, Shi'ites and Kharijites.
Shahrasta.nl (q.v.) complains of the want of system in earlier
writers, and suggests as bases of classification the position of
parties with regard to the doctrines as to (i) the divine attributes,
(2) predestination and free-will (3) promises and threats, faith
and error, (4) revelation, reason, the imamate. In one part of his
preface he gives as the chief parties the Qadarites, Sifatites,
Kharijites and Shi'ites, proposing to divide these classes accord-
ing to leaders who agreed with the main doctrines of their class
but differed in some points. In another place he mentions four
opposite pairs of sects: (i) the Qadarites with their doctrine of
free-will, and the Jabarites, who are necessitarians; (2) the
Sifatites, who maintain the eternal nature of the attributes of
God, and the Mu'tazilites, who deny it; (3) the Murjiites, who
postpone judgment of actions until the Last Day, and the
Wa'idites, who condemn in this life; (4) the Kharijites, who
consider the caliphate a human institution, and the Shi'ites, who
deify their ruler. In his detailed treatment of the sects Shahra-
stani arranged them under the headings: Mu'tazilites, Jabarites,
Sifatites, Kharijites, Murjiites and Shi'ites. About the same
time as Shahrastani two other Arabian writers wrote on the sects
Tahir ul-Isfarainl (d. 1078), whose MS. is in the Berlin library,
and 'Abd ul-Qadir ul-JIlanl (1078-1166) in his Kildb ul-Ghaniyya
li-Tdlibi Tarlq il-Haqqi (Cairo, 1871). Both adopt as main
classes Rafidites (or Shi'ites), Qadarites (or Mu'tazilites), Khari-
jites, Murjiites, Najjarites, Dirarites, Jahmites, Mushabbiha, to
which Tahir adds Bakrites, Karramites, and a class including
those sects which are not reckoned as Moslem though they have
sprung from Islam. JllanI adds to the eight the Kilabites.
The following list is not a complete list of names of sects but is
founded on that of Shahrastani. 2
Afiahites. Shi'ites of the Imamite class, who ascribe the imamate
to 'Abdallah ul-Aftahi, the son of Sadiq.
Ajarida. Kharijites, followers of Ibn 'Ajarrad, who agreed for
the most part with the Najadat (below), considered grave sins as
equivalent to unbelief, but remained friendly with those who pro-
fessed Islam but did not fight for it. They rejected sura 7 as a fable.
Shahrastani enumerates seven divisions of this sect.
1 For the origin and significance of this number see M. Steinschnei-
der, " Die kanonische Zahl der muhammedanischen Secten und die
Symbolik der Zahl, 70-73," in Zeitschr. d. deutschen morgenl.
Gesellschaft, iv., 145-170 (1850); and I. Goldziher, " Le Denombre-
ment des sectes mohame'tanes " in Revue de I'hist. des religions,
xxvi. 129-137 (1892).
2 The names are given throughout in the anglicized form on the
analogy of Shi'ites, which is recognized in common usage. The
strict termination according to the scheme of transliteration adopted
in this work is iyya, or iya, e.g. Hishamiyya for Hishamites.
information regarding the important sects see separate articles and
the preceding portion of this article.
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
423
Akhnasites. A section of the Tha'aliba not so strict in treatment
of those who fi-ar to fight for Islam.
ii'arites. Followers of Ash'ari (q.v.) who are counted by Shah-
i among the Sitatitcs.
afites. A division of the ' Ajarida who agree with the H amzites
i tlKii they excuse the lower classes for inaction when they are
iiit of the law.
rtiqites. Kharijites who followed al-Azraq in the days of Ibn
Xnbair. Thcv held 'Ali to be an unbeliever; those who did not fight
iinbelievers; the children of unbelievers were to be put to death
ami went to hell. Sin is unbelief.
^hamites. Mu'tazilites akin to the Jubba'ites.
: hasites. Khfirijites, followers of Abu Baihas ul-Haitham, who
!'iit to death by the caliph VValid. They asserted the necessity
iwledije for religion.
.'. Shi'ites who followed Abu Ja'far ul-Baqir, the fifth
and looked for his return.
Bdtinites. Isma'ilites, so called because they believe that every
;i.il has an internal (bdtin), and every passage in the Koran has
an allegoric meaning.
Bishrites. Mu'tazilites, followers of Bishr ibn Mu'tamir, one of
nost learned men of his party. His teaching was philosophical
ami was distinguished by his doctrine of " origination " (tawallud).
Bunanites. Kaisanites, followers of Bunan ibn Sim'an un-Nahdi,
who claimed that the imamate passed from Abu Hashim to himself
and that he had also acquired the divine element of 'All.
liutrites. Zaidites, followers of Kathir un-Nawa ul-Abtar, who
1 with the Suleimanites (Sulaimanites) except that he suspended
lent as to whether Othman was a believer or not.
. Jabarites who empty God of his attributes, and assert
th.it man has a sixth sense by which he will see God on the day of
resurrection. The actions of man are " created " and acquired by
him. A caliph need not be chosen from the Koreish.
Ghaliites (('.hula) are the extreme Shi'ites (q.v.) in ascribing deity
to the imams. Their heresies are said to be four in number: (l)
Making God resemble man, (2) ascribing change of mind to God,
IB for the return -of the imam, (4) metempsychosis. They
are divided by Shahrastani into ten classes.
Ghassdnites. Murjiites, followers of Ghassan ibn ul-Kufi, who say
that faith consists of knowledge of God, his apostle, and the Koran
neral not in detail, and that faith increases but is not diminished.
:iites = l.layitites (below).
''lites tl.ludabites) are Mu'tazilites, followers of Fadl ibn
ul-l.ladathi, who agreed with the Hayitites (below).
IJaffiles. Ibadites, followers of Hafs ibn abi-1-Miqdam, who
I I iet ween idolatry (shirk) and unbelief (kufr).
vs. 'Ajarida, followers of Hamza ibn Adrak in Sijistan.
They agree with the Maimunites, but condemn the children of
unbelievers to hell.
Hdrithites. Ibadites who differ from others in holding the Mu'taz-
ilite doctrine of free-will.
!es. A name given to the first Kharijites, who rebelled
i 'Ali, and met in Harura near Kufa.
mites. Shi'ites who supported Abu Hashim, son of Mahom-
med ibn ul-Hanafiyya, although they held that his father had gone
stray.
Hashwiites. A party who asserted the eternity even of the letters
of the Koran. They are not mentioned as a separate sect by Shah-
ai; cf. van Vloten, " Lei Hachwia et Nabita," in the Acts of the
I i//i Oriental Congress (Paris, 1899), pt. iii., pp. 99 sqq.
tfs. --Mu'tazilites who agreed With the Nazzamites, but
added three heresies of their own: (i) the divinity of the Messiah,
!) metempsychosis, (3) the interpretation of all references to the
isiun of God as referring to the " first Reason " or " creative
<n."
llishdmites.-.\ name given to two sects: (i) Mu'tazilites, strong
their_assertion of man's free-will, even opposing the statement
of the Koran. (2) Shi'ites of the extreme kind, who attributed to
("id a Ixxly with quantities (measurements) and qualities.
JJudabiles. See I.Iadathites.
Iludhailites (Hodhailites). Mu'tazilites, followers of Abu-1 Hud-
hail Hamdan, who was a leading teacher of his party and developed
the philosophical side of its teaching. Ten of his main doctrines
are given by Shahrastani.
ir?- 1 '"' Kharijites of moderate tendencies (see above).
llbdites. Ghaliites who put 'Ali above Mahomet and blamed the
latter because he called men to himself instead of to 'All.
Imamites. One of the chief divisions of the Shi'ites (q.v.).
lituiites. Ghaliites agreeing with the Nusairites except that
hev incline to speak of the imams' participation in the prophetic
her than of their divinity.
., ^l" ,' 5 ' 1 '"- This name is a PP lietl t a" who consider Isma'H
.1 I. it the last imam, some believing that he did not die but will
rn. others, that at his death his son Mahommed became imam
--INS); it is also used as equivalent to the Batinites.
/MM 'asharites. Imamites who accept the twelve 'imams (see
Jabarites. Those who deny all actions and power to act to man
and ascril>c all to God (see above).
Ja'farites. Imamites who carry the imamate no farther than
Ja'far us-Sadiq.
Jdhizites. Mu'tazilites, followers of the celebrated writer Jahiz
(q.v.), who indulged in philosophical speculations, believed in the
eternity of matter, and was regarded as a naturalist (faba'i) rather
than a theist (allahi).
Jahmites. Jabarites, followers of Jahm ibn Safwan, who was
put to death at Merv toward the close of the Omayyad period. He
was extreme in his denial of the attributes of God.
Jdrudites. Zaidites who held that Mahomet designated 'All as
imam, not by name but by hisattributes, and that the Moslem sinned
by not taking sufficient trouble to recognize these attributes.
Jubba'ites. Mu'tazilites who followed the philosophical teaching
of Abu 'All Mahommed ul-Jubba'i of Basra.
Kaisanites. A main class of the Shi'ites (q.v.).
Kamilites. Ghaliites, followers of Abu Kamil, who condemned
the companions (Anfdr) because they did not do allegiance to 'All,
and 'AH because he surrendered his claims.
Karramites. Sifatites, followers of Ibn Karram, who went so
far as to ascribe a body to God, and assimilated his nature to human
nature.
Kayyalites. Ghaliites, followers of Ahmad ibn Kayyal, who, after
supporting a propaganda for an Aliite, claimed to be the imam
himself on the ground of his power over the spheres.
Khalafites. 'Ajarida of Kerman and Multan, who believed that
God wills good and evil, but condemned the children of unbelievers
to hell.
Kharijites. One of the earliest sects of Islam (see above).
Kharimites. 'Ajarida, agreeing mostly with the Shu'aibites and
teaching that the relation of God to a man depends on what he
professes at the end of his life.
Khatfdbites. Ghaliites, followers of Abu-1 KhatJab, who was put
to death by Ibn Musa at Kufa. He was a violent supporter of Ja'far
us-Sadiq, who however disowned him.
Khayydtites. Mu'tazilites, followers of Abu-1 Hosain ul-Khayyat,
a teacher in Bagdad, part of whose philosophical teaching was that
the non-existent is a thing.
Ma'badites. Tha'labites who differed from the Akhnasites on the
question of the marriage of believing women and from Tha'Iab on
the question of taking alms from slaves.
Maimunites. 'Ajarida, followers of Maimun ibn Khalid, who
believed that God wills good only and that man determines his
actions.
Majhulites. Tha'labites, agreeing generally with the Kharimites,
but teaching that he who knows some names and attributes of God
and is ignorant of some knows God.
Ma'lumites. Tha'labites agreeing generally with the Kharimites
but alleging that a believer must know all the names and attributes
of God.
Mans,urites. Ghaliites, followers of Abu Mansur ul-'Ijli, who at
first supported al-Baqir, but, rejected by him, claimed th/; imamate
for himself. He was crucified by the caliph Hisham ibn 'Abd ul-
Malik (Abdalmalik).
Mu'ammariles. 1 Mu'tazilites who strongly denied the pre-
destination of God, and affirmed that God created bodies only, and
that the accidents spring naturally from them.
Mufaddalites. 1 The same as the Musaites (q.v.).
Muglnrites.' Ghaliites, followers of Mughira ibn Sa'id ul-'Ijli,
who claimed the imamate and prophetic office and held extremely
gross views of God.
Muhakkima 1 (the first). Another name for the Harurites (above).
Mukarramites. 1 Tha'labites who taught that sin consists in
ignorance of God.
Mukhtdriles. 1 Kaisanites, followers of al-Mukhtar ibn 'Ubaid,
who held to Mahommed ibn ul-Hanafiyya but was disowned by
him. He allowed the possibility of change of mind on the part of
God.
Murjiites. Those who postponed judgment of actions until the
Day of Judgment. See above.
Mus.dites. Imamites who held to the imamate of Musa ibn Ja'far,
who was imprisoned by Harun al-Rashid and poisoned.
Mushabbiha.' Sifatites who compared God's actions with human
actions. They said that the Koran was eternal with all its letters,
accents and written signs.
Mu'tazilites. 1 The rationalists of Islam. See above, cf. also H.
Steiner, Die Mu'taziliten oder die Freidenker im Islam (Leipzig,
1865).
Muzddritts. 1 Mu'tazilites, followers of al-Muzdar, a pupil of Bishr
(cf. Bishrites) whose teaching he developed further. He taught
that God has power to do evil, but, if he acted thus, would be an
evil God ; also that man can produce the equal of the Koran.
Najadat (also known as 'Adhirites). Kharijites, who followed
Najda ibn "Amir of Yemama as he went to join the Azraqites but
withdrew from these, being more orthodox than they. He held
that fear of fighting was not sin.
Ndwisites take their name from a person or a place. They are
Ja'farites who believe in Sadiq as the mahdi.
1 All these names are alternatively spelt Mo- instead of Mu-.
424
MAHONY MAHRATTAS
Nazzamites. Mu'tazilites, followers of Ibrahim ibn Sayyar
un-Nazzam, who was an extremist in his teaching of man's free-will
and other philosophical doctrines.
Nu'manites. 1 Ghaliites agreeing in some points with Hishamites,
but holding that God is a light in the form of a man, yet not a body.
Nus.airites. 1 Ghaliites who agree with the Ishaqites except that
they lay more stress on the incorporation of the deity.
Qadarites. The upholders of free-will (see above).
Qata'ites. Musaites who regard the rank of the imams as closed
with the death of Musa.
Rafidites. A term used by some writers to denote the Shi'ites
as a whole; by others given to a class of the Shi'ites who forsook
Zaid ibn 'All because he forbade them to abuse the Companions.
Rashidites. Tha'labites, followers of Rashid ut-Tusi, sometimes
called 'Ushrites (" tithers ") because they differed from others on
the question of tithing the produce of land watered by rivers and
canals.
Rizamites. Kaisanites of Khorasan at the time of Abu Muslim,
to whom they ascribed the imamate and the Spirit of God. They
also believed in metempsychosis.
Saba'ites. Ghaliites, who followed 'Abdallah ibn Saba (see
SHI'ITES).
Salihites. (a) Zaidites, followers of al-Hasan ibn Salili, who
agreed with the teachings of the Butrites (above); (6) Murjiites,
followers of Salih ibn Amr, who united with the doctrines of their
own party those of the Qadarites.
Sallites. 'Ajarida who had nothing to do with the children
of believers until they had grown up and professed Islam.
Shaibanites. Tha'labites, followers of Shaiban ibn Salama, who
was killed in the time of Abu Muslim (Moslem). They arose chiefly in
Jorjan and Armenia and agreed in doctrine with the Jahmites.
Shamlfites. Ja'farites, followers of Yahya ibn Abu Shamit.
Shi'ites. See separate article.
Shu'aibites. 'Ajarida who said that God creates the actions of
men, and men appropriate them.
Sifatites are those who ascribe eternity to all the attributes of
God, whether they denote essence or action, or are of the class
called descriptive attributes.
Sifrites, the same as Ziyadites (below).
Sulaimanites (Suleimanites). Zaidites, followers of Suleiman ibn
Jarir, who held that the appointment to the imamate was a matter
of consultation and that the imamates of Abu Bekr and Omar were
legal although 'All had a better claim.
Tha'labites. A party of the Kharijites, followers of Tha'lab ibn
Amir, who agreed with the 'Ajarida except that he was friendly
with children until they actually denied the faith. He also took
alms from slaves when they were rich, and gave alms to poor slaves.
Thaubanites. Murjiites who said that faith consists in the know-
ledge and confession of God and His apostle, and what the intellect
is not capable of doing. What the intellect can do (or leave) is not
of faith. ,
Thumamites. Mu'tazilites, followers of Thumama ibn Ashras
in the days of Mamun, who taught that all non-Moslems would
become dust on the day of resurrection.
Tumanites. Murjiites who taught that faith depends on obedience
rather to the principles than to the commands of Islam.
'Ubaidites. Murjiites who believed that anything but idolatry
might be forgiven, and that if a man died professing the unity of
God his sins would not hurt him.
Wa'idites. Those who, opposed to the Murjiites, pronounced
judgment in this life; they are not counted as a separate sect by
"hahrastani (see above).
Waijilites. A name given to those who followed Wasil ibn "Ata,
the founder of Mu'tazilitism, who denied the attributes of God,
asserted the power of man over his own actions, taught the existence
of a middle place between heaven and hell, and despised the parties
of Othman and 'All alike.
Yazldites. Ibadites who said that they followed the religion
of the Sabians in the Koran, and believed that God would send an
apostle from the Persians.
Yunusites. Murjiites who taught that faith consists in know-
ledge of God, subjection to Him, abandonment of pride before Him,
and love in the heart. Obedience apart from knowledge is not of faith.
Zaidites. The moderate Shi'ites (see SHI'ITES).
Ziyadites. Kharijites, followers of Ziyad ibn ul-Asfar, who did not
regard those who abstained from fighting for Islam as unbelievers,
and did not kill the children of idolaters or condemn them to hell.
AUTHORITIES. For the philosophy and theology of Ash'ari see
M. A. F. Mehren, Expose de la reforme de I'Islamisme par Abou-'l
Hasan Ali el-Ash'art (Leiden, 1878); W. Spitta, Zur Geschichte
Abu-l Hasan al-Ash'arls (Leipzig, 1876); M. Schreiner, Zur
Geschichte des Ash'aritenthums (Leiden, 1891); D. B. Macdonald,
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional
Theory (London, 1903). The last work contains translations of
the creeds of Ash'ari and NasafI (Mataridite). A further biblio-
graphy of works on the faith and outlook of Islam will be found
in D. B. Macdonald's Muslim Theology.
1 These names are alternatively spelt No- instead of Nu-.
I
The text of the Koran has been edited by G. Flvigel, Leipzig,
various dates; and by G. M. Redslob, Paris, 1868 and 1880. There
are also hundreds of Eastern editions. Concordances have been
published by G. Fliigel, Leipzig, 1842 (several times reprinted),
also in Egypt, Palestine and India. A dictionary and glossary were
published by J. Penrice, London, 1873. English translations have
been made by G. Sale, London, 1734 (the fullest edition is that with
notes by E. M. Wherry, 4 vols., London, 1882-1886); by J.M.Rodwell
with notes, London, 1861 and 1876; and by E. H. Palmer in
vi. and ix. of the " Sacred Books of the East," Oxford, 1880-1882.
Among the best or best-known Arabic commentaries are tho
Tabarl (q.v.), Zamakhshari (q.v.), Baidhawi (q.v.), the Jalalain
SUYUTI), and such later ones as the Mafatih ul-Ghaib of ar-Ruzi
(d. 1210). The composition and theology of the Koran are treated
in the works of Noldeke and Grimme referred to above.
On the eschatology of Islam see M. Wolff, Muhammedanische
Eschatologie (Leipzig, 1872); and on the doctrine of revelation,
Otto Pautz, Muhammeds Lehre von der Offenbarung (Leipzig, 1898).
(G.' VV. T.)
MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER (1804-1866), known as
" Father Prout," Irish priest and author, son of a woollen manu-
facturer, was born in Cork in 1804. His classical education was
chiefly obtained at a Jesuit college at Amiens, and after studying
in Paris he entered the Jesuit college at Rome and was admitted
into the Society of Jesus. He served in Switzerland and at
Clongoweswood, Ireland, where he was prefect of studies and
subsequently master of rhetoric. Here he was involved in
scandals that led to his resignation. On going to Italy he was
told at Florence that he was expelled from the Society. He
succeeded, however, in obtaining priest's orders at Rome in 1832,
and returned to Ireland, but subsequently went to London,
officiating for some time in the chapel of the Bavarian Legation.
While there he fell in with William Maginn, and about 1834
began to contribute his celebrated " Prout Papers " to Fraser's
Magazine. These consist of episodes in the life of the parish
priest " Father Prout," and dialogues after the model of " Chris-
topher North," varied by translations of well-known English
songs into Latin, Greek, French and Italian verse, which he
humorously represents as being the true originals from which the
English authors had merely plagiarized them. Mahony's trans-
lations have been universally admired for the extraordinary
command which they display of the various languages into which
his renderings are made, and for their spirit and freedom both of
thought and expression. His original verse tends chiefly to show
that with all his sarcastic and cynical wit his genius had also its
tender, serious and sentimental side. His " Bells of Shandon "
has always been greatly admired. In 1846 Mahony became
correspondent at Rome to the Daily News, and his letters from
that capital gave very vivid pictures of the first years of the reign
of Pius IX. The last twelve or fifteen years of his life were spent
in Paris, whence he supplied the Globe with a series of piquant
letters on the incidents of the day. He died in Paris on the
1 8th of May 1866.
The Reliques of Father Prout were collected from Fraser's Magazine
and published in two volumes in 1836; The Final Reliques of Father
Front, chiefly extracted from the Daily News and the Globe, were
edited by Blanchard Jerrold in 1876, and an edition of his works,
edited by Charles Kent, was published in 1881.
MAHOUT (Hind. mahawat),a.n elephant-driver. The mahout
sits on the elephant's neck and directs him by voice and by the
use of a goad called ankus.
MAHRATTAS, a people of India, inhabiting the district known
by the ancient name of Maharashtra (Sans. " great kingdom or
region"). This large tract, extending from the Arabian Sea on
the west to the Satpura mountains in the north, comprises a good
part of western and central India, including the modern provinces
of the Konkan, Khandesh, Berar, the British Deccan, part of
Nagpur, and about half the nizam's Deccan.
The etymology of the word Mahratta (Maratha) is uncertain.
The name does not indicate a social caste, or a religious sect; it
is not even tribal. Strictly, it is confined to the upper class
from whom Sivaji's generals were mostly drawn, and who some-
times claim a Rajput origin. In a wider sense it may be ex-
tended to include all who inhabit Maharashtra and speak
Mahratti as their mother-tongue. In 1901 the total number of
speakers of Mahratti in all India exceeded 18 millions.
MAHRATTAS
425
The Mahrattas have always been a separate nation or people,
and still regard themselves as such, though nowadays they are
almost all under British or Mahommedan jurisdiction; that
is, they belong either to British India or to the nizam's domi-
nions. There are indeed still three large native states nominally
Mahratta: that of Sindhia near the borders of Hindustan in the
north, that of Holkar in Malwa in the heart of the Indian con-
tinent, and that of the gaekwar in Gujarat on the western coast.
But in these states the prince, his relatives and some of his
ministers or officials only are Mahrattas; the mass of the people
belong to other sections of the Hindu ra"ce. These states then
not to be included in the Mahratta nation, though they have
a share in Mahratta history.
In general terms the Mahrattas, in the wider sense, may be
described under two main heads: first the Brahmans, and secondly
the low-caste men. The Mahratta Brahmans possess, in an intense
ee, the qualities of that famous caste, physical, intellectual and
1. They have generally the lofty brow, the regular features,
the spare upright figure, and the calm aspect which might be
expected in a race maintained in great purity yet upon a broad
In modern times they have proved themselves the most
able and ambitious of all the Brahmans in the Indian Empire.
They arc notably divided into two sections: the Konkanast, coming
from the Konkan or littoral tract on the west coast below the
Western Ghat mountains; and the Deshast, coming from the
uplands or Deccan, on the east of the mountains. Though there
have been many distinguished Deshasts, yet the most remarkable
of all have been Konkanasts. For instance, the peshwas, or heads
of the Mahratta confederation which at one time dominated nearly
all India, were "Konkanast Brahmans. The birthplaces of these
MS arc still known, and to this day there are sequestered
villages, nestling near the western base of the Ghats, which are
pointed to as being the ancestral homes of men who two centuries
ago had political control over half India.
Apart from the Brahmans, the Mahrattas may be generally
nated as Sudras, the humblest of the four great castes into
which the Hindu race is theoretically divided. But the upper
- claim to be Kshattriyas or Rajputs. They probably are
fundamentally, with a mixture of what are now called
Scythian tribes, which at a very early time overran India.
The ordinary Mahrattas, who form the backbone of the nation,
have plain features, an uncouth manner, short stature, a small but
wiry frame. Though not powerful physically as compared with the
northern races of the Punjab and Oudh, they have much activity
and an unsurpassed endurance. Born and bred in or near the
Western Cihat mountains and the numerous tributary ranges, they
all the qualities of mountaineers. In recent times they enter
military service less and less, betaking themselves mainly to culti-
"i and to the carrying business connected with agriculture.
wbandmen they are not remarkable; but as graziers, as cart-
men, as labourers, they are excellent. As artisans they have seldom
.ilized themselves, save as armourers and clothweavers.
In the Konkan there are some superior proprietors termed
With this and perhaps some other exceptions, there
are not in the Mahratta country many large landlords, nor many
of the superior tenure-holders whose position relatively to that of
the peasantry has caused much discussion h; other parts of India.
There are indeed many Mahratta chiefs still resident in the country,
members of the aristocracy which formerly enjoyed much wealth
and power. They are sometimes in the position of landlords, but
olten they ace the assignees of the land revenue, which they are
entitled under special grants to collect for themselves instead of
>vcrnment, paying merely a small sum to Government by way
of quit-rent. Under them the cultivators are by British arrangements
placed in the position of peasant proprietors. The village community
ha-- always existed as the social unit in the Mahratta territories,
though with less cohesion among its members than in the village com-
munities of Hindustan and the Punjab. Theancient offices pertaining
to the village, as those of the headmen (patel), the village accountant,
&c., are in working order throughout the Mahratta country.
The Mahratta peasantry possess manly fortitude under suffering
and misfortune. Though patient and good-tempered in the main,
hey have a latent warmth of temper, and if oppressed beyond a
certain limit they would fiercely turn upon their tormentors. As a
rule they are orderly and law-abiding, but traditions of plunder
have been handed down to them from early times, and many of
them retain the predatory instincts of their forefathers. The
ighbourhood of dense forests, steep hill-sides, and fastnesses
hard of access offers extraordinary facilities to plunderers for
screening Uwmsdvea and their booty. Thus gang robbery is apt
break out, gains head with rapidity, and is suppressed with
nculty. In times of peace it is kept under, but during war, or
whenever the bands of civil order are loosened, it becomes a cause
If anxiety and a source of danger. The women have frankness and
trcngth of character; they work hard in the fields, and as a rule
evince domestic virtue.
The peasantry preserve a grave and quiet demeanour, but they
have their humble ideas of gaiety, and hold their gatherings on
occasions of births or marriages. They frequently beguile their
toil with carols. They like the gossiping and bartering at the rural
markets and in the larger fairs, which are sometimes held in strikingly
picturesque localities. They are superstitious, and worship with
hearty veneration any being or thing whose destructive agency
they fear. They even speak of the tiger with honorific titles.
They are Hindus, but their Hinduism is held to be of a non-Aryan
type. They are sincerely devout in religion, and feel an awe
regarding the holy Brahmans," holding the life and the person
of a Brahman sacred, even though he be a criminal of the deepest
dye. They of course regard the cow as equally sacred. There
are two principal sects among modern Hindus those who follow
Vishnu, and those who follow Siva. The Mahrattas generally
follow Siva and his wife, a dread goddess known under many names.
The Mahratta war-cry, " Har, Har, Mahadeo," referred to Siva.
All classes high and low are fond of the religious festivals, the
principal of which, the Dasahra, occurs in October, when the first
harvest of the year has been secured and the second crops sown.
This has always been held with the utmost pomp and magnificence
at every centre of Mahratta wealth and power. The people frequently
assemble in bowers and arbours constructed of leafy boughs to hear
kathas recited. These recitations are partly religious, partly also
romantic and quasi-historical. After them national resolves of just
resistance or of aggressive ambition have often been formed.
Apart from the Mahratta Brahmans, as already mentioned, the
Mahratta nobles and princes are not generally fine-looking men.
There is general truth in what was once said by a high authority
to the effect that, while there will be something dignified in the
humblest Rajput, there will be something mean in the highest
Mahratta. Bluff good-nature, a certain jocoseness, a humour
pungent and ready, though somewhat coarse, a hot or even violent
disposition, are characteristics of Mahratta chief tains. They usually
show little aptitude for business or for sedentary pursuits; but, on
the other hand, they are born equestrians and sportsmen. Mahratta
ladies and princesses have often taken a prominent part, for good or
evil, in public affairs and dynastic intrigues.
Though they have produced some poetry, the Mahrattas have
never done much for literature. Nor have they been distinguished
in industrial art. Their architecture in wood, however, was excellent ;
and the teak forests of their country afforded the finest timber for
building and for carving. They had also much skill in the con-
struction of works for the supply of drinking water on a large scale
and for irrigation.
The range of the Western Ghats enabled the Mahrattas to
rise against their Mahommedan conquerors, to reassert their
Hindu nationality against the whole power of the Mogul Empire,
and to establish in its place an empire of their own. It is often
stated that in India British conquest or annexation succeeded
Mahommedan rule; and to a considerable extent this was the
case. But, on the other hand, the principal power, the widest
sovereignty, which the British overthrew in India was that of the
Mahrattas.
During the earlier Moslem invasions in 1 100 and in subsequent
years, the Mahrattas do not seem to have made much resistance.
They submitted to several Mahommedan kings under the chang-
ing circumstances of those times. It was against the Mahom-
medan king of Bijapur in the Deccan that Sivaji, the hero of
Mahratta history, first rebelled in 1657. Sivaji and his fighting
officers were Mahrattas of humble caste, but his ministers were
Brahmans. When the Mogul Empire absorbed the Bijapur
kingdom he defied the emperor. He imparted a self-reliant
enthusiasm to his countrymen, formed them into an army, and
organized them as a political community; his mountaineer
infantry, though limited in numbers, proved desperately cour-
ageous; his cavalry was daring and ubiquitous. The Moslems,
having once overcome the Hindus in almost all parts of India,
had not for centuries met with any noteworthy uprising. Sivaji,
however, planned their expulsion, and before the end of his rest-
less life made much progress in the execution of that design.
The new state which he founded was maintained under various
vicissitudes after his death. Mahratta resistance, once aroused
by him, was never extinguished, and the imperial resources
were worn out by ceaseless though vain efforts to quell it.
The great Mogul emperor's impoverished and enfeebled successor
was fain to recognize the Mahratta state by a formal instrument.
The Mahratta king, a descendant of Sivaji, had become a rot
fain6a.nl, and the arrangement was negotiated by his Brahman
minister, whose official designation was the peshwa. The office
of peshwa then became hereditary in the minister's family,
426
MAHRATTAS
and grew in importance as the Mahratta kingdom rose, while the
king sunk into the condition of a puppet. Thus the Mahratta
power was consolidated throughout nearly the whole of Maha-
rashtra under the Brahman peshwa as virtual sovereign, with his
capital at Poona, while the titular Mahratta raja or king had
his court at the neighbouring city of Satara. Despite his politi-
cal importance, however, the raja was still venerated as the
descendant of Sivaji.
Then several chiefs carved out principalities of their own from
among the ruins of the Mogul Empire. Thus Raghoji Bhonsla
established himself in the tracts lying underneath the southern
base of the Satpura range (namely, Nagpur and Berar), overran
Orissa and entered Bengal. Damaji Gaekwar descended from
the Western Ghats upon the alluvial plains of Gujarat around
Baroda; Tukoji Holkar subdued the uplands of Malwa beyond
the Vindhya range on the north bank of the Nerbudda; and
Mahadji Sindhia obtained possession of large tracts immediately
south of Agra and Delhi, marched into Hindustan and became
virtually the master of the Mogul emperor himself (see GWALIOR).
Sivaji's own father had founded a dominion at Tanjore in the
extreme south, which, however, never had relations with the
central power at Poona. The same may be said of the state of
Kolhapur, allotted to a younger branch of Sivaji's family.
But these principalities, though independent respecting
internal administration, and making war or peace with their
neighbours according to opportunity, owned allegiance to the
peshwa at Poona as the head of the Mahratta race. On state
occasions heads of principalities would visit Poona by way of
acknowledging the superior position of the peshwa- On the
other hand, the peshwa was careful to obtain the sanction of his
nominal sovereign at Satara to every important act of state.
Thus a confederation was formed of which the Brahman peshwa
or head was at Poona, governing the adjacent territories, while
the members, belonging to the lower castes, were scattered
throughout the continent of India. Such was the Mahratta
Empire which supplanted the Mogul Empire. The Mahratta
power grew and prospered till it embraced all western and most
of central India. Its culminating point was reached about
1750, or about a century after Sivaji first rebelled against his
Mahommedan sovereign.
Its armies drew soldiers from all parts of India. The infantry
was not of good quality; but its cavalry was really an enormous
force, numbering fully a hundred thousand in all. The horsemen
were splendidly audacious in riding for long distances into the
heart of a hostile country, without support, striking some terrific
blows, and then returning rapidly beyond reach of pursuit. They
could truly boast of having watered their horses in every Indian
river from the Cauvery to the Indus. If attacked, however, in
a competent manner, they would not stand; and afterwards, in
conflict with the British, whole masses of them behaved in a
dastardly manner. As their ambition grew the chiefs began to
organize their troops after the system learnt from the English
and French. In this way several Frenchmen Benoit de Boigne,
Perron and others rose in the Mahratta service to a position
dangerous to the British. But the new system was unsuited to
the Mahratta genius; it hampered the meteoric movements of
the cavalry, which was obliged to manoeuvre in combination
with the new artillery and the disciplined battalions. Mahratta
elders hence uttered predictions of military disaster which were
in the end more than fulfilled.
The rapid and amazing success of the Mahratta confederation
rendered it the largest Hindu power that ever existed in India.
But it lacked the elements of true greatness. It was founded
by plundering expeditions, and its subsequent existence was
tainted by the baseness of this predatory origin. With the
exception of the peshwas, its chiefs were little more than free-
booting warriors, for the most part rude, violent and unlettered.
Their custom was to offer their neighbours or victims the alter-
native of paying chouth, that is, one-fourth of the revenue, or
being plundered and ravaged. Thus the Mahratta chouth came
to have an ominous significance in Indian history. Desultory
efforts were made to establish a civil government, but in the
main there was no administration formed on statesmanlike
principles. The peshwas, on the other hand, as Brahmans, were
men of the highest education then possible in India. But they
were absorbed by the direction of military and political com-
binations, and by intrigues for the preservation of their own
power; and, even allowing for all this, they failed to evince the
civil capacity which might have been anticipated. While
several displayed commanding abilities, and some possessed
many virtues, one alone attempted to conduct an administration
in an enlightened manner, and he died prematurely.
There were at the same time powers existing in India to keep
the Mahrattas in check, and some parts of India were excepted
from their depredations. The English power was rising at
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. The nascent Sikh power
prevented Mahratta incursions from being permanently success-
ful in the Punjab. As the Mogul Empire broke up, some separate
Mahommedan powers rose upon its ruins. The nizam of the
Deccan established himself at Hyderabad, comparatively near
the headquarters of the peshwa. Hyder Ali was proclaimed
sultan of Mysore in the south. Ahmed Shah Abdali burst upon
India from Afghanistan. The Mahrattas bravely encountered
him at Panipat near Delhi in 1761, and were decisively defeated.
The defeat, however, did not essentially shake the Mahratta
confederation. It was collision with the English that broke that
wonderful fabric to pieces.
The first collision with the English occurred in 1775, arising
from a disputed succession to the peshwaship. The English
government at Bombay supported one of the claimants, and the
affair became critical for the English as well as for the Mahrattas.
It was at this conjuncture that Warren Hastings displayed his
political genius and rendered signal service to his country, by
succouring from Bengal the defeated Bombay army and nego-
tiating a peace (in 1782) that restored the status quo.
The next collision happened in 1803. The peshwa had fallen
into grave difficulties with some of the principal members of the
Mahratta confederation. He therefore placed himself under
British protection, and this led to the great Mahratta War, in
which the Marquis Wellesley displayed those talents for military
and political combination which rendered him illustrious. It
was during the campaigns which ensued that General Arthur
Wellesley defeated Sindhia and the Bhonsla raja at Assaye, and
General Lake won the victories of Farrukhabad, Dig and Las-
wari over Sindhia and Holkar. The three confederates, Sindhia,
Holkar and the Bhonsla, concluded peace with the British
government, after making large sacrifices of territory in favour
of the victor, and submitting to British control politically. It
was during these events that the British won the province of
Orissa, the old Hindustan afterwards part of the North-Western
Provinces, and a part of the western coast in Gujarat.
The third collision came to pass between 1816 and 1818, through
the conduct, not only of the confederates, but also of the peshwa
(Baji Bao) himself. During the previous war the peshwa had been
the protege and ally of the British ; and since the war he had fallen
more completely than before under British protection British
political officers and British troops being stationed at his capital.
He apparently felt encouraged by circumstances to rebel.
Holkar and the Bhonsla committed hostile acts. The predatory
Pindaris offered a formidable resistance to the British troops.
So the peshwa ventured to take part in the combination against
the British power, which even yet the Mahrattas did not despair
of overthrowing. After long-protracted menaces, he attacked the
British at Kirkee, but failed utterly, and fled a ruined man.
Ultimately he surrendered to Sir John Malcolm, and was sent as
a state pensioner to Bithur, near Cawnpore. The British, how-
ever, released the raja of Satara from the captivity in which he
had been kept during the peshwa's time, and reinstated him
on the throne, with a limited territory. Owing to these
events the British government became possessed of the Konkan
and of the greater part of the Deccan.
It remains to mention briefly the fortunes of each remaining
member of the once imperial confederation. The principality
of Satara was held to have lapsed in 1848 by the death of the
MAHSEER MAIDEN
427
raja without lineal heirs, and was annexed by the British govern-
ment. The Bhonsla raja of Nagpur died without lineal heirs in
1853, and his territory was likewise annexed. The house of
Holkar remained faithful to its engagements with the British
government, and its position as a feudatory of the empire was
maintained. In Sindhia's territory, by reason of internal feuds,
the British had to undertake measures which were successfully
terminated after the battles of Maharajpur and Panniar in 1843.
But on the whole the house of Sindhia remained faithful.
Sindhia himself wasactively loyal during the Mutiny. Thegaek-
war gradually fell under British control towards the close of the
century, and his house never engaged in hostilities with the
British government. The ex-peshwa lived to old age at Bithur,
and died in 1857. His adopted son grew up to be the Nana
Sahib, of infamous memory, who took a leading part in the
Mutiny.
J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (3 vols., 1826) ; T. D.
Broughton, Letters written in a Mahratta Camp (1813); M. G.
Ranade, Rise of the Maratha Power (Bombay, 1000).
(R.T.;J.S.Co.)
MAHSEER, or MAHASEER (Barbus mosal), a kind of barbel,
abundant in the rivers of India, especially in pools of the upper
and more rapid streams where they issue from the mountainous
part of the country. It is one of the largest species of the
C yprinid family, attaining to a length of 3 to 5 ft., and sometimes
exceeding a weight of 70 Ib. Its body is well-proportioned, rather
elongate, and somewhat like that of the European barbel, but
covered with very large scales, of which there are only twenty-
five or twenty-seven placed along the lateral line; the dorsal
fin is armed with a long and strong spine, and the mouth provided
with four slender and short barbels. The lips are sometimes
produced into fleshy lobes. To the fisherman in India the
mahseer affords the same kind of sport as the salmon in the
British Isles, and it rivals that fish as regards sise, strength and
activity. Its flesh is likewise much esteemed.
MAI, ANGELO (1782-1854), Italian cardinal and philologist,
was born of humble parents at Schilpario in the province of Ber-
gamo, Lombardy, on the 7th of March 1782. In 1799 he entered
the Society of Jesus, and in 1804 he became a teacher of classics
in the college of Naples. After completing his studies at the
Collegium Romanum, he lived for some time at Orvieto, where
he was engaged in teaching and palaeographical studies. The
political events of 1808 necessitated his withdrawal from Rome
(to which he had meanwhile returned) to Milan, where in 1813
he was made custodian of the Ambrosian library. He now
threw himself with characteristic energy and zeal into the task
of examining the numerous MSS. committed to his charge, and
in the course of the next six years was able to restore to the world
a considerable number of long-lost works. Having withdrawn
from the Society of Jesus, he was invited to Rome in 1819 as
chief keeper of the Vatican library. In 1833 he was transferred
to the office of secretary of the congregation of the Propaganda;
on the 1 2th of February 1838 he was raised to the dignity of
cardinal. He died at Castelgandolfo, near Albano, on the 8th of
September 1854.
It is on his skill as a reader of palimpsests that Mai's fame
chiefly rests. To the period of his residence at Milan belong:
Fragments of Cicero's Pro Scauro, Pro Tullio, Pro Flacco, In
Clodium el Curionem, De acre alieno Milonis, De rege (Alexandrino
(1814); M. Corn. Fronton is opera inedila, cum epistolis item
ineditis, Antonini Pit, Marci Aurelii, Lucii Veri et Appiani
(i8i5;newed., 1823, with more than too additional letters found
in the Vatican library); portions of eight speeches of Quintus
Aurelius Symmachus; fragments of Plautus; theorationof Isaeus
De hereditate Cleonymi; the last nine books of the Antiquities
of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and a number of other works. M.
Tullii Ciceronis de repub.'ica quae supersunt appeared at Rome
in 1822; Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, e vaticanis codicibus
edila in 1825-1838; Classici scriptores e vaticanis codicibus editi in
1828-1838; Spiciltgium romanum in 1830-1844; and Palrum
nova bibliotheca in 1845-1853. His edition of the celebrated
Codex raticanus, completed in 1838, but not published (ostensibly
on the ground of inaccuracies) till four years after his death
(1858), is the least satisfactory of his labours and was superseded
by the edition of Vercellone and Cozza (1868), which itself leaves
much to be desired. Although Mai was not as successful
in textual criticism as in the decipherment of manuscripts, he
will always be remembered as a laborious and persevering
pioneer, by whose efforts many ancient writings have been
rescued from oblivion.
See B. Prina, Biografia del cardinale Angela Mai (Bergamo, 1882),
a scientific work, which gives a full and, at the same time, a just
appreciation of his work; Cozza-Luzi, Epistolario del card. Angela
Mai (Bergamo, 1883); life by G. Poletto (Siena, 1887).
MAIA, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the Pleiades, the
seven daughters of Atlas and the Oceanid Plelone. She and her
sisters, born on Mt Cyllene in Arcadia, are sometimes called
mountain goddesses. In a cave of Cyllene Maia became by
Zeus the mother of the god Hermes. The story is told in the
Hymn to Hermes attributed to Homer. She was identified by
the Romans with Maia Majesta, an old Italian goddess of
spring, to whom a sacrifice was offered on the ist of May by
the priest of Vulcan.
M AIDA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro,
from which it is 30 m. W.S.W. direct, and 12 m. N.N.E. of Pizzo
by rail (the station is 8 m. W. of the town). Pop. (1901), 5190.
The town gives its name to the plain of Maida, where in 1806
British troops under Sir John Stuart defeated the French under
Regnier. The names Maida Hill and Maida Vale in London are
derived from this battle.
MAIDAN, an Indian term for any open plain. The Maidan
is the name of the park in Calcutta, surrounding Fort William,
where society people drive in the afternoon. The name is also
applied to one of the valleys in the Afridi country of Tirah,
and to the plateau portion of the state of Mysore.
MAIDEN, or MAID, a young unmarried girl. " Maid" is a
shortened form of " maiden," O. Eng. maegden, which represents
a diminutive of a Teutonic word meaning " young person," of
either sex. An old English word " may," meaning a kinsman
or kinswoman, and also a virgin or girl, represents the original.
In early usage " maiden " as meaning " virgin " is frequently
applied to the male sex, thus, in Malory's Morte d' Arthur, Sir
Percyvale is called a " parfyte clene megden." Apart from the
direct applications of the word to the unmarried state, such as
" maiden name," " maiden lady," &c., the word is used adjec-
tivally, implying the preservation of the first state of an object,
or indicating a first effort of any kind. Probably a " maiden "
fortress is one which has never fallen, though the New English
Dictionary suggests that the various "maiden castles" in Eng-
land, usually ancient earthworks, may have been so called from
being so strong that they could be defended by maidens, and
points out that Edinburgh Castle, called " maiden-castle " by
William Drummond of Hawthornden (Speech for Edinburgh to
the King), is styled Castrum puellarum, the " castle of the
maidens," in Geoffrey of Monmouth. A " maiden " assize, circuit
or session is one at which there are no prisoners for trial; a
" maiden over " or " maiden " in cricket is an over from which
no runs are scored. A " maiden speech " is the first speech made
by a member of parliament in the house. In the Annual
Register for 1794 (quoted in N.E.D.) the expression, with refer-
ence to Canning's first speech, is said to be " according to the
technical language of the house." " Maiden " is applied to
several objects, to a movable framework or horse for drying and
airing of linen, to a washerwoman's " dolly " or wooden beater,
to the " kirnbaby " formed of the last sheaf of corn reaped
which formerly figured in the Scottish harvest homes, and to the
beheading instrument, known as the " Scottish maiden " (see
below). " Maid," apart from its primary sense of an unmarried
woman, is chiefly used for a domestic female servant, usually
with a qualifying word prefixed, such as " housemaid," " parlour-
maid." &c.
The title of "MAID OP HONOUR" is given to an unmarried
lady attached to the personal suite of a queen. The custom of
sending young girls of noble or good birth to the court of a
428
MAIDENHAIR MAIDSTONE
prince or feudal superior, for the purpose, primarily, of educa-
tion, goes back to early feudal times, and is parallel with the
sending of boys to act as pages and squires to the feudal castles.
The regular establishment of maids of honour (filles d'honneur)
appears first in the royal court of France. This has usually
been attributed to Anne of Brittany, wife of Charles VIII.;
she had a group of unmarried girls of high rank at her court as
part of her household, in whom she took a lively and parental
interest, educating them and bestowing a dowry upon them on
their marriage. A slightly earlier instance, however, has been
found. When the young Margaret of Austria came to France on
her espousal to Charles VIII., broken by his marriage to Anne
of Brittany, there were in her train several filles d'honneur, whose
names appear in the Comptes d'argenterie de la reine Marguerite
d'Autriche, from 1484-1485 and 1488-1489 (Archives del' empire
K.K.. 80 and 81 quoted by A. Jal, Dictionnaire critique de
biographic et d'histoire). It is from the days of Francis I. that the
chroniques scandaleuses begin which circle round the maids of
honour of the French court. The maids of Catherine de Medici,
celebrat'ed as the " flying squadron," I'escadron volant, are
familiar from the pages of Pierre de 1'Estoile (1574-1611) and
Brantome. Among those whose beauty Catherine used in her
political intrigues, the most famous were Isabelle de Limeuil,
Mile de Montmorency-Fosseux, known as la belle Fosseuse, and
Charlotte de Baune. The filles d' honneur, as an institution, were
suppressed in the reign of Louis XIV., at the instigation of
Mme de Montespan who had been one of them and their place
was taken by the dames de palais. In the English court, this
custom of attaching " maids of honour " to the queen's person
was no doubt adopted from France. At the present day a queen
regnant has eight maids of honour, a queen consort four. They
take precedence next after the daughters of barons, and where
they have not by right or courtesy a title of their own, they are
styled " Honourable."
THE SCOTTISH MAIDEN was an instrument of capital punishment
formerly in use in Scotland. It is said to have been invented by
the earl of Morton, who is also said to have been its first victim.
This, however, could not have been the case, as the maiden was
first used at the execution of the inferior agents in the assassination
of Rizzio (1561) and Morton was not beheaded till 1581. The
maiden was practically an early form of guillotine. A loaded blade
or axe moving in grooves was fixed in a frame about ten feet high.
The axe was raised to the full height of the frame and then released,
severing the victim's head from his body. At least 120 suffered
death by the maiden, including the regent Morton, Sir John Gordon
of Haddo, President Spottiswpod, the marquis and earl of Argyll.
In 1710 it ceased to be used; it is now preserved in the museum of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in Edinburgh.
MAIDENHAIR, in botany, the common name for a fern,
Adiantum Capillus- Veneris, characterized by the spreading hair-
like branches of the frond, the ultimate pinnules of which are
5 to i in. long with a rounded crenate outer edge and repeatedly
forked veins; the sori (or masses of spore-capsules) are in the
crenatures of the pinnules, and areprotected by a kidney-shaped
involucre. The plant is widely distributed in temperate and
tropical regions, and is occasionally found in the western
counties of England, the Isle of Man, and west Ireland, growing
on damp rocks or walls especially near the sea. The genus
Adiantum is a large one containing many handsome species
both tropical and temperate, well known in greenhouse and
hothouse cultivation.
MAIDENHAIR-TREE is a popular name for Ginkgo biloba, a remark-
able and handsome gymnospermous tree, the fan-shaped leaves of
which with their forked veins recall those of the maidenhair (see
GYMNOS PERMS).
MAIDENHEAD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire, England;
24^ m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 12,980. Area, 2125 acres. It is pleasantly situated on
and above the west (right) bank of the Thames, and is much
in favour as a residential town and a resort of boating parties.
Though of high antiquity it is wholly modern in appearance,
and a large number of handsome houses have been built in its
vicinity. A beautiful timbered house of the isth century, how-
ever, survives in Ockwells, a short distance south of the town.
The stone bridge carrying the London road over the Thames
dates from 1772; but the crossing is of ancient importance.
Maidenhead has trade in malt and grain. The borough is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
The' history of Maidenhead (Maydenhutt, Maydenhith) is
bound up with that of the ancient bridge. It is not mentioned
in Domesday. Edward I. (1297) gave a grant of pontage in aid
of the bridge, which was almost broken down; similar grants
to the " bailiffs and good men of Maydenhithe " were made by
succeeding sovereigns. In 1451 Henry VI. incorporated the
gild of the Brethren and Sisters of Maydenhith to provide certain
necessaries for the celebration of Mass and to keep the bridge
in order: the gild, dissolved at the Reformation, was revived
by Elizabeth, who, however, later (1581) substituted for it a
corporation consisting of a warden, bridgemaster, burgesses
and commonalty: the governing charter until the igth century
was that of James I. (1685) incorporating the town under
the title of the mayor, bridgemaster and burgesses. In 1400
Thomas Holand, earl of Kent, held the bridge in the interests
of the deposed Richard II., but was eventually forced to retire.
In 1643 a meeting took place in the town between Charles I.
and three of his children. In the i8th century a considerable
trade was done in carrying malt, meal and timber in barges
to London: at that time three fairs were held which have now
practically disappeared. The Wednesday market is held under
a charter of Elizabeth (1582).
MAID MARIAN, a personage incorporated in the English
legend of Robin Hood. There is no evidence that she had
originally any connexion with the Robin Hood cycle. She seems
to have been an essential feature of the morris dance, and in
the may-game was paired sometimes with Robin-Hood, but
oftener with Friar Tuck. The well-known pastoral play of
Adam de la Hale, Jen de Robin el Marion, and the many French
songs on the subject, account for the association of the names.
In the ballads on Robin Hood her name is twice casually men-
tioned, but there is a late ballad, by a certain S. G. (F. J.
Child, English and Scottish Ballads, i. 219), which tells how
Maid Marian sought Robin in the forest disguised as a page,
and fought with him for an hour before she recognized him by
his voice. S. G. was perhaps acquainted with the two plays,
written in 1598, of The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl
of Huntingdon, by Anthony Munday and Harry Chettle. In
The Downfall Matilda Fitz Walter escapes from the persecution
of King John by following her lover to Sherwood Forest, where
they took the names of Robin Hood and Maid Marian, and
lived apart until they could be legally united. Perhaps this
tale has some connexion with the romance of the outlaw Fulk
Fitz Warin. Matilda or Mahaud, widow of Theobald Walter,
escaped from John's solicitations by marrying the outlawed Fulk
and following him to the forest. There were in semi-historical
legends three Matildas pursued by King John, of whom particu-
lars are given by H. L. D. Ward in his Catalogue of Romances
(i. 502). Their several histories were fused by the Elizabethan
dramatists, and associated with the Maid Marian of the morris
dance, who up to that time had probably only a vague connexion
with Robin Hood.
MAIDSTONE, a market town and municipal and parliamentary
borough, and the county town of Kent, England, 41 m. E.S.E. of
London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901),
33,516; area, 4008 acres. It lies principally on the eastern
bank of the river Medway, the modern part spreading over the
western slopes of a picturesque valley, which is intersected and
environed by orchards and hop gardens, this being the richest
agricultural district of Kent. The hop grounds form the so-
called middle growth of Kent, and the town has the principal
grain market in the county. Archbishop Boniface in 1260
established a hospital here (Newark hospital) for poor pilgrims,
the chapel of which, with modern additions, is now St Peter's
Church. The parish church of St Mary, which had existed
from Norman times, was demolished in 1395 by Archbishop
Courtenay, who erected on the site the present church of All
MAIHAR MAIMAND
429
Saints. This fine Perpendicular building contains, besides
many excellent monuments, the richly carved sedilia and the
twenty-eight oak seats used by the collegiate priests. Courtenay
also founded a college of secular canons, the ruins of which
ii interesting specimen of 14th-century architecture. From
the reign of John until the Reformation the archbishops had a
, nee here, at which Stafford and Courtenay died. This
mlicular building, with its Elizabethan east front, was
red by the corporation as a memorial of Queen Victoria's
Jubilee in 1887, and houses the school of science and art. The
y, with the manor, passed into lay hands at the Reforma-
tion; and, having been a perpetual curacy for three hundred
i wenty years, the living became a vicarage in 1866. The
grammar school was founded in 1549, and endowed with the
.s of the local Corpus Christi fraternity, then dissolved;
the hall in which the gild assembled remains, but the school is
'lished in modern buildings on a new site. There are
oil mills, rope, sacking and twine factories, and cement, lime,
lirick works. There is a considerable carrying trade on
the Mod way. A museum, with public library, was opened in
1858, in an interesting building of the early part of the i6th
century. This is the headquarters of the Kent Archaeological
ty, founded by the Rev. L. B. Larking in 1858. In 1890
an art gallery was added. The West Kent and General hospital,
the county ophthalmic hospital, county gaol and barracks may
be mentioned among other institutions. From Saxon times
down to 1830 condemned malefactors were executed, and all
the great county meetings were held, on Penenden Heath, a
common situated about a mile north-east of the town, and
-ed by the corporation as a public recreation ground.
The parliamentary borough of Maidstone returns one member.
The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors.
There is evidence of a Roman settlement at Maidstone.
The name Maidstone (Medwegestun, Meddestane, Maydestan),
probably meaning Medway Town, is presumably of Saxon
origin. At the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to the
archbishop of Canterbury, and from the reign of John the
archbishops had a residence there. Its position in the centre
of Kent gave it an early importance; the shire-moot was held
on Penenden Heath in the nth century, and Maidstone was an
c town in the reign of Edward I. In 1537 Cranmer ex-
changed the manor of Maidstone with the king, and it was
granted by Edward VI. to Sir Thomas Wyatt. Edward also
incorporated the town by the title of the mayor, jurats and
commonalty; it had formerly been governed by a portreve
and 12 "brethren." This charter was forfeited through
't's rebellion; a second charter was granted by Elizabeth
in 1559 and confirmed by subsequent sovereigns. A new
charter constituting a governing body of a mayor, 12 jurats
and 40 common councilmen was given at the petition of
the inhabitants by George II. in 1747, and remained the
governing charter until 1835. Four fairs were granted by
the charter of 1559; these are now held on the I3th of
tary. the i2th of May, the zoth of June and the I7th
of October. A Thursday market was granted by Henry III.
to Archbishop Boniface, and a market every second Tuesday
in the month by charter of George II. A corn market on Tues-
day and a cattle market on Thursday are still held. The manu-
facture of linen and woollen goods was introduced by Walloons,
who settled here in 1 567. This was succeeded by paper-making,
now the chief industry of the town. The cultivation of hops
has been carried on since the i7th century.
Maidstone has been associated with various incidents of
general history. Wat Tyler broke into the prison, liberated
John Ball the rebel preacher, and committed various depreda-
tions. Several of the leading inhabitants joined Jack Cade's
rising. The rising of the Kentish Royalists in 1648 collapsed at
Maidstone, where on the ist of June Fairfax, after five hours'
obstinate fighting, captured the town at midnight.
See Victoria County History, Kent; I. M. Russell, History of
Maidstone (1881).
MAIHAR, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand
agency. Area, 407 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 63,702; estimated
revenue, 4700. The state, which is watered by the Tons river,
consists mainly of alluvial soil covering sandstone, and is fertile
except in the hilly district of the south. A large area is under
forest, the produce of which provides a small export trade. The
chief, whose title is raja, claims descent from the Kachwaha
Rajput clan. The state suffered severely from famine in 1896-
1897. The town of Maihar (pop. 6802) is on the East Indian
railway, 97 m. N. of Jubbulpore. Extensive ruins of shrines
and other buildings in its neighbourhood indicate a former
much greater extent of the place.
MAIL, (i) (Through Fr. maille, from Lat. macula, a spot
or hole, the mesh of a net), properly a metal ring or link which,
joined closely with other links, formed the fabric of body and
other armour in the middle ages, till it was superseded by plate-
armour. The word " mail," properly applied to this form of
chain-armour, is also used of armour generally, whether plate or
chain, and is also transferred to the horny defensive coverings of
animals, such as the tortoise, crab, &c. (see ARMS AND ARMOUR).
(2) (O. Eng. mdl, speech; probably the same as O. Saxon mahal,
assembly; in meaning connected with O.Norse male, stipulation),
a Scots law term meaning rent, tax. " Mails and duties " are
the rents, whether in kind or money, of an estate. In English
the word only survives in " blackmail " (?..). (3) (Through
O. Fr. male, mod. matte, a Teutonic word surviving in Dutch
maal), properly a bag, especially one used in travelling; this
word, which appears in Chaucer, is now applied chiefly to the
despatch and delivery of postal matter. In this sense " mail"
is properly the bag in which such matter is conveyed, and hence
is applied to the contents of the mail, postal matter collectively,
and to the train, carts, or other means used in the despatch
and delivery of the same. In general usage " mail " is confined
to the " foreign " as opposed to the " inland " despatch of
letters, &c., and to which the word " post " is chiefly applied;
in official language, the word refers to the inland despatch. The
word appears also in " mail-coach," a coach used for conveying
the mails, and in " mail-cart," a cart similarly employed. This
word is also applied to a light low vehicle propelled or drawn
by hand, suitable for young children. The " mail phaeton "
is a type of phaeton with high seat for two persons and drawn
by a pair of horses.
MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE, COMTESSE DE (1710-1751),
mistress of Louis XV. of France, was the daughter of Louis,
marquis de Nesle. She was the eldest of three sisters who
succeeded one another as favourites of the king. In 1726 she
married her cousin, Louis AJexandre de Mailly. Although
Louis XV. had paid her attentions from 1 732, she did not become
titular mistress until 1738. She did not use her position either
to enrich herself or to interfere in politics. She was supplanted
by her sister, the duchess of Chateauroux, and obliged to leave
court in 1742.
See E. and J. de Goncourt, La Duchesse de Chdteauroux et ses
sceurs (1879); Toussaint, Anecdotes curieuses de ... Louis XV.
(2 vols., 1905); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, Mesdemoisettes de Nesle et la
jeunesse de Louis XV. (1864).
MAIMANA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The
town is situated 100 m. S.W. of Balkh, and only some 25 m.
from the frontier of Russian Turkestan. It is about two-thirds
the size of Herat, square built and surrounded by a ruined wall
and moat. The khanate was for long in dispute between
Bokhara and Kabul, but in 1868 Abdur Rahman laid -siege
to the town, and it was compelled to come to terms. Its
political status as an Afghan province was definitely fixed by
the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of 1885. The inhabi-
tants are chiefly Uzbegs.
MAIMAND, a town in the province of Pars, Persia, a few
miles east of Firuzabad and about 70 m. from Shiraz. It has a
population of about 5000, almost wholly occupied with the
manufacture and sale of rose-water, which is largely exported
to many parts of Persia as well as to Arabia, India and Java.
The district also produces great quantities of almonds. The
430
MAIMBOURG MAIMONIDES
rose gardens cover several square miles. In 1349 a great part
of Maimand and of three little villages belonging to it became
wakf (pious endowment) of the shrine at Shiraz of Mir Ahmed,
surnamed Shah Chiragh, a son of Musa Kazim, the seventh imam
of the Shiahs, and the remainder of the Maimand grounds
was given to the shrine by Mir Habbib Ullah Sharifi and by
Shah Ismail in 1504; the administration of the Maimand
property as well as the guardianship of the shrine is still with
the descendants of Mir Habbib Ullah.
MAIMBOURG, LOUIS (1610-1686), French Jesuit and
historian, was born at Nancy. He entered the Society of
Jesus at the age of sixteen, and after studying at Rome became a
classical master in the Jesuit college at. Rouen. He afterwards
devoted himself to preaching, but with only moderate success.
After having taken some part in minor controversies he threw
himself with energy into the dispute which had arisen as to the
Gallican liberties; for his Traiti historique sur les prerogatives
de V&glise de Rome (1682) he was by command of Innocent XI.
expelled from the Society, but rewarded by Louis XIV. with a
residence at the abbey of St Victor, Paris, and a pension. He
died on the i3th of August 1686. His numerous works include
histories of Arianism, the iconoclastic controversy, the Greek
schism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and of the pontificates of
Leo I. and Gregory I.; they are mere compilations, written
indeed in a very lively and attractive style, but inaccurate
and untrustworthy.
The Histcry of Arianism was published in English (1728-1729) by
William Webster, with an appendix on the English writers in the
Socinian and Arian controversies.
MAIMING, mutilation, a physical injury which involves
the loss of, or incapacity to use, a bodily member. The verb
" to maim," in M. E. maynhe, mahayme, mayme, &c. was adopted
from O. Fr. mahaignier : cf. It. magagnars, Med. Lat. mahemiare,
mahennare, &c. (see Du Cange, Gloss., s.v. " Mahamium ").
Maiming or mutilation is and has been practised by many
races with various ethnical and religious significances, and
was a customary form of punishment on the principle of an
" eye for an eye " (see MUTILATION). In law " maiming "
is a criminal offence; the old law term for a special case of
maiming of persons was " mayhem " (<?..), an Anglo-French
variant form of the word. Maiming of animals by others than
their owners is a particular form of the offences generally
grouped as " malicious damage." For the purpose of the
law as to this offence animals are divided into cattle, which
includes horses, pigs and asses, and other animals which are
either subjects of larceny at common law or are usually kept
in confinement or for domestic purposes. The punishment
for maiming of cattle is three to fourteen years' penal servitude.
Malicious injury to other animals is a misdemeanour punishable
on summary conviction. . For a second offence the penalty is
imprisonment with hard labour for over twelve months.
(Malicious Damage Act 1861.) Maiming of animals by their
owner falls under the Cruelty to Animals Acts.
MAIMON, SALOMON (1754-1800), German philosopher,
was born of Jewish parentage in Polish Lithuania, and died
at Nieder-Siegersdorf on the 22nd of November 1800. He
married at the age of twelve, and studied medicine in Berlin.
In 1770 he severed his connexion with his orthodox co-religionists
by his critical commentary on the Moreh Nebuhim of Maimonides,
and devoted himself to the study df philosophy on the lines of
Wolff and Moses Mendelssohn. After many vicissitudes he
found a peaceful residence in the house of Count Kalkreuth at
Nieder-Siegersdorf in 1790. During the ensuing ten years
he published the works which have made his reputation as a
critical philosopher. Hitherto his life had been a long struggle
against difficulties of all kinds. From his autobiography,
it is clear that his keen critical faculty was developed in great
measure by the slender means of culture at his disposal. It
was not till 1788 that he made the acquaintance of the Kantian
philosophy, which was to form the basis of his lifework, and
as early as 1790 he published the Versuch iiber die Transcendental-
philosophic, in which he formulates his objections to the system.
He seizes upon the fundamental incompatibility of a conscious-
ness which can apprehend, and yet is separated from, the
" thing-in-itself." That which is object .of thought cannot be
outside consciousness; just as in mathematics V i is an un-
real quantity, so " things-in-themselves " are ex hypothesi outside
consciousness, i.e. are unthinkable. The Kantian paradox he
explains as the result of an attempt to explain the origin of
the " given " in consciousness. The form of things is admittedly
subjective; the mind endeavours to explain the material of the
given in the same terms, an attempt which is not only impossible
but involves a denial of the elementary laws of thought. Know-
ledge of the given is, therefore, essentially incomplete. Complete
or perfect knowledge is confined to the domain of pure thought,
to logic and mathematics. Thus the problem of the " thing-in-
itself " is dismissed from the inquiry, and philosophy is limited
to the sphere of pure thought. The Kantian categories are,
indeed, demonstrable and true, but their application to the
given is meaningless and unthinkable. By this critical scepticism
Maimon takes up a position intermediate between Kant and
Hume. Hume's attitude to the empirical is entirely supported
by Maimon. The casual concept, as given by experience,
expresses not a necessary objective order of things, but an
ordered scheme of perception; it is subjective and cannot be
postulated as a concrete law apart from consciousness. The
main argument of the Transcendentalphilosophie not only drew
from Kant, who saw it in MS., the remark that Maimon alone
of his all critics had mastered the true meaning of his philosophy,
but also directed the path of most subsequent criticism.
Maimon's chief works, in addition to the above quoted, are
PhUos. Worterbuch (1791); Streifereien im Gebiele der P kilos. (1793);
Ober die Progresse der Philos. (1793); Die Kategorien des Aristoleles
mil Anmerkungen erldulert (1794); Versuch einer neuen Logik (1794.
and 1798) ; Kritische Untersuchungen iiber den menschl. Geist (1797).
See 5. Maimons Lebensgeschichte von ihm selbst beschrieben (1792,
ed. K. P. Moritz; Eng. trans, by J. C. Murray, 1888); Wolff,
Maimoniana (1813); Witte, S. Maimon (1876).
MAIMONIDES, the common name of RABBI MOSES BEN
MAIMON (1135-1204), also known from the initials of these last
words as RAMBAM, Jewish philosopher. His life falls into
three epochs, which may be typified by the towns in which
they were passed, viz. Cordova, Fez and Cairo. He was born
in Cordova on the 2oth of, March 1135, the eve of Passover;
he had a brother, David, and one sister. His early years were
spent in his native town, which had then just passed the zenith
of its glory. The Arab rulers had fostered the development of
science, art, medicine, philosophy, literature and learning. All
these influences played their part in the education of Maimo-
nides, whose father, besides training him in all branches of
Hebrew and Jewish scholarship, implanted in the youth a sound
knowledge of these secular studies as well. In 1148 Cordova
was taken from the last Fatimite caliph by the victorious
Almohades, who had spread over Spain from N. Africa. These
militant revivalists strove to re-establish Islam in what they
considered its primitive simplicity. They laid great stress on
the unity of God, and tolerated neither schism within the faith
nor dissent without. The position of the orthodox Spanish
Jews became intolerable, and Maimon, after ten years of hard-
ships, wanderings and escapes, decided to take his family out
of the country. He settled in Fez. The years which Maimonides
spent there (1160-1165) were memorable for his friendship
with Abdul Arab Jbn Muisha a Moslem poet and theologian
and for the commencement of his literary activity. His energies,
were diverted towards stimulating the religious feelings of his
brethren and combating assimilation. In consequence he became
alarmed for his own safety, and in 1165 left for Egypt, where
he settled after a passing visit to the Holy Land. Cordova
taught him the humanities; Fez humanity. Cairo, besides giving
him prominence at court and in the Jewish community, was
the centre of the almost world-wide influence which he exercised
over Jewry by his monumental writings and dominant person-
ality. By 1177 Maimonides was the recognized chief of the
Cairene congregation and consulted on important matters by
communities far and wide. Here he was joined by his most
MAIN MAINA
us disciple, Joseph Aknin. But his early life in Egypt
raught with deep sorrow. His father died soon after their
arri va 1 , mid Maimonides himself suffered severely from prostration
and sickness. His brother David, jointly with whom he carried
on a trade in gems, was shipwrecked in the Indian Ocean. With
him perished the entire fortune of the family. Forced to earn
a livelihood, Maimonides turned to medicine. The fame of
his skill eventually brought him the appointment of body
physiYian to Saladin, to whom, it is said, he was so attached
that when Richard I. wrote from Ascalon, offering him a similar
post at the English court, Maimonides refused. He married
the sister of Ibn al Mali, one of the royal secretaries. In 1186,
his son Abraham was born. His remaining years were spent
in ceaseless activity and in controversy, which he sought to
avoid. He died amidst universal sorrow and veneration.
The works of Maimonides fall into three periods: (a) To the
Spanish period belong his commentary on the whole Talmud (not
fully carried out), a treatise on the calendar (Maamar ha-ibbur), a
treatise on logic (Milloth Higgayon). and his commentary on the
nah (this was called Siraj or Maor, i.e. " Light ": begun 1158,
completed 1168 in Egypt). (6) While he was in Fez, he wrote an
essay on the Sanctification of the Name of God (Maamar Kiddush
Hashem, Iggereth Hashemad). (c) The works written in Egypt were:
r to the Yemenites (Iggereth Teman or Pethah Tiqvah); Responsa
on questions of law; Biblical and Rabbinical Code (Misnheh Torah
or Yad Hahazaka, completed 1 1 80); Sepher hamitzvoth, an ab-
breviated handbook of the preceding; and his great philosophical
work Moreh Nebuhim or "the guide of the perplexed" (1190).
To these must be added certain portions of the Mishnah commentary,
such as the " Eight Chapters," the discussion on reward and punish-
ment and immortality, the Jewish Creed, which have acquired fame
as independent works.
The influence of Moses ben Maimon is incalculable. " From
Moses unto Moses there arose not one like Moses," is the verdict
of posterity. Maimonides was the great exponent of reason
in faith and toleration in theology. One of the main services
to European thought of the " Guide" was its independent
criticism of some of Aristotle's principles. His codification of
the Talmud was equally appreciated in the study of the scholar
and in practical life. Christian Europe owed much to Maimo-
nides. Not only did his " Guide " influence scholasticism in
general, but it was from his Code that the Church derived its
medieval knowledge of the Synagogue.
A complete bibliography will be found in Maimonides, by David
Yellin and Israel Abrahams (London, 1903) ; the final chapter of
that work gives a summary of the influence of Maimonides on
Christian philosophers such as Aquinas, and Jewish such as Spinoza.
The " C'.uide " has been translated into English by M. Friedlander
(1881-1885; new ed., 1905). See also Jewish Encyclopedia, articles
s.v., and the volumes edited by Guttmann, Moses ben Maimon
(Leipzig, 1908, &c.). (H. LE.)
MAIN (Lat. Moenus), a river of Germany, and the most
important right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It has two
sources, the Weisse Main (White Main), which rises in the
Fichtelgebirge on the east side of the Ochsenkopf, and the Rote
Main (Red Main), which, rising on the eastern slope of the
Frankish Jura, flows past Bayreuth. They unite 3 m. below
Kulmbach, 920 ft. above the sea. Hence the river, already
of considerable size, pursues a north-westerly direction, skirting
the spurs of the Frankish Jura in a pleasant valley. At Lich-
tenfcls the river takes a south-westerly course, which it retains
until entering the fertile basin of Bamberg. Here it receives
from the south-east the waters of its chief tributary, the Regnitz,
and enters upon its middle course. Its direction is now again
north-west, and meandering through pleasant vales and pastures
it passes Hassfflrt and reaches Schweinfurt. Its course is
now almost due south to Ochsenfurt, when it again proceeds
north-west. Continuing in this direction amid vine-clad hills,
it washes the walls of the university city of Wurzburg, and
thence, dividing the forest-clad ranges of the Spessart and
the Odenwald, reaches Gemiinden. Here it is joined from
the right by the Frankish Saale and, turning abruptly south,
receives at Wertheim the beautiful Tauber. Feudal castles
and medieval towns now crown its banks, notably, Freudenberg
and Miltenberg. From the latter it proceeds due north to
Aschaffenburg, whence passing Frankfort it pours its yellow
waters into the green waters of the Rhine just above Mainz.
The Main has a total length of 310 m. and drains a basin of
approximately 11,000 sq. m. It is navigable from the con-
fluence of the Regnitz, 240 m. from its mouth, for barges and
other small craft, and through the Ludwig Canal is connected
with the Danube.
See Ulrici, Das Maingebiel in seiner naturlichen Beschafenheit
(Kassel, 1885); E. Faber, Zur Hydrographie des Maingebieti
(Munich, 1895), and Lill, Mainthal, Main und Mainschiffahrt
(Berlin, 1904).
MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and
" might," and Lat. magnus, great), a word meaning properly
power or strength, especially physical. This use chiefly survives
in the expression " with might and main." The word is more
common as a substantival elliptical use of the adjective, which
usually has the sense of principal or chief in size, strength,
importance, &c. Thus " the main," the high open sea, is
for " main sea," cf. " mainland," the principal part of a terri-
tory excluding islands and sometimes far-projecting penin-
sulas. The expression " the Spanish main " properly meant
that part of the main land of the N.E. coast of South America
stretching from the Orinoco to the Isthmus of Panama, and
the former Spanish possessions in Central America bordering
on the Caribbean Sea, but it is often loosely used, especially
in connexion with the buccaneers, of the Caribbean Sea itself.
The term " main " is also thus used of a principal pipe or cable
for conducting gas, water, electricity, &c. The elliptical
use does not appear, however, in such expressions as main
road, line, stream. Another use of the .word " main " has
a somewhat obscure history. It appears as a term in the game
of hazard, and also in cock-fighting. In the last it is used for
a match, and for the cocks engaged in a match. In hazard
it is the number called by the " caster " before the dice are
thrown; this may be any number from five to nine inclusive.
The usual derivation is from the French main, a hand, but
according to the New English Dictionary there is no evidence
for this, and the more probable explanation is that it is an
adaptation of " main " meaning principal or chief. From
this use of the word in hazard the expression " main chance "
is derived. " Main," a shortened form of domain or demesne,
only now survives in Scotland, usually in the plural " mains "
for a home farm.
MAINA (or MANI) and MAINOTES, a district and people
of the Peloponnesus, the modern Morea. Maina is the country
occupied by the mountain range of Taygetus from Sparta to
Cape Matapan, the ancient Taenarum. It is now divided
between the modern districts Oetylos and Gythion. Before
the organization of the present kingdom of Greece, Maina
was subdivided into "Eo> 'M.&vij, Outer Maina, from the frontier
of Kalamata, on the Gulf of Messenia, to Vitylo (Oetylos)
and inland tojthe summit of Taygetus; KarcoMajT), Lower Maina,
from Vitylo to Cape Matapan; and Mra MA>r/, or Inner Maina,
on the east, and on the Gulf of Laconia as far as the plain of
Elos. It contained over a hundred villages. The country
is mountainous and inaccessible, a formation to which it owes
its historical importance. The Mainotes claim to descend
from the Spartans, and probably represent the Eleuthero,
or free, Laconians who were delivered by Rome from the power
of Sparta, as is suggested by the traces of ancient Greek in
their dialect and by their physical type. Their country being
a natural fortress, they were able to defend themselves against
the Byzantine emperors, the barbarians who broke into the
empire, the Latin princes of Achaea of the house of Villehardouin,
and the Turks. As their country is also poor and maritime,
they were early tempted to take to piratical adventure. Gibbon
says that " in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus they
had acquired the name of Mainotes, under which they dis-
honour the claim of liberty by the inhuman pillage of all that
is shipwrecked on their rocky shore." Their neighbours gave
their country the name of " Kakaboulia " the land of wicked
counsels. The passes of their mountains were elaborately
fortified and their villages were full of fortified towers
MAINE, DUCHESSE DU MAINE, SIR H. J. S.
432
(pyrgoi) from which they formed their own favourite
epithet, Maina Polypyrgos many-towered Maina. On the
western side it also contains the remains of feudal
keeps, erected by William II. de Villehardouin (1245-1278)
and other Latin princes of Achaea. The Mainotes did not
become Christians till the gth century. From the isth till
the 1 7th century they recognized a family which claimed to
belong to the Comneni of Trebizond as head chiefs. But the
real power was in the hands of the chiefs of the different families
and villages, who formed a turbulent and martial aristocracy.
Enduring and ferocious feuds were common among them.
In the course of the i8th century the family of Mavromicheli
(Black Michael), which belonged to lower Maina, established
a general headship over the Mainotes after much strife and
many murders. When Russia endeavoured to promote a
rising against the Turks in the Morea in 1770 the Mainotes
acted with her, and the strength of their country enabled them
to escape the vengeance of the Turks when the Christians
were cynically deserted by the Russians. In 1777 their prac-
tical independence was recognized by the sultan's officers.
During the Greek war of independence the Mainotes were
chiefly led by Petros (Petro Bey) Mavromicheli, known to
his countrymen as the king of Maina, who undoubtedly cher-
ished the hope of establishing a principality for himself. The
freedom of Greece, for which he had fought in his own way,
proved the ruin of his ambition. He found the new order
less compatible with his schemes than the Turkish dominion.
Petro Bey was imprisoned by the Greek president Capodistrias
(see CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT), who was in revenge murdered
by the Mavromichelis. The family were finally content to
become courtiers and officials in the reign of King Otto I.
In the iQth century Maina was but little affected by civilization,
except in so far as the efficiency of modern navies debarred
the Mainotes from their old resource of piracy.
See W. Martin Leake, Travels in the Morea (1830) ; M. E. Yemeniz,
"La Maina," in Revue des deux mondes (March I, 1865); and
Philipson, " Zur Ethnographic des Peloponnes," in Petermanns
Mittheilungen, vol. 36 (Gotha).
MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTS DE BOURBON, DUCH-
ESSE DU (1676-1753), daughter of Henri Jules de Bourbon,
prince de Conde and Anne of Bavaria, was born on the 8th of
November 1676. On the igth of March 1692 she married
Louis Auguste de Bourbon, due du Maine, son of Louis XIV.
and Mme de Montespan. The duchesse du Maine held a little
court at Sceaux, where she gave brilliant entertainments
and immersed herself in political intrigues. Displeased with
the action of the regent Orleans in degrading the illegitimate
children of Louis XIV. from their precedence above the peers
of France, she induced her husband to join in the Cellamare
conspiracy for the transference of the regency to the king of
Spain. The plot, however, was discovered, and she was im-
prisoned in 1719. The following year she returned to Sceaux,
where she resumed her salon and gathered round her a brilliant
company of wits and poets. She died in Paris on the 23rd
of January 1753.
See G6n6ral de Piapape, La Duchesse du Maine (1910).
MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822-1888), English
comparative jurist and historian, son of Dr James Maine,
of Kelso, Roxburghshire, was born on the isth of August 1822.
He was at school at Christ's Hospital, and thence went up
to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge
he was one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time.
He won a Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic
in 1844, being also senior chancellor's medallist in classics.
Shortly afterwards he accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall.
In 1847 he was appointed regius professor of civil law, and he
was called to the bar three years later; he held this chair till
1854. Even the rudiments of Roman law were not then in-
cluded in the ordinary training of English lawyers; it was
assumed at the universities that any good Latin scholar could
qualify himself at short notice for keeping up such tradition
of civilian studies as survived. Maine cannot have known
much Roman law in 1847, but in 1856 he contributed to the
Cambridge Essays the essay on Roman law and legal education
republished in the later editions of Village Communities, which
was the first characteristic evidence of his genius. Meanwhile
he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of Court,
in the first of their many half-hearted attempts at legal edu-
cation, in 1852. Lectures delivered by Maine in this capacity
were the groundwork of Ancient Law (1861), the book by
which his reputation was made at one stroke. Its object,
as modestly stated in the preface, was " to indicate some of
the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are reflected in ancient
law, and to point out the relation of those ideas to modern
thought." Within a year of its publication the post of legal
member of council in India was offered to Maine, then a junior
member of the bar with little practice, few advantages of con-
nexion, and no political or official claims. He declined once
on grounds of health; the very next year the office was again
vacant. This time Maine was persuaded to accept, not that
his health had improved, but that he thought India might
not make it much worse. It turned out that India suited
him much better than Cambridge or London. His work,
like most of the work done by Englishmen in India in time
of peace, was not of a showy kind its value is shown by the
fact that he was asked to prolong his services beyond the
regular term of five years, and returned to England only in
1869. The subjects on which it was his duty to advise the
government of India were as much political as legal. They
ranged from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab,
or the introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs
of unorthodox Hindus, to the question how far the study of
Persian should be required or encouraged among European
civil servants. On the civil marriage question in particular,
and some years earlier on the still more troublesome one of
allowing the remarriage of native converts to Christianity,
his guidance, being not only learned but statesmanlike, was
of the greatest value. Plans of codification, moreover, were
prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which
were carried into effect by his successors, Sir J. Fitzjames
Stephen and Dr Whitley Stokes. The results are open to
criticism in details, but form on the whole a remarkable achieve-
ment in the conversion of unwritten and highly technical
law into a body of written law sufficiently clear to be adminis-
tered by officers to many of whom its ideas and language are
foreign. All this was in addition to the routine of legislative
and consulting . work and the establishment of the legislative
department of the government of India on substantially its
present footing.
Maine's power of swiftly assimilating new ideas and appre-
ciating modes of thought and conduct remote from modern
Western life came into contact with the facts of Indian society
at exactly the right time, and his colleagues and other competent
observers expressed the highest opinion of his work. In return
Maine brought back from his Indian office a store of knowledge
which enriched all his later writings, though he took India
by name for his theme only once. This essay on India was
his contribution to the composite work entitled The Reign of
Queen Victoria (ed. T. H. Ward, 1887). Not having been
separately published, it is perhaps the least known of Maine's
writings; but its combination of just perception and large
grasp with command of detail is not easily matched outside
W. Stubbs's prefaces to some of the chronicles in the Rolls
series, and (more lately) F. W. Maitland's monographs. As
vice-chancellor of the university of Calcutta, Maine commented,
with his usual pregnant ingenuity, on the results produced
by the contact of Eastern and Western thought. Three
of these addresses were published, wholly or in part, in the
later editions of Village Communities; the substance of others
is understood to be embodied in the Cambridge Rede lecture
of 1875, which is to be found in the same volume. The practi-
cal side of Maine's experience was not long lost to India; he
became a member of the secretary of state's council in 1871,
and remained so for the rest of his life. In the same year
MAINE
433
he was gazetted a K. C.S.I. In 1869 Maine was appointed
to tlio (hair of historical and comparative jurisprudence newly
led in the university of Oxford by Corpus Christi College.
Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election amounted
to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue
in his own way the work he had begun in Ancient Law. During
the succeeding years he published the principal matters of
his lectures in a carefully revised literary form: Village Com-
munities in the East and the West (1871) ; Early History of Institu-
tions (1875); Early Law and Custom (1883). In all these works
the phenomena of societies in an archaic stage, whether still
capable of observation or surviving in a fragmentary manner
among more modern surroundings or preserved in contemporary
records, are brought into line, often with singular felicity,
-tablish and illustrate the normal process of development
in legal and political ideas.
In 1877 the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where
Maine had formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were
two strong candidates whose claims were so nearly equal that
it was difficult to elect either; the difficulty was solved by a
unanimous invitation to Maine to accept the post. His accep-
tance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair, though not
continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later con-
siderations of a somewhat similar kind led to his election to
succeed Sir William Harcourt as Whewell professor of inter-
national law at Cambridge. His all too short performance in
this office is represented by a posthumous volume which had not
received his own final revision, International Law (1888).
Meanwhile Maine had published in 1885 his one work of
speculative politics, a volume of essays on Popular Government,
designed to show that democracy is not in itself more stable
than any other form of government, and that there is no neces-
sary connexion between democracy and progress. The book
was deliberately unpopular in tone; it excited much contro-
versial comment and some serious and useful discussion.
In 1886 there appeared in the Quarterly Review (clxii. 181)
an article on the posthumous work of J. F. M'Lennan, edited
and completed by his brother, entitled " The Patriarchal
Theory." The article, though necessarily unsigned (in accor-
dance with the rule of the Quarterly as it then stood), was Maine's
reply to the M'Lennan brothers' attack on the historical recon-
struction of the Indo-European family system put forward
in Ancient Law and supplemented in Early Law and Custom.
Maine was generally averse from controversy, but showed
on this occasion that it was not for want of controversial power.
IK- < arried the war back into the invader's country, and charged
J. F. M'Lennan's theory of primitive society with owing its
plausible appearance of universal validity to genetal neglect
of the Indo-European evidence and misapprehension of such
portions of it as M'Lennan did attempt to handle.
Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way
towards the end of 1887. He went to the Riviera under medical
advice, and died at Cannes on the 3rd of February 1888. He
left a wife and two sons, of whom the elder died soon after-
wards.
An excellent summary of Maine's principal writings may
be seen in Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir. The prompt
and full recognition of Maine's genius by continental publicists
must not pass unmentioned even in the briefest notice. France,
Germany, Italy, Russia have all contributed to do him honour;
this is the more remarkable as one or two English publicists
of an older school signally failed to appreciate him. Maine
warned his countrymen against the insularity which results
from ignorance of all law and institutions save one's own;
his example has shown the benefit of the contrary habit. His
prominent use of Roman law and the wide range of his obser-
vation have made his works as intelligible abroad as at home,
and thereby much valuable information for example, concern-
ing the nature of British supremacy in India, and the position
of native institutions there has been made the property of
the world of letters instead of 'the peculiar and obscure pos-
session of a limited class of British public servants. Foreign
readers of Maine have perhaps understood even better than
English ones that he is not the propounder of a system but
the pioneer of a method, and that detailed criticism, profitable
as it may be and necessary as in time it must be, will not leave
the method itself less valid or diminish the worth of the master's
lessons in its use. The rather small bulk of Maine's published
and avowed work may be explained partly by a fine literary
sense which would let nothing go out under his name unfinished,
partly by the drawbacks incident to precarious health. Maine's
temperament was averse from the labour of minute criticism,
and his avoidance of it was no less a matter of prudence. But
it has to be remembered that Maine also wrote much which
was never publicly acknowledged. Before he went to India
he was one of the original contributors to the Saturday Review,
founded in 1855, and the inventor of its name. Like his inti-
mate friend Fitzjames Stephen, he was an accomplished jour-
nalist, enjoyed occasional article-writing as a diversion from
official duties, and never quite abandoned it. The practice
of such writing probably counted for something in the freedom
and clearness of Maine's style and the effectiveness of his
dialectic. His books are a model of scientific exposition which
never ceases to be literature.
See Sir A. Lyall and others, in Law Quart. Rev. iv. 129 seq. (1888) ;
Sir F. Pollock, " Sir Henry Maine and his Work," in Oxford Lectures,
&fc. (1890); "Sir H. Maine as a Jurist," Edin. Rev. (July 1893);
Introduction and Notes to new ed. of Ancient Law (1906); Sir
M. E. Grant Duff, Sir Henry Maine: a brief Memoir of his Life, &c.
(1892); Notes from a Diary, passim; L. Stephen, "Maine" in
Diet. Nat. Bio?. (1893); Paul Vinogradoff, The Teaching of Sir
Henry Maine (1904). (F. Po.)
MAINE, an old French province, bounded N. by Normandy,
E. by Orleanais, S. by Touraine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany.
Before the Roman Conquest the region occupied by this pro-
vince was inhabited by the Aulerci Cenomanni and the Aulerci
Diablintes; under the Roman empire it consisted of two civitates
comprised in the Provincia Lugdunensis Tertia the Civitas
Cenomannorum and the Civitas Diablintum, whose chief towns
were Le Mans and Jublains. These two civitates were united
during the barbarian period and formed a single bishopric,
that of Le Mans, suffragan to the metropolitan see of Tours.
Under the Merovingians and Carolingians the diocese of Le
Mans corresponded to the Pagus Cenomanensis, and in the
feudal period to the county of Maine. In the i6th century
the county of Maine, with the addition of Perche, formed
a military government the province of Maine. Since 1790
this province has been represented approximately by the
departments of Sarthe and Mayenne, the respective capitals
of which are Le Mans and Laval. In 1855 the bishopric of
Laval was separated from that of Le Mans. Maine was evange-
lized in the 3rd century by St Julian. After forming part of
the kingdom of Syagrius, it was conquered by Clovis at the
end of the 5th century. Owing to the scarcity of documents
the history of Maine until the end of the gth century is merged
in the history of the bishops of Le Mans, which has come down
to us in the Aclus pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degenlium
(ed. Busson-Ledru, Le Mans, 1901), composed under the direc-
tion of Bishop Aldric (832-857). Roger (c. 892-0. 898) was
perhaps the first hereditary count of Maine; the counts whose
existence is certain are Hugh I. (c. Q3O-before 992), Hugh II.
(before 992-1015), Herbert I. (1015-1032 to 1036), Hugh III.
(1032 to 1036-1051), Herbert II. (1051-1062), William the
Bastard (1063-1087), Robert Curthose (1087-1091), Hugh IV.
(1091-1092) and Helias (1092-1110). Maine, which was
in the vassalage of Anjou as early as the 9th century, was
united to Anjou in mo by the marriage of Count Helias's
daughter to Fulk V., count of Anjou, and passed to the English
crown in 1154, when Henry Plantagenet (who was born at
Le Mans) became king of England. In 1204, after the con-
fiscation of the estates of John of England, Maine was united
to France; in 1246 it was separated from France by Louis IX.,
who handed it over to his brother Charles, count of Provence.
Again united to France in 1328, it was given in 1356 as an
apanage to Louis, second son of King John II., and did not
434
MAINE
definitely return to the French crown until 1481, after the
death of Charles II., count of Maine. During the Hundred
Years' War Maine was taken in 1425 by the English, who lost
it in 1448.
See Histoire de I'eglise du Mans, by Dom Piqlin (Paris, 1851-1858),
which is useful but out of date ; Revue historique et archeologique du
Maine (1876); La Province du Maine (1893); B. Haureau, Histoire
litteraire du Maine (1870-1877).
MAINE, a North Atlantic state of the United States of
America, the most north-easterly state in the Union, and the
largest of the New England group. It lies between 43 4' and
47 27' 33" N., and between 66 56' 48" and 71 6' 41* W. It
is bounded N.W. by the Canadian province of Quebec; N.
and E. by the Canadian province of New Brunswick, from
which it is separated in part by the natural barriers of the
Saint John River, the Grand (or Schoodic) Lakes, the Saint
Croix River, and Passamaquoddy Bay; S.S.E. by the Atlantic
Ocean; and W. by New Hampshire, the Piscataqua and Salmon
Falls rivers being the natural boundary lines at the S.W. The
area of the state is 33,040 sq. m., 3145 sq. m. being water
surface.
Maine attracts more summer visitors than any other state
in the Union. This is due to the cool and refreshing summer
climate; the picturesque coast and its many islands, which are
favourite grounds for camps and summer cottages; the moun-
tains, and the beautiful lakes and rivers, many of which afford
opportunities for good fishing and canoeing. Among the more
widely known resorts are Mount Desert Island, on which is
Bar Harbor, a fashionable summer place of great beauty;
Long Island, Orr's and other islands in Casco Bay; Old Orchard,
with a gently sloping white sand sea-beach 9 m. long, Rangeley
and Moosehead Lakes, favourite resorts of fishermen and hunters;
Mt Katahdin, in the heart of the moose country; and Poland
Springs (38 m. by rail from Portland) in Androscoggin county,
near lake Anasigunticook. About 1870, camps, summer cot-
tages, summer hotels and boarding houses began to multiply
throughout the state. The needs of this summer population
gave a new impulse and a new turn to agriculture; and the
demand for souvenirs revived among the Indians basket-
weaving, moccasin-making, and such crafts.
Physical Features. The surface is a gently rolling upland, form-
ing a part of the " New England uplands," above which rise isolated
mountain peaks and clusters of peaks, and below which are cut
numerous river valleys. 1 The highest peak is Mt Katahdin (5200
ft.), a little N.E. of the centre of the state in Piscataquis county,
which rises from a comparatively level upland. South-west of
Katahdin, in Franklin county, are most of the other high peaks
of the state: Saddleback Mountain (4000 ft.), Mt Abraham (3388
ft.), Mt Bigelow (3600 ft.), and Mt Blue (3200 ft.). A little N.
of this line of mountain peaks is the water-parting which divides
the state into a north slope and a south slope. The north slope
descends gently both to the N. and to the E. ; although quite hilly
in the middle and western portions it is so poorly drained that
swamps abound in all sections. The south slope which contains
nearly all the mountains and is generally more hilly, has a mean
descent toward the sea of about 7 ft. to the mile, the fall being
greater in the W., where the mountains are high at the N. and the
shore low at the S., and less to the E., where the water-parting is
lower and the shore high and rocky.
After the uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general
" uplands," and develop well marked valleys for themselves, came
the period of the great continental glaciation. The glacier or ice
sheet overran all Maine, irregularly scouring out the bed rock to
produce rock basins, damming up many river valleys with glacial
deposits and completely disarranging the drainage lines. When the
ice melted, the rock basins and the dammed-up valleys filled with
water to produce lakes. This is the origin of the numerous lakes of
Maine, which give it some of its most beautiful scenery, and help to
make it a holiday resort in summer. These lakes are about 1600 in
number, are scattered in all parts of the state, are especially numerous
at high elevations, and have an aggregate area of more than
2000 sq. m. Few other regions have so many large lakes so variously
1 This condition results from the fact that Maine and the adjacent
region were worn down nearly to sea-level by stream erosion, except
certain peaks and ridges inland ; then the region was elevated and
numerous river valleys were cut down below the general erosion
surface formed before. Thus we have a general " upland surface,"
above which the mountain remnants tower, and below which the
rivers have been entrenched.
situated, and with such beauty of aspect and surroundings,
contribute largely to a constant supply of water power for
the course of the rivers of S.W. Maine are exceptionally well adapted ;
many of them abound in trout, salmon, togue, black bass and
pickerel ; and near them there is still much game. Moosehead
Lake (about 120 sq. m. ; 35 m. long and from 2 m. to 10 m. wide),
on the boundary between Piscataquis and Somerset counties, is
the largest in Maine and the largest inland body of water wholly
in New England; the Kennebec River is its principal outlet and
Mt Kineo rises abruptly to about 1760. ft. above the sea (about
700 ft. above the lake) on its eastern shore. Other lakes, such as
the Rangeley Lakes, 2 Chesuncook and Twin Lakes on the Penobscot,
and the Grand or Schoodic Lakes, in the western boundary at the
head waters of the Saint Croix River, equal or surpass Moosehead in
picturesqueness. The glacier or ice sheet, above referred to, de-
posited till or boulder clay, which was compacted under the enormous
pressure of the ice sheet to form the " hard-pan " referred to later.
The glaciation is also responsible for the poor soil of most of the state,
for, although the rocks are the same crystallines which give good
soils further south in unglaciated regions, all the decayed portions
of the Maine rocks have been removed by glacial erosion, revealing
fresh, barren rock over great areas, or depositing the rather sterile
hard-pan as a thin coating in other places.
After the uplift came a period of subsidence, during which this
region sank one or more thousand feet, allowing the sea to encroach
on the land and run far inland into the previously made river
valleys. This depression probably occurred during the glacial
period, perhaps toward its close, and is responsible for the second
most important feature of Maine physiography, the embayed coast.
To this subsidence are due the picturesque coastal scenery, the
numerous islands and bays, the good harbours and the peculiar
coast-line.
The shortest distance between the N.E. and the S.W. extremiti
of the coast is only 225 m. ; but, on account of projections an
indentations, the coast-line measures not less than 2500 m. Th
headlands, the deep indentations and the numerous islands in the
bays and beyond produce a beautiful mingling of land and sea and
give to the whole ocean front the appearance of a fringed and
tasselled border; west of the mouth of the Kennebec River are a
marshy shore and many low grassy islands; but east of this river
the shore becomes more and more bold, rising in the precipitous
cliffs and rounded summits of Mt Desert and Quoddy Head, 1527
and 1000 ft. high respectively. All along the coast-line there
are capacious and well-protected harbours, Casco, Penobscot,
Frenchman's, Machias and Passamaquoddy bays being especially
noteworthy.
After the subsidence came another period of uplift, possibly still
in progress. This uplift has brought up submarine deposits of
sand, &c., to form little coastal plains at some points along the
coast, providing good land for settlement and clay for brick and
pottery. Further evidence of this uplift is found in old beach lines
now well above sea-level.
The principal river systems of Maine are the Saint John on the
north slope, and the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Androscoggin,
and the Saco on the south slope. The mean height of the basin
of the St John is exceeded only by that of the Androscoggin, but
the fall of the St John River through the greater part of its course in
Maine is only sufficient to give a sluggish or a gentle current. The
Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco have numerous falls
and rapids.
Fauna. The animal life of Maine shows a mixture of northern
and southern forms, and very little that is peculiar as compared with
surrounding regions. The state has moose, caribou and deer,
especially in the northern part. The black bear, wolf, catamount,
wolverine, wild cat, fox, beaver, racoon, marten, sable, woodchuck,
skunk, otter, mink, rabbit and squirrel are also found. Geese, ducks
and other water fowl frequent the lakes and bays in the migratory
season, and eagles, gulls, hawks, kingfishers, owls, plover, woodcock,
" partridge " (ruffed grouse), robins, orioles, bobolinks, blue birds,
swallows, sparrows, and many other insectivorous birds arc common.
In the inland waters salmon, trout, togue (Salvelinus namaycush),
pickerel and bass abound; along the shore there are lobsters,
clams and scallops (Pecten irradians) ; and off the shore are herring,
alewives, mackerel, cod, halibut, haddock, smelts, hake, menhaden,
porgies and porpoises. The game in the North Woods attracts large
numbers of sportsmen during the autumn season.
Flora. Maine was formerly covered with forests, principally of
white pine and spruce, but mixed with these were some hemlock,
tamarack, cedar, and, on the south slope, birch, poplar, oak, maple
and beech. Chestnut and walnut are rare and are found only near
1 This name is applied to a chain of lakes (the Rangeley, or
Oquossoc, the Cupsuptic, the Mooselookmeguntic, the Molechunka-
munk or Upper Richardson, the Welokenebacook or Lower
Richardson, and the Umbagog) in Franklin and Oxford counties,
in the western part of the state; the Umbagog extends into New
Hampshire and its outlet helps to form the Androscoggin River.
These lakes are connected by sttaits, have a total area of betwee"
80 and 90 sq. m., and are from 1200 to 1500 ft. above the sea. The
are sometimes called the Androscoggin Lakes.
MAINE
435
the south-west border. In 1900 about 21 % of the state's area was
eel, .ind much besides had once been cleared, but not being
! to agriculture had become reforested. Of fruit trees the chief
apple. The plum, cherry and pear also thrive. The peach
grows well only in the south-west near the border. Species of grape,
gooseberry and currant are native, and others are cultivated with
iitage. The blackberry, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry
grow wild in profusion throughout the state.
-The climate of the state is moist and, for its latitude,
cold. Extremes of temperature are not so great as farther inland
in the same latitude; for the summer heats are tempered by the
nd the cool north winds, and the winter cold is so constant as
rely felt than the changing temperature of more
southern districts. The summers are short, there being only about
4J months between frosts even in the southern sections, and the mean
summer temperature is about 62 F. The mean winter temperature
proximaU'ly 20 F., and the mean annual temperature for the
state is 42" F., that for the north slope being about 5 F. less
than that for the south slope. Although the temperature remains
v steadily below the freezing point for at least three months of
the year, many of the harbours remain unobstructed; for the tides
and the prevailing off-shore winds break up and drive off the ice.
The precipitation is about 42 in. annually, and is distributed very
evenly throughout the year, ICH-II in. of rain or its equivalent in
snow falling each season. During 4i months about 44% of the
precipitation is in the form of snow; but the snow-fall varies
from about 60 in. on the coast to more than 100 in. on the north
. The winds are variable; at no season of the year is it usual
liem to blow from the same direction for many days in succession.
But, with the exception of those from the west, they are maritime and
consequently moisture-bearing. In summer, especially in the latter
part of it, the cool and moist N. or N.E. winds often cause a con-
ible part of the state to be enveloped in fog for several days in
,sion.
Agriculture. The soil is for the most part glacial drift, containing
a large mixture of clay with sand or gravel, and the sub-soil is mostly
" hard-pan," i.e. mingled clay and boulders which have been so
much compressed by glacial action as to make the mixture hard and
like. Except in the valley of the Aroostook and along the
Kriiiu .!><<, the Penobscot, and some other rivers, the soil is generally
unfit for cultivation, there being too little alluvium mixed with it
to make it fertile. In the Arroostook valley, however, is the largest
undivided area of good arable land in all New England, the soil being
.-[>, porous, yellow loam well adapted to the growth of cereals
and to market gardening. The most sterile regions are on the
mountains and along the coast. Because of the cold climate, the
large areas in which there is little or no good arable land, the growing
demand for timber land, and the large and constant supply of water-
power afforded by the principal rivers, agriculture in Maine, as in
all the other New England states except Vermont, is a smaller
industry than manufacturing; in 1900 there were 87,932 people
4od in manufacturing and only 76,932 engaged in agriculture.
Only 32-9% of the state's land area was in that year included
in farms, only 37-9% of this farm land was improved, and
only 16-3% of the improved land was in crops other than
hay and forage. Nevertheless, as indicated by the unusually large
proportion of farmers who either own their farms or pay cash rent
for them, farming usually is profitable. The number of farms in
1900 was 59,299; of these 18,644 contained between 50 and too
and 17,191 contained between IOO and 175 acres, the average
being 106-2 acres; 54,263 -(or 91-5 %) were operated by
their owners, 775 were operated by part owners, 2030 by cash
tenants, and only 745 by share tenants. Beginning with the middle
of the igth century, the increasing competition of the more pro-
ductive soils of the West, the growth of urban population in the
state, and the number of summer visitors effected the reforesting
of much poor land and the more intensive cultivation of the better
arable land. The cultivation of cereals, for example, has given way
to a marked extent in nearly all the farming districts except in
Aroostook county to market gardening, dairying, and egg and
poultry production. The number of dairy cows increased from
157,240 in 1890 to 183,000 in 1908, and the annual production of
milk increased from 57,969,791 gallons in 1890 to 99,586,188 gallons
in 1900. The number of other neat cattle (180,878 in 1900; 151,000
in 1908) decreased during every decade from 1860 to 1900; the
number of sheep in 1900 was 427,209 (31-9% less than in 1890),
and in 1908 it was 267,000; but the number of horses in 1890
and 1900 was about the same (140,310 in 1900, but only 116,000
in 1908). Hay is still by far the largest crop, the acreage of it and
of forage in 1899 being 1,270,254 acres, or 76-5% of that of
all crops, and the yield was 1,133,932 tons; in 1907 the acreage
was 1,400,000 acres, and the crop was 2,100,000 tons. The acreage
of cereals decreased from 187,013 in 1880, when agriculture in
Aroostook county was little developed, to 166,896 in 1899, when
the cereal acreage in Aroostook county alone was 82,069. Maine
potatoes are of a superior quality, and the acreage of this crop
increased from 49,617 in 1889 to 118,000 in 1907. Sweet Indian
corn, cabbages, turnips, cucumbers and tomatoes are grown in
large quantities. The fruit crop consists very largely of
apples and strawberries (1,421,773 bushels of apples and 1,066,860
quarts of strawberries in 1899). The output of eggs increased from
9,369,534 dozen in 1889 to 13,304,150 dozen in 1899. The most
productive dairy section of the state is a belt extending from the
south-west corner N.E. entirely across the state and embracing
the whole or parts of the counties of York, Oxford, Cumberland,
Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot and Aroostook.
Lumber Industry. Except in the remote parts, the valuable white
pine, for which Maine was long noted, has been cut; but the wood-
land of the state was estimated in 1900 at 23,700 sq. m. or 79%
of its area. The tendency is for this area to increase, for the
establishment between 1890 and 1900 of large paper and pulp
mills on some of the principal rivers of the south slope greatly
increased the value of forests, especially those of spruce and poplar.
The state makes large appropriations for preventing and extinguish-
ing forest fires, and in 1903 established a department of forestry in
the university of Maine. Good spruce, which is by far the most
valuable timber in the state and is used most largely for the manu-
facture of paper and pulp, stands in large quantities in the St John,
Penobscot, Androscoggin and Kennebec basins. Poplar, also used
for the manufacture of paper, abounds in several sections of the
south slope, but is most abundant in the basin of the Kennebec.
White birch, used largely for the manufacture of spools, is found
throughout a wide belt extending across the middle of the state.
There is much cedar on the north slope. Oak, maple and beech are
rather scarce. A new growth of white pine and other timber is
gradually becoming valuable. The value of the timber product
increased from $11,849,654 in 1890 to $13,489,401 in 1900, and to
Si7.937.683 in 1905.
Fisheries. Fishing has always been an important industry in
Maine. From 1901 to 1904 inclusive, the average annual catch,
amounted to 195,335,646 Ib, and its average value was $5,557,083.
In 1908, according to state reports, the catch was 185,476,343 ID,
valued at $3,849,900. Herrings are caught in largest quantities,
(in 1908, according to state reports, 68,210,800 Ib, valued at
$450,665),' and Maine is noted for the canning of the smaller her-
rings under the name of " sardines." In 1908, according to state
reports, the take of lobsters was 17,635,980 Ib, valued at $1,558,252.
Maine markets more clams than any other state in the Union,
and the catches of cod, hake, haddock, smelt, mackerel, swordfish,
shad, pollock, cusk, salmon, alewives, eels and halibut are of
importance. The scallop fishery is becoming more and more
valuable. For the protection and promotion of the lobster fishery
the United States government has estabjished a lobster hatchery
at Boothbay Harbor; and the state legislature enacted a law in
1895 prohibiting the taking of lobsters less than loi in. in length
(one effect of this law being to drive the lobster-canning industry
from the state) and another Taw in 1903 for the protection of lobsters,
with eggs attached. This latter law directs the state fish commis-
sioner to purchase such lobsters whenever caught and either to.
liberate them or to sell them to the United States for keeping in a
fish hatchery.
Minerals. The principal mineral products are granite, limestone,
slate, clay products and mineral waters. In 1905 Maine held first
rank among the states of the Union as a producer of granite, the
value of the output being $2,713,795. In 1907 Maine's granite
was valued at $2,146,420, that of Massachusetts at $2,328,777,
and that of Vermont at $2,693,889. The stone is of superior
quality, and the largest part of it is used for building purposes;
much of it is used as paving blocks and some for monuments. It
abounds all along the coast east of the Kennebec and on the adjacent
islands, and is found farther inland, especially about the Rangeley
lakes in Franklin and Oxford counties, and, near Mt Katahdin,
in Penobscot and Piscataquis counties. The principal quarries,
however, are situated in positions most convenient for shipment by
water, in the vicinity of Penobscot bay and in Kennebec county,
and these have supplied the bulk of the material used in the con-
struction of many prominent buildings and monuments in the
United States. The Fox Island granite comes from the quarries on
Vinalhaven Island and the surrounding islands, and on Vinalhaven,
were quarried monolithic columns 51-5 to 54 ft. long and 6 ft.
in diameter for the Cathedral of St John the Divine in New
York City. Black granite was quarried in 1907 at 12 quarries,
in York, Lincoln, Waldo, Penobscot and Washington counties.
Limestone abounds, especially in the south-east part of the
state, but it is quarried chiefly in Knox county. As its colour
blue and blue-black streaked with white renders it un-
desirable for building purposes, nearly all of it is burned into
lime, which has become a very important article of manu-
facture in the city of Rockland; the industry dates back to
1733 in Knox county. In 1907 the quantity of lime burned in
Maine was 159,494 tons and its value was $747,947. Slate is
quarried chiefly in Piscataquis county, most of it being used for
roofing, but some for blackboards; in 1907 the amount quarried
in Maine was valued at $236,106. About 1896 some remarkably
white and pure feldspar began to be quarried in Androscoggin,
Oxford and Sagadahoc counties, but afterwards the spar mined
in Maine was of less excellent quality; in 1907 the production in
Maine was valued at $157,334, the total for the entire country being;
$409,069. Clay is obtained in various places, and in 1905 the total
value of the clay products was $619,294. In Oxford couaty
436
MAINE
tourmaline, spodumene (or kunzite) and beryl occur, the tourmaline
crystals being notably large and beautiful. Mineral water occurs
in many localities, particularly in Androscoggin, York, Cumberland
and Oxford counties; the most famous springs are the Poland
Springs in Androscoggin county. Most of the mineral waters
bottled in the state are chalybeate and slightly alkaline saline;
their average temperature is about 43. In 1908 27 springs were
reported, their aggregate sales amounting to 1,182,322 gallons.
Copper, gold alloyed with platinum, iron ore, barytes, graphite and
lead occur in small quantities in the state. In 1908 the total mineral
product of the state was valued at $7,044,678.
Manufactures. Although Maine has no coal and only a very
small amount of iron ore within her borders for the encouragement
of manufacturing, yet the abundance of fine timber and the numerous
coves, bays and navigable streams along or near the coast pro-
moted ship-building from the first, and this was the leading industry
of the state until about the middle of the igth century, when
wooden ships began to be supplanted by those of iron and steel.
Until about the same time, when the Maine liquor law was passed,
the manufacture of rum from molasses, received in exchange for
lumber and fish in the West Indies, was also an important industry.
It was not until early in the igth century that the large and constant
supply of water power afforded by the rivers began to be used to
any considerable extent. The first cotton mill was built at Bruns-
wick on the Androscoggin about 1809. and from 1830 the develop-
ment of cotton manufacturing was rapid; woollen mills followed,
and late in the I9th century were erected some of the largest paper
and pulp mills in the country, which are run by water power from
the rivers, and use the spruce and poplar timber in the river basins.
The total value of the manufactures of the state increased from
$95,689,500 in 1890 to $127,361,485 in 1900; and in 1905 the value
of factory-made products alone was 144,020,197, or 27-5 %
greater than their value in igoo. 1 Measured by the value of the
output, paper and wood pulp rose from fifth among the state's
manufactures in 1890 to third in 1900 and to first in 1905; from
$3,281,051 in 1890 to $13,223,275 in 1900, an increase of 303%
within the decade, and to $22,951,124 in 1905, a further in-
crease of 73-6% in this period. Lumber and timber products
ranked second (1905) $11,849,654 in 1890, $13,489,401 in 1900,
and $17,937,683 in 1905. Cotton goods ranked third (1905) in
value $15,316,909 in 1890, $14,631,086 in 1900, and $15,404,823 in
1905. Woollen goods ranked fourth (1905) $8,737,653 in 1890,
$13,744,126 in 1900, an increase of 57-3% within the decade; and
the value of the factory-made product alone in 1905 was $13,960,600,
or 20- 1 % greater than in 1900. Boots and shoes ranked fifth (1905)
$12,295,847 in 1900, and $12,351,293 in 1905. Fish, canned and
preserved, followed next, $1,660,881 in 1890 and $4,779,773 in
1900, an increase within the decade of 187-8%, most of which
was in one branch the canning of small herring under the
name "sardines"; from 1900 to 1905 the increase was slight,
only 8275,358, or 5-8 /. In the value of its manufactures as
compared with those of the other states of the Union, in wooden
ships and boats, Maine in 1900 and in 1905 was outranked by New
York only; in canned and preserved fish by Washington only (the
value of fish canned and preserved in Maine in 1900 was 21-7%
of the total for the United States, and in 1905 19-2%); in the
output of woollen mills by Massachusetts and Pennsylvania only;
in the output of paper mills by New York and Massachusetts only.
It ranked ninth in 1900 and tenth in 1905 in the value of its cotton
goods. Portland, Lewiston, Biddeford, and Auburn are the leading
manufacturing cities, and in 1905 the total value of their manu-
factures was 21-5% of those of the entire state. But from
1900 to 1905 the value of manufactures grew most rapidly in Rock-
land (especially noted for lime), the increase being from $1,243,881
to $1,822,591 (46-5%), and in Waterville, where the increase
was from $2,283,536 to $3,069,309 (34-4%). Among the largest
paper mills are those at Millinocket, in Penobscot county, at
Madison on the Kennebec river, and at Rumford Falls on the
Androscoggin river. Lewiston leads in the manufacture of cotton
goods; Auburn, Bangor and Augusta, in the manufacture of boots
and shoes; Bath, in ship and boat building; Eastport and Lubec,
in canning " sardines."
Transportation and Commerce. The south-western part of the state,
including the manufacturing, the quarrying, and much of the older
agricultural district, early had fairly satisfactory means of trans-
portation either by water or by raij ; for the coast has many excel-
lent harbours, the Kennebec river is navigable for coast vessels to
Augusta, the Penobscot to Bangor, and railway service was soon
supplied for the villages of the south-west, but it was not until the
last decade of the igth century that the forests, the farming lands,
and the summer resorts of Aroostook county were reached by a
railway, the Bangor & Aroostook. The first railway in the state,
from Bangor to Old Town, was completed in 1836, and the state's
railway mileage increased from 12 m. in that year to 245 m. in
1850, to 1377-47 m- in '890, and to 2210-79 m January 1909.
1 The census of 1905 was taken under the direction of the United
States census bureau, but the statistics for hand trades were
omitted.
The principal railway systems are the Maine Central, which enters
every county but one, the Boston & Maine, the Bangor & Aroostook,
the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific. Lines of steamboats
ply regularly between the largest cities of the state and Boston,
between Portland and New York, and between Portland and several
Canadian ports.
The foreign trade, especially that with the West Indies and with
Great Britain, decreased after 1875, and yet much trade from the
West that goes to Montreal during the warmer months passes
through Portland during the winter season. The chief exports to
foreign countries are textile fabrics, Indian corn, meat, dairy
products, apples, paraffin, boards and shooks; the chief imports
from foreign countries are sugar, molasses and wool. Fish,
canned goods, potatoes, granite, lime, paper, and boots and shoes
are also exported to foreign countries to some extent, but they
are shipped in larger quantities to other states of the Union, from
which Maine' receives in return cotton, coal, iron, oil, &c. The
ports of entry in Maine are Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Castine, Eastport,
Ellsworth, Houlton, Kennebunk, Machias, Portland, Wiscasset and
York.
Population. The population in 1880 was 648,936; in 1890,
661,086; in 1900, 694,466; and in 1910, 742,37i. 2 From 1880 to
1900 there was an increase of only 7%, a percentage which was
exceeded in every other state in the Union except Nevada
and Vermont. Of the total population of 1900, 599,291, or
86 - 3%, were native whites, 93,330 were foreign-born, 1,319
were negroes, 798 were Indians, 119 were Chinese, and 4 were
Japanese. Of the inhabitants born in the United States,
588,211, or 97-8%, were natives of New England and 560,506
were natives of Maine, and of the foreign-born 67,077, or 71-8%,
were natives of Canada (36,169 English and 30,908 French),
and 10,159, or 10-8%, were natives of Ireland. Of the total popu-
lation, 199,734 were of foreign parentage i.e. either one or both
parents were foreign-born and 89,857 were of Canadian parent-
age, both on the father's and on the mother's side (41,355 English
and 48,502 French). The Brench-speaking inhabitants probably
number considerably more than 50,000. They are of two
quite distinct classes. One, numbering about 15,000, includes
those who became citizens by the establishment of the northern
boundary in 1842 and their descendants. They are largely
of Acadian stock. The state has established among them a
well-appointed training school for teachers, conducted in the
English language, the graduates of which render excellent
service in the common schools. The other class is of French-
Canadian immigrants, who find profitable employment in the
manufacturing centres. The colony of Swedes established
by the state near its north-eastern border in 1870 has proved
in every way successful. The Indians are remnants of the
Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribes, the Passamaquoddies
being a little the more numerous. The Penobscots' chief
gathering places are on the islands of the Penobscot river north
of Old Town; the Passamaquoddies', on the shores of Passama-
quoddy Bay and the banks of the Saint Croix river.
Roman Catholics are more numerous than all the Protestant
sects taken together, having in 1906 a membership of 113,419
out of a total of 212,988 in all denominations. In the last
decade of the igth century the urban population (i.e. popu-
lation of places having 4,000 inhabitants or more) increased
from 226,268 to 251,685, or 11-2%; the semi-urban population
(I.e. population of incorporated places, or the approximate
equivalent, having less than 4,000 inhabitants) increased from
14,221 to 26,674, r 87'5%; while the rural population (i.e. popu-
lation outside of incorporated places) decreased from 420,597 to
416,134, or i%. The principal cities of the state are: Portland,
pop. (1910), 58,571; Lewiston, 26,247; Bangor, 24,803; Biddeford,
17,079; Auburn, 15,064; Augusta (the capital), 13,211; Water-
ville, 11,458; Bath, 9,396; Westbrook, 8,281 ; and Rockland, 8,174.
Administration. Maine has had but one state constitution;
this was ratified in December 1819, about three months before
the admission of the state into the Union. It admits of amend-
ment by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature
followed by a majority vote of the electorate at the next
'According to previous censuses the population was as follows:
(1790) 96,540; (1800) 151,719; (1810) 228,705; (1820) 298,335;
(1830) 399-455: (1840) 501,793; (1850) 583,169; (i860) 628,279;
(1870) 626,915.
MAINE
437
Sepiember election; or, as provided by an amendment adopted in
;, the legislature may by a two-thirds vote of each house
__mmon a constitutional convention. From 1819 to 1875
twelve amendments were adopted; in 1875, after nine more were
added, the twenty-one were incorporated in the text; and
in 1875 and 1899 nine more were adopted. Suffrage is
rred by the constitution on all male citizens of the United
, who are at least twenty-one years of age and have, for
some other reason than because of being in the military, naval
or marine service of the United States, or of being students at
ge, lived in the state for three months next preceding any
ion; the following classes, however, are excepted: paupers,
.nis under guardianship, Indians not taxed, and, as provided
ii amendment adopted in 1892, persons intellectually in-
>le of reading the state constitution in the English language
or of writing their names. State elections were annual until
1897 when they were made biennial; they are held on the second
lay in September in even numbered years, Maine being
one of the few states in the Union in which they are not held in
uber.
The governor is the only executive officer of the state elected by
Lir vote. There is no lieutenant-governor, the president of
nate succeeding to the office of governor in case of a vacancy,
but there is a council of seven members elected by the legislature
(not more than one from any one senatorial district), whose sole
function is to advise the governor. The governor's term of office
i- two years (before 1879 it was one year); and the constitution
further directs that he shall be at least thirty years of age at the
ining of his term, that he shall be a native-born citizen ot the
I niu.l Suites, that when elected he shall have been a resident of
:ate for five years, and that he shall reside in the state while in
. His power of appointment is unusually extensive and the
e and consent of the council (instead of that of the Senate
as in other states) are required for his appointments. He
appoints all judges, coroners and notaries public, besides
all other civil and military officers for whose appointment
neither the constitution nor the laws provide otherwise. The
rnor is commander-in-chief of the state militia. Any bill
luch he disapproves he can within five days after its
r^e prevent from becoming a law unless it is passed over his
by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature. He and
the council examine and pass upon election returns; he may summon
ions of the legislature, and he may grant pardons, rc-
prirvis. and commutations in all cases except impeachment, but
the manner of hearing applications for pardon is in a measure pre-
il by statute, and he must present to the legislature an account
u h case in which he grants a pardon. His salary is $2,000 a
The seven members of the council, the secretary of state,
the tre.i-iiircr, the attorney general and the commissioner of agri-
culture are elected biennially by a joint ballot of the two houses
of the legislature, which also eljects, one every two years, the three
-.sors, whose term is six years.
The legislature meets biennially at Augusta, the capital, and is
composed of a Senate of thirty-one members and a House of Re-
presentatives of one hundred and fifty-one members. Members of
carli house are elected for a term of two years: one senator from
each senatorial district and one to seven representatives (one for
a population of 1,500, and seven for a population of 26,250) from
i-.u-h township, or, where the township or plantation has less than
1,500 inhabitants, from each representative district, according to
its population. There is a new reapportionmcnt every ten years,
counting from 1821. Every senator and every representative must
at the beginning of his term have been for five years a citizen of
the United States, for one year a resident of the state, and for three
months next preceding his election, as well as during his term of
office, a resident of the township or district which he represents;
and every senator must be at least twenty-five years of age. All
revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives, but
to such bills the Senate may propose amendments provided they
relate solely to raising revenue. Other bills may originate in either
house. In September 1908 a constitutional amendment was
adopted providing for referendum and initiative by the people.
Any bill proposed in the legislature or passed by it must be referred
to popular vote before becoming law, if there is a referendum
petition therefor signed by 10,000 voters; and a petition signed by
12,000 voters initiates new legislation.
At the head of the department of justice is the supreme judicial
court, which consists of a chief justice and seven associate justices
appointed by the governor and council for a term of seven years.
When it sits as a law court, at least five of its justices must be present,
and it holds three such sessions annually: one at Augusta, one at
Bangor, and one at Portland. But only one of its justices is re-
quired for a trial court, and trial courts are held two or three times
a year in each county for the trial of both civil and criminal cases
which come before it in the first instance or upon appeal. In
Cumberland and Kennebec counties there is a superior court pre-
sided over by one justice and having extensive civil and criminal
jurisdiction; and in each of the counties there are a probate court
For the settlement of the estates of deceased persons and courts
of the trial justice and the justice of the peace for the trial of petty
offences and of civil cases in which the debt or damage involved
does not exceed $20.
The principal forms of local government are the town (or town-
ship), the plantation, the county and the city. As in other parts
of New England, the town is the most important of these. At the
regular town meeting held in March the electorate of the town
assembles, decides what shall be done for the town during the
ensuing year, elects officers to execute its decisions with limited
discretion, and votes money to meet the expenses. The principal
officers are the selectmen (usually three), town cleric, assessors,
collector, treasurer, school committee and road commissioner. A
populous section of a town, in order to promote certain financial
ends, is commonly incorporated as a village without however
becoming a governing organization distinct from the town. Maine
is the only state in the Union that retains what is known as the
organized plantation. This is a governmental unit organized from
an unincorporated township having at least 200 inhabitants,' and
its principal officers are the moderator, clerk, three assessors,
treasurer, collector, constable and school committee. The county
is a sort of intermediate organization between the state and the
towns to assist chiefly in the administration of justice, especially in
the custody of offenders, and in the making and care of roads. Its
officers are three commissioners, a treasurer, a register of deeds, a
judge and a register of probate, and a sheriff. They are all elected:
the commissioners for a term of six years, one retiring every two
years, the register of deeds and the judge and the register of probate
for a term of four years, and the others for two years. Among other
duties the commissioners care for county property, manage county
business and take charge of county roads. Maine has no general
law under which cities are chartered, and does not even set a mini-
mum population. A town may, therefore, be incorporated as a
city whenever it can obtain from the legislature a city charter which
a majority of its electorate prefers to a continuance under its town
government ; consequently there is much variety in the government
of the various cities of the state.
By the laws of Maine the property rights of a wife are approxi-
mately equal to those of a husband. A woman does not lose
nor a man acquire right to property by marriage, and a wife
may manage, sell, or will her property without the assent of
her husband. She may even receive as her own the wages of
her personal labour which was not performed for her own family.
In the absence of a will, bar or release, there is no legal distinc-
tion between the rights of a widower in the estate of his deceased
wife and those of a widow in the estate of her deceased husband.
The grounds for divorce in the state are adultery, impotence,
extreme cruelty, desertion for three consecutive years next
preceding the application, gross and confirmed habits of intoxi-
cation, cruel and abusive treatment, or a husband's gross or
wanton refusal or neglect to provide a suitable maintenance
for his wife.
Under the laws of Maine a householder owning and occupying
a house and lot may hold the same, or such part of it as does not
exceed $500 in value, as a homestead exempt from attachment,
except for the satisfaction of liens for labour or material, by
filing in the registry of deeds a certificate stating his desire for
such an exemption, provided he is not the owner of an exempted
lot purchased from the state; and the exemption may be con-
tinued during the widowhood of his widow or the minority
of his children. A considerable amount of personal property,
including apparel, household furniture not exceeding $100 in
value, a library not exceeding $150 in value, interest in a pew
in a meeting-house, and a specified amount of fuel, provisions,
tools or farming implements, and domestic animals, and one
fishing boat, is also exempt from attachment.
Maine was the first state in the Union to enact a law for
prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors. An act for restricting
the sale of such liquors was passed in 1846; the first prohibitory
act was passed, largely through the influence of Neal Dow, in
1851; this was frequently amended; and in 1884 an amendment
1 An unincorporated township containing less than 200 inhabitants
may, on the application of three resident voters, be organized as
a plantation, but does not pay state or county taxes unless by-
special legislative order. Other unincorporated districts, especially
islands along the coast, are called " grants," " surpluses," "gores '
or " tracts.
MAINE
to the constitution was adopted which declares the manufacture
of intoxicating liquors and their sale, except " for medicinal anc
mechanical purposes and the arts," forever prohibited. By
the law enacted for enforcing this prohibition the governor and
council appoint a state liquor commissioner from whom alone
the selectmen of a town, the mayor or aldermen of a city, are
authorized to receive the liquors which may be sold within
the exceptions named in the amendment, and the selectmen,
mayor or aldermen appoint an agent who alone is authorized to
sell any of these liquors within their jurisdiction and who is
forbidden to sell any whatever to minors, Indians, soldiers and
drunkards. But the law labours under the disadvantage of
all laws not vigorously sustained by general public sentiment,
and is grossly violated. For the most part it is executed to
the degree demanded by local sentiment in the several muni-
cipalities, thus operating in practice much the same as a " local
option " law. The law looks to checking the demand by pre-
venting the supply; and since habitual reliance on the stringency
of law tends to the neglect of other influences for the removal of
evils from the community, the citizens seem to absolve them-
selves from personal responsibility, both for the execution of
the law and for the existence of the evil itself. There has been
a strong movement for the repeal of the law, and the question
of prohibition has long been an important one in state politics.
The death penalty was abolished in Maine in 1876, restored
in 1883, and again abolished in 1887.
Penal and Charitable Institutions. The state penal and reforma-
tory institutions consist of the state prison at Thomasfon, the state
(reform) school for boys at South Portland, and a state industrial
school for girls at Hallowell, established in 1875 and taken over by
the state in 1 899. The two schools are not places of punishment, but
reformatory schools for delinquent boys (from 8 to 16 years of
age) and girls (from 6 to 16 years), who have been committed by the
courts for violations of law, and, in the case of girls, who, by force
of circumstances or associations, are " in manifest danger of be-
coming outcasts of society." The prison is in charge of a board
of three inspectors and a warden, and each of the other two institu-
tions is in charge of a board of trustees; the inspectors, warden, and
trustees are all appointed by the governor and council. Convicts
in the prison are usually employed in the manufacture of articles
that are not extensively made elsewhere in the state, such as carri-
ages, harness, furniture and brooms. The inmates of the state
school for boys receive instruction in farming, carpentry, tailoring,
laundry work, and various other trades and occupations; and the
girls in the state industrial school are trained in housework, launder-
ing, dressmaking, &c. Paupers are cared for chiefly by the towns and
cities, those wholly dependent being placed in almshouses and those
only partially dependent receiving aid at their homes. The chari-
table institutions maintained by the state are: the military and
naval orphan asylum at Bath, the Maine institution for the blind
at Portland, the Maine school for the deaf (established in 1876, and
taken over by the state in 1897) at Portland, the Maine insane
hospital at Augusta, the Eastern Maine insane hospital at Bangor,
and a school for the feeble-minded (established in 1907) at West
Pownal, each of which is governed by trustees appointed by the
governor and council, with the exception of a part of those of the
orphan asylum, who are appointed by the corporation. Besides the
strictly state institutions, there are a number of private charitable
institutions which are assisted by state funds; among these are the
eye and ear infirmary at Portland, the Maine state sanatorium at
Hebron for the treatment of tuberculosis, and various hospitals,
orphanages, &c. The national government has a branch of the
national home for disabled volunteer soldiers at Togus, and a marine
hospital at Portland.
Education. The school-district system was established in 1800
while Maine was still a part of Massachusetts and was maintained
by the first school law passed, in 1821, by the state legislature; but,
beginning in the next year, one town after another received the
privilege of abolishing its districts, and in 1893 the system was
abolished by act of the legislature. A state board of education,
composed of one member from each county, was established in
1846, but for this was substituted, in 1852, a commissioner of
schools for each county, appointed by the governor, and two years
later a state superintendent of schools was substituted for the
county commissioners. County supervision by county supervisors
was tried in 1869-1872. Since these several changes the common
school system has been administered by towns and cities subject
to an increasing amount of control through enactments of the state
legislature and the general supervision of the state superintendent.
The town officers are a superintending school committee of three
members and a superintendent. The members of the committee
are elected for a term of three years, one retiring every year, and
women as well as men are eligible for the office. The superintendent
may be elected by the town or appointed by the committee o
towns having not less than twenty or more than fifty schools mav
unite in employing a superintendent. In cities the committee
usually larger than in towns and is commonly elected by wards
Since 1889 each town and city has been required to furnish text'
books, apparatus and supplies, without cost to the pupils
minimum length of the school year is fixed by a statute of 1891 -
twenty weeks; the average length is about twenty-eight weeks-
A compulsory education law, enacted in 1901, requires the attend-
ance at some public or approved private school of each child between
the ages of seven and fifteen during all the time that school is in
session, except that necessary absences may be excused. For the
maintenance of the common schools each town is required (since
1905) to raise annually at least fifty-five cents per capita, exclusive
of what may be received from other sources, and to this is added
the proceeds of a state tax of one and a half mills on a dollar, one-
half the proceeds of the tax on savings banks, a 6 % income from
the permanent school fund (derived mainly from the sale of school
lands), and state appropriations for the payment in part of the
superintendence in towns that have united for that purpose. Any
section of a town may establish and maintain a high school pro-
vided there be not more than two such schools in one town, and the
state makes appropriations for the support of such schools equal
to one-half the cost of instruction, but the maximum grant to any
one such school is $250.
. The state maintains five normal schools: that at Farmington
(established 1864), that at Castine (1866), that at Gorham (1879);
that at Presque Isle (the Aroostook state normal school, 1903)]
and the Madawaska training school at Fort Kent, each of which is
under the direction of a board of trustees consisting of the governor,
the state superintendent of schools, and five other members ap-
pointed by the governor and council for not more than three years.
At the head of the public school system is the university of Maine,
near the village of Orono in Orono township (pop. in 1900, 3257)!
Penobscot county. This institution was founded in 1865' as the
state college of agriculture and the mechanic arts; in 1897 the present
name was adopted. It embraces a college of arts and sciences, a
college of agriculture, a college of technology (including a depart-
ment of forestry), a college of law (at Bangor), and a college of
pharmacy. The most conspicuous of its twenty-five buildings is
the library, built with funds contributed by Andrew Carnegie. In
1908-1909 the university had 104 instructors and 884 students, of
whom 1 13 were in the college of law at Bangor and 420 in the college
of technology. The university is maintained with the proceeds of
an endowment fund derived chiefly from public lands given by the
national government in accordance with the land grant, or Morrill,
Act of 1862 (see MORRILL, JUSTIN S.) and from the bequest ($100,000)
of Abner Coburn (1803-1885) ; by appropriations of Congress under
the second Morrill Act (1890), and under the Nelson Amendment
of 1907, by appropriations of the state legislature, and by fees paid
by the students. Connected with the university is an agricultural
experiment station, established and maintained under the Hatch
Act (1887) and the Adams Act (1906) of the national Congress.
The government of the university is entrusted, subject to inspection
of the governor and council, to a board of eight trustees. Among
the important institutions of learning which have no official con-
nexion with the state are Bowdoin College (opened in 1802), at
Brunswick; Colby College (Baptist, opened in 1818), at Waterville;
and Bates College (originally Free Baptist but now unscctarian;
opened in 1863), at Lewiston. In 1900 5-1% of the state's in-
habitants ten years of age and over were illiterate (i.e. could
neither read nor write, or could read but not write) ; of the native
whites within this age limit 2-4% were illiterate, of the foreign
whites, 19-4%. Of the foreign-born whites 15-7% were unable to
speak English.
Finance. The chief sources of the state's revenue are a general
Droperty tax and taxes on the franchises of corporations, especially
:hose of railway and insurance companies and savings banks;
among the smaller sources are licences or fees, a poll tax, and a
:ollateral inheritance tax. The general property tax for state and
ocal purposes is assessed by local assessors, but their work is re-
viewed for the purpose of equalization among the several towns
and counties by a board of state assessors, which also assesses the
corporations. This board of three members (not more than two
)f whom may be of the same political party) is elected by a joint
jallot of the two houses of the legislature for a term of six years
one member retiring every two years. The state is prohibited by
:he constitution from creating a debt exceeding $300,000 except
or the suppression of a rebellion, for repelling an invasion, or for
war purposes; and every city and town is forbidden by an amend-
ment adopted in 1877 from creating one exceeding 5% of
:he assessed value of its property. But the state was authorized
Dy an amendment adopted in 1868 to issue bonds for the reimburse-
ment of the expenses incurred by its cities, towns, and plantations on
account of the Civil War, and these bonds, with those issued by
the state itself during the Civil War, constituted the largest part
of the state's bonded indebtedness. The bonded debt, however,
s rapidly being paid; in January 1901 it was $2,103,000, and in
[anuary 1909 only $698,000.
I
MAINE
439
History. During the i6th century and the early part of the
17th, the coast of Maine attracted various explorers, among
them Giovanni da Verrazano (1524), Esteban Gomez (1525),
Bartholomew Gosnold (1602), Martin Pring (1603), Pierre du
t. Sicur De Monts (1604), George Weymouth (1605). and
John Smith (1614), who explored and mapped the coast and
gave to the country the name New England; but no permanent
English settlement was established within what are now the
borders of the state until some time between 1623 and 1629.
In 1603 De Monts received from Henry IV. of France a charter
for all the region between 40 and 46 N. under the name of
lie, or Acadia, and in 1604 he built a fort on Neutral Island
at the mouth of the Saint Croix river. This he abandoned in
1605, but some of his followers were in the vicinity a few years
Liter. In the same year George Weymouth explored the south-
west coast, kidnapped five Indians, and carried them to England,
where three of them lived for a time in the family of Sir Fer-
dinando Gorges, who soon became the leader in founding Maine.
In 1607 the Plymouth Company, of which he was an influential
member and which had received a grant of this region from
James I. of England in the preceding year, sent out a colony
numbering 120 under George Popham (c. 1550-1608), brother
of Sir John Popham, and Raleigh Gilbert, son of Sir Humphrey
Gilbert. The colony established itself at the mouth of the
Kennebec river in August, but, finding its supplies insufficient,
about three-fifths of its number returned to England in
December; a severe winter followed and Popham died; then
Gilbert, who succeeded to the presidency of the council for the
colony, became especially interested in his claim to the territory
under his father's charter, 1 and in 1608 the colony was abandoned.
In 1609 the French Jesuits Biard and Masse established a
fortified mission station on the island of Mount Desert, and
although this as well as the remnant of De Monts' settlement
at the mouth of the Saint Croix was taken in 1613 by Sir Samuel
Argall (d. 1626), acting under the instructions of the English at
Jamestown, Virginia, some of these colonists returned later.
In 1620 the Council for New England, the successor of the
Plymouth Company, obtained a grant of the country between
latitude 40 and 48 N. extending from sea to sea, and two years
later Gorges and John Mason (1586-1635) received from the
Council a grant of the territory between the Merrimac and the
Kennebec rivers for 60 m. inland under the name of the Province
of Maine. In 1629 they ( divided their possession, Gorges taking
the portion between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Numerous
grants of land in this vicinity followed within a few years; and
in the meantime permanent settlements at York, Saco, Bidde-
forcl, Port Elizabeth, Falmouth (now Portland) and Scarborough
were established in rapid succession. The Council for New
England surrendered its charter in 1635. In the division of its
territory Gorges retained the portion previously granted to him,
and the region between the Kennebec and the Saint Croix north
to the Saint Lawrence, though still claimed by the French as
part of Acadia, was conveyed to Sir William Alexander (1567?-
1640); later, in 1664, this was conveyed to the duke of York,
afterwards James II. of England.
Gorges named his tract the County of New Somersetshire,
and immediately began the administration of government, set-
ting up in 1635 or 1636 a court at Saco under the direction of his
kinsman William Gorges. In 1639 he procured for his province
a royal charter modelled after that of Maryland, which invested
him with the feudal tenure of a county palatine and vice-regal
powers of government. He called into existence a formidably
large number of officers to govern it, but his charter was in
conflict with the other (mutually conflicting) grants of the
Council for New England, east of the Piscataqua; and Gorges
and his agents met with a determined opposition under the
leadership of George Cleeve, the deputy-president of the Lygonia,
or " Plough " Patent, which extended along the coast from
"By this charter, issued in 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was
entitled to all territory lying within two hundred leagues of any
colony that he might plant within six years; although it had long
since lapsed, Raleigh Gilbert seems not to have been aware of it.
Cape Porpoise to Casco, and in issuing which the Council for
New England had granted governmental as well as territorial
rights. Moreover, Puritan Massachusetts, which was naturally
hostile to the Anglicanism of Gorges and his followers, inter-
preted her charter so as to make her northern boundary run
east and west from a point 3 m. north of the source of the Merri-
mac river, and on this basis laid claim to practically the whole
of Maine then settled. The factional quarrels there, together
with the Commonwealth government in England, made it easy
for Massachusetts to enforce this claim at the time, and between
1652 and 1658 Maine was gradually annexed to Massachusetts.
In 1672 Massachusetts extended her boundary eastward as far as
Penobscot Bay. Ferdinando Gorges, a grandson of the original
proprietor, brought before parliament his claim to Maine and
in 1664 a committee of that body decided in his favour; but
Massachusetts successfully resisted until 1677, when the king
in council decided against her. She then quietly purchased
the Gorges claim for 1,250 and held the province as a proprietor
until 1691, when by the new Massachusetts charter Maine was
extended to the Saint Croix river, and was made an integral
part of Massachusetts.
The French still claimed all territory east of the Penobscot,
and not only was Maine an exposed frontier and battleground
during the long struggle of the English against the Indians and
the French, but its citizens bore a conspicuous part in the
expeditions beyond its borders. Port Royal was taken in May
1690 by Sir William Phipps and Louisburg in June 1745 by Sir
William Pepperell, both these commanders being from Maine.
These expeditions were such a drain on Maine's population that
Massachusetts was called upon to send men to garrison the little
forts that protected the homes left defenceless by men who had
gone to the front. During the War of Independence, the town
of Falmouth (now Portland), which had ardently resisted the
claims of the British, was bombarded and burned, in 1775; in
the same year Benedict Arnold followed the course of the Kenne-
bec and Dead rivers on his expedition to Quebec; and from 1779
to 1783 a British force was established at Castine. The embargo
and non-intercourse laws from 1807 to 1812 were a severe blow
to Maine's shipping, and in the War of 1812 Eastport, Castine,
Hampden, Bangor and Machias fell into the hands of the
British.
Maine was in general well governed as a part of Massachusetts,
but a geographical separation, a desire to be rid of the burden
of a large state debt, and a difference of economic interests as well
as of politics (Maine was largely Democratic and Massachusetts
was largely Federalist) created a desire for an independent
commonwealth. This was felt before the close of the War of
Independence and in 1785-1787 conventions were held at
Falmouth (Portland) to consider the matter, but the opposition
prevailed. The want of protection during the War of 1812
revived the question, and in 1816 the General Court inresponseto
a great number of petitions submitted to a vote in the towns
and plantations of the District the question: " Shall the legis-
lature be requested to give its consent to the separation of
the District of Maine from Massachusetts, and the erection of
said District into a separate state? " The returns showed 10,393
yeas to 6501 nays, but they also showed that less than one-half
the full vote had been cast. Acting upon these returns the
legislature passed a bill prescribing the terms of separation, and
directed another vote of the towns and plantations upon the
question of separation and the election of delegates to a con-
vention at Brunswick which should proceed to frame a constitu-
tion in case the second popular vote gave a majority of five to
four for separation; but as that vote was only 11,969 yeas to
10,347 nays the advocates of separation were unsuccessful.
But a large source of opposition to separation was removed in
1819 when Congress, dividing the east coast of the United States
into two great districts, did away with the regulation which,
making each state a district for entering and clearing vessels,
would have required coasting vessels from the ports of Maine
as a separate state to enter and clear on every trip to or from
Boston; as a consequence, the separation measures were carried
44
MAINE
by large majorities this year, a constitution was framed by a
convention which met at Portland in October, this was ratified
by town meetings in December, and Maine applied for admis-
sion into the Union. Owing to the peculiar situation at the
time in Congress, arising from the contest over the admission
of Missouri, the question of the admission of Maine became an
important one in national politics. By an Act of the 3rd of
March 1820, however, Maine was finally admitted into the
Union as a separate state, her admission being a part of the
Missouri compromise (q.v.).
The boundary on the north had not yet been ascertained,
and it had long been a subject of dispute between the United
States and Great Britain. The treaty of 1783 (Article II.) had
defined the north-east boundary of the United States as extend-
ing along the middle of the river St Croix " from its mouth in the
bay of Fundy to its source " and " due north from the source of
St Croix river to the highlands; along the said highlands which
divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St
Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the
north-westernmost head of Connecticut river; thence down
along the middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north
latitude." Great Britain claimed that the due north line was
40 m. long and ran to Mars Hill in Aroostook county, and that
the highlands ran thence westerly 115 m. to the source of the
Chaudiere; the United States, on the other hand, claimed that
the northerly line was 140 m. long, running to highlands dividing
the Ristigouche and the tributaries of the Metis; and there was
a further disagreement with regard to the side of the highlands
on which the boundary should be, and as to what stream was
the " north-westernmost head of Connecticut river." The
fifth article of the Jay treaty of 1794 provided for a commission
to decide what the St Croix river actually was, and this com-
mission in 1798 defined the St Croix, saying that its mouth
was in Passamaquoddy bay and that the boundary ran up this
river and the Cheputnatecook to a marked monument. The
treaty of Ghent in 1814 (Article IV.) referred the question of
the ownership of the islands in Passamaquoddy bay to a com-
mission which gave Moose, Dudley and Frederick islands to
the United States; and the same treaty by Article V. provided
for the survey (which was made in 1817-1818) of a part of
the disputed territory, and for a general commission. The
general commissioners met at St Andrews, N.B., in 1816, and
in New York City in 1822, only to disagree; and when the king
of the Netherlands, chosen as arbitrator in 1829 (under the
Convention of 1827) rendered in 1831 a decision against which
the state of Maine protested, the Federal Senate withheld its
assent to his decision. In 1838-1839 the territory in dispute
between New Brunswick and Maine became the scene of a border
" war," known as the " Aroostook disturbance "; Maine erected
forts along the line she claimed, Congress authorized the president
to resist any attempt of Great Britain to enforce exclusive
jurisdiction over the disputed territory, and an armed conflict
seemed imminent. General Winfield Scott was sent to take
command on the Maine frontier, and on the 2ist of March 1839
he arranged a truce and a joint occupancy of the territory in
dispute until a satisfactory settlement should be reached by
the United States and Great Britain. The Webster-Ashburton
treaty of 1842 was a compromise, which allowed Maine about
5500 sq. m. less than she had claimed and allowed Great Britain
about as much less than her claim; all grants of land previously
made by either party within the limits of the territory which
by this treaty fell within the dominions of the other party were
to be " held valid, ratified and confirmed to the persons in
possession under such grants, to the same extent as if such
territory had . . . fallen within the dominions of the party by
whom such grants were made " ; and the government of the
United States agreed to pay to Maine and Massachusetts 1 "in
1 An article in the Act relating to the separation of Maine from
Massachusetts stipulated that the lands within the District of Maine
which prior to the separation had belonged to Massachusetts should
after the separation belong one-half to Maine and one-half to Mas-
sachusetts. In 1826 the wild lands of Maine were surveyed and
divided between the two states; and in 1853 Maine acquired from
equal moieties " the sum of $300,000 as compensation for the
lands which they had claimed and which under the treaty they
were called upon to surrender. The long controversy, which
is known in American history as " The North-East boundary
dispute," was not finally settled however until 1910.
It was the Democratic majority in the district of Maine that
effected the separation from Massachusetts, and from the date
of that separation until 1853 Maine was classed as a Democratic
state, although it elected a Whig governor in 1838 and in 1840,
and cast its electoral vote for John Quincy Adams in 1824 and
1828 and for W. H. Harrison in 1840. As a result of the slavery
question, there was a party disintegration between 1850 and
1855, followed by the supremacy of the Republican party from
1856 to 1878. In 1878, of the 126,169 votes cast in the election
for governor, Selden Connor (b. 1839), re-nominated by the
Republicans, received 56,554; Joseph L. Smith (" National " or
"Greenback"), 41,371; Alonzo Garcelon (1813-1906) (Demo-
cratic), 28,218; as no candidate received a majority of the votes,
the election was left to the legislature. 2 The vote of the House
eliminated Connor, and Garcelon was chosen in the Senate by
a Democratic-National fusion. Again there was no election
by popular vote in 1879, and Garcelon and his council, to secure
the election of a fusion government, counted-in a fusion majority
in the legislature by evident falsification of the returns. On
the 3rd of January 1880 the Supreme Court declared the
governor and council in error in counting in a fusion majority,
but on the 7th the governor swore in a legislature with 78 fusion
and only two Republican members, and, the governor's term
having expired, the president of the Senate, James D. Lamson,
became governor, ex-officio. On the i2th the legislative
chambers were seized by the Republicans, whose Organized
legislature was declared legal by the Supreme Court, and who
chose as governor Daniel Franklin Davis (1843-1897); where-
upon, on the 1 7th, Joshua L. Chamberlain, to whom the peaceful
solution of the difficulty had largely been due, retired from the
task assigned him by Garcelon on the 5th of January " to protect
the public property and institutions of the state " until Garcelon's
successor should be duly qualified. In 1880 the Democrats
and Greenbacks united and elected their candidate, but after
1883 Maine was strongly Republican until 1910.
The governors of the state have been as follows:
William King Democrat
William Durkee Williamson (acting)
Benjamin Ames (acting) .
Albion Keith Parris
Enoch Lincoln ....
Nathan Cutler (acting)
Jonathan G. Hunton
Samuel Emerson Smith
Robert Pinckney Dunlap .
Edward Kent Whig
John Fairfield Democrat
Edward Kent Whig
John Fairfield Democrat
Edward Kavanagh (acting) ... ,,
Hugh J. Anderson ,,
John Winchester Dana ,,
John Hubbard ....
William George Crosby
Anson Peaslee Morrill .
Samuel Wells ....
Hannibal Hamlin .
Joseph H. Williams (acting)
Lot Myrick Morrill .
Israel Washburn . ...
Abner Coburn ....
Whig and Free Soil
Republican
Democrat
Republican
1820
1821
1821
1822
1827
1829
1830
1831
1834
1838
1839
1841
1842
1843
1844
1847
1850
1853
1855
1856
1857
1857
1858
1 861
1863
Massachusetts, for $362,500, all of this land still remaining in posses-
sion of the latter state.
2 According to Art. V. of the constitution a majority of the ti
number of votes cast was required for election ; in case no candidate
should receive a majority, it was prescribed that the " House of
Representatives shall, by ballot, from the persons having the four
highest numbers of votes on the lists, if so many there be, elect 1
persons and make returns of their names to the Senate, of whom the
Senate shall, by ballot, elect one, who shall be declared the governor.
An amendment, which became a part of the constitution on
9th of November 1880, provided that a plurality of the total numbei
of votes cast should be sufficient for election.
MAINE DE BIRAN MAINE-ET-LOIRE
441
Republican
1864
1867
1871
Democrat
Republican
Democrat-Greenback
Republican
1876
1879
1880
1 88 1
1883
1887
1887
1889
Democrat
1897
1901
1905
1909
1911
Samuel Cony
M Lawrence Chamberlain
, Perham
NYUon Dinjjley
SeMen Connor
Alon/i) ('..ireelon ....
1 F. Davis ...
Merrill Plaisted .
! ick Robie ....
ih R. Bodwell ....
i.ui S. Marble (acting) .
i C. Burleigh ...
M. Cleavi-s ....
Llewellyn Powers ....
|<>hn Fremont Hill ....
William T. Cobb ....
1. Kernald ....
ick W. Plaisted . . .
See S. L. Buardman, Climate, &c., of Maine (Washington, 1884);
W.iltnn Wells, The Water Power of Maine (Augusta, 1869); G. H.
Ilitehcock, General Report on the Geology of Maine (Augusta, 1861);
(. 11. Stone, The Glacial Gravels of Maine and their Associated
Deposits (Washington, 1899); T. Nelson Dale, The Granites of Maine
jiington, 1907), being Bulletin 313 of the U. S. Geological
: B. F. De Costa, Sketches of the Coast of Maine and Isle of
.'? (New York, 1869) ; H. D. Thoreau, The Maine Woods (Boston,
1881); L. L. Hubbard, Woods and Lakes of Maine (Boston, 1883);
Meelc, Canoe and Camera, a Two Hundred Mile Tour through
the Maine Forests (New York, 1882); William MacDonald, The
Government of Maine, Its History and Administration (New York,
; Maine Historical Society Collections (Portland, 1831- );
W. 1). Williamson, History of the State of Maine (Hallowell, 1832);
.1 . P. Baxter, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of Maine (Boston,
1890) and George Cleeve of Casco Bay (Portland, 1885); George
in, History of Saco and Biddeford, with notices of other Early
ments and of the Proprietary Governments in Maine (Saco,
1830) ; J. L. Chamberlain, Maine, Her Place in History (Augusta,
1877) ; E. S.Whitin, Factory Legislation in Maine (New York, 1908).
MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANQOIS-PIERRE-GONTHIER (1766-
1824), French philosopher, was born at Bergerac, on the 291)1 of
mber, 1766. The name Maine he assumed (some time
re 1787) from an estate called Le Maine, near Mouleydier.
After studying with distinction under the doctrinaires of Peri-
gueux, he entered the life-guards of Louis XVI., and was present
at Versailles on the memorable 5th and 6th of October 1789.
On the breaking up of the gardes du corps Biran retired to his
patrimonial inheritance of Grateloup, near Bergerac, where his
retired life preserved him from the horrors of the Revolution.
It was at this period that, to use his own words, he " passed
per saltum from frivolity to philosophy." He began with
tiology, which he made the study of his life. After the
Reign of Terror Maine de Biran took part in political affairs.
Having been excluded from the council of the Five Hundred
on suspicion of royalism, he took part with his friend Laine
in the commission of 1813, which gave expression for the first
time to direct opposition to the will of the emperor. After the
Restoration he held the office of treasurer to the chamber of
deputies, and habitually retired during the autumn recess to
his native district to pursue his favourite study. He died on
the 20th (i6th, or 23rd, according to others) of July 1824.
Maine de Biran's philosophical reputation has suffered from
two causes his obscure and laboured style, and the fact that
only a few, and these the least characteristic, of his writings
appeared during his lifetime. These consisted of the essay on
habit (Sur I' influence de I'habitude, 1803), a critical review of
P. Laromiguiere's lectures (1817), and the philosophical portion
of the article " Leibnitz " in the Biographic universelle (1819).
A treatise on the analysis of thought (Sur la decomposition de
la pensfe), although sent to press, was never printed. In 1834
these writings, together with the essay entitled NouveUes con-
siderations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de I'homnic,
were published by Victor Cousin, who in 1841 added three
volumes, under the title (Euvres philosophiqucs de Maine de
Biran. But the publication (in 1850) by E. Naville (from MSS.
placed at his father's disposal by Biran's son) of the (Euvres
inedites de Maine de Biran, in three volumes, first rendered
possible a connected view of his philosophical development.
At first a sensualist, like Condillac and Locke, next an intel-
lect ualist, he finally shows himself a mystical theosophist. The
Essai sur les fondements de la psychologic represents the second or
completest stage of his philosophy, the fragments of the Nouveaux
essais d'anthropologie the third.
Maine de Biran's first essays in philosophy were written avowedly
from the point of view of Locke and Condillac, but even in them he
was brought to signalize the essential fact on which his later specu-
lation turns. Dealing with the formation of habits, he is compelled
to note that passive impressions, however transformed, do not
furnish a complete or adequate explanation. With Laromiguiere
he distinguishes attention as an active effort, of no less importance
than the passive receptivity of sense, and with Butler distinguishes
passively formed customs from active habits. He finally arrived
at the conclusion that Condillac's notion of passive receptivity as
the one source of conscious experience was not only an error in fact
but an error of method in short, that the mechanical mode of
viewing consciousness as formed by external influence was fallacious
and deceptive. For it he proposed to substitute the genetic method,
whereby human conscious experience might be exhibited as growing
or developing from its essential basis in connexion with external
conditions. The essential basis he finds in the real consciousness,
of self as an active striving power, and the stages of its development,
corresponding to what one may call the relative importance of the
external conditions and the reflective clearness of self-consciousness
he designates as the affective, the perceptive and the reflective.
In connexion with this Biran treats most of the obscure problems
which arise in dealing with conscious experience, such as the mode
by which the organism is cognized, the mode by which the organism
is distinguished from extra-organic things, and the nature o? those
general ideas by which the relations of things are known to us
cause, power, force, &c.
In the latest stage of his speculation Biran distinguishes the
animal existence from the human, under which the three forms above
noted are classed, and both from the life of the spirit, in which
human thought is brought into relation with the supersensible,
divine system of things. This stage is left imperfect. Altogether
Biran's work presents a very remarkable specimen of deep meta-
physical thinking directed by preference to the psychological aspect
of experience.
The (Euvres inedites of Maine de Biran by E. Naville contain an
introductory study; in 1887 appeared Science et psychologie: nouvel-
les auvres inedites, with introduction by A. Bertrand. See also
O. Merton, ILtiule critique sur Maine de Biran (1865); E. Naville,
Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensees (1874); J. Gerard, Maine de
Biran, essai sur sa philosophic (1876); Mayonade, Pensees et pages
inedites de Maine de Biran (Pdrigueux, 1896); G. Allievo, " Maine
de Biran e la sua dottrina antropologica " (Turin, 1896, in Memorie
dell' accademia delle scienze, 2nd ser., xlv, pt. 2); A. Lang, Maine
de Biran und die neuere Philosophie (Cologne, 1901); monographs
by A. Kiihtmann (Bremen, 1901) and M. Couailhac (1905); N. E.
Truman in Cornell Studies in Philosophy, No. 5 (1904) on Maine de
Biran's Philosophy of Will.
MAINE-ET-LOIRE, a department of western France, formed in
1790 for the most part out of the southern portion of the former
province of Anjou, and bounded N. by the departments of
Mayenne and Sarthe, E. by Indre-et-Loire, S.E. by Vienne, S.
by Dcux-Sevres and Vendee, W. by Loire-Inferieure, and N.W.
by Ille-et-Vilaine. Area, 2786 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 513,490.
Maine-et-Loire is made up of two distinct regions, the line of
demarcation running roughly from north to south along the
valley of the Sarthe, then turning south-west and passing
Brissac and Dou6; that to the west consists of granites, felspars,
and -a continuation of the geological formations of Brittany
and Vendee; to the east, schists, limestone and chalk prevail.
The department is traversed from east to west by the majestic
valley of the Loire, with its rich orchards, nurseries and market-
gardens. The highest altitudes are found in the south-west,
where north-east of Cholet one eminence reaches 689 ft. Else-
where the surface is low and undulating in character. The
department belongs entirely to the basin of the Loire, the bed
of which is wide but shallow, and full of islands, the depth of
the water in summer being at some places little more than 2 ft.
Floods are sudden and destructive. The chief affluent of the
Loire within the department is the Maine, formed a little above
Angers by the junction of the Mayenne and the Sarthe, the
latter having previously received the waters of the Loire. All
three are navigable. Other tributaries of the Loire aretheThouet
(with its tributary the Dive), the Layon, the Evre, and the
Divatte on the left, and the Authion on the right. The Mayenne
is joined on the right by the Oudon, which can be navigated
below Segre 1 . The Erdre, which joins the Loire at Nantes,
and the Moine, a tributary of the Sevre-Nantaise, both rise
442
MAINPURI MAINTENON, MADAME DE
within this department. The climate is very mild. The mean
annual temperature of Angers is about 53, slightly exceeding
that of Paris; the rainfall (between 23 and 24 in. annually)
is distinctly lower than that of the rest of France. Notwith-
standing this deficiency, the frequent fogs, combined with the
peculiar nature of the soil in the south-east of the department,
produce a degree of moisture which is highly favourable to
meadow growths. The winter colds are never severe, and
readily permit the cultivation of certain trees which cannot be
reared in the adjoining departments.
The agriculture of the department is very prosperous. The
produce of cereals, chiefly wheat, oats and barley, is in excess
of its needs, and potatoes and mangels also give good returns.
Extensive areas in the valley of the Loire are under hemp,
and the vegetables, melons and other fruits of that region are
of the finest quality.' Good wine is produced at Serrant and
other places near Angers, and on the right bank of the Layon
and near .Saumur, the sparkling white wine of which is a rival
of the cheaper brands of champagne. Cider is also produced,
and the cultivation of fruit is general. Forests and woodland
in which oak and beech are the chief trees cover large tracts.
The fattening of cattle is an important industry round Cholet,
and horses much used for light cavalry are reared. Several
thousand workmen are employed in the slate quarries in the
vicinity of Angers, tufa is worked in the river valleys, and
freestone and other stone, mispickel, iron and coal are also found.
Cholet, the chief industrial town, and its district manufacture
pocket-handkerchiefs, as well as linen cloths, flannels, cotton
goods, and hempen and other coarse fabrics, and similar indus-
tries are carried on at Angers, which also manufactures liqueurs,
rope, boots and shoes and parasols. Saumur, besides its pro-
duction of wine, makes beads and enamels. The commerce of
Maine-et-Loire comprises the exportation of live stock and of the
various products of its soil and industries, and the importation
of hemp, cotton, and other raw materials. The department
is served by the railways of the state and the Orleans and
Western companies. The Mayenne, the Sarthe and the Loir,
together with some of the lesser rivers, provide about 130 m. of
navigable waterway. In the south-east the canal of the Dive
covers some 10 m. in the department.
There are five arrondissements Angers, Bauge, Cholet,
Saumur and Segre, with 34 cantons and 381 communes. Maine-
et-Loire belongs to the academic (educational division) of
Rennes, to the region of the VIII. army corps, and to the ecclesi-
astical province of Tours. Angers (q.v.), the capital, is the seat
of a bishopric and of a court of appeal. Other principal places
are Cholet, Saumur, and Fontevrault, which receive separate
treatment. For architectural interest there may also be men-
tioned the chateaux of Brissac (iyth century), Serrant (isth and
i6th centuries), Montreuil-Bellay (i4th and i$th centuries), and
Ecuille (isth century), and the churches of Puy-Notre-Dame
(i3th century) and St Florent-le-Vieil (i3th, I7th, and I9th
centuries), the last containing the fine monument to Charles
Bonchamps, the Vendean leader, by David d'Angers. Gennes
has remains of a theatre and other ruins of the Roman period,
as well as two churches dating in part from the loth century.
Ponts-de-Ce, an interesting old town built partly on islands in
the Loire, is historically important, because till the Revolution
its bridges formed the only way across the Loire between
Saumur and Nantes.
MAINPURI, or MYNPOOREE, a town and district of British
India, in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The town
has a station on a branch of the East Indian railway recently
opened from Shikohabad. Pop. (1901), 19,000. It consists
of two separate portions, Mainpuri proper and Mukhamganj.
Holkar plundered and burned part of the town in 1804, but was
repulsed by the local militia. Since the British occupation the
population has rapidly increased and many improvements have
been carried out. The Agra branch of the Grand Trunk road
runs through the town, forming a wide street lined on both sides
by shops, which constitute the principal bazaar. Mainpuri has
a speciality in the production of carved wooden articles inlaid
with brass wire. The American Presbyterian mission manages
a high school.
The DISTRICT or MAINPURI lies in the central Doab. Area,
1675 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 829,357, an increase of 8-8% in the
decade. It consists of an almost unbroken plain, intersected
by small rivers, with a few undulating sand ridges. It is wooded
throughout with mango groves, and isolated clumps of babul trees
occasionally relieve the bareness of its saline ttsar plains. On the
south-western boundary the Jumna flows in a deep alluvial bed,
sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which overhang its
valley, and elsewhere leaving room for a narrow strip of fertile
soil between the river and the upland plain. From the low-
lying lands thus formed a belt of ravines stretches inland for
some 2 m., often covered with jungle, but affording good
pasturage for cattle. The district is watered by two branches
of the Ganges canal, and is traversed by the main line of the
East Indian railway.
Mainpuri anciently formed part of the great kingdom of Kanauj,
and after the fall of that famous state it was divided into a number
of petty principalities, of which Rapri and Bhongaon were the chief.
In 1194 Rapri was made the seat of a Moslem governor. Mainpuri
fell to the Moguls on Baber's invasion in 1526, and, although tempor-
arily wrested from them by the short-lived Afghan dynasty of
Shere Shah, was again occupied by them on the reinstatement of
Humayun after the victory of Pampat. Like the rest of the lower
Doab, Mainpuri passed, towards the end of the i8th century, into
the power of the Mahrattas, and finally became a portion of the
province of Oudh. When this part of the country was ceded to
the British, in 1801, Mainpuri town became the headquarters of
the extensive district of Etawah, which was in 1856 reduced by the
formation of Etah and Mainpuri into separate collcctorates. On
the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 the regiment stationed at Main-
puri revolted and attacked the town, which was successfully
defended by the few Europeans of the station for a week, until
the arrival of the Jhansi mutineers made it necessary to abandon
the district.
MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from mainlenir, to main-
tain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand). The action
of giving support, supplying means of subsistence, keeping
efficient or in working order. In English law maintenance is an
officious intermeddling in an action that in no way belongs to one
by maintaining or assisting either party, with money or otherwise,
to prosecute or defend it. It is an indictable offence, both at
common law and by statute, and punishable by fine and imprison-
ment. It invalidates all contracts involving it. It is also
actionable. There are, however, certain cases in which mainten-
ance is justifiable, e.g. any one who has an interest, even if it
be only contingent, in the matter at variance can maintain
another in an action concerning the matter; or several parties
who have a common interest in the same thing may maintain
one another in a suit concerning the same. Neither is it reckoned
maintenance to assist another in his suit on charitable grounds,
or for a master to assist his servant, or a parent his son, or a
husband his wife. The law with regard to the subject is con-
sidered at length in Bradlaugh v. Newdegate, 1883, n Q.B.D. i.
See also CHAMPERTY. For the practice of " livery and mainten-
ance " see ENGLISH HISTORY, v. and vi.
A CAP OF MAINTENANCE, i.e. a. cap of crimson velvet turned up
with ermine, is borne, as one of the insignia of the British sovereign,
immediately before him at his coronation or on such state occasions
as the opening of parliament. It is carried by the hereditary
bearer, the marquess of Winchester, upon a white wand. A similar
cap is also borne before the lord mayor of London. The origin of
this symbol of dignity is obscure. It is stated in the New English
Dictionary that it was granted by the pope to Henry VII. and
Henry VIII. It is probably connected with the " cap of estate "
or " dignity," sometimes also styled " cap of maintenance," similar
to the royal symbol with two peaks or horns behind, which is borne
as a heraldic charge by certain families. It seems originally to
have been a privilege of dukes. Where it is used the crest is placed
upon it, instead of on the usual wreath.
MAINTENON, FRANCHISE D'AUBIGN& MARQUISE DE
(1635-1719), the second wife of Louis XIV., was born in a prison
at Niort, on the 27th of November 1635. Her father, Constant
d'Aubigne, was the son of Agrippa d'Aubigne, the famous friend
and general of Henry IV., and had been imprisoned as a Huguenot
malcontent, but her mother, a fervent Catholic, had the child
MAINTENON, MADAME DE
443
baptized in her religion, her sponsors being the due de la Roche-
foucauld, father of the author of the Maxims, and the comtesse de
\YuilhuH. In 1639 Constant d'Aubigne was released from
prison and took all his family with him to Martinique, where he
in 1645, after having lost what fortune remained to him at
cards. Mme d'Aubigne returned to France, and from sheer
-ly unwillingly yielded her daughter to her sister-in-law,
Mme de Villette, who made the child very happy, but converted
or pretended to convert her to Protestantism. When this was
known an order of state was issued that she should be entrusted
to Mme de Ncuillant, her godmother. Every means was now
used to convert her back to Catholicism, but at the last she only
yielded on the condition that she need not believe that the soul
of M me de Villette was lost. Once reconverted, she was neglected
and sent home to live with her mother, who had only a small
pension of 200 livres a year, which ceased on her death in 1650.
The chevalier de Mer6, a man of some literary distinction, who
hud made her acquaintance at Mme de Neuillant's, discovered
her penniless condition, and introduced his " young Indian," as
he called her, to Scarron, the famous wit and comic writer, at
whose house all the literary society of the dayassembled. Scarron
took a fancy to the friendless girl, and offered either to pay for
her admission to a convent, or, though he was deformed and an
invalid, to marry her himself. She accepted his offer of marriage,
and became Mme S'carron in 1651. For nine years she was not
only his most faithful nurse, but an attraction to his house,
where she tried to bridle the licence of the conversation of the
time. On the death of Scarron, in 1660, Anne of Austria con-
tinued his pension to his widow, and even increased it to 2000
livres a year, which enabled her to entertain and frequent the
literary society her husband had made her acquainted with; but
on the queen-mother's death in 1666 the king refused to continue
her pension, and she prepared to leave Paris for Lisbon as lady
attendant to the queen of Portugal. But before she started
she met Mme de Montespan, who was already, though not
avowedly, the king's mistress, and who took such a fancy to her
that she obtained the continuance of her pension, which put off
for ever the question of going to Portugal. Mme de Montespan
did yet more for her, for when, in 1669, her first child by the king
was born, Mme Scarron was established with a large income and
a large staff of servants at Vaugirard to bring up the king's
children in secrecy as they were born. In 1674 the king deter-
mined to have his children at court, and their governess, who had
now made sufficient fortune to buy the estate of Maintenon,
accompanied them. The king had now many opportunities of
seeing Mme Scarron, and, though at first he was prejudiced
against her, her even temper contrasted so advantageously with
the storms of passion and jealousy exhibited by Mme de Monte-
span, that she grew steadily in his favour, and had in 1678 the
gratification of having her estate at Maintenon raised to a marqui-
sate and herself entitled Mme de Maintenon by the king. Such
favours brought down the fury of Mme de Montespan's jealousy,
and M me de Maintenon 's position was almost unendurable, until,
in 1680, the king severed their connexion by making the latter
second lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and soon after Mme de
Montespan left the court. The new amie used her influence on
the side of decency, and the queen openly declared she had never
been so well treated as at this time, and eventually died in Mme
de Maintenon's arms in 1683. The queen's death opened the
way to yet greater advancement; in 1684 Mme.de Maintenon was
made first lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and in the winter of
1685-1686 she was privately married to the king by Harlay,
archbishop of Paris, in the presence, it is believed, of Pere la
Chaise, the king's confessor, the marquis de Montchevreuil, the
chevalier de Forbin, and Bontemps. No written proof of the
marriage is extant, but that it took place is nevertheless certain.
Her life during the next thirty years can be fully studied in her
letters, of which many authentic examples are extant. As a wife
she was wholly admirable; she had to entertain a man who would
not be amused, and had to submit to that terribly strict court
etiquette of absolute obedience to the king's inclination, which
Saint-Simon so vividly describes, and yet be always cheerful
and never complain of weariness or ill-health. Her political
influence has probably been exaggerated, but it was supreme in
matters of detail. The ministers of the day used to discuss and
arrange all the business to be done with the king beforehand with
her, and it was all done in her cabinet and in her presence, but
the king in more important matters often chose not to consult
her. Such mistakes as, for instance, the replacing of Catinat by
Villeroi may be attributed to her, but not whole policies
notably, according to Saint-Simon, not the policy with regard to
the Spanish succession. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes
and the dragonnades have been laid to her charge, but recent
investigations have tended to show that in spite of ardent
Catholicism, she at least opposed, if not very vigorously, the
cruelties of the dragonnades, although she was pleased with the
conversions they procured. She was apparently afraid to imperil
her great reputation for devotion, which had in 1692 obtained for
her from Innocent XII. the right of visitation over all the con-
vents in France. Where she deserves blame is in her use of her
power for personal patronage, as in compassing the promotions
of Chamillart and Villeroi, and the frequent assistance given to
her brother Comte Charles d'Aubigne. Her influence was on
the whole a moderating and prudent force. Her social influence
was not as great as it might have been, owing to her holding no
recognized position at court, but it was always exercised on the
side of decency and morality, and it must not be forgotten that
from her former life she was intimate with the literary people
of the day. Side by side with this public life, which wearied her
with its shadowy power, occasionally crossed by a desire to be
recognised as queen, she passed a nobler and sweeter private
existence as the foundress of St Cyr. Mme de Maintenon was
a born teacher; she had so won the hearts of her first pupils that
they preferred her to their own mother, and was similarly
successful later with the young and impetuous duchess of Bur-
gundy, and she had always wished to establish a home for poor
girls of good family placed in such straits as she herself had ex-
perienced. As soon as her fortunes began to mend she started a
small home for poor girls at Ruel, which she afterwards moved to
Noisy, and which was the nucleus of the splendid institution of
St Cyr, which the king endowed in 1686, at her request, out of
the funds of the Abbey of St Denis. She was in her element
there. She herself drew up the rules of the institution; she
examined every minute detail; she befriended her pupils in
every way; and her heart often turned from the weariness of
Versailles or of Marly to her " little girls " at St Cyr. It was for
them that Racine wrote his Esther and his Athalie, and it was
because he managed the affairs of St Cyr well that Michel
Chamillart became controller-general of the finances. The later
years of her power were marked by the promotion of her old
pupils, the children of the king and Mme de Montespan, to high
dignity between the blood royal and the peers of the realm, and
it was doubtless under the influence of her dislike for the duke of
Orleans that the king drew up his will, leaving the personal care
of his successor to the duke of Maine, and hampering the duke of
Orleans by a council of regency. On or even before her husband's
death she retired to St Cyr, and had the chagrin of seeing all her
plans for the advancement of the duke of Maine overthrown by
means of the parliament of Paris. However, the regent Orleans
in no way molested her, but, on the contrary, visited her at St Cyr
and continued her pension of 48,000 livres. She spent her last
years at St Cyr in perfect seclusion, but an object of great interest
to all visitors to France, who, however, with the exception of
Peter the Great, found it impossible to get an audience with her.
On the 1 5th of April 1719 she died, and was buried in the choir at
St Cyr, bequeathing her estate at Maintenon to her niece, the
only daughter of her brother Charles and wife of the marechal de
Noailles, to whose family it still belongs.
L. A. la Beaumelle published the Lettres de Madame de Maintenon,
but much ipirbled, in 2 vols. in 1752, and on a larger scale in 9 vols.
in 1756. He also, in 1755, published Memoires de Madame de Main-
tenon, in 6 vols., which caused him to be imprisoned in the Bastille.
All earlier biographies were superseded by Th6ophile LavalleVs
Histoire de St Cyr, reviewed in Causcries du lundi, vol. viii., and by
his edition of her Lettres historiques et edifiantes, &c., in 7 vols.
444
MAINZ
and of her Corresponda.net generate, in 4 vols. (1888), which latter
must, however, be read with the knowledge of many forged letters,
noticed in P. Grimblot's Faux autographes de Madame de Main-
tenon. Saint-Simon's fine but biased account of the court in her
day and of her career is contained in the twelfth volume of Cheruel
and Regnier's edition of his Memoires. See also Mademoiselle
d'Aumale's Souvenirs sur Madame de Maintenon, published by the
Comte d'Haussonville and G. Hanotaux (Paris, 3 vols., 1902-
1904); an excellent account by A. Geffroy, Madame de Maintenon
dapres sa correspondance authentique (Paris, 2 vols., 1887); P. de
Noailles, Histoire de Madame de Maintenon et des principaux evene-
ments du regne de Louis XIV. (4 vols., 1848-1858); A. de Boislisle,
Paul Scarron et Franc,oise d'Aubigne d'apres des documents nouveaux
(1894) ; . Pilastre, Vie et caractere de Madame de Maintenon d'apres
les xuvres du due de Saint-Simon et des documents anciens ou recents
(1907); A. Rosset, Madame de Maintenon et la revocation de I'edit
de Nantes (1897). (H. M. S.)
MAINZ (Fr. Mayence) a city, episcopal see and fortress of
Germany, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite
the influx of the Main, at the junction of the important main
lines of railway from Cologne to Mannheim and Frankfort -on-
Main, 25 m. W. of the latter. Pop. (1905), 91,124 (including a
garrison of 7500 men), of whom two-thirds are Roman Catholic.
The Rhine, which here attains the greatest breadth of its upper
course, is crossed by a magnificent bridge of five arches, leading
to the opposite town of Castel and by two railway bridges.
The old fortifications have recently been pushed farther back,
and their place occupied by pleasant boulevards. The river
front has been converted into a fine promenade, commanding
extensive views of the Taunus range of mountains, and the
" Rheingau," the most favoured wine district of Germany.
Alongside the quay are the landing-places of the steamboats
navigating the Rhine. The railway, which formerly incommoded
the bank, has been diverted, and now, following the ceinture of
the new line of inner fortifications, runs into a central station
lying to the south of the city. The interior of the old town
consists chiefly of narrow and irregular streets, with many quaint
and picturesque houses. The principal street of the new town
is the Kaiserstrasse, leading from the railway station to the
river.
The first object of historical and architectural interest in
Mainz is the grand old cathedral, an imposing Romanesque
edifice with numerous Gothic additions and details (for plan, &c.
see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Germany). It
was originally erected between 975 and 1009, but has since been
repeatedly burned down and rebuilt, and in its present form
dates chiefly from the 1 2th, i3th and I4th centuries. Thelargest
of its six towers is 300 ft. high. The whole building was restored
by order of Napoleon in 1814, and another thorough renovation
was made more recently. The interior contains the tombs of
Boniface, the first archbishop of Mainz, of Frauenlob, the Minne-
singer, and of many of the electors. Mainz possesses nine other
Roman Catholic churches, the most noteworthy of which are
those of St Ignatius, with a finely painted ceiling, of St Stephen,
built 1257-1328, and restored after an explosion in 1857, and
of St Peter. The old electoral palace (1627-1678), a large build-
ing of red sandstone, now contains a valuable collection of Roman
and Germanic antiquities, a picture gallery, a natural history
museum, the Gutenberg Museum, and a library of 220,000
volumes. Among the other principal buildings are the palace
of the grand duke of Hesse, built in 1737-1739 as a lodge of the
Teutonic order, the theatre, the arsenal, and the government
buildings. A handsome statue of Gutenberg, by Thorwaldsen,
was erected at Mainz in 1837. Mainz still retains many relics
of the Roman period, the most important of which is the
Eigelstein, a monument believed to have been erected by the
Roman legions in honour of Drusus. It stands within the
citadel, which occupies the site of the Roman castrum. A little
to the south-west of the town are the remains of a large Roman
aqueduct, of which upwards of sixty pillars are still standing.
The educational and scientific institutions of Mainz include an
episcopal seminary, two gymnasia and other schools, a society for
literature and art, a musical society, and an antiquarian society.
The university, founded in 1477, was suppressed by the French
in 1798.
The site of Mainz would seem to mark it out naturally as
great centre of trade, but the illiberal rule of the archbishops and
its military importance seriously hampered its commercial and
industrial development, and prevented it from rivalling its neigh-
bour Frankfort. It is now, however, the chief emporium of the
Rhenish wine traffic, and also carries on an extensive transit trade
in grain, timber, flour, petroleum, paper and vegetables. The
natural facilities for carriage by water are supplemented by the
extensive railway system. Large new harbours to the north of
the city were opened in 1887. The principal manufactures are
leather goods, furniture, carriages, chemicals, musical instru-
ments and carpets, for the first two of which the city has attained
a wide reputation. Other industries include brewing and print-
ing. Mainz is the seat of ths administrative and judicial
authorities of the province of Rhein-Hessen, and also of a Roman
Catholic bishop.
History. Mainz, one of the oldest cities in Germany, was
originally a Celtic settlement. Its strategic importance was
early recognized by the Romans, and about 13 B.C. Drusus, the
son-in-law of Augustus, erected a fortified camp here, to which
the castellum Matliacorum (the modern Castel) on the opposite
bank was afterwards added, the two being connected with a
bridge at the opening of the Christian era. The Celtic name be-
came latinized as M agiintiacum, or Moguntiacum, and a town
gradually arose around the camp, which became the capital of
Germania Superior. During the Volkerwanderung Mainz suffered
severely, being destroyed on different occasions by the Alamanni,
the Vandals and the Huns. Christianity seems to have been intro-
duced into the town at a very early period, and in the 6th century
a new Mainz was founded by Bishop Sidonius. In the middle
of the 8th century under Boniface it became an archbishopric,
and to this the primacy of Germany was soon annexed. Charle-
magne, who had a palace in the neighbourhood, gave privileges to
Mainz, which rose rapidly in wealth and importance, becoming
a free city in 1118. During the later middle ages it was the seat
of several diets, that of 1184 being of unusual size and splendour.
In 1160 the citizens revolted against Archbishop Arnold, and in
1163 the walls of the city were pulled down by order of the
emperor Frederick I. But these events did not retard its pro-
gress. In 1244 certain rights of self-government were given to
the citizens; and in 1254 Mainz was the centre and mainspring
of a powerful league of Rhenish towns. Owing to its commercial
prosperity it was known as goldene Mainz, and its population
is believed to have been as great as it is at the present day. But
soon a decline set in. In 1462 there was warfare between two
rival archbishops, Diether or Dietrich II. of Isenburg (d. 1463)
and Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). The citizens espoused the
cause of Diether, but their city was captured by Adolph; it was
then deprived of its privileges and was made subject to the arch-
bishop. Many of the inhabitants were driven into exile, and
these carried into other lands a knowledge of the art of printing,
which had been invented at Mainz by Johann Gutenberg in 1450.
During the Thirty Years' War Mainz was occupied by the Swedes
in 1631 and by the French in 1644, the fortifications being
strengthened by the former under Gustavus Adolphus; in 1688 it
was captured again by the French, but they were driven out in
the following year. In 1792 the citizens welcomed the ideas of
the French Revolution; they expelled their archbishop, Friedrich
Karl Joseph d'Erthal, and opened their gates to the French
troops. Taken and retaken several times during the next few
years, Mainz was ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio
in 1797, and again by the Treaty of Luneville in 1801. In 1814
it was restored to Germany and in 1816 it was handed over to
the grand duke of Hesse; it remained, however, a fortress of the
German confederation and was garrisoned by Prussian and
Austrian troops. Since 1871 it has been a fortress of the German
Empire. There were disturbances in the city in 1848.
See Bruhl, Mainz, geschichtlich, topographisch und malerisch
(Mainz, 1829); C. A. Schaab, Geschichte der Stadt Mainz (Mainz,
1841-1845); K. Klein, Mainz und seine Umgebungen (1868);
C. G. Bockenheimer, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Mainz (1874);
Neeb, Fuhrer durch Mainz und Umgebung (Stuttgart, 1903); and
O. Beck, Mainz und sein Handel (Mainz, 1881).
MAIRET- -MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE
445
The ARCHBISHOPRIC OF MAINZ, one of the seven electorates of
tin Holy Roman Empire, became a powerful state during the
middle ages and retained some of its importance until the dis-
solution of the empire in 1806. Its archbishop was president of
the electoral college, arch-chancellor of the empire and primate of
Germany. Its origin dates back to 747, when the city of Mainz
made the seat of an archbishop, and a succession of able
and ambitious prelates, obtaining lands and privileges from
emperors and others, made of the district under their rule a strong
and vigorous state. Among these men were Hatto I. (d. 913),
iegfried III. of Eppstein (d. 1249), Gerhard of Eppstein
1305), and Albert of Brandenburg (d. 1545), all of whom
,yed important parts in the history of Germany. There were
several violent contests between rivals anxious to secure so
splendid a position as the electorate, and the pretensions of the
archbishops occasionally moved the citizens of Mainz to revolt.
The lands of the electorate lay around Mainz, and were on both
banks of the Rhine; their area at the time of the French Revo-
lution was about 3200 sq. m. The last elector was Karl Theodor
von Dalberg. The archbishopric was secularized in 1803, two
years after the lands on the left bank of the Rhine had been
seized by France. Some of those on the right bank of the river
were given to Prussia and to Hesse; others were formed into a
grand duchy for Dalberg. The archbishopric itself was trans-
ferred to Regensburg.
For the history of the electorate see the Scriptures rerum mogun-
tuiianim, edited by G. C. Joannis (Frankfort, 1722-1727); Schunk,
Beilrdge zur Mainzer Geschichte (Frankfort, 1788-1791); Hennes,
Die Erzbischofe von Mainz (Mainz, 1879); Ph. JarT6, Monumenla
moguntina (Berlin, 1866), and J. F. Bohmer and C. Will, Regesta
archiepiscoporum moguntinensium (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).
MAIRET, JEAN DE (1604-1686), French dramatist, was born
at Besancon, and baptized on the loth of May 1604. His own
statement that he was born in 1610 has been disproved. He
went to Paris to study at the College des Grassins about 1625,
in which year he produced his first piece Chrisiide el Arimand,
followed in 1626 by Sylvie, a " pastoral tragi-comedy." In 1634
appeared his masterpiece, Sophonisbe, which marks, in its obser-
vance of the rules, the beginning of the " regular " tragedies.
Mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of Corneille in the con-
troversy over The Cid. It was perhaps his jealousy of Corneille
that made him give up writing for the stage. He was appointed
in 1648 official representative of the Franche-Comte in Paris,
but in 1653 he was banished by Mazarin. He was subsequently
allowed to return, but in 1668 he retired to Besancon, where he
died on the 3ist of January 1686. His other plays include
Hire on la Morte-vive, published in 1631 with an elaborate
preface on the observance of the unities, Les Galanleries du
dm d'Orsonne (1632), Virginie (1633), Marc-Antoine (1635),
and Le Grand el dernier Solyman (1637).
See G. Bizos, tude sur la vie et les ceuvres de Jean de Mairet
(1877). Sophonisbe was edited by K. Vollmoller (Heilbronn, 1888),
and Silvanire by R. Otto (Bamberg, 1890).
MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE (1754-1821), French diplomatist and
polemical writer, was born at Chambery on the ist of April 1754.
His family was an ancient and noble one, enjoying the title of
count, and is said to have been of Languedocian extraction. The
father of Joseph was president of the senate of Savoy, and held
other important offices. Joseph himself, after studying at Turin,
received various appointments in the civil service of Savoy,
finally becoming a member of the senate. In 1786 he married
Francoise dc Morand. The invasion and annexation of Savoy by
the French Republicans made him an exile. He did not take
refuge in that part of the king of Sardinia's domains which was
for the time spared, but betook himself to the as yet neutral
territory of Lausanne. There, in 1796, he published his first
important work (he had previously written certain discourses,
pamphlets, letters, &c.), Considerations sur la France. In this
he developed his views, which were those of a Legitimist, but a
Legitimist entirely from the religious and Roman Catholic point
of view. The philosophism of the i8th century was Joseph de
Maistre's lifelong object of assault.
After the still further losses which, in the year of the publica-
tion of this book, the French Revolution inflicted on Sardinia,
Charles Emmanuel summoned Joseph de Maistre to Turin, and
he remained there for the brief space during which the king
retained a remnant of territory on the mainland. Then he went
to the island of Sardinia, and held office at Cagliari. In 1802 he
was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary
at St Petersburg, and journeyed thither the next year. Although
his post was no sinecure, its duties were naturally less engrossing
than the official life, with intervals of uneasy exile and travelling,
which he had hitherto known, and his literary activity was great.
He only published a single treatise, on the Principe gtnerateur des
Constitutions; but he wrote his best and most famous works, Du
Pape, De L'eglise gatticane and the Soirees de St Pttersbourg, the
last of which was never finished. Du Pape, which the second-
named book completes, is a treatise in regular form, dealing with
the relations of the sovereign pontiff to the Church, to temporal
sovereigns, to civilization generally, and to schismatics, especially
Anglicans and the Greek Church. It is written from the highest
possible standpoint of papal absolutism. The Soirees de St
Pilersbourg, so far as it is anything (for the arrangement is some-
what desultory), is a kind of thiodicie, dealing with the fortunes
of virtue and vice in this world. It contains two of De Maistre's
most famous pieces, his panegyric on the executioner as the
foundation of social order, and his acrimonious, and in part unfair,
but also in part very damaging, attack on Locke. The Du Pape
is dated May 1817; on the Soirees the author was still engaged
at his death. Besides these works he wrote an examination of
the philosophy of Bacon, some letters on the Inquisition (an
institution which, as may be guessed from the remarks just
noticed about the executioner, was no stumbling-block to him),
and, earlier than any of these, a translation of Plutarch's " Essay
on the Delay of Divine Justice," with somewhat copious notes.
After iSishe returned to Savoy, and was appointed to high office,
while his Du Pape made a great sensation. But the world to
which he had returned was not altogether in accordance with his
desires. He had domestic troubles; and chagrin of one sort and
another is said to have had not a little to do with his death by
paralysis on the 26th of February 1821 at Turin. Most of the
works mentioned were not published till after his death, and it
was not till 1851 that a collection of Letlres et opuscules
appeared, while even since that time fresh matter has been
published.
Joseph de Maistre was one of the most powerful, and by far
the ablest, of the leaders of the neo-Catholic and anti-revolution-
ary movement. The most remarkable thing about his stand-
point is that, layman as he was, it was entirely ecclesiastical.
Unlike his contemporary Bonald, Joseph de Maistre regarded
the temporal monarchy as an institution of altogether inferior
importance to the spiritual primacy of the pope. He was by no
means a political absolutist, except in so far as he regarded
obedience as the first of political virtues, and he seldom loses an
opportunity of stipulating for a tempered monarchy. But the
pope's power is not to be tempered at all, either by councils or
by the temporal power or by national churches, least of all by
private judgment. The peculiarity of Joseph de Maistre is that
he supports his conclusions, or if it be preferred his paradoxes,
by the hardest and heaviest argument. Although a great
master of rhetoric, he never makes rhetoric do duty for logic.
Every now and then it is possible to detect fallacies in him, but
for the most part he has succeeded in carrying matters back to
those fundamental differences of opinion which hardly admit of
argument, and on which men take sides in consequence chiefly
of natural bent, and of predilection for one state of things rather
than for another. The absolute necessity of order may be said
to have been the first principle of this thinker, who, in more ways
than one, will invite comparison with Hobbes. He could not
conceive such order without a single visible authority, reference
to which should settle all dispute. He saw that there could be no
such temporal head, and in the pope he thought that he saw a
spiritual substitute. The anarchic tendencies of the Revolution
in politics and religion were what offended him. It ought to be
44-6
MAISTRE, XAVIER DE MAITLAND, SIR R.
added that he was profoundly and accurately learned in history
and philosophy, and that the superficial blunders of the i8th-
century philosophes irritated him as much as-their doctrines. To
Voltaire in particular he shows no mercy.
Of the two works named as his masterpieces, Du Pape and the
Soirees de St Petersbourg, editions are extremely numerous. No
complete edition of his works appeared till 18841887, when one
was published at Lyons in 14 volumes. This had been preceded,
and has been followed, by numerous biographies and discussions:
C. Barthe'lemy, L' Esprit de Joseph de Maistre (1859) ; R. de Sezeyal,
Joseph de Maistre (1865), and J. C. Glaser, Graf Joseph Maistre
(same year); L. I. Moreau, Joseph de Maistre (1879); F. Paulhan,
Joseph de Maistre et sa philosophic (1893); L. Cogordan, " Joseph
de Maistre " in the Grands ecrivains fran$ ais (1894); F. Descostes,
Joseph de Maistre avant la revolution (1896), and other works by
the same writer; J. Mandoul, Un Homme d'etat italien : Joseph de
Maistre et la politique de la maison de Saiioie (1900) ; and E. Grasset,
Joseph de Maistre (1901). (G. SA.)
MAISTRE, XAVIER DE (1763-1852), younger brother of
Joseph de Maistre, was born at Chambery in October 1763. He
served when young in the Piedmontese army, and wrote his
delightful fantasy, Voyage autour de ma chambre (published 1794)
when he was under arrest at Turin in consequence of a duel.
Xavier shared the politics and the loyalty of his brother, and on
the annexation of Savoy to France, he left the service, and took
a commission in the Russian army. He served under Suvarov
in his victorious Austro-Russian campaign and accompanied the
marshal to Russia. He shared the disgrace of his general, and
supported himself for some time in St Petersburg by miniature
painting. But on his brother's arrival in St Petersburg he was
introduced to the minister of marine. He was appointed to
several posts in the capital, but also saw active service, was
wounded in the Caucasus, and attained the rank of major-general.
He married a Russian lady and established himself in his adopted
country, even after the overthrow of Napoleon, and the con-
sequent restoration of the Piedmontese dynasty. For a time,
however, he lived at Naples, but he returned to St Petersburg
and died there on the i2th of June 1852. He was only once in
Paris (in 1839), when Sainte-Beuve, who has left some pleasant
reminiscences of him, met him. Besides the Voyage already
mentioned, Xavier de Maistre's works (all of which are of very
modest dimensions) are Le Lepreux de la cite d'Aoste (1811), a
touching little story of human misfortune; Les ' Prisonniers du
Caucase, a powerful sketch of Russian character, La Jeune
SMrienne, and the Expedition nocturne, a sequel to the Voyage
autour de ma chambre (1825). His style is of remarkable ease
and purity.
His works, with the exception of some brief chemical tractates,
are included in the collections of Charpentier, Gamier, &c. See
Sainte-Beuve's Portraits contemporains, vol. iii.
MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897), English humanitarian
writer, was born at Ipswich on the 27th of October 1824, and
was educated at Caius College, Cambridge. The son of Charles
David Maitland, perpetual curate of St James's Chapel, Brighton,
he was intended for the Church, but his religious views did
not permit him to take holy orders. For some years he lived
abroad, first in California and then as a commissioner of Crown-
lands in Australia. After his return to England in 1857 he
took up an advanced humanitarian position, and claimed to
have acquired a new sense by which he was able to discern
the spiritual condition of other people. He was associated with
Mrs Anna Kingsford (1846-1888), the lady-doctor and supporter
of vegetarianism and anti-vivisectionism, who, besides being
one of the pioneers of higher education for women, had become
a devotee of mystical theosophy; with her he brought out
Keys of the Creeds (1875), The Perfect Way: or the Finding
of Christ (1882), and founded the Hermetic Society in 1884.
After her death he founded the Esoteric Christian Union in
1891, and wrote her Life and Letters (1896). He died on the
2nd of October 1897.
MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906), English
jurist and historian, son of John Gorham Maitland, was born
on the 28th of May 1850, and educated at Eton and Trinity,
Cambridge, being bracketed at the head of the moral sciences
tripos of 1872, and winning a Whewell scholarship lor inter-
national law. He was called to the bar (Lincoln's Inn) in
1876, and made himself a thoroughly competent equity lawyer
and conveyancer, but finally devoted himself to comparative
jurisprudence and especially the history of English law. In
1884 he was appointed reader in English law at Cambridge,
and in 1888 became Downing professor of the laws of England.
Though handicapped in his later years by delicate health, his
intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually
made him famous as a jurist and historian. He edited numerous
volumes for the Selden Society, including Select Pleas for the
Crown, 1200-1225, Select Pleas in Manorial Courts and The
Court Baron; and among his principal works were Gloucester
Pleas (1884), Justice and Police (1885), Bracton's Note-Book
(1887), History of English Law (with Sir F. Pollock, 1895;
new ed. 1898; see also his article ENGLISH LAW in this encyclo-
paedia), Domesday Book and Beyond (1897), Township and
Borough (1898), Canon Law in England (1898), English Law
and the Renaissance (1901), the Life of Leslie Stephen (1906),
besides important contributions to the Cambridge Modern
History, the English Historical Review, the Law Quarterly
Review, Harvard Law Review and other publications. His
writings are marked by vigour and vitality of style, as well
as by the highest qualities of the historian who recreates the
past from the original sources; he had no sympathy with either
legal or historical pedantry; and his death at Grand Canary
on the igth of December 1906 deprived English law and
letters of one of their most" scholarly and most inspiring repre-
sentatives, notable alike for sweetness of character, acuteness
in criticism, and wisdom in counsel.
See P. Vinogradoff's article on Maitland in the English Historical
Review (1907); Sir F. Pollock's in the Quarterly Review (1907);
G. T. Lapsley's in The Green Bag (Boston, Mass., 1907) ; A. L. Smith,
F. W. Maitland (1908); H. A. L. Fisher, F. W. Maitland (1910).
MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-
1586), Scottish lawyer, poet, and collector of Scottish verse,
was born in 1496. His father, Sir William Maitland of
Lethington and Thirlestane, fell at Flodden; his mother was
a daughter of George, Lord Seton. He studied law at the
university of St Andrews, and afterwards in Paris. His castle
at Lethington was burnt by the English in 1549. He was
in 1552 one of the commissioners to settle matters with the
English about the debateable lands. About 1561 he seems to
have lost his sight, but this did not render him incapable of
attending to public business, as he was the same year admitted
an ordinary lord of session with the title of Lord Lethington,
and a member of the privy council; and in 1562 he was appointed
keeper of the Great Seal. He resigned this last office in 1567,
in favour of John, prior of Coldingham, his second son, but
he sat on the bench till he attained his eighty-eighth year.
He died on the 2oth of March 1586. His eldest son, by his
wife Mary Cranstoun of Crosbie, was William Maitland (?..) :
his second son, John (c. 1545-1595), was a lord of session,
and was made a lord of parliament in 1590, with the title of
Lord Maitland of Thirlestane, in which he was succeeded by
his son John, also for some time a lord of session, who was
created earl of Lauderdale in 1624. One of Sir Richard's
daughters, Margaret, assisted her father in preparing his
collection of old Scots verse.
The poems of Sir Richard Maitland, none of them lengthy,
are for the most part satirical, and are principally directed
against the social and political abuses of his time. He is chiefly
remembered as the industrial collector and preserver of many
pieces of Scots poetry. These were copied into two large
volumes, one in folio and another in quarto, the former written
by himself, and the latter by his daughter. After being in
the possession of his descendant the duke of Lauderdale, these
volumes were purchased at the sale of the duke's library by
Samuel Pepys, and have since been preserved in the Pepysian
Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge. They lay there un-
noticed for many years till Bishop Percy published one of
the poems in his Reliques of English Poetry. Several of the
MAITLAND, W. MAIWAND
447
pieces were then transcribed by John Pinkerton, who after-
wards published them under the title of Ancient Scottish Poems
Is., 1786.)
I'.ir .111 account of the Maitland Folio MS. see Gregory Smith's
iHi-iis of Middle Scots, 1902 (p. Ixxiii.). The Scottish Text
iy lias undertaken an edition of the entire manuscript.
hind's own poems were reprinted, by Sibbald in his Chronicle
nttish Poetry (1802), and in 1830 by the Maitland Club, named
him, and founded for the purpose of continuing his efforts to
ivf the remains of early Scots literature. Sir Richard left in
inamiM-ript a history of the family of Seton, and a volume of legal
ions collected by him between the years 1550 and 1565. Both
M served in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; the former was
published by the Maitland Club, in 1829.
MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM (c.
1528-1573), Scottish statesman, eldest son of the preceding,
educated at St Andrews. At an early age he entered
public life and began in various ways to serve the regent, Mary
of Lorraine, becoming her secretary of state in 1558. In 1559,
however, he deserted her and threw in his lot with the lords
he congregation, to whom his knowledge of foreign, and
' ially of English, politics and his general ability were
' s of the highest value. The lords sent him to England
-k for assistance from Elizabeth, and his constant aim
throughout his political career was to bring about a union
between the two crowns. He appears to have feared the
return of Mary Queen of Scots to Scotland, but after her
arrival in 1561 he was appointed secretary of state, and for
about six years he directed the policy of Scotland and enjoyed
the confidence of the queen. His principal antagonist was
John Knox; there were several tussles between them, the
most famous, perhaps, being the one in the general assembly
of 1564, and on the whole Maitland held his own against the
preachers. He was doubtless concerned in the conspiracy
against David Rizzio, and after the favourite's murder he
obliged to leave the court and was himself in danger of
sination. In 1567, however, he was again at Mary's side,
lie was a consenting party to the murder of Darnley, although
he had favoured his marriage with Mary, but the enmity
between Bothwell and himself was one of the reasons which
drove him into the arms of the queen's enemies, among whom
he figured at Langside. He was one of the Scots who met
Elizabeth's representatives at York in 1568; here he showed
a desire to exculpate Mary and to marry her to the duke of
Norfolk, a course of action probably dictated by a desire to
avoid all revelations about the Darnley murder. But this
did not prevent him from being arrested in September 1569
on account of his share in the crime. He was, however, delivered
from his captors by a ruse on the part of his friend, Sir William
Kirkcaldy of Grange, and was brought into Edinburgh Castle,
while his trial was put off because the city was thronged with
his adherents. Maitland now became the leader of the remnant
which stood by the cause of the imprisoned queen. Already
a physical wreck, he was borne into Edinburgh Castle in April
1571 and with Kirkcaldy he held this fortress against the
regent Morton and his English auxiliaries. The castle sur-
rendered in May 1573 and on the 7th or the 9th of June follow-
ing Maitland died at Leith, there being very little evidence for
the theory that he poisoned himself. " Secretary Maitland "
was a man of great learning with a ready wit and a caustic
tongue. He was reputed to be the most versatile and accom-
plished statesman of his age, and almost alone among his
Scottish contemporaries he placed his country above the claims
of either the Roman Catholic or the Protestant religions.
Among the testimonies to his great abilities are those of Queen
Elizabeth, of William Cecil and of Knox. By his second wife,
Mary Fleming, one of Queen Mary's ladies, whom he married
in 1567, he had a son and daughter. His son James died
without issue about 1620.
See John Skelton, Maitland of Lethington (1894); A. Lang, History
of Scotland, vol. ii. (1902).
MAITLAND, EAST and WEST, adjoining municipalities
in Northumberland county, New South Wales, Australia,
120 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop. (1001), West Maitland,
6798; East Maitland, 3287. These towns are situated in a
valley on the Hunter River, which is liable to sudden floods,
to guard against which the river is protected by stone embank-
ments at West Maitland, while there are flood-gates at East
Maitland. Maitland is the centre of the rich agricultural
district of the Hunter valley, which produces maize, wheat
and other cereals, lucerne, tobacco, fruit and wine; excellent
coal also is worked in the vicinity. East Maitland is the see
of a Roman Catholic bishop, whose cathedral (St John's),
however, is situated in the larger town. Besides this, West
Maitland contains several handsome public and commercial
buildings.
MAITREYA, the name of the future Buddha. In one of
the works included in the Pali canon, the Digha Nikaya, a
prophecy is put into the Buddha's mouth that after the decay
of the religion another Buddha, named Metteyya, will arise
who will have thousands of followers instead of the hundreds
that the historical Buddha had. This is the only mention
of the future Buddha in the canon. For some centuries we
hear nothing more about him. But when, in the period just
before and after the Christian era, some Buddhists began to
write in Sanskrit instead of Pali, they composed new works
in which Maitreya (the Sanskrit form of Metteyya) is more
often mentioned, and details are given as to his birthplace
and history. These are entirely devised in imitation of the
details of the life of the historical Buddha, and have no inde-
pendent value. Only the names differ. The document in
which the original prophecy occurs was put together at some
date during the ist century after the Buddha's death (see
NIKAYA). It is impossible to say whether tradition was, at
that time, correct in attributing it to the Buddha. But whoever
chose the name (it is a patronymic or family, not a personal
name), had no doubt regard to the etymological connexion
with the word for " love," which is Metta in Pali. This would
only be one of those punning allusions so frequent in Indian
literature.
Long afterwards, probably in the 6th or 7th century, a
reformer in south India, at a time when the incoming flood
of ritualism and superstition threatened to overwhelm the
simple teaching of the earlier Buddhism, wrote a Pali poem,
entitled the Anagata, Varnsa. In this he described the golden
age of the future when, in the time of Metteyya, kings, ministers
and people would vie one with the other in the maintenance
of the original simple doctrine, and in the restoration of the
good times of old. The other side also claimed the authority
of the future Buddha for their innovations. Statues of Maitreya
are found in Buddhist temples, of all sects, at the present
day; and the belief in his future advent is universal among
Buddhists.
AUTHORITIES. Digha Nikaya, vol. iii., edited by J. E. Carpenter,
(London, 1908) ; " Anagata Varpsa," edited by J. Minayeff in Journal
of the Pali Text Society (1886); Walters on Yuan Chwang, edited by
Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905).
(T. W. R. D.)
MAIWAND, a village of Afghanistan, 50 m. N.W. of Kanda-
har. It is chiefly notable for the defeat inflicted on a British
brigade under General Burrows by Ayub Khan on the 27th of
July 1880 during the second Afghan War (see AFGHANISTAN).
Ayub Khan, Shere AJi's younger son, who had been holding
Herat during the British operations at Kabul and Kandahar,
set out towards Kandahar with a small army in June 1880, and
a brigade under General Burrows was detached from Kandahar
to oppose him. Burrows advanced to the Helmund, opposite
Girishk, to oppose Ayub Khan, but was there deserted by the
troops of Shere AJi, the wali of Kandahar, and forced to retreat
to Kushk-i-Nakhud, half way to Kandahar. In order to
prevent Ayub passing to Ghazni, Burrows advanced to Maiwand
in the 27th of July, and attacked Ayub, who had already
seized that place. The Afghans, who numbered 25,000, out-
flanked the British, the artillery expended their ammunition,
and the native portion of the Brigade got out of hand and
pressed back on the few British infantry. The British were
MAIZE
completely routed, and had to thank the apathy of the Afghans
for escaping total annihilation. Of the 2476 British troops
engaged, 934 were killed and 175 wounded or missing. This
defeat necessitated Sir Frederick Roberts' famous march from
Kabul to Kandahar.
See Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1896).
MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN, Zea Mays (from fea or fad,
which appears to have been " spelt," Triticum spelta, accord-
ing to the description of Theophrastus), a plant of the tribe
Maydeae of the order Gramineae or grasses (see fig. i). It is
unknown in the native state,
but is most probably indi-
genous to tropical America.
Small grains of an unknown
variety have been found in
the ancient tombs of Peru,
and Darwin found heads of
maize embedded on the shore
in Peru at 85 ft. above the
present sea-level. Bonafous,
however (Histoire naturdle
du ma'is), quotes authorities
(Bock, 1532, Ruel and Fuchs)
as believing that it came
from Asia, and maize was said
by Santa Rosa de Viterbo to
have been brought by the
Arabs into Spain in the I3th
century. A drawing of maize
is also given by Bonafous from
a Chinese work on natural
history, Li-chi-tchin, dated
1562, a little over sixty years
after the discovery of the New
World. It is not figured on
Egyptian monuments, nor was
any mention made of it by
Eastern travellers in Africa or
Asia prior to the ,16th cen-
been cut and drawn aside, revealing tury. Humboldt, Alphonse de
the spike of fruit which bears the Candolle and others, however,
long silky styles. One-third nat. do not hesitate to say that it
originated solely in America,
where it had been long and extensively cultivated at the period
of the discovery of the New World; and that is the generally
accepted modern view. Some hold the view that maize
originated from a common Mexican fodder grass, Euchlaena
mexicana, known as Teosinte, a closely allied plant which when
crossed with maize yields a maize-like hybrid.
The plant is monoecious, producing the staminate (male)
flowers in a large feathery panicle at the summit, and the
(female) dense spikes of flowers, or " cobs," in the axils of
the leaves below, the long pink styles hanging out like a silken
tassel. They are invested by the sheaths of leaves, much
used in packing oranges in south Europe, and the more delicate
ones for cigarettes in South America. Fig. 2 shows a branch
of the terminal male inflorescence. Fig. 3 is a single spikelet
of the same, containing two florets, with the three stamens of
one only protruded. Fig. 4 is a spike of the female inflores-
cence, protected by the sheaths of leaves the blades being
also present. Usually the sheaths terminate in a point, the
blades being arrested. Fig. 5 is a spikelet of the female inflores-
cence, consisting of two outer glumes, the lower one ciliated,
which enclose two florets one (a) barren (sometimes fertile),
consisting of a flowering glume and pale only, and the other (b)
fertile, containing the pistil with elongated style. The mass
of styles from the whole spike is pendulous from the summit
of the sheaths, as in fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the fruit or grain.
More than three hundred varieties are known, which differ
more among themselves than those of any other cereal. Some
come to maturity in two months, others require seven months;
some are as many feet high as others are inches; some have
FIG. i.
kernels eleven times larger than others. They vary similarly
in shape and size of ears, colour of the grain, which may be
white, yellow, purple, striped, &c., and also in physical char-
acters and chemical composition. Dr E. Lewis Sturtevant,
who has made an extended study of the forms and varieties
classes into seven groups those grown primarily for the grain^
FIG. 2. Spike of Male Flowers.
FIG. 3. Male Spikelet.
the distinguishing characters of which are based on the grains
or kernels; there are, in addition, forms of horticultural interest
grown for ornament. Pod corn (var. tunicata) is characterized
by having each kernel enclosed in a husk. Pop corn (var.
everta) has a very large proportion of the " endosperm " the
nutritious matter which with the small embryo makes up the
grain of a horny consistency, which causes the grain to pop
when heated, that is to say, the kernel becomes turned inside
out by the explosion of the contained moisture. It is also
characterized by the small size of the grain and ear. Flint
FIG. 4. Female Spike.
corn (var. indurata) has a starchy endosperm enclosed in a
horny layer of varying thickness in the different varieties.
The colour of the grain is white, yellow, red, blue or variegated.
It is commonly cultivated in Canada and northern United States,
where the seasons are too short for Dent corn, and has been
grown as far north as 50 N. lat. Dent or field corn (var.
indentata) has the starchy endosperm extending to the summit
of the grain, with horny endosperm at the sides. The top of
the grain becomes indented, owing to the drying and shrinkage
of the starchy matter; the character of the indented surface
varies with the height and thickness of the horny endosperm.
This is the form commonly grown in the United States; the
varieties differ widely in the size of the plants and the appear-
ance of the ear.
MAJESTY- -M AJLATH
449
The colour of the grain varies greatly, being generally white,
yellow, mottled red, or less commonly red. Soft corn (var.
amylacea) has no horny endosperm, and hence the grains shrink
uniformly. It is cultivated only to a limited extent in the
United States, but seems to have been commonly grown by
the Indians in many localities in North and South America.
t corn (var. saccharata) is characterized by the translucent
horny appearance of the grains and
their more or less wrinkled condition.
It is pre-eminently a garden veget-
able, the ear being used before the
grain hardens, when it is well filled
but soft and milky. It is often cooked
and served in the cob; when canned
it is cut from the cob. Canned sweet
corn is an important article of do-
mestic commerce in Canada and the
Female Spikelet. Unlte j States In starchy sweet corn
(var. amylea-saccharata) the grain has the external appearance of
sweet corn, but examination shows the lower half to be starchy,
the upper horny and translucent. A form of flint corn, with
variegated leaves, is grown for ornament under the name Zea
japonica or Japanese striped corn.
Chemical analysis, like common experience, shows that
Indian corn is a very nutritious article of food, being richer
in albuminoids than any other cereals when ripe (calculated
in the dry weight). It can be grown in the tropics from the
level of the sea to a height equal to that of the Pyrenees and
in the south and middle of Europe, but it cannot be grown
in England with any chance of profit, except perhaps as fodder.
Frost kills the plant in all its stages and all its varieties; and
the crop does not flourish well if the nights are cool, no matter
how favourable the other conditions.
Consequently it is the first Crop to
disappear as one ascends into the moun-
tain regions, and comparatively little
is grown west of the great plains of
North America. In Brittany, where it
scarcely ripens the grain, it furnishes a strong crop in the autumn
upon sandy soil where clover and lucerne will yield but a poor
produce. It prefers a deep, rich, warm, dry and mellow soil,
and hence the rich bottoms and fertile prairies of the Mississippi
basin constitute the region of its greatest production. It is
extensively grown throughout India, both for the ripe grain
and for use of the unripe cob as a green vegetable. It is the
most common crop throughout South Africa, where it is known
as mealies, being the staple food of the natives. It is also
largely used for fodder and is an important article of export.
As an article of food maize is one of the most extensively
used grains in the world. Although rich in nitrogenous matter
and fat, it does not make good bread. A mixture of rye and
corn meal, however, makes an excellent coarse bread, formerly
much used in the Atlantic states, and a similar bread is now
the chief coarse bread of Portugal and some parts of Spain.
It is either baked into cakes, called tortilla by the Indians of
Yucatan, or made into a kind of porridge, as in Ireland. When
deprived of the gluten it constitutes oswego, maizena or corn
flour. Maize contains more oil than any other cereal, ranging
from 3-5 to 9-5% in the commercial grain. This is one of
the factors in its value for fattening purposes. In distilling
and some other processes this oil is separated and forms an
article of commerce. When maize is sown broadcast or closely
planted in drills the ears may not develop at all, but the stalk
is richer in sugar and sweeter; and this is the basis of growing
" corn-fodder." The amount of forage that may be produced
in this way is enormous; 50,000 to 80,000 Ib of green fodder are
grown per acre, which makes 8000 to 12,000 Jb as field-cured.
Sugar and molasses have from time to time been manufactured
from the corn stalks.
See articles on corn and Zea Mays in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopaedia
of American Horticulture (1900-1902); and for cultivation in India,
Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vi. (1893).
xvii. 15
FIG. 6. Grain.
MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majeslas, grandeur, greatness,
from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.),
dignity, greatness, a term especially used to express the dignity
and power of a sovereign. This application is to be traced
to the use of majestas in Latin to express the supreme sovereign
dignity of the Roman state, the majestas reipublicae or populi
Romani, hence majestatem laedere or minuere, was to commit
high treason, crimen majestatis. (For the modem law and
usage of laesa majestas, lese majeste, Majestatsbeleidigung,
see TREASON.) From the republic majestas was transferred
to the emperors, and the majeslas populi Romani became the
majestas imperil, and augustalis majestas is used as a term
to express the sovereign person of the emperor. Honorius
and Theodosius speak of themselves in the first person as
nostra majestas. The term " majesty " was strictly confined
in the middle ages to the successors of the Roma,n emperors
in the West, and at the treaty of Cambrai (1529) it is reserved
for the emperor Charles V. Later the word is used of kings
also, and the distinction is made between imperial majesty
(caesareana majeslas) and kingly or royal majesty. From
the i6th century dates the application of " Most Christian
and Catholic Majesty " to the kings of France, of " Catholic
Majesty " to the kings of Spain, of " Most Faithful Majesty "
to the kings of Portugal, and " Apostolic Majesty " to the
kings of Hungary. In England the use is generally assigned
to the reign of Henry VIII., but it is found, though not in
general usage, earlier; thus the New English Dictionary quotes
from an Address of the Kings Clerks to Henry II. in 1171
(Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket, vii. 471, Rolls
Series, 1885), where the king is styled vestra majestas, and
Selden (Titles of Honour, part i. ch. 7, p. 98, ed. 1672) finds
many early uses in letters to Edward I., in charters of creation
of peers, _&c. The fullest form in English usage is " His Most
Gracious'.Majesty "; another form is " The King's Most Excellent
Majesty," as in the English Prayer-book. " His Sacred
Majesty " was common in the I7th century; and of this form
Selden says: " It is true, I think, that in our memory or the
memory of our fathers, the use of it first began in England."
" His Majesty," abbreviated H.M., is now the universal Euro-
pean use in speaking of any reigning king, and " His Imperial
Majesty," H.I.M., of any reigning emperor.
From the particular and very early use of " majesty " for
the glory and splendour of God, the term has been used in
ecclesiastical art of the representation of God the Father
enthroned in glory, sometimes with the other persons of the
Trinity, and of the Saviour alone, enthroned with an aureole.
MAJLAlH, JANOS, or JOHN, COUNT (1786-1855), Hungarian
historian and poet, was born at Pest on the sth of October 1786.
First educated at home, he subsequently studied philosophy at
Eger (Erlau) and law at Gyor (Raab), his- father, Count Joseph
Majlith, an Austrian minister of state, eventually obtaining for
him an appointment in the public service. Majlith devoted
himself to historical research and the translation into German
of Magyar folk-tales, and of selections from the works of the best
of his country's native poets. Moreover, as an original lyrical
writer, and as an editor and adapter of old German poems,
Majlith showed considerable talent. During the greater part
of his life he resided either at Pest or Vienna, but a few years
before his death he removed to Munich, where he fell into a
state of destitution and extreme despondency. Seized at last
by a terrible infatuation, he and his daughter Henriette, who had
long been his constant companion and amanuensis, drowned
themselves in the Lake of Starnberg, a few miles south-west of
Munich, on the 3rd of January 1855.
Of his historical works the most important are the Geschichte der
Magyaren (Vienna, 1828-1831, 5 vols. ; 2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1852-1853)
and his Geschichte des osterreichischen Kaiserstaats (Hamburg, 1834-
'850, 5 vols.). Specially noteworthy among his metrical translations
from the Hungarian are the Magyarische Gedichte (Stuttgart and
Tubingen, 1825); and Himfy's auserlesene Liebeslieder (Pest, 1829;
2nd ed., 1831). A valuable contribution to folk-lore appeared in
the Magyarische Sagen, Mdrchen und Erzahlungen (Brunn, 1825;
2nd ed., Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1837, 2 vols.).
45
MAJOLICA, a name properly applied to a species of Italian
ware in which the body is coated with a tin-enamel, on which
is laid and fired a painted decoration. It is also applied to
similar wares made in imitation of the Italian ware in other
countries. The word in Italian is maiolica. Du Cange (Gloss,
s.ii. "Majorica") quotes from a chronicle of Verona of 1368,
in which the form majolica occurs for the more usual Latin form
majorica. It has usually been supposed that this type of pottery
was first made in the island of Majorca, but it is more probable
that the name was given by the Italians to the lustred Spanish
ware imported by ships hailing from the Balearic Islands. (See
CERAMICS: Medieval and Later Italian.)
MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550), Scottish theological
and historical writer, was born at the village of Gleghornie,
near North Berwick, Scotland, in the year 1470. He was edu-
cated at the school of Haddington, where John Knox was later
a pupil. After a short period spent at Cambridge (at God's
House, afterwards Christ's College) he entered the university of
Paris in 1493, studying successively at the colleges of St Barbe,
Montaigu and Navarre, and graduating as master of arts in 1496.
Promoted to the doctorate in 1505, he lectured on philosophy
at Montaigu College and on theology at Navarre. He visited
Scotland in 1515 and returned in 1518, when he was appointed
principal regent in the university of Glasgow, John Knox being
among the number of those who attended his lectures there.
In 1522 he removed to St Andrew's University, where in 1525
George Buchanan was one of his pupils. He returned to the
college of Montaigu in 1525, but was once more at St Andrew's
in 1531, where he was head of St Salvator's College from 1534
until his death.
Major's voluminous writings may be grouped under (a) logic
and philosophy, (b) Scripture commentary, and (c) history. All
are in Latin, all appeared between 1503 and 1530, and all were
printed at Paris. The first group includes his Exponabilia
(1503), his commentary on Petrus Hispanus (1505-1506), his
Inclilarum artium libri (1506, &c.), his commentary on Joannes
Dorp (1504, &c.), his Insolubilia (1516, &c.), his introduction
to Aristotle's logic (1521, &c.), his commentary on the ethics
(1530), and, chief of all, his commentary on Peter Lombard's
Sentences (1509, &c.); the second consists of a commentary on
Matthew (1518) and another on the Four Gospels (1529); the
last is represented by his famous Historia Majoris Britanniae tarn
Angliae quant Scotiae per J. M. (1521). In political philosophy
he maintained the Scotist position, that civil authority was
derived from the popular will, but in theology he was a scholastic
conservative, though he never failed to show his approbation
of Gallicanism and its plea for the reform of ecclesiastical
abuses. He has left on record that it was his aim and hope to
reconcile realism and nominalism in the interests of theological
peace. He had a world-wide reputation as a teacher and writer.
Buchanan's severe epigram, perhaps the only unfriendly words
in the flood of contemporary praise, may be explained as a
protest against the compromise which Major appeared to offer
rather than as a personal attack on his teacher. Major takes
a more independent attitude in his History, which is a remark-
able example of historical accuracy and insight. He claims
that the historian's chief duty is to write truthfully, and he
is careful to show that a theologian may fulfil this condition.
The History, on which his fame now rests, was reprinted by Free-
bairn (Edinburgh, 1740), and was translated in 1892 by Archibald
Constable for the Scottish History Society. The latter volume
contains a full account of the author by Aeneas J. G. Mackay and a
bibliography by Thomas Graves Law.
MAJOR (Lat. for " greater "), a word used, both as a sub-
stantive and adjective, for that which is greater than another in
size, quality, degree, importance, &c., often opposed correlatively
to that to which " minor " is applied in the same connotation.
In the categorical syllogism in logic, the major term is the term
which forms the predicate of the conclusion, the major premise
is that which contains the major term. (For the distinction
between major and minor intervals, and other applications in
music, see Music and HARMONY.)
MAJOLICA MAJORCA
The use of Major as part of an official title in Med. Lat.
has given the Span, mayor, Fr. maire, and Eng. " mayor "
(q.v.). In English the unadapted form "major" is the title of
a military officer now ranking between a captain and a lieutenant-
colonel. Originally the word was used adjectivally in the title
" sergeant-major," an officer of high rank (third in command of
an army) who performed the same duties of administration, drill
and encampments on the staff of the chief commander as the
sergeant in a company performs as assistant to the captain. This
was in the latter half of the i6th century, and very soon after-
wards the " sergeant-major " became known as the " sergeant-
major-general " hence the modern title of major-general. By
the time of the English Civil War " majors " had been introduced
in each regiment of foot, who corresponded in a lesser sphere
to the " major-general " of the whole army. The major's
sphere of duties, precedence and title have since varied but little,
though he has, in the British service, taken the place of the
lieutenant-colonel as second in command the latter officer
exercising the command of the cavalry regiment, infantry
battalion or artillery brigade, and the colonel being, save for
certain administrative functions, little more than the titular
chief of his regiment. Junior majors command companies of
infantry; squadrons of cavalry and batteries of artillery are also
commanded by majors. In most European armies, however,
and of late years in the army of the United States also, the
major has become a battalion commander under the orders of a
regimental commander (colonel or lieutenant-colonel) . The word
appears also in the British service in " brigade-major " (the
adjutant or staff officer of a brigade). "Town-majors"
(garrison staff officers) are now no longer appointed. In the
French service up to 1871 the " major-general " was the chief
of the general staff of a field army, and thus preserved the
tradition of the former " sergeant-major " or " sergeant-major-
general."
MAJORCA (Mallorca), the largest of the group of Spanish
islands in the Mediterranean Sea known as the Balearic Islands
(q.v.). Pop. (1900), 248,191; area, 430 sq. m. Majorca has the
shape of a trapezoid, with the angles directed to the cardinal
points; and its diagonal, from Cape Grozer in the west to Cape
Pera in the east, is about 60 m. On the north-west the coast
is precipitous, but on the other sides it is low and sloping. On
the north-east there are several considerable bays, of which
the chief are those of Alcudia and Pollensa; while on the south-
west is the still more important bay of Palma. No fewer than
twelve ports or harbours are enumerated round the island,
of which may be mentioned Andraitx and Seller. In the north-
west Majorca is traversed by a chain of mountains running
parallel with the coast, and attaining its highest elevation in
Silla de Torrellas (5154 ft.). Towards the south and east the
surface is comparatively level, though broken by isolated peaks
of considerable height. The northern mountains afford great
protection to the tfst of the island from the violent gales to which
it would otherwise be exposed, and render the climate remarkably
mild and pleasant. The scenery of Majorca has all the pictur-
esqueness of outline that usually belongs to a limestone formation.
Some of the valleys, such as those of Valdemosa and Seller,
with their luxuriant vegetation, are delightful resorts. There
are quarries of marble of various grains and colours those near
Santafiy, in the district of Manacor, being especially celebrated;
while lead, iron and cinnabar have also been obtained. Coal of a
jet-like character is found at Benisalem, where it was first worked
in 1836; at Selva, where it has been mined since 1851; near
Santa Maria and elsewhere. It is used in the industrial estab-
lishments of Palma, and in the manufacture of lime, plaster and
bricks near the mines. A considerable quantity is also exported
to Barcelona.
The inhabitants are principally devoted to agriculture, and
most of the arable land is cultivated. The mountains are ter-
raced; and the old pine woods have in many places given way
to the olive, the vine and the almond tree, to fields of wheat and
flax, or to orchards of figs and oranges. For the last-mentioned
fruits the valley of S611er is one of the most important districts,
MAJORIAN MAKART
the produce being largely transmitted to France. The yield
of oil is very considerable, and Inca is the centre of the oil dis-
ii t. The wines are light but excellent, especially the Muscadel
ind Montona. During the summer there is often great scarcity
at water; but, according to a system handed down by the Moors,
the niins of autumn and winter are collected in enormous
reservoirs, which contain sufficient water to last through the
dry season; and on the payment of a certain rate, each land-
holder has his fields flooded at certain intervals. Mules are used
i the agriculture and traffic of the island. The cattle are small,
but the sheep are large and well fleeced. Pigs are reared for
export to Barcelona, and there is abundance of poultry and small
game. Brandy is made and exported in large quantities.
Excellent woollen and linen cloths are woven; the silk-
worm is reared and its produce manufactured; and canvas,
rope and cord are largely made, from both native and foreign
materials.
The roads are excellent, the four principal being those from
Alcudia, Manacor, Seller and Andraitx to the capital. Forty-
eight miles of railway were open at the beginning of the 2oth
century. The main line runs from Palma to Manacor and
Alcudia. The telegraphic system is fairly complete, and there
is regular steam communication with Barcelona and Alicante.
The principal towns include besides Palma (63,937), Felanitx
(11,294) and Manacor (12,408), which are described in separate
articles Andraitx (6516), Inca (7579), Llummayor (8859),
Pollensa (8308), Santany (6692) and Seller (8026).
MAJORIAN (JULIUS VALERIUS MAJORIANUS), emperor of the
West from 457 to 461. He had distinguished himself as a
general by victories over the Franks and Alemanni, and six
months after the deposition of Avitus he was declared emperor
by the regent Ricimer. After repelling an attack by the Vandals
upon Campania (458) he prepared a large force, composed chiefly
of barbarians, to invade Africa, which he previously visited in
disguise. Having during his stay in Gaul defeated and concluded
an alliance with Theodoric the Visigoth, at the beginning of 460
he crossed the Pyrenees for the purpose of joining the powerful
fleet which he had collected at Carthagena. The Vandal king
Genseric, however, after all overtures of peace had been rejected,
succeeded through the treachery of certain officers in surprising
the Roman fleet, most of the ships being either taken or de-
stroyed. Majorian thereupon made peace with Genseric. But
his ill-success had destroyed his military reputation; his efforts
to put down abuses and improve the condition of the people had
roused the hatred of the officials; and Ricimer, jealous of his
fame and influence, stirred up the foreign troops against him. A
mutiny broke out in Lombardy, and on the 2nd of August 461
Majorian was forced to resign. He died five days afterwards,
either of dysentery or by violence. Majorian was the author of
a number of remarkable laws, contained in the Theodosian
Code. He remitted all arrears of taxes, the collection of which
was for the future placed in the hands of the local officials. He
revived the institution of defensores, defenders of cities, whose
duty it was to protect the poor and inform the emperor of abuses
committed in his name. The practice of pulling down the ancient
monuments to be used as building material, which was connived
at by venal officials, was strictly prohibited. He also passed
laws against compulsory ordination and premature vows of
celibacy.
See Sidonius Apollinaris, Panegyric of Majorian ; Gibbon, Decline
and Fall, ch. xxxvi. (where an outline of the " novels " of Majorian
is given) ; J. B. Bury, Later Roman Empire, bk. iii.
MAJORITY (Fr. majoriU; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major,
greater), a term signifying the greater number. In leeislative
and deliberative assemblies it is usual to decide questions by a
majority of those present at a meeting and voting. In law,
majority is the state of being of full age, which in the United
Kingdom is twenty-one years of age. A person attains his
majority at twelve o'clock at night of the day preceding his
twenty-first birthday (see INFANT; AGE).
MAJUBA (properly AMAJUBA, Zulu for "the hill of doves"),
a mountain in northern Natal, part of the Drakensberg range,
| rising about 7000 ft. above the sea and over 2000 ft. above the
level of the surrounding country. It overlooks the pass through
the Drakensberg known as Laing's Nek, is 8 m. S. of the Trans-
vaal border and 18 m. N. of the town of Newcastle. The railway
from Durban to Johannesburg skirts the base of the mountain.
During the Boer War of 1 880-81 Majuba was occupied on the
night of the 26th of February 1881 by some 600 British troops
under Sir George Pomeroy Colley. On the following morning
the hill was stormed by the Boers under Piet Joubert and the
British routed, Colley being among the slain.
MAKALAKA, a general designation used by the Bechuana,
Matabele and kindred peoples, for conquered or slave tribes.
Thus many of the tribes subjugated by the Makololo chief,
Sebituane, about 1830 were called Makalaka (see David Living-
stone's Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa,
London, 1857). By early writers on south-central Africa certain
of the inhabitants of Barotseland were styled Makalaka; the
name is more frequently used to designate the Makalanga, one
of the tribes now classed as Mashonas (q.v.), who were brought
into subjection by the Matabele.
MAKARAKA, or IDDIO (" Cannibals "), a negroid people of
Central Africa, closely related to the powerful Azandeh or Niam-
Niam race, occupying the Bahr-el-Ghazal west of Lado. They
came originally from the country of the Kibas, north of the
Welle. Dr W. Junker described them as among the most trust-
worthy, industrious and intelligent people of the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
They are a reddish-black, with nose less flat and cheek-bones
less prominent than the ordinary negroes, and, unlike the latter,
do not extract the incisors. Their long silky hair is built up in
the most fantastic form by means of vegetable substances. They
are well-known for strength and staying power.
See W. Junker, Travels in Africa (1890-1892).
MAKART, HANS (1840-1884), Austrian painter, born at
Salzburg, was the son of an inspector of the imperial castle.
He has been aptly called the first German painter of the ipth
century. When he, as a youth, entered the Vienna Academy
German art was under the rule of Cornelius's cold classicism.
It was entirely intellectual and academic. Clear and precise
drawing, sculpturesque modelling, and pictorial erudition were
the qualities most esteemed; and it is not surprising that Makart,
poor draughtsman to the very last, with a passionate and sensual
love of colour, and ever impatient to escape the routine of art-
school drawing, was found to be "devoid of all talent" and
forced to leave the Vienna Academy. He went to Munich, and
after two years of independent study attracted the attention of
Piloty, under whose guidance he made rapid and astonishing
progress. The first picture he painted under Piloty, " Lavoisier
in Prison," though timid and conventional, attracted attention
by its sense of colour. In the next, " The Knight and the Water
Nymphs," he first displayed the decorative qualities to which he
afterwards sacrificed everything else in his work. With the
" Cupids " and " The Plague in Florence " of the next year
his fame became firmly established. " Romeo and Juliet " was
soon after bought by the Austrian emperor for the Vienna
Museum, and Makart was invited to come to Vienna, where a
large studio was placed at his disposal. In Vienna Makart
became the acknowledged leader of the artistic life of the city,
which in the 'seventies passed through a period of feverish
activity, the chief results of which are the sumptuously decorated
public buildings of the Ringstrasse.
The enthusiasm of the time, the splendour of the fetes over
which Makart presided, and the very obvious appeal of his huge
compositions in their glowing richness of colour, in which he tried
to emulate Rubens, made him appear a very giant to his contem-
poraries in Vienna, and indeed in all Austria and Germany.
The appearance of each of his ambitious historical and allegorical
paintings was hailed with enthusiasm the " Catherina Cor-
naro," " Diana's Hunt," " The Entry of Charles V. into Antwerp,"
" Abundantia," " Spring," " Summer," " The Death of Cleo-
patra " and the " Five Senses." He reached the zenith of his
fame when, in 1879, he designed, single-handed, the costumes,
scenic setting, and triumphal cars of the grand pageant with
452
MAKING-UP PRICE MALABAR
which the citizens of Vienna celebrated the silver wedding of
their rulers. Some 15,000 people participated in the pageant,
all dressed in the costumes of the Rubens and Rembrandt period.
Makart died in Vienna in October 1884.
Unfortunately Makart was in the habit of using such villainous
pigments and mediums that in the few decades which have passed
since his death, the vast majority of his large paintings have prac-
tically perished. The blues have turned into green ; the bitumen has
eaten away the rich glow of the colour harmonies; the thickly applied
paint has cracked and in some instances crumbled away. And this
loss of their chief quality has accentuated the weaknesses of these
pictures the faulty drawing, careless and hasty execution, lack of
deeper significance and prevalence of glaring anachronisms. Impor-
tant examples of his work are to be found at the galleries of Vienna,
Berlin, Hamburg and Stuttgart. For the Vienna Museum he also
executed a series of decorative lunettes.
MAKING-UP PRICE, a term used in the London end other
British Stock Exchanges, to denote the price at which specula-
tive bargains are carried over from one account to the next.
The carrying over of a "bull" position in Eries, for example,
implies a sale for cash and a simultaneous repurchase for the new
account, both bargains being done at the making-up price.
This is fixed at noon on carry-over day, in accordance with the
market price then current (see ACCOUNT; STOCK EXCHANGE).
The term is also used in New York, where the making-up prices
are fixed at the end of a day's business, in accordance with the
American system of daily settlements.
MAKO, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Csanad
135 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 33,701. It is
situated near the right bank of the Maros, and is a typical
Hungarian town of the Alfold. The most noteworthy building
is the palace of the bishop of Csanad, whose usual residence is
in Temesvar. The town possesses numerous mills, and the
surrounding country is fertile. The communal lands are exten-
sive; they afford excellent pasturage for horses and sheep and
also for large herds of horned cattle, for the size and quality of
which Mako has obtained a high repute.
MAKRAN, or MEKRAN, a province of Baluchistan, fringing the
Arabian Sea from Persia almost to Sind for about 200 m. It is
subject to the khan of Kalat under British political supervision.
Estimated area, 26,000 sq. m.; estimated pop. (1903), 78,000.
The long lateral valley of Kej is usually associated with Makran
in early geographical records. The Kej-Macoran of Marco
Polo is the Makran of to-day.
The long stretch of sandy foreshore is broken on the coast-
line by the magnificent cliffs of Malan, the hammer-shaped
headlands of Ormarah and Gwadar, and the precipitous cliffs of
Jebel Zarain, near Pasni. Within them lies the usual frontier band
of parallel ridges, alternating with narrow valleys. Amongst
them the ranges called Talana and Talur arc conspicuous by
their height and regular configuration. The normal conformation
of the Baluchistan frontier is somewhat emphasized in Makran.
Here the volcanic action, which preceded the general upheaval
of recent strata and the folding of the edges of the interior
highlands, is still in evidence in occasional boiling mud volcanoes
on the coast-line. It is repeated in the blazing summit of the
Kuh-i-taftan (the burning mountain of the Persian frontier) which
is the highest active volcano in Asia (13,000 ft.), and probably
the farthest inland. Evidence of extinct mud volcanoes exists
through a very wide area in Baluchistan and Seistan. Probably
the miri, or fort, at Quetta represents one of them. The coast
is indented by several harbours. Ormarah, Khor Kalmat, Pasni
and Gwadar are all somewhat difficult of approach by reason
of a sand-bar which appears to extend along the whole coast-
line, and which is very possibly the last evidence of a submerged
ridge; and they are all subject to a very lively surf under certain
conditions of wind. Of these the port of Gwadar (which belongs
to Muscat and is therefore foreign territory) is the most important.
They all are (or were) stations of the Indo-Persian telegraph
system which unites Karachi with Bushire. With the exception
of the Kej valley, and that of the Bolida, which is an affluent of
the Kej, there are no considerable spaces of cultivation in
Makran. These two valleys seem to concentrate the whole
agricultural wealth of the country. They are picturesque, with
thick groves of date palms at intervals, and are filled with crops
and orchards. They are indeed exceedingly beautiful; and yet
the surrounding waste of hills is chiefly a barren repetition of
sun-cracked crags and ridges with parched and withered valleys
intersecting them, where a trickle of salt water leaves a white and
leprous streak amongst the faded tamarisk or the yellow stalks of
last season's grass. Makran is the home of remnants of an in-
numerable company of rnj.ved people gathered from the four
corners of Asia and eastern Africa. The ancient Dravidians, of
whom the Brahui is typical, still exist in many of the districts
which are assigned to them in Herodotus. Amongst them there
is always a prominent Arab element, for the Arabs held Makran
even before they conquered Sind and made the Kej valley their
trade highway to India. There are negroes on the coast, bred
from imported slaves. The Meds of the Indus valley still form
the greater part of the fishing population, representing the
Ichthyophagi of Arrian. The old Tajik element of Persia is not
so evident in Makran as it is farther north; and the Karak
pirates whose depredations led to the invasion of India and the
conquest of Sind, seem to have disappeared altogether. The
fourth section includes the valleys formed by the Rakshan and
Mashkel, which, sweeping downwards from the Kalat highlands
and the Persian border east and west, unite to break through the
intervening chain of hills northward to form the Mashkel
swamps, and define the northern limits of Makran. In these
valleys are narrow strips of very advanced cultivation, the dates
of Panjgur being generally reckoned superior even to those of
the Euphrates. The great Mashkel swamp and the Kharan
desert to the east of it, mark the flat phase of southern Baluchi-
stan topography. It is geologically part of an ancient inland
lake or sea which included the present swamp regions of the
Helmund, but not the central depression of the Lora. The latter
is buttressed against hills at a much higher elevation than the
Kharan desert, which is separated from the great expanse of the
Helmund desert within the borders of Afghanistan by a trans-
verse band of serrated hills forming a distinct watershed from
Nushki to Seistan. Here and there these jagged peaks appear
as if half overwhelmed by an advancing sea of sand. They are
treeless and barren, and water is but rarely found at the edges
of their foot-hills. The Koh-i-Sultan, at the western extremity
of the northern group of these irregular hills, is over 6000 ft.
above sea-level, but the general level of the surrounding deserts
is only about 2000 ft., sinking to 1500 ft. in the Mashkel Hamun
and the Gaod-i-Zirreh.
The whole of this country has been surveyed by Indian sur-
veyors and the boundary between Persian and British Baluchis-
tan was demarcated by a commission in 1895-1896. In 1898 a
column of British troops under Colonel Mayne was despatched
to Makran by sea, owing to a rebellion against the authority
of the khan of Kalat, and an attack made by some Makran
chiefs on a British survey party. The campaign was short and
terminated with the capture of the Kej citadel. Another similar
expedition was required in 1901 to storm the fort at Nodiz.
The headquarters of the native governor, under the khan of
Kalat, are at Turbat, with deputies at Tump, Kolwa, Pasni and
Panjgur. A levy corps, with two British officers, is stationed
along the western frontier. The port of Gwadur forms an
enclave belonging to the sultan of Muscat.
Baluchistan District Gazetteer, vol. vii. (Bombay, 1907).
(T. H. H.*)
MAKSOORA, the term in Mahommedan architecture given
to the sanctuary or praying-chamber in a mosque, which was
sometimes enclosed with a screen of lattice-work; the word is
occasionally used for a similar enclosure round a tomb.
MALABAR, a district of British India, in the Madras Presi-
dency. Geographically the name is sometimes extended to the
entire western coast of the peninsula. Properly it should
apply to the strip below the Ghats, which is inhabited by people
speaking the Malayalam language, a branch of the Dravidian
stock, who form a peculiar race, with castes, customs and
traditions of their own. It would thus be coextensive with
the old kingdom of Chera, including the modern states of
MALABARI MALACCA
453
Travancore and Cochin, and part of Kanara. In 1901 the
total number of persons speaking Malayalam in all India was
,020,304.
The district of Malabar extends for 145 m. along the coast,
nning inland to the Ghats with a breadth varying from
to 25 m. The administrative headquarters are at Calicut.
5795 sq. m. Malabar is singularly diversified in its
configuration ; from the eastward, the great range of the Western
Ghats, only interrupted by the Palghat gap, looks down on a
untry broken by long spurs, extensive ravines, dense forests
tangled jungle. To the westward, gentler slopes and downs,
and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated, succeed the
forest uplands, till, nearer the seaboard, the low laterite table-
lands shelve into rice plains and backwaters fringed with coco-
nut palms. The coast runs in a south-easterly direction, and
forms a few headlands and small bays, with a natural harbour
in the south at Cochin. In the south there is considerable
extent of table-land. The mountains of the Western Ghats run
almost parallel to the coast, and vary from 3000 to 7000 ft.
in height. One of the most characteristic features of Malabar
is an all but continuous chain of lagoons or backwaters lying
parallel to the coast, which have been formed by the action
of the waves and shore currents in obstructing the waters of
the rivers. Connected by artificial canals, they form a cheap
means of transit; and a large local trade is carried on by inland
navigation. Fishing and fishcuring is an important industry.
The forests are extensive and of great value, but they are almost
entirely private property. The few tracts which are conserved
have come into government hands by escheat or by contract.
Wild animals include the elephant, tiger, panther, bison,
sambhar, spotted deer, Nilgiri ibex, and bear. The population
in 1901 was 2,800,555, showing an increase of 5-6% in the
decade.
The staple crop is rice, the next most important product
being coco-nuts. Coffee is grown chiefly in the upland tract
known as the Wynaad, where there are also a few acres under
tea. The Madras railway crosses the district and has been
extended from Calicut to Cannanore along the coast. There
are eleven seaports, of which the principal are Calicut, Telli-
cherry, Cannanore and Cochin. The principal exports are coffee,
coco-nut products and timber. There are factories for cleaning
coffee, pressing coir and making matting, making tiles, sawing
timber and weaving cotton.
See Malabar District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908).
MALABARI, BEHRAMJI (1853- ), Indian journalist and
social reformer, was born in 1853 at Baroda, the son of a
poor Parsi in the employment of the state, who died shortly
after his birth. His mother took him to Surat, where he was
educated in a mission school, but he never succeeded in gaining
an academical degree. Coming to Bombay, he fell under the
influence of Dr John Wilson, principal of the Scottish College.
As early as 1875 he published a volume of poems in Gujarati,
followed in 1877 by The Indian Muse in English Garb, which
attracted attention in England, notably from Tennyson, Max
Miiller, and Florence Nightingale. His life work began in
1880 when he acquired the Indian Spectator, which he edited
for twenty years until it was merged in the Voice of India.
In 1901 he became editor of East and West. Always holding
aloof from politics, he was an ardent and indefatigable advocate
of social reform in India, especially as regards child marriage
and the remarriage of .widows. It was largely by his efforts,
both in the press and in tours through the country, that the Age
of Consent Act was passed in 1891. His account of his visits
to England, entitled The Indian Eye on English Life (1893),
passed through three editions, and an earlier book of a somewhat
satirical nature, Gujarat and the Gujaratis (1883), was equally
popular.
See R. P. Karkaria, India, Forty Years of Progress and Reform,
(London, 1896).
MALABON, a town of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine
.slands, i m. inland from the shore of Manila Bay and 3 m. N.
of the city of Manila, with which it is connected by an electric
tramway. Pop. (1903), 20,136. The leading industries are
the refining of sugar, fishing, trade, the weaving of jusi cloth,
the making of cigars, and the cultivation of ilang-ilang-trees
(Cananga odorata) for their flowers, from which a fine perfume
is distilled; ilang-ilang is one of the principal exports, mostly
to France. Tagalog and Spanish are the principal languages.
Malabon was formerly known as Tamb6bong.
MALACCA, a town on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, in
2 14' N., 102 1 2' E., which, with the territory lying immediately
around and behind it forms one of the Straits Settlements, and
gives its name to the Straits which divide Sumatra from the
Malay Peninsula. Its name, which is more correctly transliter-
ated mtldka, is that of a species of jungle fruit, and is also borne
by the small river on the right bank of which the old Dutch
town stands. The Dutch town is connected by a bridge with
the business quarter on the left bank, which is inhabited almost
exclusively by Chinese, Eurasians and Malays.
Malacca, now a somnolent little town, a favourite resort of
rich Chinese who have retired from business, is visited by few
ships and is the least important of the three British settlements
on the Straits which give their name to the colony. It has,
however, a remarkable history. The precise date of its
foundation cannot be ascertained, but there is strong reason
to believe that this event took place at the earliest in the i4th
century. The Roman youth Ludovigo Barthema is believed to
have been the first European to visit it, some time before 1503;
and in 1509 Diogo Lopez de Siqueira sailed from Portugal for
the express purpose of exploiting Malacca. At first he was
hospitably received, but disagreements with the natives ensued
and word was brought to Siqueira by Magellan, who was one
of his company, that a treacherous attack was about to be made
upon his ships. Siqueira then sent a native man and woman
ashore " with an arrow passed through their skulls " to the
sultan, " who was thus informed," says de Barros, " through
his subjects that unless he kept a good watch the treason which
he had perpetrated would be punished with fire and sword."
The sultan retaliated by arresting Ruy de Araujo, the factor,
and twenty other men who were ashore with him collecting
cargo for the ships. Siqueira immediately burned one of his
vessels and sailed direct for Portugal. In 1510 Mendez de
Vasconcellos with a fleet of four ships set out from Portugal
" to go and conquer Malacca," but d'Alboquerque detained
him at Goa, and it was not until 1511 that d'Alboquerque himself
found time to visit Malacca and seek to rescue the Portuguese
prisoners who all this time had remained in the hands of the
sultan. An attack was delivered by d'Alboquerque on the
25th of July 1511, but it was only partially successful, and it
was not until the 4th of August, when the assault was repeated,
that the place finally fell. Since that time Malacca has continued
to be the possession of one or another of the European Powers.
It was a Portuguese possession for 130 years, and was the head-
quarters of their trade and the base of their commercial explora-
tions in south-eastern Asia while they enjoyed, and later while
they sought to hold, their monopoly in the East. It was from
Malacca, immediately after its conquest, that d'Alboquerque
sent d'Abreu on his voyage of discovery to the Moluccas, or
Spice Islands, which later were the objective of Magellan's
voyage of circumnavigation. During the Portuguese tenure of
Malacca the place was attacked at least twice by the Achinese;
its shipping was harried by Lancaster in 1592, when the first
British fleet made its way into these seas; it was besieged by
the Dutch in 1606, and finally fell to a joint attack of the Dutch
and the Achinese in 1641. It was under the Portuguese govern-
ment that St Francis Xavier started a mission in Malacca, the
first Christian mission in Malayan lands.
The Dutch held Malacca till 1795, when it was taken from
them by Great Britain, and the Dutch system of monopoly in
the straits was forthwith abolished. The colony was restored
to the Dutch, however, in 1818, but six years later it came
finally into the hands of Great Britain, being exchanged by a
treaty with Holland for the East India Company's settlement
of Benkulcn and a few other unimportant places on the western
454
MALACHI
coast of Sumatra. By this treaty the Dutch were precluded
from interference in the affairs of the Malay Peninsula, and
Great Britain from similar action in regard to the States of
Sumatra, with the sole exception of Achin, the right to protect
that state being maintained by Great Britain until 1872 when it
was finally abandoned by a treaty concluded with Holland
in that year. The Dutch took advantage of this immediately
to invade Achin, and the strife begun in 1873 still continues
and is now a mere war of extermination. It was not until
1833 that the whole territory lying at the back of Malacca was
finally brought under British control, and as late as 1887 the
Negri Sembilan, or Nine States, which adjoin Malacca territory
on the east and north-east, were completely independent. They
to-day form part of the Federated Malay States, which are under
the protection of Great Britain, and are governed with the
assistance and by the advice of British officers.
Malacca, in common with the rest of the Straits Settlements,
was administered by the government of India until 1867,
when it became a crown colony under the control of the Colonial
Office. It is to-day administered by a resident councillor,
who is responsible to the governor of the Straits Settlements,
and by a number of district officers and other officials under
his direction. The population of the town and territory of
Malacca in 1901 was 94,487, of whom 74 were Europeans and
Americans, 1598 were Eurasians, the rest being Asiatics (chiefly
Malays with a considerable sprinkling of Chinese). The popula-
tion in 1891 was 92,170, and the estimated population for 1905
was 97,000. The birth-rate is about 35 per thousand, and the
death-rate about 29 per thousand. The trade of this once
flourishing port has declined, most of the vessels being merely
coasting craft, and no large line of steamers holding any com-
munication with the place. This is due partly to the shallowness
of the harbour, and partly to the fact that the ports of Penang
and Singapore, at either entrance to the straits, draw all the trade
and shipping to themselves. The total area of the settlement
is about 700 sq. m. The colony is wholly agricultural, and the
land is almost entirely in the hands of the natives. About 50,000
acres are under tapioca, and about 9000 acres are under rubber
(hevea). This cultivation is rapidly extending. There are still
considerable areas unoccupied which are suitable for rubber and
for coco-nuts. The settlement is well opened up by roads;
and a railway, which is part of the Federated Malay States
railway system, has been constructed from the town of Malacca
to Tampin in the Negri Sembilan. There is a good rest-house
at Malacca and a comfortable seaside bungalow at Tanjong Kling,
seven miles from the town. Malacca is 1 18 m. by sea from Singa-
pore and 50 m. by rail from Seremban, the capital of the Negri
Sembilan. There is excellent snipe-shooting to be had in the
vicinity of Malacca.
See The Commentaries of d'Alboguerque (Hakluyt Society) ; The
Voyages and Adventures of Fernand Mendez Pinto (London, 1653);
An Account of the East Indies, by Captain Alexander Hamilton
(Edinburgh, 1727); Valentyn's History of Malacca, translated by
Dudley Hervey; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society; " Our Tropical Possessions in Malayan India," by the same
author, ibid. ; Further India, by Hugh Clifford (London, 1904) ;
British Malaya, by Sir Frank Swettenham (London, 1906).
(H. CL.)
MALACHI, the name assigned to the last book of the Old
Testament in English (the last of the " prophets " in the Hebrew
Bible), which according to the title (Mai. i. i) contains the
" word of Yahweh to Israel by the hand of Malachi." In form
the word means " my messenger." It could be explained as
a contraction of Malachiah, " messenger of Yahweh "; but the
Septuagint is probably right in not regarding it as a proper
name (" by the hand of His messenger "). Not only do we
know nothing from internal or external evidence of the existence
of a prophet of this name, 1 but the occurrence of the word in
the title is naturally explained as derived from iii. i : " Behold,
I send my messenger " (cf. ii. 7). The prophecy must, therefore,
be regarded as anonymous; the title was added by the compiler
1 A Hebrew tradition given in the Targum of Jonathan, and
approved by Jerome, identifies Malachi with Ezra the priest and
scribe.
who wrote similar editorial titles to the anonymous prophecies
beginning Zech. ix. i, xii. i.
The contents of the prophecy fall into a series of clearly marked
sections, as in the paragraph division of the Revised Version.
These apply, in various ways, the truth emphasized at the
outset: Yahweh's love for Israel in contrast with his treatment
of Edom (i. 2-5). Israel's response should be a proper regard
for the ritual of His worship; yet any offering, however imperfect,
is thought good enough for Yahweh's altar (i. 6-14). Let the
priests, who are responsible, take warning, and return to their
ancient ideals (ii. 1-9) . Again, the common Fatherhood of God
should inspire a right relation among fellow Israelites, not
such conduct as the divorce of Israelite wives in order to marry
non-Israelite women (ii. io-i6). 2 The prevalence of wrong-
doing has provoked scepticism as to righteous judgment ; but the
messenger of Yahweh is at hand to purge away indifferentism
from worship and immorality from conduct (ii. i7-iii. 6). The
payment of tithes now withheld will be followed by the return
of prosperity (iii. 7-12). Religion may seem useless, but
Yahweh remembers His own, and will soon in open judgment
distinguish them from the irreligious (iii. I3~iv. 3). The book
closes with an appeal to observe the law of Moses, and
with a promise that Elijah shall come before the threatened
judgment. 3
The topics noticed clearly relate the prophecy to the period
of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the Temple had been rebuilt
(i. 10; iii. i, 10), the province of Judah was under a Persian
governor (i. 8), and there had been time enough for the loss of
earlier enthusiasm. The majority of modern scholars are agreed
that the prophet prepares for the work of those reformers (Ezra,
458; Nehemiah, 444, 432 B.C.). The abuses of which he parti-
cularly complains are such as were found rampant by Ezra and
Nehemiah marriage with foreign women (ii. ii; cf. Ezra ix.;
Neh. xiii. 23 seq. ; Deut. vii. 3) and failure in payment of sacred
dues (iii. 8 seq. ; cf . Neh. x. 34 seq. ; xiii. 10 seq. ; Deut. xxvi. 1 2 seq.).
The priests have fallen into contempt (ii. 9) and have neglected
what is still one of their chief trusts, the oral law (ii. 6 seq.). The
priestly code of written law was not promulgated until 444 B.C.
(Neh. viii.-x.) ; " Malachi " writes under the influence of the earlier
Code of Deuteronomy only, 4 and must therefore belong to a date
prior to 444. The independent character of the attack on
current abuses also suggests priority to the work of Ezra in
458. The prophecy affords an interesting and valuable glimpse
of the post-exilic community, with its various currents of thought
and life. The completion of the second Temple (516 B.C.) has
been followed by disillusionment as to the anticipated prosperity,
by indifference to worship, scepticism as to providence, and
moral laxity. 6 In view of these conditions, the prophet's message
is to reassert the true relation of Israel to Yahweh, and to call
for a corresponding holiness, especially in regard to questions
of ritual and of marriage. He saw that " the disobedience of
1 Torrey (Ency. Bib. c. 2908) holds that the reference here is purely
figurative; "Judah has dealt falsely with the wife of his youth,
the covenant religion, and is wedding a strange cult." But he
assigns the book to the 4th century.
3 This closing prophecy may possibly be a later addition (so Marti)
rounding off the prophetic canon by reference to the two great names
of Moses and Elijah, and their characteristic activities. In this case,
" Elijah " will represent an early interpretation (cf. Ecclus. xlviii.
10) of the " messenger," originally conceived as a purely ideal figure.
The only other passage in the book whose originality is not generally
accepted is that referring to mixed marriages (ii. II, 12).
4 ft is the Deuteronomic law that is most familiar to him, as
appears from his use of the name Horeb for the mountain of the law,
and the Deuteronomic phrase " statutes and judgments " (iv. 4),
from his language as to tithes and offerings (iii. 8, 10; cf. Deut.
xii. II ; xxvi. 12), and especially from his conception of the priesthood
as resting on a covenant with Levi (ii. 4 seq.). Malachi indeed
assumes that the " whole tithe " the Deuteronomic phrase for the
tithe in which the Levites shared is not stored in each township,
but brought into the treasury at the Temple. But this was a modifi-
cation of the Deuteronomic law naturally called for under the cir-
cumstances of the return from Babylon, and Neh. x. and xiii. produce
the impression that it was not introduced for the first time by Ezra
and Nehemiah, though the collection of the tithe was enforced by
them. See further, W.R.S. in O.T.J.C. ii. 425-427.
6 Cf. Stade's reconstruction, G.V.I, ii. 128-138.
MALACHITE
455
his time was the outcome of a lowered morality, not of a clearer
spiritual vision." 1 A strong sense of the unique privileges
of the children of Jacob, the objects of electing love (i. 2), the
children of the Divine Father (ii. 10), is combined with an equally
strong assurance of Yahweh's righteousness notwithstanding
the many miseries that pressed on the unhappy inhabitants of
Judaea. At an earlier date the prophet Haggai had taught
that the people could not expect Yahweh's blessing while the
Temple lay in ruins. In Malachi's time the Temple was built
(i. 10) and the priests waited in their office, but still a curse
:med to rest on the nation's labours (iii. 9). To Malachi the
n of this is plain. The " law of Moses " was forgotten
[iii. 22]); let the people return to Yahweh, and He will
return to them. It was in vain to complain, saying, " Every
one that doeth evil is good in the eyes of Yahweh," or " Where
is the God of judgment?" vain to ask "Wherein shall we
return?" Obedience to the law is the sure path to blessing
(ii. i7-iii. 12).
He calls the people to repentance, and he enforces the call
by proclaiming the approach of Yahweh in judgment against
the sorcerers, the adulterers, the false swearers, the oppressors
of the poor, the orphan and the stranger. Then it shall be seen
that He is indeed a God of righteous judgment, distinguishing
between those that serve Him and those that serve Him not.
The Sun of Righteousness shall shine forth on those that fear
Yahweh's name; they shall go forth with joy, and tread the
wicked under foot. The conception of the day of final decision,
when Yahweh shall come suddenly to His temple (iii. i) and
confound those who think the presumptuous godless happy
(,iii. is), is taken from earlier prophets, but is applied wholly
within the Jewish nation. The day of Yahweh would be a
curse, not a blessing, if it found the nation in its present state:
the priests listlessly performing a fraudulent service (i. y-ii. 9),
the people bound by marriage to heathen women, while the
tears of the daughters of Israel, thrust aside to make way for
strangers, cover the altar (ii. 11-16), all faith in divine justice
gone (ii. 17; iii. 14 seq.), sorcery, uncleanness, falsehood and
oppression rampant (iii. 5), the house of God deprived of its
dues (iii. 8), and the true fearers of God a little flock gathered
together in private exercises of religion (perhaps the germ of
the later synagogue) in the midst of a godless nation (iii. 16).
That the day of Yahweh is delayed in such a state of things is
but a new proof of His unchanging love (iii. 6), which refuses
to consume the sons of Jacob. Meantime He is about to send
His messenger to prepare His way before Him. The prophet
Elijah must reappear to bring back the hearts of fathers and
children before the great and terrible day of Yahweh come.
Elijah was the advocate of national decision in the great concerns
of Israel's religion; and it is such decision, a clear recognition
of what the service of Yahweh means, a purging of His professed
worshippers from hypocritical and half-hearted service (iii. 3)
that Malachi with his intense religious earnestness sees to be
the only salvation of the nation. In thus looking to the return
of the ancient prophet to do the work for which later prophecy
is too weak, Malachi unconsciously signalizes the decay of the
order of which he was one of the last representatives; and the
somewhat mechanical measure which he applies to the people's
sins, as for example when he teaches that if the sacred dues were
rightly paid prosperous seasons would at once return (iii. 10),
heralds the advent of that system of formal legalism which
thought that all religious duty could be reduced to a system of
set rules. Yet Malachi himself is no mere formalist. To him,
as to the Deuteronomic legislation, the forms of legal observance
are of value only as the fitting expression of Israel's peculiar
sonship and service, and he shows himself a true prophet when
he contrasts the worthless ministry of unwilling priests with the
pure offering of prayer and praise that rises from the implicit
monotheism of even Gentile worship 2 (i. ii), or when he asserts
1 Welch in D.B. iii. 220.
This remarkable utterance is sometimes (as by W.R.S.) inter-
preted of the worship of Jews scattered in the Dispersion : reasons
lor the above view are given by Driver.
the brotherhood of all Israelites under their one Father (ii. 10),
not merely as a ground of separation from the heathen, but as
inconsistent with the selfish and cruel freedom of divorce current
in his time. 3 The book is a significant landmark in the religious
history of Israel. Its emphasis on the observance of ritual
finds fullest development in the Priestly Code, subsequently
promulgated; its protest against foreign marriages is made
effective through the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah; 4 the
influence of its closing words on later expectation is familiar
to every reader of the new Testament. 4
The style of Malachi, like his argument, corresponds in its
generally prosaic character to that transformation or decay of
prophecy which began with Ezekiel; and Ewald rightly called
attention to the fact that the conduct of the argument already
shows traces of the dialectic manner of the schools. Yet there
is a simple dignity in the manner not unworthy of a prophet,
and rising from time to time to poetical rhythm.
LITERATURE. Nowack, Die kleinen Propheten (1897; 2nd ed.,
1004); Wellhausen, id. (iii. 1898); G. A Smith, The Book of the
Twelve (ii. 1898) ; A. C. Welch, art. " Malachi " in Hastings's Diet, of
the Bible, iii.2l8-222 (1900); C. C. Torrey, id. in Ency. Bib. iii. c. 2907-
2910 (1902); Marti, Dodekapropheton (1904); Stade, Biblische
Theologie des Allen Test. 141 (1905); Driver, The Minor Prophets,
ii. (Century Bible, 1906). (W. R. S. ; H. W. R.*)
MALACHITE, a copper-ore of fine green colour, sometimes
polished as an ornamental stone. The name is derived from
Gr. /iaXaxJ), the mallow, in allusion to the colour of the
mineral being rather like that of the mallow-leaf. Malachite
was perhaps one of the green minerals described by Theophrastus
under the general name of o-p.apo.y5os; and according to the
late Rev. C. W. King it was probably the smaragdus medicus
of Pliny, whilst his malachites seems to have been a different
stone from our malachite and may have been a green jasper.
It is suggested by'J. L. Myres (Ency. Bib.) that malachite may
have been the Heb. soham, of the high priest's breastplate.
Malachite is a basic cupric carbonate, represented by the
formula CuCO3Cu(HO)2, and has usually been formed by the
action of meteoric agencies on other copper-minerals; hence
it is found in the upper part of ore-deposits, often as an incrus-
tation, and occasionally as a pseudomorph after cuprite, chalco-
cite, &c. When formed, as commonly happens, by the alteration
of copper-pyrites the iron of this mineral usually takes the form
of limonite, which may remain associated with the malachite.
Occasionally, though but rarely, malachite occurs in small dark-
green prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system. Its usual
mode of occurrence is in nodular or stalagmitic forms, with
a mammillated, reniform or botryoidal surface, whilst in other
cases it forms fibrous, compact or even earthy masses. The
nodules, though commonly dull on the outside, may display on
fracture a beautiful zonary structure, the successive layers often
succeeding each other as curved deposits of light and dark tints.
The colours include various shades of apple-green, grass-green,
emerald-green and verdigris-green. Certain varieties exhibit a
finely fibrous structure, producing <jn the fractured surface a
soft silky sheen.
Whilst malachite is found in greater or less quantity in most
copper-mines, the finer varieties useful for ornamental purposes
are of very limited occurrence, and the lapidary has generally
drawn his supply from Russia and Australia. The principal
source in recent years has been the Medno-Rudiansk mine near
Nizhne Tagilsk, on the Siberian side of the Urals, but it was
formerly obtained from mines near Bogoslovsk to the north
and Gumishev to the south of this locality. A mass from
Gumishev, preserved in the museum of the Mining Institute
of St Petersburg weighs 3240 Ib, and still larger masses have
been found near Nizhne Tagilsk. The mineral is prized in
* In ii. 16 the Targum renders " If thou hatest her put her away."
It is characteristic ot later Judaism that an arbitrary exegesis trans-
formed the above anticipation of the doctrine of marriage laid down
in the gospel into an express sanction of the right of the husband to
put away his wife at will.
4 " The permanence of Judaism depended on the religious separate-
ness of the Jews " (Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 143).
5 Matt. xvii. 3, 4, 10-13; xxvii. 47, 49; John i. 21, 25.
456
MALACHOWSKI MALACHY, ST
Russia for use in mosaic-work, and for the manufacture of vases,
snuff-boxes and various ornamental objects. Even folding
doors, mantelpieces, table-tops and other articles of furniture
have been executed in malachite, the objects being veneered
with thin slabs cleverly fitted together so as to preserve the
pattern, and having the interspaces filled up with fragments
and powder of malachite applied with a cement. The malachite
is sawn into slabs, ground with emery and polished with tripoli.
Its hardness is less than 4, but it takes a good polish like marble:
it is rather denser than marble, having a specific gravity of
3-7 to 4, but it is more difficult to work, in consequence of a
tendency to break along the curved planes of deposition.
Exceptionally fine examples of the application of malachite
are seen in some of the columns of St Isaac's Cathedral in
St Petersburg, which are hollow iron columns encrusted with
malachite. Large masses of ornamental malachite have been
found in Australia, especially at the old Burra Burra copper-
mine in South Australia. The Copper Queen and other mines
in Arizona have yielded fine specimens of malachite associated
with azurite, and polished slabs of the mixed minerals some-
times show the vivid green and the deep blue carbonate in
very striking contrast. This natural association, cut as an
ornamental stone, has been named, by Dr G. F. Kunz, azur-
malachite. Malachite is occasionally used for cameo-work,
and some fine antique examples are known. It was formerly
worn as an amulet to preserve the wearer from lightning,
contagion and witchcraft.
The mineral, when ground, has been used as a pigment under the
name of " mountain green." The coarser masses are extensively
used, with other minerals, as ores of copper, malachite containing
about 57 % of metal. " Blue malachite " is a name sometimes given
to azurite (q.v.), whilst " siliceous malachite " is a term inappro-
priately applied to chrysocolla (q.v.). (F. W. R.*)
MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736-1809), Polish states-
man, the younger son of Stanislaw Malachowski, palatine of
Posen, the companion in arms of Sobieski. From his youth
Malachowski laboured zealously for the good of his country, and
as president of the royal court of justice won the honourable
title of the " Polish Aristides." He was first elected a deputy
to the Coronation Diet of 1764, and the great Four Years' Diet
unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its
session in 1788. Accurately gauging the situation, Malachowski
speedily gathered round him all those who were striving to
uphold the falling republic and warmly supported every promis-
ing project of reform. He was one of the framers of the consti-
tution of the 3rd of May 1791, exceeding in liberality all his
colleagues and advocating the extension of the franchise to
the towns and the emancipation of the serfs. He was the first
to enter his name as a citizen of Warsaw in the civic register and
to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete
liberation. Disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of
the constitution, he resigned office and left the country in 1792,
going first to Italy and subsequently to his estates in Galicia,
where he was imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of con-
spiracy. In 1807 Malachowski was placed at the head of the
executive committee appointed at Warsaw after its evacuation
by the Prussians, and when the grand duchy of Warsaw was
created Malachowski became president of the senate under
King Frederick Augustus of Saxony. In the negotiations with
the Austrian government concerning the Galician salt-mines
Malachowski came to the assistance of the depleted treasury
by hypothecating all his estates as an additional guarantee.
In 1809 he died at Warsaw. His death was regarded as a
public calamity, and multitudes followed his remains to their
last resting-place in the Church of the Holy Cross. In all the
other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held
simultaneously as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the
Polish nation.
See August Sokolowski, Illustrated History of Poland (Pol.), vol. iv.
(Vienna, 1900); Life and Memoirs of S. Malachowski, edited by
Lucyan Siemienski (Pol; Cracow, 1853). (R. N. B.)
MALACHY, ST (c. 1094-1148), otherwise known as Maol-
Maodhog (or Maelmaedhog) Ua Morgair, archbishop of Armagh
and papal legate in Ireland, was born at Armagh. His father
an Irish clergyman, the Fearleighlinn, or lector, at the university'
was said to have been of noble family. Having been ordained
to the priesthood, he for some time acted as vicar of Archbishop
Celsus or Ceallach of Armagh, and carried out many reforms
tending to increase conformity with the usage of the Church of
Rome. In order to improve his knowledge of the Roman
ritual he spent four years with Malchus, bishop of Lismore (in
Munster), a strong advocate of Romanism. Here he became
acquainted with Cormac MacCarthy, king of Desmond, who had
sought refuge with Malchus, and, when he subsequently regained
his kingdom, rendered great services to Malachy. On his
return from Lismore, Malachy undertook the government of
the decayed monastery of Bangor (in Co. Down), but very
soon afterwards he was elected bishop of Connor (now a small
village near Ballymena). After the sack of that place by the
king of Ulster he withdrew into Munster; here he was kindly
received by Cormac MacCarthy, with whose assistance he built
the monastery of Ibrach (in Kerry). Meanwhile he had been
designated by Celsus (in whose family the see of Armagh had
been hereditary for many years) to succeed him in the arch-
bishopric; in the interests of reform he reluctantly accepted the
dignity, and thus became involved for some years in a struggle
with the so-called heirs. Having finally settled the diocese, he
was permitted, as had been previously stipulated by himself, to
return to his former diocese, or rather to the smaller and poorer
portion of it, the bishopric of Down. Although the Roman
party had by this time obtained a firm hold in the north of Ire-
land, the organization of the Church had not yet received the
sanction of the pope. Accordingly, in 1 139, Malachy set out from
Ireland with the purpose of soliciting from the pope the pallium
(the token of archiepiscopal subjection to Rome) for the arch-
bishop of Armagh. On his way to Rome he visited Clairvaux,
and thus began a lifelong friendship with St Bernard. Malachy
was received by Innocent II. with great honour, and made papal
legate in Ireland, though the pope refused to grant the pallium
until it had been unanimously applied for " by a general council
of the bishops, clergy and nobles." On his way home Malachy
revisited Clairvaux, and took with him from there four members
of the Cistercian order, by whom the abbey of Mellifont (in the
county of Louth) was afterwards founded in 1141. For the next
eight years after his return from Rome Malachy was active in
the discharge of his legatine duties, and in 1148, at a synod of
bishops and clergy held at Inis-Patrick (St Patrick's Island, near
Skerries, Co. Dublin), he was commissioned to return to Rome
and make fresh application for the pallium; he did not, however,
get beyond Clairvaux, where he died in the arms of St Bernard
on the 2nd of November 1 148. The object of his life was realized
four years afterwards, in 1152, during the legateship of his suc-
cessor. Malachy was canonized by Clement III. in 1190.
The influence of Malachy in Irish ecclesiastical affairs has been
compared with that of Boniface in Germany. He reformed and
reorganized the Irish Church and brought it into subjection to
Rome ; like Boniface, he was a zealous reformer and a promoter
of monasticism. But perhaps his chief claim to distinction is
that of having opened the first Cistercian monastery in Ireland,
five more being soon afterwards established. Several works
are attributed to him, but are all probably spurious. The most
curious of these is a Prophecy concerning the Future Roman
Pontiffs, which has produced an extensive literature. It is now
generally attributed to the year 1590, and is supposed to have
been forged to support the election of Cardinal Simoncelli to the
papal chair.
St Bernard's Life of Malachy, and two sermons on his death
will be found in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina, clxxxii., clxxxiii. ;
see also Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters,
ed. J. O'Donovan (Dublin, 1851); G. Germano, Vita, gesti e pre-
ditlioni del padre san Malachia (Naples, 1670) ; the ecclesiastical
histories of Ireland by J. Lanigan (1829) and W. E>. Killcn (1875);
A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Irland, Bd. I.
(Mainz, 1890) ; G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church (6th ed.,
1907); J. O'Hanlon, Life of Saint Malachy (Dublin, 1859); articles
in Dictionary of National Biography and Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie. On the Prophecy, see the
MALACOSTRACA
457
: treatise by C. F. Menetrier (Paris, 1689) ; Marquis of Bute in Dublin
Review (1885); A. Harnack in Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte,
Bd. III.
MALACOSTRACA. Under this zoological title are included
several groups of Crustacea (<?..), united by characters which
attest their common origin, though some, and probably all of
them, were already separated in distant geological ages, and
some have now attained a peculiar isolation. Throughout the
whole, the researches made since 1860 have not only added a
great throng of new species, genera and families, but have thrown
a flood of light upon questions of their phylogeny, systematic
arrangement, horizontal and bathymetric distribution, organiza-
tion, habits of b'fe and economic importance. There are at
least seven orders: the stalk-eyed Brachyura, Macrura, Schizo-
poda, Stomatopoda, and the sessile-eyed Sympoda, Isopoda,
Amphipoda. An ocular segment claimed by the former division
is not present or in no case demonstrable in the latter. In
neither docs the terminal segment or telson, whether large or
obsolescent, whether articulated or coalescent, carry appendages,
unless occasionally in fusion with itself. Between the eyes and
the tail-piece in all the orders nineteen segments are counted,
the proof of a segment's existence depending on its separateness,
complete or partial, or on a sutural indication, or else on the pair
of appendages known to belong to it. All these marks may fail,
and then the species must be proved to be Malacostracan by
other evidence than the number of its segments; but if some
exceptions exhibit fewer, none of the Malacostraca exhibits more
than 19 (+ i or + 2) segments, unless the Nebaliidae be included.
Of the corresponding pairs of appendages thirteen belong to the
head and trunk, two pairs of antennae, one pair of mandibles,
two pairs of maxillae, followed by three which may be all
maxillipeds or may help to swell the number of trunk-legs to
which the next five pairs belong. The abdomen or pleon carries
the remaining six pairs, of which from three to five are called
pleopods and the remainder uropods. Underlying the diversity
of names and functions and countless varieties of shape, there is a
common standard to which the appendages in general can be
referred. In the maxillipeds and the trunk-legs it is common
to find or otherwise easy to trace a seven-jointed stem, the endo-
pod, from which may spring two branches, the epipod from the
first joint, the exopod from the second. 1 The first antennae are
exceptional in branching, if at all, at the third joint. In the
mandibles and maxillae some of the terminal joints of the stem
are invariably wanting. In the rest of the appendages they may
cither be wanting or indistinguishable. The latter obscurity
results either from coalescence, to which all joints and segments
are liable, or from subdivision, which occasionally affects joints
even in the trunk-legs. The carapace, formerly referred only
to the antennar-mandibular segments, may perhaps in fact
contain elements from any number of other segments of head
and trunk, Huxley, Alcock, Bouvier giving support to this
opinion by the sutural or other divisional lines in Potamobius,
Nephrops, Thalassina, and various fossil genera. Not all ques-
tions of classification internal to this division are yet finally
settled. Between the Brachyura and Macrura some authors
uphold an order Anomura, though in a much restricted sense,
the labours of Huxley, Boas, Alcock and conjointly Alphonse
Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, having resulted in restoring the
Dromiidea and Raninidae to the Brachyura, among which
de Haan long ago placed them. The French authors argue that
from the macruran lobsters (Nephropsidae) anciently diverged
two lines: one leading through the Dromiidea to the genuine
Brachyura; or crabs, the other independently to the Anomura
proper, which may conveniently be named and classed as
Macrura anomala. Spence Bate maintained that the Schizopoda
ought not to form a separate order, but to be ranged as a macru-
ran tribe, " more nearly allied to the degraded forms of the
Penaeidea than to those of any other group " (" Challenger "
Reports, " Macrura," p. 472, 1888). According to Sars, the
1 In Huxley's terminology the first two or three joints of the
stem constitute a " protopodite," from which spring the "endo-
podite " and " exopodite."
Sympoda (or Cumaceans), in spite of their sessile eyes, have
closer affinities with the stalk-eyed orders. H. J. Hansen and
others form a distinct order Tanaidea for the decidedly anoma-
lous group called by Sars Isopoda chelifera.
1. BRACHYURA. For the present, as of old, the true Brachyura
are divided into four tribes: Cyclometopa, with arched front as
in the common eatable crab; Catometopa, with front bent down as in
the land-crabs and the little oyster-crab; Oxyrkyncha, with sharp-
ened beak-like front as in the various spider-crabs; Oxystomata,
including the Raninidae, and named not from the character of the
front but from that of the buccal frame which is usually narrowed
forwards. In these tribes the bold and active habits, the striking
colours, or the fantastic diversities of structure, have so long attracted
remark that recent investigations, while adding a multitude of new
species and supplying the specialist with an infinity of new details,
have not materially altered the scientific standpoint. New light,
however, has been thrown upon the " intellectual " capacity of
Crustacea by the proof that the spider-crabs deliberately use changes
of raiment to harmonize with their surroundings, donning and doffing
various natural objects as we do our manufactured clothes. Others
have the power of producing sounds, one use to which they put this
faculty being apparently to signal from their burrow in the sand
that they are " not at home " to an inopportune visitor. Deep-sea
exploration has shown that some species have an immensely extended
range, and still more, that species of the same genus, and genera
of the same family, though separated by great intervals of space,
may be closely allied in character. A cunous effect of parasitism,
well illustrated in crabs, though not confined to them, has been
expounded by Professor Giard, namely, that it tends to obliterate
the secondary sexual characters. Modern research has discovered
no crab to surpass Macrocheira kdmpferi, De Haan, that can span
between three and four yards with the tips of its toes, but at the
other end of the scale it has yielded Collodes malabaricus, Alcock,
" of which the carapace, in an adult and egg-laden female, is less
than one-sixth of an inch in its greatest diameter." The most
abyssal of all crabs yet known is Ethusina abyssicola, Smith, or
what is perhaps only a variety of it, E. challengeri, Miers. Of
the latter the " Albatross " obtained a specimen From a depth of
2232 fathoms (Faxon, 1895), of the former from 2221 fathoms,
and of this S. I. Smith remarks that it has " distinctly faceted black
eyes," although in them " there are only a very few visual elements
at the tips of the immobile eye-stajks.'
The Brachyura anomala, or Dromiidea, " have preserved the exter-
nal characters and probably also the organization of the Brachyura
of the Secondary epoch ' (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, 1901).
They agjee with the true crabs in not having appendages (uropods)
to the sixth segment of the pleon, the atrophy being complete in the
Homolidae and Homolodromiidae, whereas in the Drpmiidae and
Dynomenidae a pair of small plates appear to be vestiges of these
organs. In the family Homolidae stands the strange genus Lalreillia,
Roux, with long slender limbs and triangular carapace after the
fashion of oxyrhynch spider-crabs. In Homola the carapace is
quadrilateral. Between these two a very interesting link was
discovered by the " Challenger " in the species Latreittopsts bispinosa,
Henderson. Bouvier (1896) has shown that Palaeinachus longipes,
Woodward, from the Forest Marble of Wiltshire, is in close relation-
ship, not to the oxyrhynch Inachidae, but to the genera Homolo-
dromia and Dicranodromia of the Homolodromiidae, and that the
Jurassic crabs in general, of the family Prosoponidae (Meyer),
are Dromiidea.
2. MACRURA. The Macrura anomala, or Anomura in restricted
sense, are popularly known through the hermit-crabs alone. These
only partially represent one of the three main divisions, Paguridea,
Gafatheidea, Hippidea. The first of these is subdivided into Paguri-
nea, Lithodinea, Lomisinea, each with a literature of its own. Among
the Pagurinea is the Birgus lalro, or robber-crab, whose expertness in
climbing the coco-nut palm need no longer be doubted, since in
recent years it has been noted and photographed by trustworthy
naturalists in the very act. Alcock observed one of these crabs
drinking from a runnel of rain-water, by dipping the fingers of one
of its chelipeds into the water and then carrying the wet fingers to
its mouth." Hermits of the genus Coenobita he found feeding'
voraciously on nestling sea-terns. That pagurids must have the
usually soft pleon or abdomen protected by the shell of a mollusc
is now known to be subject to a multitude of exceptions. Birgus
dispenses with a covering; Coenobita can make shift with half the
shell of a coco-nut; CUaenopagurus wraps itself up in a blanket
of colonial polyps; Cancettus tanneri, Faxon, was found in a piece
of dead coral rock; Xyhpagurus rectus, A. Milne- Edwards, lodges
in tubes of timber or bits of hollow reed. The last-named species
has a straight symmetrical abdomen, with the penultimate segment
expanded and strongly calcified to form a back-door to the very
unconventional habitation. This it enters head-foremost from
the rear, while " hermits " in general are forced to go backwards
into their spiral or tapering shelters by the front. Some of the
species can live in the ocean at a depth of two or three miles. Some
can range inland up to a considerable height on mountains. The
advantage that this group has derived from the adoption of mollusc
45*
MALACOSTRACA
shells as houses or fortresses, ready built and light enough for easy
transport, is obviously discounted by a twofold inconvenience.
There is nothing to ensure that the supply will be equal to the demand,
and Nature has not arranged that the borrowed tenement shall
continue to grow with the growth of its new tenant. To meet these
defects it is found that numerous species encourage or demand the
companionship of various zoophytes, simple or colonial. These
sometimes completely absorb the shell on which they are settled,
but then act as a substitute for it, and in any case by their out-
growth they extend the limits of the dwelling, so that the inmate
can grow in comfort without having to hunt or fight for a larger
abode. Among the Lithodinea, or stone crabs, besides important
readjustments of classification (Bouvier, 1895, 1896), should be
FIG. I. Neolithodes grimaldii, A. Milne- Edwards and Bouvier.
noticed the evidence of their cosmopolitan range, and the species
Neolithodes agassizii (Smith) and N. grimaldii, Milne-Edwards and
Bouvier, which carry to an extreme the spinosity characteristic of
the group (fig. i). S. I. Smith's investigations on the early stages
of Hippo, talpoida. Say, were published in 1877.
With regard to the accessions to knowledge in the enormous
group of the genuine Macrura, reference need only be made to the
extensive reports in which Spence Bate, S. I. Smith, Faxon, Wood-
Mason, Alcock, and others have made known the results of celebrated
explorations. Various larval stages have been successfully investi-
gated by Sars. Alcock (1901) describes from his own observation
the newly hatched Phyllosoma larva of Thenus orientalis, Fabricius.
An admirable discrimination of the larval and adult characters of
the genus Sergestes has been given by H. J. Hansen (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
London, 1896). Singularity excites our wonder in Thaumastocheles
zaleucus, v. Willempes Suhm, which makes up for its vanished eyes
by its extraordinarily elongate and dentated claws; in Psalidopus
huxleyi, Wood-Mason and Alcock (1892), bristling with spikes from
head to tail; in the Nematocarcinidae, with their long thread-like
limbs and longer antennae ; in species of Aristaeopsis reported by Chun
from deep water off the east coast of Africa, bright red prawns nearly
a foot long, with antennae about five times the length of the body.
That certain species, particularly many from deep water, have
disproportionately large eggs, is explained by the supposition that
the young derive the advantage of being hatched in an advanced
stage of development.
3. SCHIZOPODA. This order of animals for the most part
delicately beautiful, has for the moment five families Lopho-
gastridae, Eucopiidae, Euphausiidae,
Mysidae and Anaspididae. In the
Euphausiidae the digitiform-arbor-
escent branchiae, as if conscious of
their own extreme elegance, remain
wholly uncovered. In the two pre-
ceding families they are partially
covered. In theMysidae the branchiae
are wanting, and some would form
this family into a separate order,
Mysidacea. In Anaspides, a pecu-
liar fresh-water genus discovered in
1892 by G. M. Thomson on Mount
Wellington, in 'Tasmania, the gills
are not arborescent, and there are
seven segments of the trunk free of FIG. 2. Anaspides tasmaniae,
the carapace (fig. 2). A membrana- Thomson,
cepus carapace separates the Euco-
piidae from the more solidly invested Lophogastridae. Among many
papers that the student will find it necessary to consult may be
mentioned the " Challenger " Report on Schizopoda, by Sars, 1885,
Zool. Soc. (London, 1900); Mysidae of the Russian Empire, by
Czerniavski (1882-1883); and Mysidae of the Caspian, by Sars
(1893-1895-1897).
4. STOMATOPODA. This order, at one time a medley of hetero-
geneous forms, is now confined to the singularly compact group of
the Squillidae. Here the articulation of the ocular segment is un-
usually distinct, and here two characters quite foreign to all the
preceding groups come into view. The second maxillipeds are
developed into powerful prehensile organs, and the branchiae, instead
of being connected with the appendages of head and trunk, are
developed on the pleopods, appendages of the abdomen. At least
three segments of the trunk are left uncovered by the carapace.
The developing eggs are not carried about by the mother, but
deposited in her subaqueous burrow, " where they are aerated by the
currents of water produced by the abdominal feet of the parent."
An excellent synopsis of the genera and species is provided by
R. P. Bigelow (Proc. U.S. Mus. vol. xvii., 1894). For the habits and
peculiarities of these and many other Crustaceans, A. E. Verrill
and S. I. Smith on the Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound should be con-
sulted (1874). The general subject has been illuminated by the
labours of Claus, Miers, Brooks (" Challenger " Report, 1886), and the
latest word on the relationship between the various larvae and
their respective genera has been spoken by H. J. Hansen (Plankton-
Expedition Report, 1895). The striking forms of Alima and Erich-
thus, at one time regarded as distinct genera, are now with more
or less certainty affiliated to their several squillid parents.
5. SYMPODA. This order of sessile-eyed decapods was absolutely
unknown to science till 1779. A species certainly belonging to it
was described by Lepekhin in 1780, but the obscure Gammarus esca,
" food Gammarus " beloved of herrings, described by J. C. Fabricius
in the preceding year, may also be one of its members. Nutritious
possibilities are implied m Diastylis rathkii, Kroyer, one of the
largest forms, which, though slender and rarely an inch long, in its
favourite Arctic waters is found " in incalculable masses, in thousands
of specimens " (Stuxberg, 1880). Far on in the 1 9th century
FIG. 3. Pseudocuma pectinatum, Sowinsky.
eminent naturalists were still debating whether in this group there
were eyes or no eyes, whether the eyes were stalked or sessile, whether
the animals observed were larval or adult. The American T. Say in
1818 gave a good description of a new species and founded the pre-
mier genus Diastylis, but other investigators derived little credit
from the subject till more than sixty years after its introduction by
the Russian Lepekhin. Then Goodsir, Kroyer, Lilljeborg, Spence
Bate and one or two others made considerable advances, and in
1865 a memorable paper by G. O. Sars led the way to the great
series of researches which he has continued to the present day.
The name Cumacea, however, which he uses cannot be retained,
being founded on the preoccupied name Cuma (Milne-Edwards,
1828). The more recent name Sympoda (see Willey, Results, pt. v.
p. 609, 1900) alludes to the huddling together of the legs, which is con-
spicuous in most of the species. Ten families are now distinguished
Diastylidae, Lampropidae, Platyaspidae, Pseudocumidae, all with
an articulated telson ; without one, the Bodotriidae (formerly called
Cumidae), Vaunthompsoniidae, Leuconidae, Nannastacidae, Campyl-
aspidae, Procampylaspidae. All the Leuconidae and Procampyl-
aspidae are blind, and some species in most of the other families.
Usually the sides of the carapace are strangely produced into a mock
rostrum in front of the ocular lobe, be it oculiferous or not. The
last four or five segments of the trunk are free from the carapace.
The slender pleon has always six distinct segments, the sixth carrying
two-branched uropods, the preceding five armed with no pleopods
in the female, whereas in the male the number of pairs varies from
five to none. The resemblance of these creatures to miniature
Macrura is alluded to in the generic name Nannastacus, meaning
dwarf-lobster. In this genus alone of the known Sympoda the eyes
sometimes form a pair, in accordance with the custom of all other
malacostracan orders except this and of this order itself in the
embryo (Sars, 1900). The most but not the only remarkable char-
acter lies in the first maxillipeds. These, with the main stem more
or less pediform, have the epipod andexopod modified for respiratory
purposes. The backward-directed epipods usually carry branchial
vesicles. The forward-directed exopods either act as valves or
form a tube (rarely two tubes), protensile and retractile, for regulat
ing egress of water from the branchial regions. This mechanism
as a whole is unique, although, as Sars observes, the epipod oftflj
first maxillipeds has a respiratory function also in the Lophogastridae
and Mysidae and in the cheliferous isopods. As a rule armature of
MALAGA
459
the carapace is much more developed in the comparatively sedentary
female than in the usually more active male. Only in the male
do the second antennae attain considerable length, with strong
resemblance to what is found in some of the Amphipoda. About
150 species distributed among thirty-four genera are now known,
many from shallow water and from between tide-marks, some from
very great depths. H. J. Hansen concludes that " they are all
typically ground animals, and as yet no species has been taken under
such conditions that it could be reckoned to the pelagic plankton."
As they have been found in all zones and chiefly by a very few
observers, it is probable that a great many more species remain to
be discovered. In recent years thirteen species, all belonging to
the same genus Pseudocuma (fig. 3), have been recorded by Sars from
the Caspian Sea. A bibliography of the order is given in that
author's Crustacea of Norway, vol. iii. (1899-1900).
6. ISOPODA. This vast and populous order can be traced far
back in geological time. It is now represented in all seas and
lands, in fresh-water lakes and streams, and even in warm springs.
It adapts itself to parasitic life not only in fishes, but in its own
class Crustacea, and that in species of every order, its own included.
In this process changes of structure are apt to occur, and sometimes
unimaginable sacrifices of the normal appearance. The order
has been divided into seven tribes, of which a fuller summary than
can here be given will be found in Stebbing, History of Crustacea
(1893). The first tribe, called Chelifera, from the usually chelate
or claw-bearing first limbs, may be regarded as Isopoda anomala,
of whieh some authors would form a separate order, Tanaidea.
Like the genuine isopods, they have seven pairs of trunk-legs, but
instead of having seven segments of the middle body (or peraeon)
FIG. 4. Rhabdosoma piratum, Stebbing.
normally free, they have the first one or two of its segments coalesced
with the head. Instead of the breathing organs being furnished by
the appendages of the pleon with the heart in their vicinity, the
respiration is controlled by the maxillipeds, with the heart in the
peraeon (see Delage, Arch. Zool. exper. et gen., vol. ix., 1881). There
are two families, Tanaidae and Apseudidae. Occasionally the ocular
lobes are articulated.
The genuine Isopoda are divided among the Flabellifera, in which
the terminal segment and uropods form a flabellum or swimming
fan ; the Epicarfdea, parasitic on Crustaceans; the Valvifera, in which
the uropods fold valve-like over the branchial pleopods; the Asellota,
in which the first pair of pleopods of the female are usually trans-
formed into a single opercular plate; the Phreatoicidea, a fresh-water
tribe, known as yet only from subterranean waters in New Zealand
and an Australian swamp nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level ; and lastly,
the Oniscidea, which are terrestrial. Only the last of these, under
the contemptuous designation of wood-lice, has established a feeble
claim to popular recognition. Few persons hear without surprise
that England itself possesses more than a score of species in this air-
breathing tribe. Those known from the world at large number
hundreds of species, distributed among dozens of genera in six
families. That a wood-louse and a land-crab are alike Malacostra-
cans, and that they have by different paths alike become adapted
to terrestrial life, are facts which even a philosopher might con-
descend to notice. Of the other tribes which are aquatic there is
not space to give even the barest outline. Their swarming multi-
tudes are of enormous importance in the economy of the sea. If in
their relation to fish it must be admitted that many of them plague
the living and devour the dead, in return the fish feed rapaciously
upon them. Among the most curious of recent discoveries is that
relating to some of the parasitic Cymothoidae, as to which Bullar
as shown that the same individual can be developed first as a male
and then as a female. Of lately discovered species the most striking
is one of the deep-sea Cirolanidae, Bathynomus giganteus, A. M.
idwards (1879), which is unique in having supplementary ramified
branchiae developed at the bases of the pleopods. Its eyes are
to contain nearly 4000 facets. The animal attains what in
s order is the monstrous size of 9 in. by 4. A general uniformity
the trunk-limbs in Isopoda justifies the ordinal name, but the
valviferous Astacillidae, and among the Asellota the Munnopsidae,
offer some remarkable exceptions to this characteristic. Among
many essential works on this group may be named the Monogr.
Cymothoarum of Schiodte and Meinert (1879-1883); " Challenger "
Report, Beddard (1884-1886); Cirolanidae, H. J. Hansen (1890!;
Isopoda Terrestria, Budde-Lund (1885); Bopyridae, Bonnier (1900);
Crustacea of Norway, vol. ii. (Isopoda), Sars (1896-1899), while their
multitude precludes specification of important contributions by
Benedict, Bovallius, Chilton, Dohrn, Dollfus, Fraisse, Giard and
Bonnier, Harger, Haswell, Kossmann, Miers, M'Murrich, Norman,
Harriet Richardson, Ohlin, Studer, G. M. Thomson, A. O. Walker,
Max Weber and many others.
7. AMPHIPODA. As in the genuine Isopoda, the eyes of Amphi-
poda are always sessile, and generally paired, and, in contrast to
crabs and lobsters, these two groups have only four pairs of mouth-
organs instead of six, but seven pairs of trunk-legs instead of five.
From the above-named isopods the present order is strongly differ-
entiated by having heart and breathing organs not in the pleon,
but in the peraeon, or middle body, the more or less simple branchial
vesicles being attached to some or all of the last six pairs of trunk-
legs. Normally the pleon carries six pairs of two-branched append-
ages, of which the first three are much articulated flexible swimming
feet, the last three few-jointed comparatively indurated uropods.
There are three tribes, Gammaridea, Caprellidea, Hyperiidea. The
middle one contains but two families, the cylindrical and often
thread-like skeleton shrimps, Caprellidae, and their near cousins,
the broad, flattened, so-called whale-lice, Cyamidae. This tribe
has the pleon dwindled into insignificance, whereas in the other two
tribes it is powerfully developed. The Hyperiidea are distinguished
by having their maxillipeds never more than three-jointed. In the
companion tribes these appendages have normally seven joints, and
always more than three. The order thus sharply divided is united
by an intimate interlacing of characters, and forms a compact whole
at present defying intrusion from any other crustacean group.
Since 1775, when J. C. Fabricius instituted the genus Gammarus
for five species, of which only three were amphipods, while he left
five other amphipods in the genus Oniscus, from this total of eight
science has developed the order, at first very slowly, but of late by
great leaps and bounds, so that now the Gammaridea alone comprise
more than 1300 species, distributed among some 300 genera and 39
families. They burrow in the sands of every shore; they throng
the weeds between tide-marks; they ascend all streams; they are
found in deep wells, in caverns, in lakes ; in Arctic waters they swarm
in numbers beyond computation; they find lodgings on crabs, on
turtles, on weed-grown buoys; they descend into depths of the ocean
down to hundreds or thousands of fathoms; they are found in moun-
tain streams as far above sea-level as some of their corlgeners live
below it. The Talitridae, better known as sandhoppers, can forgo
the briny shore and content themselves with the damp foliage of
inland forests or casual humidity in the crater of an extinct volcano.
Over the ocean surface, as well as at various depths, float and swim
innumerable Hyperiidea the wonderful Phrontma, glass-like in its
glassy barrel hollowed out of some Tunicate ; the Cystisoma, 4 or 5 in.
long, with its eye-covered head; the Rhabdosoma, like a thin rod
of glass, with needle-like head and tail, large eyes, but limbs and
mouth-organs all in miniature, and the second antennae of the male
folding up like a carpenter's rule (fig. 4). On jelly-fishes are to be
found species of Hyperia and their kindred, so fat and wholesome
that they have been commended to shipwrecked men in open boats
as an easily procurable resource against starvation. Many of the
Amphipoda are extremely voracious. Some of them are even
cannibals. The Cyamidae afflict the giant whale by nibbling away
its skin; the Chelura terebrans is destructive to submerged timber.
But, on the other hand, they largely help to clear the sea and other
waters of refuse and carrion, and for fishes, seals and whales they are
food desirable and often astoundingly copious. From the little
flea-like species, scarcely a tenth of an inch long, up to the great and
rare but cosmopolitan Eurythenes gryllus, Lichtenstein, and the
still larger Alicetla gigantea, Chevreux, nearly half a foot long, cap-
tured by the prince of Monaco from a depth of 2936 fathoms, not
one of these ubiquitous, uncountable hordes has ever been accused
of assailing man. For the naturalist they have the recommendation
that many are easy to obtain, that most, apart from the very minute,
are easy to handle, and that all, except as to the fleeting colours, are
easy to preserve.
A nearly complete bibliography of the order down to 1888 will be
found in the " Challenger " Reports, vol. xxviii., and supplementary
notices in Delia Valle's Monograph of the Gammarini (1893), the scope
of his work, however, not covering the Hyperiidea and Oxycephalidae
of Bovallius (1889, 1890); but since these dates very numerous
additions to the literature have_ been made by Birula, Bonnier,
Norman, Walker and others, especially the Crustacea of Norway, vol. i.
(Amphipoda), Sars (1890-1895), demanding attention, and the quite
recent Amphipoda of the Hirondette, Chevreux (1900), and Hyperiidea
of the Plankton-Expedition, Vosseler (1901). (T. R.'R. S.)
MALAGA, a maritime province of southern Spain, one of
the eight modern subdivisions of Andalusia; bounded on the
W. by Cadiz, N. by Seville and Cordova, E. by Granada, and
S. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1000), 511,989; area, 2812
sq. m. The northern half of Malaga belongs to the great
460
MALAGA MALAKAND PASS
Andalusian plain watered by the Guadalquivir, the southern is
mountainous, and rises steeply from the coast. Of the numerous
sierras may be mentioned that of Alhama, separating the province
from Granada, and at one point rising above 7000 ft. ; its west-
ward continuation in the Sierra de Abdalajis and the Axarquia
between Antequera and Malaga; and not far from the Cadiz
boundary the Sierras de Ronda, de Mijas, de Tolox and Bermeja,
converging and culminating in a summit of nearly 6500 ft.
The rivers which rise in the watershed formed by all these ranges
reach the sea after a short and precipitous descent, and in rainy
seasons are very liable to overflow their banks. In 1907 great
loss of life and destruction of property were caused in this manner.
The principal river is the Guadalhorce, which rises in the Sierra de
Alhama, and, after a westerly course past the vicinity of Ante-
quera, bends southward through the wild defile of Penarrubia
and the beautiful vega or vale of Malaga, falling into the sea near
that city. The only other considerable stream is the Guadiaro,
which has the greater part of its course within the province
and flows past Ronda. There is an extensive salt lagoon near
the northern boundary. The mountains are rich in minerals,
lead, and (in the neighbourhood of Marbella) iron, being
obtained in large quantities. There are warm sulphurous springs
and baths at Carratraca. Though the methods of agriculture
are for the most part rude, the yield of wheat in good seasons is
considerably in excess of the local demand; and large quantities
of grapes and raisins, oranges and lemons, figs and almonds,
are annually exported. The oil and wines of Malaga are also
highly esteemed, and after 1870 the manufacture of beet and cane
sugar developed into an important industry. In 1905 there were
about 500 flour mills and 230 oil factories beside 95 stills and 100
wine-presses in the province. Malaga has suffered severely
from the agricultural depression prevalent throughout southern
Spain, but its manufacturing industries tend to expand. The
fisheries are important; a fleet of about 300 boats brings in
1 8,000,000 Ib annually, of which 2 5 % is exported. The internal
communications are in many parts defective, owing to the
broken nature of the surface; but the province is traversed from
north to south by the Cordova-Malaga railway, which sends off
branches from Bobadilla to Granada and Algeciras. A branch
line along the coast from Malaga to Velez Malaga was opened in
1908.
Malaga, the capital (pop. 130,109), Antequera (31,609), Vdlez
Malaga (23,586), Ronda (20,995), Coin (12,326), and Alora (10,325),
are described in separate articles. Other towns with more than
7000 inhabitants are Marbella (9629), Estepona (9310), Archidona
(8880) and Nerja (7112). The population of the province tends
gradually to decrease, as many families emigrate to South America,
Algeria and Hawaii.
MALAGA, the capital of the province of Malaga, an episcopal
see, and, next to Barcelona, the most important seaport of Spain,
finely situated on the Mediterranean coast, at the southern base
of the Axarquia hills and at the eastern extremity of the fertile
vega (plain) of Malaga in 36 43' N. and 4 25' W. Pop. (1900),
130,109. From the clearness of its sky, and the beautiful
sweep of its bay, Malaga has sometimes been compared with
Naples. The climate is one of the mildest and most equable in
Europe, the mean annual temperature being 66-7 Fahr. The
principal railway inland gives access through Bobadilla to all
parts of Spain, and a branch line along the coast to Velez-Malaga
was opened in 1 908. Malaga lies principally on the left bank of a
mountain torrent, the Guadalmedina (" river of the city ") ; the
streets near the sea are spacious and comparatively modern,
but those in the older part of the town, where the buildings are
huddled around the ancient citadel, are narrow, winding and
often dilapidated. Well-built suburbs have also spread on all
sides into the rich and pleasant country which surrounds Malaga,
and several acres of land reclaimed from the sea have been con-
verted into a public park. There are various squares or plazas
and public promenades; of the former the most important are the
Plaza de Riego (containing the monument to General Jose Maria
Torrijos, who, with forty-eight others, was executed in Malaga
on the nth of December 1831, (or promoting an insurrection
in favour of the constitution) and the Plaza de la Constitucion;
adjoining the quays is the fine Paseo de la Alameda. The
city has no public buildings of commanding architectural or
historical importance. The cathedral, on the site of an ancient
mosque, was begun about 1528; after its construction had
been twice interrupted, it was completed to its present state
in the i8th century, and is in consequence an obtrusive record
of the degeneration of Spanish architecture. The woodwork of
the choir, however, is worthy of attention. The church of El
Cristo de la Victoria contains some relics of the siege of 1487.
There are an English church and an English cemetery, which
dates from 1830; up to that year all Protestants who died in
Malaga were buried on the foreshore, where their bodies were
frequently exposed by the action of wind and sea. Of the old
Moorish arsenal only a single horse-shoe gateway remains, the
rest of the site being chiefly occupied by an iron structure used
as a market; the Alcazaba, or citadel, has almost disappeared.
The castle of Gibralfaro, on a bold eminence to the north-
east dates from the I3th century, and is still in fairly good
preservation.
During the igth century so much silt accumulated in the har-
bour that vessels were obliged to lie in the roads outside, and
receive and discharge cargo by means of lighters; but new harbour
works were undertaken in 1880, and large ships can now again
load or discharge at the quays, which are connected with the main
railway system by a branch line. About 2150 ships of 1,750,000
tons enter at Malaga every year. Iron, lead, wine, olive oil,
almonds, fresh and dried fruit, palmetto hats and canary seed are
exported in large quantities, while the imports include grain,
codfish, fuel, chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, manures and
staves for casks. Although trade was impeded during the early
years of the 2oth century by a succession of bad harvests and
by the disastrous floods of September 1907, the number of indus-
tries carried on in and near Malaga tends steadily to increase.
There are large cotton mills, iron foundries, smelting works and
engineering works. Pottery, mosaic, artificial stone and tiles
are produced chiefly for the home market, though smaller
quantities are sent abroad. There is a chromo-lithographic
establishment, and the other industries include tanning, distilling
and the manufacture of sugar, chocolate, soap, candles, artificial
ice, chemical products, white lead and pianos. Foreign capital
has played a prominent part in the development of Malaga; a
French syndicate owns the gas-works, and the electric lighting
of the streets is controlled by British and German companies.
Malaga is the MaXa/ca of Strabo (iii. 1 56) and Ptolemy (ii. 4, 7)
and the Malaca foederatorum of Pliny (iii. 3). The place
seems to have been of some importance even during the Cartha-
ginian period; under the Romans it became a municipium, and
under the Visigoths an episcopal see. In 711 it passed into the
possession of the Moors, and soon came to be regarded as one
of the most important cities of Andalusia. It was attached to
the caliphate of Cordova, but on the fall of the Omayyad dynasty
it became for a short time the capital of an independent kingdom ;
afterwards it was dependent on Granada. In 1487 it was taken
and treated with great harshness by Ferdinand and Isabella
after a protracted siege. In 1810 it was sacked by the French
under General Sebastiani. The citizens of Malaga are noted
for their opposition to the Madrid government; they took a
prominent part in the movements against Espartero (1843),
against Queen Isabella (1868) and in favour of a republic (1873).
MALAKAND PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West
Province of India, connecting the British district of Peshawar
with the Swat Valley. It is now a military post and the head-
quarters of a political agency. It came into prominence for the
first time in 1895 during the Chitral campaign, when 7000
Pathans held it against Sir Robert Low's advance, but were
easily routed. After the campaign was over a fortified camp was
formed on the Malakand to guard the road to Chitral. During
the frontier risings of 1897 the Swatis made a determined attack
on the Malakand, where 700 were killed, and on the adjacent
post of Chakdara, where 2000 were killed. This was the
origin of the Malakand Expedition of the same year. (See
SWAT.)
MALALAS MALARIA
461
MALALAS (or MALELAS) (Syriac for " orator "), JOHN (c. 491-
578), Byzantine chronicler, was born at Antioch. He wrote a
povoy pacfrla in 18 books, the beginning and the end of which
e lost. In its present state it begins with the mythical history
Egypt and ends with the expedition to Africa under Marcianus,
e nephew of Justinian. Except for the history of Justinian
id his immediate predecessors, it possesses little historical
alue; it is written without any idea of proportion and contains
tonishing blunders. The writer is a supporter of Church and
tate, an upholder of monarchical principles. The work is rather
chronicle written round Antioch, which he regarded as the
tre of the world, and (in the later books) round Constanti-
ople. It is, however, important as the first specimen of a
ronicle written not for the learned but for the instruction of
,e monks and the common people, in the language of the vulgar,
with an admixture of Latin and Oriental words. It obtained
great popularity, and was conscientiously exploited by various
writers until the nth century, being translated even into the
Slavonic languages. It is preserved in an abridged form in a
single MS. now at Oxford.
For the authorities consulted by Malalas, the influence of his
work on Slavonic and Oriental literature, the state of the text, the
original form and extent of the work, the date of its composition,
the relation of the concluding part to the whole, and the literature
of the subject, see C. Krumbacher's Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (1897). See also the editio princeps, by E. Chilmead
(Oxford, 1691), containing an essay by Humphrey Hody and
Bentley's well-known letter to Mill; other editions in the Bonn
Corpus scriptorum hist, byz., by L. Dindorf (1831), and in J. P.
Migne Palrologia graeca, xcvii. ,
MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR (1812-1894), British divine
and orientalist, was by birth a Swiss descended from an exiled
French family, and was born at Geneva on the 22nd of April
1812, where his father, Dr Henry Abraham Caesar Malan
(1787-1864) enjoyed a great reputation as a Protestant divine.
From his earliest youth he manifested a remarkable faculty for
the study of languages, and when he came to Scotland as tutor
in the marquis of Tweeddale's family at the age of 18 he had
already made progress in Sanskrit, Arabic and Hebrew. In 1833
he matriculated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford; and English being
almost an unknown tongue to him, he petitioned the examiners
to allow him to do his paper work of the examination in French,
German, Spanish, Italian, Latin or Greek, rather than in English.
But his request was not granted. After gaining the Boden and
the Pusey and Ellerton scholarships, he graduated 2nd class in
Lit. hum. in 1837. He then proceeded to India as classical
lecturer at Bishop's College, Calcutta, to which post he added
the duties of secretary to the Bengal branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society; and although compelled by illness to return in 1840,
laid the foundation of a knowledge of Tibetan and Chinese.
After serving various curacies, he was presented in 1845 to the
living of Broadwindsor, Dorset, which he held until 1886.
During this entire period he continued to augment his linguistic
knowledge, which he carried so far as to be able to preach in that
most difficult language, Georgian, on a visit which he paid to
Nineveh in 1872. His translations from the Armenian, Georgian
and Coptic were numerous. He applied his Chinese learning to
the determination of important points connected with Chinese
religion, and published a vast number of parallel passages illus-
trative of the Book of Proverbs. In 1880 the university of
Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D.
No modern scholar, perhaps, has so nearly approached the
linguistic omniscience of Mezzofanti; but, like Mezzofanti, Dr
Malan was more of a linguist than a critic. He made himself con-
spicuous by the vehemence of his opposition to Westcott and
Hort's text of the New Testament, and to the transliteration
of Oriental languages, on neither of which points did he in general
obtain the suffrages of scholars. His extensive and valuable
library, some special collections excepted, was presented by him
in his lifetime to the Indian Institute at Oxford. He died at
Bournemouth on the 2$th of November 1894. His life has been
written by his son.
MALAR, a lake of Sweden, extending 73 m. westward from
Stockholm, which lies at its junction with the Saltsjo, an arm of
the Baltic Sea. The height of the lake is normally only from 1 1 in.
to 2 ft. above sea-level, and its outflow is sometimes reversed.
The area is 449 sq. m. The bottom consists of a series of basins
separate by ridges from which rise numerous islands. The
deepest sounding is 210 ft. The outline is very irregular, the
mean breadth being about 15 m., but an arm extends northward
for 30 m. nearly to the city of Upsala with many ramifications.
The area of the drainage basin is 8789 sq. m., of which 1124
are occupied by lakes. The navigable connexions with the lake
are (i) with lake Hjelmar to the south-west by the Arboga
river and the Hjelmar canal; and by the Eskilstuna river and
the Thorshalla canal; (2) with the Baltic southward through
the Sodertelge canal, the route followed by the Gota canal
steamers; (3) with the Baltic by two channels at Stockholm.
The more important towns, besides Stockholm, are Vesteras on
the north, Sodertelge and Eskilstuna near the south shore.
The lake offers a field for recreation fully appreciated by the
inhabitants of the capital, and many of those whose business
lies at Stockholm have their residences on the shores of Malar.
On Drottningholm (Queen's Island, named from Catherine, wife
of John III.) is a palace with a fine park and formal gardens.
John III. built a palace at the close of the i6th century, but the
existing building, by Nicodemus Tessin and his son Nicodemus,
dates from the second half of the I7th century. At Mariefred
on the south shore there is the castle of Gripsholm (1537), built
by Gustavus Vasa, a picturesque erection with four towers,
richly adorned within, and containing a large collection of
portraits. Strengnas, on the same shore, became an episcopal
see in 1291, when the fine cathedral, much altered since, was
consecrated. In the episcopal palace, a building of the isth
century now used as a school, Gustavus Vasa was elected to the
throne of Sweden in 1523. On the northward arm of the lake
is the palace of Rosenberg, used as a school of gunnery, in a well-
wooded park. On a branch of the same arm is Sigtuna, a village
whose ruined churches are a memorial of its rank among the
principal towns of Sweden after its foundation in the nth cen-
tury. Remains prove that on Bjorko, an island in the eastern
part of the lake, there was a large settlement of earlier importance
than Sigtuna. Here a cross commemorates the preaching of
Christianity by St Ansgar in 829. Finally, on the northern arm
about 10 m. south of Upsala, there is the chateau of Skokloster,
occupying the site of a monastery, and presented by Gustavus
Adolphus to Marshal Herman Wrangel, whose son Charles
Gustavus Wrangel stored it with a remarkable collection of
trophies from Germany, taken during the Thirty Years' War;
including a library, an armoury, and a great accumulation of
curios.
MALARIA, an Italian colloquial word (from mala, bad,
and aria, air), introduced into English medical literature by
Macculloch (1827) as a substitute for the more restricted terms
" marsh miasm " or " paludal poison." It is generally applied to
the definite unhealthy condition of body known by a variety of
names, such as ague, intermittent (and remittent) fever, marsh
fever, jungle fever, hill fever, " fever of the country " and " fever
and ague." A single paroxysm of simple ague may come upon
the patient in the midst of good health or it may be preceded
by some malaise. The ague-fit begins with chills proceeding as if
from the lower part of the back, and gradually extending until
the coldness overtakes the whole body. Tremors of the muscles
more or less violent accompany the cold sensations, beginning
with the muscles of the lower jaw (chattering of the teeth), and
extending to the extremities and trunk. The expression has
meanwhile changed: the face is pale or livid; there are dark rings
under the eyes; the features are pinched and sharp, and the
whole skin shrunken; the fingers are dead white, the nails
blue.
All those symptoms are referable to spasmodic constriction of
the small surface arteries, the pulse at the wrist being itself
small, hard and quick. In the interior organs there are indica-
tions of a compensating accumulation of blood, such as swelling
of the spleen, engorgement (very rarely rupture) of the heart,
462
MALARIA
with a feeling of oppression in the chest, and a copious flow of
clear and watery urine from the congested kidneys. The body
temperature will have risen suddenly from the normal to 103 or
higher. This first or cold stage of the paroxysm varies much in
length; in temperate climates it lasts from one to two hours,
while in tropical and subtropical countries it may be shortened.
It is followed by the stage of dry heat, which will be prolonged in
proportion as the previous stage is curtailed. The feeling of
heat is at first an internal one, but it spreads outwards to the
surface and to the extremities; the skin becomes warm and red,
but remains dry; the pulse becomes softer and more full, but
still quick; and the throbbings occur in exposed arteries, such as
the temporal. The spleen continues to enlarge; the urine is now
scanty and high-coloured; the body temperature is high, but the
highest temperatures occur during the chill; there is consider-
able thirst; and there is the usual intellectual unfitness, and it
may be confusion, of the feverish state. This period of dry heat,
having lasted three or four hours or longer, comes to an end in
perspiration, at first a mere moistness of the skin, passing into
sweating that may be profuse and even drenching. Sleep may
overtake the patient in the midst of the sweating stage, and he
awakes, not without some feeling of what he has passed through,
but on the whole well, with the temperature fallen almost or
altogether to the normal, or it may be even below the normal;
the pulse moderate and full; the spleen again of its ordinary size;
the urine that is passed after the paroxysm deposits a thick
brick-red sediment of urates. The three stages together will
probably have lasted six to twelve hours. The paroxysm is
followed by a definite interval in which there is not only no
fever, but even a fair degree of bodily comfort and fitness; this
is the intermission of the fever. Another paroxysm begins at
or near the same hour next day (quotidian ague), which results
from a double tertian infection, or the interval may be forty-
eight hours (tertian ague), or seventy-two hours (quartan
ague). It is the general rule, with frequent exceptions, that the
quotidian paroxysm comes on in the morning, the tertian about
noon, and the quartan in the afternoon. Another rule is that
the quartan has the longest cold stage, while its paroxysm is
shortest as a whole; the quotidian has the shortest cold stage and
a long hot stage, while its paroxysm is longest as a whole. The
point common to the various forms of ague is that the
paroxysm ceases about midnight or early morning. Quotidian
intermittent is on the whole more common than tertian in
hot countries; elsewhere the tertian is the usual type, and
quartan is only occasional.
If the first paroxysm should not cease within the twenty-four
hours, the fever is not reckoned as an intermittent, but as a
remittent.
Remittent js a not unusual form of the malarial process in tropical
and subtropical countries, and in some localities or in some seasons
it is more common than intermittent. It may be said to arise out
of that type of intermittent in which the cold stage is shortened while
the hot stage tends to be prolonged. A certain abatement or re-
mission of the fever takes place, with or without sweating, but
there is no true intermission or interval of absolute apyrexia. The
periodicity shows itself in the form of an exacerbation of the still
continuing fever, and that exacerbation may take place twenty-
four hours after the first onset, or the interval may be only half
that period, or it may be double. A fever that is to be remittent
will usually declare itself from the outset : it begins with chills, but
without the shivering and shaking fit of the intermittent; the hot
stage soon follows, presenting the same characters as the prolonged
hot stage of the quotidian, with the frequent addition of bilious
symptoms, and it may be even of jaundice and of tenderness over
the stomach and liver. Towards morning the fever abates; the
pulse falls in frequency, but does not come down to the normal;
headache and aching in the loins and limbs become less, but do not
cease altogether; the body temperature falls, but does not touch the
level of apyrexia. The remission or abatement lasts generally
throughout the morning ; and about noon there is an exacerbation,
seldom ushered in by chills, which continues till the early morning
following, when it remits or abates as before. A patient with
remittent may get well in a week under treatment, but the fever
may go on for several weeks; the return to health is often announced
by the fever assuming the intermittent type, or, in other words, by
the remissions touching the level of absolute apyrexia. Remittent
fevers (as well as intermittents) vary considerably in intensity;
some cases are intense from the outset, or pernicious, with aggrava-
tion of all the symptoms leading to stupor, delirium, collapse,
intense jaundice, blood in the stools, blood and albumen in the
urine, and, it may be, suppression of urine followed by convulsions.
The severe forms of intermittent are most apt to occur in the very
young, or in the aged, or in debilitated persons generally. Milder
cases of malarial fever are apt to become dangerous from the
complications of dysentery, bronchitis or pneumonia. Severe
remittents (pernicious or bilious remittents) approximate to the
type of yellow fever (q.v.), which is conventionally limited to epi-
demic outbreaks in western longitudes and on the west coast of
Africa.
"'Of the mortality due to malarial disease a small part
only is referable to the direct attack of intermittent, and chiefly
to the fever in its pernicious form. Remittent fever is much
more fatal in its direct attack. But probably the greater
part of the enormous total of deaths set down to malaria is
due to the malarial cachexia. The dwellers in a malarious
region like the Terai (at the foot of the Himalayas) are miserable,
listless and ugly, -with large heads and particularly prominent
ears, flat noses, tumid bellies, slender limbs and sallow com-
plexions; the children are impregnated with malaria from
their birth, and their growth is attended with aberrations
from the normal which practically amount to the disease of
rickets. The malarial cachexia that follows definite attacks
of ague consists in a state of ill-defined suffering, associated
with a sallow skin, enlarged spleen and liver, and sometimes
with dropsy.
Causation. From the time of Hippocrates onwards the
malarial or periodical fevers have engaged the attention of
innumerable observers, who have suggested various theories
of causation, and have sometimes anticipated vaguely,
indeed, but with surprising accuracy the results of modern
research; but the true nature of the disease remained in doubt
until the closing years of the igth century. It has now been
demonstrated by a series of accurate investigations, contributed
by many workers, that malaria is caused by a microscopic
parasite in the blood, into which it is introduced by the bites,
of certain species of mosquito. (See PARASITIC DISEASES
and MOSQUITOES.)
The successive steps by which the present position has been
reached form an interesting chapter in the history of scientific
progress. The first substantial link in the actual HMo gf
chain of discovery was contributed in 1880 by Discovery.
Laveran, a French army surgeon serving in Algeria.
On the 6th of November in that year he plainly saw the living
parasites under the microscope in the blood of a malarial patient,
and he shortly afterwards communicated his observations to the
Paris Academic de Medecine. They were confirmed, but met with
little acceptance in the scientific world, which was preoccupied
with the claims of a subsequently discredited Bacillus malariae.
In 1885 the Italian pathologists came round to Laveran's views,
and began to work out the life history of his parasites. The
subject has a special interest for Italy, which is devastated by
malaria, and Italian science has contributed materially to
the solution of the problem. The labours of Golgi, Marchiafava,
Celli and others established the nature of the parasite and
its behaviour in the blood; they proved the fact, guessed by
Rasori so far back as 1846, that the periodical febrile paroxysm
corresponds with the development of the organisms; and they
showed that the different forms of malarial fever have their
distinct parasites, and consequently fall into distinct groups,
defined on an etiological as well as a clinical basis namely,
the mild or spring group, which includes tertian and quartan
ague, and the malignant or " aestivo-autumnal " group, which
includes a tertian or a semi-tertian and the true quotidian
type. Three distinct parasites, corresponding with the tertian,
quartan and malignant types of fever, have been described
by Italian observers, and the classification is generally accepted;
intermediate types are ascribed to mixed and multiple infections.
So far, however, only half the problem, and from the practical
point of view the less important half, had been solved. The
origin of the parasite and its mode of introduction into
the blood remained to be discovered. An old popular belief
current in different countries, and derived from common
MALARIA
463
observation, connected mosquitoes with malaria, and from time
to time this theory found support in more scientific quarters
on general grounds, but it lacked demonstration and attracted
little attention. In 1894, however, Sir Patrick Manson, arguing
with greater precision by analogy from his own discovery of
the cause of filariasis and the part played by mosquitoes,
suggested that the malarial parasite had a similar intermediate
host outside the human body, and that a suctorial insect,
which would probably be found to be a particular mosquito,
was required for its development. Following up this line
of investigation, Major Ronald Ross in 1895 found that if a
mosquito sucked blood containing the parasites they soon
began to throw out flagellae, which broke away and became
free; and in 1897 he discovered peculiar pigmented cells, which
afterwards turned out to be the parasites of aestivo-autumnal
malaria in an early stage of development, within the stomach-
wall of mosquitoes which had been fed on malarial blood.
He further found that only mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles
had these cells, and that they did not get them when fed on
healthy blood. Then, turning his attention to the malaria
of birds, he worked out the life-history of these cells within
the body of the mosquito. " He saw that they increased in
size, divided, and became full of filiform spores, then ruptured
and poured out their multitudinous progeny into the body-
cavity of their insect host. Finally, he saw the spores accumu-
late within the cells of the salivary glands, and discovered
that they actually passed down the salivary ducts and along
the grooved hypopharynx into the seat of puncture, thus
causing infection in a fresh vertebrate host " (Sambon). To
apply these discoveries to the malaria of man was an obvious
step. In working out the details the Italian school have again
taken a prominent part.
Thus we get a complete scientific demonstration of the
causation of malaria in three stages: (i) the discovery of the
parasite by Laveran; (2) its life-history in the human host and
connexion with the fever demonstrated by the Italian observers;
(3) its life-history in the alternate host, and the identification
of the latter with a particular species of mosquito by Ross
and Manson. The conclusions derived from the microscopical
laboratory were confirmed by actual experiment. In 1898
Experiment * l was conclusively shown in Italy that if a mosquito
of the Anopheles variety bites a person suffering
from malaria, and is kept long enough for the parasite to develop
in the salivary gland, and is then allowed to bite a healthy
person, the latter will in due time develop malaria. The con-
verse proposition, that persons efficiently protected from
mosquito bites escape malaria, has been made the subject of
several remarkable experiments. One of the most interesting
was carried out in 1900 for the London School of Tropical
Medicine by Dr Sambon and Dr Low, who went to reside in
one of the most malarious districts in the Roman Campagna
during the most dangerous season. Together with Signer
Terzi and two Italian servants, they lived from the beginning
of July until the igth of October in a specially protected hut,
erected near Ostia. The sole precaution taken was to confine
themselves between sunset and sunrise to their mosquito-
proof dwelling. All escaped malaria, which was rife in the
immediate neighbourhood. Mosquitoes caught by the experi-
menters, and sent to London, produced malaria in persons
who submitted themselves to the bites of these insects at the
London School of Tropical Medicine. Experiments in pro-
tection on a larger scale, and under more ordinary conditions,
have been carried out with equal success by Professor Celli
and other Italian authorities. The first of these was in 1899,
and the subjects were the railwaymen employed on certain
lines running through highly malarious districts. Of 24 pro-
tected persons, all escaped but four, and these had to be out
at night or otherwise neglected precautions; of 38 unprotected
persons, all contracted malaria except two, who had apparently
acquired immunity. In 1900 further experiments gave still
better results. Of 52 protected persons on one line, all escaped
except two, who were careless; of 52 protected on another
line, all escaped; while of 51 unprotected persons, living in
alternate houses, all suffered except seven. Out of a total of
207 persons protected in these railway experiments, 197 escaped.
In two peasants' cottages in the Campagna, protected with
wire netting by Professor Celli, all the inmates 10 in number
escaped, while the neighbours suffered severely; and three
out of four persons living in a third hut, from which protection
was removed owing to the indifference of the inmates, con-
tracted malaria. In the malarious islet of Asmara a pond
of stagnant water was treated with petroleum and all windows
were protected with gauze. The result was that the houses
were free from mosquitoes and no malaria occurred throughout
the entire season, though there had been 40 cases in the pre-
vious year. Eight Red Cross ambulances, each with a doctor
and attendant, were sent, into the most malarious parts of the
Campagna in 1900. By living in protected houses and wearing
gloves and veils at night all the staff escaped malaria except
one or two attendants. These and other experiments, de-
scribed by Dr Manson in the Practitioner for March 1900, con-
firming the laboratory evidence as they do, leave no doubt
whatever of the correctness of the mosquito-parasitic theory
of malaria.
It is possible, though not probable, that malaria may also
be contracted in some other way than by mosquito bite, but
there are no well-authenticated facts which require any other
theory for their explanation. The alleged occurrence of the
disease in localities free from mosquitoes or without their
agency is not well attested; its absence from other localities
where they abound is accounted for by their being of an innocent
species, or as in England free from the parasite. The old
theory of paludism or of a noxious miasma exhaled from the
ground is no longer necessary. The broad facts on which it is
based are sufficiently accounted for by the habits of mosquitoes.
For instance, the swampy character of malarial areas is explained
by their breeding in stagnant water; the effect of drainage,
and the general immunity of high-lying, dry localities, by the
lack of breeding facilities; the danger of the night air, by their
nocturnal habits; the comparative immunity of the upper
storeys of houses, by the fact that they fly low; the confinement
of malaria to well-marked areas and the diminution of danger
with distance, by their habit of clinging to the breeding-grounds
and not flying far. Similarly, the subsidence of malaria during
cold weather and its seasonal prevalence find an adequate
explanation in the conditions governing insect life. At the
same time it should be remembered that many points await
elucidation, and it is unwise to assume conclusions in advance
of the evidence.
With regard to the parasites, which are the actual cause
of malaria in man, an account of them is given under the heading
of PARASITIC DISEASES, and little need be said about pj^^y^
them here. They belong to the group of Protozoa,
and, as already explained, have a double cycle of existence:
(i) a sexual cycle in the body of the mosquito, (2) an asexual
cycle in the blood of human beings. They occupy and destroy
the red corpuscles, converting the haemoglobin into melanin;
they multiply in the blood by sporulation, and produce acces-
sions of fever by the liberation of a toxin at the time of sporula-
tion (Ross). The number in the blood in an acute attack is
reckoned by Ross to be not less than 250 millions. A more
general and practical interest attaches to the insects which
act as their intermediate hosts. These mosquitoes or gnats
the terms are synonymous belong to the family Ctdicidae
and the genus Anopheles, which was first classified by Meigen
in 1818. It has a wide geographical distribution, being found
in Europe (including England), Asia Minor, Burma, Straits
Settlements, Java, China, Formosa, Egypt; west, south
and Central Africa; Australia, South America, West Indies,
United States and Canada, but is generally confined to local
centres in those countries. About fifty species are recognized
at present. It is believed that all of them may serve as hosts
of the parasite. The species best known in connexion with
malaria are A. macidipennis (Europe and America), A.funestus
MALARIA
and A. costales (Africa). In colour Anopheles is usually brownish
or slaty, but sometimes buff, and the thorax frequently has
a dark stripe on each side. The wings in nearly all species
have a dappled or speckled appearance, owing to the occurrence
of blotches on the front margin and to the arrangement of
the scales covering the veins in alternating light and dark
patches (Austen). The genus with which Anopheles is most
likely to be confounded is Culex, which is the commonest of
all mosquitoes, has a world-wide distribution, and is generally
a greedy blood-sucker. A distinctive feature is the position
assumed in resting; Culex has a humpbacked attitude, while
in Anopheles the proboscis, head and body are in a straight
line, and in many species inclined at an angle to the wall, the
tail sticking outwards. In the female of Culex the palpi are
much shorter than the proboscis; in Anopheles they are of the
same length. The wings in Culex have not the same dappled
appearance. Anopheles is also a more slender insect, with a
smaller head, narrower body and thinner legs. There are
further differences in the other stages of life. Mosquitoes
go through four phases: (i) ovum, (2) larva, (3) nympha, (4)
complete insect. The ova of Anopheles are tiny black rod-
shaped objects, which are deposited on the water of natural
puddles, ponds, or slowly moving streams, by preference those
which are well supplied with vegetation; they float, singly
or attached to other objects or clustered together in patterns.
They can live in brackish and even in sea water. The larva
has no breathing-tube, and floats horizontally at the surface,
except when feeding; it does not frequent sewage or foul water.
The ova of Culex, on the other hand, are deposited in any
stagnant water, including cesspools, drains, cisterns, or water
collected in any vessel; they float in boat-shaped masses on
the surface. The larva has a breathing-tube, and floats head
downwards; when disturbed it wriggles to the bottom (Christy).
Some observers maintain that Anopheles does not " sing,"
like the common mosquito, and its bite is much less irritating.
Only the females suck blood; the act is believed to be neces-
sary for fertilization and reproduction. Anopheles rarely bites
by day, and then only in dark places. In the daytime " the
gorged females rest motionless on the walls and ceilings of
rooms, choosing always the darkest situations for this purpose "
(Austen). In temperate climates the impregnated females
hibernate during the winter in houses, cellars, stables, the
trunks of trees, &c., coming out to lay their eggs in the spring.
The four phases are passed in thirty days in a favourable
season, and consequently there are ordinarily four or five
generations from April to September (Celli).
The most important question raised by the mosquito-
parasitic theory of malaria is that of prevention. This may
be considered under two heads: (i) individual prophylaxis;
(2) administrative prevention on a large scale.
(i) In the first place, common sense suggests the avoidance,
in malarious countries, of unhealthy situations, and particu-
larly the neighbourhood of stagnant water. Among
Pro-
elements of unhealthiness is next to be reckoned
phylaxls.
the proximity of native villages, the inhabitants
of which are infected. In the tropics " no European house
should be located nearer to a native village than half a mile "
(Manson), and, since children are almost universally infected,
" the presence of young natives in the house should be abso-
lutely interdicted" (Manson). When unhealthy situations
cannot be avoided, they may be rendered more healthy by
destroying the breeding-grounds of mosquitoes in the neigh-
bourhood. All puddles and collections of water should be
filled in or drained; as a temporary expedient they may be
treated with petroleum, which prevents the development
of the larvae. When a place cannot be kept free from mos-
quitoes the house may be protected, as in the experiments in
Italy, by wire gauze at the doors and windows. The arrange-
ment used for the entrance is a wire cage with double doors.
Failing such protection mosquito curtains should be used.
Mosquitoes in the house may be destroyed by the fumes of
burning sulphur or tobacco smoke. According to the experi-
ments of Celli and Casagrandi, these are the most effective
culicides; when used in sufficient quantity they kill mosquitoes
in one minute. The same authorities recommend a powder
composed of larvicide (an aniline substance), chrysanthemum
flowers, and valerian root, to be burnt in bedrooms. Anoint-
ing the skin with strong-smelling substances is of little use
in the open air, but more effective in the house; turpentine
appears to be the best. Exposure at night should be avoided.
All these prophylactic measures are directed against mos-
quitoes. There remains the question of protection against
the parasite. Chills are recognized as predisposing both to
primary infection and to relapses, and malnutrition is also
believed to increase susceptibility; both should therefore be
avoided. Then a certain amount of immunity may be acquired
by the systematic use of quinine. Manson recommends five
to ten grains once or twice a week; Ross recommends the same
quantity every day before breakfast. There is some evidence
that arsenic has a prophylactic effect. An experiment made
on the railway staff at Bovino, a highly malarious district
on the Adriatic, gave a striking result. The number of persons
was 78, and they were divided into two equal groups of 39 each.
One group was treated with arsenic, and of these 36 escaped
altogether, while three had mild attacks; the remaining 39
who were not treated, all had fever. In a more extended
experiment on 657 railway-men 402 escaped. This was in
1889; but in spite of the encouraging results the use of arsenic
does not appear to have made any further progress. Experi-
ments in immunizing by sero-therapeu tic methods have not
as yet met with success.
(2) Much attention has been directed in scientific circles
to the possibility of " stamping out " epidemic malaria by
administrative measures. The problem is one Adminis-
of great practical importance, especially to the trative
British Empire. There are no data for estimating Me sul
the damage inflicted by malaria in the British colonies.
It is, indeed, quite incalculable. In Italy the annual mor-
tality from this cause averages 15,000, which is estimated
to represent two million cases of sickness and a consequent
loss of several million francs. In British tropical possessions
the bill is incomparably heavier. There is not only the
heavy toll in life and health exacted from Europeans, but
the virtual closing of enormous tracts of productive country
which would otherwise afford scope for British enterprise.
The " deadly " climates, to which so much dread attaches,
generally mean malaria, and the mastery of this disease would
be equivalent to the addition of vast and valuable areas to
the empire. The problem, therefore, is eminently one for the
statesman and administrator. A solution may be sought
in several directions, suggested by the facts already explained.
The existence of the parasite is maintained by a vicious inter-
change between its alternate hosts, mosquitoes and man,
each infecting the other. If the cycle be broken at any point
the parasite must die out, assuming that it has no other origin
or mode of existence. The most effective step would obviously
be the extermination of the Anopheles mosquito. A great
deal may be done towards this end by suppressing their breed-
ing-places, which means the drying of the ground. It is a
question for the engineer, and may require different methods
in different circumstances. Put comprehensively, it involves
the control of the subsoil and surface waters by drainage,
the regulation of rivers and floods, suitable agriculture, the
clearing of forests or jungles, which tend to increase the rainfall
and keep the ground swampy.
The city of Rome is an example of what can be done by
drainage; situated in the midst of malaria, it is itself quite
healthy. Recent reports also show us how much may be
done in infected districts. At Ismailia malaria was reduced
from 1551 cases in 1902 to 37 cases in 1905. The cost of opera-
tions amounted to an initial expenditure of 6-25 francs, and
an annual expenditure of about 2-3 francs per head of the
population. " The results are due to mosquito reduction
together with cinchonization." The following is a tabulated
MALATIA
465
list of the cases. The population of Ismailia is about 6000.
Year
1900
1901
1902'
1903
1904
i9<'5
Cases of Malaria .
2250
1990
1548
214
90
37 2
Klang and Port Swettenham are contiguous towns in the
Federated Malay States, having a population of 4000 and a
rainfall of 100 in. a year. At Klang the expenditure has been
3100, with an annual expenditure of 270, devoted to clearing
and draining 332 acres. At Port Swettenham 7000, with
an annual upkeep of 240, has been devoted to treating no
acres. In Hong-Kong similar measures were carried out,
with the result that the hospital admissions for malaria dimin-
ished from 1294 in 1901, the year when operations were begun,
to 419 in 1905.
Klang and Port Swettenham.
Year
1900
1901 '
1902
1903
1904
1905
Cases of Malaria .
5io
610
199
69
32
23
A systematic campaign for the destruction of breeding-
places has been inaugurated in the British West African colonies,
with encouraging results. The planting of eucalyptus trees
is out of favour at present, but it appears to have been successful
in Portugal, not from any prophylactic virtues in the plant,
but through the great absorption of moisture by its deep roots,
which tends to dry the subsoil. Treating the breeding-ponds
with petroleum or similar preparations seems to be hardly
applicable on a large scale, and in any case can only be a tempo-
rary expedient. H. Ziemann advocates the destruction of
mosquito larvae by the growing of such plants as the water-
pest (Anacharis alsinatrum) which covers the surface of the
water and suffocates larvae and nymphae. Short of suppress-
ing mosquitoes, the parasitic cycle may theoretically be broken
by preventing them from giving the infection to man or taking
it from him. The means of accomplishing the former have
been already pointed out, but they are obviously difficult
to carry out on a large scale, particularly in native communities.
It is one thing to protect individuals from mosquito bites,
another to prevent the propagation of the parasite in a whole
community. Perhaps the converse is more feasible in some
circumstances that is to say, preventing mosquitoes from
having access to malarial persons, and so propagating the
parasite in themselves. It could be carried out where the
infected persons are few, by isolating and protecting them,
but not where many are infected, as in native villages. Koch
has suggested that the disinfection of malarial persons by
quinine would have the desired effect, but other authorities
of greater experience do not consider it practicable. In spite
of the difficulties, however, there is no doubt that a great
deal can be done to reduce, if not stamp out, malaria by the
methods indicated, which should be applied according to
circumstances. An encouraging example is afforded by the
remarkable fact that malaria, which was once rife in certain
districts of England, has now died out, although the Anopheles
macidipennis mosquito still exists there. The parasitic cycle
has been broken, and the insect is no longer infected. The
suggested causes are (i) reduction of insects by drainage, (2)
reduced population, (3) the use of quinine. Sir Patrick Manson
has suggested that the problem of stamping out malaria may
be assisted by the discovery of some at present unknown factors.
He has pointed out that certain areas and certain islands are
entirely free from the disease, while neighbouring areas and
islands are devastated. This immunity is apparently not
due to the absence of favourable conditions, but rather to the
presence of some inimical factor which prevents the develop-
ment of the parasite. If this factor could be discovered it
might be applied to the suppression of the disease in malarious
localities.
1 Drainage works begun.
* Nearly all were relapses of previous infection.
A few other points may be noted. The pathological changes
in malaria are due to the deposition of melanin and the detritus
of red corpuscles and haemoglobin, and to the congregation of
parasites in certain sites (Ross). In chronic cases the eventual
effects are anaemia, melanosis, enlargement of the spleen and
liver, and general cachexia. Apparently the parasites may
remain quiescent in the blood for years and may cause relapses
by fresh sporulation. Recent discoveries have done little
or nothing for treatment. Quinine still remains the one
specific. "In serious cases it should not be given in solid form,
but in solution by the stomach, rectum, or better hypo-
dermically (Manson). According to Ross, it should be given
promptly, in sufficient doses (up to 30 grains), and should be
continued for months. Euquinine is by some preferred to
quinine, but it is more expensive. Nucleogen and Aristochin
have also been recommended instead of quinine. The nature
of immunity is not known. Some persons are naturally abso-
lutely immune (Celli), but this is rare; immunity is also some-
times acquired by infection, but as a rule persons once infected
are more predisposed than others. Races inhabiting malarious
districts acquire a certain degree of resistance, no doubt through
natural selection. Children are much more susceptible than
adults.
Malaria in the Lower Vertebrates. Birds are subject to
malaria, which is caused by blood parasites akin to those in
man and having a similar life-history. Two species, affecting
different kinds of birds, have been identified. Their alternate
hosts are mosquitoes of the Culex genus. Oxen, sheep, dogs,
monkeys, bats, and probably horses also suffer from similar
parasitic diseases. In the case of oxen the alternate host
of the parasite is a special tick (Smith and Kilborne). In
the other animals several parasites have been described by dif-
ferent observers, but the alternate hosts are not known.
AUTHORITIES. Celli, Malaria; Christy, Mosquitoes and Malaria',
Manson, Tropical Diseases; Allbutt's System of Medicine; Ross,
" Malaria," Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, 3rded. ; The-Praclitioner,
March, 1901 (Malaria Number) ; Lancet (Sept. 29, 1907) ; British
Medical Journal (Oct. 19, 1907) ; Indian Medical Gazette (February
1908). (A. SL.; H. L. H.)
MALATIA (MALATIEH or ASPUZU) the chief town of a sanjak
of the same name in the Mamuret el-Aziz vilayet of Asia
Minor, and a military station on the Samsun-Sivas-Diarbekr
road, altitude 2900 ft., situated about 10 m. S.W. of the junction
of the Tokhma Su (med. Kubakib) with the Euphrates, near
the south end of a fertile plain, and at the northern foot of the
Taurus. Pop. about 30,000, including, besides many Armenian
Christians, bodies of Kurds and " Kizilbash." It is a wholly
modern place, rebuilt since the earthquake of 1893, contains
fine public buildings, and is noted for its fruit orchards. There
are Protestant (American) and Roman Catholic missions, and
an Armenian Catholic archbishop has his seat here. Eski-
shehr or Old Malatia (Melilene), 5 m. N.E. and 3 m. from the
great medieval bridge (Kirkgeuz) over the Tokhma Su, is said
to owe its present desolation largely to its occupation by Hafiz
Pasha as his headquarters in 1838 before his advance to fight
the disastrous battle of Nizib with the Egyptian, Ibrahim.
But it has still many inhabitants and large gardens and many
ruinous mosques, baths, &c., relics of Mansur's city. It was
the residence of von Moltke for some months, while attached
to Hafiz's army. The earliest site was possibly Arslan Tepe
about 2 m. south of Eskishehr were two " Hittite " stelae,
representing hunting scenes, now in the Constantinople and
Paris museums, were found in 1894.
In the time of Strabo (xii. 537) there was no town in the district
of Melitene, which was reckoned part of Cappadocia. Under Titus
the place became the permanent station of the I2th (" Thundering ")
legion; Trajan raised it to a city. Lying in a very fertile country
at the crossing point of important routes, including the Persian
" Royal Road, and two imperial military highways from Caesarea
and along the Euphrates bank, it grew in size and importance, and
was the capital of Armenia Minor or Secunda. Justinian, who
completed the walls commenced by Anastasius, made it the capital
of Armenia Tertia ; it was then a very great place (Procop., De aed.,
iii. 4). The town was burnt by Chosroes on his retreat after his
MALAYALAM MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
great defeat there in 577. Taken by the Saracens, retaken and
destroyed by Constantme Copronymus, it was presently recovered
to Islam, and rebuilt under Mansur (A.D. 756). It again changed
hands more than once, being reckoned among the frontier towns of
Syria (Istakhry, pp. 55, 62). At length the Greeks recovered it in
934, and Nicephorus II., finding the district much wasted, encouraged
the Jacobites to settle in it, which they did in great numbers. A
convent of the Virgin, and the great church which bears his name,
were erected by the bishop Ignatius (Isaac the Runner). From
this time Malatia continued to be a great seat of the Jacobites, and
it was the birthplace of their famous maphrian Barhebraeus (or
Abulfaragius). At the commencement of the nth century the
population was said to number 60,000 fighting men (Assem., Bib.
Or., ii. 149; cf. Barheb., Chr. Red., \. 411, 423). At the time of
the first crusade, the city, being hard pressed by the Turks under
Ibn Danishmend, was relieved by Baldwin, after Bohemund had
failed and lost his liberty in the attempt. But the Jacobites had
no cause to love Byzantium, and the Greek governor Gabriel was
so cruel and faithless that the townsmen were soon glad to open
their gates to Ibn Danishmend (1102), and the city subsequently
became part of the realm of Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconium.
See H. C. B. v. Moltke, Briefe iiber Zustdnde, &c. in der Ttirkei
(1835-1839). (D- G. H.)
HALAYALAM, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken
on the west coast of southern India. It is believed to have
developed out of Tamil as recently as the Qth century. It
possesses a large literature, in which words borrowed from
Sanskrit are conspicuous. In 1901 the total number of speakers
of Malayalam in all India was just about six millions.
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO 1 (variously called Malaysia, the
Indian Archipelago, the East Indies, Indonesia, Insulinde), the
largest group of islands in the world, lying south-east of Asia and
north and north-west of Australia. It includes the Sunda Islands,
the Moluccas, New Guinea, and the Philippine Islands, but
excludes the Andaman-Nicobar group. The equator passes
through the middle of the archipelago; it successively cuts
Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes and Halmahera, four of the most
important islands. A. R. Wallace (who includes the Solomon
Islands as well as New Guinea in the group) points out that the
archipelago "includes two islands larger than Great Britain;
and in one of them, Borneo, the whole of the British Isles might
be set down, and would be surrounded by a sea of forests.
Sumatra is about equal in extent to Great Britain; Java, Luzon,
and Celebes are each about the size of Ireland. Eighteen more
islands are on the average as large as Jamaica; and more than
a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight."
Area.
Estimated Population.
Sunda Islands ....
Moluccas, with Celebes
New Guinea ....
Philippine Islands .
459,578
"5.334
312,329
115,026
32,632,400
3,000,000
800,000
7,635,400
The islands of the archipelago nearly all present bold and
picturesque profiles against the horizon, and at the same time the
character of the scenery varies from island to island and even
from district to district. The mountains are arranged for the
most part in lines running either from north-west to south-east
or from west to east. In Sumatra and in the islands between
Sumatra and Borneo the former direction is distinctly marked,
and the latter is equally noticeable in Java and the other southern
islands. The mountains of Borneo, however, rise rather in short
ridges and clusters. Nothing in the general physiognomy of the
islands is more remarkable than the number and distribution of
the volcanoes, active or extinct. Running south-east through
Sumatra, east through Java and the southern islands to Timor,
curving north through the Moluccas, and again north, from
the end of Celebes through the whole line of the Philippines, they
follow a line roughly resembling a horseshoe narrowed towards
the point. The loftiest mountain in the archipelago would
appear to be Kinabalu in Borneo (13,698 ft.). An important
fact in the physical geography of the archipelago is that Java,
Bali, Sumatra and Borneo, and the lesser islands between them
1 For more detailed information respecting the several islands
and groups of the archipelago, see the separate articles BORNEO ;
JAVA; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; SUMATRA, &c.
and the Asiatic mainland, all rest on a great submerged bank,
nowhere more than 100 fathoms below sea-level, which may be
considered a continuation of the continent; while to the east the
depth of the sea has been found at various places to be from 1000
to 2500 fathoms. As the value of this fact was particularly
emphasized by Wallace, the limit of the shallow water, which is
found in the narrow but deep channel between Bali and Lombok,
and strikes north to the east of Borneo, has received the name of
" Wallace's Line." The Philippines on the other hand, " are
almost surrounded by deep sea, but are connected with Borneo by
means of two narrow submarine banks " (A. R. Wallace, Island
Life). The archipelago, in effect, is divided between two great
regions, the Asiatic and the Australian, and the fact is evident
in various branches of its geography zoological, botanical,
and even human. It is believed that there was a land-
connexion between Asia and Australia in the later part of the
Secondary epoch, and that the Australian continent, when
separated, became divided into islands before the south-eastern
part of the Asiatic did so.
The most notable fact in the geological history of the archipelago
is the discovery in Java of the fossil remains of Pithecanthropus
erectus, a form intermediate between the higher apes and man.
In its structure and cranial capacity it is entitled to a higher place
in the zoological scale than any anthropoid, for it almost certainly
walked erect; and, on the other hand, in its intellectual powers it
must have been much below the lowest of the human race at present
known. The strata in which it was found belong to the Miocene or
Upper Pliocene. Among the rocks of economic importance may
be mentioned granite of numerous kinds, syenite, serpentine,
porphyry, marble, sandstones and marls. Coal is worked in
Sumatra, Borneo and Labuan. Diamonds are obtained in Borneo,
garnets in Sumatra, Bachian and Timor, and topazes in Bachian,
antimony in Borneo and the Philippines; lead in Sumatra, Borneo
and the Philippines; copper and malachite in the Philippines,
Timor, Borneo and Sumatra; and, most important of all, tin in
Banka, Billiton and Singkep. Iron is pretty frequent in various
forms. Gold is not uncommon in the older ranges of Sumatra,
Banka, Celebes, Bachian, Timor and Borneo. Manganese could be
readily worked in Timor, where it lies in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone. Platinum is found in Landak and other parts of Borneo.
Petroleum is a valuable product of Sumatra and Java, and is also
found in Borneo.
Climate, Flora, Fauna. The most striking general fact as
regards climate in the archipelago is that wherever that part of
the south-east monsoon which has passed over Australia strikes,
the climate is comparatively dry, and the vegetation is less
luxuriant. The east end of Java, e.g. has a less rainfall than the
west; the distribution of the rain on the north coast is quite
different from that on the south, and a similar difference is
observed between the east and the west of Celebes. The north-
west monsoon, beginning in October and lasting till March, brings
the principal rainy season in the archipelago.
Most of the islands of the archipelago belong to the great equatorial
forest-belt. In its economical aspect the vegetation, whether
natural or cultivated, is of prime interest. The list of fruits is very
extensive, though few of them are widely known. These, how-
ever, include the orange, mango, mangosteen, shaddock, guava
and the durian. The variety of food-plants is equally notable.
Not only are rice and maize, sugar and coffee, among the widely
cultivated crops, but the coco-nut, the bread-fruit, the banana
and plantain, the sugar-palm, the tea-plant, the sago-palm, the
coco-tree, the ground-nut, the yam, the cassava, and others besides,
are of practical importance. The cultivation of sugar and coffee
owes its development mainly to the Dutch ; and to them also is due
the introduction of tea. They have greatly encouraged the cultiva-
tion of the coco-nut among the natives, and it flourishes, especially
in the coast districts, in almost every island in their territory.
The oil is largely employed in native cookery. Pepper, nutmegs
and cloves were long the objects of the most important branch of
Dutch commerce; and gutta-percha, camphor, dammar, benzoin
and other forest products have a place among the exports.
To the naturalist the Malay Archipelago is a region of the highest
interest ; and from an early period it has attracted the attention of
explorers of the first rank. The physical division between the
Asiatic and Australian regions is clearly reflected in the botany
and zoology. The flora of the Asiatic islands (thus distinguished)
" is a special development of that prevailing from the Himalayas
to the Malay Peninsula and south China. Farther east this
flora intermingles with that of Australia " (F. H. H. Guillemard,
Australasia). Similarly, in the Asiatic islands are found the
great mammals of the continent the elephant, tiger, rhinoceros.
t. JU> . , i B Aftf Wi g *FS %! , -A
<!' SIMMs - sJO* 3?|t: _3
pr~ ""^SSsSaLl fK*fI -''n= / '"- - / v;-t'. l N| ; \
\ s^Sfilix /Hi-'-'l r^pftil/
, ! i
s |fk"
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
467
anthropoid ape, &c., which are wanting in the Australian region,
with which the eastern part of the archipelago is associated. (For
details concerning flora and fauna, see separate articles, especially
JAVA.)
Inhabitants. The majority of the native inhabitants of the
Malay Archipelago belong to two races, the Malays and the
Melanesians (Papuans). As regards the present racial distribu-
tion, the view accepted by many anthropologists, following A. H.
Keane, is that the Negritos, still found in the Philippines, are
the true aborigines of Indo-China and western Malaysia, while
the Melanesians, probably their kinsmen, were the earliest
occupants of eastern Malaysia and western Polynesia. At some
date long anterior to history it is supposed that Indo-China was
occupied first by a fair Caucasian people and later by a yellow
Mongolian race. From these two have come all the peoples
other than Negrito or Papuan found to-day from the Malay
Peninsula to the farthest islands of Polynesia. The Malay
Archipelago was thus first invaded by the Caucasians, who
eventually passed eastward and are to-day represented in the
Malay Archipelago only by the Mentawi islanders. They were
followed by an immigration of Mongol-Caucasic peoples with a
preponderance of Caucasic blood the Indonesians of some, the
pre-Malays of other writers who are to-day represented in the
archipelago by such peoples as the Dyaks of Borneo and the Battas
of Sumatra. At a far later date, probably almost within historic
times, the true Malay race, acombination of Mongol and Caucasic
elements, came into existence and overran the archipelago, in
time becoming the dominant race. A Hindu strain is evident in
Java and others of the western islands; Moors and Arabs (that
is, as the names are used in the archipelago, Mahommedans from
various countries between Arabia and India) are found more or
less amalgamated with many of the Malay peoples; and the
Chinese form, from an economical point of view, one of the most
important sections of the community in many of the more
civilized districts. Chinese have been established in the archi-
pelago from a very early date: the first Dutch invaders found
them settled at Jacatra; and many of them, as, for instance, the
colony of Ternate, have taken so kindly to their new home that
they have acquired Malay to the disuse of their native tongue.
Chinese tombs are among the objects that strike the traveller's
attention at Amboyna and other ancient settlements.
There is a vast field for philological explorations in the archi-
pelago. Of the great number of distinct languages known to
exist, few have been studied scientifically. The most widely
distributed is the Malay, which has not only been diffused by the
Malays themselves throughout the coast regions of the various
islands, but, owing partly to the readiness with which it can be
learned, has become the common medium between the Europeans
and the natives. The most cultivated of the native tongues is the
Javanese, and it is spoken by a greater number of people than
any of the others. To it Sundanese stands in the relation that
Low German holds to High German, and the Madurese in the
relation of a strongly individualized dialect. Among the other
languages which have been reduced to writing and grammatically
analysed are the Balinese, closely connected with the Javanese,
the Batta (with its dialect the Toba), the Dyak and the Macassarese.
Alfurese, a vague term meaning in the mouths of the natives little
else than non-Mahommedan, has been more particularly applied
by Dutch philologists to the native speech of certain tribes in Celebes.
The commercial activity of the Buginese causes their language to
be fairly widely spoken little, however, by Europeans.
Political Division. Politically the whole of the archipelago,
except British North Borneo, &c. (see BORNEO), part of Timor
(Portuguese), New Guinea east of the 14151 meridian (British
and German), and the Philippine Islands, belongs to the Nether-
lands. The Philippine Islands which had been for several
centuries a Spanish possession, passed in 1898 by conquest to the
United States of America. For these several political units
see the separate articles; a general view, however, is here
given of the government, economic conditions, &c., of the Dutch
possessions, which the Dutch call Nederlandsch-Indie.
NETHERLANDS INDIA
Administration. The Dutch possessions in Asia lie between
t N. and 11 S. and 95 E. and 141 E. Politically they are
divided into lands under the direct government of the Netherlands
vassal lands and confederated lands. Administratively they are
further divided into residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and
dessas or villages. In the principal towns and villages there are
parish councils, and in some provinces county councils have been,
established. Natives, Chinese and Arabs, are given seats, and in
certain instances some of the members are elected, but more gener-
ally they are appointed by government. The islands are often
described as of two groups, Java and Madura forming one, and the
other consisting of Sumatra, Borneo, Riouw-Lingga Archipelago,
Banka, Billiton, Celebes, Molucca Archipelago, the small Sunda
Islands, and a part of New Guinea the Outposts as they are collec-
tively named. The Outposts are divided into 20 provinces. A
governor-general holds the superior administrative and executive
authority, and is assisted by a council of five members, partly of a
legislative and partly of an advisory character, but with no share
in the executive work of the government. In 1907 a Bill was.
introduced to add four extraordinary members to the council, but
no immediate action was taken. The governor-general not only
has supreme executive authority, but can of his own accord pass-
laws and regulations, except in so far as these, from their nature,
belong of right to the home government, and as he is bound by the
constitutional principles on which, according to the Regulations for
the Government of Netherlands India, passed by the king and States-
General in 1854, the Dutch East Indies must be governed. There-
are nine departments, each under a director: namely, justice;
interior; instruction, public worship and industry; agriculture
(created in 1905); civil public works; government works (created
iniox>8); finance; war; marine. The administration of the larger
territorial divisions (gpuvernement, residentie) is in the hands of
Dutch governors, residents, assistant residents and controleurs.
In local government a wide use is made of natives, in the appoint-
ment of whom a primary consideration is that if possible the people-
should be under their own chieftains. In Surakarta and Jokjakarta
in Java, and in many parts of the Outposts, native princes preserve
their positions as vassals ; they have limited power, and act generally
under the supervision of a Dutch official. In concluding treaties
with the vassal princes since 1905, the Dutch have kept in view
the necessity of compelling them properly to administer the revenues-
of their states, which some of them formerly squandered in their
personal uses. Provincial banks have been established which
defray the cost of public works.
Population. The following table gives the area and population
of Java (including Madura) and of the Outposts:
Area:
Pop.
I' iiij 1 1 ~h
sq. m.
1900.
'90S-
Java and Madura ....
50,970
28,746,688
30,098,008
(Sumatra, West Coast
3.649
1,527.297
Sumatra, East Coast
35.312
421,090
Lanfpong Districts'
9.399
11,284
162,396
142,426
4.029,505
Palembang .
53.497
804,299
Achin ....
20,471
1 10,804
Riouw-Lingga Archipelago
16,301
86,186
112,216
Banka
4.446
106,305
115.189
Billiton
1,863
43.386
36,858
Borneo, West Coast .
55,825
43.o67
1
Borneo, South and East
f. 233,655
Districts
156,912
716,822
*- i i ( Celebes ....
Celebes { Menad6 ....
49.390
22,080
454.368
429.773
415.499
436,406
Molucca Islands ....
43.864
410,190
407.419
Timor Archipelago
17.698
"9.239
308,600
Bali and Lombok ....
4,065
1,041,696
523.535
New Guinea to 141 E.
I5L789
200,000
Total ....
736,815
36,000,000
37.7i7.377 1
In no case are the above figures for population more than fairly
accurate, and in some instances they are purely conjectural. The
population is legally divided into Europeans and persons assimilated
to them, and natives and persons assimilated to them. The first
class includes half-castes (who are numerous, for the Dutch are in
closer relationship with the natives than is the case with most
colonizing peoples), and also Armenians, Japanese, &c. The total
number of this class in 1900 was 75,833; 72,019 of these were called
Dutch, but 61,022 of them were born in Netherlands India; there
were also 1382 Germans, 441 British and 350 Belgians. Among
the natives and persons assimilated to them were about 537,000
Chinese and 27,000 Arabs. In the decade 1890-1900 the increase
of the European population was 30-9 %, of the Arabs 26-6 %, and of
the Chinese 16-5%. A large proportion of the Europeans are-
government officials, or retired officials, for many of the Dutch,
once established in the colonies, settle there for life. The remaining
Europeans are mostly planters and heads of industrial establish-
1 Including 487 in Merauke, the capital of Dutch New Guinea.
4 68
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
ments; the Arabs are nearly all traders, as are some of the Chinese
but a large number of the latter are labourers in the Sumatn
tobacco plantations and the tin mines of Banka, Billiton, &c. Th
bulk of the natives are agriculturists.
Religion and Instruction. Entire liberty is granted to the member
of all religious confessions. The Reformed Church has about 41
ministers and 30 assistants, the Roman Catholic 35 curates am
20 priests, not salaried out of the public funds. There are abou,
170 Christian missionaries, and the progress of their work may b
illustrated by showing that the number of Christians among the
natives and foreign Orientals was :
In 1873.
In 1896.
In 1903.
In Java and Madura
In the Outposts ....
5,673
148,672
19,193
290,065
About 34,000
390,000
About 10,000 natives go annually to Mecca on pilgrimage.
Both the government and private enterprise maintain vernacular
schools. Large sums have been voted in Holland for the establish-
ment of primary and secondary schools, and the government has
undertaken to assist in the establishment of parochial schools, the
object being that every village, at least in Java, should possess one.
There are schools for higher education at Batavia, Surabaya anc
Semarang; at the first two of these towns are government schools
for mechanical engineering, and at Batavia a crafts school and a
medical school for natives. There are five colleges for native
schoolmasters and four for sons of native officials. Government
schools for the European education of Chinese children are estab-
lished in the principal towns. Private mechanical and crafts
schools are established at Jokjakarta, Surabaya and Semarang, and
there is an agricultural school at Buitenzorg.
Justice. As regards the administration of justice, the distinction
is maintained between (l) Europeans and persons assimilated with
them (who include Christians and Japanese), and (2) natives,
together with Chinese, Arabs, &c. The former are subject to laws
closely resembling those of the mother country, while the customs
and institutions of natives are respected in connexion with the
administration of justice to the latter. In 1906 a bill was passed
somewhat modifying the existing status of the classes above men-
tioned, and especially directing new ordinances with regard to the
judicial treatment of Christian natives. A general judicial revision
being also in contemplation, this bill did not immediately come into
force. Justice for Europeans is administered by European judges,
but, as with administration at large so in judicial matters, native
chiefs have extensive powers in native affairs. For European
justice the High Court of Justice is established at Batavia; there
are councils of justice at Batavia, Semarang and Surabaya, with
authority not only over Java but over parts of the Outposts; there
is a resident court of justice in each residency. For native justice
there are courts in the districts and regencies; residents act as
police judges; provincial councils have judicial powers, and there
are councils of priests with powers in matrimonial disputes, questions
of succession, &c.
As regards pauperism, the government subsidizes Protestant and
Catholic orphan houses.
Finance. The revenue of Netherlands India has been derived
mainly from customs, excise, ground-tax, licences, poll-tax, &c.,
from monopolies opium, salt and pawn-shops (the management of
which began to be taken over by the government in 1903, in place
of the previous system of farming-out), coffee, &c., railways, tin
mines and forests, and from agricultural and other concessions.
But attempts have been made, and have been largely successful,
to make the revenue dependent to a less extent on monopolies and
the products (especially agricultural) of the land; and to abolish
licences and substitute direct taxes. There is a progressive income-
tax for Europeans, and the system has also been applied in the case
of natives.
The following table affords comparisons in the revenue and
expenditure :
Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
1880
1890
1900
1905
12,236,500
11,482,457
11,832,417
12,951,497
12,244,666
10,644,728
12,313,854
13,844,173
The monetary system is similar to that of Holland (the unit
being the guilder), but there are also certain silver and copper coins
of small value bearing Malay or Javanese inscriptions. The Java
Bank, established in 1828, with headquarters at Batavia, is the only
bank issuing notes, two-fifths of the amount of which must be
covered by specie or bullion. The government has a control over
the administration of this bank.
Defence. The army is purely colonial, i.e. distinct from that
of the_ Netherlands. Its strength is a little under 40,000, about
one-third being Europeans of various nationalities and two-thirds
natives of various races. No portion of the regular army of the
Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service, but individual
soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding
officers, in the army of Netherlands India, and they form its nucleus
Native and European soldiers are generally mixed together in the
same battalions, though in separate companies. The officers were
all Dutch till 1908, when a trial was made of native officers from
noble Javanese families. The artillery is composed of European
gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are Europeans and
natives. A military academy is established at Meester Cornelis
near Batavia. Schools for soldiers are attached to every battalion!
There are certain local forces outside the regular army militia in
some of the large towns, native infantry in Madura, and guards of
some of the vassal princes. Unlike the army, which is purely
colonial, the navy in Netherlands India is partly colonial, partly
belonging to the royal navy of the Netherlands, and its expenses
are therefore borne partly by the mother country and partly by the
colony. About six ironclads and twenty smaller vessels of the royal
navy are stationed in colonial waters; the vessels of the colonial
marine number about twenty-four, and undertake police supervision
prevention of slave trading, &c. .
Trade and Industries. The principal articles of export are sugar,
tobacco, copra, forest products (various gums, &c.), coffee, petroleum,
tea, cinchona, tin, rice, pepper, spices and gambier. The average
annual value of exports during 1900-1905 was 22,496,468, and of
imports 17,050,338. A great proportion of the exports goes to
the mother country, though a considerable quantity of rice is
exported to China. An indication of the mineral products has
already been given; as regards the export trade, tin is the most
important of these, but the Ombilin coalfields of Sumatra, connected
by a railway with the coast, call for mention here also. Agricultural
labour is very carefully regulated by law, in the enforcement of
which the residents and lower officials have wide powers. One
day's gratuitous labour out of seven or more can be demanded of
labourers either on private or on government estates; but in 1882
this form of labour was for the most part abolished as far as govern-
ment estates were concerned, each labourer so exempted paying
one guilder per year. The principal private agricultural estates
are in the west of Java, in which island the greater part of the soil
is government property. Such estates have increased greatly in
number and extent, not only in Java but elsewhere, since the
agrarian law of 1870, under which it became possible for settlers to
obtain waste lands on hereditary lease for 75 years. In 1899 the
total acreage of land ceded was 1,002,766 acres; in 1903 it was
I>77>295- The government ceased to cultivate sugar in 1891, but
coffee, and to some extent cinchona, are cultivated on government
alantations, though not in equal quantity to that grown on land
leld on emphyteusis. The average annual yield of sugar in 1900-
1905 was 852,400 tons, but it increased steadily during that period.
The average annual yield of coffee during the same period was
101,971,132 ft; it fluctuates greatly. The average annual pro-
duction of tobacco is about fifty million pounds from each of the
'stands of Java and Sumatra. The total annual yield of the tin mines
s about 15,000 tons, and of the coal mines 240,000 tons. The average
output of petroleum annually in 1900-1905 was 120,000,000
gallons; this, again, has fluctuated greatly. There are upwards of
3000 miles of railways and steam tramways in Netherlands India,
)ut these are almost entirely in Java; elsewhere only Sumatra has
a few short lines. The principaf steamship company in the archi-
pelago is the Royal Packet (Koninklyke Paketvaart) Company.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Aardrijkskundig en statistisch Woordenboek
<an Nederl. Indie (Amsterdam, 1869), to which P. J. Veth and
other specialists were contributors. A general survey of the people,
administration and resources of the Dutch colony is provided in
Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India, ed. by Arnold
iVright (London, 1910). See also A. R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago
London, 1869, and later editions, notably for zoological distribu-
ion) and Island Life (London, 1880, notably for ornithology).
-I. 0. Forbes, A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago
London, 1885); P. van der Lith, Nederlandsch Oostindie (2nd ed.,
^eiden, 1893-1895); F. H. H. Guillemard, Australasia, vol. ii., in
Stamford's Compendium (London, 1894); Encyclopaedie van Neder-
andsch-Indie (the Hague, 1895-1904); Guide a travers la section
',es Indes nterlandaises, Paris Exhibition (the Hague, 1900);
A. R. Colquhoun, The Mastery of the Pacific (London, 1902) ; M.
Weber, Der indo-australische Archipel und die Geschichte seiner
Tierwelt (Jena, 1902); G. Karsten and H. Schenck, Vegetationsbildcr ,
vol. ii. (Jena, 1903); J. van Bemmelen and G. B. Hooyer, Guide
hrough Netherlands India (London, 1903); D. Bezemer, Neder-
andsch Oast-Indie (the Hague, 1904) ; H. Blink, Nederlandsch Oost-
n West-Indie, geographisch, ethnologisch, en economisch beschreven
Leiden, 1904, sqq.). Among Dutch official publications may be
icntioned Jaarcijfers door het Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek;
'aarboek van het Mijnwezen in Nederlandsch Oast-Indie (Amsterdam) ;
(oloniale-Economische Bijdragen (the Hague); Koloniaal Verslag
the Hague) ; Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indie (Batavia).
V number of important periodicals (Tijdschrift) of various institu-
ions are issued at Batavia, &c. Languages: P. J. Veth in De
Gids (1864); R. N. Cust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of the
last Indies (London, 1878); and for bibliography, Boele van Neus-
roek, De Beoefening der oostersche talen . . . (Leiden, 1875).
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
469
HISTORY
Portuguese and Spanish Ascendancy, 7577-7595. Ptolemy and
other ancient geographers describe the Malay Archipelago, or
part of it, in vague and inaccurate terras, and the traditions they
preserved were supplemented in the middle ages by the narratives
of a few famous travellers, such as Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo,
Odoric of Pordenone and Niccolo Conti. Malay and Chinese
records also furnish material for the early history of individual
islands, but the known history of the archipelago as a whole
begins in the i6th century. At this period a civilization, largely
of Hindu origin, had flourished and decayed in Java, where, as in
all the more important islands, Mahommedanism had afterwards
become the dominant creed. But the smaller islands and the
remoter districts, even of Java and Sumatra, remained in a
condition of complete savagery.
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to colonize any part
of the archipelago. A Portuguese squadron under Diogo Lopes
de Sequeira arrived off Sumatra in 1509, explored the north coast
for some distance, and noted that the inhabitants of the interior
were cannibals, while those of the littoral were civilized and
possessed a gold coinage. The main object of the Portuguese
was to obtain a share in the lucrative spice trade carried on by
the Malays, Chinese and Japanese; the trade-routes of the archi-
pelago converged upon Malacca, which was the point of departure
for spice merchants trading with every country on the shores
of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. In 1511 the Portuguese
under Alphonso d'Albuquerque occupied Malacca, and in
November of that year an expedition under Antonio de Abreu
was despatched to find a route to the Moluccas and Banda
Islands, then famous for their cloves and nutmegs. The ex-
plorers reached Amboyna and Ternate, after gaining some know-
ledge of Java, Madura, Sumbawa and other islands, possibly
including New Guinea. During the return voyage the second-in-
command, Francisco Serrao, was shipwrecked, but succeeded in
making his way in a native boat to Mindanao. Thus the Philip-
pines were discovered. In 15143 second Portuguese fleet arrived
at Ternate, which during the next five years became the centre
of Portuguese enterprise in the archipelago; regular traffic with
Malacca and Cochin was established, and the native raja became
a vassal of Portugal.
Meanwhile the Spanish government was considering whether
the Moluccas did not fall within the Spanish sphere of influence
as defined by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494; and in August
1519 an expedition commanded by Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.)
sailed from Seville to seek a westward passage to the archipelago.
After losing the commander in the Philippines and discovering
Borneo, the two surviving ships reached the Moluccas late in
1520. One vessel returned to Seville by the Cape route, thus
completing the first voyage round the world; the other
attempted to return by the Pacific, but was driven back to
Tidore and there welcomed by the natives as a useful ally
against the Portuguese. Reinforcements from Spain arrived
in 1325 and 1528; but in 1529 a treaty was concluded between
the emperor Charles V. and John III. of Portugal, by which,
in return for 350,000 gold ducats, the Spanish claim to the
Moluccas was withdrawn. The boundary between the Spanish
and Portuguese spheres was fixed at 17 E. of the Moluccas,
but by a geographical fiction the Philippines were included
within the Spanish sphere. Further disputes occurred from
time to time, and in 1542 a Spanish fleet came into conflict
with the Portuguese off Amboyna; but after 1529 the supremacy
of each power in its own sphere was never seriously endangered.
Though the Portuguese traders frequented the coast of Java,
they annexed no territory either there or in Sumatra; but farther
east they founded numerous forts and factories, notably in
Amboyna, the Banda Island, Celebes and Halmahera. Ternate
remained the seat of the governor of the Moluccas, who was the
highest official in the archipelago, though subordinate to the vice-
roy or governor of Portuguese India. The first attempt to enter
into relations with the states of Borneo was made by D.. Jorge
de Menezes, who visited Brunei in 1526, and in 1528 sent an
envoy to its raja. The embassy failed in a curious manner.
Among the gifts sent by Menezes was a piece of tapestry repre-
senting the marriage of Catherine of Aragon to Arthur, prince of
Wales. The raja was persuaded that these mysterious figures
were demons under a spell, which might come to life and kill him
as he slept. The envoy was therefore dismissed.
In 1536, after a period of war and anarchy caused by the
tyrannical rule of Menezes, Antonio Galvao, the historian, was
appointed governor of the Moluccas. He crushed the rebellion
and won the affection of the natives by his just and enlightened
administration, which had no parallel in the annals of Portuguese
rule in the archipelago. He returned to Europe in 1540. (see
PORTUGAL: Literature), after inaugurating an active missionary
movement, which was revived in 1 546-1 547 by Francis Xavier
(q.v.). At this period the Portuguese power in the East was
already beginning to wane; in the archipelago it was weakened
by administrative corruption and by incessant war with native
states, notably Bintang and Achin; bitter hostility was aroused
by the attempts which the Portuguese made to establish a com-
mercial monopoly and to force Christianity upon their native
subjects and allies (see PORTUGAL: History). From 1580 to 1640
Portugal was itself united to Spain a union which differed from
annexation in little but name.
The English and Dutch, 1595-1674. Pirates from Dieppe
visited the archipelago between 1527 and 1539. It is possible
that they reached Australia 1 more than sixty years before the
first voyage thither of which there is any clear record; but their
cruise had no political significance, and the Spaniards and
Portuguese remained without European competitors until the
appearance of Sir Francis Drake in 1579. An English squadron
under Sir James Lancaster came into conflict with the Portuguese
in 1591, and an expedition under Sir Henry Middleton traded in
the archipelago in 1604. But the English were simple traders or
explorers; far more formidable were the Dutch, who came to the
East partly to avenge the injuries inflicted on their country by
the Spaniards, partly to break the commercial monopoly of the
peninsular states. As middlemen they already possessed a large
interest in the spice trade, for the Portuguese, having no direct
access to the principal European markets, had made a practice
of sending cargo to the Netherlands for distribution by way of
the Scheldt and Rhine. The Dutch now sought to monopolize
not only the distribution but the production of spices an enter-
prise facilitated by the co-operation of many exiled Portuguese
Jews who had settled in Holland.
The first Dutch fleet sailed from Texel, under the command of
Cornelis Houtman, on the and of April 1 595 and reached Sumatra
on the ist of January 1 596. It visited Madura, and came into
conflict with the Portuguese at Bantam in Java, returning to
Holland in 1597. Though not a commercial success, the ex-
pedition had demonstrated the weakness of the Portuguese. In
1602 the Dutch East India Company (q.v.) was incorporated, and
for nearly two centuries this organization played the chief part in
the history of the archipelago. By 1604 the Dutch could already
claim to be the stronger power at sea. They had attacked the
Portuguese in Ceylon (1601), established friendly relations with
Achin (1602), and defeated a powerful fleet off Banda (1602). In
1606 they concluded a treaty of alliance with the sultan of Johor,
and in 1608 they forced the Portuguese to assent to an armistice
for twelve years. On the 29th of November 1609 Pieter Both
was chosen by the states-general, on the nomination of the Dutch
East India Company, as first governor-general of Netherlands
India. In 1611 the headquarters of the Dutch was changed from
Bantam to Jakatra, which in 1619 was renamed Batavia, and
was thenceforward the Dutch capital. Meanwhile the English
East India Company, chartered in 1600, had also extended its
operations to the archipelago. After 161 1 the commercial rivalry
between the Dutch and British became acute, and in 1613, 1615
and 1618 commissioners met in London to discuss the matters
in dispute. The result of their deliberations was the Treaty of
Defence, signed on the and of June 1619 and modified on the 24th
of January 1620, which arranged for co-operation between the
Dutch and British companies, and especially for the maintenance
1 See The Geographical Journal, ix. 80 seq. (London, 1897).
470
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
of a joint fleet. But neither company could restrain its agents
in the East from aggressive action, and many fresh causes of
dispute arose, the chief being the failure of the British to provide
the naval forces required for service against the Portuguese,
and the so-called " massacre of Amboyna " (q.v.) in 1623. The
Treaty of Defence lapsed in 1637, but as early as 1634 the British
made peace with Portugal. Even without allies, however, the
Dutch continued to extend their trade and to annex fresh
territory, for the British were weakened by civil war at home,
while, after 1640, the Portuguese were struggling to maintain
their independence against Spain. The Dutch company opened
up a profitable trade with Japan and China, and prosecuted the
war against Portugal with great vigour, invading Portuguese
India and capturing Point de Galle in 1640, Malacca in 1641,
Cochin and Cannanore in 1663. The war with England in
1652-54 and the renewal of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance by the
marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of Braganza in 1661 were
unable to check the growth of Dutch power; more serious was
the resistance offered by some of the native states. Rebellions in
Java (1629) and the Moluccas (1650) were suppressed with great
severity, but in 1662 the company suffered a heavy reverse in
Formosa, all its colonists being expelled from the island. A new
war between Great Britain and Holland broke out in 1672 and
was terminated by the Treaty of Westminster (February 17,
1674), by which the points at issue between the two companies
were referred first to commissioners and finally to an arbitrator.
The full details of the settlement are unknown, but thenceforward
the British company devoted its energies chiefly to the develop-
ment of its Indian possessions, while the Dutch were left supreme
in the archipelago. In 1684 the British even evacuated Bantam,
their chief settlement, and retired to Benkulen in Sumatra, which
remained for more than a century their sole territorial possession
in the archipelago.
Dutch Ascendancy, 1674-1749. The weakness of Spain and
Portugal and the withdrawal of the British left the Dutch com-
pany free to develop its vast colonial and commercial interests.
In 1627 the so-called Dutch " colonial system " had been in-
augurated by the fourth governor-general, Jan Pieterszoon
Coen (q.v.). Under this system, which was intended to provide
Netherlands India with a fixed population of European descent,
Dutch girls were sent to the archipelago to be married to
white settlers, and subsequently marriages between Dutchmen
and captive native women were encouraged. As early as 1624
vast fortunes had been acquired by trade: two members of the
company who died in that year were stated to possess seven
and eight tons of gold respectively, an amount approximately
equivalent, in the aggregate, to 2,000,000. The use of slave
labour, and the application of the conie system to natives who
were nominally free, enabled the company to lower the cost of
production, while the absence of competition enabled it to raise
prices. The hardship inflicted on the native races provoked
an insurrection throughout Java, in which the Chinese settlers
participated; but the Dutch maintained naval and military
forces strong enough to crush all resistance, and a treaty between
the company and the Susuhunan in November 1749 made them
practically supreme throughout the island.
Decline of Dutch Power, 1749-1811. In the second half of the
1 7th century the monopoly system and the employment of slaves
and forced labour gave rise to many abuses, and there was a rapid
decline in the revenue from sugar, coffee and opium, while the
competition of the British East India Company, which now
exported spices, indigo, &c. from India to Europe, was severely
felt. The administration was corrupt, largely because of the vast
powers given to officials, who were invariably underpaid; and the
financial methods of the company precipitated its ruin, large
dividends being paid out of borrowed money. The burden of
defence could no longer be sustained; piracy and smuggling
became so common that the company was compelled to appeal
to the states-general for aid. In 1798 it was abolished and its
authority vested in a " Council of the Asiatic Possessions." In
1803 a commission met to consider the state of]the Dutch colonies,
and advocated drastic administrative and commercial reforms,
notably freedom of trade in all commodities except firearms,
opium, rice and wood with coffee, pepper and spices, which
were state monopolies. Some of these reforms were carried out
by H. W. Daendels (1808-1811), who was sent out as governor-
general by Louis Bonaparte, after the French conquest of Hol-
land. Daendels, however, maintained the existing restrictions
upon trade and even made rice a state monopoly. His harsh
rule aroused great antagonism; in 1811 he was recalled and
J. W. Janssens became governor-general.
British Occupation, 1811-1816. Netherlands India was at
this time regarded as a part of the Napoleonic Empire, with
which Great Britain was at war. A British naval squadron
arrived in the Moluccas in February 1810 and captured Amboyna,
Banda, Ternate and other islands. In 1811 a strong fleet was
equipped by Lord Minto, then governor-general of India, for
the conquest of Java; a British force was landed on the 4th
of August; Batavia was captured on the 26th, and on the
1 8th of September Janssens and the remnant of his army sur-
rendered. Lord Minto had issued a proclamation establishing
British rule on the nth of September, and Thomas (afterwards
Sir Thomas) Stamford Raffles was appointed lieutenant-governor.
Raffles (q.v.) held office until March 1816, and introduced many
important changes in the departments of revenue, commerce and
judicature. He was succeeded by John Fendall, who in 1816
carried out the retrocession of Netherlands India to the Dutch,
in accordance with the Treaty of Vienna (1814).
Restoration and Reform of Dutch Power, 1816-1910. Various
disputes between Great Britain and the Netherlands, arising
chiefly out of the transfer of power in Java and the British
occupation of Singapore (1819), were settled by treaty between
the two powers in 1824. By this treaty the Dutch were given
almost entire freedom of action in Sumatra, while the Malay
Peninsula was recognized as within the British sphere of influ-
ence. In 1825-30 a serious rebellion in Java involved the
despatch of a large military force from the Netherlands, and
was with difficulty suppressed. An outbreak of Mahommedan
fanaticism in Sumatra also gave much trouble.
The reform movement inaugurated by the commission of 1803
was resumed in 1830, when Governor-General Johannes van den
Bosch endeavoured to improve the conditions of land-tenure
and agriculture by introducing the so-called " culture system."
The native cultivators were to be exempted from the ground-tax,
but were to cultivate one-fifth of their land as the govern-
ment might direct, the government taking the produce. This
culture-system worked fairly during Van den Bosch's tenure of
office, but gave rise to many abuses between 1833 and 1844,
involving, as it did, a combination of the metayer and corvee
systems.
In 1848 the Grondivet, or fundamental law of the Netherlands,
recognized for the first time the responsibility of the Dutch nation
for its colonial dependencies. The Grondwet involved certain
important changes, which were embodied in an act passed in 1854
and commonly known as the Regulations for the Government of
Netherlands India. The Regulations substituted statute law for
administrative and military despotism, and made the governor-
general in council responsible to the minister of the colonies at
the Hague. They reformed the judicature, introduced elementary
education for the natives, and abolished slavery in Java as from
the ist of January 1860. They also prepared the way for further
legislation tending towards the gradual emancipation of the
natives from the culture system, and from semi-feudal servitude
to their native rulers. That servitude existed in many forms
all over the archipelago, but among the most curious must be
reckoned the pandelingschap or " pledgedom," which originated
in Borneo, and according to which a man had the power to
make his debtors his serfs until their debts were paid.
The reform movement was aided by the publication in 1860 of
Max Havelaar, a romance by E. Douwes Dekker (q.v.), which
contained a scathing indictment of the colonial system. Many
important financial and agrarian measures were carried between
1860 and 1890. In 1863 Fransen van de Putte, minister for the
colonies, introduced the first of the annual colonial budgets for
MALAYIR MALAY PENINSULA
which the Regulations had provided, thus enabling the states-
general to control the revenue and expenditure of Netherlands
India; in 1865 he reduced and in 1872 abolished the differentia-
tion of customs dues in favour of goods imported from Holland,
substituting a uniform import duty of 6% and establishing a
number of free ports throughout the archipelago. The import
duty was considered so moderate that an increase required for
revenue purposes was readily conceded in 1886. In 1876 the
practice of paying a yearly surplus (batig slot) from the revenues
of Netherlands India to the treasury at the Hague was discon-
tinued. The chief reforms in the land system were those intro-
duced by De Waal, then minister for the colonies, in 1870. The
cultivation of pepper, cochineal, cinnamon and indigo for the
government had already ceased; De Waal restricted the area of
the sugar plantations (carried on by forced native labour) as
from 1878, and provided for their abolition after 1890. He also
enabled natives to secure proprietary rights over the land they
cultivated, and legalized the leasing of Crown forest-lands to
Europeans.
The extension of Dutch political power notably in Java,
Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, Borneo, the Sunda Islands and
New Guinea proceeded simultaneously with the reform move-
ment, and from time to time involved war with various native
states. A large expedition was sent to Lombok in 1894, and
almost the whole of that island was incorporated in the Dutch
dominions. The long and costly war with Achin (q.v.) began in
1873 and reached its climax in the military occupation of the
country after 1905, when the native sultan surrendered and was
deported. A guerrilla war was still carried on by his subjects, but
their principal leader, the chief Panglima Polim, was captured in
1907 ; in 1908-1910 the condition of Achin under the military rule
of General Swart was one of almost unbroken peace, and taxes
were regularly paid.
While the Dutch were thus consolidating their authority, other
countries were acquiring new commercial or colonial interests in
the archipelago. Immigration from China and Japan steadily
increased, especially towards the end of the period 1816-1910.
The enterprise of Sir James Brooke (q.v.) led, after 1838, to the
establishment of British sovereignty in North Borneo; in 1895
New Guinea was divided between Great Britain, Germany and
the Netherlands; and the Spanish-American War of 1898 resulted
in the cession of the Philippines, Sulu Island and the largest of the
Mariana Islands to the United States, and the sale of the Caroline
group to Germany. Australian and Japanese trade in the archi-
pelago was stimulated by the establishment of the Australian
Commonwealth (1901) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5).
In 1910 the nations most directly interested in the future of the
archipelago were the Netherlands, Great Britain, the United
States, Germany, Japan, China and Portugal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the period 1511-1595, the chief Portuguese
authorities are the chronicles of Barros, CorrSa, Castanheda and
Couto (see PORTUGAL: History), with the letters of Xavier (q.v.),
and the Tratado of A. Galvao (Lisbon, 1563 and 1731), of which a
translation entitled Discoveries of the World was made for Richard
Hakluyt and reprinted by the Hakluyt Society (London, 1862).
See also M. F. de Navarette, Coleccion de los viages (vols. 4 and 5,
Madrid, 1837). For later history see John Crawfurd, History of the
Indian Archipelago (Edinburgh, 1820), which quotes from native
as well as European records, and Twentieth-Century Impressions of
Netherlands India (ed. A. Wright, London, 1910), which gives
references to the principal English and Dutch authorities. Further
bibliography will be found in J. A. van der Chijs, Promt eener neder-
landsch-indische Bibliografie, 1659-1870 (Batavia, 1875).
(K. G. J.)
MALAYIR, a small province of Persia, situated between
Hamadan and Burujird. It has a population of about 70,000,
and, together with the district Tusirkhan, pays a yearly revenue
of about 13,000. It produces much corn and fruit; a great
quantity of the latter, dried, is exported. Its capital and seat of
government is Doletabad (Dowletabad) , a thriving little city, with
a population of about 5000, situated at an elevation of 5680 ft.,
38 m. from Hamadan and 32 m. from Burujird. It has post and
telegraph offices.
MALAY PENINSULA (called by the Malays Tanah Malayu,
i.e. the Malay Land), a lozenge-shaped strip of land projecting
into the China Sea, and forming the most southerly portion of the
continent of Asia. Geographically, the peninsula begins at the
isthmus of Kra, 10 N., at which point it is only between 60 and
70 m. in width, and the distance from sea to sea is further
diminished by a large irregular salt-water inlet. Politically and
anthropologically, however, this upper portion must be regarded
as a continuation of the kingdom of Siam rather than as a section
of Malaya. From the isthmus of Kra the peninsula extends
south with a general inclination towards the east, the most
southerly point being Tanjong Bulus in i i6J' N. A line drawn
diagonally down the centre from the isthmus of Kra to Cape
Romania (Ramunya) gives the extreme length at about 750 miles.
The breadth at the widest point, from Tanjong Pen-unjut in
Trengganu to Tanjong Hantu in the Dindings territory, is about
200 m. The area is estimated at about 70,000 sq. m. The
peninsula is bounded on the N. by Siam, on the S. by the
island and strait of Singapore, on the E. by the China Sea, and
on the W. by the Strait of Malacca.
Physical Characteristics. A range of granite mountains forms a
backbone which divides the peninsula into two unequal portions, the
larger of which lies to the east and the smaller to the west of the
chain. Smaller ranges run parallel to the main mountain chain in
many places, and there are numerous isolated spurs which have no
connexion with either. The country is covered with limestone in
many parts, and large isolated bluffs of this formation stand up in
the plains both on the eastern and the western slopes. The descent
from the summits of the range into the plain is somewhat less abrupt
on the western than it is on the eastern side, and between the foot
of the mountains and the Strait of Malacca the largest known alluvial
deposits of tin are situated. On the eastern side of the range, after
a steep descent, the granite formation speedily gives place to slates
of vast depth, intersected here and there by fissures of quartz contain-
ing gold, and in many places covered by limestone which has been
superimposed upon the slates. The highest known peak in the
main range is that of Gunong Korbu, 7217 ft. above sea-level.
The highest mountain is believed to be Gunong Tahan, which forms
part of an isolated range on the eastern side, between Pahang and
Kelantan, and is estimated at about 8000 ft. The west coast
throughout its whole length is covered to a depth of some miles
with mangrove swamps, with only a few isolated stretches of sandy
beach, the dim foliage of the mangroves and the hideous mud flats
presenting a depressing spectacle. On the east coast the force of
the north-east monsoon, which beats upon the shores of the China
Sea annually from November to February, has kept the land for
the most part free from mangroves, and the sands, broken here
and there by rocky headlands thickly wooded, and fringed by
casuarina trees, stretch for miles without interruption. The islands
on each coast present the features of the shore to which they are
adjacent. On both the east and the west coast the islands are
thickly wooded, but whereas the former are surrounded by beautiful
sands and beaches, the latter are fringed by mangrove-swamps.
The whole peninsula may be described as one vast forest, inter-
sected in every direction by countless streams and rivers which
together form the most lavish water-system in the world. Only
an insignificant fraction of these forests has ever been visited by
human beings, the Malays and even the aboriginal tribe having
their homes on the banks of the rivers, and never, even when travel-
ling from one part of the country to another, leaving the banks of
a stream except for a short time when passing from one river-system
to another. The bulk of the jungle, therefore, which lies between
stream and stream, has never been trodden by the foot of man.
The principal rivers on the west coast are the Perak, the Bernam and
the Muar. The first-named is far finer than its fellows, and is
navigable for steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and for
native craft for over 250 m. It is exceedingly shallow, however,
and is not of much importance as a waterway. The Bernam runs
through flat swampy country for the greater part of its course, and
steam-launches can penetrate to a distance of over 100 m. from
its mouth, and it is therefore probably the deepest river. The
country which it waters, however, is not of any value, and it is not
much used. The Muar waters a very fertile valley, and is navigable
for native boats for over 150 m. On the east coast the principal
streams are the Petani, Telubin, Kelantan, Besut, Trengganu,
Dungun, Kmamun, Kuantan, Pahang, Rompin, Endau and Sedeli,
all guarded by difficult bars at their mouths, and dangerous during
the continuance of the north-east monsoon. The deepest rivers
are the Kuantan and Rompin; the largest are the Kelantan and
the Pahang, both of which are navigable for native boats for a
distance of over 250 m. The Trengganu river is obstructed by
impassable rapids at a distance of about 30 m. from its mouth.
The rivers on the east coast are practically the only highways, the
Malays always travelling by boat in preference to walking, but
they serve their purpose very indifferently, and their great beauty
is their chief claim to distinction. Magnificent caves are found on
both slopes of the peninsula, those at Batu in Selangor being the
472
MALAY PENINSULA
finest on the west coast, while those of Chadu and Koto Glanggi
in Pahang are the most extensive yet visited by Europeans on the
east coast. They are all of limestone formation. So far as is known,
the Malay Peninsula consists of an axial zone of crystalline rocks,
flanked on each side by an incomplete band of sedimentary deposits.
Granite is the most widely spread of the crystalline rocks; but
dikes of various kinds occur, and gneiss, schist and marble are also
met with. These rocks form the greater part of the central range,
and they are often especially the granite decomposed and rotten
to a considerable depth. The sedimentary deposits include slate,
limestone and sandstone. Impure coal has also been recorded.
The limestone has yielded Proetus, Chonetes and other fossils, and
is believed to be of Carboniferous age. In the sandstone Myophoria
and other Triassic fossils have been found, and it appears to belong
to the Rhaetic or Upper Trias. 1 The minerals produced are tin,
gold, iron, galena and others, in insignificant quantities.
The tin occurs in the form of cassiterite, and is found chiefly in
or near the crystalline rocks, especially the granite. As stream tin
it occurs abundantly in some of the alluvial deposits derived from
the crystalline area, especially on the west coast. Only two tin
lodes are worked, however, and both are situated on the east coast,
the one at Kuantan in Pahang, the other at Bandi in Trengganu
territory. On the west coast no true lode has yet been discovered,
though the vast alluvial deposits of tin found there seem to make
such a discovery probable in the future. Since 1890 the tin
produced from these alluvial beds has supplied between 50% and
75 % of the tin of the world. Gold is worked with success in
Pahang, and has been exploited from time immemorial by the
natives of that state and of Kelantan. Small quantities have also
been found on the western slope in Perak.
Climate, &c. It was formerly the custom to speak of the Malay
Peninsula as an unhealthy climate, and even to compare it with the
west coast of Africa. It is now generally admitted, however, that,
though hot, it compares favourably with that of Burma. The chief
complaint which Europeans make concerning it is the extreme
humidity, which causes the heat to be more oppressive than is the
case where the air is dry. On the other hand, the thermometer,
even at Singapore on the southern coast, which is the hottest portion
of the peninsula, seldom rises above 98 in the shade, whereas the
mean for the year at that place is generally below 80. On the main-
land, and more especially on the eastern slope, the temperature
is cooler, the thermometer seldom rising above 93 in the shade,
and falling at night below 70. On an average day in this part of the
peninsula the temperature in a European house ranged from 88 to
68. The number of rainy days throughout the peninsula varies
from 160 to over 200 in each year, but violent gusts of wind, called
" Sumatras," accompanied by a heavy downpour of short duration,
are more common than persistent rain. The rainfall on the west
coast varies from 75 to 120 in. per annum, and that of the east coast,
where the north-east monsoon breaks with all its fury, is usually
about 155 in. per annum. Malarial fevers make their appearance
in places where the forest has been recently felled, or where the sur-
face earth has been disturbed. It is noticed that labourers employed
in deep mines worked by shafts suffer less from fever than do those
who are engaged in stripping the alluvial deposits. This, of course,
means that a new station, where clearing, digging, and building are
in progress, is often unhealthy for a time, and to this must be
attributed the evil reputation which the peninsula formerly enjoyed.
To Europeans the climate is found to be relaxing and enervating,
but if, in spite of some disinclination for exertion, regular exercise
is taken from the beginning, and ordinary precautions against chills,
more especially to the stomach, are adopted, a European has almost
as good a chance of remaining in good health in the peninsula as in
Europe. A change of climate, however, is imperatively necessary
every five or six years, and the children of European parents should
not be kept in the peninsula after they have attained the age of
four or five years. The Chinese immigrants suffer chiefly from fever
of a malarial type, from beri-beri, a species of tropical dropsy, and
from dysentery. The Malays formerly suffered severely from small-
pox epidemics, but in the portion of the peninsula under British
rule vaccination has been introduced, and the ravages of the disease
no longer assume serious dimensions. Occasional outbreaks of
cholera occur from time to time, and in the independent states
these cause terrible loss of life, as the -natives fly from the disease
and spread the infection in every direction. As a whole, the Malays
are, however, a remarkably healthy people, and deformity and heredi-
tary diseases are rare among them. There is little leprosy in the
peninsula, but there is a leper hospital near Penang on Pula Deraja
and another on an island on the west coast for the reception of lepers
from the Federated Malay States.
Flora and Fauna. The soil of the peninsula is remarkably fertile
both in the plains and on the mountain slopes. In the vast forests
the decay of vegetable matter during countless ages has enriched
1 See R. B. Newton, " Notes on Literature bearing upon the
Geology of the Malay Peninsula; with an Account of a Neolithic
Implement from that Country " (Geol. Mag., 1901, pp. 128-134).
See also the various reports by J. B. Scrivenor in Suppl. Perak
Cot. Gazette, 1905.
the soil to the depth of many feet, and from it springs the most
marvellous tangle of huge trees, shrubs, bushes, underwood, creepers,
climbing plants and trailing vines, the whole hung with ferns, mosses,
and parasitic growths, and bound together by rattans and huge
rope-like trailers. In most places the jungle is so dense that it is
impossible to force a way through it without the aid of a wood-knife,
and even the wild beasts use well-worn game-tracks through the
forest. In the interior brakes of bamboos are found, many of which
spread for miles along the river banks. Good hard-wood timber
is found in plenty, the best being the merabau, penak, rasok and
chengal. Orchids of countless varieties abound. The principal
fruit trees are the duri-an, mangosteen, custard-apple, pomegranate,
rambut-an, pulas-an, langsat, rambai, jack-fruit, coco-nut, areca-nut,
sugar-palm, and banana. Coffee, tobacco, sugar-cane, rice, pepper,
gambler, cotton and sago are cultivated with success. Great
developments have been made of recent years in the cultivation of
rubber in British Malaya. The principal jungle products are gutta
and rubber of several varieties, and many kinds of rattan. The man-
grove grows on the shores of the west coast in profusion. Agila-
wood, the camphor tree, and ebony are also found in smaller
quantities.
The fauna of the peninsula is varied and no less profuse than is
the vegetable life. The Asiatic elephant; the seladang, a bison of
a larger type than the Indian gaur; two varieties of rhinoceros; the
honey bear (bruang), the tapir, the sambhur (rusa); the speckled
deer (kijang), three varieties of mouse-deer (napoh, plandok and
kanchil) ; the gibbon (ungka or wawa'), the siamang, another species
of anthropoid ape, the brok or coco-nut monkey, so called because
it is trained by the Malays to gather the nuts from the coco-nut
trees, the lotong, kra, and at least twenty other kinds of monkey;
the binturong (arcticlis binturong), the lemur; the Asiatic tiger, the
black panther, the leopard, the large wild cat (harimau akar), several
varieties of jungle cat; the wild boar, the wild dog; the flying squirrel,
the flying fox; the python, the cobra, and many other varieties of
snake, including the hamadryad; the alligator, the otter and the
gavial, as well as countless kinds of squirrel, rat, &c., are found
throughout the jungles of the peninsula in great numbers. On the
east coast peafowl are found, and throughout the interior the argus
pheasant, the firebacked pheasant, the blue partridge, the adjutant-
bird, several kinds of heron and crane, duck, teal, cotton-teal,
snipe, wood-pigeon, green-pigeon of several varieties, swifts, swallows
pied-robins, hornbills, parakeets, fly-catchers, nightjars, and many
other kinds of bird are met with frequently. A few specimens of
solitary goose have been procured, but the bird is rarely met with.
The forests literally swarm with insects of all kinds, from cicadae
to beautiful butterflies, and from stick- and leaf-insects to endless
varieties of ants. The scorpion and the centipede are both common.
The study of the insect life of the peninsula opens a splendid field
for scientific research, and the profusion and variety of insects found
in these forests probably surpass those to be met with anywhere else
in the world.
Political Divisions and Population. Politically the Malay
Peninsula is divided into four sections: the colony of the Straits
Settlements and the Federated Malay States; the independent
Malay State of Johor, which is within the British sphere of in-
fluence; the non-federated states under British protection; and
the groups of states to the north of Perak and Pahang, which are
now recognized as lying within the sphere of influence of Siam.
The colony of the Straits Settlements consists of the islands of
Singapore, Penang and the Bindings, the territory of Province
Wellesley, on the mainland opposite to Penang, the insignificant
territory of the Bindings, and the town and territory of Malacca.
The Federated Malay States under British protection consist of
the sultanates of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sambilan on the
west coast, and the sultanate of Pahang on the east coast. Johor
is the only Malay state in the southern portion of the peninsula,
the whole of which is within the British sphere, which has been
suffered to remain under native rule. The non-federated states
under British protection (since 1909) are Kelantan, Trengganu,
Kedah and Perils (Palit). The population of the peninsula num-
bers about 2,000,000, of whom about 600,000 inhabit the colony
of the Straits Settlements, about 900,000 the Federated Malay
States, about 200,000 the Malay State of Johor, and about
250,000 to 300,000 the remainder of the peninsula. The popula-
tion of the peninsula includes about 850,000 Chinese, mostly
immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the southern
provinces of China, of whom about 300,000 reside in the colony
of the Straits Settlements, 365,000 in the Federated Malay States,
150,000 in Johor, and the remainder in smaller communities or
as isolated traders scattered throughout the villages and small
towns of the peninsula. The Malay population of the peninsula,
including immigrants from the eastern archipelago, number
MALAY PENINSULA
473
some 750,000 to 800,000, while the Tamils and other natives of
India number about 100,000, the aboriginal natives of the pen-
insula perhaps 20,000, Europeans and Americans about 6500, and
Eurasians about 9000. The colony of the Straits Settlements,
and to a lesser extent the towns of the Federated Malay States,
carry a considerable heterogenous population, in which most of
the races of Asia find their representatives.
98
MALAY 4r
PENINSULA
Scale. 1:8.000,000
English Mites
o 10 50 100
Railways
Brit/th Possessions - C3
federated Malay States
under British Protection. ift'f
Siamese Malay States -..1V3
Capitals
apitals of Provinces in Slam
Races of the Peninsula. Excluding the Tai, or Siamese, who are
undoubtedly recent intruders from the north, there are three races
which for an extended period of time have had their home in the
Malay Peninsula. These are the Semang or Pangan, the Sakai or
Jakun, and the Malays. The Semang, as they are most usually
called by the Malays, are Negritos a small, very dark people, with
features of the negroid type, very prognathous, and with short,
woolly hair clinging to the scalp in tiny crisp curls. These people
belong to the race which would seem to be the true aboriginal stock
of southern Asia. Representatives of it are found scattered about
the islands from the Andaman group southwards. The state of
civilization to which they have attained is very low. They neither
plant nor have they any manufactures except their rude bamboo
and rattan vessels, the fish and game traps which they set with much
skill, and the bows, blow-pipes and bamboo spears with which they
are armed. They are skilful hunters, however, catch fish by in-
geniously constructed traps, and live almost entirely on jungle-roots
and the produce of their hunting and fishing. The most civilized
of these people is found in Upper Perak, and the members of this clan
have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting, &c. They
cannot, however, be taken as typical of their race, and otner specimens
of this people are seldom seen even by the Sakai. From time to time
they have been raided by the latter, and many Negritos are to be
found in captivity in some of the Malayan villages on the eastern
side of the peninsula. The mistake of speaking
of the Sakai tribes as practically identical with
the Semang or Pangan has very frequently been
made, but as a matter of fact the two races are
absolutely distinct from one another. It has
also been customary to include the Sakai in the
category of Malayan races, but this too is un-
doubtedly incorrect. The Sakai still inhabit in
greatest numbers the country which forms the
interior of Pahang, the Plus and Kinta districts
of Perak, and the valley of Nenggiri in Kelantan.
Representatives of their race are also found
scattered among the Malayan villages through-
out the country, and also along the coast, but
these have intermixed so much with the Malays,
and have acquired so many customs, &c., from
their more civilized neighbours, that they can no
longer be regarded as typical of the race to which
they belong. The pure Sakai in the interior
have a good knowledge of planting rice, tapioca,
&c., fashion pretty vessels from bamboos, which
they decorate with patterns traced by the aid of
fire, make loin-cloths (their only garment) from
the bark of the trap and ipoh trees; are very
musical, using a rude lute of bamboo, and a nose-
flute of a very sweet tone, and singing in chorus
very melodiously; and altogether nave attained
in their primitive state to a higher degree of
civilization than have the Semang. They are
about as tall as the average Malay, are slimly
buijt, light of colour, and have wavy fine hair. In
their own language they usually have only three
numerals, viz. na-nun, one; nar, two; and ne\
three, or variants of these; all higher arithmetical
ideas being expressed by the word kerpn, which
means " many." A few cases have been re-
corded, however, of tribes who can count in their
own tongue up to four and five. Among the
more civilized, however, the Malay numerals up
to ten are adopted by the Sakai. An examina-
tion of their language seems to indicate that it
belongs to the Mon-Khmer group of languages,
and the anthropological information forthcoming
concerning the Sakai points to the conclusion
that they show a greater affinity to the people of
the Mon-Khmer races than to the Malayan stock.
Though they now use metal tools imported by
the Malays, it is noticeable that the names
which they give to those weapons which most
closely resemble in character the stone imple-
ments found in such numbers all over the penin-
sula are native names wholly unconnected with
their Malay equivalents. On account of this, it
has been suggested that in a forgotten past the
Sakai were themselves the fashioners of the
stone implements, and certain it is that all tools
which have no representatives among the stone
kelts are known to the Sakai by obvious corrup-
tions of their Malayan names. The presence of
the Sakai, a people of the Mon-Khmer stock, in
the interior of the peninsula has also been con-
sidered as one of many proofs that the Malays
intruded from the south and approached the
peninsula by means of a sea-route, since had
they swept down from the north, being driven
thence by the people of a stronger breed, it
might be expected that the fringe of country dividing the two
contending races would be inhabited by men of the more feeble
stock. Instead, we find the Sakai occupying this position, thus
indicating that they have been driven northward by the Malays, and
that the latter people has not been expelled by the Mon-Khmer
races from the countries now represented by Burma, Siam and French
Indo-China. The Sakai population is dying out, and must even-
tually disappear. (With regard to the Malay, see MALAYS.)
Archaeology. The only ancient remains found in the peninsula
are the stone implements, of which mention has already been made,
and some remarkable ancient mines, which are situated in the Jelai
valley in Pahang. The stone implements are generally of one or
two types : a long rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one
end, and i sed in conjunction with a mallet or flat stone, and a
roughly triangular axe-head, which has evidently been fixed in the
474
MALAY PENINSULA
cleft of a split stick. A few stones, which might perhaps be arrow-
heads, have been found, but they are very rare. The mines, which
have been constructed for the purpose of working quartz lodes
containing gold, are very extensive, and argue a high stage of civiliza-
tion possessed by the ancient miners. They consist of a number of
circular or rectangular pits sunk from the cap of a hill, and going
down to a depth of in some cases as much as 120 ft., until in fact
the miners have been stopped by being unable to cope with the
quantity of water made when the level of the valley was reached.
The shafts are placed so close together that in many instances they
are divided by only a couple of feet of solid ground, but at their bases
a considerable amount of gallery work has been excavated, though
it is possible that this was done by miners who came after the people
who originally sank the shafts. Native tradition attributes these
mines to the Siamese, but no importance can be attached to this,
as it is very general for the Malays to give this explanation for any-
thing which is obviously not the work of their own ancestors. A
theory, which seems to have some probability in its favour, is that
these mines were worked by the Khmer people during the period of
power, energy and prosperity which found its most lofty expression
in the now ruined and deserted city of Angkor Thorn; while another
attributes these works to the natives of India whose Hindu remains
are found in Java and elsewhere, whose influence was at one time
widespread throughout Malayan lands, and of whose religious
teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the Malays and
are preserved in some purity in Lombok and Bali. In the absence,
however, of any relics of a kind which might lead to the identification
of the ancient miners, their nationality and origin are matters which
must continue to be mere questions of speculation and conjecture.
History. The first hint to reach Europe concerning the exist-
ence of habitable lands to the eastward of the Ganges is to be
found in the writings of Pomponius Mela (A.D. 43) which speak
of Chryse, or the Golden Isle, as lying off Cape Tamus supposed
to be the most easterly point in Asia and over against the
estuary of the Ganges. Thereafter there occur vague references
to Chryse in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, &c., but the earliest
trace of anything resembling first-hand knowledge concerning
the peninsula of Indo-China and Malaya is revealed in the
writings of Ptolemy, whose views were mainly derived from those
of his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, who in his turn drew his
deductions from information supplied to him by the mariner
Alexander who, there is every reason to think, had himself
voyaged to the Malay Peninsula and beyond. In the light of
present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of Asia, which
had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever Europeans
attempted to make use of them, it is safe to identify Ptolemy's
Sinus Perimulicus with the Gulf of Siam, the Sinus Sabaricus
with the Straits of Malacca from their southern portals to the
Gulf of Martaban, the Aurea Chersonesus with the Malay Penin-
sula, and the island of labadius or Sabadius the reading of the
name is doubtful with Sumatra, not as has often been mis-
takenly attempted with Java. Although the first definite
endeavour to locate the Golden Chersonese thus dates from the
middle of the 2nd century of our era, the name was apparently
well known to the learned of Europe at a somewhat earlier period,
and in his Antiquities of the Jews, written during the latter half
of the ist century, Josephus says that Solomon gave to the pilots
furnished to him by Hiram of Tyre commands " that they should
go along with his stewards to the land that of old was called
Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which belongs to India,
to fetch gold." After the time of Ptolemy no advance in know-
ledge concerning the geography of south-eastern Asia was made
until Cosmas Indicopleustes, a monk and an Alexandrian Greek,
wrote from personal knowledge between A.D. 530 and 550. His
primary object was to prove that the world was built after the
same shape and fashion as the Ark made by the Children of Israel
in the desert; but he was able to show that the Malay Peninsula
had to be rounded and thereafter a course steered in a northerly
direction if China was to be reached. Meanwhile inter-Asiatic
intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on the
increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons
and to sail directly to and fro across the Indian Ocean (attributed
to the Greek pilot Hippalus) had been made. After the decline
of the power of Rome, the dominant force in Asiatic commerce
and navigation was Persia, and from that time onward, until the
arrival of the Portuguese upon the scene early in the i6th century
the spice trade, whose chief emporia were in or near the Malay
Peninsula, was in Persian or Arab hands. There is considerable
reason to think, however, that the more frequent ports of call in
the Straits of Malacca were situated in Sumatra, rather than on
the shores of the Malay Peninsula, and two famous medieval
travellers, Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, both called and
wintered at the former, and make scant mention of the latter.
The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted,
consisted in the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of
being the distributing centre of the spices brought thither from
the Moluccas en route for India and Europe. As early as the
3rd century B.C. Megasthenes makes mention of spices brought
to the shores of the Ganges from " the southern parts of India,"
and the trade in question was probably one of the most ancient
in the world. So long, however, as India held the monopoly
of the clove, the Malay Peninsula was ignored,'the Hindus spread-
ing their influence through the islands of the archipelago and
leaving traces thereof even to this day. The Mahommedan
traders from Persia and Arabia, following the routes which had
been prepared for them by their forebears, broke down the Hindu
monopoly and ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that
by the beginning of the i6th century the spice trade was almost
exclusively in their hands. These traders were also missionaries
of their religion, as indeed is every Mahommedan, and to them
is due the conversion of the Malays from rude pantheism, some-
what tinctured by Hindu mythology, to the Mahommedan creed.
The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been
a potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history. The Moluccas
were, from the first, the objective of the Portuguese invaders,
and no sooner had the white men found their way round the Cape
of Good Hope and established themselves successively upon the
coast of East Africa, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Aden
and the Malabar coast, than Malacca, then the chief trading
centre of the Malayan Archipelago, became the object of their
desire. The first Portuguese expedition sent out to capture
Malacca was under the command of Diogo Lopez de Siqueira
and sailed from Portugal in 1 508. At Cochin Siqueira took on
board certain adherents of Alphonso d'Alboquerque who were
in bad odour with his rival d'Almeida, among them being
Magellan, the future circumnavigator of the world, and Francisco
Serrao, the first European who ever lived in the Spice Islands.
Siqueira's expedition ended in failure, owing partly to the
aggressive attitude of the Portuguese, partly to the very justifi-
ablesuspicions of the Malays, and he was presently forced to
destroy one of his vessels, to leave a number of his men in cap-
tivity, and to sail direct for Portugal. In 1510 a second expedi-
tion against Malacca was sent out from Portugal under the
command of Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos, but d'Alboquerque
retained it at Cochin to aid him in the retaking of Goa, and it
was not until 1511 that the great viceroy could spare time to
turn his attention to the scene of Siqueira's failure. After some
futile negotiations, which had for their object the recovery of the
Portuguese captives before hostilities should begin, an assault
was delivered upon Malacca, and though the first attempt to
take the city failed after some hard fighting, a second assault
made some days later succeeded, and Malacca passed for ever
into European hands. The Portuguese were satisfied with the
possession of Malacca itself and did not seek further to extend
their empire in Malaya. Instead they used every endeavour
to establish friendly relations with the rulers of all the neighbour-
ing kingdoms, and before d'Alboquerque returned to India he
despatched embassies to China, Siam, and several kingdoms of
Sumatra, and sent a small fleet, with orders to assume a highly
conciliatory attitude toward all natives, in search of the Moluccas.
Very soon the spice trade had become a Portuguese monopoly,
and Malacca was the great headquarters of the trade. It should
moreover be noted that Magellan's famous expedition had for
its object not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the break-
ing down of this monopoly, without violating the terms of the
papal bull which gave to Spain the conquest of the West, to
Portugal the possession of the East. In 1328 a French expedi-
tion sailed from Dieppe, penetrated as far as Achin in Sumatra,
but returned without reaching the Malay Peninsula. It was,
MALAYS
475
however, the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull.
In 1591, three years after the defeat of the Armada, Raymond
and Lancaster rounded the Cape, and after cruising off Penang,
decided to winter in Achin. They subsequently hid among the
Pulau Sambilan near the mouth of the Perak river, and thence
captured a large Portuguese vessel which was sailing from
Malacca in company with two Burmese ships. In 1595 the first
Dutch expedition sailed from the Texel, but it took a more
southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations
to Java and the neighbouring islands. During this period Achin
developed a determined enmity to the Portuguese, and more
than one attempt was made to drive the strangers from Malacca.
Eventually, in 1641, a joint attack was made by the Achinese
and the Dutch, but the latter, not the people of the sturdy little
Sumatran kingdom, became the owners of the coveted port.
Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the British in 1795; was
restored to the latter in 1818; but in 1824 was exchanged for
Benkulen and a few more unimportant places in Sumatra. The
first British factory in the peninsula was established in the native
state of Patani on the east coast in 1613, the place having been
used by the Portuguese in the i6th century for a similar purpose;
but the enterprise came to an untimely end in 1620 when Captain
Jourdain, the first president, was killed in a naval engagement
in Patani Roads by the Dutch. Penang was purchased from
Kedah in 1 786, and Singapore from the then sultan of Johor in
1819. The Straits Settlements Singapore, Malacca and Penang
were ruled from India until 1867, when they were erected into
a crown colony under the charge of the Colonial Office. In 1874
the Malay state of Perak was placed under British protection
by a treaty entered into with its sultan; and this eventually led
to the inclusion in a British protectorate of the neighbouring
Malay States of Selangor, Sungei Ujong, the cluster of small
states called the Negri Sembilan and Pahang, which now form
the Federated Malay States. By a treaty made between Great
Britain and Siam in 1902 the northern Malay states of the penin-
sula were admitted to lie within the Siamese sphere of influence,
but by a treaty of 1909 Siam ceded her suzerain rights over the
states of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Britain.
Singapore is the political, commercial and administrative
headquarters of the colony of the Straits Settlements, and the
governor for the time being is ex officio high commissioner of the
Federated Malay States, British North Borneo, Sarawak, the
Cocos- Keeling and Christmas Islands, and governor of Labuan.
See Sir F. Swettenham, British Malaya (1906); H. Clifford,
Further India (1904); Journal of the Malay Archipelago, Logan
(Singapore) ; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
(Singapore) ; Weld, Maxwell, Swettenham and Clifford in the Journal
of the Koyal Colonial Institute (London) ; Clifford in the Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society (London). (H. CL.)
MALAYS, the name given by Europeans to the people calling
themselves Orang Malayu, i.e. Malayan folk, who are the domi-
nant race of the Malay Peninsula and of the Malay Archipelago.
Broadly speaking, all the brown races which inhabit the portion
of Asia south of Siam and Indo-China, and the islands from
the Philippines to Java, and from Sumatra to Timor, may be
described as belonging to the Malayan family, if the aboriginal
tribes, such as the Sakai and Semang in the Malay Peninsula,
the Bataks in Sumatra, and the Muruts in Borneo, be excepted.
For the purposes of this article, however, only those among these
races which bear the name of Orang Malayu, speak the Malayan
language, and represent the dominant people of the land, can
be included under the title of Malays. These people inhabit
the whole of the Malayan Peninsula to the borders of lower
Siam, the islands in the vicinity of the mainland, the shores of
Sumatra and some portions of the interior of that island, Sarawak
and Brunei in Borneo, and some parts of Dutch Borneo,
Batavia and certain districts in Java, and some of the smaller
islands of the archipelago. Though in these lands they have
for not less than a thousand years enjoyed the position of the
dominant race, they all possess a tradition that they are not
indigenous, and that their first rulers " came out of the sea," with
a large band of Malayan warriors in their train. In the peninsula
especially, where the presence of the Malays is more recent than
elsewhere, many traditions exist which point to a comparatively
recent occupation of the country. It has been remarked that there
is evidence that the Malays had attained to a certain stage of
civilization before ever they set foot in Malaya. For instance,
the names which they give to certain fruits, such as the duri-an,
the rambut-an and the pulas-an, which are indigenous in the
Malayan countries, and are not found elsewhere, are all com-
pound words meaning respectively the thorny, the hairy and
the twisted fruit. These words are formed by the addition of the
substantial affix " -an," the use of which is one of the recognized
methods by which the Malays turn primitive words into terms
of more complex meaning. This may be taken to indicate
that when first the Malays became acquainted with the fruits
which are indigenous in Malayan lands they already possessed
a language in which most primary words were represented, and
also that their tongue had attained to a stage of development
which provided for the formation of compound words by a
system sanctioned by custom and the same linguistic instinct
which causes a Malay to-day to form similar compounds from
European and other foreign roots. For any aboriginal race
inhabiting these countries, such important articles of diet as the
duri-an, &c., could not fail to be among the first natural objects
to receive a name, and thus we find primary terms in use among
the Sakai and Semang, the aborigines of the Peninsula, to de-
scribe these fruits. The use by the Malays of artificially con-
structed terms to denote these things may certainly be taken to
strengthen the opinion that the Malays arrived in the lands they
now inhabit at a comparatively late period in their history, and
at a time when they had developed considerably from the original
state of primitive man.
In the Malay Peninsula itself there is abundant evidence,
ethnological and philological, of at least two distinct immigra-
tions of people of the Malayan stock, the earlier incursions, it is
probable, taking place from the eastern archipelago to the south,
the later invasion spreading across the Straits of Malacca from
Sumatra at a comparatively recent date. The fact that the
semi-wild tribes, which are ethnologically Malayan and distinct
from the aboriginal Semang and Sakai, are met with almost
invariably in the neighbourhood of the coast would seem to
indicate that they reached the peninsula by a sea, not by a land
route, a supposition which is strengthened by their almost
amphibious habits. Many of these tribes have retained their
pristine paganism, but many others it is certain have adopted
the Mahommedan religion and have been assimilated by the
subsequent and stronger wave of Sumatran immigrants. A
study of the local dialects to be met with in some of the districts
of the far interior, e.g. the Tembeling valley in Pahang, whose
people are now Mahommedans and in many respects indis-
tinguishable from the ordinary Malays of the peninsula, reveals
the fact that words, current in the archipelago to the south but
incomprehensible to the average peninsula Malays, by whom
these more ancient populations are now completely surrounded,
have been preserved as local words, whereas they really belong
to an older dialect once spoken widely in the peninsula, as to-day
it is spoken in the Malayan islands. This would seem to show
that in some instances the earlier Malay immigrants fell or were
driven by the later invaders back from the coast and sought
refuge in the far interior.
Until recently many eminent scientists held the theory that
the Malayan peoples were merely an offspringof theMongolstock,
and that their advance into the lands they now in-
habit had taken place from the cradle of the Mon- or' g "ia"
golian race that is to say, from the north. In the
fifth edition of his Malay Archipelago, A. R. Wallace notes the
resemblance which he traced between the Malays and the
Mongolians, and others have recorded similar observations as
to the physical appearance of the two races. To-day, however,
fuller data are available than when Wallace wrote, and the more
generally accepted theory is that the Malayan race is distinct,
and came from the south, until it was stayed by the Mongolian
races living on the mainland of southern Asia. The cranial
476
MALAYS
measurements of the Malays and an examination of their hair
sections seem to bear out the theory that they are distinct from
the Mongolian races. Their language, which is neither mono-
syllabic nor tonic, has nothing in common with that of the Mon-
Annam group. It has, moreover, been pointed out that had
the Malays been driven southwards by the stronger races of the
mainland of Asia, it might be expected that the people inhabiting
the country nearest to the border between Siam and Malaya
would belong to the Malayan and not to the Mon-Annam or
Mon- Khmer stock. As a matter of fact the Sakai of the interior
of the peninsula belong to the latter race. It might also be
anticipated, were the theory of a southward immigration to be
sustained, that the Malays would be new-comers in the islands
of the archipelago, and have their oldest settlements on the
Malayan Peninsula. The facts, however, are in exact contradic-
tion to this; and accordingly the theory now most generally held
by those who have studied the question is that the Malays form
a distinct race, and had their original home in the south. Where
this home lay it is not easy to say, but the facts recorded by
many writers as to the resemblance between the Polynesian and
the Malayan races, and the strong Malayan element found in
the languages of the former (see Tregear's Maori and Comparative
Polynesian Dictionary, London, 1891), have led some students
to think that the two races may have had a common origin.
John Crawfurd, in the Dissertation to his Dictionary of the Malay
Language, published in 1840, noted the prevalence of Malayan
terms in the Polynesian languages, and attributed the fact to
the casting away of ships manned by Malays upon the islands
of the Polynesian Archipelago. The appearance of the same
Malayan words in localities so widely separated from each other,
however, cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by any such
explanation, and the theory is now more generally held that the
two races are probably allied and may at some remote period
of history have shared a common home. It has been suggested
that their separation did not take place until after the continent
which once existed in the north Pacific had become submerged,
and that the Malays wandered northward, wrjile the Polynesian
race spread itself over the islands of the southern archipelago.
All this, however, must necessarily be of the nature of the purest
speculation, and the only facts which we are able to deduce in
the present state of our knowledge of the subject may be summed
up as follows: (a) That the Malays ethnologically belong to a
race which is allied to the Polynesians; (6) that the theory
formerly current to the effect that the Sakai and other similar
races of the peninsula and archipelago belonged to the Malayan
stock cannot be maintained, since recent investigations tend to
identify them with the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer family of
races; (c) that the Malays are, comparatively speaking, new-
comers in the lands which they now inhabit; (d) that it is almost
certain that their emigration took place from the south; (e) and
that, at some remote period of their history, they came into close
contact with the Polynesian race, probably before its dispersion
over the extensive area which it now occupies.
The Malays to-day are Sunni Mahommedans of the school of
Shafi'i, and they habitually use the terms Orang Malayu, i.e. a Malay,
and Orang Islam, i.e. a Mahommedan, as synonymous
expressions. Their conversion from paganism took
**" place during the I3th, I4th and isth centuries of our era.
ons. -j-^g ra j a O f Achin, in northern Sumatra, is said to have
been converted as early as 1206, while the Bugis people in Celebes
are supposed not to have become Mahommedans until 1495.
Mahommedanism undoubtedly spread to the Malays of the peninsula
from Sumatra, but their conversion was slow and gradual, and may
even now in some respects be regarded as imperfect. Upon the bulk
of the Malayan peoples their religion sits but lightly. Few are found
to observe the law concerning the Five Hours of Prayer, and many fail
to put in an appearance at the Friday congregational services in
the mosques. The Fast of Ramadhan, however, is generally ob-
served with some faithfulness. Compared with other Mahommedan
peoples, the Malays are not fanatical, though occasionally an out-
break against those of a different creed is glorified by them into a
holy war. The reason of such outbreaks, however, is usually to be
found in political and social rather than in religious grievances.
Prior to their conversion to Mahommedanism the Malays were
subjected to a considerable Hindu influence, which reached them by
means of the traders who visited the archipelago from India. In
Mode of
Life, &c.
the islands of Bali and Lombok the people still profess a form of
Hinduism, and Hindu remains are to be found in many other parts
of the archipelago, though their traces do not extend to the peninsula.
Throughout, however, the superstitions of the Malays show indi-
cations of this Hindu influence, and many of the demons whom
their medicine-men invoke in their magic practices are clearly
borrowed from the pantheon of India. For the rest, a substratum
of superstitious beliefs, which survives from the days when the Malays
professed only their natural religion, is to be found firmly rooted
in the minds of the people, and the influence of Mahommedanism,
which regards such things with horror, has been powerless to eradi-
cate this. Mr W. W. Skeat's Malay Magic (London, 1900) is a
compilation of all the writings on the subject of Malay superstitions
by the best authorities and contains considerable original matter.
The Malays of the coast are a maritime people, and were long
famous for the daring character of their acts of piracy. They are
now peaceable fisher-folk, who show considerable
ingenuity in their calling. Inland the Malays live by
preference on the banks of rivers, building houses on
piles some feet from the ground, and planting groves of coco-nut,
betel-nut, sugar-palm and fruit-trees around their dwellings. Behind
their villages the rice-fields usually spread, and rice, which is the
staple food of the people, is the principal article of agriculture among
them. Sugar-cane, maize, tapioca and other similar products
are grown, however, in smaller quantities. In planting rice three
methods are in use: the cultivation of swamp-rice in irrigated
fields; the planting of ploughed areas; and the planting of hill-rice
by sowing each grain separately in holes bored for the purpose.
In the irrigated fields the rice plants are first grown in nurseries,
and are subsequently transplanted when they have reached a cer-
tain stage of development. The Malays also work jungle produce,
of which the most important are gutta, rattans, agila wood, camphor
wood, and the beautiful kamuning wood which is used by the natives
for the hilts of their weapons. The principal manufactures of the
Malays are cotton and silk cloths, earthenware and silver vessels,
mats and native weapons. The best cotton cloths are those manu-
factured by the Bugis people in Celebes, and the batek cloths which
come from Java and are stamped with patterns. The best silks
are produced by the natives of Pahang, Kelantan and Johor in the
Malay Peninsula. Lord Leighton pronounced the silver ware
from Malaya to be the most artistic of any exhibited at the Colonial
Exhibition held in London in 1886. The pottery of the Malays
is rude but curious. When the first Europeans visited the Malay
Archipelago the Malays had already acquired the art of manufac-
turing gunpowder and forging canon. The art of writing also
appears to have been independently invented by the Malayan races,
since numerous alphabets are in use among the peoples of the
archipelago, although for the writing of Malay itself the Arabic
character has been adopted for some hundreds of years. The Malays
are excellent boat-builders.
While the Malays were famous almost exclusively for their
piratical expeditions they naturally bore an evil reputation among
Europeans, but now that we have come into closer . ,
contact with them, and have learned to understand ^ & a '
them better, the old opinions concerning them have been
greatly modified. They used to be described as the most cruel
and treacherous people in the world, and they certainly are callous
of the pain suffered by others, and regard any strategy of which
their enemies are the victims with open admiration. In ordinary
circumstances, however, the Malay is not treacherous, and there are
many instances recorded in which men of this race have risked their
own lives on behalf of Europeans who chanced to be their friends.
As' a race they are exceedingly courteous and self-respecting.
Their own code of manners is minute and strict, and they observe
its provisions faithfully. Unlike many Orientals, the Malays can
be treated with a friendly familiarity without such treatment
breeding lack of respect or leading to liberties being taken with the
superior. The Malays are indolent, pleasure-loving, improvident
beyond belief, fond of bright clothing, of comfort, of ease, and they
dislike toil exceedingly. They have no idea of the value of money,
and little notion of honesty where money is concerned. They would
always borrow rather than earn money, and they feel no shame in
adopting the former course. They will frequently refuse to work
for a wage when they most stand in need of cash, and yet at the
invitation of one who is their friend they will toil unremittingly
without any thought of reward. They are much addicted to gamb-
ling, and formerly were much given to fighting, though they never
display that passion for war in the abstract which is characteristic
of some of the white races, and their courage on the whole is not
high if judged by European standards. It is notorious, however,
on the coasts that a Malay gang on board a ship invariably gets the
better of any fight which may arise between it and the Chinese crew.
The sexual morality of the Malays is very lax, but prostitution is
not common in consequence. Polygamy, though allowed by their
religion, is practised for the most part among the wealthy classes
only. The Malays are an intensely aristocratic people, and show a
marvellous'Ioyalty to their rajas and chiefs. Their respect for rank
is not marred by any vulgarity or snobbery. The ruling classes
among them display all the vices of the lower classes, and few of the
MALAYS
477
virtues except that of courtesy. They are for the most part, when left
to their own resources, cruel, unjust, selfish and improvident.
Much has been written concerning the acts of homicidal mania
called amuck (amok), which word in the vernacular means to attack.
It was formerly believed that these outbursts were to be attributed
to madness pur el simple, and some cases of amok can certainly be
traced to this source. These are not, however, in any sense typical,
and might equally have been perpetrated by men of another race.
The typical amok is usually the result of circumstances which render
a Malay desperate. The motive is often inadequate from the point
of view of a European, but to the Malay it is sufficient to make him
weary of life and anxious to court death. Briefly, where a man of
another race might not improbably commit suicide, a Malay runs
amok, killing all whom he may meet until he himself is slain.
The nervous affliction called latah, to which many Malays are
subject, is also a curious trait of the people. The victims of this
affliction lose for the time all self-control and all sense of their own
identity, imitating the actions of any person who chances to rivet
their attention. Accounts of these manifestations will be found
in Swettenham's Malay Sketches (London, 1895) and Clifford's
Studies in Brown Humanity (London, 1897).
The Malays wear a loose coat and trousers, and a cap or head-
kerchief, but the characteristic item of their costume is the sarong.
Cost me a s '" c or cotton cloth about two yards long by a yard
' and a quarter wide, the ends of which are sewn together,
eapoas, f ormmg a ^^j o f skirt. This is worn round the waist
folded in a knot, the women allowing it to fall to the
ankle, the men, when properly dressed in accordance with ancient
custom, folding it over the hilt of their waist-weapon, and draping
it around them so that it reaches nearly to the knee. In the hall
of a raja on state occasions a head-kerchief twisted into a peak is
worn, and the coat is furnished with a high collar extending round
the back of the neck only. This coat is open in front, leaving the
chest bare. The trousers are short and of a peculiar cut and material,
being coloured many hues in parallel horizontal lines. The sarong
is of Celebes manufacture and made of cotton, to the surface of which
a high polish is imparted by friction with a shell. The typical
fighting costume of the Malay is a sleeveless jacket with texts from
the Koran written upon it, short tight drawers reaching to the middle
of the thigh, and the sarong is then bound tightly around the waist,
leaving the hilt of the dagger worn in the girdle exposed to view.
The principal weapon of the Malays is the kris, a short dagger with
a small wooden or ivory handle, of which there are many varieties.
The blade of a kris may either be wavy or straight, but if wavy
the number of waves must always be uneven in number. The kns
most prized by the Malays are those of Bugis (Celebes) manufacture,
and of these the kind called tuasek are of the greatest value. Besides
the short kris, the Malays use long straight kris with very narrow
blades, shorter straight kris of the same form, short broad swords
called sundang, long swords of ordinary pattern called pedang,
somewhat shorter swords curved like scimitars with curiously
carved handles called chenangkas, and short stabbing daggers called
tumbok lada. The principal tools of the Malays are the parang or
golok, a heavy knife used in the jungle, without which no peasant
ever stirs abroad from his house, the beliong or native axe, and the
pisau rant, which is used for scraping rattan. Their implements are
very primitive, consisting of a plough fashioned from a fork of a
tree, and a rude harrow. Reaping is usually performed by the aid
of a curious little knife which severs each ear of grain separately.
The fisherfolk use many kinds of nets, which they manufacture
themselves. Sails, paddles, oars and punting-poles are all in use.
MALAY LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
The Malay language is a member of the Malayan section of the
Malayo- Polynesian class of languages, but it is by no means a
representative type of the section which has taken its name from it.
The area over which it is spoken comprises the peninsula of Malacca
with the adjacent islands (the Rhio-Lingga Archipelago), the greater
part of the coast districts of Sumatra and Borneo, the seaports of
Java, the Sunda and Banda Islands. It is the general medium of
communication throughout the archipelago from Sumatra to the
Philippine Islands, and it was so upwards of three hundred and fifty
years ago when the Portuguese first appeared in those parts.
There are no Malay manuscripts extant, no monumental records
with inscriptions in Malay, dating from before the spreading of
Islam in the archipelago, about the end of the ijth century. By
some it has been argued from this fact that the Malays possessed
no kind of writing prior to the introduction of the Arabic alphabet
(\Y. Robinson, J. J. de Hollander); whereas others have maintained,
with greater show of probability, that the Malays were in possession
of an ancient alphabet, and that it was the same as the Rechang
(Marsden, Friederich), as the Kawi (Van der Tuuk), or most like the
Lampong (Kern) all of which alphabets, with the Battak, Bugi
and Macassar, are ultimately traceable to the ancient Canibojan
characters. \Vith the Mahommedan conquest the Perso-Arabic
alphabet was introduced among the Malays; it has continued ever
since to be in use for literary, religious and business purposes. Where
Javanese is the principal language, Malay is sometimes found written
with Javanese characters; and in Palembang, in the Menangkabo
country of Middle Sumatra, the Rechang or Renchong characters
are in general use, so called from the sharp and pointed knife with
which they are cut on the smooth side of bamboo staves. It is only
since the Dutch have established their supremacy in the archipelago
that the Roman character has come to be largely used in writing and
printing Malay. This is also the case in the Straits Settlements.
By the simplicity of its phonetic elements, the regularity of its
grammatical structure, and the copiousness of its nautical vocabu-
lary, the Malay language is singularly well fitted to be the lingua
franca throughout the Indian archipelago. It possesses the five
vowels a, i, u, e, o, both short and long, and one pure diphthong, au.
Its consonants are k, g, ng, ch, j, n, t, d,. n, p, b, m, y, r, I, w, s, h.
Long vowels can only occur in open syllables. The only possible
consonantal nexus in purely Malay words is that of a nasal and mute,
a liquid and mute and vice versa, and a liquid and nasal. Final
k and h are all but suppressed in the utterance. Purely Arabic
letters are only used in Arabic words, a great number of which have
been received into the Malay vocabulary. But the Arabic charac-
ter is even less suited to Malay than to the other Eastern languages
on which it has been foisted. As the short vowels are not marked,
one would, in seeing, e.g. the word bntng, think first of bintang, a
star; but the word might also mean a large scar, to throw down,
to spread, rigid, mutilated, enceinte, a kind of cucumber, a redoubt,
according as it is pronounced, bantang, banting, bentang, buntang,
buntung, bunting, bonteng, benteng.
Malay is essentially, with few exceptions, a dissyllabic language,
and the syllabic accent rests on the penultimate unless that syllable
is open and short; e.g. datang, namana, besar, diumpatkannalah.
Nothing in the form of a root word indicates the grammatical
category to which it belongs; thus, kdsih, kindness, affectionate,
to love ; ganli, a proxy, to exchange, instead of. It is only in deriva-
tive words that this vagueness is avoided. Derivation is effected
by infixes, prefixes, affixes and reduplication. Infixes occur more
rarely in Malay than in the cognate tongues. Examples are
gurun, a rumbling noise, gumuruh, to make such a noise; tunjuk,
to point, telunjuk, the forefinger; chuchuk, to pierce, cheruchuk,
a stockade. The import of the prefixes m6 (meng, men, men,
mfim), pe (peng, pen, pen, pSm), ber (bel), pSr, pel, ka, di, ter, and
affixes an, kan, i, lah will best appear from the following examples
root word ajar, to teach, to learn; mengajar, to instruct (expresses
an action) ; belajar, to study (state or condition) ; mengajari, to in-
struct (some one, trans.) ; mengajarkan, to instruct (in something,
causative) ; pengajar, the instructor; peldjar, the learner; pengajdran,
the lesson taught, also the school ; petajaran, the lesson learnt ; diajar,
to be learnt; tkrajar, learnt; terajarkan, taught; terajari, instructed;
[perdja (from raja, prince), to recognize as prince; pcrajdkan, to crown
as prince; karajaan, royalty]; ajarkanlah, teach! Examples of
reduplication are ajar-ajar, a sainted person; ajar-berajar (or
belajar), to be learning and teaching by turns; similarly there are
forms like djar-mengdjar, berdjdr-ajdran, ajar-ajdri, memperdjar,
memperdjarkan, memperajdri, terbeldjarkan, perbelajarkan, &c.
Altogether there are upwards of a hundred possible derivative forms,
in the idiomatic use of which the Malays exhibit much skill. See
especially H. von Dewall, De vormveranderingen der Maleische tool
(Batavia, 1864) and J. Pijnappel, Maleisch-Hollandsch Wooraenboek
(Amsterdam, 1875), " Inleiding." In every other respect the lan-
guage is characterized by great simplicity and indefiniteness. There
is no inflexion to distinguish number, gender or case. Number is
never indicated when the sense is obvious or can be gathered from
the context; otherwise plurality is expressed by adjectives such as
sagdla, all, and bdnak, many; more rarely by the repetition of the
noun, and the indefinite singular by sa or salu, one, with a class-word.
Gender may, if necessary, be distinguished by the words laki-ldki,
male, and perampuan, female, in the case of persons, and of jantan
and betlna in the case of animals. The genitive case is generally
indicated by the position of the word after its governing noun.
Also adjectives and demonstrative pronouns have their places after
the noun. Comparison is effected by the use of particles. Instead
of the personal pronouns, both in their full and abbreviated forms,
conventional nouns are in frequent use to indicate the social position
or relation of the respective interlocutors, as, e.g. hamba tuan, the
master's slave, i.e. I. These nouns vary according to the different
localities. Another peculiarity of Malay (and likewise of Chinese,
Shan, Talaing, Burmese and Siamese) is the use of certain class-
words or coefficients with numerals, such as orang (man), when speak-
ing of persons, ekor (tail) of animals, keping (piece) of flat things, ttji
(seed) of roundish things; e.g. lima biji, telor, five eggs. The number
of these class-words is considerable. Malay verbs have neither
person or number nor mood or tense. The last two are sometimes
indicated by particles or auxiliary verbs; but these are generally
dispensed with if the meaning is sufficiently plain without them.
The Malays avoid the building up of long sentences. The two
main rules by which the order of the words in a sentence is regulated
are subject, verb, object; and qualifying words follow those which
they qualify. This is quite the reverse of what is the rule in Burmese.
The history of the Malays amply accounts for the number and
variety of foreign ingredients in their language. Hindus appear to
have settled in Sumatra and Java as early as the 4th century of our
era, and to have continued to exercise sway over the native
47 8
MALAY STATES
populations for many centuries. These received from them into their
language a very large number of Sanskrit terms, from which we can
infer the nature of the civilizing influence imparted by the Hindu
rulers. Not only in words concerning commerce and agriculture,
but also in terms connected with social, religious and administra-
tive matters that influence is traceable in Malay. See W. E.
Maxwell, Manual ef the Malay Language (1882), pp. 5-34, where
this subject is treated more fully than by previous writers. This
Sanskrit element forms such an integral part of the Malay vocabu-
lary that in spite of the subsequent infusion of Arabic and Persian
words adopted in the usual course of Mahommedan conquest it has
retained its ancient citizenship in the language. The number of
Portuguese, English, Dutch and Chinese words in Malay is not con-
siderable; their presence is easily accounted for by political or
commercial contact.
The Malay language abounds in idiomatic expressions, which con-
stitute the chief difficulty in its acquisition. It is sparing in the
use of personal pronouns, and prefers impersonal and elliptical
diction. As it is rich in specific expressions for the various aspects
of certain ideas, it is requisite to employ always the most appropriate
term suited to the particular aspect. In Maxwell's Manual,
pp. 120 seq., no less than sixteen terms are given to express the
different kinds of striking, as many for the different kinds of speaking,
eighteen for the various modes of carrying, &c. An unnecessary
distinction has been made between High Malay and Low Malay.
The latter is no separate dialect at all, but a mere brogue or jargon,
the medium of intercourse between illiterate natives and Europeans
too indolent to apply themselves to the acquisition of the language
of the people; its vocabulary is made up of Malay words, with a
conventional admixture of words from other languages; and it varies,
not only in different localities, but also in proportion to the individual
speaker's acquaintance with Malay proper. A few words are
used, however, only in speaking with persons of royal rank e.g.
santap, to eat (of a raja) instead of makan; beradu, to sleep, instead
of tidor; gring, unwell, instead of sakit; mangkat, to die, instead of
mdti, &c. The use is different as regards the term JawH as applied
to the Malay language. This has its origin in the names Great
Java and Lesser Java, by which the medieval Java and Sumatra
were called, and it accordingly means the language spoken along the
coasts of the two great islands.
The Malays cannot, strictly speaking, be said to possess a litera-
ture, for none of their writings can boast any literary beauty or value.
Literature Their most characteristic literature is to be found, not
' in their writings, but in the folk-tales which are trans-
mitted orally from generation to generation, and repeated by the
wandering minstrels called by the people Peng-llpor Lara, i.e.
" Soothers of Care." Some specimens of these are to be found in
the Journal of the Straits Branch of the Asiatic Society (Singapore).
The collections of Malay Proberbs made by Klinkert, Maxwell and
Clifford also give a good idea of the literary methods of the Malays.
Their verse is of a very primitive description, and is chiefly used for
purposes of love-making. There are numerous rhymed fairy tales,
which are much liked by the people, but they are of no literary merit.
The best Malay books are the Hikayat Hang Tilak, Bestamam and the
Hikayat Abdullah. The latter is a diary of events kept during Sir
Stamford Raffle's administration by his Malay scribe.
AUTHORITIES. Hugh Clifford, In Court and Kampong (London,
1897); Studies in Brown Humanity (London, 1898); In a Corner of
Asia (London, 1899); Bush-whacking (London 1901); Clifford and
Swettenham, Dictionary of the Malay Language, parts i. to v. A-G.
Taiping (Perak, 1894-1898); John Crawfurd, History of the Indian
Archipelago (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); Grammar and Dictionary of
the Malay Language (2 vols., London, 1852) ; A Descriptive Dictionary
of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries (London, 1856) ; Journal
of the Indian Archipelago (12 vols., Singapore, 1847-1862) ; Journal of
the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 33 Nos. (Singapore,
1878-1900) ; H. C. Klinkert, Nieuw Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woorden
boek (Leiden, 1893); John Leyden, Malay Annals (London, 1821);
William Marsden, The History of Sumatra (London, 1811); Malay
Dictionary (London, 1824); Sir William Maxwell, A Manual of the
Malay Language (London, 1888); T. J. Newbold, Political and
Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca;
W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900) ; Skeat and Blagden,
Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London, 1906); Sir Frank
Swettenham, Malay Sketches (London, 1895); The Real Malay
(London, 1899); British Malaya (London, 1906); H. von- de Wall,
edited by H. N. van der Tuuk, Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woorden-
boek (Batavia, 1877-1880); Malay Dictionary (Singaoore, 1903),
Wilkinson. ' (H. CL.)
MALAY STATES (BRITISH). The native states of the Malay
Peninsula under British protection are divided into two groups:
(i) federated, and (2) non-federated.
I. FEDERATED STATES
The federated states, under the protection of Great Britain,
but not British possessions, are Perak, Selangor and the con-
federation of small states known as the Negri Sembilan (i.e. Nine
States) on the west coast, and the state of Pahang on the east
coast. Each state is under the rule of a sultan, who is assisted in
his legislative duties by a state council, upon which the resident,
and in some cases the secretary to the resident, has a seat, and
which is composed of native chiefs and one or more Chinese
members nominated by the sultan with the advice and consent
of the resident. The council, in addition to legislative and other
duties, revises all sentences of capital punishment. The adminis-
trative work of each state is carried on by the resident and his
staff of European officials, whose ranks are recruited by success-
ful candidates in the competitive examinations held annually
by the Civil Service commissioners. The sultan of each state
is bound by treaty with the British government to accept the
advice of the resident, who is thus practically paramount; but
great deference is paid to the opinions and wishes of the sultans
and their chiefs, and the British officials are pledged not to
interfere with the religious affairs of the Mahommedan com-
munity. In the actual administration of the Malay population
great use is made of the native aristocratic system, the peasants
being governed largely by their own chiefs, headmen and village
elders, under the close supervision of British district officers.
The result is a benevolent autocracy admirably adapted to local
conditions and to the character and traditions of the people.
A recognition of the fact that the welfare of the Malays, who are
the people of the land and whose sultans have never ceded their
territories to the British, must be regarded as the first considera-
tion has been the guiding principle of the administration of the
Malay States, and this has resulted in an extraordinary ameliora-
tion of the condition of the natives, which has proceeded con-
currently with a notable development of the country and its
resources, mineral and agricultural. To the work of develop-
ment, however, the Malays have themselves contributed little,
sound administration having been secured by the British officials,
enterprise and capital having been supplied mainly by the
Chinese, and the labour employed being almost entirely Chinese
or Tamil. Meanwhile the Malays have improved their ancestral
holdings, have enjoyed a peace and a security to which their past
history furnishes no parallel, have obtained easy access to new
and important markets for their agricultural produce, and for
the rest have been suffered to lead the lives best suited to their
characters and their desires. Each principal department of
the administration has its federal head, and all the residents
correspond with and are controlled by the resident-general, who,
in his turn, is responsible to the high commissioner, the governor
of the Straits Settlements for the time being.
The estimated aggregate area of the Federated Malay States is
28,000 sq. m., and the estimated population in 1905 was 860,000,
as against 678,595 in 1901. Of these only about 230,000 are Malays.
The revenue of the federation in 1905 was $23,964,593 (about
( 2 >795,ooo), and the expenditure was $20,750,395 (about 2,460,000).
The imports for the same year were valued at $50,575,455 (about
5,900,000), and the exports at $80,057,654 (about 9,340,000),
making a total trade of nearly 15! millions sterling. The principal
sources of revenue are an export duty on tin, the rents paid for the
revenue farms of the right to collect import duties on opium, wine and
spirits, and to keep licensed gambling-houses for the exclusive use
of the Chinese population, railway receipts, land and forest revenue
and postal revenue. The tin is won from large alluvial deposits
:ound in the states of the western seaboard, and the mines are worked
almost exclusively by Chinese capital and labour. Since 1889 the
Federated Malay States have produced considerably more than half
:he tin of the world. Recently there has been a great development
n agricultural enterprise, especially with regard to rubber, which is
now grown in large quantities, the estates being mainly in the hands
of Europeans, and the labour mostly Tamil. The states are opened
up by over 2500 m. of some of the best metalled cart-roads in the
world, and by a railway system, 350 m. of which, extending from the
mainland opposite Penang to the ancient town of Malacca, are open
to traffic. Another 150 m. of railway is under construction. The
jovernment offices at Kuala Lumpor, the federal capital of the states,
are among the finest buildings of the kind in Asia. The whole of
this extraordinary development, it should be noted, has been
effected by careful, sound and wise administration coupled with a
courageous and energetic policy of expenditure upon public works.
Throughout, not one penny of debt has been incurred, the roads,
railways, &c., being constructed entirely from current balances.
This of course has only been rendered possible by the extraordinary
mineral wealth which the states on the western seaboard have
MALAY STATES
479
developed in the hands of Chinese miners amid the peace and security
which British rule has brought to these once lawless lands. The
value of the tin output for the year 1905 amounted to $69,460,993
(8,104,199). Although agricultural enterprise in the Malay States
is assuming considerable proportions and a growing importance,
the total value of the principal agricultural products, including
timber, for the year 1905 only aggregated $2,435,513 (289,143).
The whole of the Malay Peninsula is one vast forest, through which
flow countless streams that form one of the most lavish water-
systems in the world. The rivers, though many of them are of
imposing appearance and of considerable length, are uniformly
shallow, only a few on the west coast being navigable by ships
for a distance of some 40 m. from their mouths. In spite of the
notable development above referred to, only a very small fraction of
the entire area of the states has as yet been touched either by mining
or agricultural enterprise. It is not too much to assert that the
larger half of the forest-lands has never been trodden by the foot of
man. (For information concerning the botany, geology, &c., of the
Malay States see MALAY PENINSULA. For the ethnology see
MALAYS.)
PERAK is situated between the parallels 3 37' and 6 5' N.
and 100 3' to 101 51' E. on the western side of the Malay
Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the British possession
of Province Wellesley and the Malay state of Kedah; on the
S. by the protected native state of Selangor; on the E. by the
protected native state of Pahang and the independent states of
Kelantan and Petani ; and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca.
The coast-line is about 90 m. in length. The extreme distance
from the most northerly to the most southerly portions of the
state is about 172 m., and the greatest breadth from east to
west is about 100 m. The total area of the country is estimated
at about 10,000 sq. m.
The Perak river, which runs in a southerly direction almost parallel
with the coast for nearly 150 m. of its course, is navigable for small
steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and by native trading boats
for nearly 200 m. The Plus, Batang, Padang and Kinta rivers
arc its principal tributaries, all of them falling into the Perak on its
left bank. The other principal rivers of the state are the Krian,
Kurau, Larut and Bruas to the north of the mouth of the Perak,
and the Bernam to the south. None of these rivers is of any great
importance as a waterway, although the Bernam River is navigable
for small steamers for nearly 100 m. of its course. The mountain
ranges, which cover a considerable area, run from the north-east to
the south-west. The highest altitudes attained by them do not
exceed 7500 ft., but they average about 2500 ft. They are all
thickly covered with jungle. The ranges are two, running parallel
to one another, with the valley of the Perak between them. The
larger is a portion of the main chain, which runs down the peninsula
from north to south. The lesser is situated in the district of Larut.
There are several hill sanatoria in the state at heights which vary
from 2500 to 4700 ft. above sea-level, but the extreme humidity of
the atmosphere renders the coolness thus obtainable the reverse of
enjoyable.
Mr Leonard Wray, curator of the Perak museum, writes as follows
on the subject of the geological formation of the state: "There
Ocglg are really only four formations represented firstly,
the granitic rocks; secondly, a large series of beds of
gneiss, quartzite, schist and sandstone, overlaid in many places
by thick beds of crystalline limestone; thirdly, small sheets of trap
rock; and fourthly, river-gravels and other Quaternary deposits.
The granites are of many varieties, and also, in all probability, of
several different geological periods. The series of quartzites, schists,
and limestone are of great age, but as no fossils have ever been found
in any of them, nothing definite can be stated as to their exact
chronological position. Their lithological characteristics and the
total absence of all organic remains point to the Archaean period.
The failure to discover signs of life in them is, of course, merely
negative evidence, and the finding of a single fossil would at once
upset it. However, until this happens they may be conveniently
classed as Laurentian. It is at present impossible to form anything
approaching an accurate estimate of the thickness of this extensive
series, but it is probable that it is somewhere between 4000 and
5000 ft. Unconformability has been noticed between the limestones
and the beds beneath, but whether this is sufficient to separate them
or not is a matter for future investigation. . . . The taller hills
are exclusively composed of granite, as also are some of the lower
ones. . . . The ores of the following metals have been found in
the formations named: Granite tin, lead, iron, arsenic, tungsten
and titanium; Laurentian tin, gold, lead, silver, iron, arsenic,
copper, zinc, tungsten, manganese and bismuth ; Quaternary tin,
gold, copper, tungsten, iron and titanium. This is not to be con-
Btdered a complete list, as small quantities_of other metals have also
been found."
The early history of Perak is obscure, the only information on the
subject being obtained from native traditions, which are altogether
untrustworthy. According to these authorities, however, a settle-
ment was first made by Malays in Perak at Bruas, and the capital
was later moved to the banks of the Perak River, the site chosen
being-a little village called Temong, which lies some miles
up stream from Kuala Kangsar, the present residence
of the sultan. When the Malacca sultanate fell, owing to the invasion
of the Portuguese in 1511, a member of that royal house is said to
have migrated to Perak, and the present dynasty claims to have been
descended from him. As this boast is also made by almost every
ruling family in the peninsula, the tradition is not worthy of any
special attention. What is more certain is the tradition that Perak
was twice invaded by the Achinese, and its rulers carried off into
captivity, one of them, Sultan Mansur Shah, subsequently becoming
the ruler of Achin. The first European settlement in Perak was made
by the Dutch in 1650, under a treaty entered into with the Achinese,
but the natives of the country rose against the Dutch again and again,
and it was abandoned in 1783, though it was afterwards reoccupied,
the Dutch being finally ejected by the British in 1795. In 1818
the Siamese conquered Perak, but its independence was secured
by a treaty between the British and Siamese governments in 1824.
From that date until 1874 Perak was ruled by its own sultans, but
in that year, owing to internal strife, Sultan Abdullah applied to
the then governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Andrew Clarke, for
the assistance of a British Resident. The treaty of Pangkor was
concluded on the 2Oth of January 1874, and the first resident,
Mr J. W. W. Birch, was murdered on the 2nd of November 1875.
A punitive expedition became necessary; sultan Abdullah and the
other chiefs concerned in the murder were banished, the actual
murderers were hanged, and Raja Muda Jusuf was declared regent.
He died in 1888, and was succeeded by the sultan Raja fdris,
K.C.M.G., a most enlightened ruler, who was from the first a strong
and intelligent advocate of British methods of administration. Sir
Hugh Low was appointed resident, a position which he held until
1889, when he was succeeded by Sir Frank Swettenham. Since
then the history of Perak has been one of continuous peace and
growing prosperity and wealth. Although the federal capital is
Kuala Lumpor in Selangor, Perak still enjoys the honour of being
the senior and leading state of the federation.
By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of
Perak was shown to be as follows: Europeans, 366; Eurasians,
Jews and Armenians, 293; Malays, 96,719; Chinese,- ...
94,345; Tamils, 13,086; aborigines, 5779; other nation-
alities, 3666; thus making a grand total of 214,254, of whom
156,408 were males and 57,846 were females. The estimated
population in 1905 was 400,000, of whom 200,000 were Chinese and
160,000 were Malays, but owing to the disparity of the proportions
between the sexes the deaths in each year largely outnumber the
births, and the increase in the population is accounted for solely by
the number of immigrants, chiefly from the mainland of China, and
to a lesser extent from India also.
The revenue of Perak in 1874 amounted to $226,333. That for
1905 amounted to $12,242,897. Of this latter sum $4,876,400 was
derived from duty on exported tin, $2,489,300 from railway receipts,
$505,300 from land revenue and $142,800 from postal and telegraphic
revenue. The remainder is mainly derived from the revenue farms,
which are leased to Chinese capitalists for a short term of years,
conveying to the lessee the right to collect import duties upon
opium, wine and spirits, to keep pawnbroking shops, and to keep
public licensed gambling-houses for the use of Chinese only. The
expenditure for 1905 amounted to $10,141,980. Of this sum
$4,236,000 was expended upon railway upkeep and construction
and $2,176,100 upon public works. The value of the imports
into Perak during 1905 was over $20,000,000, and that of the ex-
ports exceeded $40,000,000, making a total of over $60,000,000,
equivalent to about seven million sterling. The output of tin from
Perak ranged between 18,960 tons, valued at $23,099,506 in 1899,
and 26,600 tons, valued at $35,500,000, in 1905. The fluctuating
character of the output is due, not to any exhaustion of the mineral
deposits of the state that is not to be anticipated for many years
yet to come but to the uncertainty of the labour supply. The
mining population is recruited exclusively from the districts of
southern China, and during certain years an increased demand for
labourers in China itself, in French Indo-China, in the Dutch colonies,
and in South Africa temporarily and adversely affected immigra-
tion to the Straits of Malacca. The output has, moreover, been
affected from time to time by the price of tin, which was $32.20 per
pikul in 1896, rose to $42.96 in 1898, to $74.15 in 1900, and averaged
$80.60 in 1905. Exclusive of tin, the principal exports were
$108,000 worth of Para rubber, $181,000 of copra, $54,000 of hides,
$48,000 of patchouli, and considerable quantities of timber, rattans
and other jungle produce. The agricultural development of the
state is still in its infancy, but rubber is cultivated in rapidly increas-
ing areas, and the known fertility of the soil, the steady and regular
rainfall, the excellent means of communication, and the natural and
artificial conditions of the country, justify the expectation that the
future of Perak as an agricultural country will be prosperous.
Although so much has been done to develop the resources of Perak,
by far the greater portion of the state is still covered by dense.and
virgin forest. In 1898 it was calculated that only 330,249 acres of
land were occupied or cultivated out of a total acreage of 6,400,000.
480
MALAY STATES
The area of agricultural holdings has notably increased, but a con-
siderable period must yet elapse before it will amount to even one-
_ . tenth of the whole. A line of railway connects the port
eaera . Q j Teluk Anson with the great mining district of Kinta,
whence the line runs, crossing the Perak River at Enggor, to Kuala
Kangsar, the residence of the sultan, thence to Taiping, the admini-
strative capital of the state, and via Krian to a point opposite to the
island of Penang. A second line runs south from Perak and connects
with the railway system of Selangor, which in its turn connects with
the Negri Sembilan and Malacca line, thus giving through railway
communication between the last-named town and Penang. Perak
also possesses some 600 miles of excellent metalled cart-road, and the
length of completed road is annually increasing.
For administrative purposes the state is divided into six districts :
Upper Perak, Kuala Kangsar and Lower Perak, on the Perak River;
Kinta ; Batany Padang and Larut and Krian. Of these, Larut and
Kinta are the principal mining centres, while Krian is the most
prosperous agricultural district. The districts on the Perak River
are mostly peopled by Malays. The administrative capital is
Taiping, the chief town of Larut. Kuala Kangsar is chiefly memor-
able as. having been the scene of the first federal meeting of native
chiefs, who, with the British Residents from each state, met together
in 1897 for friendly discussion of their common interests for the first
time in history, under the auspices of the high commissioner, Sir
Charles H.B. Mitchell. This, in the eyes of those who are acquainted
with the character of the Malays and of the relations which formerly
subsisted between the rulers of the various states, is perhaps the most
signal token of the changes which British influence has wrought in
the peninsula.
SELANGOR is situated between the parallels 2 32' and 3 37' N.
and 100 38' and 102 E., on the western side of the Malay
Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected native
state of Perak, on the S. by the protected states of the Negri
Sembilan, on the E. by Pahang and the Negri Sembilan, and
on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about
loo m. in length, greatest length about 104 m., and greatest
breadth about 48 m., total area estimated at about 3000
sq. m.
The state consists of a narrow strip of land between the mountain
range which forms the backbone of the peninsula and the Straits of
Malacca. Compared with other states in the peninsula, Selangor
is poorly watered. The principal rivers are the Selangor, the Klang
and the Langat. The principal port of the state is Port Swettenham,
situated at the mouth of the Klang River, and is connected with the
capital, Kuala Lumpor, by a railway. The geology of the state
closely resembles that of Perak. The state is possessed of most
valuable deposits of alluvial tin, and mining for this metal is the chief
industry of the population. Kuala Lumpor is also the federal
capital of the Malay States.
According to native tradition, the ruling house of Selangor is
descended from a Bugis raja, who, with two of his brothers, settled
... in the state in 1718, the son of the youngest brother
**' eventually becoming ruler of the country. In 1783 the
then sultan of Selangor joined with the lang-di-per-Tuan Muda of
Riau in an unsuccessful attack upon the Dutch who then held
Malacca. In retaliation the Dutch, under Admiral Van Braam,
invaded Selangor and drove the sultan out of his country. In
1785, aided by the Bendahara of Pahang, Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor
reconquered his state; but the Dutch blockaded his ports, and even-
tually forced him to enter into a treaty whereby he consented to
acknowledge their sovereignty. The earliest British political
communication with Selangor began in 1818, when a commercial
treaty was concluded with the governor of Penang. In 1867 Sultan
Abdul Samad of Selangor appointed his son-in-law, Tungku Dia
Udin, to be viceroy; and this gave rise to a civil war which lasted
almost without intermission till 1873, when the enemies of Tungku
Dia Udin were finally vanquished, largely by the agency of the
Bendahara of Pahang, who, at the invitation of the governor of the
Straits Settlements, sent a warlike expedition to the assistance of
the viceroy. In 1874 the occurrence of an atrocious act of piracy
off the mouth of the Langat River led to the governor, Sir Andrew
Clarke, appointing, at the request of the sultan, a British Resident
to aid him in the administration of his kingdom. Since that date
there has been no further breach of the peace, and the prosperity
of Selangor has increased annually.
By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of
Selangor was given at 81,592 souls, of whom 67,051 were males and
only 14,541 were females. The census taken on the 5th of April
1901 gave a total population of 168,789 souls, of whom 136,823 were
males and 31,966 females. Of these 108,768 were Chinese, 33,997
were Malays, 16,748 were Tamils, and only 487 were Europeans.
The returns deal with nearly a score of different nationalities. Since
1901 the population has been much increased and now certainly
exceeds 200,000 souls. Now, however, that instead of a single port
of entry there exist easy means of access to the state by rail both
from the north and the south, it is no longer possible to estimate
the annual increase by immigration with any approach to accuracy.
It will be noted that the inhabitants of this erstwhile Malayan state
were, even at the time of the census of 1901, over 64 % Chinese,
while the Malays were little more than 20 % of the population.
In Selangor, as elsewhere in the Malay Peninsula, the deaths annually
far outnumber the births recorded (e.g. in 1905 births 8293, deaths
12,500). The disproportion of the female to the male sections of the
population is greater in Selangor than in any other part of the colony
or Malay States. The development of planting enterprise in Selan-
gor, and more especially the cultivation of rubber, has led during
recent years to the immigration of a considerable number of Tamil
coolies, but the Tamil population is still insignificant as compared
with the Chinese.
The revenue of Selangor in 1875 amounted to only $115,656;
in 1905 it had increased to $8,857,793. Of this latter sum $3,195,318
was derived from duty on tin exported, $1,972,628 from _
federal receipts, and $340,360 from land revenue. The ~
balance [is chiefly .derived from the revenue farms, '
which include the right to collect import duty on opium and spirits.
The expenditure for 1905 amounted to $7,186,146, of which sum
$3.717.238 was on account of federal charges and $1,850,711 for
public works. The value of the imports in 1905 was $24,643,619
and that of the exports was $26,683,316, making a total of
$51,326,935, equivalent to 5,988,000. Tin is the principal export.
The amount exported in 1905 was 17,254 tons. The total area of
alienated mining land at the end of 1905 amounted to 65,573 acres,
and it was estimated that over 00,000 Chinese were employed in
the mines.
The main trunk line of the Federated Malay States railways
passes through Selangor. It enters the state at Tanjong Malim
on the Perak boundary, runs southward through Kuala Lumpor and
so into the Negri Sembilan. It runs for 81 m. in Selangor territory.
A branch line 27 m. long connects Kuala Lumpor with Port Swetten-
ham on the Klang Straits where extensive wharves, capable of
accommodating ocean-going vessels, have been constructed. A
second branch line, measuring rather more than 4 m. in length,
has been opened to traffic. It connects the caves at Batu with
Kuala Lumpor. Frequent communication is maintained by
steamer between Port Swettenham and Singapore, and by coasting
vessels between the former port and those on the shores of the
Straits of Malacca. All the principal places in the state are con-
nected with one another by telegraph.
For administrative purposes Selangor is divided into six dis-
tricts: Kuala Lumpor, in which the capital and the principal tin-
fields are situated ; Ulu Selangor, which is also a prosperous mining
district ; Kuala Selangor, which is agricultural, and poorly populated
by Malays; Ulu Langat, mining and agricultural; Kuala Langat,
the residence of the late sultan Abdul Samad, agricultural; and
Klang, the only prosperous port of the state. Much money has been
expended upon the capital, Kuala Lumpor, which possesses some
fine public buildings, waterworks, &c., and where the principal
residence of the Resident-General is situated. In some sort Kuala
Lumpor is the capital not only of Selangor, but also of the whole
federation. Its scenery is very attractive.
NEGRI SEMBILAN (the Nine States) is a federation of small
native states which is now treated as a single entity, being under
the control of a British Resident, and is situated between parallels
2 28' and 3 18' N. and 101 45' and 102 45' E., on the western
side of the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the
protected state of Pahang, on the S. by the territory of Malacca,
on the E. by Pahang and the independent state of johor, and on
the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about 28 m.
in length, and the extreme distance from north to south is 55 m.,
and that from east to west about 65 m. The estimated area is
about 3000 sq. m. Port Dickson, or Arang-Arang, is the only
port on the coast. It is connected with the capital, Seremban,
by a railway 24 m. in length. Most of the states comprising the
federation depend largely for their prosperity upon agriculture,
but in some of the districts tin is being worked in considerable
quantities, with good results. ,
As is the case with the history of most Malayan states, much
rests upon no surer ground than tradition, in so far as the records
of the Negri Sembilan are concerned. At the same time . .
the native story that the states which now form the
federation of the Negri Sembilan were originally peopled by tribes
of Sakai, or aborigines of the peninsula, who descended from the
mountains of the interior and peopled the valleys, is supported by
much corroborative evidence. Not only does the Malay's contempt
for the Sakai make it exceedingly unlikely that the tradition, which
is hardly a matter for pride, should have been preserved if it were not
true, but also many of the laws and customs in force in these states
are wholly foreign to those of the Malays, and can plainly be traced
to the aborigines. As an instance, the custom of inheriting rank and
property through the mother instead of through the father may be
mentioned. Tradition further relates that towards the end of the
MALAY STATES
481
l8th century a raja of the royal house of Menangkabu came from
Sumatra to rule over the federation of smajl states, each of which
:ontinued to be governed in all its local affairs by its own chief and
by the village and other councils sanctioned by ancient custom. The
Sumatran raja took the title of lang-di-per-Tuan of Sri Menanti.
Although they bore the name of the " Nine States," only six seem
to have belonged to the federation during the time of which history
speaks. These are Sri Menanti, Johol, Tampin, Rembau, Jelebu,
and Sungei Ujong. Later the two latter separated themselves
from the confederation. Ancient tradition says that the names of
the nine states were originally Klang, Jelebu, Sungei Ujong, Johol,
Segamat, Pasir Besar, Naning, Rembau and Jelai. Of these Klang
was annexed by Selangor, Segamat and Pasir Besar by Johor, and
Naning by Malacca. During the last years of the i8th century
the lang-di-per-Tuan appointed an lang-di-per-Tuan Muda to rule
Rembau, and the state of Tampin was created to provide for the
"amily of the new chief. In 1887 the governor of the Straits Settle-
nents sent Mr Martin Lister to the Negri Sembilan, which had
jecome disintegrated, and by his influence the ancient federal
system was revived under the control of a Resident appointed by
the governor. The states which formed this new confederation
vere Johol, Ulu Muar, Jempol,Terachi,Inas,Gunong Pasir, Rembau,
fampin and Gemencheh. Prior to this, in 1873, owing to a civil
war in Sungei Ujong, Sir Andrew Clarke sent a military force to
that state, put an end to the disturbances, and placed the country
undiT the control of a British Resident. Jelebu was taken under
British protection in 1886, and was thenceforth managed by a magis-
trate under the orders of the Resident of Sungei Ujong. In 1896,
when the federation of all the Malayan states under British control
was effected, Sungei Ujong and Jelebu were reunited to the con-
federation of small states from which they had so long been separated
and the whole, under the old name of the Negri Sembilan, or Nine
States, was placed under one Resident.
The population of the Negri Sembilan, which according to the
census taken in April 1891 was only 70,730, had increased to 96,028
by 1901, and was estimated at 119,454 m I 95- Of these 46,500
are Chinese, 65,000 Malays, 6700 Tamils, and 900 Europeans and
Eurasians. The births registered slightly exceed the deaths in
number, there being a large Malay population in the Negri Sembilan
among whom the proportion of women to men is fair, a condition of
things not found in localities where the inhabitants are mostly
Chiiu-se immigrants.
The revenue of the Negri Sembilan amounted to only $223,435
in 1888. In 1898 it had increased to $701,334, in 1900 to $1,251,366,
Finance and in I9 5 to $ 2 '335-534- The revenue for 1905 was
and Trade derived mainly as follows: customs $1,268,602, land
revenue $145,475, land sales $21,407, while the revenue
farms contributed $584,459. The expenditure in 1905 amounted
to $2,214,093, of which $1,125,355 was expended upon public works.
The trade returns for 1905, which are not, however, complete, show
an aggregate value of about $13,000,000. The value of the tin
exported during 1905 exceeded $6,900,000, and the value of the
agricultural produce, of which gambier represented $211,000 and
damar $80,000, amounted to $407,990.
Seremban, the administrative capital of the Negri Sembilan,
is connected with Port Dickson by a railway line, owned by the
General Sungei Ujong Railway Company, which is 24$ m. in
length. It is also situated on the trunk line of the
Federated Malay States, and is thus joined by rail to Selangor on the
north and to Malacca on the south. Frequent steam communication
is maintained between Port Dickson and the ports on the Straits
of Malacca and with Singapore.
For administrative purposes the Negri Sembilan is divided into
five districts, viz. the Seremban District, the Coast District, Jelebu,
Kuala Pilah and Tampin. Each of these is under the charge of
a European district officer, who is responsible to the Resident.
The lang-di-per-Tuan lives at Kuala Pilah, but the capital of the
federation is at Seremban in Sungei Ujong, where the Resident is
stationed. The hereditary chiefs of the various states aid in the
government of their districts, and have seats upon the state council,
over which the lang-di-per-Tuan presides. The watering-place
of Magnolia Bay, where excellent sea-bathing is obtainable, is one
of the pleasure resorts of this part of the peninsula.
PAHANG, on the east coast of the peninsula, is situated between
parallels 2 28' and 3 45' N. and 101 30' and 103 30' E. It is
bounded on the N. by the independent native states of Kelantan
and Trengganu; on the S. by the Negri Sembilan and Johor; on
the E. by the China Sea; and on the W. by the protected states
of Perak and Selangor. The coast-line is about 1 1 2 m. in length ;
the greatest length is about 210 m., and greatest breadth about
130 m. The state is the largest in the peninsula, its area being
estimated at 15,000 sq. m. The ports on the coast are the mouths
of the Endau, Rompin, Pahang and Kuantan rivers, but during
the north-east monsoon the coast is not easy of approach,
and the rivers, all of which are guarded by difficult bars, are
impossible of access except at high tides,
xvu. 16
The principal river of the state is the Pahang, from which it takes
its name. At a distance of 180 m. from the coast this river is formed
by two others named respectively the Jelai and the Tembeling.
The former is joined 20 m. farther up stream by the Lipis, which has
its rise in the mountains which form the boundary with Perak.
The Jelai itself has its rise also in a more northerly portion of this
range, while its two principal tributaries above the mouth of the
Lipis, the Telom and the Serau, rise, the one in the plateau which
divides Perak from Pahang, the other in the hills which separate
Pahang from Kelantan. The Tembeling has its rise in the hills
which divide Pahang from Kelantan, but some of its tributaries
rise on the Trengganu frontier, while the largest of its confluents
comes from the hills in which the Kuantan River takes its rise. The
Pahang is navigable for large boats as far as Kuala Lipis, 200 m.
from the mouth, and light-draught launches can also get up to that
point. Smaller boats can be taken some 80 m. higher up the
Jelai and Telom. The river, however, as a waterway is of little
use, since it is uniformly shallow. The Rompin and Kuantan
rivers are somewhat more easily navigated for the first 30 m. of their
course, but taken as a whole the waterways of Pahang are of little
value. The interior of Pahang is chiefly noted for its auriferous
deposits. Gunong Tahan is situated on the boundary between
Pahang and Kelantan. Its height is estimated at 8000 ft. above
sea-level, but it has never yet been ascended. Pahang, like the states
on the west coast, is covered almost entirely by one vast forest,
but in the Lipis valley, which formerly was thickly populated, there
is a considerable expanse of open grass plain unlike anything to be
seen on the western sea-board. 'The coast is for the most part a
sandy beach fringed with casuarinu trees and there are only a few
patches of mangrove-swamp throughout its entire length.
The ancient name of Pahang was Indrapura. It is mentioned in
the history of Hang Tuah, the great Malacca brave, who flourished in
the i6th century, and succeeded in abducting a daughter History
of the then ruling house of Pahang for his master, the
sultan of Malacca. Prior to this, Pahang had been ruled by the
Siamese. When Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese in
1511 the sultan, Muhammad Shah, fled to Pahang, and the present
ruling house claims to have been descended from him. The title
of the ruler of Pahang was Bendahara until 1882, when the present
(1902) ruler, Wan Ahmad, assumed the title of sultan, taking the
name of Sultan Ahmad Maatham Shah. Up to that time the Benda-
hara had been installed on his accession by the sultan of Riau, and
held his office by virtue of that chief's letter of authority. About
1855 the father of the present sultan died at Pekan, and his son
Bendahara Korish, who succeeded him, drove Wan Ahmad from
the country. After making three unsuccessful attempts to conquer
the land and to dethrone his elder brother, Wan Ahmad at last
succeeded in 1865 in invading the state and wresting the throne
from his nephew, who had succeeded his father some years earlier.
From that time, in spite of two attempts to shake his power by
invasions from Selangor which were undertaken by his nephews
Wan Aman and Wan Da, Bendahara Ahmad ruled his country with
a rod of iron. In 1887 he consented to enter into a treaty with the
governor of the Straits by which he accepted a consular agent at his
court. This treaty was finally signed on the 8th of October 1887.
In February of the following year a Chinese British subject was
murdered at Pekan in circumstances which pointed to the respon-
sibility of the sultan for the crime, and in October 1888 a Resident
was appointed to assist the sultan in the administration of hiscountry,
that being, in the opinion of the British government, the only
guarantee for the safety of the life and property of British subjects
which it could accept. In December 1891 disturbances broke out
in Pahang, the nominal leaders of which were certain of the sultan's
most trusted chiefs. The sultan himself took no part in the out-
break, but it undoubtedly had his sympathy, even if it was not
caused by his direct commands. The rebels were driven to seek
safety in flight in November 1892, but in June 1894 they gathered
strength for a second disturbance, and raided Pahang from Kelantan,
in which state they had been given shelter by the Mahommedan
rulers. This event, added to the occurrence of other raids from across
the border, led to an irregular expedition being led into Trengganu
and Kelantan by the Resident of Pahang (Mr Hugh Clifford) in 1895,
and this had the desired result. The rebel chiefs were banished to
Siam, and no further breach of the peace has troubled the tran-
quillity of Pahang since that time. Pahang joined the Federated
Malay States by a treaty signed in 1895, and the sultan and his
principal chiefs were present at the federal durbar held at Kuala
Kangsar in Perak in 1897.
The census taken in April 1901 gave the total population of Pahang
at 84,113, of whom 73,462 were Malays, 8695 Chinese, 1227 Tamils
and other natives of India, 180 Europeans and Eurasians, py,.,,;^/,,,,
and 549 people of other nationalities. The population
in 1905 was estimated at 100,000, the increase being due to immigra-
tion mainly from the states on the western seaboard. In former days
Pahang was far more thickly populated than in modern times,
but the long succession of civil wars which racked the land after the
death of Bendahara AH caused thousands of Pahang Malays to fly
the country. To-day the valley of the Lebir River in Kelantan and
the upper portions of several rivers near the Perak and Selangor
482
MALAY STATES
boundaries are inhabited by Pahang Malays, the descendants of
these fugitives. The Pahang natives are almost all engaged in
agriculture. The work of the mines, &c., is performed by Chinese
and foreign Malays. In the Lipis valley the descendants of the
Rawa Malays, who at one time possessed the whole of the interior
in defiance of the Pahang rajas, still outnumber the people of the
land.
The revenue of Pahang in 1899 amounted to only $62,077; ' n
1900 to $419,150. In 1905 it was $528,368. The expenditure in
1905 amounted to $1,208,176. Of this sum $736,886 was expended
Finance on P ulj l'c works. Pahang is still a source of expense
and Trade. to t ^ ie federation, its progress having been retarded
by the disturbances which lasted from December 1891
until 1895, with short intervals of peace, but the revenue is
now steadily increasing, and the ultimate financial success of the
state is considered to be secure. Pahang owes something over
$3,966,500 to Selangor and $1,175,000 to Perak, which have
financed it now for some years out of surplus revenue. The value
of the imports in 1905 was $1,344,346, that of the exports was
$3,838,928, thus making a total trade value of $5,183,274. The
most valuable export is tin, the value of which in 1905 amounted
to $2,820,745. The value of the gutta exported exceeded $140,000,
that of dried and salted fish amounted to nearly $70,000, and that
of timber to $325,000.
The geological formation of the states lying to the eastward of
the main range of mountains which splits the peninsula in twain
General differs materially from that of the western states. At
a distance of about a dozen miles from the summits of
the mountains the granite formation is replaced by slates, which in
many places are intersected by fissures of quartz, and in others are
overlaid by vast thicknesses of limestone. Those of the quartz
fissures which have been exploited are found to be auriferous, and
several mining companies have attempted to work the deposits.
Their efforts, however, have not hitherto been successful. A magnifi-
cent road over the mountains, with a ruling grade of I in 30, joins
Kuala Lipis, the administrative capital of Pahang, to Kuala Kubu,
the nearest railway station in Selangor. The road measures 82 m.
in length. Pekan, where the sultan has his residence, was the capital
of Pahang until the middle of 1898, when the administrative head-
quarters were transferred to the interior as being more central.
None of these towns is of any size or importance. In the Kuantan
valley, which lies parallel to the Pahang River, a European company
is working tin lodes with considerable success. These lodes are the
only mines of the kind being worked in the Federated Malay States.
Pahang is fertile and well suited for agriculture of many kinds.
The rainfall is heavy and regular. The climate is cooler than that
of the west coast, and the full force of the monsoon is felt from
October to February in each year. For administrative purposes
Pahang is divided into four districts Ulu Pahang, in which the
present capital is situated; Temerloh, which includes 80 odd miles
of the Pahang valley and the Semantan River; Pekan, which includes
the coast rivers down to Endau; and Kuantan. Each of these is
under the charge of a district officer, who is responsible to the
resident. The boundary with Johor and the Negri Sembilan was
rectified by a commission which sat in London in 1897-1898.
AUTHORITIES. Journal of the Eastern Archipelago (Singapore) ;
Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) ;
Maxwell, Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, vol. xxiii. ; Swet-
tenham, ibid. vol. xxvii; Clifford, ibid. vol. xxx. (London, 1892,
1895, 1899); Swettenham, About Perak (Singapore, 1893); Malay
Sketches (London, 1895); The Real Malay (London, 1899); British
Malaya (London, 1906) ; Clifford, In Court and Kampong (London,
1897); Studies in Brown Humanity (London, 1898); In a Corner
of Asia (London, 1899); Bush-whacking (London, 1901); Further
India (London, 1904) ; De la Croix, Les Mines d'etins de Perak
(Paris, 1882); Bluebook, C. 9524 (London, 1899); The Straits
Directory (Singapore, 1906) ; Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900) ;
Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (London,
1906). (H. CL.)
II. NON-FEDERATED STATES
In 1909 a treaty was made between Great Britain and Siam,
one provision of which was the cession to the former of the
suzerain rights enjoyed by the latter over certain territories in
the Malay Peninsula. These territories consisted of the four
Siamese Malay States: Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis,
very ancient dependencies of Siam, all of which except Trengganu,
were in a flourishing condition and had been administered by
British officers in the service of Siam for some years prior to their
transference. Though the four states were loyal to Siam and
wished to retain their former allegiance, the change was effected
without disturbance of any kind, the British government on
assuming the rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court
of each raja and guaranteeing the continuance of the administra-
tion on the lines already laid down by Siam so far as might be
compatible with justice and fair treatment for all. The four
states lie to the north of the Federated Malay States, two on the
east and two on the west side of the peninsula.
KELANTAN. This state on the east coast, bounded N. and
N.E. by the China Sea, E. by Trengganu, S. by Pahang and W.
by Perak and Ra-nge, lies between 4 48' and 6 20' N. and
101 33' and 102 45' E. The greatest length from north to
south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth from east to west 60 m.
The area is about 5000 sq. m. The northern part of the state is
flat and fertile, but the southern district which comprises more
than half the total area, is mountainous and uncultivated.
Next to the Pahang, the Kelantan River is the largest on the east
coast. It is 120 miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft launches
and big country boats for about 80 miles, and for vessels of 8 ft.
draft for about six miles. Its principal tributaries are the Galasj
Pergau and Lebir. The Golok and Semarak rivers water the west
and east parts of the state, falling into the sea a few miles on either
side of the mouth of the Kelantan River. The climate of Kelantan
is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated regions. The
population is about 300,000 of which 10,000 are aboriginal tribes
(Sakeisand Jakuns), 10,000 Siamese and Chinese and the rest Malays.
The Chinese are increasing and natives of different parts of India
are resorting to the state for purposes of trade. Kota Bharu (pop.
10,000) is the only town in the state. It lies on the right bank of
the river, about six miles from the sea. Since 1904 it has been laid
out with metalled roads and many public and private buildings have
been erected. The town is the commercial as well as the admini-
strative centre of the state. Tumpat and Tabar on the coast, with
population 4000 and 3000 respectively, are the places next in im-
portance after Kota Bharu. A net work of creeks render communica-
tion easy in the northern districts, the river and its tributaries afford
means of access to all parts of the south ; 20 miles of road have been
made in the neighbourhood of Kota Bharu. Kelantan is connected
by telegraph with Bangkok and Singapore, and maintains regular
postal communication with those places. Rice cultivation is the
principal industry and is increasing rapidly. Coco-nut and betel-nut
growing are also largely practised. Much livestock is raised. About
400,000 acres of land are under cultivation. Though reputed rich
in minerals, past misrule prevented mining enterprise in Kelantan
until, in 1900, a large concession was given to an Englishman and
the country was opened to foreigners. In 1909 three mining syn-
dicates were at work, and several others were in process of formation.
Gold, tin and galena have been found in several localities and during
the years 1906-1909 28,000 ounces of gold were dredged from the
Kelantan River. The Kelantanese are expert fishermen, some
30,000 finding employment in fishing and fish-drying. Silk- weaving
is a growing industry. Foreign trade, which in 1909 reached the
value of two and a half million dollars, is chiefly with Singapore.
Principal exports are copra, rice, fish, cattle and gold ; chief imports
are cotton goods, hardware and specie. The currency is the Straits
Settlements dollar and small silver coin, supplemented by a locally
made tin coin of low value.
By virtue of a mutual agreement made in 1902 Siam appointed
a resident commissioner to Kelantan and consented, so long as the
advice of that officer should be followed, to leave internal affairs to
be conducted locally. Under this arrangement a council of state
was appointed, departments of government were organized, penal,
civil and revenue laws were passed and enforced, courts were estab-
lished and a police force was raised. Though formerly of an evil
reputation, the people were found to be naturally peaceful and law-
abiding, and serious crime is rare. The state revenue, which was
practically nothing in 1902, amounted to $320,000 in 1907. Islam-
ism was adopted about 300 years ago but the old animistic supersti-
tions are still strong. The state is divided into mukim or parishes,
but the imam no longer exercise temporal authority. There are
three schools at Kota Bharu, education in the interior being in the
hands of the imam assisted with government grants.
No historical records of Kelantan exist, and the state was not
noticed by the European merchants of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries.
Consequently little is known of its early history beyond what is to
be gathered from brief references in the Malay annals and the old
chronicles of Siam. The sites of ancient towns and the remains of
former gold diggings are visible here and there, but all knowledge of
the men who made these marks has been lost. The present ruling
family dates from about 1790. Siam was frequently called upon to
maintain internal peace and in 1892 a royal prince was sent to reside
in Kelantan as commissioner. Complications brought about by the
incapacity of the ruler led to the making of the agreement of 1902
above mentioned, to the fixing of a regular tribute in money to Siam,
and ultimately to the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness
into the path of reform. On the 15th of July 1909 the state came
under British suzerainty and the commissioner of Siam was replaced
by a British adviser, from which date the liability to payment of
tribute ceased, though in all other respects the administrative
arrangements of Siam ^remained unaltered.
TRENGGANU. This state on the east coast, bounded N. and
N.E. by the China Sea, S. by Pahang and W. by Pahang and
MALAY STATES
483
Kelantan, lies between parallels 4 4' and 4 46' N. and 102 30'
and 103 26' E. The greatest length from north to south is
1 20 m., and the greatest breadth from east to west 50 m. It has
a coast-line of 130 m. and an estimated area of about 5000 sq. m.
There are several islands off the coast, some of which are
inhabited. The surface is generally mountainous.
Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and
Kmamun, none of which is navigable for any distance. Theclimate
N mild and fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000,
almost all Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower
reaches of the rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth
of the Trengganu River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than
30,000 people. Difficulty of access by river and by land render the
interior districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is main-
tained by boat along the coast. There are no roads and no postal
ir telegraphic communications.
The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is
grown, but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much
pepper and gambler were at one time grown and exported, but about
the year 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing in-
security of life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few
head of cattle exported from' Besut being mostly stolen from across
the neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under
European control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything
possible was done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the
probable mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched.
Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable
industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form
of Malay clothing (sarongs) of patterns and quality which are widely
celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware
was at one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu
is not increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half
million dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great
extent carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some
carrying trade for other states on the east coast._
The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula
and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca
in the I3th century and during the I4th, isth and i6th centuries its
possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam.
\he present sultan Is the descendant of an ancient family, the
members of which have quarrelled and fought with each other for
the succession from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance
was in 1837 when the grandfather of the present sultan stole the
throne from his nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great
Britain a triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this
with occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost
the only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government
there was practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of
his powers and prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious
seclusion and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were
devoured by the relatives, a small part of those accruing from the
capital sufficing for the sultan's needs. There were no written laws,
no courts and no police. All manner of crime was rampant, the
peasantry was mercilessly downtrodden, but the land was full of
holy men and the cries of the miserable were drowned in the noise of
ostentatious prayer. In fine, Trengganu presented in the beginning
of the year 1909 the type of untrammelled Malay rule which had
fortunately disappeared from every other state in the peninsula.
In July of that year, however, the first British adviser or agent
arrived in the state, which was shortly afterwards visited by the
governor of the Straits Settlements, who discussed with the sultan
the changed conditions consequent upon the Anglo-Siamese treaty
and laid the foundations of future reform.
KEDAH. This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies
between parallels 5 20' and 6 42' N., and is bounded, N. by
Palit and Songkla, E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province
Wellesley and Perak, and W. by the sea. The coast-line is 65 m.
long, the greatest distance from north to south is 1 1 5 m. and the
greatest breadth 46 m. Off the coast lies a group of islands, the
largest of which is Langkawi, well peopled and forming a district
of the state.
The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-
lying and swampy near the coast except towards the south where
the height known as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang,
flat and fertile farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern
border. The rivers are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few
miles for vessels of 50 tons, andtheS.Muda.which forms the boundary
with Province Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice.
The plains are formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains lime-
Jtone and granite preponderate. The population is estimated at
220,000, of whom about 100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and
Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and Madrassis (Klings). There are
ihree towns of importance. Alor Star, the capital, on the Kedah
river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat, unhealthy, but fertile locality,
is a well laid out town with good streets, many handsome public and
private buildings, and good wharfage for small vessels. The popula-
tion is about 20,000, of whom more than half are Chinese and the
remainder government servants and retainers of the local aristocracy.
Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim (pop. 8000) situated in the
south, are unimposing collections of small birch houses and thatched
bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the Kedah tin mining
industry. The bulk of the population is scattered over the plains
in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor Star to the
border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other roads are being
constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line and 75 miles
of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star for Penang
and there is a good internal postal service. The chief industry is
rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit plantations are
many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been taken up with
prospects of success. The estimated area under cultivation is about
300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star and at Kuala Muda.
The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The chief imports
are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk. Accurate
trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank of
sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by
the British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese
to British protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly
appointed by Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized
by Siam as having hereditary right to the rulership. The penal
and civil laws are administered in accordance with the precepts
of Islamism, the official religion of the state. Though much
has been done to improve the courts, justice is not easily obtain-
able. A land registration system is in force but is in a state of
confusion, though a land law passed in 1905 gives security of
tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining laws are similar to
those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government advanced two and
a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of the state, which
sum was refunded by the British Government on assuming the posi-
tion of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000 and the ex-
penditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium and
land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not
yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is.
There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under
British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department.
The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under
Malay officials. Each district comprises several mukim or parishes,
the imam of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control.
There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been
seriously undertaken.
Kedah was founded by colonists from India in A.D. 1200, about
which time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and
claimed the whole Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca
shook Siamese authority in the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between
them, and on the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to
Siam, though the capital was raided and burnt by the Europeans.
The ruler and his people were converted to Islam in the isth century.
In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being disorganized, the sultan of
Kedah entered into direct political relations with the Hon. East
India Company, leasing the island of Penang to the latter. Further
treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but in 1821 Siam reasserted her
control, expelling the rebellious sultan after a sanguinary war. The
sultan made several fruitless efforts to recover the state, and at
length made full submission, when he was reinstated. In 1868 an
agreement between Great Britain and Siam was substituted for the
treaties of the East India Company with the sultan. The present
sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years governed well, but in
1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the government to his
minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the Siamese government
had to intervene to avert a condition of bankruptcy, adjusting the
finances and reorganizing the general administration to such effect
that when, four years later, the state became a British dependency,
a government was found established on a sound basis and requiring
nothing but the presence'of a firm and experienced officer as adviser
to maintain its efficiency and assist its further advance.
PERLIS (Palit). This small state, consisting of the left bank
drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah,
which bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively.
It touches the sea only round the mouth of the river.
The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief
town, Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of
tin is worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the
early part of the loth century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but
during a period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself
as a separate chief dom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority
of Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the
Siamese government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perils, and
appointed an English adviser to assist in the general administration.
This money was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a
British officer when the state became British in July 1909. The
condition of the state has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is
not sufficient for the immediate needs of government.
AUTHORITIES. Norman, The Far East (London, 1895); H.
Clifford, in the Geographical Journal (London, 1896); Carter, The
MALAY STATES MALCOLM
Kingdom of Siam (London, 1904) ; Graham, Reports on Kelanlan
(Bangkok, 1905-1909) ; Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay
Peninsula (London, 1906) ; Hart, Reports on Kedah (Calcutta, 1907-
1909) ; Graham, Kelantan, a Handbook (Glasgow, 1907).
(W. A. G.)
MALAY STATES (SIAMESE). The authority of Siam, which at
one time covered the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends
southward to an irregular line drawn across the Peninsula at
about 6 30' N. Between that line and the Isthmus of Kra,
usually accepted as the northernmost point of the Malay Penin-
sula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited by a
mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there
a few remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the
wilder districts, and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in com-
merce. Formerly this tract was divided into a number of states,
each of which was ruled by a chief (Siamese, Chao Muang;
Malay, raja), who held his title from the king of Siam, but,
subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of his state
in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief, moreover,
was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the suzerain.
The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan,
Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa,
Pang Nga, Tongka and Trang, in which the Siamese element pre-
dominated and of which the chiefs were usually Siamese or
Chinese; and a southern, including Palean, Satun (Setul),
Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge (Legeh), Yala
(Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was principally
Malay and the ruler also Malay . Four other states of the south-
ern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the
population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British
protection in 1909.
With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all
the states of the northern group have been incorporated as
ordinary provinces of Siam (<?..), the hereditary Chao Muang
having died or been pensioned and replaced by officials of the
Siamese Civil Service, while the states themselves now con-
stitute provinces of the administrative divisions of Chumpon,
Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern
group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom
presides over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese
assistant commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district
officials, subject to the general control of high commissioners
under whom the states are grouped. This southern group, with
a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and a population of 375,000,
constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British consul with
headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at Songkla,
watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of
the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other
foreign powers are unrepresented.
Palean. This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the
province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of
Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a
population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative
purposes to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged
in the cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually
exported. A few tin mines are also worked.
Satun (Setul). This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by
Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m.
area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few
Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in
junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast
of the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of
Kedah, then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not
a success, and in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to
prevailing corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief
and, cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent
under the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms
of the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis
was added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the
latter was considerably increased.
Patani. The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering,
Yala (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ng6 (Legeh) were con-
stituted from the old state of Patani at the beginning of the igth
century. In 1906 they were reunited to form the Patani admini-
strative division of Siam, but each state retains its Malay ruler, who
governs jointly with a Siamese officer under the direction of, the
Siamese high commissioner, and many of the ancient privileges
and customs of Malay government are preserved. The group of
states is situated between 5 34' and 6 52' N. and 100 54' and 101
58' E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E. by the China Sea and
Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total area is about
5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to the coast.
The principal rivers are the Patani and tie Teloban, long, winding
and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The population
is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays. Each
state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high com-
missioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are
poor and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction.
Patani and Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and
Singapore, and regular weekly mails are despatched to those places.
The area under cultivation is small except round about Patani and
in Nawng Chik, where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing
industry ; many Chinese own mines and several European syndicates
are at work in Raman, Ra-ng and Patani, prospecting for, or mining,
this metal. Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion
of the population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and
dried fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers
up to 300 tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and
Singapore, and the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons.
Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited
property disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of
Siam obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each
state, and there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from
amongst Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about '
600,000 ticals, or 45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers
as private income for themselves and their relatives, one-third
expended on the administration, and one-third reserved for special
purposes, but it is usually found necessary to devote the last-
mentioned third to the expenses of administration. Patani has
been subject to Siam from the remotest times. It is said that the old
state adopted Islamism in the l6th century, the chief, a relative of the
kings of Siam, embracing that religion and at the same time revolting
to Malacca. It has several times been necessary to send punitive
expeditions to recall the state to its allegiance. The present rulers
are mostly descended from the ruling families of the neighbouring
state of Kelantan, but the chief of Patani itself is a member of the
family which ruled there in the days of its greatness. Throughout
the 1 7th century Patani was resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and
English merchants, who had factories ashore and used the place as
an emporium for trade with Siam. In 1621 an engagement took
place in the Patani roads between three Dutch and two British ships,
the latter being taken after the president of the British merchants,
John Jourdain, had been killed. In 1899 the border between the
state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an agreement between
England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being thereby settled,
but the question was reopened in the negotiations which preceded
the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border line was fixed
between British and Siamese possessions in the Peninsula.
(W. A. G.)
MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin, on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin
and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop.
(1900), 7449. It is, alternately with Sternberg, the place of
assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are the chateaux of
Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the I4th
century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating
country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the
Mecklenburg Switzerland," and is increasing in favour as a
summer resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene.
The industries of the town include the manufacture of sugar
and bricks, and brewing and malting. Malchin became a town
in 1236.
MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom,
MALCOLM!. ,kingfrom 943 to 954, and MALCOLM II. ,kingfrom 1005
to 1034, are shadowy and unimportant personages.
MALCOLM III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the " large-
headed," was a son of King Duncan I., and became king after
the defeat of the usurper Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned
at Scone in April 1057. Having married as his second wife,
(St) Margaret (q.v.) , a sister of Edgar /Etheling, who was a fugitive
at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to support the claim of
Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland with many
captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror
answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, where-
upon Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abemethy
and " was his man." However, in spite of this promise he
ravaged the north of England again and again, until in 1091
William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his submission.
Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, and
William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The
MALCOLM, SIR J. MALDEN
485
Scot obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey
present at the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he
reached Gloucester Rufus refused to receive him unless he did
homage for his kingdom; he declined and returned home in
high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded Northumbria, and
was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm's Cross, near
Almvick, on the I3th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm's
sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became
kings of Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became
the wife of Henry I. of England, a marriage which united the
Saxon and the Norman royal houses.
MALCOLM IV. (c. 1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry,
earl of Huntingdon (d. 1 1 52), son of King David I., and succeeded
his grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called
the " Maiden," and died unmarried on the pth of December
1165.
Sec E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. (1867-
1879), and The Reign of William Rufus (1882); W. F. Skene, Celtic
Scotland (1876-1880); E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early
Kings (1862) ; and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900).
MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1760-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier,
diplomatist, administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on
the Esk, near Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd
of May 1769. His father was a humble farmer, but three of
his sons attained the honour of knighthood. At the age of
twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian army, and in April
1 783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining his regiment
at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself
to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord
Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was
compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to
India in 1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke,
commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor
General Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley
assistant to the resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned
capacity he highly distinguished himself by the manner in which
he gave effect to the difficult measure of disbanding the French
corps in the pay of the nizam. In 1799, under the walls of
Seringapatam, began his intimacy with Colonel ArthurWellesley,
which in a short time ripened into a life-long friendship. In the
course of the same year he acted as first secretary to the commis-
sion appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before its
close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy
to the court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy
of the French by inducing that country to form a British alliance.
Arriving at Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in
negotiating favourable treaties, both political and commercial,
and returned to Bombay by way of Bagdad in May 1801. He
now for some time held the interim post of private secretary
to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the Mysore
residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again
in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and
Holkar, and in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out
of these alliances carried out, he directed the difficult work of
reducing the immense body of irregular native troops. In 1808
he was again sent on a mission to Persia, but circumstances
prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on his reappoint-
ment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a favourable
reception at court, but otherwise bis embassy, if the information
which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be left
out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any sub-
stantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortlyafter
his arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals
of leisure he devoted to literary work, and especially to the com-
position of a History of Persia, which was published in two
quarto volumes in 1815. On his return to India in 1817 he was
appointed by Lord Moira his political agent in the Deccan,
with eligibility for military command; as brigadier-general
under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in the victory
Mchidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent
work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions
of peace and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once
more to England, where he remained until 1827, when he was
appointed governor of Bombay. His influence in this office was
directed to the promotion of various economical reforms and use-
ful administrative measures. Leaving India for the last time
in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered parliament
as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the
Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 3oth of May 1833.
Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm published
Sketch of the Political History of India since . . . 1784 (in 1811 and
1826) ; Sketch of the Sikhs (1812) ; Observations on the Disturbances in
the Madras Army in 1809 (1812) ; Persia, a Poem, anonymous (1814) ;
A Memoir of Central India (2 vols., 1823); and Sketches of Persia,
anonymous (1827). A posthumous work, Life of Robert, Lord Clive,
appeared in 1836. See Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm,
by J. W. Kaye (2 vols.. 1856).
MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of
Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
884,030, showing an increase of 8-5 in the decade. The adminis-
trative headquarters are at English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the
town of Old Malda. The district is divided into two almost
equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from north to south.
The western tract between the Mahananda and the main stream
of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great fertility.
The eastern half is an ekvated region broken by the deep valleys
of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary
streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is
overgrown with thorny tree jungle known as the kdlal. Agri-
cultural prosperity centres on the Mahananda, where mango
orchards and high raised plots of mulberry land extend continu-
ously along both banks of the river. The Ganges nowhere
intersects the district, but skirts it from its north-western corner
to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep well-
defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the.
southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right,
and the Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two
principal industries are the production of indigo and silk. The
first has declined, and so has the second as far as concerns the
weaving of piece goods, but the rearing of silkworms and the
export of raw silk and silk thread are carried on upon a large
scale. No railway touches the district, but the communications
by water are good.
Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings
of Bengal ; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most inter-
esting remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (See
GAUR.) The connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates
from a very early period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory
there. In 1770 English Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial
residency, the buildings of which at the present day form both the
public offices and private residence of the collector.
MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Maiden river, about
5 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom
9513 were foreign-born, 3673 being English Canadians, 870
English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census) 44,404. Maiden
had in 1906 a land area of 4-78 sq. m. It is served by the
Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways.
Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston its post
office is a Boston sub-station it has important manufacturing
industries. The most valuable manufactured product is rubber
boots and shoes. The capital invested in manufacturing in
1905 was $5,553,432; and the value of the factory product,
$11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of the factory
product in 1900. Among Maiden's institutions are the public
library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Maiden hospital,
the Maiden day nursery, a Young Men's Christian Association,
and a home for the aged. A fine system of parks is maintained;
the best known is possibly Pine Banks. To the north and west is
the Middlesex Fells, a state reservation; about 60 acres of this
and about 20 acres of the Middlesex Fells Parkway lie within
Maiden. Maiden, when first settled about 1640, was part of
Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side.
It was incorporated as a town under the name of " Mauldon "
in 1649, and was chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of
Maiden was set off in 1850 to form Melrose, and the south part
MALDIVE ISLANDS MALEBRANCHE
in 1870 to form the town of Everett. Maiden was the birthplace
of Adoniram Judson, the " apostle to Burma." Michael
Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705.
See D. P. Corey, History of Maiden (Maiden, 1899) ; and Maiden,
Past and Present (Maiden, 1899).
MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the
Indian Ocean, forming a chain between 7 6' N. and o 42' S.
It consists of seventeen atolls with an immense number of
islands, of which some three hundred are inhabited. In the
extreme south are the isolated atolls of Addu and Fua-Mulaku,
separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, which is
itself separated from the main chain of atolls by One-and-a-
half-degree Channel. 1 Following the chain northward from
this channel we have Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which
the chain becomes double: to the east the chief atolls are
Mulaku, Felidu, South Male, North Male, Kardiva (where the
channel of the same name, 35 m. broad, partly breaks the chain),
and Fadiffolu. To the west are South Nilandu, North Nilandu,
Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and Miladumadulu. To the
north again are Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. Finally, to the
north of Eight-degree Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the nearest
point of the Maldives, and 1 10 m. from that of the Laccadives to
the north. The main part of the archipelago, north of One-and-
a-half-degree Channel, consists of a series of banks either sur-
rounded or studded all over with reefs (see J. S. Gardiner, " For-
mation of the Maldives," in Geographical Journ. xix. 277 seq.).
Mr Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to different
elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau
rising steeply from the great depths of the Indian Ocean.
After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had at-
tempted many times to establish themselves on the islands by
force, and after the Maldivians had endured frequent raids by
the Mopla pirates of the Malabar coast, they began to send tokens
of homage and claims of protection (the first recorded being in
1645) to the rulers of Ceylon, and their association with this
island has continued practically ever since. The hereditary
sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the British government
of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is estimated at
30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and
Cooper they are classed in four ethnological divisions, (i)
Those of the atolls north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the
reefs are generally less perfect than elsewhere, seldom forming
complete central lagoons, and as they were formerly exposed
to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from India, the
people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike
southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of
India or Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring
distinct racial characters of an approximately Dravidian type.
(2) Those of the central division, comprising the atolls between
North Male and Haddumati, who are under the direct rule of
the sultan, and have been more exposed to Arab influences.
They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many
Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain
of Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of
Suvadiva, Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who
have had little communication with the Central Male people,
and probably preserve more of the primitive type, approximat-
ing in appearance to the Sinhalese villagers of Ceylon. They
are an intelligent and industrious people, growing their own
crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and building
their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently,
although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language
is a dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient
date and more or less mahommedanized.
The sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is
the. island of Male. From the earliest notices the production
of coir, the collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent
textures on these islands have been noted. The chief exports
of the islands besides coir and cowries (a decreasing trade) are
coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell and dried bonito-fish.
1 These and other channels in the locality are named from their
position under parallels of latitude.
Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its light-
house, and its position on the track of all eastward-bound
vessels, is a familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The
atoll, which is pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from
S.W. to N.E. is 5 m. long, with an extreme breadth of nearly
3 m., with a large but shallow lagoon approached from the
north by a passage two fathoms deep. The atoll is growing out-
wards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft. above sea-level.
The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply divided
into five castes, of which the three highest are pure Maldivians,
the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred
in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or
lagoon side; but most of the men are generally absent, many
being employed with the Lascar crews on board the large liners
plying in the eastern seas.
In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper
carried out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the
important results of which see The Fauna and Geography of the
Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge,
1901-1905), also Proceedings of tlie Cambridge Philosophical Society,
vol. xi. pt. i (1900), and the Geographical Journ., loc. cit., &c. A
French adventurer, Frangois Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the
Maldives in 1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interest-
ing account of the archipelago, Voyage de F. P. de la Val (Paris,
1679; previous editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, "An Ex-
pedition to the Maldives ".in Amer. Journ. Science, vol. xiii. (1902).
MALDON, a market town, municipal borough and port, in
the Maldon parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an
acclivity rising from the south side of the Blackwater, 43 m.
E.N.E. from London by a branch from Witham of the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east and west
railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056,
but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel,
nave and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique
form) at the west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The
tower of St Mary's Church shows Norman work with Roman
materials. The other public buildings are the grammar school,
founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D'Arcy's tower, built
in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are manu-
factures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some
shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a
farm colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are re-
mains of Beeleigh Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of
the 1 2th century. They consist of the chapter-house and
another chamber, and are of fine Early English work. The
borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 3028 acres.
At Maldon (Maelduna, Melduna, Mealdon or Meaudon)
palaeolithic, neolithic and Roman remains that have been found
seem to indicate an early settlement. It is not, however, an
important Roman site. An earthwork, of which traces exist,
may be Saxon or Danish. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates
that Edward the Elder established a " burh " there about 921,
and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the Danes in
991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commer-
cial importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by
the Chronicle. Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign
of Henry I., and thus is entered as on terra regis in Domesday.
Henry II. granted the burgesses their first charter, probably in
JJSSi giving them the land of the borough and suburb with sac
and soc and other judicial rights, also freedom from county
and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage and all tolls,
by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This charter
was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 13441
and by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London
granted further judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. con-
firmed the charters in 1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII.
in 1525. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary in I5S4>
and received confirmatory charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and
1592, from Charles I. in 1631, Charles II. and James II. In
1 768 the incorporation charter was regranted, with modifications
in 1810.
MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715), French philo-
sopher of the Cartesian school, the youngest child of Nicolas
MALER KOTLA MALESHERBES
487
Malebranche, secretary to Louis XIII., and Catherine de Lauzon,
sister of a viceroy of Canada, was born at Paris on the 6th of
August 1638. Deformed and constitutionally feeble, he received
his elementary education from a tutor, and left home only when
sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at
the College de la Marche, and subsequently to study theology
at the Sorbonne. He had resolved to take holy orders, but
his studious disposition led him to decline a stall in Notre Dame,
and in 1660 he joined the congregation of the Oratory. He
was first advised by Pere Lecointe to devote himself to ecclesias-
tical history, and laboriously studied Eusebius, Socrates, Sozo-
men and Theodoret, but " the facts refused to arrange themselves
in his mind, and mutually effaced one another." Richard
Simon undertook to teach him Hebrew and Biblical criticism
with no better success. At last in 1664 he chanced to read
Descartes's TraMdel' homme(de homine), which moved him so
deeply that (it is said) he was repeatedly compelled by palpita-
tions of the heart to lay aside his reading. Malebranche was
from that hour consecrated to philosophy, and after ten years'
study of the works of Descartes he produced the famous De la
recherche de la verite, followed at intervals by other works, both
speculative and controversial. Like most of the great meta-
physicians of the 1 7th century, Malebranche interested himself
also in questions of mathematics and natural philosophy, and
in 1699 was admitted an honorary member of the Academy of
Sciences. During his later years his society was much courted,
and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction. He
died on the i3th of October 1715; his end was said to have been
hastened by a metaphysical argument into which he had been
drawn in the course of an interview with Bishop Berkeley. For
a critical account of Malebranche's place in the history of
philosophy, see CARTESIANISM.
WORKS. De La recherche de la verite (1674; 6th ed., 1712; ed. Bouil-
lin . 1880; Latin trans, by J. Lenfant at Geneva in 1685; English trans.
by R. Sault, 1694; and T. Taylor, 1694, 1712); Conversations chreti-
enncs (1677, and frequently; Eng. trans., London, 1695); Traite de
la nature et de la grace (1680; Eng. trans., London, 1695) ; Meditations
chrftiennes el metaphysiques (1683); Traite de morale (1684; separate
ed. by II. Joly, 1882; Eng. trans, by Sir J. Shipton, 1699); several
polemical works against Arnauld from 1684 to 1688; Entretiens sur
la metaphysique et sur la religion (1688) ; Traite de I' 'amour de Dieu
(1697); Entretiens d'un philosophe Chretien et d'un philosophe chinois
sur I existence et la nature de Dieu (1708) ; Reflexions sur la promotion
physique (1715).
A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an intro-
duction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by
Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestion-
ably anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent
work of Berkeley, will be found in the British Journal of Psychology
(Jan. 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the series Les
Grands philosophes (Paris, 1901); L. Olle'-Laprune, La Philosophic
de Malebranche (1870); M. Novaro, Die Philosophie des Nicolaus
Malebranche (1893).
MALER KOTLA, a native state of India, within the Punjab.
It ranks as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British
influence in 1809. The territory lies south of Ludhiana. Area,
167 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 77,506, showing an increase of 2% in
the decade. Estimated gross revenue, 30,1(50. The military
force numbers 280 men; and there is no tribute. The town
Maler Kotla is 30 m. S. of Ludhiana; pop. (1901), 21,122. The
nawab or chief is of Afghan descent ; his family originally came
from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in Sirhind under the
Mogul emperors. They gradually became independent as the
Mogul Empire sank into decay in the course of the i8th century.
In General Lake's campaign against Holkar in 1803 the nawab
of Maler Kotla sided with the British. After the subjugation
and flight of Holkar, the English government succeeded to the
F>o\ver of the Mahrattas in the districts between the Sutlej and
the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was formally extended to
Maler Kotla, as to the other Cis-Sutlej states, against the for-
midable encroachments of Ranjit Singh. In the campaigns
of 1806, 1807 and 1808 Ranjit Singh had made considerable
conquests across the Sutlej; in 1808 he marched on Maler Kotla
and demanded a ransom of 10,000 from the nawab. This led
to the interference of the British, who addressed an ultimatum
to Ranjit Singh, declaring the Cis-Sutlej states to be under
British protection. Finally the raja of Lahore submitted, and
the nawab was reinstated in February 1809. Owing to the
mental incapacity of nawab Ibrahim Ali Khan, the state was
administered in recent years for some time by the chief of
Loharu; but his son, Ahmed Ali Khan, was made regent in
February 1905.
See Maler Kotla Slate Gazetteer (Lahore, 1908).
MALESHERBES, CHRETIEN GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON
DE (1721-1794), commonly known as Lamoignon-Malesherbes,
French statesman, minister, and afterwards counsel for the
defence of Louis XVI., came of a famous legal family. He was
born at Paris on the 6th of December 1721, and was educated for
the legal profession. The young lawyer soon proved his intellec-
tual capacity, when he was appointed president of the cour des
aides in the parlement of Paris in 1750 on the promotion of his
father, Guillaume de Lamoignon, to be chancellor. One of the
chancellor's duties was to control the press, and this duty was
entrusted to Malesherbes by his father during his eighteen years
of office, and brought him into connexion with the public far
more than his judicial functions. To carry it out efficiently
he kept in communication with the literary leaders of Paris,
and especially with Diderot, and Grimm even goes so far as to
say that " without the assistance of Malesherbes the Encyclopedic
would probably never have been published." In 1771 he was
called upon to mix in politics; the parlements of France had
been dissolved, and a new method of administering justice
devised by Maupeou, which was in itself commendable as tending
to the better and quicker administration of justice, but pernicious
as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization, and as abolishing
the hereditary " nobility of the robe," which, with all its faults,
had from its nature preserved some independence, and been a
check on the royal power. Malesherbes presented a strong
remonstrance against the new system, and was at once banished
to his country seat at St Lucie, to be recalled, however, with the
old parlement on the accession of Louis XVI., and to be made
minister of the maison du roi in 1775. He only held office nine
months, during which, however, he directed his attention to the
police of the kingdom, which came under his department, and
did much to check the odious practice of issuing lettres de cachet.
The protest of the cour des aides in 1775 is one of the most
important documents of the old regime in France. It gives a
complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration,
and presented the king with most outspoken criticism. On
retiring from the ministry with Turgot in 1776, he betook himself
entirely to a happy country and domestic life and travelled
through Switzerland, Germany and Holland. An essay on
Protestant marriages (1787) did much to procure for them the
civil recognition in France. He had always been an enthusiastic
botanist; his avenue at St Lucie was world famous; he had
written against Buffon on behalf of the botanists whom Buffon
had attacked, and had been elected a member of the Acadfmie
des sciences as far back as 1750. He was now elected a member
of the Academic fran$aise, and everything seemed to promise a
quiet and peaceful old age spent in the bosom of his family and
occupied with scientific and literary pursuits, when the king in
his difficulties wished for the support of his name, and summoned
him back to the ministry in 1787. Lamoignon-Malesherbes
held office but a short time, but returned to his country life this
time with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet, and, as the troubles
increased, retired to Switzerland. Nevertheless, in December
1792, in spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement
would have given him, he voluntarily left his asylum and under-
took with Tronchet and Deseze the defence of the king before
the Convention, and it was his painful task to break the news of
his condemnation to the king. After this effort he returned once
more to the country, but in December 1793 he was arrested with
his daughter, his son-in-law M. de Rosamb6, and his grand-
children, and on the 23rd of April 1794 he was guillotined, after
having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his
eyes for their relationship to him. Malesherbes is one of the
4 88
MALET MALIBRAN
sweetest characters of the i8th century; though no man of
action, hardly a man of the world, by his charity and unfeigned
goodness he became one of the most popular men in France, and
it was an act of truest self-devotion in him to sacrifice himself for
a king who had done little or nothing for him.
There are in print several scientific works of Malesherbes of varying
value, of which the most interesting is his Observations sur Buffpn
et Daubenton, written when he was very young, and published with
a notice by Abeille in 1798. There exist also his Memoire pour
Louis XVI., his Memoire sur la liberte de la presse (published 1809)
and extracts from his remonstrances, published as CEuvres choisies
de Malesherbes in 1809. For his life should be read the Notice
historique (3rd ed., 1806) of Dubois, the Eloge historique (1805) of
Gaillard, and the interesting Essai sur la vie, les ecrits et les opinions de
M. de Malesherbes (in 2 vols., 1818), of F. A. de Boissy d'Anglas. There
are also many eloges on him in print, of which the best-known is that
of M. Dupin, which was delivered at the Academy in 1841, and was
reviewed with much light on Malesherbes's control of the press by
Sainte-Beuve in the 2nd volume of the Causeries du lundi. The
protest of the cour des aides has been published with translation
by G. Robinson in the Translations and Reprints of the University
of Pennsylvania (1900). For his defence of Louis XVI. see Marquis
de Beaucourt, Captivite et derniers moments de Louis XVI. (2 vols.,
1892, Soc. d'hist. contemp.), and A. Tuetey, Repertoire general des
sources manuscrites de I' hist, de Paris pendant la Rev. fr., vol. viii.
(1908).
MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison
(1852- ), English novelist. She was the eldest daughter
of Charles Kingsley, and was born at Eversley on the 4th
of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and at
University College, London, and married in 1876 William
Harrison, rector of Clovelly. After her husband's death in
1897 she eventually settled in London. She had already
written several books Mrs Larimer (1882), Colonel Enderby's
Wife (1885), Little Peter (1887), A Counsel of Perfection
(1888) when she published her powerful story, The Wages of
Sin (1891), which attracted great attention. Her History of Sir
Richard Calmady (1901) had an even greater success. Her other
novels include The Carissima (1896), The Gateless Barrier (1900),
On the Far Horizon (1906).
MALHERBE, FRANQOIS DE (1555-1628), French poet,
critic and translator, was born at Caen in 1555. His family
was of some position, though it seems not to have been able to
establish to the satisfaction of heralds the claims which it made
to nobility older than the i6th century. The poet was the
eldest son of another Francois de Malherbe, conseiller du roi
in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated
at Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of
twenty-one, preferring arms to the gown, he entered the house-
hold of Henri d'Angouleme, grand prior of France, the natural
son of Henry II. He served this prince as secretary in Provence,
and married there in 1581. It seems that he wrote verses at
this period, but, to judge from a quotation of Tallemant des
Reaux, they must have been very bad ones. His patron died
when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for a
time he had no particular employment, though by some servile
verses he obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III.,
whom he afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and
partly in Normandy for many years after this event; but very
little is known of his life during this period. His Larmes de
Saint Pierre, imitated from Luigi Tansillo, appeared in 1587.
It was in the year parting the two centuries (1600) that he
presented to Marie de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of
his remarkable poems. But four or five years more passed
before his fortune, which had hitherto been indifferent, turned.
He was presented by his countryman, the Cardinal Du Perron,
to Henry IV.; and, though that economical prince did not at
first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was at
last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or
another. It is said that the pension promised him was not
paid till the next reign. His father died in 1606, and he came
into his inheritance. From this time forward he lived at court,
corresponding affectionately with his wife, but seeing her only
twice in some twenty years. His old age was saddened by a
great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of
promise, fell in a duel in 1626. His father used his utmost
influence to have the guilty parties (for more than one were
concerned, and there are grounds for thinking that it was not
a fair duel) brought to justice. But he died before the suit
was decided (it is said in consequence of disease caught at the
camp of La Rochelle, whither he had gone to petition the king),
in Paris, on the i6th of October, 1628, at the age of seventy-
three.
The personal character of Malherbe was far from amiable,
but he exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great
and enduring effect upon French literature, though by no means
a wholly beneficial one. The lines of Boileau beginning Enfin
Malherbe vint are rendered only partially applicable by the
extraordinary ignorance of older French poetry which distin-
guished that peremptory critic. But the good as well as bad
side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described
by his contemporary and superior Regnier, who was animated
against him, not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard
but because of Malherbe's discourtesy towards Regnier's uncle
P. Desportes, whom the Norman poet had at first distinctly
copied. These are the lines:
" Cependant leur savoir ne s'6tend nullement
Qu'a r6gratter un mot douteuse au jugement,
Prendre garde qu'un qui ne heurte une diphthongue,
Epier si des vers la rime est breve ou longue,
Ou bien si la voyelle a 1'autre s'unissant
Ne rend point 1'oreille un vers trop languissant.
C'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose."
This is perfectly true, and from the time of Malherbe dates that
great and deplorable falling off of French poetry in its more
poetic qualities, which was not made good till 1830. Never-
theless the critical and restraining tendency of Malherbe was
not ill in place after the luxuriant importation and innovation
of the Pleiade; and if he had confined himself to preaching
greater technical perfection, and especially greater simplicity
and purity in vocabulary and versification, instead of super-
ciliously striking his pen through the great works of his prede-
cessors, he would have deserved wholly well. As it was, his
reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for the
classical tragedy, and that is the most that can be said for him.
His own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most
part frigid and devoid of inspiration. The beautiful Consolation
d Duperier, in which occurs the famous line
Et, rose, elle a veeu ce que vivent les roses
the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other
pieces comprise all that is really worth remembering of him.
His prose work is much more abundant, not less remarkable
for care as to style and expression, and of greater positive value.
It consists of some translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a
very large number of interesting and admirably written letters,
many of which are addressed to Peiresc, the man of science of
whom Gassendi has left a delightful Latin life. It contains also
a most curious commentary on Desportes, in which Malherbe's
minute and carping style of verbal criticism is displayed on the
great scale.
The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the Vie de
Malherbe by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long Historiette
which Tallemant des R&iux has devoted to him. The standard
edition is the admirable one of Ludoyic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris,
1862-1869). Of the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome
little issue in the Nouvelle collection Jannet (Paris, 1874). Of modern
works devoted to him, La Doctrine de Malherbe, by G. Brunot (1891),
is not only the most important but a work altogether capital i
regard to the study of French language and literature. Others are
A. Gast6, La Jeunesse de Malherbe (1890); V. Bourrienne, Points
obscurs dans la vie normande de Malherbe (1895); and the due de
Broglie's " Malherbe " in Les Grands ecrivains fran^ais. On his
position in French and general critical history, G. Saintsbury s
History of Criticism, vol. ii., may be consulted. (G. SA.)
MALIBRAN, MARIE FJSLICITfi (1808-1836), operatic . singer,
daughter of Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of
March 1808. Her father was then a member of the company of
the Theatre des Italiens, and she accompanied him to Italy and
London. She possessed a soprano voice of unusual beauty and
MALIC ACID MALINES
489
phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated by her
father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an
indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take
her place in The Barber of Seville at Covent Garden. She was
forthwith engaged for the remaining six weeks of the season,
and then followed her father to New York, where she appeared
in (>t lii'llo, The Barber of Seville, Don Juan, Romeo and Juliet,
Tiincred. Her gifts as an actress were on a par with her magnifi-
cent voice, and her gaiety made her irresistible in light opera,
although her great triumphs were obtained chiefly in tragic
parts. She married a French banker of New York, named
Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was
an unhappy one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe
in 1828, when she began the series of representations at the
Theatre des Italiens, which excited an enthusiasm in Paris only
exceeded by the reception she received in the principal towns
of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in 1835,
and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; hut she
died of fever on the ajrd of September 1836.
See Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other
intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence (2 yols.,
1840) ; and M. Teneo, La Malibran, d'aprks des documents inedits, in
Sammelbdnde der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft (Leipzig, 1906).
MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C 4 H 6 05,
an organic acid found abundantly in the juices of many plants,
particularly in mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in
grapes. The acid potassium salt is also found in the leaves
and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid contains an asymmetric
carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a dextro-rotatory, a
laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid obtained in the
various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It may be
prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with
fuming hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water
at 1 50- 200 C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic
acid; and by the action of moist silver oxide on monobrom-
succinic acid. It forms deliquescent crystals, which are readily
soluble in alcohol and melt at 100 C. When heated for some
time at 130 C. it yields fumaric acid (<?..), and on rapid heating
at 1 80 C. gives maleic anhydride and fumaric acid. It yields
coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and phenols (H.
. Pechmann, Ber., 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). Potassium
bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it
to oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid.
The inactive variety may be split into the component active
forms by means of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer,
Ber., 1880, 13, 352).
MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus),
wicked, of a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word
was early applied by the Protestants to the Romanists, with an
allusion to the " congregation of evil doers " (Vulgate Ecclesiam
malignanlium) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In English history, during
the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the Royalists by
the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641
occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop
(Laud) and the earl of Strafford being heads." The name
throughout the period had special reference to the religious
differences between the parties. In medical science, the term
" malignant " is applied to a particularly virulent or dangerous
form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or growth of
rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and recurrence
after operation.
MALIK IBN ANAS'(c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite
school of canon law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the
precise date is not certain. He studied and passed his life
there, and came to be regarded as the greatest local authority
in theology and law. (For his legal system and its history see
MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was'one of extreme honour and
dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law
and acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out
in his biography. When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid,
rose in A.D. 762 at Medina against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a
Jatwa, or legal opinion, that the oath of allegiance to the
'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force. For this inde-
pendence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor,
who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a
man of his standing with the people. The second episode gave
equal proof of independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashld made
the pilgrimage, came with two of his sons to Medina, and sat
at the feet of Malik as he lectured in the mosque. The story,
legendary or historical, adds that Malik had refused to go to
the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come to his
teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and
contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public
life and even neglected plain, pubb'c duties, replying to re-
proaches, " Not every one can speak in his own excuse " (Ibn
Qutaiba, Ma 'arif, 250). He is also entered among the early
ascetic Sufis (cf. Fihrist, 183). He died in Medina, A.D. 795.
For a description of his principal book, the Muwa((a', see Gold-
ziher's Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a
Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to
Harun al-Rashld. See further, de Slane's trans, of Ibn Khallikan,
ii. 545 sqq. ; von Kremer, Culturgeschichte, i. 477 sqq. ; Brockel-
mann, Gesch. der arab. Lilt., \. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, Muslim
Theology, &c., 99 sqq. and index; Fihrist, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530
sqq. (D. B. MA.)
MALINES (Flemish, Mechelen, called in the middle ages by
the Latin name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an
ancient and important city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559
of the only archbishopric in that country. Pop. (1004), 58,101.
The name is supposed to be derived from maris linea, and to
indicate that originally the sea came up to it. It is now situated
on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp, lying about
half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance
of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the
religious capital of Belgium the archbishop being the primate
of the Catholic Church in that country. The archbishop's palace
is in a picturesque situation, and dates from the creation of the
dignity. The principal building in the city is the exceedingly
fine cathedral dedicated to St Rombaut. This cathedral was
begun in the i2th and finished early in the I4th century, and
although modified in the isth after a fire, it remains one of the
most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe.
The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished
because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its
most striking external feature. The people of Malines gained
in the old distich " gaudet Mechlinia stultis " the reputation
of being " fools," because one of the citizens on seeing the moon
through the dormer windows of St Rombaut called out that the
place was on fire, and his fellow-citizens, following his example,
endeavoured to put out the conflagration until they realized the
truth. The cathedral contains a fine altar-piece by Van Dyck,
and the pulpit is in carved oak of the I7th century. Another
old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent for Charles V.,
which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a court
of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (i6th century) is
Rubens' masterpiece " the miraculous draught of fishes," and
in that of St John is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines,
although no longer famous for its lace, carries on a large trade
in linen, needles, furniture and oil, while as a junction for the
line from Ghent to Louvain and Li6ge, as well as for that from
Antwerp to Brussels and the south, its station is one of the
busiest in Belgium, and this fact has contributed to the general
prosperity of the city.
The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by
Pippin the Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the
9th century Charles the Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop
of Liege, and after being shared between Brabant and Flanders
it passed into the hands of Philip the Bold, founder of the house
of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious troubles of the i6th
century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it was sacked by
Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the I7th and
i8th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the
French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French
finally removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it
has been an open town;
49
MALLANWAN MALLESON
MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Pro-
vinces, India. Pop. (1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town
possessed considerable political importance, and upon the British
annexation of Oudh it was selected as the headquarters of the
district, but was abandoned in favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny.
Saltpetre and brass utensils are manufactured.
MALLARME, FRANCOIS RENE AUGUSTS (1755-1835),
French Revolutionist, the son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy
on the 25th of February 1755. He was brought up in his father's
profession, and was appointed procureur-syndic of the district
of Pont-a-Mousson. During the Revolution he was elected by
the department of Meurthe deputy to the Legislative Assembly
and the Convention, where he attached himself to the Mountain
and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected president
of the Convention on the 3oth of May 1793, and by his weakness
during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the
success of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an
active part in the levee-en-masse, and in November 1793 was
given the task of establishing the revolutionary government in
the departments of Meuse and Moselle, where he gained an
unenviable notoriety by ordering the execution of the sentence
of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal on some young
girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians when
they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined
the group of " Thermidorians " and was sent on mission to the
south of France, where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse
and set free a number of imprisoned " suspects." On the ist
of June 1795 he was denounced and arrested, but was soon set
at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the Directory commis-
sioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle and
Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the droits
reunis at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of
volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hun-
dred Days, he was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for
the death of the maidens of Verdun, and lived in exile during
the Restoration. He returned to France after the revolution
of 1830, and died at Richemont (Seine-Inferieure) on the 25th
of July 1835.
MALLARME, STEPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and
theorist, was born at Paris, on the i8th of March 1842. His
life was simple and without event. His small income as pro-
fessor of English in a French college was sufficient for his needs,
and, with his wife and daughter, he divided the year between
a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks of the
Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to
form the thought of the more interesting of the younger French
men of letters, were almost as important a part of his career as
the few carefully elaborated books which he produced at long
intervals. L'Apres-midi d'unfaune (1876) and other fragments
of his verse and prose had been known to a few people long
before the publication of the Poesies completes of 1887, in a
facsimile of his clear and elegant handwriting, and of the Pages
of 1891 and the Vers el prose of 1893. His remarkable transla-
tion of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, " The Raven " having
been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet.
Divagations, his own final edition of his prose, was published in
1897, and a more or less complete edition of the Poesies, post-
humously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the
9th of September 1898. All his life Mallarme was in search of
a new aesthetics, and his discoveries by the way were often
admirable. But he was too critical ever to create freely, and
too limited ever to create abundantly. His great achieve-
ment remains unfinished, and all that he left towards it is not
of equal value. There are a few poems and a few pieces of
imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave
Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, myste-
rious and yet definite. His later work became more and more
obscure, as he seemed to himself to have abolished limit after
limit which holds back speech from the expression of the
absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation in verse, and
invented a new punctuation, along with a new construc-
tion, for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author
has its reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more
pride the self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the
material world. To those who knew him only by his writings
his conversation was startling in its clearness; it was always,
like all his work, at the service of a few dignified and misunder-
stood ideas.
See also Paul Verlaine, Les Poetes maudits (1884); J. Lemaitre,
Les Contemporains (sth series, 1891); Albert Moekel, Stephane
Mallarme, un heros (1899) ; E. W. Gosse, French Profiles (1905) and
A. Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature (1900). A com-
plete bibliography is given in the Poetes d' aajourd' hui (1880-1900,
nthed., 1905) of MM. A. van Bever and P. L&iutaud. (A. SY.)
MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the
Indian territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces
of Bio-Bio on the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the
W. Area, 2973 sq. m. Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the
rainy, forested region of southern Chile, and is thinly populated,
a considerable part of its population being Araucam'an Indians,
who occupy districts in the Andean foothills. Gold placer
mining has attracted some attention, but the output is small.
The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising and timber-
cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated at
7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province,
on the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the
state railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099
in 1902) in the southern part of the province is the second town in
importance, and Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at
10,002 in 1902), about 20 m. E. of the last-named town, was for
a time the terminal station of the main line of the railway.
MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch
Mallemugge (which originally meant small flies or midges that
madly whirl round a light), a name given by the early Dutch
Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of which the English form
is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors to the smaller
albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in the Southern
Ocean corrupted into " molly mawk," or " mollymauk." A
number of species have been identified. Diomedea irrorata of
West Peru is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head;
D. migripes of the North Pacific is similar in colour but with
white only near the eye and at the base of the tail and bill; D.
immutabilis of Japan is darker but has a white head. D. melan-
ophrys of the southern oceans has been found in summer both
in California, in England, and as far north as the Faeroes, Ac-
cording to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species of albatross
inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits and
familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or
from Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well
as the Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey,
but all the rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky super-
ciliary streak, whence its name of black-browed albatross, as also
its scientific epithet, are taken. The bill of the adult is of an
ochreous-yellow, while that of the young is dark. This species
breeds on the Falkland Islands. D. bulleri of the New Zealand
seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump and ashy
head. Diomedea (or Thalassogerori) culminata and chlororhyncha
of the southern seas, D. (or T.) cauta of Tasmania, salvini of New
Zealand and layardi of the Cape resemble D. bulleri, but have a
strip of naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its
base. H. N. Moseley (Notes of a Naturalist, 130) describes
D. culminata as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge and
clay, with a shallow basin atop and an 9verhanging rim the
whole being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird
lays a single white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed
by the skin of the abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet
of D. bulleri are red, of D. chlororhyncha flesh-coloured, of the
others yellow. (A. N.)
MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer
and author, was born at Wimbledon, on the Sth of May 1825.
Educated at Winchester, he obtained a cadetship in the Bengal
infantry in 1842, and served through the second Burmese War.
His subsequent appointments were in the civil line, the last being
that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. He retired
MALLET, D. MALLET DU PAN
491
with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I, in
1872. He died at Kensington, on the ist of March 1898. He
was a voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention
being the famous " Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in
1857, when the Mutiny was at its height. He continued, and
considerably rewrote the History of the Indian Mutiny ( 6 vols.,
1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished by Sir John
Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are History
of the French in India (and ed., 1893) and The Decisive Battles of
India (3rd ed., 1888).
MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?i7os-i76s), Scottish poet
and dramatist, the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that
county, probably in 1705. In 1717 he went to the high school
at Edinburgh, and some three years later to the university, where
he made the friendship of James Thomson, author of The
Seasons. As early as 1720 he began to publish short poems in
the manner of the period, a number of which appeared during
the next few years in collections such as the Edinburgh Miscellany
and Allan Ramsay's Tea Table Miscellany, in which his ballad
"William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some
years from 1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's
sons, with whom he travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real
name was Malloch; but this he changed to Mallet in 1724. In
1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. He had already made the
friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in a poem on Verbal
Criticism, in 1733; and through Pope he became acquainted
with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those
attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 ap-
pointed Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in
1744, Mallet, at the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of
past favours and friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby
incurring the resentment of Pope's friends. For his services as
a party pamphleteer, in which character he published an attack
on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from Lord Bute a lucrative
sinecure in 1760. He died on the 2ist of April 1765. Mallet
was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy and
inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he
had a daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a
Genoese gentleman, and was the author of several poems and
plays, notably Almida, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in
mi-
Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were
produced by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. Eury-
dice, a tragedy, with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was
produced at Drury Lane in 1731; Mustapha, also a tragedy, had
considerable success at the same theatre in 1739; in 1740, in
collaboration with Thomson, he produced the masque Alfred,
of which he published a new version in 1751, after Thomson's
death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This
masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song,
" Rule Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed
to Mallet, although he allowed it to appear without protest in his
lifetime with Thomson's name attached. His other writings
include Poems on Several Occasions (1743); Amyntor and Theodora,
or the Hermit (1747); another volume of Poems (1762).
In 1 759 a collected edition of Mallet's Works was published in three
volumes; and in 1857 his Ballads and Songs were edited by F.
Dinsdate with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author.
MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born
on the 2oth of August 1730, in Geneva. After having been
educated there, he became tutor in the family of the count of
Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was appointed professor of
belles lettres to the academy at Copenhagen. He was naturally
attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of his
adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first fruits of his
researches, under the title Introduction a I'histoire du Dane-
marck oit I'on traite de la religion, des mceurs, des lots, et des usages
des anciens Danois. A second part, more particularly relating
to the ancient literature of the country, Monuments de la mytho-
logie et de la poesir des Celtes, et particulitrement des anciens
Scandinaves, was issued in 1756, and was also translated into
Danish. A translation into English, with notes and preface, by
Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 under the title of Northern
Antiquities (republished with additions in 1847). The book had
a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on account of
its being the first (though a very defective) translation into
French of the Edda. The king of Denmark showed his apprecia-
tion by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In
1760 he returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in
his native city. While there he was requested by the czarina
to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of Russia (after-
wards the czar Paul I.), but declined the honour. An invitation
more congenial to his tastes led to his accompanying Lord
Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and thence to England,
where he was presented at court and commissioned to write the
history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received
a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the
preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works
were completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was
rudely broken by the shock of the Revolution, to which he was
openly hostile. His leanings to the unpopular side were so
obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his
native country in 1792, and remained in exile till 1801. He died
at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807.
A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at
Geneva in 1807. Besides the Introduction to the History of Denmark,
his principal works are : Histoire du Danemarch (3 vols., Copenhagen,
1758-1777); Histoire de la maison de Hesse (4 vols., 1767-1785);
Histoire de la maison de Brunswick (4 vols., 1767-1785); Histoire de
la maison et des etats du Mecklenbourg (1796) ; Histoire des Suisses ou
Helvetiens (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment of J. von
Muller's great history) ; Histoire de la ligue hanseatique (1805).
MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and
geologist, was born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was
educated at Trinity College in that city, and graduated B.A. in
1830. Trained as an engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in
1842; he built in 1848-1849 the Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-
west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in other important works.
Devoting much attention to pure science, he became especially
distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and from 1852-
1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the
preparation of his great work, The Earthquake Catalogue of the
British Association (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes,
dealing with the Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857 and The
First Principles of Observational Seismology. He then brought
forward evidence to show that the depth below the earth's
surface, whence came the impulse of the Neapolitan earthquake,
was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his most important
essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans.
clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to develop
its True Origin and Cosmical Relations. He sought to show that
volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, con-
tortion and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the
disturbances leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more
or less vertical, down which water would find its way, and if the
temperature generated be sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam
or lava would follow. He was elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he
was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of
London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the 5th of
November 1881.
MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1740-1800), French journalist,
of an old Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the
son of a Protestant minister. He was educated at Geneva, and
through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at
Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to
London joined H. S. N. Linguet in the production of his Annales
poliliques (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment in the
Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the Annales by himself (1781-
1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du
Pan changed the title of his own publication to Memoires histo-
riques (1783). From 1783 he incoporated this work with the
Mercure de France in Paris, the political direction of which had
been placed in his hands. On the outbreak of the French
Revolution he sided with the Royalists, and was sent on a mission
(1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try and secure the
492
MALLING MALLOW
sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From
Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to
Brussels in the Royalist interest. He published a number of
anti-revolutionary pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte
and the Directory resulted in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne.
In 1798 he came to London, where he founded the Mercure
britannique. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on the loth of May
1800, his widow being pensioned by the English government.
Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern
political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861)
spent a useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary
of the Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR Louis
MALLET (1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board
of Trade and rose to be a distinguished economist and a member
of the Council of India.
Mallet du Pan's Memoires el correspondance was edited by A.
Sayous (Paris, 1851). See Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution
(1902), by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a
biography of his father (1900).
MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the
Medway parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively
5 and 6 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-
Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), East Mailing, 2391 ;
West Mailing, 2312. They are situated in a rich agricultural
district on the western slope of the valley of the' Medway, and
East Mailing has large paper mills. At West Mailing are remains
of Mailing Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1090 by
Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly
incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west
front of the church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-
house, gate-house (the chapel of which is restored to use), and
other portions. About Addington near West Mailing are con-
siderable prehistoric remains, including mounds, single stones,
stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while at Leybourne
are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by the
Leybourne family from the i2th to the i4th century.
MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English
author, was born at Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was
educated privately, and at Balh'ol College, Oxford. He won the
Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second class in the final
classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable attention
by his satirical story The New Republic (2 vols., 1877), in which
he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living
men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W.K. Clifford and others.
His keen logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were
displayed in later years both in fiction and in controversial works.
In a series of books dealing with religious questions he insisted
on dogma as the basis of religion and on the impossibility of
founding religion on purely scientific data. In Is Life Worth
Living? (1879) and The New Paul and Virginia (1878) he
attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the intellectual
position of the Church of England, Doctrine and Doctrinal Dis-
ruption (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined
creed. Later volumes on similar topics were Religion as a
Credible Doctrine (1903) and The Reconstruction of Belief (1905).
He published several brilliant works on economics, directed
against Radical and Socialist theories: Social Equality (1882),
Property and Progress (1884), Labour and the Popular Welfare
(1893), Classes and Masses (1896) and Aristocracy and Evolution
(1898); and among his anti-socialist works should be classed his
novel, The Old Order Changes (1886). His other novels include
A Romance of the Nineteenth Century (1881), A Human Document
(1892), The Heart of Life (1895) and The Veil of the Temple (1904).
He published a volume of Poems in 1880, and in 1900 Lucretius
on Life and Death in verse.
MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork,
Ireland, on the Blackwater, 144! m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N.
from Cork by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 4542. It is a junction for lines westward to Killarney
and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and Co. Waterford.
The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation in a
fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid
mineral spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility
and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house
with pump-room and baths was erected in 1828. The parish
church dates from 1818, but there are remains of an earlier
building adjoining it. There are manufactures of mineral water
and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow received
a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was originally
Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by
Spenser for this part of the river) , and the ford was defended by
a castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A
bridge connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen.
Mallow is a centre for the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater.
The climate is very mild. The town was a parliamentary
borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban district council.
MALLOW, botanically Malva, the typical genus of the natural
order Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and
perennial herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the
northern hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-
Mallow (Malva sylvestris), J nat. size.
Flower in section.
Stamens showing the union
of the filaments into a
common tube (monadel-
phous).
Fruit with persistent calyx.
I, 2 and 5 enlarged.
4. Same seen from the back
showing the 3-leaved epi-
calyx.
5. Seed.
celled anthers which specially characterize the Malvaceae (?..).
The petals also are united by their base to the tube formed by
the coalesced filaments of the stamens. The special characters
which separate the genus Maha from others most nearly allied
to it are the involucre, consisting of a row of three separate bracts
attached to the lower part of the true calyx, and the numerous
single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle around a central axis,
from which they become detached when ripe. The flowers are
MALMEDY MALMESBURY
493
mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves radiate- veined,
and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives of
liritciin. The musk mallow (Malva moschcta) is a perennial
herb with five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured
(lowers clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and
is found growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming
in July and August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour
diffused by the plant in warm dry weather when it is kept in a
confined situation. The round-leaved dwarf mallow (Malva
rotundifolia) is a creeping perennial, growing in waste sandy
places, with roundish serrate leaves and small pinkish-white
(lowers produced in the axils of the leaves from June to Septem-
ber. It is common throughout Europe and the north of Africa,
extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow
(Malva sylvestris ), the mauve of the French, is an erect biennial
or perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate
leaves, and conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossom-
ing from May to September. Like most plants of the order it
abounds in mucilage, and hence forms a favourite domestic
remedy for colds and sore throats. The aniline dye called mauve
derives its name from its resemblance to the colour of this plant.
The marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis), the guimauve of the French,
belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous bracts.
It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the neighbourhood
of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with somewhat woody
stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves, and delicate
pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The flowers
are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh mallow
is remarkable for containing asparagin, C^gNjC^HaO, which, if
the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid
being developed. The root also contains about 25 % of starch and
the same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum
arable in containing one molecule less of water and in being
precipitated by neutral acetate of lead. It is used in pdte de
guimauve lozenges. Althaea rosea is the hollyhock (q.v.).
The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified
with Jew's mallow (Corchorus olitorius), a member of the closely allied
order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word rafe implying a saline
pl.uit) with Atriplex Halimus, or sea orache. In Syria the Halimus
was still known by the name Malluh in the time of Ibn Beitar. See
Bochart, Hieroz. iii. 16.
MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, lying in a wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m.
S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail via Eupen. It contains two Roman
Catholic churches, a modern town-hall and a classical school.
Its industries include tanning, dyeing and paper-making. Pop.
(IQOO), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine abbey,
founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the
abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802
the lands of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were
divided between Prussia and Netherlands.
See Kellen, Malmedy und die preussische Wattonie (Essen, 1897).
MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, IST EARL OF (1746-1820),
English diplomatist, was born at Salisbury on the zist of April
1746, being the son of James Harris (q.v.), the author of Hermes.
Educated at Winchester, Oxford and Leiden, young Harris
became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy at Madrid, and
was left as chargt d'affaires at that court on the departure of Sir
James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards Lord
Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered
the intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was
instrumental in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance.
As a reward he was appointed minister ad interim at Madrid,
and in January 1772 minister plenipotentiary to the court of
Prussia. His success was marked, and in 1777 he was transferred
to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made his reputation,
for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her predilec-
tions for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated
difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight
of the Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home
owing to ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be
minister at the Hague, an appointment confirmed after some
delay by Pitt (1784). He did very great service in furthering
Pitt's policy of maintaining England's influence on the Continent
by the arms of her allies, and held the threads of the diplomacy
which ended in the king of Prussia's overthrowing the republican
party in Holland, which was inclined to France, and re-establish-
ing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his services he was
created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and
permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on
his arms, and by the prince of Orange to use his motto " Je
maintiendrai." He returned to England, and took an anxious
interest in politics, which ended in his seceding from the Whig
party with the duke of Portland in 1793; and in that year he was
sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep Prussia true to the first
coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent to Brunswick to
solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline for the
prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her
husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and
Lille vainly negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797
he became partially deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but
for his long and eminent services he was in 1800 created earl of
Malmesbury, and Viscount Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the
county of Hants. He now became a sort of political Nestor,
consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign ministers,
trusted by men of the most different ideas in political crises, and
above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's death
almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were
also wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particu-
larly, who was his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed
many of his ideas on foreign policy directly to his teaching. His
later years were free from politics, and till his death on the 2ist
of November 1820 he lived very quietly and almost forgotten.
As a statesman, Malmesbury had an influence among his con-
temporaries which is scarcely to be understood from his writings,
but which must have owed much to personal charm of manner
and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have
deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland
and Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a pro-
fession in which only great nobles won the prizes to a career
opening the path of honour to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd
earl by his son James Edward (1778-1841), under-secretary for
foreign affairs under Canning; from whom the title passed to
James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.).
Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account
of the Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but
his important Diaries (1844) and Letters (1870) were edited by his
grandson.
MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3 RD EARL OF
.(1807-1889), English statesman, son of the and earl, wa.3 born
on the 25th of March 1807, and educated at Eton and Oriel
College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for several years, making
acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he had only just
been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative, when
his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political
career, though not one which made any permanent impression
on history, attracted a good deal of contemporary attention,
partly from his being foreign secretary in 1852 and again in
1858-1859 (he was also lord privy seal in 1866-1868 and in
1874-1876), and partly from his influential position as an active
Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a time when Lord
Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways, moulding
the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life he
survived till the I7th of May 1889 and the publication of his
Memoirs of an Ex-Minister in 1884, contributed to the reputa-
tion he enjoyed. These Memoirs, charmingly written, full of
anecdote, and containing much interesting material for the
history of the time, remain his chief title to remembrance.
Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's Diaries and
Correspondence (1844), and in 1870 published The First Lord
Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820. He
was succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James
(1842-1899), whose son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the
5th earl in '1899.
MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94!
m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1001),
494
MALMS MALOLOS
2854. It lies on a ridge surrounded on all sides except the north-
west by the river Avon and a small tributary. The church of
St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is a majestic fragment
consisting of the greater part of the nave (with aisles) of a
Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great
tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is
transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including
the clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman
examples extant, both the outer and the inner doorways
(especially the first) exhibiting the typical ornament of the period
in remarkable exuberance. With the exception of a crypt, the
monastic buildings have disappeared. In the market square
stands a fine market cross of the i6th century, borne upon an
octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments
of a hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corpora-
tion almshouse. Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with
breweries, tanneries and manufactures of silk and pillow lace.
It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 178 acres.
Maildulphus, a Scottish or Irish monk, who came into England
about 635, built a hermitage near the site of the modern Malmes-
bury (Maildulphi-urbs, Maldelmesburh, Malmesbiri) and gathered
disciples round him, thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey
of which Aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot. ^Ethelstan,
who was buried here (though his tomb in the church only dates
from the i6th century), rebuilt and endowed the monastery.
Round the abbey the town of Malmesbury grew up, and by the
time of the Domesday Survey it had become one of the only two
Wiltshire boroughs. The first charter, said to be a forgery,
purports to have been given by ^Ethelstan. It granted to the
burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the
time of Edward the Elder, with many additional exemptions,
in return for help rendered against the Danes. The castle built
at Malmesbury during the reign of Henry I. gave a further
impetus to the growth of the town during the I2th and i3th
centuries. It was not incorporated, however, until 1645, when
it was made a free borough under the title of " aldermen and
burgesses of the borough of Malmesbury, County Wilts." By
this charter it was governed until 1885. The borough returned
two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the number
was reduced to one. Finally in 1885 its representation was
merged in that of the county. A grant of a yearly fair on
the 3ist of March, the feast of St Aldhelm, was obtained from
William II., and another for three days from the 25th of July
from John. In 1792 fairs were held on the 28th of March,
the 28th of April and the 29th of June, but in 1891 they had
ceased entirely. John also granted a weekly market on
Thursday. In the i6th and i8th centuries it was held on
Saturday, and in 1891 on the third Wednesday in each month.
In the middle ages Malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth
manufacture, and at the Dissolution the abbey was bought by
a rich clothier and fitted with looms for weaving. The trade
in wool still flourished in 1751.
See Victoria County History: Wiltshire; and Registrum malmes-
buriense (1879-1880).
MALMO, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (Ian)
of Malmohus, on a small bay of the Sound, 384 m. S.S.W. of
Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1800), 38,054; (1900), 60,857. It is
connected with Copenhagen, 175 m. W. by N., by steam-ferry,
the Sound being kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. It is also
the first important station in Sweden on the Berlin-Stockholm
route, which crosses the sea between Sassnitz in Riigen and
Trelleborg, 20 m. S.E. of Malmo. The town, which stands
upon a level plain, formerly had strong fortifications, of which
only the citadel (Malmohus) remains; in it the earl of Bothwell
was imprisoned by Frederick II. of Denmark for some time
after his departure from Scotland in 1567. The town-hall (1546,
largely restored in 1864) contains a handsome chamber, the
Knutssal, formerly used by the council of the gild of Canute.
The hall fronts the central square (Stortorg) which is planted
with trees and contains a colossal statue of Charles X. by Johan
Helenus Borjeson (b. 1835) erected in 1896. The most notable
church is that of St. Peter (Peterkyrka), dating in part from
1319. Malmo is second to Stockholm as an industrial centre.
There are breweries and large works for the manufacture of
machinery, among which may be mentioned the Kockum
mechanical works, with yards for the construction of vessels of
war, and others; of cotton and woollen goods, gloves, chocolate,
sweetmeats and tobacco. A large export trade is carried on in
butter and other agricultural produce, and matches. Coal is the
chief import. The harborage includes an outer harbour of
22 ft. depth, and two inner basins admitting vessels of 21 ft.
draught, with dry dock and patent slip. Malmo returns four
members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).
Malmo (Malmhauge, Malmey, Malmoye, Malmoughe), some-
times called Ancona Scanorum or Ellenbogen, first appears in
history about the middle of the I3th century. During the
Hanseatic period it was the most important commercial town
on the Sound, but in the i6th and i?th centuries greatly lost
ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise
of its rival, Copenhagen. Its modern prosperity is largely due
to the enterprise of Frans Snell, one of its merchants in the
second half of the i8th century, who first constructed the
harbour.
MALMSEY, a strong sweet wine, originally made at Monem-
vasia (Gr. Mowju/Saffia), Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea,
Greece. The name of the place was corrupted in Med. Lat.
into malmasia, whence the English form of the word. The
corruption malvasia gives the O. Fr. malvesie, from which
comes the alternative English form " malvoisie." The wine
is now made not only in Greece but also in Spain, Madeira and
the Azores.
MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO (" LANZAROTE, the 'Lancelot
Maloisiel ' of the French "), leader of the first of modern Euro-
pean oceanic enterprises. This was a Genoese expedition, which
about 1270 seems to have sailed into the Alantic, re-discovered
the " Fortunate Islands " or Canaries, and made something
of a conquest and settlement in one of the most northerly isles
of this archipelago, still known (after the Italian captain) as
Lanzarote. According to a Spanish authority of about 1345,
the anonymous Franciscan's Conos$imiento de todos los reinos,
"Lancarote" was killed by the Canarian natives; but the castle
built by him was standing in 1402-1404, when it was utilized
for the storage of grain by the French conquerors under Gadifer
de la Salle. To Malocello's enterprise, moreover, it is probable
that Petrarch (born 1304) alludes when he tells how, within
the memory of his parents, an armed fleet of Genoese penetrated
to the " Fortunatae "; this passage some would refer, without
sufficient authority, to the expedition of 1291. Malocello's
name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early
Portolani or scientific charts (such as the " Dulcert " of 1339
and the " Laurentian Portolano " of 1351), in which the African
islands appear, for the first time in history, in clear and recogniz-
able form. Thus Dulcert reads Insula de Lanzarotus and
Marocelus, the Laurentian map I. de Lanzarote, against Lanzarote
Island, which is well depicted on both designs, and marked with
the cross of Genoa. The Conos^imiento (as noticed above)
explicitly derives the island-name from the Genoese commander
who perished here. Malocello's enterprise not only marks the
beginning of the oversea expansion of western Europe in explora-
tion, conquest and colonization (after the age of Scandinavian
world-roving had passed); it is also probably not unconnected
with the great Genoese venture of 1291 (in search of a waterway
to India, which soon follows), with which this attempt at
Canarian discovery and dominion has been by some unjustifiably
identified.
See the Conosc.imiento, p. loo, as edited by Marcos Jimenez de la
Espada in the Boletin de la sociedad geogrdfica de Madrid, February
1877); Le Canarien in P. Margry, Conqu&te des . . . Canaries,
p. 177; M. A. P. d'Avezac in vol. vi., part it., of L'Univers, pp. I-4 1
(lies africaines de V ocean atlantique) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern
Geography, iii. 411-413, 449, 451.
MALOLOS, a town and the capital of the province of Bulacan,
island of Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Pampanga
MALONE MALONIC ACID
495
Grande river. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Barasoain
and Santa Isabel, 27,025. There are thirty-eight villages, or
barrios, of which eight had, in 1903,1000 inhabitants or more.
The principal language is Tagalog, but Spanish is spoken to
some extent. Malolos is served by the Manila & Dagupan
railway, and is a trade centre of considerable importance. The
cultivation of rice is an important industry. In 1898-99,
during the Filipino revolt, Malolos was the seat of the rebel
government, but it was captured and reduced to desolation
in March 1899. In 1904 a new municipal school building, a
municipal market and a provincial building were erected.
MALONE, EDMOND (1741-1812), Irish Shakespearian scholar
and editor, was born in Dublin, on the 4th of October 1741, the
son of a barrister and a member of the Irish House of Commons.
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to
the Irish bar in 1767. The death of his father in 1774 assured
him a competency, and he went to London, where he frequented
literary and artistic circles. He frequently visited Dr Johnson
and was of great assistance to Boswell in revising and proof-
reading his Life, four of the later editions of which he annotated.
He was intimate with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he sat for
a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one
of Reynolds' executors, and published a posthumous collection
of his works (1798) with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Burke,
Canning, Lord Charlemont, and, at first, George Steevens,
were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by the two last he
devoted himself to the study of Shakespearian chronology, and
the results of his " Attempt to ascertain the Order in which the
Plays of Shakespeare were written" (1778) are still largely
accepted. This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary
volumes to Steevens's version of Dr Johnson's Shakespeare,
partly consisting of observations on the history of the Elizabethan
stage, and of the text of doubtful plays; and this again, in 1783,
by an appendix volume. His refusal to alter some of his notes
to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed with Steevens's,
resulted in a quarrel with the latter. The next seven years
were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in eleven
volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his
biography of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness
of the three parts of Henry VI., were especially valuable. His
editorial work was lauded by Burke, criticized by Walpole
and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly showed indefatig-
able research and proper respect for the text of the earlier
editions. Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity
of the Rowley poems (see CHATTERTON), and in this (1782) as in
his branding (1796) of the Ireland MSS. (see IRELAND, WILLIAM
HENRY) as forgeries, he was among the first to guess and state
the truth. His elaborate edition of Dryden's works (1800),
with a memoir, was another monument to his industry, accuracy
and scholarly care. In 1801 the university of Dublin made
him an LL.D. At the time of his death, on the 2Sth of April
1812, Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare,
and he left his material to James Boswell the younger; the result
was the edition of 1821 generally known as the Third Variorum
edition in twenty-one volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738-1816),
his elder brother and executor, presented the larger part of
Malone's splendid collection of books, including dramatic
varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which afterwards bought
many of his MS. notes and his literary correspondence. The
British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated
copy of Johnson's Dictionary.
A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the Prolego-
mena, to the edition of 1821. See also Sir I. Prior's Life of Edmond
Malone (1860).
MALONE, a village and the county-seat of Franklin county, in
the township of Malone, in the N.E. part of New York, U.S.A.,
about 60 m. E.N.E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1890), 4986; (1900),
593S (9! foreign-born); (1905. state census), 6478; (1910),,
6467- It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River
and the Rutland (N.Y. Central Lines) railways. The village
has a Memorial Park, Arsenal Green, on the site of an arsenal
and parade-ground sold by the state in 1850, a state armoury,
the Northern New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, Franklin
Academy, St Joseph's Ursuline Academy, and a detention-house
for Chinamen entering the state from Canada. From Malone
tourists visit the Great North Woods, in the Adirondack foot-
hills, about 15 m. distant. Iron ore and Potsdam sandstone
are found near Malone. In the surrounding region hops,
potatoes, &c., are grown, and there are dairying and livestock
interests. The village is a centre for the collection of hides
and pelts. It manufactures woollen goods, paper and pulp,
&c., and has foundry and machine shops and car repair shops.
Malone, being on the line of communication between lakes
Champlain and Ontario, was of strategic importance in the
war of 1812, and later was twice the rendezvous of Fenians
for attacks on Canada. The township of Malone was settled
and erected from Chateaugay in 1805. The village was first
known as Harison, was named Ezraville, in honour of Ezra
L'Hommedieu in 1808, received its present name in 1812, and
was incorporated in 1853.
MALONIC ACID, C 3 H 4 O 4 or CH 2 (COOH) 2 , occurs in the
form of its calcium salt in the sugar beet. It was first prepared
in 1858 by V. Dessaignes, who obtained it by oxidizing malic
acid (Ann., 1858, 107, p. 251). It may also be obtained by oxidiz-
ing allylene and propylene with cold potassium permanganate
solution, by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid (malonyl urea)
with alkalis (A. Baeyer, Ann., 1864, 130, p. 143) ; by the hydrolysis
of cyanacetic acid (H. Kolbe, Ann., 1864, 131, p. 349; H. Muller,
Ann., 1864, 131, p. 352), and by the action of silver oxide on
/3-di-chloracrylic ester at 125 C. (O. Wallach, Ann., 1878, 193,
CC1 2 :CH-COOC,H S + Ag 2 O + H 2 O =
HOOC-CH 2 -COOC 2 H 6 .
It crystallizes in monoclinic tables, and is readily soluble in
water, alcohol and ether. The acid melts at 132 C., and at a
higher temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and
carbon dioxide. When heated with bromine and water to
100 C. it forms tribromacetic acid, some bromoform being
produced at the same time. Malonic acid, as well as its esters,
is characterized by the large number of condensation products
it can form. In the presence of a dehydrating agent (such as
acetic anhydride), it combines with aldehydes to form com-
pounds of the type R CH: C(COOH) 2 , or their decomposition
products (formed by loss of COz) R CH : CH COOH.
Many salts of the acid are known and, with the exception of those
of the alkali metals, they are difficultly soluble in water. Many
esters of malonic acid have been prepared, the most important
being the diethyl ester (malonic ester), CH 2 (COOC S H 6 ) 2 . which is
obtained by dissolving monochloracetic acid in water, neutralizing
the solution with potassium carbonate, and then adding potassium
cyanide and warming the mixture until the reaction begins. When
the reaction has finished, the whole is evaporated and heated to about
I3O-I4O C. and then allowed to cool. The mass is then covered
with two-thirds of its weight of alcohol, and saturated with hydro-
chloric acid gas. The whole is then poured into ice-cold water,
extracted by ether and the ethereal solution distilled (L. Claisen,
Ann., 1883, 218, p. 131). It is a colourless liquid boiling at i97-7
-i98-2 C. (W. H. Perkin). It is a most important synthetic
reagent; with sodium or sodium ethylate it forms sodio-malonic
ester, which reacts readily with alkyl halides, forming alkyl malonic
esters, which are again capable of forming sodium derivatives,
that by further treatment with alkyl halides yield thedi-alkyl malonic
esters. These esters are readily hydrolysed and yield the mono-
arid di-alkyl malonic acids which, on heating, are readily decomposed,
with evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of mono- and
di-alkyl acetic acids. The scheme of reactions is shown thus :
R'l
CH 2 (COOR)i-CHNa(COOR)i-CHR'(COOR),
CO 2 + CH 2 R'-COOH
[CHR'(COOH),NaOH
<-
CHR'(COOH),
->CNaR'(COOR),
CR'R"(COOR),
4,NaOH
CO, + CHR'R"-COOH-CR'R"(COOH),
When sodio-malonic ester is heated to 145" C., it undergoes con-
densation, with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene
derivative, phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester. The addition of urea
to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the formation
of barbituric acid (A. Michael, Jour. pr. Chem., 1887 [2], 35, p. 456)
49 6
MALORY MALOU
The half nitrile of malpnic acid is cyanacetic acid, CN-CH- 2 COOH,
which, in the form of its ester, may be obtained by the action of a
solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid. The solu-
tion obtained is neutralized, concentrated on the water-bath, acidi-
fied by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. It is then converted
into the lead salt, which is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen
and the solution is carefully concentrated (Th. Meves, Ann., 1867,
143, p. 201). It melts at 70 C.andat higher temperatures decomposes,
with evolution of carbon dioxide and formation of aceto-nitrile,
CHj-CN. The true nitrile of malonic acid is methylene cyanide,
CH 2 (CN) 2 , which is obtained by distilling a mixture of cyanaceta-
mide and phosphorus pentoxide. It is a crystalline solid, which
melts at 29 -30 C. and boils at 2i8-2ig C., and is readily soluble
in alcohol and ether.
MALORY, SIR THOMAS, translator and compiler of the
famous English classic, the Morte d' Arthur. Previous to the
publication of Professor Kittredge's monograph, Who was Sir
Thomas Malory? the identity of this writer remained an unsolved
problem. Mr. Sidney Lee, in the Dictionary of National Bio-
graphy, was compelled to admit that he could find no one of
that name fulfilling the necessary conditions. Of direct evidence
we have very little; in the concluding passage of the book the
author asks the prayers of the reader for " Syr Thomas Maleore
knyght," and states that the book was ended " the ix. yere of the
reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth." Caxton, in his preface,
says that he printed the book " after acopye unto me delivered
whyche copye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of certeyn
bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe "; in his
colophon he repeats this statement, adding that he himself is
responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters,
and that it was printed in 1485. It will be noted that Caxton
does not say that he received the book from Malory, only that
he had received a copy made by Malory; from this Professor
Kittredge draws the conclusion that the compiler was no longer
living. The problem then is to find a Thomas Malory who
was (a) a knight, (b) alive in the ninth year of King Edward IV.
(Mar. 4, i46o-Mar. 3, 1470), and (c) who was no longer living
in July (or June) 1485.
All these conditions Professor Kittredge finds fulfilled in the
life of Sir Thomas Malory, knight, of Newbold Revell (or Fenny
Newbold), M.P. for Warwickshire in 1445. The date of Sir
Thomas's birth is uncertain, but he succeeded his father,
Sir John, in 1433 or 1434. Previously to this he had served in
France, in the retinue of the earl of Warwick, most probably
during the time that that nobleman held the office of captain
of Calais. It seems probable that he is also to be identified
with a " Thomas Malorie, miles," who in 1468 was, on account
of the part played by him in the Wars of the Roses, excluded
with several others from the operation of a pardon issued by
Edward IV. As, however, on the death of Sir Thomas on the
I4th of March 1470, there was no difficulty as to inheritance,
his estates passing to his grandson, he must, if this identification
be correct, have come under the general amnesty of 1469. It
will be seen, therefore, that so far as it is in our power to state
the question this Sir Thomas Malory fulfils all the necessary
conditions.
It is interesting to note that the career of the earl of Warwick
in France was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric
features which might well impress the imagination of a young
retainer. John Rous, in his Life of Richard Earl of Warwick,
tells us that at a certain tourney held near Calais at Christmas-
tide, Earl Richard appeared three days running in different
armour, overthrowing his adversary on each occasion an exploit
obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of the period.
The work with which Malory's name is connected is an
abridged compilation of the great body of Arthurian romance in
its latest form. The Merlin (Vulgate and Suite), Tristan, Lance-
lot, Quesle and Mart Artus are all represented, the only branch
omitted is that dealing with the " early history " of the Grail,
the Joseph of Arimathea and Grand S. Graal. Thanks mainly
to the labours of Dr Oskar Sommer, we can now assign the
majority of the books to their separate sources, although certain
stories, such as the adventures of Sir Gareth under the pseudonym
of Beaumains, the handling of Sir Urre of Hungary, and the
details of the abduction of Guenevere by Meleagaunt, stil
remain unidentified. But we do not yet know whether Malory
himself was responsible for this selection, or whether he found
it ready to hand in a MS., the " Frensshe Booke " to which he
often refers. To make such a compilation at first hand, con-
sidering the extent of the ground covered, would involve an
enormous amount of study and selection, and the access to a
very large library conditions which scarcely seem to fit in
with the social position and activities of Sir Thomas. On the
other hand it is undeniable that the medieval copyists, at
the instance of their patrons, did make compilations from the
various romances within their reach, such as e.g. the enormous
codex 112 (fonds Franc..) of the Bibliotheque Nationale, which
includes large sections of the Tristan, the Lancelot, and the
Merlin Suite. Taking into consideration alike what Malory
retains and what he omits, it seems most probable that he was
in possession, not of complete copies of the romances, but of one
or more volumes of compilations from these sources.
From the point of view of matter it must be admitted that
the Morte d' Arthur does not represent the Arthurian cycle at its
best, but rather in the period of its decadence; nor does Malory
in any way endeavour to overcome the difficulties caused by
the juxtaposition of a number of independent (and often con-
tradictory) versions. This is especially noticeable in his treat-
ment of Gawain; in the section derived from the Lancelot and
Mart Artus he is a good and valiant knight, " a ful noble knyghte
as ever was borne," in those derived from the Tristan and the
Queste, he is treacherous, dissolute, and a murderer of good
knights.
The great charm of Malory's work lies in his style; stately,
earnest and dignified, it has lent to the relations between Lancelot
and Guenevere a character of truth and vitality in which the
French original is wholly lacking. Malory achieved a remark-
able feat he took the Arthurian story in its worst and weakest
form and he imparted to it a moral force and elevation which
the cycle, even in its earlier and finer stage, had, save in the
unique case of Von Eschenbach's Parzival, never possessed.
While genuine lovers of the Arthurian cycle must regret that
the romances should only be known to the great majority of
English readers through the versions of Malory and Tennyson,
it is impossible to withhold from the Morte d' Arthur the admiration
due to an imperishable monument of English language and
literature.
See Who was Sir Thomas Malory f G. L. Kittredge (Harvard
Studies and Notes, vol. v., 1896); Morte d' Arthur, ed. by Dr Oskar
Sommer (an exact reproduction of the original text in 2 vols.)
vol. iii. a study on " The Sources of Malory." The sections on
Lancelot and Queste are unfortunately very inadequate; for these
cf. The Legend of Sir Lancelot, Grimm Library, vol. xii. (J.L.W.)
MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830-1907), French novelist
and man of letters, the son of a notary, was born at La Bouille
(Seine Inferieure) on the 2oth of May 1830. He studied law
at Rouen and Paris, but literature early absorbed his attention.
He collaborated in the Biographie gSnerale of Didot, became
literary critic of L'Opinion Nationale, and dramatic critic of the
Lloyd franQais. He is the author of a long series of popular
novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of
domestic novels entitled Victimes d'amour (1859, 1865, 1866) ;
Un Beaufrere (1869) ; Madame Obernin (1870) ; Le Docteur Claude
(1879) ; Justice (1889). Les Aventures de Remain Kalbris (1869)
and Sans famille (1888) are excellent stories for children. A
complete edition of Hector Malot's works appeared in 1894-1897.
He died at Vincennes in July 1907.
MALOU, JULES EDOUARD XAVIER (1810-1886), Belgian
statesman, one of the leaders of the clerical party, was born at
Ypres on the igth of October 1810. He was a civil servant
in the department of justice when he was elected to the Chamber
of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841, and was for
some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was minister
of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844,
and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846,
which was overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou
MALOUET MALPLAQUET
497
then became a member of the senate, and his party only regained
ascendancy in 1870. The extreme clerical ministry of Baron
d'Anethan retired in December 1871 after serious rioting in
Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not the nominal, head
of the more moderate clerical administrations of de Theux and
Aspremont-Lynden (1870-1878). He was wise enough to disavow
the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the
German victims of the Kulturkampf, and, retaining in his own
hands the portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy
to a useful administration in commercial matters, including a
development of the railway system. It was only after the fall
of the ministry in 1878 that he adopted a frankly clerical policy,
and when he became chief of a new government in June 1884
he proceeded to undo the educational compromise of his pre-
decessors in the Frere-Orban ministry. His legislation in
favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and
in October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs
and Woeste, the members of the cabinet against whom popular
indignation was chiefly directed. Malou followed them into
retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint Lambert, in Brabant, on
the nth of July 1886. He was a financier of great knowledge
and experience, and his works (of which a long list is given
in Koninck's Bibliographic nalionale de Belgique) include three
series (1874-1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited
by him for the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on
railroad proposals, mining and other practical questions. His
brother Jean Baptiste Malou (1809-1864) was a well-known
divine.
MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814), French
publicist and politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-D6me) on the
nth of February 1740, the son of a lawyer. He entered the
civil service and was employed successively at the French em-
bassy in Lisbon, in the administrative department of the due de
Broglie's army, as commissary in San Domingo from 1767-1774,
and, after his return to France, as commissary-general of the
marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of coloniza-
tion in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his
return to France he was well received at court, and the execution
of his plans in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of
the port of Toulon,. and in 1789 was returned to the states-
general, where he soon became well known as a defender of the
monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in September,
1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to return
to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from
the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to
his position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as com-
missioner-general and maritime prefect to superintend the
erection of defence works, and the creation of a fleet. He
entered the council of state in 1810, but, having offended the
emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced in 1812.
At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine;
and he died on the 7th of September 1814.
The most important documents for his domestic and colonial
policy ^irc a Collection deses opinions al'Assemblee Nationale (jvols.,
1791-1792); and Collection de memoires et correspondances officielles
sur I' administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane franc,aise
et hollandaise (5 vols. 1802).
MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (i628-j694), Italian physiologist,
was born at Crevalcuore near Bologna, on the loth of March
1628. At the age of seventeen he began the study of philosophy;
it appears that he was also in the habit of amusing himself with
the microscope. In 1649 he started to study medicine; after
four years at Bologna he graduated there as doctor. He at
once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university, but it
was not till after three years (1656) that his request was granted.
A few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical
medicine at Pisa, where he enjoyed the friendship and counte-
nance of G. A. Borelli. At the end of four years he left Pisa,
on the ground of ill-health, and returned to Bologna. A call
to be professor primarius at Messina (procured for him through
Borelli, who had in the meantime become professor there)
induced him to leave Bologna in 1662. His engagement at
Messina was for a term of four years, at an annual stipend of
1000 scudi. An attempt was made to retain him at Messina
beyond that period, but his services were secured for his native
university, and he spent the next twenty-five years there. In
1691, being then in his sixty-fourth year, and in failing health,
he removed to Rome to become private physician to Pope
Innocent XII., and he died there of apoplexy three years later,
on the 30th of November 1694. Shortly before his death, he
drew up a long account of his academical and scientific labours,
correspondence and controversies, and committed it to the charge
of the Royal Society of London, a body with which he had
been in intimate relations for more than twenty years. The auto-
biography, along with some other posthumous writings, was
published in London in 1696, at the cost of the Society. The
personal details left by Malpighi are few and dry. His narrative
is mainly occupied with a summary of his scientific contributions
and an account of his relations to contemporary anatomists,
and is entirely without graces of style or elements of ordinary
human interest.
Malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study
of animal and vegetable structure; and his discoveries were so impor-
tant that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic
anatomy. It was his practice to open animals alive, and some of
his most striking discoveries were made in those circumstances.
Although Harvey had correctly inferred the existence of the capillary
circulation, he had never seen it ; it was reserved for Malpighi in 1661
(four years after Harvey's death) to see for the first time the mar-
vellous spectacle of the blood coursing through a network of small
tubes on the surface of the lung and of the distended urinary bladder
of the frog. We are enabled to measure the difficulties of micro-
scopic observation at the time by the fact that it took Malpighi
four years longer to reach a clear understanding of the corpuscles in
the frog's blood, although they are the parts of the blood by which
its movement in the capillaries is made visible. His discovery of
the capillary circulation was given to the world in the form of two
letters De Pulmonibus, addressed to Borelli, published at Bologna
in 1 66 1 and reprinted at Leiden and other places in the years follow-
ing; these letters contained also the first account of the vesicular
structure of the human lung, and they made a theory of respiration
for the first time possible. The achievement that comes next both
in importance and in order of time was a demonstration of the plan
of structure of secreting glands; against the current opinion (revived
by F. Ruysch forty years later) that the glandular structure was
essentially that of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion
exuded, he maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal
acini standing in open communication with the ducts. The name
of Malpighi is still associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous
character of the lower stratum of the epidermis, of the vascular coils'
in the cortex of the kidney, and of the follicular bodies in the spleen.
He was the first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain, and his
descriptions of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-
tracts in the cord, with their extensions to the cerebrum and cere-
bellum, are distinguished by accuracy; but his microscopic study of
the grey matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular
structure and that it secreted the " vital spirits." At an early
period he applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction
to the more difficult study of the animal tissues, and he was ac-
quainted with the spiral vessels of plants in 1662. It was not till
1671 that he wrote his Analome plantarum and sent it to the
Royal Society, who published it in the following year. An English
work under a similar title (Anatomy of Vegetables) had been pub-
lished in London a few months earlier, by Nehemiah Grew ; so that
Malpighi's priority as a vegetable histologist is not so incontestable
as it is in animal histology. The Analome plantarum contained an
appendix, Observations de ovo incubato, which gave an account
(with good plates) of the development of the chick (especially of the
later stages) in many points more complete than that of Harvey,
although the observations were needlessly lessened in value by being
joined to the metaphysical notion of " praedelineation " in the
undeveloped ovum.
He also wrote Eptstolae anatomicae Marc. Malpighii et Car.
Fracassati (Amsterdam, 1662) (on the tongue, brain, skin, omentum,
&c.) ; De viscerum structure: exercitatio anatomica (London, 1669) ;
De structura glandularunt conglobatarum (London, 1689); Opera
posthuma, et vita a seipso scripta (London, 1697; another edition,
with preface and additions, was published at Amsterdam in 1700.)
An edition containing all his works except the last two was pub-
lished in London in 1687, in 2 vols. folio, with portrait and plates.
MALPLAQUET, a village of France in the department of
the Nord, close to the Belgian frontier and about 10 miles S. by
E. of Mons, famous as the scene of the battle, September 1709,
between the Allies under the duke of Marlborough and Prince
MALPLAQUET
Eugene and the French commanded by Marshal Villars, in
which the former were victorious. The country to the west
and south of Mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods
and broken ground, through which there are only two important
gaps that of Jemappes (famous in 1792) to the west, and that
of Aulnois, in which stands the village of Malplaquet, to the
south. In the latter gap and the woods on either side Villars
took up his position facing north-eastwards, on August 29!
September 9. The forces in presence, over 90,000 on each side,
were exceptionally large, and the French army in particular
represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in the
armies of that time. Villars was the best general in the service
of Louis XIV. and the veteran Marshal Boufflers, though senior
to him, had volunteered to serve as his second in command.
Marlborough and Eugene lay with their army between Mons
and the French camps, which were almost within cannon shot.
Marlbdrough's own wish was for an immediate battle, but he
was opposed by the Dutch deputies at his headquarters, and
even by Eugene, so that it was only on August 31 /Septem-
ber ii that the attack actually took place. Villars had made
full use of his respite. The French right stood at the fringe
of the wood of Laniere, the left was strongly posted in the
midst of the wood of Taisniere, and across the two and a half
miles of open ground between the woods the position was en-
trenched with several successive lines of works. The troops
were almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual,
and the cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry. In
the Allied army the mounted troops were also kept back,
but for the most part distributed to the various infantry
commands.
The intention of Marlborough and Eugene, when on the
morning of the battle they examined this formidable position,
was to deliver the main attack upon the French left wing,
combining the assaults of several columns on its front and
flanks. In this quarter the French not only held the interior
of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to occupy
the edges of its north-eastern salient, and upon the two faces
of this salient Count Lottum (1650-1719) with the Prussians,
and Count von der Schulenburg (1661-1747) with the Austrian
infantry were to deliver a double attack, while farther to the
Allied right a column under the English General Withers was
detached to make a wide turning movement through the woods.
Marlborough took command on the right, Eugene on the left.
The centre, which was intended only to observe the enemy
until the decision had been forced at the wood of Taisniere,
consisted of Lord Orkney's British corps and the prince of
Orange's Dutch contingent. These extended across the Trouee
d'Aulnois as soon as the combined attack of Lottum and
Schulenburg opened. The general advance was covered by
a heavy cannonade, and the salient of the Taisniere wood was
duly attacked on its two faces by the Prussians and Austrians
about 9 a.m. They encountered a sterner resistance than
in any of the battles and combats of the past seven campaigns,
for on this field the defenders were fighting, not as hitherto
for the interests of their king, but to defend their country,
and the regiments of Picardie and Champagne which held
the salient were the oldest and most famous of the French
line. Lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge, again
and again without success, until three British battalions had
to be sent to reinforce him, and Marlborough placed himself
with a corps of cavalry in close support. At last the entrench-
ments were stormed. Schulenburg, with the Austrians, had
by this time fought his way through the woods and under-
growth, and the united force pressed back the French farther
and farther into the wood. Still, so stubborn was the defence
and so dense the wood that the impetus of the assault died
away and the troops on both sides broke up into small dis-
connected bodies, fighting too fiercely to be amenable to superior
control.
But the French were not reinforced from their right wing
as Villars expected. The prince of Orange, far from merely
observing the hostile right as he had been ordered to do,
committed his corps, very early in the battle, to a serious assault
upon it, which Boufflers repulsed with enormous loss. The
Dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on this
day, and the memory of Malplaquet was strong even at Fontenoy
nearly forty years afterwards. Some Hanoverian troops
which took part in this futile attack suffered equally heavily.
The only advantage to the Allies an advantage which, as
it happened, counted for much was that Boufflers did not
dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left wing.
Thanks to this the Austrians and Prussians, with the English
detached to their aid, made steady progress in the wood of
Taisniere. Villars launched the " Irish brigade " to check
the advance of the Allies, and this famous corps charged into
the forest. Villars, Eugene and Marlborough personally led
their troops in the encounter which followed. Eugene was
wounded, but refused to quit the field. Villars was more
seriously hurt, and after trying in vain to direct the fighting
from a chair was carried insensible from the field. At this
crisis General Withers, who commanded the force that had
Sketch plan of
MALPLAQUET
V
After Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History oi the British Army, by permission of
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
been ordered to turn the French extreme left, and had fought
his way through the forest, appeared on the scene. The British
1 8th regiment (Royal Irish), encountering the French Royal
Irlandais, put it to the rout, and Villars's counterstroke was
at an end. The French maintained themselves on this side
only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right,
and this gave the Allied centre the opportunity which the
prince of Orange had so rashly anticipated. The great attack
over the open was carried out, in spite of the previous repulse,
with the greatest determination. Preceded by forty guns,
the corps of the prince of Orange and Lord Orkney swiftly
carried the first line of works. The Allied cavalry then pushed
out to the front, and horse, foot and artillery were combined
in the last advance. Boufflers's cavalry masses, coming into
play for the first time, fought hard, and the struggle fluctuated
with the arrival of successive reserves on either side, but in
the end, shortly before 3 p.m., Boufflers (who had been in
command since Villars's fall) decided to retreat. The Allies
had no troops left intact for the pursuit, and those engaged
had expended their last efforts. Moreover Boufflers, experienced
soldier as he was, drew off his men before they had lost their
order and discipline.
MALSTATT-BU REACH MALT
499
Thus this " very murdering battle " as Marlborough called
it the last and greatest pitched battle of the war was almost
barren of results. The Allies lost not less than twenty thousand
men, or nearly a quarter of the whole force, the thirty battalions
of the Dutch infantry losing half their numbers. On the French
side there were some twelve thousand casualties. If further
evidence were necessary to prove that the French fought their
hardest, it could be found in the fact that whereas in almost
every other battle, from 1660 to 1792, there were deserters
and prisoners by the thousand, at Malplaquet only 500 of the
French fell into the hands of the victors unwounded.
MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province on the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which
separates it from Saarbriicken. Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies
in the midst of an important coal-mining and industrial district,
and is itself little more than a long and narrow row of manu-
factories and workmen's houses. The largest factories are
engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is
a large wharf on the river for the export of coil.
Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however,
were afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbriicken, and in
1818 Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint
population of only about 800. About the middle of the century
the population began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the
development of the mining industry of the district and the extension
of the railway system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to
form a town.
MALT (O. Eng., mealt; 0. Sax., mall; O. Teut., mallos; Mod.
Ger., Malz; Scand., malt; probably derived from the Sanskrit
mrdu, soft, thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw
grain rendered soft or tender), the name given to grain in which
germination has been caused to proceed to a certain stage and
has then been arrested by the removal of water and the appli-
cation of heat. During this limited germination enzymes are
developed (see FERMENTATION), and the constituents of the grain
modified so that the finished malt, when ground and submitted
to the mashing process (see BREWING), differs from the originaj
raw grain in that the greater portion dissolves. This solubility
is, however, a direct one to a slight extent only; it is due for
the most part to the action of the malt enzymes, diastase, &c.
on the constituents of the grain, the main portion of which are
of themselves insoluble. Thus starch, the main constituent of
all graminaceous seeds, probably exists in the same condition
in raw grain and in malt. When however the malt is mashed,
the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase, and converted
by the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds,
e.g. the crystalline sugar, maltose, and a number of gummy
substances known as maltodextrins. But to a certain extent
starch and other carbohydrate substances are rendered directly
soluble and diffusible during the malting process, some of
the products serving the respiratory needs of the growing germ,
others being assimilated by the plantlet and reconverted into
reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and rootlets,
whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the finished
malt. Similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of
the grain, the proteins, are broken down and rendered soluble
by proteolytic enzymes, the products being assimilated to a
certain extent by the germ and rootlets, by the cells of which
they are again built up into complex proteins, whilst others
remain in their simplified form. It is now known that pro-
teolytic enzymes exist in finished malt, and that, when the
mashing process is conducted under certain conditions, these
are able to degrade and render soluble some of the higher proteins
present in the malt. When germination is allowed to proceed
as it does when the grain is planted in the soil, the whole of
the contents are rendered soluble by degrees and in turn assimi-
lated by the growing plantlet. By the limited germination
which constitutes the malting process, however, the balance
of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from 15 to
35% of the total weight of the corn.
Although other seeds of the natural order Graminete are
occasionally malted, the greater portion of malt is made from
the various species of Hordeum, known by the name of barley
(?..), bigg, or bere. Indeed ordinary beer derives its character-
istic flavour to the greatest extent from barley malt. A small
proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is sometimes used
in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of beer, whilst
rye, maize, and even rice are occasionally malted. Barley
is, however, the grain best adapted for making malt intended
for brewing beer, and accordingly some space will be devoted
to a description of those varieties of this grain which are used
by the brewer.
Barley belongs to the genus Hordeum, of which there are
numerous species and varieties. Linnaeus and the earlier
botanists recognized six species of cultivated barleys, but
modern botanists usually consider all cultivated barleys as
belonging to one species to which the name H. sativum has
been given. Kornicke regards H. spontaneum, a very long
thin-grained two-rowed barley (see below) which grows in
the East, as being the parent form; but E. S. Beaven inclines
to the view that wild species of more than one form were
originally used as food and subsequently cultivated. The
last-named author has drawn up a scheme of classification for
the varieties and races of cultivated barleys.
FIG. i. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4.
FIG. I. H. hexastichum.
a. Three spikelets in situ on the rachis, showing
short internodes.
b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost, and with
lower awns removed.
Six-rowed _ c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost, and with
barleys. lower awns removed.
FlG. 2. H. vulgare.
a. Three spikelets in situ on the rachis, showing long
internodes.
6. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost.
c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost.
FlG. 3. H. zeocriton.
a, d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing short
internodes.
b. Var. zeocrithum (fan barley). Spike converging.
Two-rowed J <- Var. erectum (Goldthorpe). Spike parallel.
barleys. FlG. 4. H. dislichum.
a. d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing long
internodes.
b. Var. nutans (Chevallier).
c. Ouchak barley.
Figures 1-4 redrawn from a paper by E. S. Beaven in Journ. Fed.
Inst. Brewing (1902), 8. 542.
In an ear of barley the primary axis or rachis is divided into
internodes of which there may be any number up to forty.
Each internode bears three single-flowered spikelets arranged
alternately on either side of the rachis. In the six-rowed,
varieties the whole of these spikelets attain maturity, whilst
in the two-rowed varieties only one on each side of the rachis,.
viz. the median, develops. British beer is brewed principally
from the malt made from home-grown two-rowed barleys.
Of late years, however, it has been found advantageous to
employ a proportion of malt made from the thinner and more
husky foreign barleys, mostly six-rowed varieties. The corns
of two-rowed barleys are as a rule plumper than those of six-
rowed barleys.
The most favourite barley for malting purposes grown in the
United Kingdom is the narrow-eared two-rowed H. distichum,
commonly known as Chevallier, from the name of the original cul-
tivator, the Rev. John Chevallier. Of late years the quantity of
500
MALT
barley of the so-called Goldthorpe type (H. zeocriton), used for malt-
ing, has increased. The paleae or outer coverings of the corns of
this variety are somewhat "greasy" in appearance, and do not
adhere so closely to the corn as in the Chevallier. The corns of
Goldthorpe barley possess a small dimple or transverse furrow near
the basal end. Further the basal bristle or rachilla (the prolongation
of the axis or point from which the corn was originally developed)
isinvariably covered with long hairs, whilst in the case of Chevallier
it has generally very short hairs. In the variety of Chevallier known
as Archer, however, the rachilla has somewhat long hairs. Further
the corns of Chevallier barley lie nearly vertical, that is almost
parallel to the rachis, whereas in Goldthorpe they are spread out at
a greater angle, hence the name fan or peacock barley given to that
variety commonly known as sprat. It is believed by some brewers
that Goldthorpe barleys never yield malt of so high a quality as
do Chevallier barleys. On the other hand, when well matured.
Goldthorpes work evenly and freely on the malting floors; and from
an agricultural point of view they have the advantage of standing
up better against unfavourable weather conditions on account of
their stouter straws. Numerous fresh varieties of barley are con-
tinually being introduced as a result of artificial cross-fertilization,
but cross-fertilization rarely if ever occurs naturally.
Hungarian two-rowed barleys are excellent as regards quality,
and command a high price. The so-called Californian Chevallier
and Chilean Chevallier contain a certain admixture of the six-rowed
H. vulgare.
Of the imported thin barleys may be mentioned Brewing Cali-
fornian, Brewing Chilean, Danubian and Smyrna (Yerli), all for the
most part six-rowed varieties; also Ouchak, consisting principally
of a two-rowed variety. For the manufacture of grain spirit a malt
of high diastatic activity is required, and this is largely made from a
very thin barley shipped from Odessa.
In the common six-rowed English barley or Scottish here (H.
vulgare), the two lateral rows of spikelets springing from one side of
the rachis, either partially or entirely intersect and overlap the alter-
nate lateral spikelets which spring from the opposite side of the rachis.
This has given rise to the term " four-rowed barley." Figs. 1-4
show some typical barleys in the ear.
The production of new varieties by cross-fertilization has of late
years attained a degree of almost mathematical precision by the
application of the law of inheritance first discovered by Gregor
Mendel in 1865, and brought to light in 1901 independently by
de Vries, Correns and Tschermak.
Constitution of Barley. A grain of barley is shuttle-shaped;
the end containing the germ which was originally attached
to the rachis is known as the proximal end, whilst the opposite
end of the corn is called the distal end. A deep furrow runs
down the more convex side, which is accordingly denoted
the ventral side, the opposite side being distinguished as the
dorsal side. Within the ventral furrow at the proximal end
is the rachilla already referred to. The skin or husk of a
barleycorn consists of two paleae, one adhering to the dorsal
side (the palea inferior) and the other to the ventral side (the
palea superior); the former overlaps the edges of the latter.
The awn or beard is merely an elongation of the palea inferior.
If the two paleae are removed from a barleycorn after soaking
it in water, it will be seen that there are other skins completely
enveloping the embryo and endosperm. These are the true
skins, and are known as the pericarp and the testa respectively.
It may here be mentioned that A. J. Brown has shown recently
that the embryo and endosperm of a barleycorn are enclosed
in a semi-permeable membrane, i.e. one which allows the passage
of water to the interior of the corn, but not of certain salts
and acids. This property appears to be associated with one
of the layers of the testa. Next to these skins will be seen
the triple layer of thick-walled square-shaped aleurone cells.
The histology of the barleycorn is best studied by the exami-
nation of sections under the microscope. The grain consists
of two main portions, the embryo or germ, and the endo-
sperm, the storehouse of reserve materials for the growing
plant.
The accompanying illustrations show portions of longitudinal
sections of a barleycorn magnified to different degrees.
On examining fig. 5, which represents a section of the germ end
of a grain of barley cut through the ventral furrow, it will be noticed
that the rudimentary leaves, stem and roots are distinguishable.
The embryo lies embedded in a mass of cells, the part dividing it
from the endosperm being known as the scutellum. Special note
should be taken of the elongated cells known as the absorptive
epithelial layer, which has certain very important functions to fulfil
during the process of germination, notably in feeding the embryo
when it begins to develop into a young plant. Next to this, actually
between the scutellum and the endosperm, will be seen a layer of
empty cells. These at one time in the history and the development
of the corn contained starch granules, but this starch was absorbed
during its later development by the embryo. It will be observed
further that the endosperm is filled with a network of thin-walled
cells closely packed with starch granules, and smaller granules of
protein matter (fig. 6). Nearest the skin will be seen the triple
layer of aleurone cells already referred to (fig. 7).
FIG. 5. Median longitudinal section of a barleycorn showing
the germ and its appendages.
a, Rudimentary leaves or plu-
. mules;
b, Rudimentary stem;
c, Rudimentary root;
d, Empty starch cells of the
endosperm ;
e, Absorptive epithelial layer;
/, Compressed layer of empty
cells;
g, Starch cells (filled).
FIG. 6. Section showing absorptive epithelial layer more
highly magnified.
d, Walls of starch cells; g, Cells filled with starch gra-
e, Epithelial layer; nules;
/, Compressed layer of empty h. Cells of the scutellum.
cells ;
Germination. The barleycorn in its resting stage is in a
state which may be described as one of dormant vitality; it
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respires very slowly and thus loses weight during storage.
The best and driest barleys are said to lose i '3 % of their weight
in the first year, 0-9% in the second, and 0-5% in the third.
The loss is considerably more with coarse and damp samples.
When the grain is steeped this dormant vitality gives place
to that complicated series of processes comprised under the
general term germination. When germination begins, enzymes
are secreted, and these act on the reserve materials, starch
and proteins of the endosperm, converting them into simpler
compounds, capable of diffusing to various parts of the growing
germ. Following this, starch and proteins are re-formed, the
former being deposited in the tissues of the germ and in the
FIG. 7. Section showing the aleurone layer.
|, Starch cells; k, Layers which collectively cor.-
;, Aleurone layer; stitute the husk.
I Tigs. 5-7 from Sykes &' Ling, Principles and Practice of Brewing (1907), Charles
tlrillin & Co., Ltd.l
cells of the scutellum, which previously were almost free from
starch; the protein matter deposited in the latter disappears
to a considerable extent, and the protoplasmic content of
the cells assumes a very granular appearance. The pointed
mass of cells constituting the root-sheath is pushed forward
by the root which protrudes through the base of the grain.
It is at this stage that the barley is said by the maltster to " chit."
After the first rootlet has broken through the ends of the s'heath,
it is followed by others. The cotyledonary sheath begins to
elongate on the third or fourth day of germination and ruptures
the true covering of the seed; it then grows upwards between
this and the husk and forms the acrospire or " spire " of the
maltster.
According to Brown and Morris, when the first rootlet is breaking
through the sheath, starch begins to appear in the tissues of the grain,
also in the protoplasm of those cells which are nearest the epithelial
layer, and it gradually invades the deeper-seated cells. Further the
:ellulose walls of the endosperm, situated immediately above
the secretory layer, are partially dissolved, the dissolved matter
ssmg into the scutellum, there to be transformed into starch.
Brown and Morris state that this process gradually extends to the
Jllulose walls of the endosperm, and until these are affected there
s no evidence of any solvent action on the starch granules themselves.
Thus according to these authors the first enzyme to be formed is one
which dissolves cell walls, and it was consequently termed by them
cytohydrolyst." They assert further that the so-called mealy or
rnodified condition, which the maltster desires to bring about to the
ullest degree, depends on the extent to which the cell walls have been
fleeted, and they enter into a minute description of the entire dis-
appearance of these during the malting process. On the other hand
GrOM has pointed out that the action which takes place on the cell
walls of the endosperm during germination does not consist in their
omplete solution. Schulze has shown that these cell walls consist of
carbohydrates, an araban and a xylan. Grtiss states that the
i is completely dissolved, whilst the xylan is more or less un-
ed. I he cell walls become, however, transparent so that they
can only be seen in sections which have been stained; Brown and
lorns examined unstained sections. The writer (A. R. Ling) has
that the cell wall is present in the most friable and well
modified finished malt.
Condition Barley is bought in the open market solely
the evidence of certain external signs, and judgment can
nly be acquired by long experience. The corns should be
plump, even in size, and the colour should be uniform from
end to end. The sample should have a sweet odour, and it
should be dry to the touch. The presence of light or weevilled
corns may be detected by the fact that they float in water.
Careless threshing or dressing is responsible for much damage
done to barley. In this way many of the corns may be broken,
have the paleae partly stripped off or portions removed along
with the awn. All broken and dead corns are prone to become
mouldy on the malting floors, the contagion thus presented
becoming general. E. R. Moritz drew attention in 1895 to
the ill effects of close dressing, and more recently (1905) the
matter has been brought before the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society, chiefly through Montagu Baird, who with C. H.
Babington was instrumental in inducing the Board of Agri-
culture to publish a leaflet recommending more careful methods
of threshing barley. Close dressing was at one time practised
as a means of raising the bushel weight, and thus giving a
fictitious value to the barley. Immature barley feels cold
to the hand, has a greenish-yellow colour, and, when dry, a
starved wrinkled appearance. Over-ripeness in barley is
distinguished by a white dead appearance of the corn. Mature
or dry grains slip through the fingers more readily than unripe
or damp ones. The contents of the endosperm should present
a white friable or mealy appearance when the corns are bitten
or cut in two with a penknife. The condition of the grain
may be determined by means of a mechanical cutter, which
cuts a certain number of corns (fifty or more) at one time.
Some cutters are constructed to cut the corns transversely,
others to cut them longitudinally. The so-called transparency
test may be used for the same purpose. It is carried out in
an apparatus known as the diaphanoscope, which consists
of a box fitted with a sliding tray, furnished with a certain
number of shuttle-shaped holes (usually 500), each of such a
size as just to hold a barleycorn longitudinally. Into the
portion of the box below this tray an electric lamp is placed,
and the corns are looked at from above. Thoroughly mealy
corns are opaque, whilst steely corns are transparent. When
certain portions of a corn are steely, these present the appear-
ance of lakes. By this means the percentage of mealy, steely,
or half steely corns in a sample may readily be estimated.
E. Prior points out that steeliness of barley is of two kinds, one
of which disappears after the grain has been steeped and dried, and
therefore does not necessarily influence the malting value of the
sample, and the other which is permanent, and therefore retards
the modification of the corn. He proposed to determine what he
called the coefficient of mellowness of a sample of barley by means
of the formula:
in which A is the degree of mellowness, M is the percentage of mealy
corns in the original barley, and Mi is the percentage of mealy corns
after steeping and drying the barley. Prior points out that, generally
speaking, the degree of mellowness varies inversely as the protein
content.
The physical differences between steely and mealy grains were
first investigated by Johansen, who arrived at the conclusion that
mealiness is always accompanied by the presence of air spaces in
the endosperm. Munro and Beaven confirmed and extended this.
Their conclusions are as follow: " Mealy grains have a lower
specific gravity than steely grains, and contain a larger amount of
interstitial air. The total nitrogen content of mealy grains is less than
that of steely grains. Steely grains contain a relatively high pro-
portion of nitrogenous substances soluble (a) in 5% salt solution,
and (6) in alcohol of specific gravity 0-9. Mealy barley modifies
better than steely during germination. The process of drying damp
and under-matured barley intact at 100 F. produced an apparent
mellowing or maturation. Other things being equal, maturation,
which is physiologically a post-ripening process, is correlated with
the mealy appearance of the endosperm." H. T. Brown and his
collaborators point out that thin sections of steely corns when
examined under the microscope no longer exhibit a translucent appear
ance, but show the mealy properties as completely as if they had
been cut from a mealy grain, and they suggest that in a steely corn the
whole of the endosperm is under a state of tensile stress which cannot
be maintained in the thin sections. If, however, a thin section of
a steely barley be cemented to a slide with Canada balsam and then
pared away with a razor, steeliness and translucency may be pre-
served even in the thinnest sections. The mealy appearance in the
endosperm of barley is assumed to be a direct consequence of the
formation of interspaces around the cell-contents and within the
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cell walls. Under ordinary conditions it is conjectured that these
interspaces are filled with air, but it is pointed out that they can also
be- produced under circumstances which suggest that they are at
times vacuous or partly so. According to the last-mentioned
authors they appear to originate from a system of stresses and strains
induced within the endosperm by its gradual loss of water, a break
of continuity taking place which gives rise to these interspaces when
the cohesive power of the heterogeneous cell-contents falls below
a certain point. It is further suggested by them that the most
important factor in producing the stresses and strains is probably
the shrinkage of the starch granules as their water content is reduced
from, say, 40 to about 15 %. It is pointed out, however, that actual
discontinuity in the cell-contents can only take place when the
tensile strength of the protoplasmic matrix in which the starch
granules are embedded has been surpassed, and this being so it might
be anticipated that those cells which contain the larger amount
of protein material would probably best resist the internal stresses
and strains, a deduction in close agreement with observed facts,
steely grains being as a rule richer in protein than mealy grains.
Brown and his co-workers determine the coefficient of mealiness of
a barley as follows: Five hundred corns are cut transversely in a
corn cutter and the percentage of mealy, half mealy and steely corns
is noted. The number 100 is taken to represent complete mealiness,
I complete steeliness, and 50 the intermediate class. If the per-
centage of each class be multiplied by its special value, and the
sum of the products divided by ico, the result is the coefficient of
mealiness. By steeping and drying a very steely Scottish barley,
the coefficient of mealiness was raised from 29-7 to 87-1, whilst
concurrently the specific gravity fell from 1-417 to 1-289.
Barley even of the same kind varies widely in its chemical
composition, but on an average the proximate constituents
of British malting barleys lie within the following limits:
Moisture 18 12 per cent.
Nitrogenous matters expressed as proteins 8 15
Fat 2 2-5
Starch 60 65
Sugars 1-5 2-0
Gums i -7 2-0 ,,
Fibre (cellulose) 5 7
Ash 2 2-5
Any sample of barley which contains more than 20 % of
moisture would be considered damp. The late Professor
Lintner expressed the view several years ago that a good malting
barley should not contain more than 10 % of protein, but
R. Wahl asserts that in America six-rowed barleys containing
a far higher percentage of protein are used successfully, indeed
preferably, for malting purposes. The only precise knowledge
we possess of the protein compounds of barley is due to the
researches of T. B. Osborne. According to this observer,
barley contains the under-mentioned compounds of this class
in the following proportions:
. . ( Leucosin (albumin) )
Soluble in water ] Proteose v ' \ 0-30 per cent.
Soluble in salt solution: Edestin (globulin) . 1-95
OIL,- 0/11-1^ Hordei'n .
Soluble m 75% alcohol | InsolubleproteVn
Total 10-75
It should be pointed out here that the above are only average
values for the particular samples of barley investigated. Un-
doubtedly the nitrogenous constituents of different barleys vary
widely in nature as well as in amount.
Raw barley contains enzymes, thus diastase of translocation,
so called by Horace T. Brown and G. H. Morris, and catalase
(H. van Laer). Proteolytic enzymes appear only to arise
with the beginning of germination; but it has been asserted
that raw barley contains proenzymes (zymogens), which can
be rendered active by treatment with dilute lactic acid at an
appropriate temperature. The action of the diastase of raw
barley on starch has been studied by Julian L. Baker.
Barley should not be cut until it is properly ripe, but over-
ripeness is much more to be guarded against by the maltster
than premature cutting, as it is accompanied by a loss in germi-
native power. Moreover, unripe corn may to a certain extent
be matured in stack, whilst a great improvement in germinative
capacity is frequently produced by sweating. Very wet seasons
are prejudicial to the ripening of the grain, and when the latter
is stacked in too moist a condition it is apt to become what
is known as mow burnt. Especially is this the case with barleys
containing large percentages of nitrogen and of high enzymatic
activities. Such barleys are denoted " warm " by M. Delbriick
from their tendency to heat when stored in a moist condition.
The effect of this heating is exhibited in the corns becoming
black and discoloured at the tips; they are then said to be
magpied. Even in an otherwise dry season a large amount
of rain during harvest causes the corns to become " weathered,"
whilst some of them begin germinating and rot. At the same
time heavy dews at night whilst the barley lies cut in the field,
or even a sprinkling of rain, assists in mellowing the grain,
which often in consequence works the more freely on the malting
floors. Properly harvested barley is all the better for remaining
in stack for two or three months, as was the practice in former
years; if, however, it has been stacked too wet the sooner it
is broken down the better.
It is difficult to give any specific test for ripeness, but a series of
observations has been made by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe.
Samples of barley were taken from the field on the 2oth, 24th and
29th of July, and on the 2nd, 6th and loth of August, and preserved
in spirit so that they remained in the same state as when they were
gathered. Sections were then cut of these corns, when it was found
that the progress of maturation is attended by deformation and
ultimate disintegration of the cell nuclei. The change which is
denoted by the term nuclear senescence is said to begin in the starch-
containing cells, near the periphery of the corn, immediately under-
lying the layer next to the aleurone layer. This deformation is
followed by complete disintegration of the nucleus, and at the end
of seven or eight days nearly the whole of the endosperm has been
involved. Brown and Escombe state that when this nuclear test
is properly applied it stamps as immature those corns in a sample
which are manifestly unripe owing to premature desiccation as well
as those in which the ratio of nitrogen to carbohydrate is unduly
high, owing to an excess of nitrogenous manure in the soil, or to
sparser sowing with its consequent- reduction of root competition.
This method, interesting though it be, is not fitted for practical
use, and the agriculturist must rely as heretofore upon empirical
methods for deciding whether or not the grain has attained ripeness
or maturity.
The bushel weight is a useful criterion in arriving at an opinion
regarding the value of a sample of barley; but in basing judgment
upon this factor regard must be paid to the fact already mentioned
that if the grains be dressed closely the bushel weight is increased.
The reason of this is that with the removal of the awns the corns
pack more closely together. The best British malting barleys
should weigh 52-56 ft per bushel, the standard weight for malting
barleys being 56 ft.
During the storage of barley access of air is necessary,
otherwise the grain dies from asphyxiation. Sound barley
after being kiln-dried retains its vitality for a number of years;
but the statement that the corns found in the Egyptian mummy
cases, in which they had remained for several thousands of
years, were still capable of germination, is contrary to modern
experience. Moisture must also be carefully excluded, as it
initiates germination in a few cells only of the endosperm and
causes heating. A constant repetition of wetting such as may
take place on account of alterations of the atmospheric tem-
perature, which causes moisture to be deposited, in the form
of dew, may ultimately destroy the vitality and foster the
growth and development of mould fungi which usually grow
on broken and damaged corns. In this connexion the advantage
of screening and sweating of barley before storing it will be
apparent (see below).
An immense amount of damage iscaused to the grain, during storage,
by various insects, one of the most destructive of these being the
common weevil (Calandra granatia). When fully developed this
insect measures |th to jth of an inch in length, and is of a bright
chestnut colour. The larvae are fleshy legless grubs, shorter than
the perfect insect, with a series of tubercles along each side of the
body ; the head is round with strong jaws. The pupa is white, clear
and transparent, showing the form of the future weevil. The
female bores a hole in the grain with her snout and deposits an egg.
The larva when hatched lives on the contents of the grain and under-
goes its changes therein. Windisch asserts that only barley which
has ripened in the granary is attacked by weevil. Grain which is
only slightly attacked should be kilned at a temperature of 122 F.,
which destroys the weevil in all stages of development. To detect
weevil in a sample of barley, the grain should be spread out on a
sheet of white paper in bright sunlight. If weevils are present they
soon appear, and betake themselves to a position outside the sunlight,
to which they are averse. Treatment of the grain with carbon
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bisulphide has been suggested as a means of destroying weevil;
even if efficacious, however, such a process could not be recom-
mended on account of its danger, carbon bisulphide being highly
inflammable. The only practical means of ridding a granary or
shop of weevil is to clear out all the grain and leave it empty for a
year or more.
The vitality of barley may be determined by causing a sample
to germinate in any of the well-known forms of apparatus
devised for that purpose, and counting the percentage of germi-
nating and idle corns. The germinative capacity of a sample
of barley may frequently be raised by sweating (see below),
which, as already mentioned, brings about a kind of artificial
maturation.
Malting. There are two systems of malting used in England :
floor malting and pneumatic or drum malting. These systems
will be described separately.
A floor malting consists of a rectangular building of several
storeys, having the cisterns at one end and the kilns at the other.
The uppermost floor is devoted to barley.
The capacity of a malting is described by the number of
quarters which are put through it every four days. A fifty
quarter malting does not merely mean that the cisterns have a
capacity of fifty quarters, but that this quantity of barley
goes through the house every four days. The average time the
germinating barley is on the floors is twelve days, and, as a
rule, kilning occupies four days. If, as sometimes happens,
the malt has to be kept on the floors thirteen, fourteen, fifteen
days, or even longer, the malting is not being worked at the
capacity under which it is described, and the kilns may remain
unused for a day or more. Conversely, when the malt is loaded
at less than twelve days, a day or two has to be missed in steep-
ing. In the former case when the kilns are not being used
for drying and curing malt, advantage may be taken to utilize
them for sweating barley.
Steeping cisterns were formerly rectangular vessels, of slate,
brick or cement, from which the barley had to be discharged
by shovelling it out. The forms approved most at the present
FIG. 8. Longitudinal section of 200 quarter malting at Mortlake. (Julian L. Baker, architect.)
Figure 8 shows a longitudinal section of Messrs Watney, Combe,
Reid & Co.'s 200 quarter malting at Mortlake. The barley is carried
to the top of the building by the elevator A, where the screening
and dressing machinery is situated. After leaving these machines
the grain is conveyed on bands to the barley floors B and C. The
floor C contains also the steeping cisterns. The six working floors
are D, E, F, G, H, K. The floors are ventilated by louvres, N,
N, N. The cisterns are connected to the floors by means of plugs.
The " pieces," as they are termed, of germinating barley are
gradually worked along the floors to the kilns M, M, on to which
they are loaded by rotary bands. The fire-places O, O, are arranged
so that the draught may be easily controlled. The hot air and
products of combustion pass up the shafts P, P, to the hot-air
chamber R, R, where they strike the baffle plates S, S. These
plates disperse the hot air and gases evenly beneath the kiln floors
T, T, through the green malt. After drying and curing, the malt
is allowed to cool and is then carried by bands to the floor U, where
by suitable machinery the coombs or rootlets are removed. The
finished malt is stored in the bins V, V, V.
On arrival at the malting the barley has to be put through
the following operations seriatim: receiving, hoisting and
weighing, rough screening, drying and sweating, storing until
required for use, screening, grading and removing broken corns,
steeping, couching, flooring, withering, drying and curing,
dressing and polishing, storing, weighing, sacking and dis-
charging the finished malt.
In sweating barley the temperature should not be allowed
to rise above 120 F.; it is usually conducted at 100 F.; and
subsequently the barley should be stored for some weeks before
it is steeped.
day are conical and constructed of iron; they have arrangements
at the apex of the cone, the lower portion, for discharging the
grain by gravitation. The steeping period ranges from 48
to 70 hours; it varies according to the kind of barley, and the
time of the year. In some of the older mailings there are
no arrangements for heating the steep water, and in the winter
steeping has occasionally to be performed with water at a
temperature near its freezing-point. Steeping should be
carried out at a temperature as near as possible to 55 and
not higher than 60 F. The usual practice is to fill the cistern
up to a certain height with water and throw the barley into
it, stirring it until it is about level; the heavy corns will then
sink directly to the bottom, whilst the light corns and refuse
float on the surface and may be skimmed off. During the
time the barley remains in the cistern it is usual to change the
steep water two or three times, generally at intervals of twelve
hours or tides. The advantage of this is not merely to keep
the grain fresh and sweet, but to bring it into contact with the
air during the time it is taking up water. Aeration of the
steep has long been recognized in Germany as promoting germi-
nation, and several arrangements are on the market enabling
air to be passed through the grain while it is in the cistern.
It has been recommended by Graham, Stopes, Moritz and
Morris, and experimental evidence as to its beneficial effects
has been published by Windisch, Bleisch, Will, and Baker and
Dick. When the corn is steep ripe it contains some 60% of
water. Steeping does not consist, however, merely in the
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imbibition of a certain amount of water; in order to bring
about germination this water must remain within the corn a
certain length of time. Thus, although it is quite possible
to force the necessary amount of water into the grain in less
than the 48-70 hours usually taken up by the steeping process,
the grain is not steep-ripe until certain changes initiated by
the water have taken place, and' these require time for their
completion. The following average data are useful to remember
in connexion with the steeping process:
Amount of w.ater in steep-ripe barley (about) 60%.
Matter removed from barley during steeping (about) 1-5 %.
Increase in volume of barley due to water absorption (about)
18-20 %.
There has been much discussion as to the influence of saline matters
in water on the steeping process. The late Professor Lintner stated
that common salt in water tended to extract the nitrogenous con-
stituents of the grain, but impeded its germination. Mills and
Pettigrew found that waters containing calcium salts extracted a
minimum of nitrogenous compounds from the barley; they also came
to the conclusion that the esteem in which the Lichfield water is
held for steeping purposes is due to the presence of nitrates which,
they assert, have a stimulating effect on the subsequent germination
of the grain. The writer has added lime-water to the extent of one-
third of the total volume of water at the first change, believing
it to promote regularity of germination. Bearing in mind, however,
the observations of Adrian J. Brown, that the barleycorn is enclosed
in a membrane permeable to water but impermeable to most salts,
it is difficult to see how the saline constituents of water can have
any effect except in removing matter from the external portions
of the grain and on those corns which are broken. The apparent
beneficial effect of lime-water in the steep is probably entirely due to
the removal of matters from the husks or paleae.
Malting floors may be constructed of cement, tiles or slate,
the two former being preferable to the latter. Ford, in 1849,
recommended 200 sq. ft. per quarter of barley steeped as the area
of the working floors, and he was quite convinced of the necessity
of allowing ample floor room, so that the grain could be worked
on the slow, cool system. Subsequently, however, maltsters
reduced their floor area, and put the grain rapidly through the
malting, thus producing what is termed " forced " malt. This
kind of malt was, however, condemned by practical brewers,
and a chemical test whereby forcing could be detected having
been devised by E. R. Moritz and G. H. Morris, maltsters
have been compelled again to increase the area of their work-
ing floors. At the present time the approved area may be
placed at 175-200 sq. ft. per quarter of barley steeped. The
area is, however, largely ruled by the kind of barley to be
malted.
After the barley has been thrown out of the cistern it is made
up in a rectangular heap 16-20 in. deep, called the " couch ";
the object of this is to enable it to gather heat and so start ger-
minating. It usually remains in couch for 1 2-24 hours, until in
fact the interior portion of the heap registers a temperature of
about 60 F. During the days of the malt tax the exciseman
gauged the quantity of the barley while it was in the couch.
After couching the barley is spreatl thinly and evenly on the
floor, forming what is known as the young floor or No. i
piece. The first visible sign of germination is the sprouting of
the rootlet, termed " chitting," and this occurs either while the
grain is on the couch or on the young floor. As already mentioned,
it may be quickened by aerating the grain in the cistern. From
the time the barley is first cast out of .the cistern up to the stage
of the young floor, or No. i piece, it has a pleasant ethereal
odour resembling apples. Drs Thomson, Hope and Coventry
stated in the earlier part of the igth century that they distilled
" spirits " from germinating barley at this stage. In the light
of our present knowledge it would not be surprising if alcoholic
fermentation were proved to occur within the grain at this stage
since intramolecular or anaerobic respiration in certain vegetables
has been found to be due to alcoholic fermentation.
The thickness at which the young floor is spread depends upon
the outside temperature and the nature of the barley. If the
weather be warm, or if there be a tendency for the barley to heat
the piece must be spread all the thinner. At this stage the
grain loses its external wet appearance. When spread too thickly
he grain will begin to sweat, and the rootlets will be thrown
out suddenly and unevenly. As a rule, under these circum-
stances, the rootlets will be long and thin, when they are said
.o be " wild." A piece which has been allowed to get into this
condition must at once be spread thinner. If the sweating has
not continued long, the harm done may be confined to increased
oss by respiration. The young floor is usually turned with a
)lough twice during twelve hours, and it may be forked between
whiles, but no hard and fast rule can be laid down as to when
this is necessary; it must be left to the maltster's judgment,
as it depends entirely on what is going on within the grain. The
object of turning is in the first place to aerate the grain and
: reshen it, secondly to check excessive rise of temperature, and
thirdly to promote evenness of growth. Too frequent turning
s not to be advised. After remaining four days on the young
Joor three or four rootlets should have appeared, and the aero-
spire should have begun to grow up the back of the corn. The
apple-like odour of the piece then gives place to one resembling
:hat of the common rush, and this should continue the whole
time that the malt remains on the floor. On the fifth day the
piece is next moved to No. 2 position, a stage nearer the kiln.
It is here that sprinkling is resorted to when necessary. The
amount of sprinkling and the time it is given cannot be exactly
prescribed. The amount may vary from two to five gallons per
quarter, and it should only be given when the rootlets, which
ought to be short and curly, and five or more in number, show
signs of losing their freshness. If an excessive amount of sprink-
ling be given forced growth ensues. It is preferable not to add
the whole of the water at one time, but to divide it over two
lots; and immediately after the piece has been sprinkled it should
be thoroughly and carefully mixed, otherwise some of the grain
will receive an undue proportion of water. When all the sprink-
ling water has been given to the piece, which as a rule should not
be done later than at the sixth or seventh day of flooring, the
temperature should be kept down to about 55 F. by turning.
Too frequent turning may, however, detach the rootlet, and it
may cause the grain to lose its vitality prematurely, so that
growth of the acrospire stops.
By about the eighth day of flooring the acrospire should be
about three-quarters up the corn. After this the germinating
corn is moved forward to No. 3 piece, which is at first
spread as thinly on the floors as in the previous pieces. Here
it gradually dries and incipient withering of the rootlets sets
in. The only treatment which is now given to the grain
is to heap it up thicker and thicker by degrees until it is
ready for loading on the kiln. This increase in thickness of
the piece (now called the old piece) should not be too sudden,
especially if the grain be fresh in appearance and contain
a large quantity of water. When the piece is thickened up
to say 10 in. in depth, while it is in a very moist condi-
tion, heating and sweating take place, with additional growth
of acrospire and rootlet. Under such forcing conditions
a large production of sugar and degradation of the proteins
will take place. When, however, the moisture has been gradu-
ally reduced before thickening up, the rootlet dies off; and al-
though increase of temperature may occur, this is accompanied
by little or no further growth of the acrospire, action being con-
fined to the mellowing of the grain by the enzymes. When the
malt is ready for loading on the kiln it should be possible to
break down the contents of each corn between the thumb and
finger. Opinions differ as to what the final temperature on the
withering floor should be. If the moisture content of the malt
be about 50 %, the piece must be kept thin to avoid sweating.
But under these conditions mellowing does not occur, hence the
necessity of reducing the moisture content gradually after the
last sprinkling water has been given. When the process has
been conducted properly the temperature of the old piece may be
allowed to rise as high as 70 F. during the six hours previous to
loading. The moisture content of the green malt when loaded
should not be much above 40 %.
The endosperm of green malt which is ready for the kiln
should be soft and mealy, and should not exude moisture when
MALT
505
pressed between the thumb-nails, but should crumble and dis-
integrate to a chalky mass having little or no adhesiveness.
The foregoing observations are not to be regarded as hard and
fast rules, but they are simply intended to give some indications of
the malting process when it proceeds on normal lines; it may be that
on account of the presence of damaged corns the piece begins to
develop 'mould by about the tenth day, and it then has to be kept
thin and sometimes even loaded on kiln prematurely.
The malt made for grain distillers, in which a high diastatic
activity is required, is manufactured on quite different lines
from those above indicated. It is often sprinkled late, and loaded
on kiln often in a sodden condition. In some cases sprinkling
on kiln is resorted to, but it is doubtful if this leads to the desired
object. Other things being equal, the smaller the corns i.e
the greater number of embryos in a given weight the higher the
diastatic activity of the malt. In selecting a barley for the pro-
duction of highly diastatic malt, the diastatic power of the
original raw grain is a factor of great importance.
Kilning. When loaded on kiln, malt intended for brewing
ale and stout is, if properly withered, in a moribund condition;
nevertheless, during the first stages of the kilning process a
certain amount of vital activity is manifested, and the malt
undergoes mellowing by the action of enzymes on the contents
of the endosperm. If the malt be loaded while the rootlets
appear fresh on account of the presence of too much moisture,
rapid growth of the acrospire ensues, giving rise to overshot
corns, known in Germany as " hussars." To check this the
moisture must be rapidly removed by the passage of large
volumes of air through the malt. But under such circumstances
mellowing does not occur. The ideal conditions of kilning are
when the malt has been properly withered on the floors before
loading, and, assuming that drying and curing occupy four days,
that 25-30 % of the moisture be removed very gradually, this
occupying the first three days, at the end of which the malt is
said to be hand-dry. The thickness at which the malt is spread
on the kiln should not exceed 7-8 in., and until hand-dry (that
is to say, reduced to a moisture content of 12-15%) it should
not be turned; if moved at all (and that only is necessary when
reek occurs) , it should only be lightly forked. The rate at which
the temperature is raised depends largely on the kind of malt to
be made and the construction of the kiln. If high flavour and
colour are required, these are produced by keeping the malt for
several hours near a temperature of 160 F. while it still con-
tains 12-15% of moisture. If more than this amount of mois-
ture be present when the temperature reaches the limit just
mentioned, the conditions known as stewing would obtain, with
the result that " forced " malt would be produced. A certain
amount of colour is produced at the final temperature to which
the malt is raised; but when such means are relied upon for the
production of the greater part of the colour, reduction of extract
and deficiency of flavour follow, the colour being then almost
exclusively the result of caramelization of the carbohydrates.
The so-called curing stage constitutes the last part of the
kilning process, and the malt must then be turned frequently to
ensure uniformity of action. Mechanical turners are exceedingly
useful for this purpose. Curing in a drum, as in the so-called pneu-
matic malting process (see below), also effects satisfactory curing.
The following table will give an idea of the kilning temperatures
usually employed for the three kinds of malt mentioned, but it must
be remembered that these temperatures are largely regulated by the
construction of the kiln and the amount of draught available. In
this connexion it may be mentioned that the final curing temperature
is not necessarily a criterion of the tint of the malt. A malt may have
been finished off at a very high temperature and still be a pale malt,
provided the moisture percentage has been sufficiently reduced in the
initial stages of kilning.
Running
Pale Malt.
1st day temp. 90-100 F.
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
4th
4 th
4 th
IOO-I2O
120-130(10 hrs.)
I30-i8o( 8
i8o-igo( 6
drop to 170(12
Ale Malt.
90-100 F.
100-120
s.) 120-130(6 hr
) 130-150(12
) I50-i8o( 6
) 180-190(12
i 90-200 ( 6
drop to i8o( 6
Amber Malt.
90-100 F.
100-130
s.) I30-iso( 6 hi
) 150-160(12 ,
) i6o-i8o( 6 ,
) 180-200(12 ,
) 2OO-22O( 6 ,
) drop to I9o( 6 ,
s.
The average laboratory values obtained from malts of the descrip-
tions after about two months' storage should be as follows :
Running
Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt.
Extract per standard quarter of
336 Ib 95-98 ft 94-96 ft 94-96 ft
Moisture about 2-0% in each case
Diastatic activity (Lintner) . . 30-35 20-30 8-10
Tint (Lovibond 52 series neutral). 3-5 6-8 20-25
Metabolic Changes. All through the malting process metabolic
changes are proceeding, in which both carbohydrates and proteins
are concerned. In its resting stage the embryo of a barley-
corn is generally free from starch; as soon as germination sets
in, however, starch appears in the scutellum, while the amount
of sucrose there present increases, these being apparently formed
from maltose originating from the action of diastase on the starch
of the endosperm. Sucrose also augments in the aleurone layer,
but starch is never formed in the aleurone cells. These changes
occur when the malt is first loaded on kiln; indeed, at no part of
the malting process is there greater physiological activity.
. Kilning has been specially studied by J. Griiss, who divides the
process into four stages, the first being that at which the tempera-
ture limit is 113 F. It is characterized by a continuation of the
living processes, especially growth of the acrospire, which, as
already stated, proceeds too far if the malt be loaded too wet. In
any case the rootlet dies away. The metabolism of the carbo-
hydrates already mentioned is accompanied by that of the nitro-
genous constituents, the reserve protein of the sub-aleurone
layer being attacked by proteolytic enzymes and broken down
into simpler compounds. This is a most important matter
from the point of view of the brewing value of barley, for the
degradation products of the proteins are necessary constituents
of wort as yeast food. Moreover, unless proper modification
of these protein bodies occurs it is impossible to produce tender
malt. A barley which contains a high percentage of reserve
protein is as a rule unfitted for malting purposes, and indeed, the
higher the protein content the greater the difficulty the maltster
experiences in dealing with it. Protein hydrolysis requires
the presence of a certain amount of moisture, and if this be
removed too rapidly by a forced draught at the early stages of
kilning the proteolytic enzymes cannot perform their function.
If, on the other hand, the grain be loaded in too moist a condition,
and the temperature be raised too quickly, the proteolytic
enzymes lose their activity and the proteins remain for the most
part unattacked. When germination is allowed to proceed on
the kiln too great degradation of the protein occurs, and the malt
is liable to produce fretty beers, on account of the presence of an
excessive amount of nitrogenous nutritive matter, which leads
to the development of disease organisms.
The second stage of the kilning process, according to Griiss,
is that at which the temperatures range from 113 to 167 F.
The life of the corn is now suspended, but enzymatic processes
continue. The starch is further saccharified, and the dividing
line of the aleurone layer at the furrow is attacked, as are also
the cell walls of the endosperm, which are still intact, these being
partially converted into gummy substances. This change,
however, also requires the presence of a certain amount of mois-
ture. If too much air be passed through the malt at this stage
the above-named dividing partition of the cell walls is not
attacked. The air may expand the grain to some extent and
produce malt of a low bushel weight, which, however, is not
properly modified and cannot give satisfactory results in
practice.
During the third stage of kilning, an enzyme, which Griiss
claims to have recognized, and which he denotes spermoxidase,
is said to exert its activity.
Schonfeld has confirmed the discoveries of Griiss by practical
experiments.
Fuel. The fuel used for drying and curing malt is either anthra-
cite or coke, and the greatest care is necessary in selecting it on
account of its liability to contain arsenic, which is to a greater or
less extent an invariable constituent of all coal. The fuel used for
malting purposes should not contain more arsenic than Ath grain
per ft. Gas coke should on no account be used, unless it has oeen
MALT
proved to be sufficiently free from arsenic; but the best oven coke
frequently contains so little arsenic that it may be employed with
perfect safety, especially if it be mixed with a proportion (e.g. 5 %)
of milk of lime, which retains the arsenic as calcium arsenate. In
Germany malt is, as a rule, dried and cured with hot air, whilst in
Great Britain the products of combustion are passed through the
malt, as it is believed that they exert a beneficial influence on the
flavour. The proportion of fuel used for drying and curing malt
varies according to the quality of the fuel and the construction of the
kiln, but on an average it may be placed at 50-80 Ib per quarter.
Storing. After the malt has passed through the curing stage it is
generally heaped up lor a few hours. This is believed to increase its
flavour. The malt is then stripped from the kiln, and the rootlets,
technically known as the coombs, are removed. Formerly this was
effected by workmen treading the malt, who wore heavy boots for
the purpose. At the present time, however, the rootlets are usually
removed by machinery, special forms of which have been devised
the green malt is loaded on an ordinary kiln and the initial stages
of kilning (see above) conducted in the usual way; the curing,
however, may be carried out successfully in a special form of
drum.
Yield and Weight. The malting process is attended with a certain
amount of loss of dry substance of the barley, as follows :
Inthesteep ... 1-5 to 2-0%
By respiration on floors and on kilns . 3'O ,, 5-0%
Coombs 30,, 4-0%
Total 7-5 11-0%
In addition to this, barley, as already mentioned, contains from 15
to 20 % of moisture, whereas finished malt contains I to 2 %. The
total loss in weight which barley undergoes in the malting process
may be put down at from 17 to 28%. Since, however, malt is
lighter than barley (and the quantity of both was in former years
[From Sykes & Ling, Principlts and Practice oj Breit-ing (1907), Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.]
FIG. 9. Diagrammatic view of pneumatic malting, showing pneumatic washing and steeping cisterns.
for this as well as for dressing and polishing the malt. It is the
custom of some maltsters to store malt with the rootlets still attached ;
but this is an objectionable practice, since malt coombs attract
moisture, and the presence of more than 3% of moisture in malt
produces the condition known as " slackness." When the malt
is packed in bin it is often covered with a layer of coombs, which then
prevent access of atmospheric moisture. Malt, to preserve its good
qualities intact, should be stored in bins made as nearly as possible
air-tight, and it should never be placed in bin until it is quite cool.
It is probably wrong to store malt in bins adjacent to the kilns,
where it is kept at a higher temperature than that of the surrounding
atmosphere. During storage of the malt a kind of mellowing occurs,
the mechanism of which is not understood. It is, however, known
by practical brewers that the best results cannot be obtained when
new malt is used.
Premature Malting. Several years ago Galland suggested ger-
minating barley in a drum, his idea being to do away with handling
of the grain, and also to be independent of changes of atmospheric
temperature. The latest development of this system, the so-called
Galland-Henning process of pneumatic malting, has been improved
by Mr R. Blair Robertson, and a diagrammatic view of the interior
of one of these makings, showing the drums and conical steeping
cisterns, is shown in fig. 9.
The drums are provided with a perforated channel for the passage
of air through the malt, which is packed in the annular space between
this channel and outside wall of the drum. Each drum is capable
of revolving on its axis, and there are arrangements for passing
either moist, saturated or dry air through the malt. The system as
now improved is capable of producing some of the best malt,
especially if, after germination has been completed in the drums,
measured exclusively by volume), it frequently happens that a given
number of quarters of barley yields a larger number of quarters of
finished malt. When this happens it is usual to speak of an increase
having been obtained. At the present time weight replaces measure
for both barley and malt, and although it is usual to speak of the
quantity of grain in terms of quarters, what is meant is not the
measured quarter, but so many weighed standard quarters. The
standard quarter for English malting barley is 448 ft and for malt
336 ft. From this it will be seen that when a given number of
weighed quarters of barley yields the same number of quarters of
finished malt, the actual yield is 75 %, and there is then said to be
neither increase nor decrease. As a rule, in practical working the
yield of malt varies from 34% decrease to a 10% increase, corre-
sponding to an actual yield on the original barley of 72 to 82-5%
J. Baverstock, an old writer, says that finished malt should weigh
one-fifth less than the barley from which it is produced. This corre-
sponds to a malting increase of about 7 %, which is a high yield.
As a rule, foreign barley will give a greater malting increase than
English barley, because, on the one hand, the former usually contains
less moisture than the latter, and, further, because there is less loss
on the floors by respiration and rootlet growth.
The yield of malt from barley may be determined in the laboratory
in an extremely simple manner. Since every grain of barley must
yield a grain of malt, if we know the respective weights of a definite
number of barley and malt grains, provided that this number is
large enough to represent the average, then obviously this gives the
data requisite for calculating the yield of malt from barley. The
number of corns the weight of which is determined for this purpose
is usually 1000, and if the weight of this number be determined on
several different 1000 corns, the average will closely approximate
MALTA
507
to the truth. Instead of counting the corns by hand, an instrument
may be used for this purpose.
If 1000 corns of a barley were found to weigh 42 grammes, and
IOOO corns of a finished malt from the same bailey 32 grammes,
then the yield of malt is 32 * '-= 76-1, this corresponding to a
i % increase. Assuming that the moisture content of the barley
was 15% and that of the finished malt 2%, 100 grammes of malt
will contain 2 grammes of moisture, and 76-1 grammes will contain
7 =i-5 grammes moisture; therefore 76-1 grammes of malt
contain 76-1 1-5 = 74-6 grammes of dry matter. This was
obtained from 100 15 = 85 grammes of barley dry substance.
Hence 100 parts of barley dry substance will yield
74-6 X IPO _
= 87-7
corresponding with a loss of dry substance equal to 12-5 % of the
dry substance of the barley, or with a loss of 10-7 % on the barley
containing 15% of moisture.
The results obtained by this method of laboratory control when it
is accurately carried out agree very closely with those deduced from
the practical results of weighing the barley, malt and coombs in the
malting.
Special Malts. In addition to the kinds of malt considered in
what precedes, there are others mostly used for imparting specific
flavours and colour to beers and stout. These are crystal malt,
imperial malt, brown or blown malt, and black or roasted malt.
Crystal malt is grown for a shortened period on the floors, and then
placed in a wire cylinder, which is rotated over a fire so that it is
dried at a very high temperature. The weight per quarter is from
250 to 280 ft. Imperial malt is dried off on an ordinary kiln at a
final temperature of 240-270 F., but it is not allowed the usual length
of time on the withering floor. It is placed on the drying kiln in a
layer not exceeding one inch and a half in thickness. A moderate
heat from burnt wood is first applied until the bulk of the moisture
has been driven off, when the temperature is suddenly raised so that
the grains swell some 25% and the malt takes up a strong empy-
reumatic flavour from the products of combustion. This kind of
malt weighs 270-300 ft per quarter. Black or roasted malt is pre-
pared by roasting malt in a cylinder. Ford states that perfectly
malted corn gives a colour of less intensity and permanence than does
partially malted corn, and this has been confirmed by other observers.
A certain quantity of the so-called black malt is actually made from
raw barley, but this gives a product of inferior flavour. The weight
per quarter of black malt varies as much as from 215 to 290 ft.
Valuation. -For the valuation of malt the following determina-
tions are usually carried out: Extract per standard quarter,
moisture, diastatic activity by the Lintner process, tint, and matters
soluble in cold water. The physical examination of malt is also a
matter of importance, inasmuch as direct evidence is obtained thereby
of the modification of the malt. Among the methods adopted for
this purpose may be mentioned counting the percentage of corns
in which the acrpspire has grown up to one-half, two-thirds and three-
fourths the entire length of the corn. In properly made malt the
modification of the endosperm should proceed pari passu with the
growth 'of the acrospire. The sinker test is also useful when carried
out in an intelligent manner. Those corns which sink in water
and lie flat are improperly modified. Normal malt has a specific
gravity less than water and the corns have equal density throughout ;
consequently they float horizontally in water. In forced samples
the proximal ends are frequently lighter than the distal ends, and the
corns float horizontally in water, with the germ directed upwards.
The latter, however, may in some cases fill with water, and the corns
lie flat or sink. This is a characteristic of over-modified malt.
It will be seen from these remarks that it is essential to carry out
the sinker test under standard conditions. The modification of the
malt may also be determined by means of the diaphanoscope already
referred to under Barley.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. M. W. Baird, Journ. Inst. Brewing (1905),
n, 431; J. L. Baker, Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans. (1902), 81, 1177;
The Brewing Industry; J. L. Baker and W. D. Dick, Journ. Inst.
Brewing (1905), 11, 380; J. Baverstock, Treatise on Brewing and
Malting (1824); E. S. Beaven, Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing (1902), 8,
542; R. H. Biffen, Journ. Inst. Brewing (1906), 12, 366; Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries (Leaflet 149); A. J. Brown, Annals of
Botany (1907), 21, 79; H. T. Brown and G. H. Morris, Journ. Chem.
Soc. Trans. (1890), 57, 458; H. T. Brown and others, Trans. Guinness
Research Lab. (1903), vol. pt. I. (1906), pt. II.; M. Delbruck, Journ.
Inst. Brewing (1906), 12, 642; Ford, A Treatise on Malting (1849);
C. Graham, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1874); J. Griiss,
Wochenschrift fur Brauerei (1895), 12, 1257; (1896), 13, 729; 1897),
14,321,409; (1898), 15,81,269; (1899), 16,519,621; (1902), 19,243;
W. Johannsen, Resume. Comptes rendus trav. lab. Carlsberg (1884),
2, 60; A. R. Ling, Brewers' Journal (1904), 40, 741 ; E. J. Mills and
I. B. Pettigrew, Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans. (1882), 41, 38; E. R.
Moritz, Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing (1895), 1, 228; E. R. Moritz and
G. H. Morris, A Textbook of the Science of Brewing (1891); J. M. H.
Munro and E. S. Beaven, Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1900), 11, pt. II.,
5; T. B. Osborne, Report of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station (1894) : H. Slopes, Malt and Malting (1895) ; W. J. Sykcs and
A. R. Ling, Principles and Practice of Brewing (1907); H. Van Laer
Bull, de la soc. chim. de Belgique (1905) , 337 ; R. Wahl, A mer. Brewers'
Rev. (1904), 18, 89. (A. R. L.*)
MALTA, the largest of the Maltese Islands, situated between
Europe and Africa, in the central channel which connects the
eastern and western basins of the Mediterranean Sea. The
group belongs to the British Empire. It extends over 29 m.,
and consists of Malta, 91 sq. m., Gozo (<?..) 20 sq. m., Comino
(set apart as a quarantine station) i sq. m., and the uninhabited
rocks called Cominotto and Filfla. Malta (lat. of Valletta
Observatory 35 53' 55* N., long. 14 30' 45* W.) is about 60 m.
from the nearest point of Sicily, 140 m. from the mainland of
Europe and 180 from Africa; it has a magnificent natural
harbour. From the dawn of maritime trade its possession has
been important to the strongest nations on the sea for the time
being.
Malta is about 17^ m. long by 8i broad; Gozo is 8f by 4! m.
This chain of islands stretches from N.E. to S.E. On the S. W. the
declivities towards the sea are steep, and in places rise abruptly
some 400 ft. from deep water. The general slope of these
ridges is towards the N.W., facing Sicily and snow-capped Etna,
the source of cool evening breezes. The Bingemma range,
rising 726 ft., is nearly at right angles to the axis of the main
island. The geological " Great Fault " stretches from sea to sea
at the foot of these hills. There are good anchorages in the
channels between Gozo and Comino, and between Comino and
Malta. In addition to the harbours of Valletta, there are in
Malta, facing N.W., the bays called Mellieha and St Paul's, the
inlets of the Salina, of Madalena, of St Julian and St Thomas;
on the S.E. there is the large bay of Marsa Scirocco. There
are landing places on the S.W. at Fomh-il-rih and Miggiarro.
Mount Sceberras (on which Valletta is built) is a precipitous
promontory about i m. long, pointing N.E. It rises out of deep
water; well-sheltered creeks indent the opposite shores on both
sides. The waters on the S.E. form the " Grand Harbour,"
having a narrow entrance between Ricasoli Point and Fort St
Elmo. The series of bays to the N.W., approached between the
points of Tigne and St Elmo, is known as the Marsamuscetto
(or Quarantine) Harbour.
Mighty fortifications and harbour works have assisted to
make this ideal situation an emporium of Mediterranean trade.
During the Napoleonic wars and the Crimean campaign the
Grand Harbour was frequently overcrowded with shipping.
The gradual supplanting of sail by steamships has made Malta
a coaling station of primary importance. But the tendency to
great length and size in modern vessels caused those responsible
for the civil administration towards the end of the igth century
to realize that the harbour accommodation was becoming inade-
quate for modern fleets and first-class liners. A breakwater was
therefore planned on the Monarch shoal, to double the available
anchorage area and increase the frontage of deep-water wharves
available in all weathers.
The Maltese Islands consist largely of Tertiary Limestone, with
somewhat variable beds of Crystalline Sandstone, Greensand and
Marl or Blue Clay. The series appears to be in line with Qeolory
similar formations at Tripoli in Africa, Cagliari in aad Water
Sardinia, and to the east of Marseilles. To the south- Supply.
east of the Great Fault (already mentioned) the beds
are more regular, comprising, in descending order, (a) Upper
Coralline Limestone; (6) Yellow, Black or Greensand; (c) Marl or
Blue Clay ; (d) White, Grey and Pale Yellow Sandstone; (e) Choco-
late-coloured nodules with shells, &c. ; (/) Yellow Sandstone; (e)
Lower Crystalline Limestone. The Lower Limestone probably
belongs to the Tongarian stage of the Oligocene series, and the
Upper Coralline Limestone to the Tortonian stage of the Miocene.
The beds are not folded. The general dip of the strata is from
W.S.W. to E.N.E. North of the Great Fault and at Comino the
level of the beds is about 400 ft. lower, bringing (c), the Marl, in
juxtaposition with (g), the semi-crystalline Limestone. There is
a system of lesser faults, parallel to the Great Fault, dividing the
area into a number of blocks, some of which have fallen more than
others. There are also indications of another series of _ faults
roughly parallel to the south-east coast, which point to the islands
being fragments of a former extensive plateau. The mammalian
remains found in Pleistocene deposits are of exceptional interest.
Among the more remarkable forms are a species of hippopotamus,
the elephant (including a pigmy variety), and a gigantic dormouse.
5 o8
MALTA
In the Coralline Limestone the following fossils have been noted :
Spondylus, Ostrea, Pecten, Cytherea, Area, Terebratula, Orthis,
Clauagella, Echinus, Cidaris, Nucleolites. Brissus, Spatangus; in the
Marl the Nautilus zigzag; in the Yellow, Black and Greensand shells
of Lenticulites complanatus, teeth and vertebrae of Squalidae and
Cetacea; in the Sandstone Vaginula depressa. Crystallaria, Nodosaria,
Brissus, Nucleolites, Pecten burdigallensis, Scalaria, Scutella subrotunda,
Spatangus, Nautilus, Ostrea navicularis and Pecten cristatus (see
Captain Spratt's work and papers by Lord Ducie and Dr Adams).
The Blue Clay forms, at the higher levels, a stratum impervious
to water, and holds up the rainfall, which soaks through the spongy
mass of the superimposed coralline formations. Hence arise the
springs which run perennially, several of which have been collected
into the gravitation water supplies of the Vignacourt and Fawara
aqueducts. The larger part of the water supply, however, is now
derived by pumping from strata at about sea-level. These strata
are generally impregnated with salt water, and are practically
impenetrable to the rain-water of less weight. The honeycomb of
rock, and capillary action, retard the lighter fresh-water from
sinking to the sea; the soakage from rain has therefore to move
horizontally, over the strata about sea-level, seeking outlets. At
this stage the rain-water is intercepted by wells, and by galleries
hewn for miles in the water-bearing rock. Large reservoirs assist
to store this water after it is raised, and to equalize its distribution.
The climate is, for the greater part of the year, temperate and
healthy; the thermometer records an annual mean of 67 F.
. Between June and September the temperature ranges
HI" f rom 75 to 9' tne mean for December, January and
February is 56; March, May and November are mild.
Pleasant north-east winds blow for an average of 150 days a year,
cool northerly winds for 31 days, east winds 70 days, west for 34 days.
The north-west " Gregale " (Euroclydpn of Acts xxvii. 14) blows
about the equinox, and occasionally, in the winter months, with
almost hurricane force for three days together; it is recorded to
have caused the drowning of 600 persons in the harbour in 1555.
This wind has been a constant menace to shipping at anchor; the
new breakwater on the Monarch Shoal was designed to resist its
ravages. The regular tides are hardly perceptible, but, under the
influence of barometric pressure and wind, the sea-level occasionally
varies as much as 2 ft. The average rainfall is 21 in. ; it is, however,
uncertain; periods of drought have extended over three years.
Snow is seen once or twice in a generation; violent hailstorms
occur. On the igth of October 1898, exceptionally large hailstones
fell one, over 4 in. in length, being brought to the governor,
Sir Arthur Fremantle, for inspection. Mediterranean (sometimes
called " Malta ") fever has been traced by Colonel David Bruce to
a Micrococcus melitensis. The supply of water under pressure is
widely distributed and excellent. There is a modern system of
drainage for the towns, and all sewerage has been intercepted from
the Grand Harbour. There are efficient hospitals and asylums, a
system of sanitary inspection, and modernized quarantine stations.
It is hardly possible to differentiate between imported and
indigenous plants. Among the marine flora may be mentioned
pl Porphyra laciniata, the edible laver; Codium tornentosum,
a coarse species; Padina pavonia, common in shallow
water; Ulva latissima; Haliseris polypodioides; Sargassum bacci-
ferum; the well-known gulf weed, probably transported from
the Atlantic; Zostera marina, forming dense beds in muddy
bays ; the roots are cast up by storms and are valuable to dress the
fields. Among the land plants may be noted the blue anemone;
the ranunculus along the road-sides, with a strong perfume of
violets; the Malta heath, which flowers at all seasons; Cynomorium
coccineum, the curious " Malta fungus," formerly so valued for
medicinal purposes that a guard was set for its preservation under
the rule of the Knights; the pheasant's-eye; three species of mallow
and geranium ; Oxalis cernua, a very troublesome imported weed ;
Lotus edulis; Scorpiurus subvillosa, wild and cultivated as forage;
two species of the horseshoe-vetch; the opium poppy; the yellow
and claret-coloured poppy; wild rose; Crataegus azarolus, of which
the fruit is delicious preserved; the ice-plant; squirting cucumber;
many species of Umbelliferae; Labiatae, to which the spicy flavour
of the honey (equal to that of Mt Hymettus) is ascribed; snap-
dragons; broom-rape; glass-wort; Salsola soda, which produces
when burnt a considerable amount of alkali ; there are fifteen species
of orchids; the gladiolus and iris are also found ; Urginia scilla, the
medicinal squill, abounds with its large bulbous roots near the sea;
seventeen species of sedges and seventy-seven grasses have been
recorded.
There are four species of lizard and three snakes, none of which
is venomous; a land tortoise, a turtle and a frog. Of birds very
Fauna ^ ew are indigenous; the jackdaw, blue solitary thrush,
spectacled warbler, the robin, kestrel and the herring-gull.
A bird known locally as Hangi, not met elsewhere in Europe, nests at
Filfla. Flights of quail and turtle doves, as well as teal and ducks,
stay long enough to afford sport. Of migratory birds over two hundred
species have been enumerated. The only wild mammalia in the
island are the hedgehogs, two species of weasel, the Norway rat,
and the domestic mouse. The Maltese dog was never wild and has
ceased to exist as a breed.
Malta has several species of zoophytes, sponges, mollusca and
Crustacea. Insect life is represented by plant-bugs, iocusto, crickets,
grasshoppers, cockroaches, dragon-flies, butterflies, numerous varie-
ties of moths, bees and mosquitoes.
Among the fish may be mentioned the tunny, dolphin, mackerel,
sardine, sea-bream, dentice and pagnell; wrasse, of exquisite rain-
bow hue and good for food ; members of the herring family, sardines,
anchovies, flying-fish, sea-pike; a few representatives of the cod
family, and some flat fish; soles (very rare); Cernus which grows
to large size; several species of grey and red mullet; eleven species
of Triglidae, including the beautiful flying gurnard whose colours
rival the angel-fish of the West Indies; and eighteen species of
mackerel, all migratory.
The real population of Malta, viz. of the country districts,
is to be differentiated from the cosmopolitan fringe of the cities.
There is continuous historical evidence that Malta Population
remains to-day what Diodorus Siculus described it in and
the ist century, "a colony of the Phoenicians";
this branch of the Caucasian race came down the great rivers
to the Persian Gulf and thence to Palestine. It carried the art
MALTA
and adjacent Islands
Eos i y Walker K.
of navigation through the Mediterranean, along the Atlantic
seaboard as far as Great Britain, leaving colonies along its path.
In prehistoric times one of these colonies displaced previous
inhabitants of Libyan origin. The similarity of the megalithic
temples of Malta and of Stonehenge connect along the shores of
western Europe the earliest evidence of Phoenician civilization.
Philology proves that, though called " Canaanites " from having
sojourned in that land, the Phoenicians have no racial connexion
with the African descendants of Ham. No subsequent invader
of Malta attempted to displace the Phoenician race in the country
districts. The Carthaginians governed settlements of kindred
races with a light hand; the Romans took over the Maltese as
" dedititii," not as a conquered race. Their conversion by St
Paul added difference of religion to the causes which prevented
mixture of race. The Arabs from Sicily came to eject the Byzan-
tine garrison; they treated the Maltese as friends, and were not
sufficiently numerous to colonize. The Normans came as fellow-
Christians and deliverers; they found very few Arabs in Malta.
The fallacy that Maltese is a dialect of Arabia has been lumi-
nously disproved by A. E. Caruana, SuW origine delta lingua
Maltese.
The upper classes h?ve Norman, Spanish and Italian origin.
The knights of St John of Jerusalem, commonly called " of
Malta," were drawn from the nobility of Catholic Europe. They
took vows of celibacy, but they frequently gave refuge in Malta
to relatives driven to seek asylum from feudal wars and dis-
turbances in their own lands. At the British occupation there
were about two dozen families bearing titles of nobility granted,
MALTA
509
or recognized, by the Grand Masters, and descending by primo-
geniture. These " privileges " were guaranteed, together with
the rights and religion of the islanders, when they became
British subjects, but no government has ever recognized papal
titles in Malta. High and low, all speak among themselves
the Phoenician Maltese, altogether different from the Italian
language; Italian was only spoken by 13-24 % in 1901. Such
Italian as is spoken by the lingering minority has marked di-
vergences of pronunciation and inflexion from the language
of Rome and Florence. In 1901, in addition to visitors and
the naval and military forces, 18,922 Maltese spoke English,
and the number has been rapidly increasing.
In appearance the Maltese are a handsome, well-formed
race, about the middle height, and well set up; they have escaped
the negroid contamination noticeable in Sicily, and their features
are less dark than the southern Italians. The women are gener-
ally smaller than the men, with black eyes, fine hair and grace-
ful carriage. They are a thrifty and industrious people, prolific
and devoted to their offspring, good-humoured, quick-tempered
and impressionable. The food of the working classes is princi-
pally bread, with oil, olives, cheese and fruit, sometimes fish,
but seldom meat; common wine is largely imported from southern
Europe. The Maltese are strict adherents to the Roman Catholic
religion, and enthusiastic observers of festivals, fasts and
ceremonials.
In 1906 the birth-rate was 40-68 per thousand, and the excess
of births over deaths 2637. In April 1907 the estimated popu-
lation was 206,690 of whom 21,911 were in Gozo. This pheno-
menal congestion of population gives interest to records of its
growth; in the loth century there were 16,767 inhabitants in
Malta and 4514 in Gozo; the total population in 1514 was 22,000.
Estimates made at the arrival of the knights (1530) varied from
15,000 to 25,000: it was then necessary to import annually
10,000 quarters of grain from Sicily. The population in 1551
was, Malta 24,000, Gozo 7000. In 1582, 20,000 quarters of
imported grain were required to avert famine. A census of
1590 makes the- population 30,500; in that year 3000 died of
want. The numbers rose in 1601 to 33,000; in 1614 to 41,084;
in 1632 to 50,113; in 1667 to 55,155; In 1667 11,000 are said to
have died of plague out of the total population. At the end
of the rule of the knights (1798) the population was estimated
at 100,000; sickness, famine and emigration during the blockade
of the French in Valletta probably reduced the inhabitants to
80,000. In 1829 the population was 114,236; in 1836, 119,878
(inclusive of the garrison); in 1873, 145,605; at the census in
1901 the civil population was 184,742. Sanitation decreases
the death-rate, religion keeps up the birth-rate. Nothing is
done to promote emigration or to introduce manufactures.
Towns and Villages. The capital is named after its founder, the
Grand Master de la Valette, but from its foundation it has been
called Valletta (pop. 1901, 24,685); it contains the palace of the
Grand Masters, the magnificent Auberges of the several " Langues "
of the Order, the unique cathedral of St John with the tombs of
the Knights and magnificent tapestries and marble work; a fine
opera house and hospital are conspicuous. Between the inner
fortifications of Valletta and the outer works, across the neck of
the peninsula, is the suburb of Floriana (pop. 7278). To the south-
east of Valletta, at the other side of the Grand Harbour, are the
Notabile, Citta Vecchia (q.v.), and Medina, with its suburb Rabat,
its population in 1901 was 7515; here are the catacombs and the
ancient cathedral of Malta. Across the Marsamuscetto Harbour
of Valletta is a considerable modern town called Sliema. The
villages of Malta are Mellieha, StPaul's Bay, Musta, Birchircara, Lia,
Atterd, Balzan, Naxaro, Gargur, Misida, S. Julian's, S. Giuseppe,
Dingli, Zebbug, Siggieui, Curmi, Luca, Tarxein, Zurrico, Crendi,
Micabbiba, Circop, Zabbar, Asciak, Zeitun, Gudia and Marsa
Scirocco. The chief town of Gozo is called Victoria, and there are
several small villages.
Industry and Trade. The area under cultivation in 1906 was
41,534 acres. As a rule the tillers of the soil live away from their
lands, in some neighbouring village. The fields are small and
composed of terraces by which the soil has been walled up along
the contours of the hills, with enormous labour, to save it from
being washed away. Viewed from the sea, the top of one wall
just appearing above the next produces a barren effect; but the
aspect of the land from a hill in early spring is a beautiful con-
trast of luxuriant verdure. It is estimated that there are about
10,000 small holdings averaging about four acres and intensely
cultivated. The grain crops are maize, wheat and barley; the
two latter are frequently sown together. In 1906, 13,000 acres
produced 17,975 quarters of wheat and 12,000 quarters of barley.
The principal fodder crops are green barley and a tall clover
called " sulla " (Hedysarum coronarttni), having a beautiful
purple blossom. Vegetables of all sorts are easily grown, and
a rotation of these is raised on land irrigated from wells and
springs. Potatoes and onions are grown for exportation at
seasons when they are scarce in northern Europe. The rent of
average land is about 2 an acre, of very good land over 3;
favoured spots, irrigated from running springs, are worth up to
12 an acre. Two, and often three, crops are raised in the year;
on irrigated land more than twice as many croppings are possible.
The presence of phosphates accounts for the fertility of a shallow
soil. There is a considerable area under vines, but it is generally
more profitable to sell the fruit as grapes than to convert it into
wine. Some of the best oranges in the world are grown, and
exported; but sufficient care is not taken to keep down insect
pests, and to replace old trees. Figs, apricots, nectarines and
peaches grow to perfection. Some cotton is raised as a rotation
crop, but no care is taken to improve the quality. The caroub
tree and the prickly pear are extensively cultivated. There are
exceptionally fine breeds of cattle, asses and goats; cows of a
large and very powerful build are used for ploughing. The
supply of butchers' meat has to be kept up by constant importa-
tions. More than two-thirds of the wheat comes from abroad;
fish, vegetables and fruit are also imported from Sicily in con-
siderable quantities. Excellent honey is produced in Malta; at
certain seasons tunny-fish and young dolphin (lampuca) are
abundant; other varieties of fish are caught all the year round.
About 5000 women and children are engaged in producing
Maltese lace. The weaving of cotton by hand-looms survives as
a languishing industry. Pottery is manufactured on a small
scale; ornamental carvings are made in Maltese stone and
exported to a limited extent. The principal resources of Malta
are derived from its being an important military station and the
headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. There are great naval
docks, refitting yards, magazines and stores on the south-east
side of the Grand Harbour; small vessels of war have also been
built here. Steamers of several lines call regularly, and there is
a daily mail to Syracuse. The shipping cleared in 1905-1906
was 3524 vessels of 3,718,168 tons. Internal communications
include a railway about eight miles long from Valletta to Nota-
bile; there are electric tramways and motor omnibus services
in several directions. The currency is English. Local weights
and measures include the cantar, 175 Ib; salm, one imperial
quarter; cafiso, 4^ gallons; canna, 6 ft. icj in.; the tumolo
(256 sq. ca.), about a third of an acre.
The principal exports of local produce are potatoes, cumin seed,
vegetables, oranges, goats and sheep, cotton goods and stone.
To keep alive, in a fair standard of comfort, the population of
206,690, food supplies have to be imported for nine and a half
months in the year. The annual value of exports would be set
off against imported food for about one month and a half. The
Maltese have to pay for food imports by imperial wages, earned
in connexion with naval and military services, by commercial
services to passing steamers and visitors, by earnings which
emigrants send home from northern Africa and elsewhere, and
by interest on investments of Maltese capital abroad. A long
absence of the Mediterranean fleet, and withdrawals of imperial
forces, produce immediate distress.
Finance. The financial position in 1906-1907 is indicated by
the following: Public revenue 513,594 (including 51,039 carried
to revenue from capital); expenditure 446,849; imports (actual),
1,219,819; imports in transit, 5,876,981; exports (actual), 123,510;
exports in transit 6,127,277; imports from the United Kingdom
(actual), 218,461. _ In March 1907 there were 8159 depositors in
the government savings bank, with 569,731 to their credit.
5 10
MALTA
Government. Malta is a crown colony, within the jurisdiction
of a high commissioner and a commander-in-chief, to whom im-
portant questions of policy are reserved; in other matters the
administration is under a military governor (3000), assisted
by a civil lieutenant-governor or chief secretary. There is an
executive council, now comprising eleven members with the
governor as president. The legislative council, under letters
patent of the 3rd of June 1903, is composed of the governor (presi-
dent), ten official members, and eight elected members. There
are eight electoral districts with a total of about 10,000 electors.
A voter is qualified on an income from property of 6, or by
paying rent to the same amount, or having the qualifications
required to serve as a common juror. There are no municipal
institutions. Letters patent, orders in council, and local ordi-
nances have the force of law. The laws of Justinian are still the
basis of the common law, the Code of Rohan is not altogether
abrogated, and considerable weight is still given to the Roman
Canon Law. The principal provisions of the Napoleonic Code
and some English enactments have been copied in a series of
ordinances forming the Statute Law. Latin was the language
of the courts till 1784, and was not completely supplanted by
Italian till 1815. The partial use of English (with illogical
limitations to the detriment of the Maltese-born British subjects
who speak English) was introduced by local ordinances and
orders in council at the end of the igth century. The Maltese,
of whom 86% cannot understand Italian, are still liable to be
tried, even for their lives, in Italian, to them a foreign language.
The endeavour to restrict juries to those who understand
Italian reveals glaring incongruities.
Education. There were, in 1906, 98 elementary day schools, and
33 night schools. The attendance on the 1st of September 1905
was 16,530, the percentage on those enrolled 84-6; the total enrol-
ment was 18,719. The average cost per pupil in these schools was
353. lid. a year on daily attendance. There is a secondary school
for girls in Valletta, and one for boys in Gozo. A lyceum in Malta
had an average attendance of 464. The number of students at the
university was about 150. The average cost per student in the
lyceum was 8, os. lid.; in the university 26, los. id. The fees in
these institutions are almost nominal, the middle-classes are thus
educated at the expense of the masses. In the l8th century the
government of the Knights and of the Inquisition did not favour
the education of the people, after 1800 British governors were slow
to make any substantial change. About the middle of the igth
century it began to be recognized that the education of the people
was more conducive to the safety of the fortress than to leave in
ignorance congested masses of southern race liable to be swayed
spasmodically by prejudice. At first an attempt was made to
make Maltese a literary language by adapting the Arabic characters
to record it in print. This failed for several reasons, the foremost
being that the language was not Arabic but Phoenician, and because
professors and teachers, whose personal ascendancy was based on
the official prominence of Italian, did not realize that educational
institutions existed for the rising generation rather than to provide
salaries for alien teachers and men behind the times. Various
educational schemes were proposed, but they were easier to propose
than to carry into effect: no one, except Mr Savona, had the ability
to urge English as the basis of instruction, and he agitated and was
installed as director of education and made a member of the Execu-
tive. The obstruction which he encountered alarmed him, and he
compromised by adopting a mixed system of both English and
Italian, part passu, as the basis of Maltese education; he resigned
after a brief effort. Mr Savona's attempt to teach the Maltese
children simultaneously two foreign languages (of which they were
quite ignorant, and their teachers only partially conversant) without
first teaching how to read and write the native Maltese systemati-
cally was continued for some years under an eminent archaeologist,
Dr A. A. Caruana, who became Director of Education. He began
to give some preference fo English indirectly. On his resignation
Sir G. Strickland established a new system of education based on
the principle of beginning from the bottom, by teaching to read and
write in Maltese as the medium for assimilating, at a further stage,
either English or Italian, one at a time, and aiming at imparting
general knowledge in colloquial English. A series of school books,
in the Maltese language printed in Roman characters, with transla-
tions in English interlined in different type, was produced at the
government printing office and sold at cost price. The parents
and guardians were called upon to select whether each child should
learn English or Italian next after learning reading, writing and
arithmetic in Maltese. About 89% recorded their preference in
favour of English at the outset ; then, as a result of violent political
agitation, this percentage was considerably lowered, but soon crept
up again. Teachers and professors who were weak in English,
lawyers, newspaper men and others, combined to deprive these
reforms of their legitimate consequence, viz. that after a number
of years English should be the language of the courts as well as of
education, and to protect those belonging to the old order of know-
ledge from the competition of young Maltese better educated than
themselves, whose rapid rise everywhere would be assured bv
knowing English thoroughly. An order in council was enacted in
1899 providing that no Maltese (except students of theology) should
thenceforth suffer any detriment through inability to pass examina-
tions in Italian, in either the schools or university, but the fraction
of the Maltese who claim to speak Italian (13-24%) still command
sufficient influence to hamper the full enjoyment of this emancipation
by the majority. In the university most of the textbooks used
are English, nevertheless many of the lectures are still delivered in
Italian for the convenience of some professors or to please the
politicians, rather than for the benefit of the students. The number
of students who enter the university without passing any examina-
tion in Italian is rapidly increasing; the longer the period of transi-
tion, the greater the detriment to the rising generation.
History and Antiquities. The earliest inhabitants of Malta
(Melita) and Gozo (Gaulos) belonged to a culture-circle
which included the whole of the western Mediterranean, and
to a race which perhaps originated from North Africa; and
it is they, and not the Phoenicians, who were the builders
of the remarkable megalithic monuments which these islands
contain, the Gigantia in Gozo, Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra
near Crendi, the rock-cut hypogeum of Halsaflieni, 1 and
the megalithic buildings on the hill of Corradino in Malta,
being the most noteworthy. The contemporaneity of these
structures has been demonstrated by the identity of the pottery
and other objects discovered in them, including some remarkable
steatopygic figures in stone, and it is clear that they belong to
the neolithic period, numerous flints, but no metal, having been
found. Those that have been mentioned seem to have been
sanctuaries (some of them in part dwelling-places) , but Halsaflieni
was an enormous ossuary, of which others may have existed in
other parts of the island; for the numerous rock-cut tombs
which are everywhere to be seen belong to the Phoenician and
Roman periods. In these buildings there is a great preference
for apsidal terminations to the internal chambers, and the
facades are as a rule slightly curved. The numerous niches,
generally containing sacrificial (?) tables, 2 are often approached
by window-like openings hewn out of one of the flat slabs by
which they are enclosed. The surface of the stones in the
interior is often pitted, as a form of ornamentation. Even the
barren islet of Comino, between Malta and Gozo, was inhabited
in prehistoric times.
To the Phoenician period, besides the tombs already mentioned,
belong some remains of houses and cisterns, and (probably) a
few round towers which are scattered about the island, while
the important Roman house at Cittavecchia is the finest
monument of this period in the islands.
The Carthaginians came to Malta in the 6th century B.C., not
as conquerors, but as friends of a sister Phoenician colony
(Freeman, Hist. Sicily, i. 255): Carthage in her struggle with
Rome was at last driven to levy oppressive tribute, where-
upon the Maltese gave up the Punic garrison to Titus Sempro-
nius under circumstances described by Livy (xxi. 51). The
Romans did not treat the Maltese as conquered enemies, and at
once gave them the privileges of a municipium; Cicero (in V err em)
refers to the Maltese as " Socii." Nothing was to be gained by
displacing the Phoenician inhabitants in a country from which
any race less thrifty would find life impossible by agriculture. On
the strength of a monument bearing his name, it has been sur-
mised that Hannibal was born in Malta, while his father was
governor-general of Sicily; he certainly did not die in Malta.
There is evidence from Cicero (in Verretn) that a very high
stage of manufacturing and commercial prosperity, attained in
1 See T. Zammit, The Halsaflieni prehistoric hypogeum at Casal
Paula, Malta (Malta, 1910).
2 Sometimes the pillar which represents the baetylus, which seems
to have been the object of worship (see A. J. Evans in Journal
of Hellenic Studies, xxi., 1901) stands free sometimes it serves
as support to the table stone which covers the niche, and sometimes
again monolithic tables occur. Conical stones (possibly themselves
baetyli) are also found.
MALTA
Carthaginian times, continued in Malta under the Romans.
The Phoenician temple of Juno, which stood on the site of
Fort St Angelo, is also mentioned by Valerius Maximus. An
inscription records the restoration of the temple of Proserpine
by Cheriston, a freed-man of Augustus and procurator of
Malta. Diodorus Siculus (L. V., c. 4) speaks of the im-
portance and ornamentation of Maltese dwellings, and to this
day remains of palaces and dwellings of the Roman period
indicate a high degree of civilization and wealth. When forced
to select a place of exile, Cicero was at first (ad Alt. III. 4,
X. i. 8, 9) attracted to Malta, over which he had ruled as quaes-
tor 75 B.C. Among his Maltese friends were Aulus Licinius and
Diodorus. Lucius Castricius is mentioned as a Roman governor
under Augustus. Publius was " chief of the island " when St
Paul was shipwrecked (Acts xxvii. 7) ; and is said to have become
the first Christian bishop of Malta. The site where the cathedral
at Notabile now stands is reputed to have been the residence of
Publius and to have been converted by him into the first Chris-
tian place of worship, which was rebuilt in 1090 by Count
Roger, the Norman conqueror of Malta. The Maltese cata-
combs are strikingly similar to those of Rome, and were likewise
used as places of burial and of refuge in time of persecution.
They contain clear indication of the interment of martyrs. St
Paul's Bay was the site of shipwreck of the apostle in A.D. 58;
the " topon diathalasson " referred to in Acts is the strait be-
tween Malta and the islet of Selmun. The claim that St Paul
was shipwrecked at Meleda off the Dalmatian coast, and not at
Malta, has been clearly set at rest, on nautical grounds, by Mr
Smith of Jordanhill (Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul, London,
1848). According to tradition and to St Chrysostom (Horn. 54)
the stay of the apostle resulted in the conversion of the Maltese
to Christianity. The description of the islanders in Acts as
" barbaroi " confirms the testimony of Diodorus Siculus that
they were Phoenicians, neither hellenized nor romanized. The
bishopric of Malta is referred to by Rocco Pirro (Sicilia sacra),
and by Gregory the Great (Epist. 2, 44; 9, 63; 10, i). It appears
that Malta was not materially affected by the Greek schism, and
remained subject to Rome.
On the final division of the Roman dominions in A. D. 395
Malta was assigned to the empire of Constantinople. On the
third Arab invasion, A. D. 870, the Maltese joined forces against
the Byzantine garrison, and 3000 Greeks were massacred.
Unable to garrison the island with a large force, the Arabs
cleared a zone between the central stronghold, Medina, and the
suburb called Rabat, to restrict the fortified area. Many Arab
coins, some Kufic inscriptions and several burial-places were left
by the Arabs; but they did not establish their religion or leave a
permanent impression on the Phoenician inhabitants, or deprive
the Maltese language of the characteristics which differentiate
it from Arabic. There is no historical evidence that the domi-
nation of the Goths and Vandals in the Mediterranean ever ex-
tended to Malta: there are fine Gothic arches in two old palaces
at Notabile, but these were built after the Norman conquest of
Malta. In 1090 Count Roger the Norman (son of Tancred de
Hauteville), then master of Sicily, came to Malta with a small
retinue; the Arab garrison was unable to offer effective opposi-
tion, and the Maltese were willing and able to welcome the
Normans as deliverers and to hold the island after the immediate
withdrawal of Count Roger. A bishop of Malta was witness to a
document in 1090. The Phoenician population had continued
Christian during the mild Arab rule. Under the Normans the
power of the Roman Church quickly augmented, tithes were
granted, and ecclesiastical buildings erected and endowed. The
Normans, like the Arabs, were not numerically strong; the rule of
both, in Sicily as well as Malta, was based on a recognition of
municipal institutions under local officials; the Normans, how-
ever, exterminated the Mahommedans. Gradually feudal
customs asserted themselves. In 1193 Margarito Brundusio
received Malta as a fief with the title of count; he was Grand
Admiral of Sicily. Constance, wife of the emperor Henry IV.
of Germany became, in 1194, heiress of Sicily and Malta; she was
the last of the Norman dynasty. The Grand Admiral of Sicily
in 1223 was Henry, count of Malta. He had led 300 Maltese at
the capture of two forts in Tripoli by the Genoese. In 1265 Pope
Alexander IV. conferred the crown of Sicily on Charles of Anjou
to the detriment of Manfred, from whom the French won the
kingdom at the battle of Benevento. Under the will of Corradino
a representative of the blood of Roger the Norman, Peter of
Aragon claimed the succession, and it came to him by the
revolution known as " the Sicilian Vespers " when 28,000 French
were exterminated in Sicily. Charles held Malta for two years
longer, when the Aragonese fleet met the French off Malta, and
finally crushed them in the Grand Harbour. In 1427 the Turks
raided Malta and Gozo, they carried many of the inhabitants
into captivity, but gained no foothold. The Maltese joined the
Spaniards in a disastrous raid against Gerbi on the African coast
in 1432. In 1492 the Aragonese expelled the Jews. Dissatis-
faction arose under Aragonese rule from the periodical grants of
Malta, as a marquisate or countship, to great officers of state
or illegitimate descendants of the sovereign. Exemption was
obtained from these incidences of feudalism by large payments
to the Crown in return for charters covenanting that Malta should
for ever be administered under the royal exchequer without the
intervention of intermediary feudal lords. This compact was
twice broken, and in 1428 the Maltese paid King Alfonso 30,000
florins for a confirmation of privileges, with a proviso that entitled
them to resist by force of arms any intermediate lord that his
successors might attempt to impose. Under the Aragonese,
Malta, as regards local affairs, was administered by a Universild or
municipal commonwealth with wide and indefinite powers,
including the election of its officers, Capitan di Verga, Jurats,
&c. The minutes of the " Consiglio Popolare " of this period are
preserved, showing it had no legislative power; this was vested
in the king, and was exercised despotically in the interests of the
Crown. The knights of St John having been driven from Rhodes
by the Turks, obtained the grant of Malta, Gozo and Tripoli
in 1530 from the emperor Charles V., subject to a reversion in
favour of the emperor's successor in the kingdom of Aragon
should the knights leave Malta, and to the annual tribute of a
falcon in acknowledgment that Malta was under the suzerainty
of Spain. The Maltese, at first, challenged the grant as a breach
of the charter of King Alfonso, but eventually welcomed the
knights. The Grand Master de 1'Isle Adam, on entering the
ancient capital of Notabile, swore for himself and his successors
to maintain the rights and liberties of the Maltese. The Order of
St John took up its abode on the promontory guarded by the
castle of St Angelo on the southern shore of the Grand Harbour,
and, in expectation of attacks from the Turks, commenced to
fortify the neighbouring town called the Borgo. The knights
lived apart from the Maltese, and derived their principal revenues
from estates of the Order in the richest countries of Europe.
They accumulated wealth by war, or by privateering against the
Turks and their allies. The African Arabs under Selim Pasha in
1551 ravaged Gozo, after an unsuccessful attempt on Malta,
repulsed by cavalry under Upton, an English knight. The
Order of St John and the Christian Maltese now realized that
an attempt to exterminate them would soon be made by
Soliman II., and careful preparations were made to meet the
attack.
The great siege of Malta which made the island and its knights
famous, and checked the advance of Mahommedan power in
southern and western Europe, began in May 1565. The fighting
men of the defenders are variously recorded between 6100 and
9121; the roll comprises one English knight, Oliver Starkey.
The Mahommedan forces were estimated from 29,000 to 38,500.
Jehan Parisot de la Valette had participated in the defence of
Rhodes, and in many naval engagements. He had been taken
prisoner by Dragut, who made him row for a year as a galley
slave till ransomed. This Grand Master had gained the con-
fidence of Philip of Spain, the friendship of the viceroy of Sicily,
of the pope and of the Genoese admiral, Doria. The Sultan
placed his troops under the veteran Mustapha, and his galleys
under his youthful relative Piali, he hesitated to make either
supreme and ordered them to await the arrival of Dragut with
MALTA
his Algerian allies, before deciding on their final plans. Mean-
while, against Mustapha's better judgment, Piali induced the
council of war to attack St Elmo, in order to open the way for
his fleet to an anchorage, safe in all weathers, in Marsamuscetto
harbour. This strategical blunder was turned to the best
advantage by La Valette, who so prolonged the most heroic
defence of St Elmo that the Turks lost 7000 killed and as many
wounded before exterminating the 1200 defenders, who fell at
their post. In the interval Dragut was mortally wounded, the
attack on Notabile was neglected, valuable time lost, and the
main objective (the Borgo) and St Angelo left intact. The
subsequent siege of St Angelo, and its supporting fortifications,
was marked by the greatest bravery on both sides. The knights
and their Maltese troops fought for death or victory, without
asking or giving quarter. The Grand Master proved as wise a
leader as he was brave. By September food and ammunition
were getting scarce, a large relieving force was expected from
Sicily, and Piali became restive, on the approach of the equinox,
for the safety of his galleys. At last the viceroy of Sicily, who
had the Spanish and allied fleets at his disposal, was spurred to
action by his council. He timidly landed about 6000 or 8000
troops at the north-west of Malta and withdrew. The Turks
began a hurried embarcation and allowed the Christians to join
forces at Notabile; then, hearing less alarming particulars of the
relieving force, Mustapha relanded his reluctant troops, faced his
enemies in the open, and was driven in confusion to his ships on
the 8th of September.
The Order thus reached the highest pinnacle of its fame, and
new knights flocked to be enrolled therein from the flower of the
nobility of Europe; La Valette refused a cardinal's hat, deter-
mined not to impair his independence. He made his name
immortal by founding on Mt Sceberras " a city built by gentle-
men for gentlemen " and making Valletta a magnificent example
of fortification, unrivalled in the world. The pope and other
sovereigns donated vast sums for this new bulwark of Chris-
tianity, but, as its ramparts grew in strength, the knights were
slow to seek the enemy in his own waters, and became false to
their traditional strategy as a naval power. Nevertheless, they
harassed Turkish commerce and made booty in minor engage-
ments throughout the i6th and i8th centuries, and they took
part as an allied Christian power in the great victory of Lepanto.
With the growth of wealth and security the martial spirit of the
Order began to wane, and so also did its friendly relations with
the Maltese. The field for recruiting its members, as well as its
landed estates, became restricted by the Reformation in England
and Germany, and the French knights gradually gained a pre-
ponderance which upset the international equilibrium of the
Order. The election of elderly Grand Masters became prevalent,
the turmoil and chances of frequent elections being acceptable
to younger members. The civil government became neglected
and disorganized, licentiousness increased, and riots began to
be threatening. Expenditure on costly buildings was almost
ceaseless, and kept the people alive. In 1614 the Vignacourt
aqueduct was constructed. The Jesuits established a university,
but they were expelled and their property confiscated in 1768.
British ships of war visited Malta in 1675, and in 1688 a fleet
under the duke of Grafton came to Valletta. The fortifications
of the " Three Cities "-were greatly strengthened under the Grand
Master Cotoner.
In 1722 the Turkish prisoners and slaves, then very numerous,
formed a conspiracy to rise and seize the island. Premature dis-
covery was followed by prompt suppression. Castle St Angelo
and the fort of St James were, in 1775, surprised by rebels,
clamouring against bad government; this rising is known as the
Rebellion of the Priests, from its leader, Mannarino. The last
but one of the Grand Masters who reigned in Malta, de Rohan,
restored good government, abated abuses and promulgated a code
of laws; but the ascendancy acquired by the Inquisition over the
Order, the confiscation of the property of the knights in France
on the outbreak of the Revolution, and the intrigues of the
French made the task of regenerating the Order evidently hope-
less in the changed conditions of Christendom. On the death of
Rohan the French knights disagreed as to the selection of his
successor, and a minority were able to elect, in 1797, a
German of weak character, Ferdinand Hompesch, as the last
Grand Master to rule in Malta. Bonaparte had arranged to
obtain Malta by treachery, and he took possession without
resistance in June 1798; after a stay of six days he proceeded
with the bulk of his forces to Egypt, leaving General Vaubois
with 6000 troops to hold Valletta. The exiled knights made an
attempt to reconstruct themselves under the emperor Paul of
Russia, but finally the Catholic parent stem of the Order settled
in Rome and continues there under papal auspices. It still
comprises members who take vows of celibacy and prove the
requisite number of quarterings.
Towards the close of the rule of the knights in Malta feudal
institutions had been shaken to their foundations, but the
transition to republican rule was too sudden and extreme for
the people to accept it. The French plundered the churches,
abolished monks, nuns and nobles, and set up forthwith the
ways and doings of the French Revolution. Among other
laws Bonaparte enacted that French should at once be the
official language, that 30 young men should every year be sent
to France for their education; that all foreign monks be ex-
pelled, that no new priests be ordained before employment
could be found for those existing; that ecclesiastical jurisdiction
should cease; that neither the bishop nor the priests could
charge fees for sacramental ministrations, Sc. Stoppage of
trade, absence of work (in a population of which more than
half had been living on foreign revenues of the knights), and
famine, followed the defeat of Bonaparte at the Nile, and
the failure of his plans to make Malta a centre of French
trade. An attempt to seize church valuables at Notabile was
forcibly resisted by the Maltese, and general discontent broke out
into open rebellion on the 2nd of September 1798. The French
soon discovered to their dismay that, from behind the rubble
walls of every field, the agile Maltese were unassailable. The
prospect of an English blockade of Malta encouraged the revolt,
of which Canon Caruana became the leader. Nelson was appealed
to, and with the aid of Portuguese allies he established a blockade
and deputed Captain Ball, R. N. (afterwards the first governor)
to assume, on the gth of February 1799, the provisional adminis-
tration of Malta and to superintend operations on land. Nelson
recognized the movement in Malta as a successful revolution
against the French, and upheld the contention that the king of
Sicily (as successor to Charles V. in that part of the former king-
dom of Aragon) was the legitimate sovereign of Malta. British
troops were landed to assist in the siege; few lives were lost in
actual combat, nevertheless famine and sickness killed thousands
of the inhabitants, and finally forced the French to surrender to
the allies. Canon Caruana and other leaders of the Maltese
aspired to obtain for Malta the freedom of the Roman Catholic
religion guaranteed by England in Canada and other depen-
dencies, and promoted a petition in order that Malta should come
under the strong power of England rather than revert to the
kingdom of the two Sicilies.
The Treaty of Amiens (1802) provided for the restoration of the
island to the Order of St John; against this the Maltese strongly
protested, realizing that it would be followed by the re-establish-
ment of French influence. The English flag was flown side by
side with the Neapolitan, and England actually renewed war
with France sooner than give up Malta. The Treaty of Paris
(1814), with the acclamations of the Maltese, confirmed Great
Britain in the aggregation of Malta to the empire.
A period elapsed before the government of Malta again became
self-supporting, during which over 600,000 was contributed by
the British exchequer in aid of revenue, and for the importation
of food-stuffs. The restoration of Church property, the re-estab-
lishment of law and administration on lines to which the people
were accustomed before the French invasion, and the claiming
for the Crown of the vast landed property of the knights, were
the first cares of British civil rule. As successor to the Order, the
Crown claimed arid eventually established (by the negotiations
in Rome of Sir Frederick Hankey, Sir Gerald Strickland and
MALTA
Sir Lintorn Simmons) with regard to the presentation of the
bishopric (worth about 4000 a year) the right to veto the ap-
pointment of distasteful candidates. This right was exercised to
secure the nomination of Canon Caruana and later of Monsignor
Pace. When the pledge, given by the Treaty of Amiens, to restore
the Order of St John with a national Maltese "langue," could not
be fulfilled, political leaders began demanding instead the re-estab-
lishment of the " Consiglio Popolare " of Norman times (without
reflecting that it never had legislative power); but by degrees
popular aspirations developed in favour of a free constitution on
English lines. The British authorities steadily maintained that,
at least until the mass of the people became educated, representa-
tive institutions would merely screen irresponsible oligarchies.
After the Treaty of Paris stability of government developed,
and many important reforms were introduced under the strong
government of the masterful Sir Thomas Maitland; he acted
promptly, without seeking popularity or fearing the reverse, and
he ultimately gained more real respect than any other governor,
not excepting the marquess of Hastings, who was a brilliant and
sympathetic administrator. Trial by jury for criminal cases
was established in 1829. A council of government, of which the
members were nominated, was constituted by letters patent in
1835, but this measure only increased the agitation for a repre-
sentative legislature. Freedom of the press and many salutary
innovations were brought about on a report of John Austin and
G. C. Lewis, royal commissioners, appointed in 1836. The
basis of. taxation was widened, sinecures abolished, schools
opened in the country districts, legal procedure simplified, and
Police established on an English footing. Queen Adelaide
vistied Malta in 1838 and founded the Anglican collegiate church
of St Paul. Sir F. Hankey as chief secretary -was for many
years the principal official of the civil administration. In 1847
Mr R. Moore O'Ferrall was appointed civil governor. In June
1849 the constitution of the council was altered to comprise
ten nominated and eight elected members.
The revolutions in Italy caused about this time many, in-
cluding Crispi and some of the most intellectual Italians, to take
refuge in Malta. These foreigners introduced new life into politics
and the press, and made it fashionable for educated Maltese to
delude themselves with the idea that the Maltese were Italians,
because a few of them could speak the language of the peninsula.
A clerical reaction followed against new progressive ideas
and English methods of development. After much unreasoning
vituperation the Irish Catholic civil governor, who had arrived
amidst the acclamations of all, left his post in disgust. His
successor as civil governor was Sir W. Reid, who had formerly
held military command. His determined attempts to promote
education met with intense opposition and little success. At
this period the Crimean War brought great wealth and com-
mercial prosperity to Malta. Under Sir G. Le Marchant, in
1858, the nominal rule of military governors was re-established,
but the civil administration was largely confided to Sir Victor
Houlton as chief secretary, whilst the real power began to be
concentrated in the hands of Sir A. Dingli, the Crown advocate,
who was the interpreter of the law, and largely its maker, as well
as the principal depository of local knowledge, able to prevent the
preferment of rivals, and to countenance the barrier which
difference of language created between governors and governed.
The civil service gravitated into the hands of a clique. At this
period much money was spent on the Marsa extension of the
Grand Harbour, but the rapid increase in the size of steamships
made the scheme inadequate, and limited its value prematurely.
The military defences were entirely remodelled under Sir G.
Le Marchant, and considerable municipal improvements and
embellishments were completed. But this governor was ob-
structed and misrepresented by local politicians as vehemently
as his predecessors and his successors. Ministers at home have
often appeared to be inclined to the policy of pleasing by avoid-
ing the reforming of what might be left as it was found. Sir A.
Dingli adapted a considerable portion of the Napoleonic Code in a
series of Malta Ordinances, but stopped short at points likely to
cause agitation. Sir P. Julyan was appointed royal commis-
xvii. 17
sioner on the civil establishments, and Sir P. Keenan on
education; their work revived the reform movement in 1881.
Mr Savona led an agitation for a more sincere system of education
on English lines. Fierce opposition ensued, and the part passit
compromise was adopted to which reference is made in the
section on Education above; Mr Savona was an able organizer,
and began the real emancipation of the Maltese masses from
educational ignorance; but he succumbed to agitation before
accomplishing substantial results.
An executive council was established in 1881, and the franchise
was extended in 1883. A quarter of a century of Sir Victor
Houlton's policy of laissez-faire was changed in 1883 by the
appointment of Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson as chief secretary.
An attempt was made to utilize fully the abilities of this eminent
administrator by creating him civil lieutenant-governor, in whom
to concentrate both the real and the nominal power of detailed
administration; but the military authorities objected to his
corresponding directly with the Colonial Office; and a political
deadlock began to develop. Sir A. Dingli was transferred from
an administrative office to that of chief justice. With the con-
tinuance of military power over details, the public could not
understand where responsibility really rested. The elected
members under the leadership of Dr Mizzi clamoured for more
power, opposed reforms and protested against the carrying of
government measures by the casting vote of a military governpr
as president of the council. To force a crisis, abstention of
elected members from the council was resorted to, together with
the election of notoriously unfit candidates. Under these circum-
stances a constitution of a more severe type was recommended
by those responsible for the government of Malta and was about
to be adopted, as the only alternative to a deadlock, by the
imperial authorities.
A regulation excluding Maltese from the navy (because of their
speaking on board a language that their officers did not under-
stand) provoked from Trinity College, Cambridge, the Strickland
correspondence in The Times on the constitutional rights of the
Maltese, and a leading article induced the Colonial Office to try
an experiment known as the Strickland-Mizzi Constitution of
1887. This constitution (abolished in 1903) ended a period of
government by presidential casting votes and official ascendancy.
For the first time the elected members were placed in a majority;
they were given three seats in the executive council; in local
questions the government had to make every effort to carry the
majority by persuasion. When persuasion failed and imperial
interests, or the rights of unrepresented minorities, were involved
the power of the Crown to legislate by order in council could be
(and was) freely used. This system had the merit of counter-
acting any abuse of power by the bureaucracy. It brought to
bear on officials effective criticism, which made them alert and
hard-working. Governor Simmons eventually gave his support
to the new constitution, which was received with acclamation.
Strickland, who had been elected while an undergraduate on the
cry of equality of rights for Maltese and English, and Mizzi, the
leader of the anti-English agitation, were, as soon as elected,
given seats in the executive council to co-operate with the govern-
ment; but their aims were irreconcilable. Mizzi wanted te
undo the educational forms of Mr Savona, to ensure the pre-
dominance of the Italian language and to work the council as a
caucus. Strickland desired to replace bureaucratic government
by a system more in touch with the independent gentlemen of the
country, and to introduce English ideas and precedents. Friction
soon arose. Mizzi cared little for a constitution that did not make
him complete master of the situation, and resigned his post in the
government.
Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson left Malta in March 1889, and was
succeeded by Sir Gerald Strickland (Count Delia Catena), who
lost no time in pushing, and carrying with a rapidity that was
considered hasty, reforms that had been retarded for years. The
majorities behind the government began to dwindle and agita-
tion to grow. Meanwhile the Royal Malta Militia was estab-
lished as a link between the Maltese and the garrison. The police
were reorganized with proper pay, criminal laws were rigorously
MALTA FEVER
enforced. A naval officer was placed over the police to diminish
difficulties with the naval authorities and sailors. A marine
force was raised to stop smuggling; and the subtraction of coal
during coaling operations was stopped by drastic legislation.
The civil service was reorganized so as to reward merit and work
by promotion. Tenders were strictly enforced in letting govern-
ment property and contracts; a largely increased revenue was
applied on. water supply, drainage and other works. Lepers
were segregated by law.
The Malta marriage question evoked widespread agitation;
Sir A. Dingli had refrained from making any provision in his
code as to marrying. The Maltese relied on the Roman Canon
Law, the English on the common law of England, Scots or
Irish had nothing but the English law to fall back upon. Maltese
authorities were ignorant of the disabilities of British Noncon-
formists at common law, and they had not perceived that persons
with a British domicile could not evade their own laws by marry-
ing in Malta, e.g. that an English girl up to the age of 21 required
the father's or guardian's consent from which a Maltese was
legally exempt at 18. Sir G. Strickland preferred legislation to
the covering up of difficulties by governors' licences and appeals
to incongruous precedents. Sir Lintorn Simmons was appointed
envoy to the Holy See, to ascertain how far legislation might be
pushed in the direction of civil marriage without justifying
clerical agitation and obstruction in the council. He succeeded
in coming to an agreement with Rome. Nevertheless Sir A.
Dingli and ecclesiastics of all denominations, for conflicting
reasons, swelled the opposition against the liberal concessions
obtained from Leo XIII. The legal necessity for legislation in
accordance with the agreement was. nevertheless, on a special
reference, submitted to the privy council, whose decision affirmed
the advisibility of legislation and the need for validating retro-
spectively marriages not supported by either Maltese or English
common law. Agitation in the imperial parliament stopped
government action, but the publicity of the finding of the privy
council warned all concerned against the risk of neglecting the
common law of the empire whenever they were not prepared to
follow the lex loci contractus.
Since the British occupation it was disputed whether the
military authorities had the right to alienate for the benefit of the
imperial exchequer fortress sites no longer required for defence.
The reversion of such property was claimed for the local civil
government, and the principles governing these rights were ulti-
mately laid down by an order in council, which also determined
military rights to restrict buildings within the range of forts.
The co-operation of naval and military authorities was obtained
for the construction, at imperial expense, of the breakwater
designed to save Malta from being abandoned by long and deep
draft modern vessels. British-born subjects were given the
right to be tried in English. The new system of education
(already described) was set up, and many new schools were built
with funds provided by order in council against the wishes of the
elected majority.
An order in council (1899) making English the language of the
courts after fifteen years (by which the Maltese would have
obtained the right to be tried in English) was promulgated at a
time when the system of taxation was also being revised; hence-
forth agitation in favour of Italian and against taxation attained
proportions unpleasant for those who preferred popularity to
reform and progress. The elected members demanded the
recall of Sir G. Strickland on his refusing to change his policy.
The military governor gave way, as regards making English the
language of the courts on a fixed date, but educational reforms
and the imposition of new taxes (those in Malta being 575. 6d. per
head, against 935. in England) were enacted by an order in council
notwithstanding the agitation. Mr Mereweather was appointed
chief secretary and civil lieutenant-governor in 1902, and Sir
Gerald Strickland became governor and commander-in-chief of
the Leeward Islands. Governor Sir F. Grenfell was created a
peer. Strenuous efforts were made to placate the Italian party
in the administration of the educational reforms; but, as these
were not repealed, elected members Defused supply, and kept away
from the council. Persistence in this course led to the repeal
by letters-patent of 1903 of the Strickland-Mizzi Constitution of
1887. In place of occasional orders in council for important
matters in urgent cases, bureaucratic government with an official
majority was again, with its drawbacks, fully re-established for all
local affairs great and small. The representatives of the people
were repeatedly re-elected, only to resign again and again as a
protest against a restricted constitution.
AUTHORITIES. Kenrick'sPAoenjo(i855);A.A.Caruana'sjRe^or/j
on Phoenician and Roman Antiquities in Malta (1881 and 1882);
Albert Mayr, Die Insel Malta im -Altertum (1909); James Smith,
Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paid ( 1 866) ; R. Pirro, Sicilia sacra ;
T. Fazello, Storia di Sicilia (1833); C. de Bazincourt, Histoire de la
Sidle (1846); G. F. Abela, Malta illustrata (1772); J. Quintin,
Insulae Melitae descriptio (1536) ; G. W. von Streitburg, Reyse nach
der Inselmalta (1632) ; R. Gregoria, Considerazioni sopra la storia
di Sicilia (1839); F. C. A. Davalos, Tableau historique de Malte
(1802); Houel, Voyage pittoresque (vol. iv., 1787); G. P. Badger,
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di Malta; N. W. Senior, Conversations on Egypt and Malta (1882);
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to 1897; Strickland, Remarks and Correspondence on the Constitution
of Malta (1887); A. Mayr, Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmaler von
Malta (1901); A. E. Caruana, Sull' origine della lingua Maltese
(1896); J. C. Grech, Flora melitensis (1853); Furse, Medagliere
Gerosolimitano; Pisani, Medagliere; Galizia, Church of St John;
J. Murray, " The Maltese Islands, with special reference to their
Geological Structure," Scottish Geog. Mag. (vol. vi., 1890); J. W.
Gregory, " The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea and their evidence on
the correlation of the Maltese Rocks," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.
(vol. xxxvi., 1892); J. H. Cook, The Har Dalam Cavern, Malta,
Evidences of Prehistoric Man in Malta ; Collegamento geodetic o delle
isole maltesi con la Sicilia (1902) ; A. Zeri, I porti delle isole del gruppo
di Malta (1906); G. F. Bonamico, Delle glossipietre di Malta (1688;
Brydone, Teonge, John Dryden jun., W. Tallack, Rev. \
Seddall, Boisgolin, Rev. W. K. Bedford, W. H. Bartlett, St Priest.
Msgr. Bres, M. G. Borch, Oliver Drapper, John Davy, G. M. Letard,
Taafe, Busuttil, T. MacGill, J. Quintana, have also written on
Malta. For natural science see the works of Dr A. L. Adams,
Professor E. Forbes, Captain Spratt, Dr G. Gulia, C. A. Wright
and Wood's Tourist Flora.
For the language question, see Mr Chamberlain's speech in the
House of Commons, on the 28th of January 1902. Also parliamentary
papers for Grievances of the Maltese Nobility, and Constitutional
Changes.
MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER, a disease long prevalent
of Malta and formerly at Gibraltar, as well as other Mediterra-
nean centres, characterized by prolonged high temperature, with
anaemia, pain and swelling in the joints, and neuritis, lasting on
an average four months but extending even to two or three years.
Its pathology was long obscure, but owing to conclusive research
on the part of Colonel (afterwards Sir) David Bruce, to which
contributions were made by various officers of the R.A.M.C. and
others, this problem had now been solved. A specific micro-
organism, the Micrococcus melitensis, was discovered in 1887, and
it was traced to the milk of the Maltese goats. A commission
was sent out to Malta in 1904 to investigate the question, and
after three years' work its conclusions were embodied in a report
by Colonel Bruce in 1907. It was shown that the disappearanc
of the disease from Gibraltar had synchronized with
MALTE-BRUN MALTHUS
non-importation of goats from Malta; and preventive measures
adopted in Malta in 1906, by banishing goats' milk from the
military and naval dietary, put a stop to the occurrence of
cases. In the treatment of Malta fever a vaccine has been used
with considerable success.
MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD (1755-1826), French geographer,
was born on the 12th of August 1755 at Thisted in Denmark, and
died at Paris on the I4th of December 1826. His original name
Make Conrad Bruun. While a student at Copenhagen he
made himself famous partly by his verscs.but more by the violence
of his political pamphleteering; and at length, in 1800, the legal
actions which the government authorities had from time to time
instituted against him culminated in a sentence of banishment.
The principles which he had advocated were those of the French
Revolution, and after first seeking asylum in Sweden he found his
way to Paris. There he looked forward to a political career; but,
when Napoleon's personal ambition began to unfold itself, Malte-
Brun was bold enough to protest, and to turn elsewhere for em-
ployment and advancement. He was associated with Edme
Mcntelle (1730-1815) in the compilation'of theGtographie matht-
matique . . . de toutes les parlies du monde (Paris, 1803-1807,
16 vols.), and he became recognized as one of the best geo-
graphers of France. He is remembered, not only as the author of
six volumes of the learned Precis de la gtographie universelle
(Paris, 1810-1829), continued by other hands after his death, but
also as the originator of the Annales des voyages (1808), and
one of the founders of the Geographical Society of Paris. His
second son, VICTOR ADOLPHE MALTE-BRUN (1816-1889), followed
his father's career of geographer, and was a voluminous author.
MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT (1766-1834), English econo-
mist, was born in 1766 at the Rookery, near Guildford, Surrey,
a small estate owned by his father, Daniel Malthus, a gentleman
of good family and independent fortune, of considerable culture,
the friend and correspondent of Rousseau and one of his exe-
cutors. Young Malthus was never sent to a public school, but
received his education from private tutors. In 1784 he was sent
to Cambridge, where he was ninth wrangler, and became fellow
of his college (Jesus) in 1 797. The same year he received orders,
and undertook the charge of a small parish in Surrey. In the
following year he published the first edition of his great work,
An Essay on the Principle of Population as it affects the Future
Improvement of Society, with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr
Godwin, M. Condor eel, and other Writers. The work excited a
good deal of surprise as well as attention; and with characteristic
thoroughness and love of truth the author went abroad to collect
materials for the verification and more exhaustive treatment of
his views. As Britain was then at war with France, only the
northern countries of Europe were quite open to his research at
that time; but during the brief Peace of Amiens Malthus con-
tinued his investigations in France and Switzerland. The result of
these labours appeared in the greatly enlarged and more mature
edition of his work published in 1803. In 1805 Malthus married
happily, and not long after was appointed professor of modern
history and political economy in the East India Company's
College at Haileybury. This post he retained till his death
suddenly from heart disease on the 23rd of December 1834.
Malthus was one of the most amiable, candid and cultured of
men. In all his private relations he was not only without
reproach, but distinguished for the beauty of his character. He
bore popular abuse and misrepresentation without the slightest
murmur or sourness of temper. The aim of his inquiries was
to promote the happiness of mankind, which could be better
accomplished by pointing out the real possibilities of progress
t han by indulging in vague dreams of perfectibility apart from
the actual facts which condition human life.
Malthus's Essay on Population grew out of some discussions
which he had with his father respecting the perfectibility of
society. His father shared the theories on that subject of Con-
dorcet and Godwin; and his son combated them on the ground
that the realization of a happy society will always be hindered
by the miseries consequent on the tendency of population to
increase faster than the means of subsistence. His father was
struck by the weight and originality of his views, asked him to
put them in writing, and then recommended the publication of
the manuscript. It was in this way the Essay saw the light.
Thus it will be seen that both historically and philosophically
the doctrine of Malthus was a corrective reaction against the
superficial optimism diffused by the school of Rousseau. It was
the same optimism, with its easy methods of regenerating society
and its-fatal blindness to the real conditions that circumscribe
human life, that was responsible for the wild theories of the
French Revolution and many of its consequent excesses.
The project of a formal and detailed treatise on population
was an afterthought of Malthus. The essay in which he had
studied a hypothetic future led him to examine the effects of
the principle he had put forward on the past and present state
of society; and he undertook an historical examination of these
effects, and sought to draw such inferences in relation to the
actual state of things as experience seemed to warrant. In its
original form he had spoken of no checks to population but those
which came under the head either of vice or of misery. In the
1803 edition he introduced the new element of the preventive
check supplied by what he calls " moral restraint," and is thus
enabled to " soften some of the harshest conclusions " at which
he had before arrived. The treatise passed through six editions
in his lifetime, and in all of them he introduced various additions
and corrections. That of 1816 is the last he revised, and supplies
the final text from which it has since been reprinted.
Notwithstanding the great development which he gave to his
work and the almost unprecedented amount of discussion to
which it gave rise, it remains a matter of some difficulty to dis-
cover what solid contribution he has made to our knowledge,
nor is it easy to ascertain precisely what practical precepts, not
already familiar, he founded on his theoretic principles. This
twofold vagueness is well brought out in his celebrated corre-
spondence with Nassau Senior, in the course of which it seems
to be made apparent that his doctrine is new not so much in
its essence as in the phraseology in which it is couched. He
himself tells us that when, after the publication of the original
essay, the main argument of which he had deduced from David
Hume, Robert Wallace, Adam Smith and Richard Price, he
began to inquire more closely into the subject, he found that
" much more had been done " upon it " than he had been aware
of." It had " been treated in such a manner by some of the
French economists, occasionally by Montesquieu, and, among
English writers, by Dr Franklin, Sir James Steuart, Arthur
Young and Rev. J. Townsend, as to create a natural surprise
that it had not excited more of the public attention." " Much,
however," he thought, " remained yet to be done. The com-
parison between the increase of population and food had not,
perhaps, been stated with sufficient force and precision," and
" few inquiries had been made into the various modes by which
the level " between population and the means of subsistence " is
effected." The first desideratum here mentioned the want,
namely, of an accurate statement of the relation between the
increase of population and food Malthus doubtless supposed
to have been supplied by the celebrated proposition that " popu-
lation increases in a geometrical, food in an arithmetical ratio."
This proposition, however, has been conclusively shown to be
erroneous, there being no such difference of law between the
increase of man and that of the organic beings which form his
food. When the formula cited is not used, other somewhat
nebulous expressions are sometimes employed, as, for example,
that " population has a tendency to increase faster than food,"
a sentence in which both are treated as if they were spontaneous
growths, and which, on account of the ambiguity of the word
" tendency," is admittedly consistent with the fact asserted by
Senior, that food tends to increase faster than population. It
must always have been perfectly well known that population
will probably (though not necessarily) increase with every
augmentation of the supply of subsistence, and may, in some
instances, inconveniently press upon, or even for a certain time
exceed, the number properly corresponding to that supply.
Nor could it ever have been doubted that war, disease, poverty
5 i6
MALTON
the last two often the consequences of vice are causes which
keep population down. In fact, the way in which abundance,
increase of numbers, want, increase of deaths, succeed each other
in the natural economy, when reason does not intervene, had
been fully explained by Joseph Townsend in his Dissertation on
the Poor Laws (1786) which was known to Malthus. Again, it is
surely plain enough that the apprehension by individuals of the
evils of poverty, or a sense of duty to their possible offspring,
may retard the increase of population, and has in all civilized
communities operated to a certain extent in that way. It is
only when such obvious truths are clothed in the technical
terminology of " positive " and " preventive checks " that they
appear novel and profound; and yet they appear to contain
the whole message of Malthus to mankind. The laborious
apparatus of historical and statistical facts respecting the several
countries of the globe, adduced in the altered form of the essay,
though it contains a good deal that is curious and interesting,
establishes no general result which was not previously well known.
It would seem, then, that what has been ambitiously called
Malthus's theory of population, instead of being a great discovery
as some have represented it, or a poisonous novelty, as others
have considered it, is no more than a formal enunciation of
obvious, though sometimes neglected, facts. The pretentious
language often applied to it by economists is objectionable, as
being apt to make us forget that the whole subject with which
it deals is as yet very imperfectly understood the causes which
modify the force of the sexual instinct, and those which lead to
variations in fecundity, still awaiting a complete investigation.
It is the law of diminishing returns from land, involving as it
does though only hypothetically the prospect of a continu-
ously increasing difficulty in obtaining the necessary sustenance
for all the members of a society, that gives the principal impor-
tance to population as an economic factor. It is, in fact, the
confluence of the Malthusian ideas with the theories of Ricardo,
especially with the corollaries which the latter deduced from the
doctrine of rent (though these were not accepted by Malthus),
that has led to the introduction of population as an element in
the discussion of so many economic questions in modern times.
Malthus had undoubtedly the great merit of having called
public attention in a striking and impressive way to a subject
which had neither theoretically nor practically been sufficiently
considered. But he and his followers appear to have greatly
exaggerated both the magnitude and the urgency of the
dangers to which they pointed. 1 In their conceptions a single
social imperfection assumed such portentous dimensions that
it seemed to overcloud the whole heaven and threaten the world
with ruin. This doubtless arose from his having at first omitted
altogether from his view of the question the great counteracting
agency of moral restraint. Because a force exists, capable, if
unchecked, of producing certain results, it does not follow that
those results are imminent or even possible in the sphere of
experience. A body thrown from the hand would, under the
single impulse of projection, move for ever in a straight line; but
it would not be reasonable to take special action for the preven-
tion of this result, ignoring the fact that it will be sufficiently
counteracted by the other forces which will come into play. And
such other forces exist in the case we are considering. If the
inherent energy of the principle of population (supposed every-
where the same) is measured by the rate at which numbers in-
crease under the most favourable circumstances, surely the force
of less favourable circumstances, acting through prudential or
altruistic motives, is measured by the great difference between
this maximum rate and those which are observed to prevail in
most European countries. Under a rational system of institu-
tions, the adaptation of numbers to the means available for their
support is effected by the felt or anticipated pressure of circum-
stances and the fear of social degradation, within a tolerable
degree of approximation to what is desirable. To bring the
result nearer to the just standard, a higher measure of popular
1 Malthus himself said, " It is probable that, having found the
bow bent too much one way, I was induced to bend it too much
the other in order to make it straight."
enlightenment and more serious habits of moral reflection ought
indeed to be encouraged. But it is the duty of the individual
to his possible offspring, and not any vague notions as to the
pressure of the national population on subsistence, that will be
adequate to influence conduct.
It can scarcely be doubted that the favour which was at once
accorded to the views of Malthus in certain circles was due in
part to an impression, very welcome to the higher ranks of society,
that they tended to relieve the rich and powerful of responsibility
for the condition of the working classes, by showing that the
latter had chiefly themselves to blame, and not either the negli-
gence of their superiors or the institutions of the country. The
application of his doctrines, too, made by some of his successors
had the effect of discouraging all active effort for social improve-
ment. Thus Chalmers " reviews seriatim and gravely sets aside
all the schemes usually proposed for the amelioration of the
economic condition of the people " on the ground that an increase
of comfort will lead to an increase of numbers, and so the last
state of things will be worse than the first.
Malthus has in more modern times derived a certain degree of
reflected lustre from the rise and wide acceptance of the Dar-
winian hypothesis. Its author himself, in tracing its filiation,
points to the phrase " struggle for existence " used by Malthus
in relation to the social competition. Darwin believed that man
advanced to his present high condition through such a struggle,
consequent on his rapid multiplication. He regarded, it is true,
the agency of this cause for the improvement of the race as
largely superseded by moral influences in the more advanced
social stages. Yet he considered it, even in these stages, of so
much importance towards that end that, notwithstanding the
individual suffering arising from the struggle for life, he depre-
cated any great reduction in the natural, by which he seems
to mean the ordinary, rate of increase.
Besides his great work, Malthus wrote Observations on the Effect
of the Corn Laws; An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent;
Principles of Political Economy; and Definitions in Political Economy.
His views on rent were of real importance.
For his life see Memoir by his friend Dr Otter, bishop of Chichester
(prefixed to and ed., 1836, of the Principles of Political Economy),
and Malthus and his Work, by J. Bonar (London, 1885). Practically
every treatise on economics deals with Malthus and his essay, but
the following special works may be referred to: Soetbeer, Die
Slettung der Sozialisten zur Malthusschen Bevolkerungslehre (Berlin,
1886); G. de Molinari, Malthus, essai sur le principe de population
(Paris, 1889); Cossa, // Principio di popolazione di T. R. Malthus
(Milan, 1895); and Ricardo, Letters to Malthus, ed. J. Bonar (1887).
MALTON, a market town in the Thirsk and Malton parlia-
mentary division of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. N.E. of York by a
branch of the North Eastern railway. The town comprises Old
Malton and New Malton in the North Riding, and Norton on the
opposite side of the river Derwent, in the East Riding. Pop. of
urban district of Malton (1901), 4758; of urban district of Norton
3842. The situation, on the wooded hills rising from the narrow
valley, is very picturesque. The church of St Michael is a fine
late Norman building with perpendicular tower; the church of
St Leonard, of mixed architecture, with square tower and spire,
has three Norman arches and a Norman font. The church of
St Mary at Old Malton was attached to a Gilbertine priory
founded in 1150; it is transitional Norman and Early English,
with later insertions. Remains of the priory are scanty, but
include a crypt under a modern house. In the neighbourhood
of Malton are the slight but beautiful fragments of Kirkham
Abbey, an Early English Augustinian foundation of Walter
1'Espec (1131); and the fine mansion of Castle Howard, a massive
building by Vanbrugh, the seat of the earls of Carlisle, containing
a noteworthy collection of pictures. Malton possesses a town-
hall, a corn exchange, a museum, and a grammar-school founded
in 1547. There are iron and brass foundries, agricultural imple-
ment works, corn mills, tanneries and breweries. In the
neighbourhood are lime and whinstone quarries.
Traces of a Romano-British village exist on the east side of the
town, but there appears to be no history of Malton before the
Norman Conquest. The greater rjart of Malton belonged to
the crown in 1086 and was evidently retained until Henry I.
MALTZAN MALVACEAE
gave the castle and its appurtenances to Eustace son of John,
whose descendants took the name of Vescy. Eustace meditated
the deliverance of Malton Castle to King David of Scotland in
1138, but his plans were altered owing to the battle of the
Standard. The "burgh " of Malton is mentioned in 1187, and
in 1295 the town returned two members to parliament. It was
not represented again, however, until 1640, when an act was
passed to restore its ancient privileges. In 1867 the number
of members was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was dis-
franchised. Until the I7th century the burgesses had all the
privileges of a borough by prescriptive right, and were governed
by two bailiffs and two under-bailiffs, but these liberties were
taken from them in 1684 and have never been revived. From
that time a bailiff and two constables were appointed at the
court leet of the lord of the manor until a local board was formed
in 1854. In the I3th century Agnes de Vescy, then lady of the
manor, held a market in Malton by prescription, and Camden
writing about 1 586 says that the lord of the manor then held two
weekly markets, on Tuesday and Saturday, the last being the
best cattle market in the county. The markets are now held
on Saturdays and alternate Tuesdays, and still belong to the lord
of the manor.
MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON, BARON zu WARTENBURG UNO
PENZLIN (1826-1874), German traveller, was born on the
6th of September 1826 near Dresden. He studied law at Heidel-
berg, but on account of ill health spent much of his time from
1850 in travel. Succeeding to his father's property in 1852,
he extended the range of his journeys to Morocco and other
parts of Barbary, and before his return home in 1854 had also
visited Egypt, Palestine and other countries of the Levant. In
1856-1857 he was again in Algeria; in 1858 he reached the
city of Morocco ; and in 1860 he succeeded in performing
the pilgrimage to Mecca, which he afterwards described in
Meine Wallfahrt nach Mecca (Leipzig, 1865), but had to flee
for his life to Jidda without visiting Medina. He then visited
Aden and Bombay, and after some two years of study in Europe
again began to wander through the coasts and islands of the
Mediterranean, repeatedly visiting Algeria. His first book of
travel, Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika (Leipzig), appeared
in 1863, and was followed by a variety of works and essays,
popular and scientific. Maltzan's last book, Reise nach Siid-
arabien (Brunswick, 1873), is chiefly valuable as a digest of much
information about little-known parts of south Arabia collected
from natives during a residence at Aden in 1870-1871. Among
his other services to science must be noticed his collection of
Punic inscriptions (Reise in Tunis und Tripolis, Leipzig, 1870),
and the editing of Adolph von Wrede's remarkable journey in
Hadramut (Reise in Hadramaut, &c., Brunswick, 1870). After
long suffering from neuralgia, Maltzan died by his own hand at
Pisa on the 23rd of February 1874.
MALUS, 6TIENNE LOUIS (1775-1812), French physicist, was
born at Paris on the 23rd of June 1775. He entered the military
engineering school at Mezieres; but, being regarded as a suspected
person, he was dismissed without receiving a commission, and
obliged to enter the army as a private soldier. Being employed
upon the fortifications of Dunkirk, he attracted the notice of
the director of the works, and was selected as a member of the
Ecole polytechnique then to be established under G. Monge.
After three years at the ficole he was admitted into the corps
of engineers, and served in the army of the Sambre and Meuse;
he was present at the passage of the Rhine in 1797, and at the
affairs of Ukratz and Altenkirch. In 1798 he joined the Egyptian
expedition and remained in the East till 1801. On his return
he held official posts successively at Antwerp, Strassburg and
Paris, and devoted himself to optical research. A paper published
in 1809 (" Sur une propri6t6 de la lumiere refle'chie par les corps
diaphanes ") contained the discovery of the polarization of light
by reflection, which is specially associated with his name, and
in the following year he won a prize from the Institute with his
memoir, " Th6orie de la double refraction de la lumiere dans
les substances cristallines." He died of phthisis in Paris on the
23rd of February 1812.
FIG. I. Floral Diagram of
Hollyhock (Althaea rosea).
MALVACEAE, in botany, an order of Dicotyledons belonging
to the series Columniferae, to which belong also the orders Tili-
aceae (containing Tilia, the lime-tree), Bombaceae (containing
Adansonia, the baobab), Sterculiaceae (containing Theobroma,
cocoa, and Colo, cola-nut). It contains 39 genera with about 300
species, and occurs in all regions except the coldest, the number
of species increasing as we approach the tropics. It is repre-
sented in Britain by three genera: Malva, mallow; Althaea,
marsh-mallow; and Lavatera, tree-mallow. The plants are herbs,
as in the British mallows, or, in the warmer parts of the earth,
shrubs or trees. The leaves are alternate and often palmately
lobed or divided; the stipules generally fall early. The leaves
and young shoots often bear stellate hairs and the tissues contain
mucilage-sacs. The regular, hermaphrodite, often showy flowers
are borne in the leaf-axils, soli-
tary or in fasicles, or form more
or less complicated cymose
arrangements. An epicalyx (see
MALLOW, figs. 3,4), formed by a
whorl of three or more bracteoles
is generally present just beneath
the calyx; sometimes, as in
Abutilon, it is absent. The
parts of the flowers are typically a Stamens" 6, Bract,
in fives (fig. i); the five sepals, ?> Pistil of carpels,
which have a valvate aestivation, *, Epicalyx, formed from an in-
are succeeded by five often large volucre of bracteoles.
showy petals which are twisted p ' *
in the bud; they are free to the base, where they are attached
to the staminal tube and fall with it when the flower withers.
The very numerous stamens are regarded as arising from the
branching of a whorl of five opposite the petals;' they are united
into a tube at the base, and bear kidney-shaped one-celled
anthers which open by a slit across the top (fig. 2). The large
spherical pollen-grains are cov-
ered with spines. The carpels
are one to numerous; when five
in number, as in Abulilon, they
are opposite the petals, or, as in
Hibiscus, opposite the sepals.
In the British genera and many
others they are numerous, -
forming a whorl round the top
of the axis in the centre of the
flower, the united styles rising
from the centre and bearing a
corresponding number of stig-
matic branches. In Malope the
numerous carpels are arranged one above the other in vertical
rows. One or more anatropous ovules are attached to the inner
angle of each carpel; they are generally ascending but sometimes
pendulous or horizontal; the position may vary, as in Abutilon,
in one and the same carpel.
The flowers are proterandrous; when the flower opens the
unripe stigmas are hidden in the staminal tube and the anthers
occupy the centre of the flower; as the anthers dehisce the fila-
ments bend backwards and finally the ripe stigmas spread in the
centre. Pollination is effected by insects which visit the flower
for the honey, which is secreted in pits one between the base of
each petal and is protected from rain by hairs on the lower
margin of the petals. In small pale-flowered forms, like Malva
rotundifolia, which attract few insects, self-pollination has been
observed, the style-arms twisting to bring the stigmatic surfaces
into contact with the anthers.
Except in Malvaviscus which has a berry, the fruits are dry.
In Malva (see MALLOW) and allied genera they form one-seeded
schizocarps separating from the persistent central column and
from each other. In Hibiscus and Gossypium (cotton-plant,
q.v.), the fruit is a capsule splitting loculicidally. Distribution
of the seeds is sometimes aided by hooked outgrowths on the
wall of the schizocarp, or by a hairy covering on the seed, an
extreme case of which is the cotton-plant where the seed is buried
FIG. 2.
Anther.
Pollen grain of Hollyhock
(Althaea rosea) enlarged.
The pollen grain bears
numerous spines, the dark
spots indicate thin places
in the extine.
S i8
MALVASIA MAMARONECK
in a mass of long tangled hairs the cotton. The embryo is
generally large with much-folded cotyledons and a small amount
of endosperm.
The largest genus, Hibiscus, contains 150 species, which are
widely distributed chiefly in the tropics; H. rosasinensis is a well-
known greenhouse plant. Abutilon (q.v.) contains 80 species,
mainly tropical ; Lavatera, with 20 species, is chiefly Mediterranean ;
Althaea has about 15 species in temperate and warm regions, A.
rosea being the hollyhock (q.v.); Malva has about 30 species in the
north-temperate zone. Several genera are largely or exclusively
American.
MALVASIA (Gr. Monemvasia, i.e. the " city of the single
approach or entrance "; Ital. Napoli di Malvasia; Turk.
Mengeshe or Beneshe), one of the principal fortresses and com-
mercial centres of the Levant during the middle ages, still
represented by a considerable mass of ruins and a town of about
550 inhabitants. It stood on the east coast of the Morea, con-
tiguous to the site of the ancient Epidaurus Limera, of which
it took the place. So extensive was its trade in wine that the
name of the place became familiar throughout Europe as the
distinctive appellation of a special kind Ital. Malvasia;
Span. Malvagia; Fr. Malvoisie; Eng. Malvesie or Malmsey.
The wine was not of local growth, but came for the most part
from Tenos and others of the Cyclades.
As a fortress Malvasia played an important part in the struggles
between Byzantium, Venice and Turkey. The Byzantine emperors
considered it one of their most valuable posts in the Morea, and
rewarded its inhabitants for their fidelity by unusual privileges.
Phrantzes (Lib. IV. cap. xvi.) tells how the emperor Maurice made
the city (previously dependent in ecclesiastical matters on Corinth) a
metropolis or archbishop's see, and how Alexius Comnenus, and
more especially Andronicus II. (Palaeologus) gave the Monembasiotes
freedom from all sorts of exactions throughout the empire. It was
captured after a three years' siege by Guillaume de Villehardouin
in 1248, but the citizens retained their liberties and privileges, and
the town was restored to the Byzantine emperors in 1262. After
many changes, it placed itself under Venice from 1463 to 1540,
when it was ceded to the Turks. In 1689 it was the only town of
the Morea which held out against Morosini.and Cornaro his successor
only succeeded in reducing it by famine. In 1715 it capitulated to
the Turks, and on the failure of the insurrection of 1770 the leading
families were scattered abroad. As the first fortress which fell into
the hands of the Greeks in 1821, it became in the following year the
seat of the first national assembly.
See Curtius, Peloponnesos, ii. 293 and 328; Castellan, Lettres
sur la Moree (1808), for a plan; Valiero, Hist, della guerra di Candia
(Venice, 1679), for details as to the fortress; W. Miller in Journal of
Hellenic Studies (1907).
HALVERN, an inland watering-place in the Bewdley parlia-
mentary division of Worcestershire, England, 128 m. W.N.W.
from London by the Great Western railway, served also by a
branch of the Midland railway from Ashchurch on the Bristol-
Birmingham line. Pop. of urban district(i9Oi), 16,449. It ' s
beautifully situated on the eastern slopes of the Malvern Hills,
which rise abruptly from the flat valley of the Severn to a
height of 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon. The district
still bears the name of Malvern Chase, originally a Crown-land
and forest, though it was granted to the earldom of Gloucester
by Edward I. A ditch along the summit of the hills determined
the ancient boundary. Becoming a notorious haunt of criminals,
the tract was disafforested by Charles I., with the exception of
a portion known as the King's Chase, part of which is included
in the present common-land formed under the Malvern Hills Act
of 1884.
Malvern was in early times an important ecclesiastical settle-
ment, but its modern fame rests on its fine situation, pure
air, and chalybeate and bituminous springs. The open-air cure
for consumptive patients is here extensively practised.
The name Malvern is collectively applied to a line of small
towns and villages, extending along the foot of the hills for 5 m.
The principal is GREAT MALVERN, lying beneath the Worcester-
shire Beacon. It has a joint station of the Great Western and
Midland railways. Here was the Benedictine priory which arose
in 1083 out of a hermitage endowed by Edward the Confessor.
The priory church of SS. Mary and Michael is a fine cruciform
Perpendicular building, with an ornate central tower, embodying
the original Norman nave, and containing much early glass and
carved choir-stalls. The abbey gate and the refectory also
remain. There are here several hydropathic establishments,
and beautiful pleasure gardens. Malvern College, founded in
1862, is an important English public school. A museum is
attached to it. Mineral waters are manufactured. At MALVERN
WELLS, 25 m. S., are the principal medicinal springs, also the
celebrated Holy Well, the water of which is of perfect purity.
There are extensive fishponds and hatcheries; and golf-links.
The Great Western railway has a station, and the Midland one
at Hanley Road. LITTLE MALVERN lies at the foot of the Here-
fordshire Beacon, which is crowned by a British camp, i| m. S.
of Malvern Wells. There was a Benedictine priory here, of
which traces remain in the church. MALVERN LINK, i m. N.E.
of Great Malvern, of which it forms a suburb, has a station on
the Great Western railway. WEST MALVERN and NORTH
MALVERN, named from their position relative to Great
Malvern, are pleasant residential quarters on the higher slopes
of the hills.
HALWA, an historic province of India, which has given its
name to one of the political agencies into which Central India
is divided. Strictly, the name is confined to the hilly table-land,
bounded S. by the Vindhyan range, which drains N. into the
river Chambal ; but it has been extended to include the Nerbudda
valley farther south. Its derivation is from the ancient tribe
of Malavas about whom very little is known, except that they
founded the Vikrama Samvat, an era dating from 57 B.C., which
is popularly associated with a mythical king Vikramaditya.
The earliest name of the tract seems to have been Avanti, from
its capital the modern Ujjain. The position of the Malwa or
Moholo mentioned by Hsuan Tsang (7th century) is plausibly
assigned to Gujarat. The first records of a local dynasty are
those of the Paramaras, a famous Rajput clan, who ruled for about
four centuries(8oo-i2oo), with their capital at Ujjain and after-
wards at Dhar. The Mahommedans invaded Malwa in 1235;
and in 1401 Dilawar Khan Ghori founded an independent king-
dom, which lasted till 1531. The greatest ruler of this dynasty
wasHoshang Shah (1405-1435), who made Mandu(?.t>.) his capital
and embellished it with magnificent buildings. In 1562 Malwa
was annexed to the Mogul empire by Akbar. On the break-up
of that empire, Malwa was one of the first provinces to be con-
quered by the Mahrattas. About 1743 the Mahratta peshwa
obtained from Delhi the title of governor, and deputed his
authority to three of his generals Sindhia of Gwalior, Holkar
of Indore, and the Ponwar of Dhar who claims descent from the
ancient Paramaras. At the end of the i8th century Malwa
became a cockpit for fighting between the rival Mahratta powers,
and the headquarters of the Pindaris or irregular plunderers.
The Pindaris were extirpated by the campaign of Lord Hastings
in 1817, and the country was reduced to order by the energetic
rule of Sir John Malcolm. Malwa is traditionally the land of
plenty, in which sufferers from famine in the neighbouring
tracts always take refuge. But in 1899-1900 it was itself visited
by a severe drought, which seriously diminished the population,
and has since been followed by plague. The most valuable
product is opium.
The Malwa agency has an area of 8919 sq. m. with a popula-
tion (1901) of 1,054,753. It comprises the states of Dewas (senior
and junior branch), Jaora, Ratlam, Sitamau and Sailana, to-
gether with a large portion of Gwalior, parts of Indore and Tonk,
and about 35 petty estates and holdings. The headquarters
of the political agent are at Nimach.
Malwa is also the name of a large tract in the Punjab, south
of the river Sutlej, which is one of the two chief homes of the
Sikhs, the other being known as Manjha. It includes the
British districts of Ferozpore and Ludhiana, together with the
native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla.
See J. Malcolm, Central India (1823) ; C. E. Luard, Bibliography of
Central India (1908), and The Paramars of Dhar and Malwa (1908).
MAMARONECK, a township of Westchester county, New
York, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, about 20 m. N.E.
of New York City and a short distance N.E. of New
Rochelle. Pop. (1890), 2385; (1900) 3849; (1905) 5655; (1910)
MAMELI MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE
5602. Mamaroneck is served by the New York, New Haven
& Hartford railway. The township includes the village of
Larchmont (pop. in 1910, 1958), incorporated in 1891, and part
of the village of Mamaroneck (pop. in 1910, including the part
in Rye township, 5699), incorporated in 1895. Larchmont is
the headquarters of the Larchmont Yacht Club. The site of
Mamaroneck township was bought in 1660 from the Indians by
John Richbell, an Englishman, who obtained an English patent
to the tract in 1668. The first settlement was made by relatives
of his on the site of Mamaroneck village in 1676, and the township
was erected in 1788. On the 28th of August 1776, near Mamaro-
neck, a force of American militiamen under Capt. John Flood
attacked a body of Loyalist recruits under William Lounsbury,
killing the latter and taking several prisoners. Soon afterwards
Mamaroneck was occupied by the Queen's Rangers under
Colonel Robert Rogers. On the night of the 2ist of October
an attempt of a force of Americans under Colonel John Haslet
to surprise the Rangers failed, and the Americans, after a hand-
to-hand fight, withdrew with 36 prisoners. Mamaroneck was
the home of John Peter DeLancey (1753-1828), a Loyalist
soldier in the War of Independence, and was the birthplace of
his son William Heathcote DeLancey (1797-1865), a well-known
Protestant Episcopal clergyman, provost of the University of
Pennsylvania in 1827-1832 and bishop of western New York
from 1839 until his death. James Fenimore Cooper, the novelist,
married (1811) a daughter of John Peter DeLancey; lived in
Mamaroneck for several years, and here wrote his first novel,
Precaution, and planned The Spy.
MAHELI, 60FFREDO (1827-1849), Italian poet and patriot,
was born at Genoa of a noble Sardinian family. He received a
sound classical education at the Scolopi College, and later studied
law and philosophy at the university of Genoa. When nineteen
years old he corresponded with Mazzini, to whom he became
whole-heartedly devoted; among other patriotic poems he wrote
a hymn to the Bandiera brothers, and in the autumn of 1847
a song called " Fratelli d'ltalia," which as Carducci wrote,
" resounded through every district and on every battlefield of
the peninsula in 1848 and 1849. " Mameli served in the National
Guard at Genoa, and then joined the volunteers in the Lombard
campaign of 1848, but after the collapse of the movement in
Lombardy he went to Rome, where the [republic was proclaimed
and whence he sent the famous despatch to Mazzini: "Roma!
Repubblica! Venite! " At first he wrote political articles in
the newspapers, but when the French army approached the city
with hostile intentions he joined the fighting ranks and soon
won Garibaldi's esteem by his bravery. Although wounded in
the engagement of the 3oth of April, he at once resumed his
place in the ranks, but on the 3rd of June he was again wounded
much more severely, and died in the Pellegrini hospital on the
6th of July 1849. Besides the poems mentioned above, he
wrote hymns to Dante, to the Apostles, " Dio e popolo," &c. The
chief merit of his work lies in the spontaneity and enthusiasm
for the Italian cause which rendered it famous, in spite of
certain technical imperfections, and he well deserved the epithet
of " The Tyrtaeus of the Italian revolution."
See A. G. Barrili, " G. Mameli nella vita e nell' arte," in Nuoya
Antologia (June I, 1902); the same writer's edition of the Scritti
editi ed inediti di G. Mameli (Genoa, 1902); Countess Martinengo
Cesarescp, Italian Characters (London, 1901); A. Luzio, Profili
Biografici (Milan, 1906); G. Trevelyan, Garibaldi's Defence of the
Roman Republic (London, 1907).
MAMELUKE (anglicized through the French, from the Arabic
mamliik, a slave), the name given to a series of Egyptian sultans,
originating (1250) in the usurpation of supreme power by the
bodyguard of Turkish slaves first formed in Egypt under the
successors of Saladin. See EGYPT: History (Moslem period).
MAMERTINI, or " children of Mars," the name taken by a
band of Campanian (or Samnite) freebooters who about
289 B.C. seized the Greek colony of Messana at the north-
east corner of Sicily, after having been hired by Agathocles
to defend it (Polyb. i. 7. 2). The adventure is explained
by tradition (e.g. Festus 158, Muller) as the outcome of
a ver sacrum; the members of the expedition are said to have
been the male children born in a particular spring of which
the produce had been vowed to Apollo (cf. SAMNITES),
and to have settled first in Sicily near Tauromenium. An
inscription survives (R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, i) which
shows that they took with them the Oscan language as it was
spoken in Capua or Nola at that date, and the constitution
usual in Italic towns of a free community (touta = ) governed by
two annual magistrates (meddices). The inscription dedicated
some large building (possibly a fortification) to Apollo, which so
far confirms the tradition just noticed. Though in the Oscan
language, the inscription is written in the Greek alphabet common
to south Italy from the 4th century B.C. onwards, viz. the
Tarentine Ionic, and so are the legends of two coins of much
the same date as the inscription (Conway, ib. 4). From 282
onwards (B. V. Head, Historic numorum, 136) the legend itself
is Graecized (MAMEPTINfiN, instead of MAAMEPTINOTM)
which shows how quickly here, as everywhere, " Graecia capta
ferum victorem cepit." On the Roman conquest of Sicily the
town secured an independence under treaty (Cicero, Verr. 3. 6.
13). The inhabitants were still called Mamertines in the time
of Strabo (vi. 2. 3).
See further Mommsen, C.I.L. x. sub loc., and the references
already given. (R. S. C.)
MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS ( 4 th century A.D.), one of the
Latin panegyrists. After the death of Julian, by whom he was
evidently regarded with special favour, he was praefect of Italy
(365) under Valens and Valentinian, but was subsequently (368)
deprived of his office for embezzlement. He was the author
of an extant speech of thanks to Julian for raising him to the
consulship, delivered on the ist of January 362 at Constan-
tinople. Two panegyrical addresses (also extant) to Maximian
(emperor A.D. 286-305) are attributed to an older magister
Mamertinus, but it is probable that the corrupt MS. super-
scription contains the word memoriae, and that they are
by an unknown magister memoriae (an official whose duty
consisted in communicating imperial rescripts and decisions
to the public). The first of these was delivered on the
birthday of Rome (April 21, 289), probably at Maximian's
palace at Augusta Trevirorum (Treves) ,'the second in 290 or
291, on the birthday of the emperor. By some they are
attributed to Eumenius (q.v.) who was a magister memoriae
and the author of at least one (if not more) panegyrics.
The three speeches will be found in E. Bahrens, Panegyrici latini
(1874); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng
trans.), 417. 7.
MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO. COUNT (1802-
1885), Italian writer and statesman, was born at Pesaro in 1799.
Taking part in the outbreaks at Bologna arising out of the
accession of Pope Gregory XVI., he was elected deputy for
Pesaro to the assembly, and subsequently appointed minister
of the interior; but on the collapse of the revolutionary move-
ment he was exiled. He returned to Italy after the amnesty
of 1846, and in 1848 he was entrusted with the task of
forming a ministry. He remained prime minister, how-
ever, only for a few months, his political views being anything
but in harmony with those of the pope. He subsequently
retired to Genoa where he worked for Italian unity, was
elected deputy in 1856, and in 1860 became minister of
education under Cavour. In 1863 he was made minister
to Greece, and in 1865 to Switzerland, and later senator
and councillor of state. Meanwhile, he had founded at Genoa
in 1849 the Academy of Philosophy, and in 1855 had been
appointed professor of the history of philosophy at Turin; and
he published several volumes, not only on philosophical and
social subjects, but of poetry, among them Rinnovamente della
filosofia antica italiatta (1836), Teoria della Religione e dello stato
(iS6g),Kant e I'ontologia (1879), Religione dell' avenire (1880),
Di un nuovo diritto europeo (1843, 1857). He died at Rome
on the 2ist of May, 1885.
See Indice delle opere di Terentio Mamiani (Pesaro, 1887);
Gaspare, Vita di Terenzio Mamiani (Ancona, 1887); Barzellotti,
Studii e ritraUi (Bologna, 1893).
MAMMALIA
MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast), the name
proposed by the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus for one of the
classes, or primary divisions, of vertebrated animals, the members
of which are collectively characterized by the presence in the
females of special glands secreting milk for the nourishment of
the young. With the exception of the lowest group, such
glands always communicate with the exterior by means of the
teats, nipples or mammae, from which the class derives its
name. The class-name (modified by the French into Mammi-
ftres, and replaced in German by the practically equivalent
term Siiugethiere) has been anglicized into " Mammals " (mam-
mal, in the singular). Of recent years, and more especially
in America, it has become a custom to designate the study of
mammals by the term " mammalogy." Etymologically, how-
ever, that designation cannot be justified; for it is of hybrid
(Latin and Greek) origin, and is equivalent to " mastology," the
science which deals with the mammary gland (Gr. JUOOTOS,
woman's breast), a totally different signification. As regards
existing forms of life, the limitations of the class are perfectly
well denned and easy of recognition; for although certain groups
(not, by the way, whales, which, although excluded in popular
estimation from the class, are in all essential respects typical
mammals) are exceedingly aberrant, and present structural
features connecting them with the lower vertebrate classes, yet
they are by common consent retained in the class to which they
are obviously most nearly affiliated by their preponderating
characteristics. There is thus at the present day a great
interval, unbridged by any connecting links, between mammals
and the other classes of vertebrates.
Not so, however, when the extinct forms of vertebrate life
are taken into consideration, for there is a group of reptiles from
the early part of the Secondary, or Mesozoic period, some of
whose members must have been so intimately related to mammals
that, were the whole group fully known, it would clearly be
impossible to draw a distinction between Mammalia on the one
hand and Reptilia on the other. Indeed, as it is, we are already
partially acquainted with one of these early intermediate
creatures ( Tritylodon) , which forms a kind of zoological shuttle-
cock, being, so to speak, hit from one group to another, and
back again, by the various zoologists by whom its scanty remains
have been studied. Considered collectively, mammals, which
did not make their appearance on the earth for some time after
reptiles had existed, are certainly the highest group of the whole
vertebrate sub-kingdom. This expression must not, however,
be considered in too restricted a sense. In mammals, as in
other classes, there are low as well as high forms; but by any
tests that can be applied, especially those based on the state
of development of the central nervous system, it will be seen
that the average exceeds that of any other class, that many
species of this class far excel those of any other in perfection
of structure, and that it contains one form which is unques-
tionably the culminating point amongst organized beings.
Mammals, then, are vertebrated animals, possessing the
normal characteristics of the members of that primary division
of the animal kingdom. They are separated from fishes and
batrachians (Pisces and Batrachians) on the one hand, and agree
with reptiles, and birds (Reptilia and Aves) on the other, in the
possession during intra-uterine life of the membranous vascular
structures respectively known as the amnion and the allantois,
and likewise in the absence at this or any other period of external
gills. A four-chambered heart, with a complete double circu-
lation, and warm blood (less markedly so in the lowest group
than in the rest of the class) , distinguish mammals from existing
reptiles, although not from birds. From both birds and reptiles
the class is distinguished, so far at any rate as existing forms are
concerned, by the following features: the absence of a nucleus
in the red corpuscles of the blood, which are nearly always
circular in outline; the free suspension of the lungs in a thoracic
cavity, separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular
partition, or diaphragm, which is the chief agent in inflating the
lungs in respiration; the aorta, or main artery, forming but a
single arch after leaving the heart, which curves over the left
terminal division of the windpipe, or bronchus; the presence
of more or fewer hairs on the skin and the absence of feathers;
the greater development of the bridge, or commissure, connecting
the two halves of the brain, which usually forms a complete
corpus callosum, or displays an unusually large size of its
anterior portion; the presence of a fully developed larynx at
the upper end of the trachea or windpipe, accompanied by the
absence of a syrinx, or expansion, near the lower end of the
same; the circumstance that each half of the lower jaw (except
perhaps at a very early stage of development) consists of a
single piece articulating posteriorly with the squamosal element
of the skull without the intervention of a separate quadrate
bone; the absence of pref rental bones in the skull; the presence
of a pair of lateral knobs, or condyles (in place of a single median
one), on the occipital aspect of the skull for articulation with
the first vertebra; and, lastly, the very obvious character of the
female being provided with milk-glands, by the secretion of
which the young (produced, except in the very lowest group,
alive and not by means of externally hatched eggs) are nourished
for some time after birth.
In the majority of mammals both pairs of limbs are well
developed and adapted for walking or running. The fore-limbs
may, however, be modified, as in moles, for burrowing, or, as in
bats, for flight, or finally, as in whales and dolphins, for swim-
ming, with the assumption in this latte'r instance of a flipper-like
form and the complete disappearance of the hind-limbs. Special
adaptations for climbing are exhibited by both pairs of limbs
in opossums, and for hanging to boughs in sloths. In no instance
are the fore-limbs wanting.
In the great majority of mammals the hind extremity of the
axis of the body is prolonged into a tail. Very generally the
tail has distinctly the appearance of an appendage, but in some
of the lower mammals, such as the thylacine among marsupials,
and the aard-vark or ant-bear among the edentates, it is much
thickened at the root, and passes insensibly into the body, after
the fashion common among reptiles. As regards function, the
tail may be a mere pendent appendage, or may be adapted to
grasp boughs in climbing, or even to collect food or materials
for a nest or sleeping place, as in the spider-monkeys, opossums
and rat-kangaroos. Among jumping animals it may serve as
a balance, as in the case of jerboas and kangaroos, while in
the latter it is also used as a support when resting; among many
hoofed mammals it is used as a fly- whisk; and in whales and
dolphins, as well as in the African Potamogale and the North
American musquash, it plays an important part in swimming.
Its supposed use as a trowel by the beaver is, however, not
supported by the actual facts of the case.
As already indicated, the limbs of different mammals are
specially modified for various modes of life; and in many cases
analogous modifications occur, in greater or less degree, through-
out the entire body. Those modifications most noticeable in
the case of cursorial types may be briefly mentioned as examples.
In this case, as might be expected, the greatest modifications
occur in the limbs, but correlated with this is also an elongation
of the head and neck in long-legged types. Adaptation for
speed is further exhibited in the moulding of the shape of the
body so as to present the minimum amount of resistance to the
air, as well as in increase in heart and lung capacity to meet
the extra expenditure of energy. Finally, in the jumping forms
we meet with an increase in the length and weight of the tail,
which has to act as a counterpoise. As regards the feet, a
reduction in the number of digits from the typical five is a
frequent feature, more especially among the hoofed mammals,
where the culmination in this respect is attained by the existing
members of the horse tribe and certain representatives of the
extinct South American Proterotheriidae, both of which are
monodactyle. Brief reference may also be made to the morpho-
logical importance of extraordinary length or shortness in the
skulls of mammals dolichocephalism and brachycephalism ;
both these features being apparently characteristic of specialized
types, the former condition being (as in the horse) often, although
not invariably, connected with length of limb and neck, and
MAMMALIA
adaptation to speed, while brachycephalism [may be correlated
with short limbs and an abbreviated neck. Exceptions to this
rule, as exemplified by the cats, are due to special adaptive
causes. In point of bodily size mammals present a greater range
of variation than is exhibited by any other living terrestrial
animals, the extremes in this respect being displayed by the
African elephant on the one hand and certain species of shrew-
mice (whose head and body scarcely exceed an inch and a half
in length) on the other. When the aquatic members of the class
are taken into consideration, the maximum dimensions are
vastly greater, Sibbald's rorqual attaining a length of fully
80 ft., and being probably the bulkiest and heaviest animal
that has ever existed. Within the limits of individual groups,
it may be accepted as a general rule that increase in bulk or
stature implies increased specialization; and, further, that the
largest representatives of any particular group are also approxi-
mately the latest. The latter dictum must not, however, be
pushed to an extreme, since the African elephant, which is the
largest living land mammal, attaining in exceptional cases a
height approaching 12 ft., was largely exceeded in this respect
by an extinct Indian species, whose height has been estimated
at between 15 and 16 ft.
In regard to sense-organs, ophthalmoscopic observations on
the eyes of living mammals (other than man) have revealed the
existence of great variation in the arrangement of the blood-
vessels, as well as in the colour of the retina; blue and violet
seem to be unknown, while red, yellow and green form the
predominating shades. In the main, the various types of
minute ocular structure correspond very closely to the different
groups into which mammals are divided, this correspondence
affording important testimony in the favour of the general
correctness of the classification. Among the exceptions are the
South American squirrel-monkeys, whose eyes approximate in
structure to those of the lemurs. Man and monkeys alone
possess parallel and convergent vision of the two eyes, while a
divergent, and consequently a very widely extended, vision is a
prerogative of the lower mammals; squirrels, for instance, and
probably also hares and rabbits, being able to see an object
approaching them directly from behind without turning their
heads.
An osteological question which has been much discussed is
the fate of the reptilian quadrate bone in the mammalian skull.
In the opinion of F. W. Thyng, who has carefully reviewed all
the other theories, the balance of evidence tends to show that
the quadrate has been taken up into the inner ear, where it is
represented among the auditory ossicles by the incus.
Although the present article does not discuss mammalian
osteology in general (for which see VERTEBRATA), it is interesting
to notice in this connexion that the primitive condition of the
mammalian tympanum apparently consisted merely of a small
and incomplete bony ring, with, at most, an imperfect ventral
wall to the tympanic cavity, and that a close approximation to
this original condition still persists in the monotremes, especially
Ornithorhynchus. The tympano-hyal is the characteristic mam-
malian element in this region; but the entotympanic likewise
appears to be peculiar to the class, and to be unrepresented
among the lower vertebrates. The tympanum itself has been
regarded as representing one of the elements probably the
supra-angular of the compound reptilian lower jaw. The
presence of only seven vertebrae in the neck is a very constant
feature among mammals; the exceptions being very few.
Two other points in connexion with mammalian osteology
may be noticed. A large number of mammals possess a per-
foration, or foramen, on the inner side of the lower end of the
humerus, and also a projection on the shaft of the femur known
as the third trochanter. From its occurrence in so many of the
lower vertebrates, the entepicondylar foramen of the humerus,
as it is called, is regarded by Dr E. Stromer as a primitive
structure, of which the original object was to protect certain
nerves and bloodvessels. It is remarkable that it should persist
in the spectacled bear of the Andes, although it has disappeared
in all other living members of the group. The third trochanter
of the femur, on the other hand, can scarcely be regarded as
primitive, seeing that it is absent in several of the lower groups
of mammals. Neither can its presence be attributed, as Professor
A. Gaudry suggests, to the reduction in the number of the toes,
as otherwise it should not be found in the rhinoceros. Its
general absence in man forbids the idea of its having any con-
nexion with the upright posture.
Hair. In the greater number of mammals the skin is more
or less densely clothed with a peculiarly modified form of epidermis
known as hair. This consists of hard, elongated, slender, cylindrical
or tapering, thread-like masses of epidermic tissue, each of which
grows, without branching, from a short prominence, or papilla, sunk
at the bottom of a pit, or follicle, in the true skin, or dermis. Such
hairs, either upon different parts of the skin of the same species, or
in different species, assume very diverse forms and are of various
sizes and degrees of rigidity as seen in the fur of the mole, the
bristles of the pig, and the spines of the hedgehog and porcupine,
which are all modifications of the same structures. These differ-
ences arise mainly from the different arrangement of the constituent
elements into which the epidermal cells are modified. Each hair is
composed usually of a cellular pithy internal portion, containing
much air, and a denser or more horny external or cortical part.
In some mammals, as deer, the substance of the hair is almost entirely
composed of the central medullary or cellular substance, and is
consequently very easily broken; in others the horny part prevails
almost exclusively, as in the bristles of the wild boar. In the three-
toed sloth (Bradypus) the hairs have a central horny axis and a
pithy exterior. Though generally nearly smooth, or but slightly
scaly, the surface of some hairs is imbricated ; that is to say, shows
projecting scale-like processes, as in some bats, while in the two-
toed sloth (Choloepus) they are longitudinally grooved or fluted.
Though usually more or less cylindrical or circular in section, hairs
are often elliptical or flattened, as in the curly-haired races of men,
the terminal portion of the hair of moles and shrews, and conspicu-
ously in the spines of the spiny squirrels of the genus Xerus and
those of the mouse-like Platacanthomys. Hair having a property
of mutual cohesion or " felting," which depends upon a roughened
scaly surface and a tendency to curl, as in domestic sheep, is called
" wool."
It has been shown by J. C. H. de Meijere that the insertion
of the individual hairs in the skin displays a definite arrangement,
constant for each species, but varying in different groups. In
jerboas, for example, a bunch of twelve or thirteen hairs springs
from the same point, while in the polar bear a single stout hair
and several slender ones arise together, and in the marmosets three
equal-sized hairs form regular groups. These tufts or groups like-
wise display an orderly and definite grouping in different mammals,
which suggests the origin of such groups from the existence |n primi-
tive mammals of a scaly coat comparable to that of reptiles, and
indeed directly inherited therefrom.
In a large proportion of mammals there exist hairs of two distinct
types: the one long, stiff, and alone appearing on the surface, and
the other shorter, finer and softer, constituting the under-fur,
which may be compared to the down of birds. A well-known
example is furnished by the fur-bearing seals, in which the outer
fur is removed in the manufacture of commercial " seal-skin,"
leaving only the soft and fine under-fur.
Remarkable differences in the direction or slope of the hair are
noticeable on different partsiof the body and limbs of many mammal;,
especially in certain apes, where the hair of the fore-limbs is inclined
towards the elbow from above and from below. More remarkable
still is the fact that the direction of the slope often differs in closely
allied groups, as, for instance, in African and Asiatic buffaloes, in
which the hair of the middle line of the back has opposite directions.
Whorls of hair, as on the face of the horse and the South American
deer known as brockets, occur where the different hair-slopes meet.
In this connexion reference may be made to patches or lines of long
and generally white hairs situated on the back of certain ruminants,
which are capable of erection during periods of excitement, and
serve, apparently, as " flags " to guide the members of a herd in
flight. Such are the white chrysanthemum-like patches on the
rump of the Japanese deer and of the American prong-buck (Antilo-
capra), and the line of hairs situated in a groove on the loins of the
African spring-buck. The white under-side of the tail of the
rabbit and the yellow rump-patch of many deer are analogous.
The eye-lashes, or ciliae, are familiar examples of a special local
development of hair. Special tufts of stout stiff hairs, sometimes
termed vibrissae, and connected with nerves, and in certain cases
with glands, occur in various regions. They are roost common on
the head, while they constitute the " whiskers," or " feelers," of the
cats and many rodents. In other instances, notably in the lemurs,
but also in certain carnivora, rodents and marsupials, they occupy
a position on the fore-arm near the wrist, in connexion with glands,
and receive sensory powers from the radial nerve. In some mammals
the hairy covering is partial and limited to particular regions; in
others, as the hippopotamus and the sea-cows, or Sirenia, though
scattered over the whole surface, it is extremely short and scanty ;
522
MAMMALIA
but in none is it reduced to so great an extent as in the Cetacea, in
which it is limited to a few small bristles confined to the neighbour-
hood of the lips and nostrils, and often present only in the young,
or even the foetal condition.
Some kinds of hairs, as those of the mane and tail of the horse,
persist throughout life, but more generally, as in the case of the
body-hair of the same animal, they are shed and renewed periodi-
cally, generally annually. Many mammals have a longer hairy
coat in winter, which is shed as summer comes on; and some few,
which inhabit countries covered in winter with snow, as the Arctic
fox, variable hare and ermine, undergo a complete change of colour
in the two seasons, being white in winter and grey or brown in
summer. There has been much discussion as to whether this
winter whitening is due to a change in the colour of the individual
hairs or to a change of coat. It has, however, been demonstrated
that the senile whitening of human hair is due to the presence of
phagocytes, which devour the pigment-bodies ; and from microscopic
observations recently made by the French naturalist Dr E. Trouessart,
it appears that much the same kind of action takes place in the hairs
of mammals that turn white in winter. Cold, by some means or
other, causes the pigment-bodies to shift from the normal positions,
and to transfer themselves to other layers of the hair, where they
are attacked and devoured by phagocytes. The winter whitening
of mammals is, therefore, precisely similar to the senile bleaching
of human hair, no shift of the coat taking place. Under the influ-
ence of exposure to intense cold a small mammal has been observed
to turn white in a single night, just as the human hair has been
known to blanch suddenly under the influence of intense emotion,
and in both cases extreme activity of the phagocytes is apparently
the inducing cause. The African golden-moles (Chrysochloris) ,
the desmans or water-moles (Myogale), and the West African
Potamogale velox, are remarkable as being the only mammals whose
hair reflects those iridescent tints so common in the feathers of
tropical birds.
The principal and most obvious purpose of the hairy covering is
to protect the skin. Its function in the hairless Cetacea is dis-
charged by the specially modified and thickened layer of fatty
tissue beneath the skin known as " blubber."
Scales, &c. True scales, or flat imbricated plates of horny
material, covering the greater part of the body, are found in one
family only of mammals, the pangolins or Manidae; but these are
also associated with hairs growing from the intervals between the
scales or on the parts of the skin not covered by them. Similarly
imbricated epidermic productions form the covering of the under-
surface of the tail of the African flying rodents of the family Anoma-
luridae; and flat scutes, with the edges in apposition, and not over-
laid, clothe both surfaces of the tail of the beaver, rats and certain
other members of the rodent order, and also of some insectivora
and marsupials. Armadillos alone possess an external bony
skeleton, composed of plates of bony tissue, developed in the skin
and covered with scutes of horny epidermis. Other epidermic
appendages are the horns of ruminants and rhinoceroses the former
being elongated, tapering, hollow caps of hardened epidermis of
fibrous structure, fitting on and growing from conical projections
of the frontal bones and always arranged in pairs, while the latter
are of similar structure, but without any internal bony support,
and situated in the middle line. Callosities, or bare patches covered
with hardened and thickened epidermis, are found on the buttocks
of many apes, the breast of camels, the inner side of the limbs of
Equidae, the grasping under-surface of the tail of prehensile-tailed
monkeys, opossums, &c. The greater part of the skin of the one-
horned Asiatic rhinoceros is immensely thickened and stiffened by
an increase of the tissue of both the skin and epidermis, constituting
the well-known jointed " armour-plated " hide of those animals.
Nails, Claws and Hoofs. With few exceptions, the terminal
extremities of the digits of both limbs of mammals are more or less
protected or armed by epidermic plates or sheaths, constituting the
various forms of nails, claws or hoofs. These are absent in the
Cetacea alone. A perforated spur, with a special secreting gland
in connexion with it, is found attached to each hind-leg of the males
of the existing species of Monotremata.
Scent-glands, &c. Besides the universally distributed sweat-
glands connected with the hair-system, most mammals have special
glands in modified portions of the skin, often involuted to form, a
shallow recess or a deep sac with a narrow opening, situated in
various parts of the surface of the body, and secreting odorous
substances, by the aid of which individuals recognize one another.
These probably afford the principal means by which wild animals
are able to become aware of the presence of other members of the
species, even at great distances.
To this group of structures belong the suborbital face-gland,
" larmier," or " crumen," of antelopes and deer, the frontal gland
of the muntjak and of bats of the genus Phyttorhina, the chin-
gland of the chevrotains and of Taphozous and certain other bats,
the glandular patch behind the ear of the chamois and the reed-
buck, the glands on the lower parts of the legs of most deer and a
few antelopes (the position of which is indicated by tufts of long
and often specially coloured hair), the interdigital foot-glands of
goats, sheep, and many other ruminants, the temporal gland of
elephants, the lateral glands of the musk-shrew, the gland on the
back of the hyrax and the peccary (from the presence of which the
latter animal takes the name Dicotyles), the gland on the tails of
the members of the dog-tribe, the preputial glands of the musk-
deer and beaver (both well known for the use made of their power-
fully odorous secretion in perfumery), and also of the swine and
hare, the anal glands of Carnivora, the perineal gland of the civet
(also of commercial value), the caudal glands of the fox and goat,
the gland on the wing-membrane of bats of the genus Saccopteryx,
the post-digital gland of the rhinoceros, &c. Very generally these
glands are common to both sexes, and it is in such cases that their
function as a means of mutual recognition is most evident. It has
been suggested that the above-mentioned callosities or " chestnuts "
on the limbs of horses are vestigial scent-glands; and it is note-
worthy that scrapings or shavings from their surface have a
powerful attraction for other horses, and are also used by poachers
and burglars to keep dogs silent. The position of such glands on the
lower portions of the limbs is plainly favourable to a recognition-
taint being left in the tracks of terrestrial animals; and antelopes
have been observed deliberately to rub the secretion from their
face-glands on tree-trunks. When glands are confined to the male,
their function is no doubt sexual; the secretion forming part of
the attraction, or stimulus, to the other sex.
Dentition. In the great majority of mammals the teeth form a
definite series, of which the hinder elements are of a more or less
complex type, while those in front are simpler. With the exception
of the marsupials, a set of deciduous, or milk, teeth is developed in
FIG. i. Upper and Lower Teeth of one side of the Mouth of a
Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus) , as an example of the homoeodont type
of dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of the
teeth has been removed to show their simple character.
most mammals with a complicated type of dentition; these milk-
teeth being shed at a comparatively early period (occasionally even
in utero), when they are succeeded by the larger permanent series,
which is the only other ever developed. This double series of
teeth thus forms a very characteristic feature of mammals generally.
Both the milk and the permanent dentition display the aforesaid
complexity of the hinder teeth as compared with those in front,
and since the number of milk-teeth is always considerably less
than that of the permanent set, it follows that the hinder milk-
teeth are usually more complex than the teeth of which they are
the predecessors in the permanent series, and represent functionally,
not their immediate successors, but those more posterior permanent
teeth which have no direct predecessors. This character is clearly
seen in those animals in which the various members of the lateral
or cheek series are well differentiated from each other in form, as
the Carnivora, and also in man.
In mammals with two sets of teeth the number of those of the
permanent series preceded by milk-teeth varies greatly, being
sometimes, as in marsupials and some rodents, as few as one on
each side of each jaw, and in other cases including the larger portion
of the series. As a rule, the teeth of the two sides of the jaws are
alike in number and character, except in cases of accidental or
abnormal variation, and in the tusks of the narwhal, in which the
left is of immense size, and the right rudimentary. In mammals,
such as dolphins and some armadillos, which have a large series of
similar teeth, not always constant in number in different individuals,
there may indeed be differences in the two sides; but, apart from
these in describing the dentition of any mammal, it is generally
sufficient to give the number and characters of the teeth of one side
only. As the teeth of the upper and the lower jaws work against
each other in masticating, there is a general correspondence or
harmony between them, the projections of one series, when the
mouth is closed, fitting into corresponding depressions of the other.
There is also a general resemblance in the number, characters and
mode of succession of both series; so that, although individual
teeth of the upper and lower jaws may not be in the strict sense of
the term homologous parts, there is a great convenience in applying
the same descriptive terms to the one which are used for the other.
The simplest dentition is that of many species of dolphin (fig. i),
in which the crowns are single-pointed, slightly curved cones, and
the roots also single and tapering; so that all the teeth are alike in
form from the anterior to the posterior end of the series, though it
may be with some slight difference in size, those at the two ex-
tremities being rather smaller than the others. Such a dentition
is called " homoeodont " (Gr. Sftotos, like, ASofe, tooth), and in the
case cited, as the teeth are never changed, it is also monophyodont
(Gr. n6vm, alone, single, <j>(*iv, to generate, iSofc, tooth). Such
teeth are adapted only for catching slippery living prey, like fish.
MAMMALIA
5 2 3
In a very large number of mammals the teeth of different parts
of the scries are more or less differentiated in character; and, accord-
ingly, have different functions to perform. The front teeth are
simple and one-rooted, and are adapted for cutting and seizing.
They are called " incisors." The back, lateral or cheek teeth, on
the other hand, have broader and more complex crowns, tuber-
culated or ridged, and supported on two or more roots. They
crush or grind the food, and are hence called " molars." Many
mammals have, between these two sets, a tooth at each corner of
the mouth, longer and more pointed than the others, adapted for
tearing or stabbing, or for fixing struggling prey. From the con-
spicuous development of such teeth in the Carnivora, especially
the dogs, they have received the name of " canines." A dentition
with its component parts so differently formed that these distinctive
terms are applicable to them is called heterodont (Gr. ?rpos,
different). In most cases, though by no means invariably, mammals
with a heterodont dentition are also diphyodont (Gr. Suf>vfit, of
double form).
This general arrangement is obvious in a considerable number
of mammals; and examination shows that, under great modifications
in detail, there is a remarkable uniformity of essential characters
in the dentition of a large number of members of the class belonging
to different orders and not otherwise closely allied, so much that it
mi
FIG. 2. Milk and Permanent Dentitions of Upper (I.) and Lower
(II.) Jaws of the Dog (Cants), with the symbols by which the different
teeth are designated. The third upper molar (m 3) is the only tooth
wanting to complete the typical heterodont mammalian dentition.
is possible to formulate a common plan of dentition from which the
others have been derived by the alteration of some and the suppres-
sion of other members of the series, and occasionally, but very
rarely, by addition. In this generalized form of mammalian
dentition the total number of teeth present is 44, or 11 above and
1 1 below on each side. Those of each jaw are placed in continuous
series without intervals between them; and, although the anterior
teeth are simple and single-rooted, and the posterior teeth complex
and with several roots, the transition between the two kinds is
gradual.
In dividing and grouping such teeth for the purpose of description
and comparison more definite characters are required than those
derived merely from form or function. The first step towards a
classification rests on the fact that the upper jaw is composed of
two bones, the premaxilla and the maxilla, and that the division
or suture between these bones separates the three front teeth from
the rest. These three teeth, which are implanted in the premaxilla,
form a distinct group, to which the name of " incisor " is applied.
This distinction is, however, not so important as it appears at first
sight, for their connexion with the bone is only of a secondary nature,
and, although it happens conveniently that in the great majority
of cases the division between the bones coincides with the inter-
space between the third and fourth tooth of the series, still, when
it does not, as in the mole, too much weight must not be given to
this fact, if it contravenes other reasons for determining the homo-
logics of the teeth. The eight remaining teeth of the upper jaw
offer a natural division, inasmuch as the three hindmost never have
niilk-predecessors; and, although some of the anterior teeth may be
in the same case, the particular one preceding these three always
has such a predecessor. These three, then, are grouped as the
'' molars." Of the five teeth between the incisors and molars the
most anterior, or the one usually situated close behind the pre-
maxillary suture, very generally assumes a lengthened and pointed
form, and constitutes the " canine " of the Carnivora, the tusk of
the boar, &c. It is customary, therefore, to call this tooth, what-
ever its size or form, the " canine." The remaining four are the
" premolars." This system has been objected to as artificial, and
in many cases not descriptive, the distinction between premolars
and canine especially being sometimes not obvious; but the terms
are now in such general use, and also so convenient, that it is not
likely they will be superseded. It is frequently convenient to refer
to all the teeth behind the canine as the " cheek-teeth."
With regard to the lower teeth the difficulties are greater, owing
to the absence of any suture corresponding to that which defines
the incisors above; but since the number of the teeth is the same,
since the corresponding teeth are preceded by milk-teeth, and since
in the large majority of cases it is the fourth tooth of the series
which is modified in the same way as the canine (or fourth tooth)
of the upper jaw, it is reasonable to adopt the same divisions as
with the upper series, and to call the first three, which are implanted
in the part of the mandible opposite to the premaxilla, the incisors,
the next the canine, the next four the premolars, and the last three
the molars.
It may be observed that when the mouth is closed, especially
when the opposed surfaces of the teeth present an irregular outline,
the corresponding upper and lower teeth are not exactly opposite,
otherwise the two series could not fit into one another, but as a rule
the points of the lower teeth shut into the interspaces in front of the
corresponding teeth of the upper jaw. This is very distinct in the
canine teeth of the Carnivora, and is a useful guide in determining
the homologies of the teeth of the two jaws.
For the sake of brevity the complete dentition is described by the
following formula, the numbers above the line representing the teeth
of the upper, those below the line those of the lower jaw: incisors
fj^, canines {={, premolars |^. molars, *=|= 11^11; total 44. As,
however, initial letters may be substituted for the names of each
group, and it is unnecessary to give more than the numbers of the
teeth on one side of the mouth, the formula may be abbreviated into :
* l< c \, pi, ml; total 44.
The individual teeth of each group are enumerated from before
backwards, and by such a formula as the following:
' I, i 2, i 3, c, p i, p 2, p 3, p 4, m l, m 2, m 3
t i, i 2, i 3, c, p i, p 2, p 3, p 4, m i, m 2, m 3
a special numerical designation is given by which each one can be
indicated. In mentioning any single tooth, such a sign as will
mean the first upper molar, ^1 the first lower molar, and so on.
When, as is the case among nearly all existing mammals with the
exception of the members of the genera Sus (pigs), Gymnura (rat-
shrew), Talpa (moles) and Myogale (desmans) the number of teeth
is reduced below the typical forty-four, it appears to be an almost
universal rule that if one of the incisors is missing it is the second,
or middle one, while the premolars commence to disappear from the
front end of the series and the molars from the hirtder end.
The milk-dentition is expressed by a similar formula, d for decidu-
ous, being added before the letter expressive of the nature of the
tooth. As the three molars and (almost invariably) the first pre-
molar of the permanent series have no predecessors, the typical
milk-dentition would be expressed as follows: di }, dc {, dm J =28.
The teeth which precede the premolars of the permanent series are
called either milk-molar or milk-premolar. When there is a marked
difference between the premolars and molars of the permanent
dentition, the first milk-molar resembles a premolar, while the last
has the characters of the posterior molar. It is sometimes convenient
to refer to all the seven cheek-teeth as members of a single continuous
series (which they undoubtedly are), and for this purpose the follow-
ing nomenclature has been proposed :
Upper Jaw. Lower Jaw.
Cheek-tooth i Protus. Protid.
2 Deuterus. Deuterid.
3 Tritus. Tritid.
4 Tetartus. Tetartid.
5 Pemptus. Pemptid.
6 Hectus. Hectid.
7 Hebdomus. Hebdomid.
With the exception of the Cetacca, most of the Edentata, and the
Sirenia, in which the teeth, when present, have been specialized
in a retrograde or aberrant manner, the placcntal mammals as
a whole have a dentition conforming more or less closely to the
foregoing type.
With the marsupials the case is, however, somewhat different;
the whole number not being limited to 44, owing largely to the fact
that the number of upper incisors may exceed three pairs, reaching
indeed in some instances to as many as five. Moreover, with the
exception of the wombats, the number of pairs of incisors in the upper
always exceeds those in the lower. When fully developed, the
number of cheek-teeth is, however, seven; and it is probable that, as
in placentals, the first four of these are premolars and the remaining
three molars, although it was long held that these numbers should
524
MAMMALIA
be transposed. The most remarkable feature about the marsupial
dentition is that, at most, only a single pair of teeth is replaced in
each jaw ; this pair, on the assumption that there are four premolars,
representing the third of that series. With the exception of this
replacing pair of teeth in each jaw, it is considered by many authori-
ties that the marsupial dentition corresponds to the deciduous, or
milk, dentition of placentals. If this be really the case, the rudi-
ments of an earlier set of teeth which have been detected in the jaws
of some members of the order, represent, not the milk-series, but a
prelacteal dentition. On the assumption that these functional
teeth correspond to the milk-series of placentals, marsupials in
this respect agree exactly with modern elephants, in which the same
peculiarity exists.
In very few mammals are teeth entirely absent. Even in the
whalebone whales their germs are formed in the same manner and
at the same period of life as in other mammals, and even become
partially calcified, although they never rise above the gums, and com-
pletely disappear before birth. In the American anteaters and the
pangolins among the Edentata no traces of teeth have been found
at any age. Adult monotremes are in like case, although the duck-
billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus) has teeth when young on the sides
of the jaws. The northern sea-cow (Rhytina), now extinct, appears
to have been toothless throughout life.
In different groups of mammals the dentition is variously special-
ized in accordance with the nature of the food on which the members
of these groups subsist. From this point of view the various adap-
tive modifications of mammalian dentition may be roughly grouped
under the headings of piscivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous,
omnivorous and herbivorous.
The fish-eating, or piscivorous, type of dentition is exemplified
under two phases in the dolphins and in the seals (being in the latter
instance a kind of retrograde modification from the carnivorous type).
In the dolphins, and in a somewhat less marked degree among the
seals, this type of dentition consists of an extensive series of conical,
nearly equal-sized, sharp-pointed teeth, implanted in an elongated
and rather narrow mouth (fig. i), and adapted to seize slippery prey
without either tearing or masticating. In the dolphins the teeth
form simple cones, but in the seals they are often trident-like ; while
in the otters the dentition differs but little from the ordinary
carnivorous type.
This carnivorous adaptation, in which the function is to hold and
kill struggling animals, often of large size, attains its highest develop-
ment in the cats (Felidae). The canines are in consequence greatly
developed, of a cutting and piercing type, and from their wide separa-
tion in the mouth give a firm hold; the jaws being as short as is
consistent with the free action of the canines, or tusks, so that no
power is lost. The incisors are small, so as not to interfere with the
penetrating action of the tusks ; and the crowns of some of the teeth
of the cheek-series are modified into scissor-like blades, in order to
rasp off the flesh from the bones, or to crack the bones themselves,
while the later teeth of this series tend to disappear.
In the insectivorous type, as exemplified in moles and shrew-mice,
the middle pair of incisors in each jaw are long and pointed so as
to have a forceps-like action for seizing insects, the hard coats of
which are broken up by the numerous sharp cusps surmounting the
cheek-teeth.
In the omnivorous type, as exemplified in man and monkeys,
and to a less specialized degree jn swine, the incisors are of moderate
and nearly equal size; the canines, if enlarged, serve for other pur-
poses than holding prey, and such enlargement is usually confined
to those of the males; while the cheek-teeth have broad flattened
crowns surmounted by rounded bosses, or tubercles.
In the herbivorous modification, as seen in three distinct phases
in the horse, the kangaroo, and in ruminants, the incisors are gener-
ally well developed in one or both jaws, and have a nipping action,
either against one another or against a toothless hard pad in the
upper jaw; while the canines are usually small or absent, at least in
the upper jaw, but in the lower jaw may be approximated and
assimilated to the incisors. The cheek-teeth are large, with broad
flattened crowns surmounted either by simple transverse ridges, or
complicated by elevations and infoldings. In the specialized forms
the premolars tend to become more or less completely like the molars ;
and, contrary to what obtains among the Carnivora, the whole series
of cheek-teeth (with the occasional exception of the first) is very
strongly devejoped.
Opinions differ as to the mode in which the more complicated
cheek-teeth of mammals have been evolved from a simpler type of
tooth. According to one theory, this has been brought about by
the fusion of two or more teeth of a simple conical type to form
a compound tooth. A more generally accepted view especially
among palaeontologists is the tritubercular theory, according to
which the most generalized type of tooth consists of three cusps
arranged in a triangle, with the apex pointing inwards in the teeth
of the upper jaw. Additions of extra cusps form teeth of a more
complicated type. Each cusp of the primitive triangle has received
a separate name, both in the teeth of the upper and of the lower jaw,
while names have also been assigned to super-added cusps. Molar
teeth of the simple tritubercular type persist in the golden moles
(Chrysochhris) among the Insectivora and also in the marsupial
mole (NotorycUs) among the marsupials. The type is, moreover,
common among the mammals of the early Eocene, and still more so
in those of the Jurassic epoch; this forming one of the strongest
arguments in favoui of the tritubercular theory. (See Professor
H. F. Osborn, " Palaeontological Evidence for the Original Tri-
tubercular Theory," in vol. xvii. (new series) of the American Jou. nal
of Science, 1904.)
Digestive System. As ajready mentioned, mammals are specially
characterized by the division of the body-cavity into two main
chambers, by means of the horizontal muscular partition known as
the diaphragm, which is perforated by the great blood-vessels and
the alimentary tube. The mouth of the great majority of mammals
is peculiar for being guarded by thick fleshy lips, which are, however,
absent in the Cetacea; their principal function being to seize the
food, for which purpose they are endowed, as a rule, with more or
less strongly marked prehensile power. The roof of the mouth is
formed by the palate, terminating behind by a muscular, contractile
arch, having in man and a few other species a median projection
called the uvula, beneath which the mouth communicates with the
pharynx. The anterior part of the palate is composed of mucous
membrane tightly stretched over the flat or slightly concave bony
layer which separates the mouth from the nasal passages, and is
generally raised into a series of transverse ridges, which sometimes,
as in ruminants, attain a considerable development. In the floor of
the mouth, between the two branches of the lower jaw, and supported
behind by the hyoid apparatus, lies the tongue, an organ the free
surface of which, especially in its posterior part, is devoted to the
sense of taste, but which by reason of its great mobility (being
composed almost 'entirely of muscular fibres) performs important
mechanical functions connected with masticating and procuring
food. Its modifications of form in different mammals are numerous.
Between the long, extensile, worm-like tongue of the anteaters,
essential to the peculiar mode of feeding of those animals, and the
short, immovable and almost functionless tongue of the porpoise,
every intermediate condition is found. Whatever the form, the
upper surface is, however, covered with numerous fine papillae, in
which the terminal filaments of the taste-nerve are distributed.
In some mammals, notably lemurs, occurs a hard structure known as
the sublingua, which may terminate in a free horny tip. If, as has
been suggested, this organ represents the tongue of reptiles, the
mammalian tongue will obviously be a superadded organ distinctive
of the class.
Salivary glands, of which the most constant are the parotid and
the submaxillary, are always present in terrestrial mammals.
Next in constancy are the " sublingual," closely associated with the
last-named, at all events in the locality in
which the secretion is poured out; and the
" zygomatic," found only in some mam-
mals in the cheek, just under cover of the
anterior part of the zygomatic arch, the duct
entering the mouth-cavity near that of
the parotid.
The alimentary ,or intestinal, canal varies
greatly in relative length and capacity in
different mammals, and also offers manifold
peculiarities of form, being sometimes a
simple cylindrical tube of nearly uniform
calibre throughout, but more often subject
to alterations of form and capacity in
different portions of its course the most
characteristic and constant being the
division into an upper and narrower and a
lower and wider portion, called respectively
the small and the large intestine; the
former being arbitrarily divided into
duodenum, jejunum and ileum, and the
latter into colon and rectum. One of the
most striking peculiarities of this part of
the canal is the frequent presence of a blind
pouch, " caecum," situated at the junction
of the large and the small intestine. Their
structure presents an immense variety of
development, from the smallest bulging of
a portion of the side-wall of the tube to a
huge and complex sac, greatly exceeding
in capacity the remainder of the alimentary
canal. It is only in herbivorous mammals
that the caecum is developed to this great
extent, and among these there is a com-
plementary relationship between the size
and complexity of the organ and that of
the stomach. Where the latter is simple
the caecum is generally the largest, and
vice versa. In vol. xvii. (1905) of the Transactions of the Zoological
Society of London, Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell has identified the
paired caeca, or blind appendages, of the intestine of birds with
the usually single caecum of mammals. These caeca occur in birds
(as in mammals) at the junction of the small with the large intestine;
and while in ordinary perching-birds they are reduced to small nipple-
like buds of no functional importance, in many other birds owls for
instance they form quite long receptacles. Among mammals.
FIG. 3. Diagrammatic
Plan of the general
arrangement of the
Alimentary Canal in
a typical Mammal.
o, oesophagus;
st, stomach ;
p, pylorus;
ss, small intestine (ab-
breviated) ;
c, caecum;
II, large intestine or
colon, ending in
r, the rectum.
MAMMALIA
525
the horse and the dog may be cited as instances where the single
caecum is of large size, this being especially the case of the former,
where it is of enormous dimensions ; in human beings, on the other
hand, the caecum is rudimentary, and best known in connexion
with " appendicitis." The existence of paired caeca was previously
known in a few armadillos and anteaters, but Dr Mitchell has
shown that they are common in these groups, while he has also
recorded their occurrence in the hyrax and the manati. With the
aid of these instances of paired caeca, coupled with the frequent
existence of a rudiment of its missing fellow when only one is
functional, the author has been enabled to demonstrate conclusively
that these double organs in birds correspond in relations with their
normally single representative in mammals.
In mammals both caecum and colon are often sacculated, a disposi-
tion caused by the arrangement of the longitudinal bands of muscular
tissue in their walls; but the small intestine is always smooth and
simple-walled externally, though its lining membrane often exhibits
contrivances for increasing the absorbing surface without adding
to the general bulk of the organ, such as the numerous small tags, or
" villi, by which it is everywhere beset, and the more obvious
transverse, longitudinal, or reticulating folds projecting into the
interior, met with in many animals, of which the ' yalvulae conni-
ventes " of man form well-known examples. Besides the crypts
of Lieberkiihn found throughout the intestinal canal, and the
glands of Brunner confined to the duodenum, there are other
structures in the mucous membrane, about the nature of which
there is still much uncertainty, called " solitary " and " agminated "
glands, the latter more commonly known by the name of " Peyer's
patches." Of the liver little need be said, except that in all living
mammals it has been divided into a number of distinct lobes, which
have received separate names. It has, indeed, been suggested that
in the earlier mammals the liver was a simple undivided organ.
This, however, is denied by G. Ruge (vol. xxix. of Gegenbaur's
Morphologisches Jahrbuch).
Origin of Mammals. That mammals have become differenti-
ated from a lower type of vertebrates at least as early as the
commencement of the Jurassic period is abundantly testified
by the occurrence of the remains of small species in strata of
that epoch, some of which are mentioned in the articles
MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA (?..). Possibly mammalian
remains also occur in the antecedent Triassic epoch, some
palaeontologists regarding the South African Tritylodon as a
mammal, while others consider that it was probably a reptile.
Whatever may be the true state of the case with regard to that
animal probably also holds good in the case of the approximately
contemporaneous European Microlestes. Of the European
Jurassic (or Oolitic) mammals our knowledge is unfortunately
very imperfect; and from the scarcity of their remains it is quite
probable that they are merely stragglers from the region (possibly
Africa) where the class was first differentiated. It is not till the
early Eocene that mammals become a dominant type in the
northern hemisphere.
It is now practically certain that mammals are descended
from reptiles. Dr H. Gadow, in a paper on the origin of mammals
contributed to the Zeitschrift fiir Morphologic, sums up as follows:
" Mammals are descendants of reptiles as surely as they [the
latter] have been evolved from Amphibia. This does not mean
that any of the living groups of reptiles can claim their honour
of ancestry, but it means that the mammals have branched
where the principal reptilian groups meet, and that is a long
way back. The Theromorpha, especially small Theriodontia,
alone show us what these creatures were like." It may be
explained that the Theromorpha, or Anomodontia, are those
extinct reptiles so common in the early Secondary (Triassic)
deposits of South Africa, some of which present a remarkable
resemblance in their dentition and skeleton to mammals, while
others come equally near amphibians. A difficulty naturally
arises with regard to the fact that in reptiles the occipital condyle
by which the skull articulates with the vertebral column is
single, although composed of three elements, whereas in am-
phibians and mammals the articulation is formed by a pair of
condyles. Nevertheless, according to Professor H. F. Osborn,
the tripartite reptilian condyle, by the loss of its median element,
has given rise to the paired mammalian condyles; so that this
difficulty disappears. The fate of the reptilian quadrate bone
(which is reduced to very small dimensions in the Anomodontia)
has been referred to in an earlier section of the present article,
where some mention has also been made of the disappearance in
mammals of the hinder elements of the reptilian lower jaw, 30
as to leave the single bone (dentary) of each half of this part
of the skeleton in mammals.
Most of the earliest known mammals appear to be related to
the Marsupialia and Insectivora. Others however (inclusive
of Tritylodon and Microlesles, if they be really mammals), seem
nearer to the Monotremata; and the question has yet to be
decided whether placentals and marsupials on the one hand,
and monotremes on the other are not independently derived
from reptilian ancestors.
With regard to the evolution of marsupials and placentals,
it has been pointed out that the majority of modern marsupials
exhibit in the structure of their feet traces of the former opposa-
bility of the thumb and great toe to the other digits; and it
has accordingly been argued that all marsupials are descended
from arboreal ancestors. This doctrine is now receiving wide-
spread acceptation among anatomical naturalists; and in the
American Naturalist for 1904, Dr W. D. Matthew, an American
palaeontologist, considers himself provisionally justified in so
extending it as to include all mammals. That is to say, he
believes that, with the exception of the duckbill and the echidna,
the mammalian class as a whole can lay claim to descent from
small arboreal forms. This view is, of course, almost entirely
based upon palaeontological considerations; and these, in the
author's opinion, admit of the conclusion that all modern
placental and marsupial mammals are descended from a common
ancestral stock, of which the members were small in bodily size.
These ancestral mammals, in addition to their small size, were
characterized by the presence of five toes to each foot, of which
the first was more or less completely opposable to the other four.
The evidence in favour of this primitive opposability is consider-
able. In all the groups which are at present arboreal, the
palaeontological evidence goes to show that their ancestors
were likewise so; while since, in the case of modern terrestrial
forms, the structure of the wrist and ankle joints tends to
approximate to the arboreal type, as we recede in time, the
available evidence, so far as it goes, is in favour of Dr Matthew's
contention.
The same author also discusses the proposition from another
standpoint, namely, the condition of the earth's surface in
Cretaceous times. His theory is that in the early Cretaceous
epoch the animals of the world were mostly aerial, amphibious,
aquatic or arboreal; the flora of the land being undeveloped
as compared with its present state. On the other hand, towards
the close of the Cretaceous epoch (when the Chalk was in course
of deposition), the spread of a great upland flora vastly extended
the territory available for mammalian life. Accordingly, it was
at this epoch that the small ancestral insectivorous mammals
first forsook their arboreal habitat to try a life on the open
plains, where their descendants developed on the one hand into
the carnivorous and other groups, in which the toes are armed
with nails or claws, and on the other into the hoofed group,
inclusive of such monsters as the elephant and the giraffe. The
hypothesis is not free from certain difficulties, one of which
wiU be noticed later.
Classification. Existing mammals may be primarily divided
into three main groups, or subclasses, of which the second and
third are much more closely related to one another than is either
of them to the first. These three classes are the Monotremata
(or Prototheria), the Marsupialia (Didelphia, or Metatheria),
and the Placentalia (Monodelphia, or Eutheria) ; the distinctive
characters of each being given in separate articles (see MONO-
TREMATA, MARSUPIALIA and MONODELPHIA.)
The existing monotremes and marsupials are each represented
only by a single order; but the placentals are divided into the follow-
ing ordinal and subordinal groups, those which are extinct being
marked with an asterisk (*) :
1. Insectivora (Moles, Hedgehogs, &c.).
2. Chiroptera (Bats).
3. Dermoptera (Colugo, or Flying Lemur). f
4. Edentata:
a. Xenarthra (Anteaters, Sloths and Armadillos).
b. Pholidota (Pangolins).
c. Tubulidentata (Ant-bears, or Aard-varks).
526
MAMMALIA
5. Rodentia (Gnawing Mammals) :
a. Duplicidentata (Hares and Picas).
b. Simplicidentata (Rats, Beavers, &c.).
6.*Tillodontia (Ttilotherium).
7. Carnivora:
a. Fissipedia (Cats, Dogs, Bears, &c.).
b. Pinnipedia (Seals and Walruses).
c.*Creodonta (Hyaenodon, &c.).
8. Cetacea (Whales and Dolphins) :
a.*Archaeoceti (Zeuglodon, &c.).
b. Odontoceti (Spermwhales and Dolphins).
c. Mystacoceti (Whalebone Whales).
9. Sirenia (Dugongs and Manatis).
10. Ungulata (Hoofed Mammals):
a. Proboscidea (Elephants and Mastodons).
6. Hyracoidea (Hyraxes).
e.*Barypoda (Arsinoitherium).
d. *Toxodontia (Toxodon, &c.).
e.*Amblypoda (Uintatherium, &c.).
/.*Litopterna (Macrauchenia, &c.).
g. *Ancylopoda (Chalicotherium, &c.).
h. *Condylarthra (Phenacodus, &c.).
*. Perissodactyla (Tapirs, Horses, &c.).
j. Artiodactyla (Ruminants, Swine, &c.).
11. Primates:
a. Prosimiae (Lemurs and Galagos).
6. Anthropoidea (Monkeys, Apes and Man).
Separate articles are devoted to each of these orders, where refer-
ences will be found to other articles dealing with some of the minor
groups and a number of the more representative species.
Relationships of the Groups. As we recede in time we find the
extinct representatives of many of these orders approximating more
and more closely to a common generalized type, so that in a large
number of early Eocene forms it is often difficult to decide to which
group they should be assigned.
The Insectivora are certainly the lowest group of existing placental
mammals, and exhibit many signs of affinity with marsupials; they
may even be a more generalized group than the latter. From the
Insectivora the bats, or Chiroptera, are evidently a specialized lateral
offshoot; while the Dermoptera may be another branch from the
same stock. As to the Edentata, it is still a matter of uncertainty
whether the pangolins (Pholidota) and the ant-bears (Tubulidentata)
are rightly referred to an order typically represented by the sloths,
anteaters, and armadillos of South and Central America, or whether
the two first-named groups have any close relationship with one
another. Much uncertainty prevails with regard to the ancestry
of the group as a whole, although some of the earlier South American
forms have a comparatively full series of teeth, which are also of a
less degenerate type than those of their modern representatives.
An almost equal degree of doubt obtains with regard to the
ancestry of that very compact and well-defined group the Rodentia.
If, however, the so-called Proglires of the lower Eocene are really
ancestral rodents, the order is brought into comparatively close
connexion with the early generalized types of clawed, or unguiculate
mammals. Whether the extinct Tillodontia are most nearly allied
to the Rodentia, the Carnivora or the Ungulata, and whether they
are really entitled to constitute an ordinal group by themselves,
must remain for the present open questions.
The Carnivora, as represented by the (mainly) Eocene Creodonta,
are evidently an ancient and generalized type. As regards the num-
ber and form of their permanent teeth, at any rate, creodonts present
such a marked similarity to carnivorous marsupials, that it is difficult
to believe the two groups are not allied, although the nature of the
relationship is not yet understood, and the minute internal structure
of the teeth is unlike that of marsupials and similar to that of modern
Carnivora. There is the further possibility that creodonts may be
directly descended from the carnivorous reptiles ; a descent which if
proved might introduce some difficulty with regard to the above-
mentioned theory as to the arboreal ancestry of mammals generally.
Be this as it may, there can be little doubt that the creodonts are
related to the Insectivora, which, as stated above, show decided signs
of kinship with the marsupials.
A much more interesting relationship of the creodont carnivora
has, however, been established on the evidence of recent discoveries
in Egypt. From remains of Eocene age in that country Dr E. Fraas,
of Stuttgart, has demonstrated the derivation of the whale-like
Zeuglodon from the creodonts. Dr C. E. Andrews has, moreover,
not only brought forward additional evidence in favour of this most
remarkable line of descent, but is confident which Professor Fraas
was not that Zeuglodon itself is an ancestral cetacean, and
consequently that whales are the highly modified descendants of
creodonts. It must be admitted, however, that the links between
Zeuglodon and typical cetaceans are at present unknown; but it may
be hoped that these will be eventually brought to light from the
deposits of the Mokattam Range, near Cairo. Whales and dolphins
being thus demonstrated to be nothing more than highly modified
Carnivora, might almost be included in the same ordinal group.
An analogous statement may be made with regard to the sea-cows,
or Sirenia, which appear to be derivates from the great herbivorous
order of Ungulata, and might consequently be included in that
group, as indeed has been already done in Dr Max Weber's classifica-
tion. It is with the proboscidean suborder of the Ungulata to which
the Sirenia are most nearly related; the nature of this relationship
being described by Dr Andrews as follows :
" In the first place, the occurrence of the most primitive Sirenians
with which we are acquainted in the same region as the most general-
ized proboscidean, Moeritherium, is in favour of such a view, and this
is further supported by the similarity of the brain-structure and,
to some extent, of the pelvis in the earliest-known members of the
two groups. Moreover, in the anatomy of the soft-parts of the recent
forms there are a number of remarkable points of resemblance.
Among the common characters may be noted the possession of:
(i) pectoral mammae; (2) abdominal testes; (3) a bifid apex of the
heart ; (4) bilophodont molars with a tendency to the formation of
an additional lobe from the posterior part of the cingulum. The
peculiar mode of displacement of the teeth from behind forwards
in some members of both groups may perhaps indicate a relationship,
although in the case of the Sirenia the replacement takes place by
means of a succession of similar molars, while in the Proboscidea the
molars remain the same numerically, but increase greatly in size
and number of transverse ridges."
These and certain other facts referred to by the same author point
to the conclusion that not only are the Sirenia and the Proboscidea
derived from a single ancestral stock, but that the Hyracoidea and
so Arsinoitherium are also derivatives from the same stock, which
must necessarily have been Ethiopian.
Of the other suborders of ungulates, the Toxodontia and Lito-
pterna are exclusively South American, and while the former may
possibly be related to the Hyracoidea and Barypoda, the latter is
perhaps more nearly akin to the Perissodactyla. The Amblypoda,
on the other hand, are perhaps not far removed from the ancestral
Proboscidea, which depart comparatively little from the generalized
ungulate type. The latter is represented by the Eocene Condylar-
thra, which undoubtedly gave rise to the Perissodactyla and Artio-
dactyla, and probably to most, if not all, of the other groups. The
Condylarthra, in their turn, approximate closely to the ancestral
Carnivora, as they also do in some degree to the ancestral Primates.
As regards the latter order, although we are at present unacquainted
with all the connecting links between the lemurs and the monkeys,
there is little doubt that the ancestors of the former represent the
stock from which the latter have originated. C. D. Earle, in the
American Naturalist for 1897, observes that " so far as the palaeon-
tological evidence goes it is decidedly in favour of the view that apes
and lemurs are closely related. Beginning with the earliest known
lemur, Anaptomorphus, this genus shows tendencies towards the
anthropoids, and, when we pass up into the Oligocene of the Old
World, Adapts is a decidedly mixed type, and probably not far from
the common stem-form which gave origin to both suborders of the
Primates. In regard to Tarsius, it is evidently a type nearly between
the lemurs and apes, but with many essential characters belonging
to the former group."
Distribution. For an account of the "realms" and "regions"
into which the surface of the globe has been divided by those
who have made a special study of the geographical distribution
of animals, see ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. For the purposes
of such zoo-geographical divisions, mammals are much better
adapted than birds, owing to their much more limited powers
of dispersal; most of them (exclusive of the purely aquatic
forms, such as seals, whales, dolphins and sea-cows) being unable
to cross anything more than a very narrow arm of the sea.
Consequently, the presence of nearly allied groups of mammals
in areas now separated by considerable stretches of sea proves
that at no very distant date such tracts must have had a land-
connexion. In the case of the southern continents the difficulty
is, however, to determine whether allied groups of mammals
(and other animals) have reached their present isolated habitats
by dispersal from the north along widely sundered longitudinal
lines, or whether such a distribution implies the former existence
of equatorial land-connexions. It may be added that even bats
are unable to cross large tracts of sea; and the fact that fruit-
bats of the genus Pteropus are found in Madagascar and the
Seychelles, as well as in India, while they are absent from Africa,
is held to be an important link in the chain of evidence demon-
strating a former land-connexion between Madagascar and
India.
There is another point of view from which mammals are of
especial importance in regard to geographical distribution,
namely their comparatively late rise and dispersal, or " radia-
tion," as compared with reptiles.
As .regards terrestrial mammals (with which alone we are at
present concerned), one of the most striking features in their
distribution is their practical absence from oceanic islands; the
MAMMALIA
527
only species found in such localities being either small forms
which might have been carried on floating timber, or such as
have been introduced by human agency. This absence of mam-
malian life in oceanic islands extends even to New Zealand,
where the indigenous mammals comprise only two peculiar
species of bats, the so-called Maori rat having been introduced
by man.
One of the leading features in mammalian distribution is the fact
that the Monotremata, or egg-laying mammals, are exclusively
confined to Australia and Papua, with the adjacent islands. The
marsupials also attain their maximum development in Australia
itogaea " of the distributionists), extending, however, as far west
. lebes and the Moluccas, although in these islands they form
an insignificant minority among an extensive placental fauna,
being represented only by thecuscuses (Phalanger),a group unknown
in either Papua or Australia. Very different, on the other hand,
is the condition of things in Australia and Papua, where marsupials
(and monotremes) are the dominant forms of mammalian life,
the placentals being represented (apart from bats, which are mainly
of an Asiatic type) only by a number of more or less aberrant rodents
belonging to the mouse-tribe, and in Australia by the dingo, or native
dog, and in New Guinea by a wild pig. The dingo was, however,
almost certainly brought from Asia by the ancestors of the modern
natives; while the Papuan pig is also in all probability a human
introduction, very likely of much later date. The origin of the
Australasian fauna is a question pertaining to the article ZOOLOGICAL
DISTRIBUTION. The remaining marsupials (namely the families
Didelphyidae and Epanorthidae) are American, and mainly South
and Central American at the present day ; although during the early
part of the Tertiary period representatives of the first-named family
ranged all over the northern hemisphere.
The Insectivora (except a few shrews which have entered from the
north) are absent from South America, and appear to have been
mainly an Old World group, the only forms which have entered
North America being the shrew-mice(5orictda) and moles (Talpidae).
The occurrence of one aberrant group (Solenodon) in the West
Indies is, however, noteworthy. The family with the widest dis-
tribution is the Soricidae, the Talpidae being unknown in Africa.
The tree-shrews (Tupaiidae) are exclusively Asiatic, whereas the
jumping-shrews (Macroscelididae) are equally characteristic of the
African continent. Madagascar is the sole habitat of the tenrecs
(Centetidae), as is Southern Africa of the golden moles (Chryso-
chloridae). It is, however, important to mention that an extinct
South American insectivore, Necrolestes, has been referred to the
family last mentioned; and even if this reference should not
be confirmed in the future, the occurrence of a representative of
the order in Patagonia is a fact of considerable importance in
distribution.
The Rodentia have a wider geographical range than any other
order of terrestrial mammals, being, as already mentioned, repre-
sented by numerous members of the mouse-tribe (Muridae) even
in Australasia. With the remarkable exception of Madagascar,
where it is represented by the Nesomyidae, that family has thus a
cosmopolitan distribution. Very noteworthy is the fact that, with
the exception of Madagascar (and of course Australia) the squirrel
family (Sciuridae) is also found in all parts of the world. Precisely
the same may be said of the hares, which, however, become scarce
in South America. On the other hand, the scaly-tailed squirrels
(Anomaluridae), the jumping-hares (Pedetidae), and the strand-
moles (Bathyergidae) are exclusively African; while the sewellels
(Haplodontidae) and the pocket-gophers (Geomyidae) are as character-
istically North American, although a few members of the latter
have reached Central America. The beavers (Castoridae) are re-
stricted to the northern hemisphere, whereas the dormice (Gliridae)
and the mole-rats (Spalacidae) are exclusively Old World forms, the
latter only entering the north of Africa, in which continent the former
are largely developed. The jerboa group (Dipodidae, or Jaculidae) is
also mainly an Old World type, although its aberrant representatives
the jumping-mice (Zapus) have effected an entrance into Arctic
North America. Porcupines enjoy a very wide range, being repre-
sented throughout the warmer parts of the Old World, with the excep-
tion of Madagascar (and of course Australasia), by the Hystricidae,
and in the New World by the Erethizontidae. Of the remaining
families of the Simplicidentata, all are southern, the cavies (Caviidae),
chinchillas (ChinchMidae) , and degus (Octodontidae) being Central
and South American, while the Capromyidae are common to southern
America and Africa, and the Cienodactylidae are exclusively African.
The near alliance of all these southern families, and the absence of
so many Old World families from Madagascar form two of the most
striking features in the distribution of the order. Lastly, among
the Duplicidentata, the picas (Ochotonidae or Lagomyidae) form a
group confined to the colder or mountainous regions of the northern
hemisphere.
Among the existing land Carnivora (of which no representatives
except the introduced dingo are found in Australasia) the cat-tribe
(Felidae) has now an almost cosmopolitan range, although it only
reached South America at a comparatively recent date. Its original
home was probably in the northern hemisphere; and it has no
representatives in Madagascar. The civet-tribe (Viverridae), on the
other hand, which is exclusively an Old World group, is abundant in
Madagascar, where it is represented by peculiar and aberrant types.
The hyenas (Hyaenidae), at any rate at the present day, to which
consideration is mainly limited, are likewise Old World. The dog-
tribe (Canidae), on the other hand, are, with the exception of Mada-
gascar, an almost cosmopolitan group. Their place of origin was,
however, almost entirely in the northern hemisphere, and not im-
probably in some part of the Old World, where they gave rise to the
bears ( Ursidae). The latter are abundant throughout the northern
hemisphere, and have even succeeded in penetrating into South
America, but, with the exception of the Mediterranean zone, have
never succeeded in entering Africa, and are therefore of course
unknown in Madagascar. The raccoon group (Procyonidae) is
mainly American, being represented in the Old World only by the
pandas (Aelurus and Aeluropus), of which the latter apparently
exhibits some affinity to the bears. The birthplace of the group
was evidently in the northern hemisphere possibly in east Central
Asia. The weasel-tribe (Mustelidae) is clearly a northern group,
which has, however, succeeded in penetrating into South America
and Africa, although it has never reached Madagascar.
The extinct creodonts, especially if they be the direct descendants
of the anomodont reptiles, may have originated in Africa, although
they are at present known in that continent only from the Fayum
district. Elsewhere they occur in South America and throughout
a large part of the northern hemisphere, where they appear to have
survived in India to the later Oligocene or Miocene.
In the case of the great order, or assemblage, of Ungulata it is
necessary to pay somewhat more attention to fossil forms, since a
considerable number of groups are either altogether extinct or largely
on the wane.
So far as is at present known, the earliest and most primitive
group, the Condylarthra, is a northern one, but whether first devel-
oped in the eastern or the western hemisphere there is no sufficient
evidence. The more or less specialized Litopterna and Toxodontia,
as severally typified by the macrauchenia and the toxodon, are, on
the other hand, exclusively South American. With the primitive
five-toed Amblypoda, as represented by the coryphodon, we again
reach a northern group, common to the two hemispheres; but there
is not improbably some connexion between this group and the much
more specialized Barypoda, as represented by Arsinoitherium, of
Africa. The Ancylopoda, again, typified by Chaltcotherium, and
characterized by the claw-like character of the digits, are probably
another northern group, common to the eastern and western hemi-
spheres.
Recent discoveries have demonstrated the African origin of the
elephants (Proboscidea) and hyraxes (Hyracoidea), the latter group
being still indeed mainly African, and in past times also limited to
Africa and the Mediterranean countries. As regards the elephants
(now restricted to Africa and tropical Asia), there appears to be
evidence that the ancestral mastodons, after having developed from
African forms probably not very far removed from the Amblypoda,
migrated into Asia, where they gave rise to the true elephants.
Thence both elephants and mastodons reached North America by
the Bering Sea route ; while the former, which arrived earlier than the
latter, eventually penetrated into South America.
The now waning group of Perissodactyla would appear to have
originally been a northern one, as all the three existing families,
rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotidae), tapirs (Tapiridae), and horses
(Equidae), are well represented in the Tertiaries of both halves of
the northern hemisphere. If eastern Central Asia were tentatively
given as the centre of radiation of the group, this might perhaps best
accord with the nature of the case. Rhinoceroses disappeared
comparatively early from the New World, and never reached
South America. In Siberia and northern Europe species of an
African type survived till a comparatively late epoch, so that the
present relegation of the group to tropical Asia and Africa may be
regarded as a modern feature in distribution. Horses, now unknown
in a wild state in the New World, although still widely spread in
the Old, attained a more extensive range in past times, having suc-
cessfully invaded South America. On the other hand, in common
with the rest of the Perissodactyla, they never reached Madagascar.
In addition to the occurrence of their fossil remains almost through-
out the world, the former wide range of the tapirs is attested by the
fact of their living representatives being confined to such widely
sundered areas as Malaysia and tropical America.
The Artiodactyla are the only group of ungulates known to have
been represented in Madagascar; but since both these Malagasy
forms namely two hippopotamuses (now extinct) and a river-hog
are capable of swimming, it is most probable that they reached
the island by crossing the Mozambique Channel. As regards the
deer-family (Cervidae), which is unknown in Africa south of the
Sahara, it is quite evident that it originated in the northern half
of the Old World, whence it reached North America by the Bering
Sea route, and eventually travelled into South America. More
light is required with regard to the past history of the giraffe-family
(Giraffidae), which includes the African okapi and the extinct
Indian Siyatherium, and is unknown in the New World. Possibly,
however, its birthplace may prove to be, Africa ; if so, we shall have
a case analogous to that of the African elephant, namely that while
MAMMARY GLAND
giraffes flourished during the Pliocene in Asia (where they may have
originated), they survive only in Africa. An African origin has also
been suggested for the hollow-horned ruminants (Bovidae); and if
this were substantiated it would explain the abundance of that family
in Africa and the absence from the heart of that continent of the
deer-tribe. Some confirmation of this theory is afforded by the fact
that whereas we can recognize ancestral deer in the Tertiaries of
Europe we cannot point with certainty to the forerunners of
the Bovidae. Whether its birthplace was in Africa or to the north,
it is, however, clear that the hollow-horned ruminants are essentially
an Old World group, which only effected an entrance into North
America at a comparatively recent date, and never succeeded in
reaching South America. So far as it goes, this fact is also in favour
of the African ancestry of the group.
The Antttocapridae (prongbuck), whose relationships appear to
be rather with the Cervtdae than with the Bovidae, are on the other
hand apparently a North American group. The chevrotains
(Tragulidae), now surviving only in West and Central Africa and
tropical Asia, are conversely a purely Old World group.
The camels (Tylopoda) certainly originated in the northern
hemisphere, but although their birthplace has been confidently
claimed for North America, an equal, if not stronger, claim may be
made on the part of Central Asia. From the latter area, where wild
camels still exist, the group may be assumed to have made its way
at an early period into North America; whence, at a much later
date, it finally penetrated into South America. In the Old World
it seems to have reached the fringe of the African continent, where
its wanderings in a wild state were stayed.
The pigs (Suidae) and the hippopotamuses (Hippopotamidae)
are essentially Old World groups, the former of which has alone
succeeded in reaching America, where it is represented by the col-
lateral branch of the peccaries (Dicotylinae). An African origin
would well explain the present distribution of both groups, but fur-
ther evidence on this point is required before anything decisive can
be affirmed, although it is noteworthy that the earliest known pig
(Geniohyus) is African. The Suinae are at present spread all over
the Old World, although the African forms (other than the one from
the north) are markedly distinct from those inhabiting Europe and
Asia. Hippopotamuses, on the contrary, are now exclusively African,
although they were represented in tropical Asia during the Pliocene
and over the greater part of Europe at a later epoch.
A brief notice with regard to the distribution of the Primates
must suffice, as their past history is too imperfectly known to admit
of generalizations being drawn. The main facts at the present day
are, firstly, the restriction of the Prosimiae, or lemurs, to the warmer
parts of the Old World, and their special abundance in Madagascar
(where other Primates are wanting); and, secondly, the wide
structural distinction between the monkeys of tropical America
(Platyrrhina), and the Old World monkeys and apes, or Catarrhina.
It is, however, noteworthy that extinct lemurs occur in the Tertiary
deposits of both halves of the northern hemisphere a fact which
has induced Dr J. L. Wortman to suggest a polar origin for the entire
group a view we are not yet prepared to endorse. For the distri-
bution of the various families and genera the reader may be referred
to the article PRIMATES; and it will suffice to mention here that while
chimpanzees and baboons are now restricted to Africa and (in the
case of the latter group) Arabia, they formerly occurred in India.
As regards aquatic mammals, the greater number of the Cetacea,
or whales and dolphins, have, as might be expected, a very wide
distribution in the ocean. A few, on the other hand, have a very
restricted range, the Greenland right whale (Balaena mysticetus)
being, for instance, limited to the zone of the northern circumpolar
ice, while no corresponding species occurs in the southern hemisphere.
In this case, not only temperature, but also the peculiar mode of
feeding, may be the cause. The narwhal and the beluga have a
very similar distribution, though the latter occasionally ranges
farther south. The bottle-noses (Hyperoodon) are restricted to the
North Atlantic, never entering, so far as known, the tropical seas.
Other species are exclusively tropical or austral in their range. The
pigmy whale (Neobalaena marginata) , for instance, has only been
met with in the seas round Australia, New Zealand and South
America, while a beaked whale (Berardius arneuxi) appears to be
confined to the New Zealand seas.
The Cetacea, however, are by no means limited to the ocean, or
even to salt water, some entering large rivers for considerable dis-
tances, and others being exclusively fluviatile. The susu (Platanista)
is, for instance, extensively distributed throughout nearly the whole
of the river systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus, ascend-
ing as high as there is water enough to swim in, but apparently
never passing out to sea. The individuals inhabiting the Indus and
the Ganges must therefore have been for long ages isolated without
developing any distinctive anatomical characters, those by which
P. indi was separated from P. gangetica having been shown to be
of no constant value. Orcetta fluminalis, again, appears to be
limited to the Irrawaddy ; and at least two distinct species of dolphin,
belonging to different genera, are found in the Amazon. It is
remarkable that none of the great lakes or inland seas of the world
is inhabited by cetaceans.
The great difference in the manner of life of the sea-cows, or
Su-enia, as compared with that of the Cetacea, causes a corresponding
difference in their geographical distribution. Slow in their move-
ments, and feeding on vegetable substances, they are confined to the
neighbourhood of rivers, estuaries or coasts, although there is a
possibility of accidental transport by currents across considerable
distances. Of the three genera existing within historic times, one
(Manatus) is exclusively confined to the shores of the tropical Atlan-
tic and the rivers entering into it, individuals scarcely specifically
distinguishable being found both on the American and the African.
The dugong (Halicore) is distributed in different colonies, at present
isolated, throughout the Indian Ocean from Arabia to North Aus-
tralia; while the Rhytina or northern sea-cow was, for some time
before its extinction, limited to a single island in the extreme north
of the Pacific Ocean.
The seals (Pinnipedia) although capable of traversing long reaches
of ocean, are less truly aquatic than the last two groups, always
resorting to the land or to ice-floes for breeding. The geographical
range of each species is generally more or less restricted, usually
according to climate, as they are mostly inhabitants either of the
Arctic or Antarctic seas and adjacent temperate regions, few being
found within the tropics. For this reason the northern and the
southern species are for the most part quite distinct. In fact, the
only known exception is the case of a colony of elephant-seals
(Macrorhinus leoninus), whose general range is in the southern
hemisphere, inhabiting the coast of California. In this case a
different specific name has been given to the northern form, but the
characters by which it is distinguished are of little importance, and
probably, except for the abnormal geographical distribution, would
never have been discovered. The most remarkable circumstance
connected with the distribution of seals is the presence of members
of the order in the three isolated great lakes or inland seas of
Central Asia the Caspian, Aral and Baikal which, notwithstanding
their long isolation, have varied but slightly from species now
inhabiting the Polar Ocean.
AUTHORITIES. The above article is partly based on that of Sir
W. H. Flower in the 9th edition of this work. The literature con-
nected with mammals is so extensive that all that can be attempted
here is to refer the reader to a few textbooks, with the aid of which,
combined with that of the annual volumes of the Zoological Record,
he may obtain such information on the subject as he may require:
F. E. Beddard, " Mammals," The Cambridge Natural History, vol. x.
(1902); W. H. Flower and R. Lydekker, The Study of Mammals
(London, 1891); Max Weber, Die Sdugethiere (Jena, 1904);
W. T. Blanford, The Fauna of British India Mammalia (1888-
1891); D. G. Elliot, Synopsis of the Mammals of North America
(Chicago, 1901) and The Mammals of Middle America and the
West Indies (Chicago, 1904) ; W. L. Sclater, The Fauna of South
Africa Mammals (Cape . Town, 1901-1902); W. K. Parker,
Mammalian Descent (London, 1885); E. Trouessart, Catalogus
mammalium, tam viventium quam fossilium (Paris, 1898-1899);
and supplement, 1904-1905; T. S. Palmer, Index generum mamma-
lium (Washington, 1904); W. L. and P. L. Sclater, The Geography
of Mammals (London, 1899); R. Lydekker, A Geographical
History of Mammals (Cambridge, 1896). (W. H. F. ; R. L.)
MAMMARY GLAND (Lat. mamma), or female breast, the
organ by means of which the young are suckled, and the pos-
session of which, in some region of the trunk, entitles the animal
bearing it to a place in the order of Mammalia.
Anatomy. In the human female the gland extends vertically
from the second to the sixth rib, and transversely from the edge
of the sternum to the mid axillary line; it is embedded in the fat
superficial to the pectoralis major muscle, and a process which
extends toward the armpit is sometimes called the axillary tail.
A little below the centre of the glandular swelling is the nipple,
surrounding which is a pigmented circular patch called the areola ;
this is studded with slight nodules, which are the openings of
areolar glands secreting an oily fluid to protect the skin during
suckling. During the second or third month of pregnancy the
areola becomes more or less deeply pigmented, but this to a
large extent passes off after lactation ceases. In structure
ther gland consists of some fifteen to twenty lobules, each of
which has a lactiferous duct opening at the summit of the nipple,
and branching in the substance of the gland to form secondary
lobules, the walls of which are lined by cubical epithelium in
which the milk is secreted. These secondary lobules project
into the surrounding fat, so that it is difficult to dissect out the
gland cleanly. Before opening at the nipple each lactiferous
duct has a fusiform dilatation called the ampulla.
After the child-bearing period of life the breasts atrophy and tend
to become pendulous, while in some African races they are pendulous
throughout life. Variations in the mammary glands are common;
often the left breast is larger than the right, and in those rare cases in
which one breast is suppressed it is usually the right, though suppres-
sion of the breast does not necessarily include absence of the nipple.
MAMMARY GLAND
529
Supernumerary nipples and glands are not uncommon, and, when
they occur, are usually situated in the mammary line which extends
from the anterior axillary fold to the spine of the pubis ; hence, when
an extra nipple appears above the normal one, it is external to it,
but, when below, it is nearer the middle line. The condition of
extra breasts is known as polymasty, that of extra nipples as poly-
Aely, and it is interesting to notice that the latter is commoner
in males than in females. O. Ammon (quoted by Wiedersheim)
Ampulla
Ducts
Lobule
of gland
(From A. F. Dizon, Cunningham's Text Book of. Anatomy.)
FIG. i . Dissection of the Mammary Gland.
records the case of a German soldier who had four nipples on each
side. These nipples in the human subject are seldom found below
the costal margin. In normal males the breast structure is present,
but rudimentary, though it is not very rare to find instances of boys
about puberty in whom a small amount of milk is secreted, and one
case at least is recorded of a man who suckled a child. A functional
condition of the mammary glands in men is known as gynaekomasly.
(For further details see The Structure of Man, by R. Wiedersheim,
translated by H. and M. Bernard, and edited by G. B. Howes,
London, 1895.)
Embryology. There is every probability that the mammary glands
are modified and hypertrophied sebaceous glands, and transitional
stages are seen in the areolar glands, which sometimes secrete milk.
At an early stage of foetal life a raised patch of ectoderm is seen,
which later on becomes a saucer-like depression ; from the bottom of
this fifteen or twenty solid processes of cells, each presumably
representing a sebaceous gland, grow into the mesoderm which forms
the connective-tissue stroma of the mamma. Later on these pro-
cesses branch. The last stage is that the centre of the mammary
t>it or saucer-like depression once more grows up to form the nipple,
and at birth the processes become tubular, thus forming lactiferous
ducts. The glands grow little until the age of puberty, but their
full development is not reached until the birth of the first child.
Comparative Anatomy. In the lower Mammals the mammary
line, already mentioned, appears in the embryo as a ridge, and in
those which have many young at a birth patches of this develop
in the thoracic and abdominal regions to form the mammae, while
the intervening parts of the ridge disappear. The number of mammae
is not constant in animals of the same species; as an instance of this
it will be found that in the dog the number of nipples varies from
seven to ten, though animals with many nipples are more liable to
variation than those with few. When only a few young are pro-
duced at a time the mammae are few, and it seems to depend on the
convenience of suckling in which part of the mammary line the
glands are developed. In the pouched Mammals (Monotremes and
Marsupials) inguinal mammae are found, and so they are in most
Ungulates as well as in the Cetacea. In the elephants, Sirenia,
Chiroptera and most of the Primates, on the other hand, they are
confined to the pectoral region, and this is also the case in some
Rodents, e.g. the jumping hare (Pedetes coffer). In the mono-
tremes the mammary pit remains throughout life, and the milk is
conducted along the hairs to the young, but in other Mammals
nipples are formed in one of two ways. One is that already described
in Man, which is common to the Marsupials and Primates, while
in the other the margin or vallum of the mammary pit grows up, and
so forms a nipple with a very deep pit, into the bottom of which
the lactiferous ducts open. The latter is regarded as the primary
arrangement. In the monotremes the mammae are looked upon,
not as modified sebaceous glands, as in other Mammals, but as altered
sweat glands. It is further of interest to notice that in these primi-
tive Mammals the glands are equally developed in both sexes, and it
is thought that among the bats the male often assists in suckling the
young (see G. Dobson, Brit. Museum Cat. of the Chiroptera, London,
1878). These facts, together with the occasional occurrence of
gynaekomasty in man, make it probable that the ancestral Mammal
was an animal in which both sexes helped in the process of lactation.
For further details and literature up to 1906 see Comparative
Anatomy of Vertebrates, by R. Wiedersheim, adapted by W. N.
Parker (1907), and Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thierrcichs.
(F. G. P.)
Diseases of the Mammary Gland. Inflammation of the breast
(mastitis) is apt to occur in a woman who is suckling, and is due to
the presence of septic micro-organisms, which, as a rule, have found
their way into the milk-ducts, the lymphatics or the veins, through
a crack, or other wound, in a nipple which has been made sore by
the infant's vigorous attempts to obtain food. Especially is this
septic inflammation apt to occur if the nipple is depressed, or so
badly formed that the infant has difficulty in feeding from it. The
inflamed breast is enlarged, tender and painful, and the skin over it
is hot, and perhaps too reddened. The woman feels ill and feverish,
and she may shiver, or have a definite rigor which suggests that
the inflammation is running on to the formation of an abscess. The
abscess may be superficial to, or beneath, the breast, but it is usually
within the breast itself. The infant should at once be weaned, the
milk-tension being relieved by the breast-pump. Fomentations
should be applied under waterproof jaconette, and the breast should
be evenly supported by a bandage or by the corsets. Belladonna
and glycerine should be smeared over the breast, with the view of
checking the secretion of milk, as well as of easing pain. But before
this is done six or eight leeches may be applied. On the first
indication that matter is collecting, an incision should be made, for
if the matter is allowed to remain locked up in the breast tissue
the abscess will rapidly increase in size, and the whole of the breast
may become infected and destroyed. Supposing that, in making
the incision, no pus is discovered, the relief to the vascular tension
thus afforded will be nevertheless highly beneficial. The operation
had better be done under a general anaesthetic, so that the surgeon
can introduce a probe, or his finger, intp the wound, breaking down
the partitions which are likely to exist between separate abscesses,
and thus enable them to be drained through the one opening. As
the discharge begins to cease, the tenderness subsides, and gentle
massage, or firm strapping of the breast, will prove useful. The
general treatment will consist in the administration of an aperient,
and, the tongue being clean, in prescribing such drugs as quinine,
strychnia and iron. The diet should be liberal, but not carried to
such excess that the power of digestion and absorption is overtaxed.
During the early acute stage of the disease small doses of morphia
may be necessary. When the tongue has cleaned, a little wine may
be given with advantage.
Chronic Eczema around the nipple of a woman late in life, with,
perhaps, localized ulceration, is known as Panel's Disease. The im-
portance of it is that cancerous infiltration is apt to pass from it
along the milk-ducts and to involve the breast in malignant disease.
Hence, when eczema about the nipple refuses to clear up under
the influence of soothing treatment, it is well to insist on the
removal of the entire breast. Sometimes this eczema is malignant
from the beginning, being associated with the active prolifization of
the epithelial cells of the milk-ducts, and with their escape into the
surrounding tissues. The nipple is retracted in most of these cases,
which, however, are not often met with.
Chronic Mastitis is of frequent occurrence in women who are past
middle age. The part of the breast involved is enlarged, hard, and
more or less tender and painful. It is sometimes impossible clinically
to distinguish this disease from cancer. True, the tumour is not so
definite or so hard as a cancer, nor is it attached to the skin, nor
to the muscles of the chest wall, and if there are any glands second-
arily enlarged in the arm-pit they are not so hard as they may be in
cancer. But all these are questions of degree. It is, of course,
highly inadvisable to leave it to time to clear up the diagnosis,
for a chronic mastitis, innocent at first, may eventually become
cancerous. If in any case the difficulty of distinguishing a chronic
mastitis from a malignant tumour of the breast is insuperable, the
safest course is to remove the breast and have it examined by the
microscope. The suggestion, sometimes made, as to the preliminary
removal of a small piece of the tumour for examination is not to be
recommended.
A simple glandular tumour, fibro-adenoma, is apt to be found in
the breasts of youngish women, who may possibly give an account
of some blow or other injury; there may, however, be no history of
injury. The tumour is smooth, rounded or oval, and lies loose in
the midst of the breast; as a rule it is not tender. It is not asso-
ciated with enlarged glands in the arm-pit. The tumour had best
be removed, though there is no urgency about the operation, as the
growth is absolutely innocent. There is, however, no telling as to
what course an innocent tumour of the breast may take as middle
age comes on.
Cysts of the Breast. A talactocele is a tumour due to the locking
up of milk in a greatly dilated duct. Other forms of cystic disease
may be due to serous or hydatid fluid, or to thin pus, being
surrounded by fibrous walls. Such cysts are best treated by
free incision, and by passing a gauze dressing into their depths.
If the tissue is occupied by many cysts, the whole breast had
better be removed.
Cancer of the Breast may be met with in men as well as in women ;
in men, however, it is very rare. It is commonest in women between
530
MAMMEE APPLE MAMMOTH
the ages of forty and fifty. It is sometimes met with in women of
twenty; and the younger the individual the more malignant is the
disease. Married life seems to have no effect as regards the incidence
of the disease, but it often happens that a breast which gave trouble
during the period of suckling becomes later the subject of cancer;
in other cases there is a clear history of the attack having followed an
injury. It is, thus, as if inflammatory changes in the breast were
the direct cause of a later cancerous invasion. Though it is impossible
to affirm that heredity has a great influence in the incidence of cancer,
it is, nevertheless, remarkable that the members of certain families
are unusually prone to the disease.
The chief feature of a cancerous tumour of the breast is its great
hardness. The technical name for the growth is scirrhus (Gr.
ovdpos, or o-Kippos, any hard coat or covering, stucco), from its stony
hardness. The tumour consists of a dense framework of fibrous
tissue, with groups of cancer-cells in the spaces. The malignancy
of the disease depends upon the cells, not upon the fibrous tissue.
In young subjects the cells predominate, but in old ones the con-
traction of the fibrous tissue throughout the breast compresses and
destroys the cells, and this sometimes to such an extent that there
is at last nothing left at the site but contracted fibrous tissue, all
trace of malignancy having disappeared. This variety of the disease
is found in old people, and is called atrophic cancer.
The cells of a cancerous breast are apt to be carried by the lym-
phatics to the lymphatic glands in the arm-pit, and by the blood-
stream to the spinal column and to other parts of the skeleton, and
sometimes to the liver, which thus becomes large and hard, or to the
other breast.
As the fibrous tissue around the tumour becomes invaded by the
new growth it undergoes contraction (much as a string becomes
shorter when it is wetted), and as this shortening of the fibrous bands
increases the nipple may be retracted, and the breast may be
closely bound down to the chest-wall; and, further, the skin over-
lying the tumour may be drawn in towards the tumour so as to form
a conspicuous dimple. Later, the nutrition of this patch of skin
may be so interfered with that it mortifies or breaks down, and
thus a cancerous ulcer is produced. This ulcer sjowly spreads, and
its floor is covered with a discharge in which septic micro-organisms
undergo cultivation ; in this way the ulcer becomes highly offensive.
By the use of antiseptic lotions and a frequent change of dressings,
however, all unpleasant smell can be checked or prevented. As the
ulcer extends it is apt to implicate large blood-vessels, so that serious,
and sometimes alarming, haemorrhages take place. And if the breast
had previously been in pain, the bleeding is likely to give great
relief. But repeated haemorrhages bring on increasing exhaustion,
and thus materially hasten the end.
There is at present only one trustworthy treatment for cancer,
and that is its free removal by operation. The entire breast and the
nipple must be sacrificed. At the present day the operation itself
is not a " dreadful " one. To be successful it must be very thorough,
and it must be done early. The patient, being under an anaesthetic,
feels nothing, and the subsequent dressings of the wound are attended
with scarcely any pain. There need be but a couple of days of con-
finement to bed, and when the wound has soundly healed the patient
may be encouraged to use her arm. Should there be recurrence of
cancerous nodules in or about the wound, their removal should be
promptly and widely effected. The writer has records of one case
in which between the first operation and the last report there was a
space of over twenty-nine years, and another of fifteen years. Each
of these patients had one extensive operation, and four or five
smaller operations for dealing with recurrences. Each of them, how-
ever, might be considered unlikely subjects for further return.
For a superficial cancer the X-rays may be of service, but many
applications of the rays are likely to be needed, and the case may
possibly refuse to yield to their influence, and, after loss of valuable
time, the disease may have eventually to be removed by the knife.
The great advantage which the treatment by the knife offers over
every other method is that the growth can be cleanly, efficiently and
promptly removed, and, with it, all the affected lymph-spaces, and
the lymphatic glands which are secondarily implicated.
As regards the value of radium in the treatment of cancer of the
breast, the high expectations which were somewhat widely associated
with this newly-found element early in 1909 must be said to have been
unjustified by any precise results. Injections of radium salts have
been made into the substance of a cancer, and tubes of aluminium
containing the salt have been introduced into the growth, but no
deep cancer has thereby been cured. Radium has also been exposed
again and again on the surface of the affected breast, but similarly
with no great result. Unfortunately, whilst one is experimenting
in the treatment of an operable cancer, the epithelial cells of the
growth may be making their way towards distant parts, where no
rays or emanations could possibly reach them. Whatever may
be the future of radium as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of
cancer of the breast, it is certain that, on the facts as known at the
beginning of 1910, the only safe course is to remove the breast by
direct operation, together with the associated lymph-spaces and
lymphatic glands. And if this is done promptly and thoroughly
cancer of the breast will come more and more into the class of
curable diseases. (E. O. *)
MAMMEE APPLE, SOUTH AMERICAN or Sx DOMINGO APRICOT,
the fruit of Mammea americana (natural order Clusiaceae), a
large tree with opposite leathery gland-dotted leaves, white,
sweet-scented, short-stalked, solitary or clustered axillary flowers
and yellow fruit 3 to 6 in. in diameter. The bitter rind encloses
a sweet aromatic flesh, which is eaten raw or steeped in wine
or with sugar, and is also used for preserves. There are one to
four large rough seeds, which are bitter and resinous, and used as
anthelmintics. An aromatic liqueur distilled from the flowers
is known as eau de Creole in the West Indies, and the acrid
resinous gum is used to destroy the chigoes which attack the
naked feet of the negroes. The wood is durable and well adapted
for building purposes; it is beautifully grained and used for fancy
work.
MAMMON, a word of Aramaic origin meaning " riches." The
etymology is doubtful; connexions with a word meaning " en-
trusted," or with the Hebrew matmon, treasure, have been
suggested. " Mammon," Gr. namavas (see Professor Eb. Nestle
in Ency. Bib. s.v.), occurs in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt,
vi. 24) and the parable of the Unjust Steward (Luke xvi. 9-13).
The Authorized Version keeps the Syriac word. Wycliffe uses
" richessis." The New English Dictionary quotes Piers Plowman
as containing the earliest personification of the name. Nicho-
laus de Lyra (commenting on the passage in Luke) says that
Mammon est nomen daemonis. There is no trace, however, of
any Syriac god of such a name, and the common identification
of the name with a god of covetousness or avarice is chiefly due
to Milton (Paradise Lost, i. 678).
MAMMOTH (O. Russ. mammot, mod. mamant; the Tatar
word mama, earth, from which it is supposed to be derived, is
not known to exist), a name given to an extinct elephant,
Elephas primigenius of Blumenbach. Probably no extinct
animal has left such abundant evidence of its former existence;
immense numbers of bones, teeth, and more or less entire car-
cases, or " mummies," as they may be called, having been dis-
covered, with the flesh, skin and hair in situ, in the frozen soil
of the tundra of northern Siberia.
The general characteristics of the order PROBOSCTDEA, to which
the mammoth belongs, are given under that heading. The
mammoth pertains to the most highly specialized section of the
group of elephants, which also contains the modern' Asiatic
species. Of the whole group it is in many respects, as in the size
and form of the tusks and the characters of the molar teeth,
the farthest removed from the mastodon type, while its nearest
surviving relative, the Asiatic elephant (E. maximus), has
retained the slightly more generalized characters of the mam-
moth's contemporaries of more southern climes, E. columbi of
America and E. armeniacus of the Old World. The tusks, or
upper incisor teeth, which were probably smaller in the female,
in the adult males attained the length of from 9 to 10 ft. measured
along the outer curve. Upon leaving the head they were directed
at first downwards, and outwards, then upwards and finally
inwards at the tips, and generally with a tendency to a spiral
form not seen in other elephants.
It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the various
extinct modifications of the elephant type are distinguished. Those
of the mammoth (fig. 2) differ from the corresponding organs of
allied species in great breadth of the crown as compared with the
length, the narrowness and crowding or close approximation of the
ridges, the thinness of the enamel, and its straightness, parallelism
and absence of " crimping," as seen on the worn surface or in a
horizontal section of the tooth. The molars, as in other elephants,
are six in number on each side above and below, succeeding each
other from before backwards. Of these Dr Falconer gave the pre-
vailing " ridge-formula "(or number of complete ridges in each tooth)
as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24, as in E. maximus. Dr Leith-Adams, working
from more abundant materials, has shown that the number of ridges
of each tooth, especially those at the posterior end of the series, is
subject to individual variation, ranging in each tooth of the series
within the following limits: 3 to 4, 6 to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15, 14 to 16,
18 to 27 excluding the small plates, called " talons," at each end.
Besides these variations in the number of ridges or plates of which
each tooth is composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much
as to have given rise to a distinction between a " thick-plated "
and a " thin-plated " variety the latter being most prevalent
among specimens from the Arctic regions. From the specimens with
MAMMOTH CAVE
thick enamel plates the transition to the other species mentioned
alxivr, including E. maximus, is almost imperceptible.
The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the
Indian elephant than of any other species, but the skull differs in
the narrower summit, narrower temporal fossae, and more prolonged
incisive sheaths, supporting the roots of the enormous tusks. Among
the external characters by which the mammoth was distinguished
from either of the existing species of elephant was the dense clothing,
not only of long, coarse outer hair, but also of close under woolly
hair of a reddish-brown colour, evidently in adaptation to the
cold climate it inhabited. This character is represented in rude
but graphic drawings of prehistoric age found in caverns in the south
of France. It should be added that young Asiatic elephants often
show considerable traces of the woolly coat of the mammoth.
The average height does not appear to have exceeded that of either
of the existing species of elephant.
The geographical range of the mammoth was very extensive.
There is scarcely a county in England in which its remains have
not been found in alluvial gravel or in caverns, and numbers of
its teeth are dredged in the North Sea. In Scotland and Ireland
its remains are less abundant, and in Scandinavia and Finland
they appear to be unknown; but they have been found in vast
numbers at various localities throughout the greater part of
central Europe (as far south as Santander and Rome), northern
Asia, and the northern part of the American continent.
The mammoth belongs to the post-Tertiary or Pleistocene
epoch and was contemporaneous with man. There is evidence
to show that it existed in Britain before, during and after the
glacial period. It is in northern Siberia that its remains have
erect position, with the soft parts and hairy covering entire,
have been brought to light.
(From Tilesius.)
FIG. I. Skeleton of Mammoth (Elephas primigenius), with portions of the skin.
been found in the greatest abundance and in exceptional preser-
vation. For a long period there has been from that region an
export of mammoth-ivory, fit for commercial purposes, to China
and to Europe. In the middle of the loth century trade was
carried on at Khiva in fossil ivory. Middendorff estimated the
number of tusks which have yearly come into the market during
the last two centuries at at least a hundred pairs, but Norden-
skiold considers this estimate too low. Tusks are found along
the whole shore-line between the mouth of the Obi and Bering
Strait, and the farther north the more numerous they become,
the islands of New Siberia being one of the favourite collecting
localities. The remains are found not only round the mouths of
the great rivers, but embedded in the frozen soil in such circum-
stances as to indicate that the animals lived not far from the
localities in which they are found; and they are exposed either
by the melting of the ice in warm summers or the washing
away of the sea-cliffs or river-banks. In this way the bodies
of more or less nearly perfect animals, often standing in the
(From Owen.)
FIG. 2. Grinding surface of Upper Molar Tooth of the Mammoth
(Elephas primigenius). c, cement; d, dentine; e, enamel.
For geographical distribution and anatomical characters see
Falconer's Palaeontological Memoirs, vol. ii. (1868); B. Dawkins,
" Elephas Primigenius, its Range in Space and Time," Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., xxxv. 138 (1879); and A. Leith Adams, Monograph
of British Fossil Elephants," part ii., Palaeontographical Society
(1879). (W.H. F.;R. L.*)
MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Edmondson county, Kentucky,
U.S.A., 37 14' N. lat. and 86 12' W. long., by rail 85 m. S.S.W.
of Louisville. Steamboats run from the mouth of the Green
river, near Evansville, Indiana, to the Mammoth Cave landing.
The cave is usually said to have been discovered, in 1809, by a
hunter named Hutchins; but the county records, as early as 1797,
fixed its entrance as the landmark for
a piece of real estate. Its mouth is
in a forest ravine, 194 ft. above Green
river and 600 ft. above the sea. This
aperture is not the original mouth, the
latter being a chasm a quarter of a
mile north of it, and leading into what
is known as Dixon's cave. The two
portions are not now connected, though
persons in one can make themselves
heard by those in the other.
The cavernous limestone of Kentucky
covers an area of 8000 sq. m., is
massive and homogeneous, and belongs
to the Subcarboniferous period. It
shows few traces of dynamic disturbance,
but has been carved, mainly by erosion
since the Miocene epoch, into many
caverns, of which the Mammoth Cave is
the largest.
The natural arch that admits one to
Mammoth Cave has a span of 70 ft.,
and from a ledge above it a cascade
leaps 59 ft. to the rocks below, where it
disappears. A flight of stone steps
leads the way down to a narrow passage,
through which the air rushes with vio-
lence, outward in summer and inward in
winter. The temperature of the cave is uniformly 54 F. through-
out the year, and the atmosphere is both chemically and optically
of singular purity. While the lower levels are moist from the
large pools and rivers that have secret connexion with Green
river, the upper galleries are extremely dry. These conditions
led at one time to the erection of thirteen cottages at a point
about i m. underground, for the use of invalids, especially
consumptives. The experiment failed, and only two cottages
now remain as curiosities.
The Main Cave, from 40 to 300 ft. wide and from 35 to 125 ft.
high, has several vast rooms, e.g. the Rotunda, where are the
ruins of the old saltpetre works; the Star Chamber, where the
protrusion of white crystals through a coating of the black oxide
of manganese creates an optical illusion of great beauty; the Chief
City, where an area of 2 acres is covered by a vault 125 ft. high,
and the floor is strewn with rocky fragments, among which are
found numerous half-burnt torches made of canes, and other signs
of prehistoric occupancy. Two skeletons were exhumed near the
532
MAMMOTH CAVE
Rotunda; but few other bones of any description have been found.
The so-called Mammoth Cave " mummies " (i.e. bodies kept by
being inhumed in nitrous earth), with accompanying utensils,
ornaments, braided sandals and other relics, were found in Short
and Salt Caves near by, and removed to Mammoth Cave for
exhibition. The Main Cave, which abruptly ends 4 m. from the
entrance, is joined by winding passages, with spacious galleries
on different levels; and, although the diameter of the area of the
whole cavern is less than 10 m., the conbined length of all
accessible avenues is supposed to be about 1 50 m.
The chief points of interest are arranged along two lines of
exploration, besides which there are certain side excursions.
and was formerly regarded as the finest room in the cavern.
Others admire more the Mammoth Dome, at the termination of
Spark's Avenue, where a cataract falls from a height of 150 ft.
amid walls wonderfully draped with stalactitic tapestry. The
Egyptian Temple, which is a continuation of the Mammoth
Dome, contains six massive columns, two of them quite perfect
and 80 ft. high and 25 ft. in diameter. The combined length of
these contiguous chambers is 400 ft. By a crevice above they
are connected with an arm of Audubon's Avenue. Lucy's
Dome, one of the group of Jessup Domes, is supposed to be the
loftiest of all these vertical shafts. A pit called the " Maelstrom,"
in Croghan's Hall, is the spot most remote from the mouth of
Gcrta's Grotto
Creigh ton's Domt
t. 7ft* Inn Cat*
. HuttJiinf
CLfft; and
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B. n Cataracts
Fairy CrOttO
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ffjTobiCCO
Table of approximate distances
lo Utt Ktirtuetg Ctifft,..
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it. r** Bridol Attar
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i ttbom
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Don*............ 1870
aiao
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at, n* Lost Worn
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to- Sid* Sadatr Pit
1 1 BottonHtu
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Cathedral
_ ** Hall
n- Cftar/orn Grott
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n
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)6
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MAMMOTH CAVE
KENTUCKY
Copyright 1907 by Horace C.Hovey
Hitter Route
Dome Route
The "short route" requires about four hours, and the "long
route " nine. Audubon's Avenue, the one nearest the entrance,
is occupied in winter by myriads of bats, that hang from the walls
in clusters like swarms of bees. The Gothic Avenue contains
numerous large stalactites and stalagmites, and an interesting
place called the Chapel, and ends in a double dome and cascade.
Among the most surprising features of cave scenery are the verti-
cal shafts that pierce through all levels, from the uppermost
galleries, or even from the sink-holes, down to the lowest floor.
These are styled pits or domes, according to the position occupied
by the observer. A crevice behind a block of stone, 40 ft. long by
20 ft. wide, called the Giant's Coffin, admits the explorer to
a place where six pits, varying in depth from 65 ft. to 200 ft.,
exist in an area of 600 yds. This includes Gorin's Dome, which
is viewed from a point midway in its side, and also from its top,
the cave. There are some fine stalactites near this pit, and
others in the Fairy Grotto and in Pensico Avenue; but, consider-
ing the magnitude of Mammoth Cave, its poverty of stalactitic
ornamentation is remarkable. The wealth of crystals is, how-
ever, surprising, and these are of endless variety and fantastic
beauty.
Cleveland's Cabinet and Marion's Avenue, each a mile long,
are adorned by myriads of gypsum rosettes and curiously
twisted crystals, called " oulopholites." These cave flowers
are unfolded by pressure, as if a sheaf were forced through a
tight binding, or the crystal fibres curl outward from the centre
of the group. Thus spotless arches of 50 ft. span are embellished
by floral clusters and garlands, hiding nearly every foot of
the grey limestone. The botryoidal formations hanging by
thousands in Mary's Vineyard resemble mimic clusters of grapes,
MAMORE MAMUN
533
as the oulopholites resemble loses. Again, there are chambers
with drifts of snowy crystals of the sulphate of magnesia, the
ceilings so thickly covered with their efflorescence that a loud
concussion will cause them to fall like flakes of snow.
Many small rooms and tortuous paths, where nothing of
special interest can be found, are avoided as much as possible
on the regular routes; but certain disagreeable experiences are
inevitable. There is peril also in the vicinity of the deep pits.
The one known as the Bottomless Pit was for many years a
barrier to all further exploration, but it is now crossed by a
wooden bridge. Long before the shaft had been cut as deep as
now the water flowed away by a channel gradually contracting to
a serpentine way, so extremely narrow as to be called the Fat
Man's Misery. The walls, only 18 in. apart, change direction eight
times in 105 yds., while the distance from the sandy path to the
ledge overhead is but 5 ft. The rocky sides are finely marked
with waves and ripples, as if running water had suddenly been
petrified. This winding way conducts one to River Hall, beyond
which lie the crystalline gardens that have been described. It
used to be said that, if this narrow passage were blocked up,
escape would be impossible; but an intricate web of fissures,
called the Corkscrew, has been discovered, by means of which a
good climber, ascending only a few hundred feet, lands 1000 yds.
from the mouth of the cave, and cuts off one or two miles.
The waters, entering through numerous domes and pits, and
falling, during the rainy season, in cascades of great volume, are
finally collected in River Hall, where they form several extensive
lakes, or rivers, whose connexion with Green River is known to be
in deep springs appearing under arches on its margin. When-
ever there is a freshet in Green River the streams in the cave are
joined in a continuous body of water, the rise sometimes being
60 ft. above the low-water mark. The subsidence within is less
rapid than the rise; and the streams are impassable for about
seven months in each year. They are navigable from May to
October, and furnish interesting features of cave scenery. The
first approach is called the Dead Sea, embraced by cliffs 60 ft. high
and too ft. long, above which a path has been made, whence a stair-
way leads down to the banks of the river Styx, a body of water
40 ft. long, crossed by a natural bridge. Lake Lethe comes next
a broad basin enclosed by walls 90 ft. high, below which a narrow
path leads to a pontoon at the neck of the lake. A beach of the
finest yellow sand extends for 500 yds. to Echo River, the largest
of all being from 20 to 200 ft. wide, 10 to 40 ft. deep and about
three-quarters of a mile long. It is crossed by boats. The
arched passage-way is very symmetrical, varying in height from
19 to 35 ft., and famous for its musical reverberations not a
distinct echo, but an harmonious prolongation of sound for from
10 to 30 seconds after the original tone is produced. The long
vault has a certain keynote of its own, which, when firmly struck,
excites harmonics, including tones of incredible depth and
sweetness.
There are several other streams here besides those in River
Hall. On one of them F. J. Stevenson of London is said to have
floated for seven hours without finding its end. A glance at the
accompanying map will show that there is a labyrinth of avenues
and chasms seldom visited and never fully explored. New dis-
coveries are frequently made. An exploring party in 1904 found
a curious complex of upper and lower galleries accessible from
the most eastern portion of the cave; beyond which another
party, in 1905, discovered several large domes previously un-
known. H. C. Hovey, in 1907, was led by expert guides into still
wilder recesses, where a series of five domes were found, that
opened into each other by tall gateways; each dome being 60 ft.
in diameter and 175 ft. high. This magnificent group has
since been named " Hovey's Cathedral Domes." No instrumental
survey of the Mammoth Cave has ever been allowed by the
management. The best map possible is therefore only the
result of estimates and partial measurements. The depths of
the most noted pits have easily been ascertained by line and
plummet and the height of several large domes has been found
by the use of small balloons. While making a survey exclusively
for the cave-owners in 1908, Max Kaemper of Berlin, Germany,
forced an opening from the main cave into a remarkable region
to which the general name of " Violet City " was given, in honour
of Mrs Violet Blair Janin, who owned a third of the Mammoth
Cave estate. Special features are Kaemper Hall, Blair Castle,
the Marble Temple and Walhalla. There are eleven enormous
pits, many large fine stalactites and stalagmites and surprisingly
beautiful mural decorations. Dr Hovey made and published
(1909) a new handbook embodying all known discoveries of
importance, with four sketch-maps of the routes of usual
exhibition.
Thefaunaof Mammoth Cavehas been classifiedby F.W.Putnam,
A. S. Packard and E. D. Cope, who have catalogued twenty-
eight species truly subterraneous, besides those that may be re-
garded as stragglers from the surface. They are distributed thus:
Verlebrata, 8 species; Insecta, 17; Arachnida, 12; Myriapoda, 2;
Crustacea, 5; Verities, 3; Mottusca, i. Ehrenberg adds a list of
8 Polygastric Infusoria, i fossil infusorian, 5 Phytolitharia and
several microscopic fungi. A bed of Agaricus was found by the
writer near the river Styx; and upon this hint an attempt has
been made to propagate edible fungi in this locality. All the
known forms of plant-life are either fungi or allied to them, and
many are only microscopic. The most interesting inhabitants,
of Mammoth Cave are the blind, wingless grasshoppers, with
extremely long antennae; blind, colourless crayfish (Cambarus
pellucidus, Telk.); and the blind fish, Amblyopsis spelaeus,
colourless and viviparous, from i in. to 6 in. long. The Cambarus
and Amblyopsis have wide distribution, being found in many
other caves, and also in deep wells, in Kentucky and Indiana.
Fish not blind are occasionally caught, which are apparently
identical with species existing in streams outside. The true
subterranean fauna may be regarded as chiefly of Pleistocene
origin; yet certain forms are possibly remnants of Tertiary
life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Plan and Description of the Great and Wonderful
Cave in Kentucky, by Dr Nahum Ward (1816) ; Notes on the Mammoth
Cave, with a Map, by Edmund F. Lee, C.E. (1835); Rambles in the
Mammoth Cave in 1844, by Alexander Bullitt, with map by Stephen
Bishop; guide-books by Wright (1858), Binkerd (1869), Forwood
(1875), Proctor (1878), Hovey (1882), &c., and Hovey and Call
(1897); Hovey's Celebrated American Caverns (1882, &c.); and
The Mammoth Cave and its Inhabitants, by Packard and F. W.
Putnam (1879). (H. C. H.)
MAMOR&, a large river of Bolivia which unites with the Beni
in 10 20' S. to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries
of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra
de Cochabamba east of the city of Cochabamba, and is known as
the Chimore down to its junction with the Chapare, or Chapari.
Its larger tributaries are the Chapare, Secure, Apere and Yacuma
from the west, and the Ichila, Guapay or Grande, Ivari and
GuaporS from the east. Taking into account its length only, the
Guapay should be considered the upper part of the Mamorfi;
but it is shallow and obstructed, and carries a much smaller
volume of water. The Guapor6, or Itenez, also rivals the Mamorfi
in length and volume, having its source in the Serra dos Parecis,
Matto Grosso, Brazil, a few miles from streams flowing north-
ward to the Tapajos and Amazon, and southward to the Paraguay
and Parana. The Mamor6 is interrupted by rapids a few miles
above its junction with the Beni, but a railway 180 m. long has
been undertaken from below the rapids of the Madeira. Above
the rapids the river is navigable to Chimore', at the foot of the
sierra, and most of its tributaries are navigable for long distances.
Franz Keller (in The Amazon and Madeira Rivers; New York,
1874) gives the outflow of the Mamor6 at mean water level, and
not including the Guapor6, as 2530 cub. in. per second, and the
area of its drainage basin, also not including the Guapor6, as
9382 sq. m.
See Edward D. Mathews, Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers
(London, 1879).
MAMUN (c. 786-833), originally ABDALLAH, surnamed AL-
MA'MUN (" in whom men trust "), the seventh of the Abbasid
caliphs of Bagdad, was born about A.D. 786, and was the second
son of Harun al-Rashld. By Harun's will he was successor-
534
MAMUND MAN, ISLE OF
designate to his brother Amin, during whose reign he was to be
governor of the eastern part of the empire. On Harun's death
(809) Amin succeeded and Mamun acquiesced. Irritated, how-
ever, by the treatment he received from Amin, and supported by
a portion of the army, Mamun speedily rebelled. A five years'
struggle between the two brothers ended in the death of Amin
and the proclamation of Mamun as caliph at Bagdad (Sept. 813).
Various factions and revolts, which disturbed the first years of his
reign, were readily quelled by his prudent and energetic measures.
But a much more serious rebellion, stirred up by his counten-
ancing the heretical sect of Ali and adopting their colours,
soon after threatened his throne. His crown was actually on
the head of his uncle Ibrahim b. Mahdi (surnamed Mobarek)
for a short time (Barbier de Meynard, in Journal Asiatique,
March-April 1869). This inaugurated a period of tranquillity,
which Mamun employed in fostering literature and science. He
had already, while governor of Khorasan, founded a college
there, and attracted to it the most eminent men of the day, and
Bagdad became the seat of academical instruction. At his own
expense he caused to be translated into Arabic many valuable
books from the Greek, Persian, Chaldean and Coptic languages;
and he was himself an ardent student of mathematics and
astronomy. The first Arabic translation of Euclid was dedicated
to him in 813. Mamun founded observatories at Bagdad and
Kassiun (near Damascus), and succeeded in determining the
inclination of the ecliptic. He also caused a degree of the meri-
dian to be measured on the plain of Shinar; and he constructed
astronomical tables, which are said to be wonderfully accurate.
In 827 he was converted to the heterodox faith of the Mo'tazil-
ites, who asserted the free-will of man and denied the eternity
of the Koran. The later years (820-830) of his reign were dis-
tracted by hostilities with the Greek emperor Theophilus, while
a series of revolts in different parts of the Arabian empire be-
tokened the decline of the military glory of the caliphs. Spain
and part of Africa had already asserted their independence, and
Egypt and Syria were now inclined to follow. In 833, after
quelling Egypt, at least nominally, Mamun marched into Cilicia
to prosecute the war with the Greeks, but died near Tarsus,
leaving his crown to a younger brother, Motasim. The death of
Mamun ended an important epoch in the history of science and
letters and the period of Arabian prosperity which his father's
reign had begun.
See further under CALIPHATE, sect. C., 5, 6, 7.
MAMUND, a Pathan tribe and valley on the Peshawar border
of the North-West Frontier Province of India. The Mamunds
live partly in Bajour and partly in Afghan territory, due north
of the Mohmands, a much larger tribe, with whom they must
not be confounded. They are one of the clans of the Tarkanis
(q.v.), and number 6000 fighting men; they gave much trouble
during the Chitral Campaign in 1895, and again during the
Mohmand Expedition in 1897 they inflicted severe losses upon
General Jeffrey's brigade. (See MOHMAND.)
MAN, the word common to Teutonic languages for a single
person of the human race, of either sex, the Lat. homo, and Gr.
avQpanros; also for the human race collectively, and for a full-
grown adult male human being. Teutonic languages, other
than English, have usually adopted a derivative in the first
sense, e.g. German Mensch. Philologists are not in agreement
as to whether the Sanskrit manu is the direct source, or whether
both are to be traced to a common root. Doubt also is thrown
on the theory that the word is to be referred to the Indo-Germanic
root, men, meaning " to think," seen in " mind," man being
essentially the thinking or intelligent animal. (See ANTHRO-
POLOGY.)
MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mono), a dominion of the crown of
England, in the Irish Sea. (For map, see ENGLAND, section I.)
It is about 33 m. long by about 1 2 broad in the broadest part. Its
general form resembles that of an heraldic lozenge, though its out-
line is very irregular, being indented with numerous bays and
narrow creeks. Its chief physical characteristic is the close
juxtaposition of mountain, glen and sea, which has produced a
variety and beauty of scenery unsurpassed in any area of equal
size elsewhere.
The greater part of its surface is hilly. The hills, which reach
their culminating point in Snaefell (2034 ft.), have a definite
tendency to trend in the direction of the longer axis, but throw
out many radiating spurs, which frequently extend to the
coast-line. They are, for the most part, smooth and rounded
in outline, the rocks being such as do not favour the form-
ation of crags, though, owing to the rapidity of their descent,
streams have frequently rent steep-walled craggy gulleys in
their sides. The strength of the prevalent westerly winds has
caused them to be treeless, except in some of the lower slopes,
but they are clad with verdure to their summits. Rising almost
directly from the sea, they appear higher than they really are,
and therefore present a much more imposing appearance than
many hills of greater altitude. On the south-west, where they
descend precipitously into the sea, they unite with the cliffs
to the north and south of them to produce the most striking
part of the coast scenery for which the isle is remarkable. But,
indeed, the whole coast from Peel round by the Calf, past Castle-
town and Douglas to Maughold Head, near Ramsey, is distin-
guished by rugged grandeur. From Ramsey round by the Point
of Ayre to within a few miles of Peel extend low sandy cliffs,
bordered by flat sandy shores, which surround the northern plain.
This plain is relieved only by a low range of hills, the highest of
which attains an elevation of 270 ft. The drainage of the island
radiates from the neighbourhood of Snaefell, from which moun-
tain and its spurs streams have on all sides found their way to
the sea. The most important of these are the Sulby, falling into
the sea at Ramsey; the Awin-glass (bright river) and the Awin-
dhoo (dark river), which unite their waters near Douglas; the Neb,
at the mouth of which Peel is situated; and the Awin-argid
(silver river, now called the Silverburn), which joins the sea
at Castletown. There are no lakes. The narrow, winding
glens thus formed, which are studded with clumps of fir, syca-
more and mountain ash, interspersed with patches of gorse,
heather and fern, afford a striking and beautiful contrast to the
bare mountain tops. Traces of an older system of drainage
than that which now exists are noticeable in many places, the
most remarkable being the central depression between Douglas
and Peel. The chief bays are, on the east coast, Ramsey, with
an excellent anchorage, Laxey, Douglas, Derbyhaven, Castletown
and Port St Mary; and, on the west coast, Port Erin and Peel.
Geology. The predominant feature in the stratigraphy of the
Isle of Man is, in the words of G. W. Lamplough, 1 " the central
ridge of slate and greywacke, which seems to have constituted an
insulated tract at as early a date as the beginning of the Carbon-
iferous period. This prototype of the present island appears after-
wards to have been enfolded and obliterated by the sediments of
later times; but with the progress of denudation the old ridge has
once more emerged from beneath this mantle." This mass of
ancient rocks, the Manx Slate Series, has been divided locally into
the Barrule slates, the Agneesh and other grit beds; and the Lonan
and Niarbyl Flags. The whole series strikes N.E.-S.W., while
structurally the strata form part of a synclinorium, the higher beds
being on the N.W. and S.E. sides of the islands, the lower beds in
the interior; although the subordinate dips appear to indicate
an anticlinal structure. These rocks have been greatly crumpled;
and in places, notably in Sully Glen, thrusting has developed a well-
marked crush-breccia. So much has this folding and compression
toughened the soft argillaceous rocks that the Barrule Slate, for
example, is almost everywhere found occupying the highest points
while the hard but more joined grits and flags occupy the lower
ground on the mountain flanks. The Manx Series is penetrated and
altered by large masses of granite at Dhoon, Foxdale and one or
two other spots; and dykes, more or less directly associated with
these masses, are numerous. No satisfactory fossils have yet been
obtained from these rocks, but they are regarded, provisionally, as
of Upper Cambrian age. Carboniferous rocks, including a basal
conglomerate, white limestone with abundant fossils, and the black
" Posidonomya Beds " (some of which are polished as a black marble)
occur about Castletown, Poolvash Bay and Langness ; and the base-
ment beds appear again on the west coast at Peel. The cliffs and
foreshore at Scarlet Point exhibit contemporaneous Carboniferous
tuffs, agglomerates and basalts, as well as later dolerite dykes, m
a most striking manner. Here too may be seen some curious effects
1 G. W. Lamplough, The Geology of the Isle of Man, Mem. Geol.
Survey (1903).
MAN, ISLE OF
535
of thrusting in the limestones. At the northern end of the island
the Manx Slates end abruptly in an ancient sea-cliff which crosses
between Ramsey and Ballaugh. The low-lying country beyond
is formed of a thick mass of glacial sands, gravels and boulder clay.
In the Bride Hills are to be seen glacial mounds rising 150 ft. above
the level of the plain. The depressions known as the Curragh, now
drained but still peaty in places, probably represent the sites of late
glacial lakes. Glacial deposits are found also in all parts of the
i-land. Beneath the thick drift of the plain, Carboniferous, Permian
and Trassic rocks have been proved to lie at some depth below the
present sea-level. On the coast near the Point of Ayr is a raised
beach. Silver-bearing lead ore, zinc and copper are the principal
minerals found in the Isle of Man; the most important mining centres
being at Foxdale and Laxey.
Climate. The island is liable to heavy gales from the south-west.
Of this the trend of the branches of the trees to the north-east is a
striking testimony. But it is equally subject to the influence of the
warm drift from the Atlantic, so that its winters are mild, and, in-
fluenced by the less changeable temperature of the sea, its summers
cool. The mean annual temperature is49-o F., the temperature of the
coldest month (January) being 41 "-5, and the warmest (August) 58-5,
giving an extreme annual range of temperatureof 17- 1 only, while the
average temperature in spring is 46-o, in summer 57-2, in autumn
50-9 and in winter 42-o. Further evidence of the mildness of the
climate is afforded by the fact that fuchsias, hydrangeas, myrtles and
escallonias grow luxuriantly in the open air. Its rainfall, placed as it is
between mountain districts in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales,
is naturally rather wet than dry. Statistics, however, reveal remark-
able divergencies in the amounts of rain in the different parts of the
island, varying from 6 1 in. at Snaefell to 25 in. at the Calf of Man.
In the more populous districts it varies from 46 in. at Ramsey, and
45 in. at Douglas, to 38 in. at Peel and 34 in. at Castletown. Of
sunshine the Isle of Man has a larger share than any portion of the
United Kingdom except the south and south-east coasts and the
Channel Islands. Briefly, then, the climate of the island may be
pronounced to be equable and sunny, and, though humid, decidedly
invigorating; its rainfall, though it varies greatly, is excessive in
the populous districts; and its winds are strong and frequent, and
usually mild and damp.
Fauna. Like Ireland, the Isle of Man is exempt from snakes
and toads, a circumstance traditionally attributed to the agency of
St Patrick, the patron saint of both islands. Frogs, however, have
been introduced from Ireland, and both the sand lizard and the com-
mon lizard are found. Badgers, moles, squirrels and voles are absent
and foxes are extinct. Fossil bones of the Irish elk are frequently
found, and a complete skeleton of this animal is to be seen at Castle
Rushen. The red deer, which is referred to in the ancient laws and
pictured on the runic crosses, became extinct by the beginning of
the i8th century. Hares are less plentiful than formerly, and rabbits
are not very numerous. Snipe are fairly common, and there are a
few partridges and grouse. The latter, which had become extinct,
were reintroduced in 1880. Woodcock, wild geese, wild ducks,
plover, widgeon, teal, heron, bittern, kingfishers and the Manx
shearwater (Puffinus anglorum) visit the island, but do not breed
there. The puffin (Fratercula artica) is still numerous on the Calf
islet in the summer time. The peregrine falcon, which breeds on
the rocky coast, and the chough have become very scarce. The
legal protection of sea-birds (local act of 1867) has led to an enormous
increase in the number of gulls. A variety of the domestic cat,
remarkable for the absence or stunted condition of the tail, is peculiar
to the island.
Flora. Like the fauna, the flora is chiefly remarkable for its
meagreness. It contains at most 450 species as compared with 690
in Jersey. Alpine forms are absent. But what it lacks in variety
it makes up in beauty and quantity. For the profusion of the gorse-
bloom and the abundance of spring flowers, especially of primroses,
and of ferns, the Isle of Man is probably unrivalled.
People. The Manx people of the present day are mainly of
Scandio-Celtic origin, with some slight traces of earlier races.
They have large and broad heads, usually broader than those of
their brother Celts (Goidels) in Ireland and Scotland, with very
broad, but not specially prominent cheek-bones. Their faces
are usually either scutiform, like those of the Northmen, or oval,
which is the usual Celtic type, and their noses are almost always
of good length, and straighter than is general among Celtic races.
Light eyes and fair complexion, with rather dark hair, are the more
usual combinations. They are usually rather tall and heavily
built, their average height (males) being 5 ft. 7! in., and average
weight (naked) 155 Ib. The tendency of the population to
increase is balanced by emigration. It reached its maximum in
1891. Since then it has slightly declined. A noticeable feature
is its greater proportionate growth in the towns, especially in
Douglas, than in the country. The country population reached
its maximum in 1851. Since then it has been shrinking rapidly,
especially in the northern district.
Sheadings, Parishes and Towns.
1726.
1821.
1871.
1901.
g f Malew (P.) . .
890
2,649
2,466
2.113
e J Castletown (T.)
785
2,036
2,318
'.963
3 1 Arbory (P.) .
661
1.455
1.350
802
K
Rushen (P.) . .
813
2,568
3,665
3.277
I
Santon (P.) .
376
800
628
468
s
Braddan (P.) . .
780
1.754
2,215
2,177
1
Douglas (T.) . .
Onchan(P.) . . . .
810
6,054
1.457
13,846
1,620
19.149
3.942
i|
Marown (P.) ....
German (P.)
499
1,201
1,849
1,121
1,762
973
1,230
Peel (T.)
475
1,909
3.496
3.306
tj
si
Patrick (P.)
Lonan (P.) .
Maughold (P.) ....
: Ramsey (T.) .
Lezayre (P.)
Bride (P.)
745
547
529
460
1,309
612
2,031
1,846
1^523
2,209
I,OOI
2,888
3.741
1.433
3,861
1,620
880
1,925
2,513
887
4.672
>.389
539
^ 1 Andreas (P.) . . . .
967
2,229
J.757
1.144
si-
u
Jurby(P.) .
483
806
643
1467
'.427
788
1.077
1,231
504
712
928
Ballaugh (P.)
. Michael (P.)
Total . . . .
14,070
40,087
53.763
54.613
Chief Political Divisions and Towns. The island is divided into
six sheadings (so named from the Scandinavian skeSa-ping, or
ship-district), called Glenfaba, Middle, Rushen, Garff, Ayre and
Michael, each of which has its officer, the coroner, whose functions
are similar to those of a sheriff; and there are seventeen parishes.
For the towns see CASTLETOWN, DOUGLAS, PEEL and RAMSEY.
The principal villages are Ballasalla, Ballaugh, Foxdale, Laxey,
Michael, Onchan, Port Erin and Port St Mary.
Communications. There is communication by steamer with
Liverpool, Glasgow, Greenock, Belfast, Silloth, Whitehaven, Belfast
and Dublin throughout the year and, during the summer season,
there are also steamers plying to Androssan, Heysham, Fleetwood
and Blackpool. A daily mail was established in 1879. The internal
communications are excellent. The roads are under the management
of a board appointed by the Tynwald Court, a surveyor-general,
and parochial surveyors. They are maintained by a system of
licences on public-houses, carriages, carts and dogs, and a rate on
real property. There are railways between Douglas, Ramsey,
Peel, Castletown, Port Erin and Port St Mary, the line between
Douglas and Ramsey being via St John's and Michael. Electric
tramways run from Douglas to Ramsey via Laxey, from Douglas
to Port Soderick, and from Laxey to the summit of Snaefell.
Industries, (a) Agriculture. The position of the Manx fanners,
though they generally pay higher rents than their compeers in
those countries do, is, except in the remote parts of the island, more
favourable than that of the English or Scottish farmers. The best
land is in the north and south'. The farms are principally held on
lease and small holdings have almost entirely disappeared. The
cultivated area is about 93,000 acres, or 65 % of the whole. The
commons and uncultivated lands on the mountains are also utilized
for pasturage. Oats occupy about three-fourths of the area under
corn crops, barley about one-sixth. The amount of wheat and other
corn crops is very trifling. Neither Manx wheat nor barley is as
good on an average as English ; but oats is, on the whole, fully equal
to what is grown on the mainland. Turnips, which are an excellent
crop, are largely exported, and the dry and sandy soil of the north
of the island is very favourable for the]growth of potatoes. The
white and red clover and the common grasses grow luxuriantly,
and the pasturage is, generally speaking, good. Some of the low-
lying land, especially in the north, is much in need of systematic
drainage. The livestock, largely in consequence of the premiums
given by the insular government and the local agricultural society
to bulls, heavy and light stallions and cart mares, now approximates
very closely in quality to the stock in the north of England. Dairy-
ing, owing to the large number of summer visitors, is the most profit-
able department of agricultural industry. Apples, pears and wall
fruit do not succeed very well, but the soil is favourable for the
cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants and
vegetables. _Both agricultural and market-garden produce are
quite insufficient to supply the demand in the summer.
(6) Fishing. The important place which the fishing industry
anciently held in the social organization of the Isle of Man is quaintly
reflected in the wording of the oath formerly taken by the deemsters,
who promised to execute the laws between the sovereign and his
subjects, and " betwixt party and party, as indifferently as the
herring backbone doth lie in the midst of the fish." The statutes and
records abound in evidence of the great extent to which both the
people and their rulers were dependent on the produce of the sea.
The most numerous fish are herrings, cod, mackerel, ling, haddock,
plaice, sole, fluke, turbot and brett. The industry is, however, in a
decaying condition, especially the herring fishery, which, for reasons
which have not been satisfactorily ascertained, fails periodically. The
amount of fish caught, except herrings, is not sufficient to supply
536
MAN, ISLE OF
the local demand in the summer, though some of the fish named
are exported during the rest of the year. About 250 vessels, aggre-
gating 4260 tons, with crews numbering 4250, are employed in this
industry. A fish hatchery has been established at Port Erin by the
insular government.
(c) Mining. There is no doubt that, in proportion to its area,
the metalliferous wealth of the Isle of Man has been very consider-
able. Two of its mines, Laxey and Foxdale, have stood for a long
series of years in the first rank in the British Islands for productive-
ness of zinc and silver lead respectively. These metals have con-
stituted its principal riches, but copper pyrites and hematite iron have
also been raised in marketable quantities, while only very small
amounts of the ores of nickel and antimony have been found. The
mines are rented from the Crown as lord of the manor. The value
of the ore produced is about 40,000 annually. Other economic
products are clay, granite, limestone, sandstone, slate (of an inferior
quality) and salt, which has been discovered near the Point of
Ayre.
(d) Textiles, &c. Since labour has become scarcer and dearer
textile industries have been declining, being unable to compete with
larger and more completely organized manufactories elsewhere.
The principal manufactured articles are woollen cloths and blankets,
hemp ropes and cotton, and herring nets. A few fishing vessels
are built, and brewing is a prosperous industry. But, apart from
agriculture, the most important industry (for so it may be called)
is that of the provision for summer visitors, nearly half a million of
whom come to the island annually.
Commerce. The chief exports are lead, zinc, turnips, ropes,
cotton nets and salt. The imports consist chiefly of timber, pro-
visions, live-stock, poultry, flour, fruit, vegetables and eggs. In
1906 the tonnage of vessels (other than fishing or wind-bound vessels)
cleared for traffic was 720,790. The number of vessels (other than
fishing vessels) registered as belonging to the island in 1906 was 79.
Government. The government of the island is vested in a
lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Crown; in a Council,
which is the upper branch of the legislature; in the House of
Keys, which is the lower branch; and in the Tynwald. Court.
The Council and Keys sit separately as legislative bodies,
but they sit in the Tynwald Court as distinct bodies with
co-ordinate powers to transact executive business and to sign
Bills. The Tynwald Court controls the surplus revenue, after
the payment of the cost of government and of a fixed contribu-
tion of 10,000 to the imperial exchequer, subject to the super-
vision of the Treasury and the veto of the lieutenant-governor,
and it appoihts boards to manage the harbours, highways, educa-
tion, local government, and lunatic and poor asylums. The
Imperial government, after intimating its intention to Tynwald,
fixes the rates of the customs duties, but Tynwald can by resolu-
tion " impose, abolish or vary" the customs duties subject to
the approval of parliament or the Treasury, such change to take
effect immediately and to continue for six months, and, if parlia-
ment be then sitting, to the end of the session, provided that the
same be not in the meantime annulled by the passing of an act
of parliament, or a Treasury minute. The approval of the
sovereign of the United Kingdom in Council is essential to every
legislative enactment. Acts of the imperial parliament do not
affect the island except it be specially named in them. The
lieutenant-governor, who is the representative of the sovereign,
presides in the Council, in the Tynwald Court, in the High
Court of Justice (Staff of Government division) and in the Court
of General Gaol Delivery. He is the supreme executive author-
ity, and he shares the control of the legislative and administra-
tive functions, including the management of the revenue and
the control of its surplus, with the Tynwald Court; he has also
the power of veto as regards the disposal of surplus revenue and
the nature of proposed harbour works, and his signature is
necessary to the validity of all acts. It has been the practice
for him to act as chancellor of the exchequer and to initiate all
questions concerning the raising or expenditure of public funds.
The Council consists of the lieutenant-governor, the lord-bishop
of the diocese, the clerk of the rolls, the two deemsters, the
attorney-general, the archdeacon (all of whom are appointed by
the Crown) and the vicar-general, who is appointed by the bishop.
No act of the governor and Council is valid unless it is the act
of the governor and at least two members of the Council.
The House of Keys (for origin of the name see KEY) is one of the
most ancient legislative assemblies in the world. It consists
of twenty-four members, elected by male and female owners or
occupiers of property. Each of the six sheadings elects three
members; the towns of Castletown, Peel and Ramsey one each,
and Douglas five. There is no property qualification required
of the members, and the house sits for five years unless
previously dissolved by the lieutenant-governor.
Law . The High Court of Justice, of which the lieutenant-governor
is president, contains three divisions: viz. the Chancery Division,
in which the clerk of the rolls sits as judge, the Common Law Divi-
sion, of which the deemsters are the judges, the Staff of Government
Division, in which the governor and three judges sit together.
The jurisdiction of the Chancery and Common Law Division is
in the main similar to that of the corresponding divisions in the
English Courts. The Staff of Government exercises appellate
jurisdiction, similar to that of the Appeal Courts in England. The
Common Law Courts for the southern division of the island are
held at Douglas and Castletown alternately and those for the nor-
thern division at Ramsey, once in three months. Actions in these
courts are heard by a deemster and a special or common jury.
The Chancery Court sits once a fortnight at Douglas. The deem-
sters also have summary jurisdiction in matters of debt, actions for
liquidated damages under 50, suits for possession of real or personal
property, petitions for probate, &c. These courts, called Deem-
sters' Courts, are held weekly, alternately at Douglas and Castletown,
by the deemster for the southern division of the island, and at Ram-
sey and Peel by the deemster for the northern division. Criminal
cases are heard by the magistrates or a high-bailiff and are (with the
exception of minor cases which may be dealt with summarily) sent
on by them for trial by a deemster and a jury of six, who hear the
evidence and determine whether there is sufficient ground for sending
the case for trial before the Court of General Gaol Delivery, thus
discharging the functions of the Grand Jury in England. The
Court of General Gaol Delivery is the Supreme Criminal Court and is
presided over by the lieutenant-governor, who is assisted by the clerk
of the rolls and the two deemsters. The high-bailiffs hold weekly
in the towns for the trial of breaches of the peace and minor offences.
There is a coroner in each of the six sheadings. These officers are
appointed annually by the lieutenant-governor and perform duties
similar to those of a sheriff's officer in England. Inquests of death
are held by a high-bailiff and jury. The Manx Bar is distinct from
that of England. Its members, called " Advocates," combine the
functions of barrister and solicitor. The laws relating to real pro-
perty still retain much of their ancient peculiarity, but other branches
of law have of late years by various acts of Tynwald been made
practically identical with English law.
As regards real property the general tenure is a customary freehold
devolving from each possessor to his next heir-at-law. The descent
of land follows the same rules as the descent of the crown of England.
The right of primogeniture extends to females in default of males
in the direct line. The interest of a widow or widower, being the
first wife or husband of a person deceased, is a life estate in one-half
of the lands which have descended hereditarily, and is forfeited by a
-seeond marriage; a second husband or second wife is only entitled
to a life interest in one-fourth, if there be issue of the first marriage.
Of the land purchased by the husband the wife surviving him is
entitled to a life interest in one moiety. By a statute of the year
1777 proprietors of land are empowered to grant leases for any term
not exceeding twenty-one years in possession without the consent
of the wife.
Church. It is not known by whom Christianity was introduced
into Man, but from the large proportion of names of Irish ecclesiastics
surviving in the appellations of the old Manx keeills, or cells, which
are of similar type to the Irish oratories of the 6th and 7th centuries,
and in the dedications of the parish churches, which are usually on
ancient sites, it may be reasonably conjectured that Manxmen were,
for the most part, Christianized by Irish missionaries. During the
incursions of the pagan Vikings Christianity was almost certainly
extirpated and it was probably not reintroduced before the begin-
ning of the nth century. The two most important events in the
history of the medieval Manx Church were the formation of the
diocese of Sodor (?..) and the foundation of the abbey of Rushen,
a branch of the Cistercian abbey of Furness, in 1134. This latter
event was important because the Cistercians were exempted from all
episcopal visitation and control, by charter granted by the pope,
and were, therefore, only subject to his rule and that of the abbots
of their own order. From this time till the Reformation we find
that there was an almost continuous struggle between the laity
and the spiritual barons and monks, who had obtained great power
and much property in the island. In 1458 the diocese was placed
jnder York. The dissolution of the religious houses in Man was not
wrought about by the English Act of 1539, which did not apply to the
sland, but by the arbitrary action of Henry VIII. From such
evidence as is available it would seem that the Reformation was a
very slow process. When Isaac Barrow (uncle of his well-known
namesake) became bishop in 1663 the condition of the Church was
deplorable, but under him and his able and saintly successors, Thomas
MAN, ISLE OF
537
Wilson (1698^1755) and Mark Hildesley (1755-1773), it attained to a
very much higher level than the English Church during the same
period. After Hildesley's time it was again neglected, and successful
missions by John Wesley and others resulted in the establishment and
rapid increase of Nonconformity. It was not till the second decade
of the 19th century that the condition of the Church began to im-
prove again, and this improvement has steadily continued. In 1878
a Sodor and Man theological school was established for the training
of candidates for holy orders. This school has been affiliated to
Durham University. In 1880 four rural deaneries were established,
and commissioners were constituted as trustees of endowments for
Church purposes. In 1895 a cathedral chapter, with four canons,
was constituted under the name of the " Dean and Chapter of Man,"
the bishop being the dean of the cathedral church. A Church Sus-
tentation Fund was established by Bishop Straton in 1894, with a
view to supplementing the incomes of the clergy, which had been
greatly reduced on account of the low price of corn. There have
been several acts giving Nonconformists equal rights with Church-
men. Among these are the Burials Acts 'of 1881 and 1895, which
permit burials to take place in churchyards without the rites of the
Church of England, and allow any burial service, provided it be
Christian, in mortuary chapels. At the present day Nonconformists,
chiefly Wesleyan Methodists, probably outnumber Churchmen,
and there is a small number of Roman Catholics and Presbyterians.
The bishop, who has a seat, but not a vote, in the House of Lords,
is assisted by an archdeacon, a vicar-general, a registrar and a
sumner-general. The jurisdiction of the only remaining ecclesiastical
court, which is presided over by the vicar-general, as representing
the bishop, is mainly in connexion with affiliation questions, the
swearing-in of churchwardens and the granting of faculties. The
power of the Manx Convocation to make canons, though not exer-
cised since 1704, has never been abrogated, and so far affords a token
that the Manx Church is a separate national Church governed by its
own laws, which, however, must be approved by the insular Legis-
lature.
Education. It was not till 1872, when the insular Legislature
passed the Public Elementary Education Act, that the Manx State
undertook any direct responsibility for education. This act differed
from the English Act of 1870 in three important particulars: (i)
it at once constituted every town and parish a school district under a
school board; (2) the attendance of children was made compulsory;
and (3) every elementary school, those in connexion with the Church
of Rome excepted, was obliged to provide for non-sectarian instruc-
tion in religious subjects, and for the reading of the Bible accom-
panied by suitable explanation. Since the date of this act education
has made extraordinary strides. It became free in 1892, and a
higher-grade school was established in Douglas in 1894. The
public elementary schools, which are nearly all managed by School
Boards, are subject to the control of a local " Council of Education "
appointed by the Tynwald Court; but, as the Manx Act of 1872 re-
quires that, in order to obtain a government grant, the schools
shall fulfil the conditions contained in the minutes of the education
department at Whitehall, they are examined by English inspectors
and compelled to attain the same standard of efficiency as the English
and Welsh schools. In 1907 an act establishing a system of secon-
dary education was passed by the Legislature. The total number of
public elementary schools in 1906 was 47, 42 being board and 5
denominational. Besides King William's College, opened in 1833,
which provided a similar education to that obtainable at the English
public schools, there are grammar schools in Douglas, Ramsey and
Castletown.
The Manx language (see CELT : Language) still lingers, the census
of 1901 showing that there were about 4400 people who understood
something of it. There is now no one who does not speak English.
Economics. Municipal government was established in 1860, and
in 1876 vaccination was made compulsory, as also was the registra-
tion of births, marriages and deaths in 1878. It was not till 1884
that the sanitation of the towns was seriously taken in hand ; but ten
years more elapsed before the sanitary condition of the island was
dealt with by the passing of an act which constituted parish and
village districts, with commissioners elected by the people, who had,
in conjunction with a board elected by the Tynwald Court and an
inspector appointed by it, to attend to all questions relating to sani-
tation and infectious diseases. As a result of these measures the
death-rate has been greatly reduced. In 1888 a permissive poor
law was established; it has been adopted by all the towns except
Peel and by seven of the seventeen country parishes. Before this
date the poor had been dependent on voluntary relief, which broke
down owing to the growth of a temporarily employed class occupied
in administering to the wants of the summer visitors. The total
number of persons in receipt of poor relief averages about 920, and
that of lunatics about 212. The average number of births during the
five years 1902-1906 was 21-6, of marriages 6-1, and of deaths 17-6
per thousand. The rateable annual value of the parishes, towns and
villages is about 400,000. The revenue for the year ending the 3 1st
of March 1907 was 86,365, and the expenditure 75,728. The largest
revenue raised was 91,193 in 1901, and the debt reached its maximum
amount, 219,531, in 1894.
History. The history of the Isle of Man falls naturally into
three periods. In the first of these the island was inhabited
by a Celtic people. The next is marked by the Viking invasions
and the establishment of Scandinavian rule. The third period
is that of the English dominion. The secular history of the Isle
of Man during the Celtic period is an absolute blank, there
being no trustworthy record of any event whatever before the
incursions of the Northmen, since the exploits attributed to
Baetan MacCairill, king of Ulster, at the end of the 6th century,
which were formally supposed to have been performed in the
Isle of Man, really occurred in the country between the Firths
of Clyde and Forth. And it is clear that, even if the supposed
conquest of the Menavian islands Man and Anglesey by
Edwin of Northumbria, in 616, did take place, it could not
have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were
driven from the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire soon
afterwards, they could not well have retained their hold on the
island to the west of these coasts. It is, however, possible that
in 684, when Ecfrid laid Ireland waste from Dublin to Drogheda,
he temporarily occupied Man. During the period of Scandi-
navian domination there are two main epochs one before the
conquest of Man by Godred Crovan in 1079, and the other after
it. The earlier epoch is characterized by warfare and unsettled
rule, the later is comparatively peaceful. Between about A.D.
800 and 815 the Vikings came to Man chiefly for plunder;
between about 850 and 990, when they settled in it, the island
fell under the rule of the Scandinavian kings of Dublin ; and
between 990 and 1079, it was subject to the powerful earls of
Orkney. The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a
remarkable man, though little information about him is attain-
able. According to the Chronicon Manniae he " subdued
Dublin, and a great part of Leinster, and held the Scots in such
subjection that no one who built a vessel dared to insert more
than three bolts." The memory of such a ruler would be likely
to survive in tradition, and it seems probable therefore that he
is the person commemorated in Manx legend under the name
of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his rule
were called the Si&r-eyjar (Sudreys or the south isles, in contra-
distinction to the norSr-eyjar, or the north isles, i.e. the Orkneys
and Shetlands, and they consisted of the Hebrides, and of all
the smaller western islands of Scotland, with Man. At a later
date his successors took the title of Rex Manniae et Insularum.
Olaf, Godred's son, was a powerful monarch, who, according
to the Chronicle, maintained " such close alliance with the kings
of Ireland and Scotland that no one ventured to disturb the Isles
during his time" (1113-1152). His son, Godred, who for a
short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a quarrel with
Somerled, the ruler of Argyll, in 1156, lost the smaller islands
off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty was thus
interposed between the two divisions of his kingdom. Early in
the I3th century, when Reginald of Man did homage to King
John, we hear for the first time of English intervention in the
affairs of Man. But it was into the hands of Scotland that
the islands were ultimately to fall. During the whole of the
Scandinavian period the isles were nominally under the suzerainty
of the kings of Norway, but they only occasionally asserted it
with any vigour. The first to do so was Harold Haarfager
about 885, then came Magnus Barfod about noo, both of whom
conquered the isles. From the middle of the I2th century till
1217 the suzerainty, owing to the fact that Norway was a prey
to civil dissensions, had been of a very shadowy character. But
after that date it became a reality and Norway consequently
came into collision with the growing power of Scotland. Finally,
in 1261, Alexander III. of Scotland sent envoys to Norway to
negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led to no
result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the
complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at Largs in 1 263. Magnus,
king of Man and the Isles, who had fought on the Norwegian
side, was compelled to surrender all the islands over which he
had ruled, except Man, for which he did homage. Two years
later Magnus died and in 1266 the king of Norway, in considera-
tion of the sum of 4000 marks, ceded the islands, including Man,
to Scotland. But Scotland's rule over Man was not firmly
538
MAN, ISLE OF
established till 1275, when the Manx were defeated in a decisive
battle at Ronaldsway, near Castletown. In 1290 we find
Edward I. of England in possession of Man, and it remained in
English hands till 1313, when it was taken by Robert Bruce
after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks. Then, till 1346,
when the battle of Neville's Cross decided' the long struggle
between England and Scotland in England's favour, there
followed a confused period when Man was sometimes under
English and sometimes under Scottish rule. About 1333
it had been granted by King Edward III. to William de
Montacute, ist earl of Salisbury, as his absolute posses-
sion, without reserving any service to be rendered to him.
In 1392 his son sold the island " with the crowne " to
Sir William Le Scroope. In 1399 Henry IV. caused Le Scroope,
who had taken Richard's side, to be beheaded. The island
then came into the possession of the crown and was granted to
Henry de Percy, earl of Northumberland, but, he having been
attainted, Henry IV., in 1406, made a grant of it, with the patron-
age of the bishopric, to Sir John Stanley, his heirs and assigns,
on the service of rendering two falcons on paying homage and
two falcons to all future kings of England on their coronation.
With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins
a better epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers
rarely visited its shores they placed it under responsible
governors, who, in the main, seem to have treated it with justice.
Of the thirteen members of the family who ruled in Man, the
second Sir John Stanley (1414-1432), James, the 7th earl (1627-
1651), and the loth earl of the same name (1702-1736) had the
most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of
the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial
by battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known
as the Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille
(or Tremouille), are probably the most striking figures in Manx
history. In 1643 Charles I. ordered him to go to Man, where
the people, who were no doubt influenced by what was taking
place in England, threatened to revolt. But his arrival, with
English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of this kind. He
conciliated the people by his affability, brought in Englishmen
to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by
improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time,
he restricted the exactions of the Church. But the Manx
people never had less liberty than under his rule. They were
heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon them; and they also
had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to accept
leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the " straw "
tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary
inheritance. Six months after the death of the king Stanley
received a summons from General Ireton to surrender the island,
which he haughtily declined. In August 1651 he went to
England with some of his troops, among whom were 300 Manx-
men, to join King Charles II., and he and they shared in the
decisive defeat of the Royalists at Worcester. He was captured
and confined in Chester Castle, and, after being tried by court
martial, was executed at Wigan. Soon after his death the
Manx Militia, under the command of William Christian, rose
against the Countess and captured all the insular forts except
Rushen and Peel. They were then joined by a parliamentary
force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the Countess surren-
dered after a brief resistance. Fairfax had been appointed " Lord
of Man and the Isles " in September, so that Man continued
under a monarchical government and remained in the same
relation to England as before. The restoration of Stanley
government in 1660 therefore caused as little friction and
alteration as its temporary cessation had. One of the
first acts of the new lord, Charles (the 8th earl), was to order
Christian to be tried. He was found guilty and executed. Of
the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three were
excepted from the general amnesty. But by order in Council
they were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence
on Christian were punished. His next act was to dispute the
permanency of the tenants' holdings, which they had not at
first regarded as being affected by the acceptance of leases, a
proceeding which led to an almost open rebellion against his
authority and to the neglect of agriculture. In lieu of it the
people devoted themselves to the fisheries and to contraband
trade. The agrarian question was not settled till 1704, when
James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through the
influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his
tenants, which was embodied in an act, called the " Act of
Settlement." Their compact secured the tenants in the posses-
sion of their estates in perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent,
and a small fine on succession or alienation. From the great
importance of this act to the Manx people it has been called
their Magna Carta. As time went on, and the value of the estates
increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small in
proportion as to be almost nominal. James died in 1736 and
the sovereignty of the isle passed to James Murray, and duke
of Atholl. In 1764 he was succeeded by his only surviving child
Charlotte, Baroness Strange, and her husband, John Murray,
who, in right of his wife, became Lord of Man. About 1720
the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726 it was, for a
time, somewhat checked by the interposition of parliament,
but during the last ten years of the Atholl regime (1756-1765)
it assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the imperial
revenue, it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so
doing an Act of Parliament, called the " Revesting Act," was
passed in 1765, under which the sovereign rights of the Atholls
and the customs revenues of the island were purchased for the
sum of 70,000, and an annuity of 2000 was granted to the
duke and duchess. The Atholls still retained their manorial
rights, the patronage of the See, and certain other perquisites,
which were finally purchased for the excessive sum of 417,144
in 1828. Up to the time of the Revestment the Tynwald Court
passed laws concerning the government of the island in all
respects and had control over its finances, subject to the approval
of the lord. After the Revestment, or rather after the passage
of the " Mischief Act " in the same year, Imperial Parliament
legislated with respect to customs, harbours and merchant
shipping, and, in measures of a general character, it occasionally
inserted clauses by which penalties in contravention of the acts
of which they formed part might be enforced in the island. It
also assumed the control of the insular customs duties. Such
were the changes which, rather than the transference of the
sovereignty from the lord to the king of Great Britain and
Ireland, modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient
laws and tenures were not interfered with, but in many ways the
Revestment adversely affected it. The hereditary lords were far
from being model rulers, but most of them had taken some per-
sonal share in its government, and had interested themselves in
the well-being of its inhabitants. But now the whole direction of
its affairs was handed over to officials, who regarded the island
as a pestilent nest of smugglers, from which it was their duty
to extract as much revenue as possible. Some alleviation of this
state of things was experienced between 1793 and 1826 when
the 4th duke of Atholl was appointed governor, since, though
he quarrelled with the Keys and was unduly solicitous for his
pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote
the welfare of the island. After his departure the English
officials resumed their sway. But they were more considerate
than before. Moreover, since smuggling, which had only been
checked, not suppressed, by the Revesting Act, had by that
time almost disappeared, and the Manx revenue was producing
a large and increasing surplus, the Isle of Man came to be regarded
more favourably, and, thanks to this fact and to the representa-
tions of the Manx people to English ministers in 1837, 1844 and
1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs tariff and an
occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works.
Since 1866, when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at
least nominal " Home Rule," the Manx people have made
remarkable progress, and at the present day form a prosperous
community.
Monuments. The prehistoric monuments in Man are numer-
ous. There are earth entrenchments, seemingly of the earliest
period; fragments of stone circles and alignments; burial cairns
MANAAR, GULF OF MANAOAG
with stone cists of several successive periods; urn mounds
and craiinoges or lake dwellings. The monuments belonging to
the historic period begin with the round tower on Peel islet,
the humble Celtic keeills and the sculptured crosses in which
the island is especially rich. Of these crosses about one-fourth
have inscriptions in the old Norse language. The origin and
history of the early buildings remaining on the island are
obscure. The castles of Rushen and Peel are the only important
buildings of a military character which survive, but the remains
of ecclesiastical buildings are numerous and interesting, though,
with the exception of St German's Cathedral on Peel islet,
now in ruins, they are only small and simple structures.
Arms. There has been much controversy about the origin
of the arms of the island the " three-legs " found on a beautiful
pillar cross near Maughhold churchyard belonging to the latter
part of the I4th century. It was probably originally a sun
symbol and was brought from Sicily by the Vikings. The
motto quocunque jeceris stabit is of comparatively recent origin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. History and Law: The Manx Society's pub-
lications, vols. i.-xxxii., notably the Chronicon Manniae (vols.
xxii. and xxiii., edited by Munch); Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B.,
The Land of Home Rule, an essay on the history and constitution of
the Isle of Man (London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1893); A. W.
Moore, M.A., C.V.O., The Diocese of Sodor and Man, S.P.C.K.'s
series of Diocesan Histories (1893) ; and A History of the Isle of Man,
(2 vols., London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1900); The Statutes of the Isle of
Man from 1817 to 1895, Gill's edition, 6 vols. (vol. i. 1883 to
vol. vi. 1897, London, Eyre & Spottiswoode) ; Richard Sherward
(Deemster), Manx Law Tenures, a short treatise on the law relating
to real estate in the Isle of Man (Douglas Robinson Bros., 1899).
Archaeology and Folklore: P. M. C. Kermode, F.S.A. Scot., Manx
Crosses (London, Bemrose & Sons, 1907); E. Alfred Jones, The Old
Church Plate of the Isle of Man (Bemrose & Sons, 1907) ; A. W. Moore,
C.V.O., M.A., The Folklore of the Isle of Man (London, D. Nutt,
1891). Language and Philology: A Dictionary of the Manx
Language (Manx-English), by Archibald Cregeen (1835) ; A Practical
Grammar of the Antient Gaelic, or Language of the Isle of Man, usually
called Manks, by Rev. John Kelly, LL.D. ; Manx Society's publica-
tions, vol. ii. (1859, reprint of edition of 1804) ; The Manx Dictionary in
two parts (Manx-English, English-Manx), by Rev. John Kelly, William
Gill and John Clarke; Manx Society's publications, vol. xiii. (1866);
The Book of Common Prayer in Manx Gaelic, being translations made
by Bishop Phillips in 1610 and by the Manx clergy in 1765, edited
by A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A., and John Rhys, M.A., LL.D.;
Outlines of the Phonology of Manx Gaelic, by John Rhys (Oxford
University Press, 2 vols., 1893-1894); First Lessons in Manx, by
Edmund Goodwin (Dublin, Celtic Association, 1901) ; Manx National
Songs, with English words, from the MS. collection of the Deemster
Gill, Dr J. Clague and W. H. Gill, and arranged by W. H. Gill
(London, Boosey & Co., 1896); Manx Ballads and Music, edited by
A. W. Moore (Douglas, G. and R. Johnson, 1896); A. W. Moore's
The Surnames and Place Names of the Isle of Man (London, Elliot
Stock, 1906, 3rd ed.). Natural History: P. G. Ralfe, The Birds of
the Isle of Man (Edinburgh, David Douglas, 1905).
Hall Caine's novels, The Deemster, The Manxman, &c., have no
doubt tended to popularize the island. The most truthful descrip-
tion of the social life of the people is to be found in a novel entitled
The Captain of the Parish, by John Quine. Bibliotheca Monensis
(Manx Society, vol. xxiv.) contains a good list of MSS. and books
rrlating to the island up to 1876, and A. W. Moore's History of the
Isle of Man has a list of the most important MSS. and books up
to 1900. . (A. W. M.)
MANAAR, GULF OF, a portion of the Indian Ocean lying
between the coast of Madras and Ceylon. Its northern limit
is the line of rocks and islands called Adam's Bridge. Its
extreme width from Cape Comorin to Point de Galle is about
200 miles.
MANACOR, a town of Spain in the island of Majorca, 40 m.
by rail E. of Palma. Pop. (1900), 12,408. Manacor has a
small trade in grain, fruit, wine, oil and live stock. In the
neighbourhood are the cave of Drach, containing several under-
ground lakes, and the caves of Arta, one of the largest and finest
groups of stalactite caverns in western Europe.
MANAGE, to control, direct, or be in a position or have the
capacity to do anything (from Ital. maneggiare, to train horses,
literally to handle; Lat. manus, hand). The word was first
used of the " management " of a horse. Its meanings have
been much influenced by the French mtnager, to direct a
household or menage (from late Lat. mansio, house); hence to
economize, to husband resources, &c. The French menage, act
539
of guiding or leading, from mener, to lead, seems also to have
influenced the meaning.
MANAGUA, the capital of Nicaragua, and of the department
of Managua; on the southern shore of Lake Managua, and on
the railway from Diriamba to El Viejo, 65 m. by rail S.E. of
the Pacific port of Corinto. Pop. (1005), about 30,000. Managua
is a modern city, with many flourishing industries and a rapidly
growing population. Its chief buildings are those erected
after 1855, when it was chosen as the capital to put an end to
the rivalry between the then more important cities of Leon
and Granada. They include the Palacio Nacional or govern-
ment buildings, Corinthian in style, the national library and
museum, an ornate Renaissance structure, the barracks and
the general post office. Owing to its position on the lake, and
its excellent communications by rail and steamer, Managua
obtained after 1855 an important export trade in coffee, sugar,
cocoa and cotton, although in 1876 it was temporarily ruined
by a great inundation.
MANAKIN, from the Dutch word Manneken, applied to
certain small birds, a name apparently introduced into English
by G. Edwards (Nat. Hist. Birds, i. 21) in or about 1743, since
which time it has been accepted generally, and is now used
for those which form the family Pipridae. The manakins
are peculiar to the Neotropical Region and have many of the
habits of the titmouse family (Paridae), living in deep forests,
associating in small bands, and keeping continually in motion,
but feeding almost wholly on the large soft berries of the different
kinds of Melastoma, The Pipridae, however, have no close
affinity with the Paridae? but belong to another great division
of the order Passeres, the Clamatores group of the Anisomyodae.
The manakins are nearly all birds of gay appearance, generally
exhibiting rich tints of blue, crimson, scarlet, orange or yellow
in combination with chestnut, deep black, black and white,
or olive green; and among their most obvious characteristics
are their short bill and feeble feet, of which the outer toe is
united to the middle toe for a good part of its length. The
tail, in most species very short, has in others the middle
feathers much elongated, and in one of the outer rectrices are
attenuated and produced into threads. They have been divided
(Brit. Mus. Cat. Birds, vol. xiv.) into nineteen genera with
about seventy species, of which eighteen are included under
Pipra itself. P. leucilla, one of the best known, has a wide
distribution from the isthmus of Panama to Guiana and the
valley of the Amazon; but it is one of the most plainly coloured
of the family, being black with a white head. The genus
Machaeropterus, consisting of four species, is very remarkable
for the extraordinary form of some of the secondary wing-
feathers in the males, in which the shaft is thickened and the
webs changed in shape, as described and illustrated by P. L.
Sclater (Proc. Zool. Society, 1860, p. oo; Ibis, 1862, p. 175*)
in the case of the beautiful M . deliciosus, and it has been observed
that the wing-bones of these birds are also much thickened,
no doubt in correlation with this abnormal structure. A like
deviation from the ordinary character is found in the allied
genus Chiromachaeris, comprehending seven species, and Sclater
is of the opinion that it enables them to make the singular
noise for which they have long been noted, described by O. Salvin
(Ibis, 1860, p. 37) in the case of one of them, M. candaei, as
beginning " with a sharp note not unlike the crack of a whip,"
which is " followed by a rattling sound not unlike the call of
a landrail "; and it is a similar habit that has obtained for
another species, M . edwardsi, the name in Cayenne, according to
Buffon (Hist. Nat. Oiseaux, iv. 413). of Cassenoisetlt.
(A. N.)
MANAOAG. a town in the north central part of the province
of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Angalacan
river, 21 m. N.E. of Lingayen. Pop. (1903), 16,793. Tne
1 Though Edwards called the species he figured (ut supra) a
titmouse, he properly remarked that there was no genus of
European birds to which he could liken it.
'The figures are repeated by Darwin (Descent of Man, &c.,
ii. 66).
540
MANAOS MANASSEH
inhabitants devote themselves especially to rice-culture, though
tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane, fruit and vegetables are also
raised. A statue of the Virgin Mary here is visited annually
(especially during May) by thousands from Pangasinan and
adjoining provinces. The inhabitants are mostly Ilocanos.
Manaoag includes the town proper and eighteen barrios.
MANAOS, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state
of Amazonas, on the left bank of the Rio Negro 12 m. above
its junction with the Solimoes, or Amazon, and 908 m. (Wappaus)
above the mouth of the latter, in lat. 3 8' 4" S., long. 60 W.
Pop. (1908), about 40,000, including a large percentage of Indians,
negroes and mixed-bloods; the city is growing rapidly. Manaos
stands on a slight eminence overlooking the river, 106 ft. above
sea-level, traversed by several " igarapes " (canoe paths) or side
channels, and beautified by the luxuriant vegetation of the
Amazon valley. The climate is agreeable and healthful, the
average temperature for the year (1902) being 84, the number of
rainy days 130, and the total rainfall 66-4 in. Up to the begin-
ning of the 2oth century the only noteworthy public edifices
were the church of N.S. da Conceicao, the St Sebastiao asylum
and, possibly, a Misericordia hospital; but a government building,
a custom-house, a municipal hall, courts of justice, a market-
place and a handsome theatre were subsequently erected, and a
modern water-supply system, electric light and electric tramways
were provided. The " igarapes " are spanned by a number of
bridges. Higher education is provided by a lyceum or high
school, besides which there is a noteworthy school (bearing
the name of Benjamin Constant) for poor orphan girls. Manaos
has a famous botanical garden, an interesting museum, a public
library, and a meteorological observatory. The port of Manaos,
which is the commercial centre of the whole upper Amazon
region, was nothing but a river anchorage before 1902. In that
year a foreign corporation began improvements, which include
a stone river-wall or quay, storehouses for merchandise, and
floating wharves or landing stages connected with the quay by
floating bridges or roadways. The floating wharves and bridges
are made necessary by the rise and fall of the river, the difference
between the maximum and minimum levels being about 33 ft.
The principal exports are rubber, nuts, cacao, dried fish,
hides and piassava fibre. The markets of Manaos receive
their supplies of beef from the national stock ranges on the
Rio Branco, and it is from this region that hides and horns
are received for export. The shipping movement of the port
has become large and important, the total arrivals in 1907,
including small trading boats, being 1589, of which 133 were
ocean-going steamers from Europe and the United States, 75
from south Brazilian ports, and 227 river steamers from Para.
This rapid growth in its direct trade is due to a provincial law
of 1878 which authorized an abatement of 3% in the export
duties on direct shipments, and a state law of 1900 which made
it compulsory to land and ship all products of the state from
the Manaos custom-house.
The first European settlement on the site of Manaos was
made in 1660, when a small fort was built here by Francisco
da Motta Falcao, and was named Sao Jose de Rio Negro. . The
mission and village which followed was called Villa de Barra,
or Barra do Rio Negro (the name " Barra " being derived from
the " bar " in the current of the river, occasioned by the set-
back caused by its encounter with the Amazon). It succeeded
Barcellos as the capital of the old capitania of Rio Negro in
1809, and became the capital of Amazonas when that province
was created in 1850, its name being then changed to Manaos, the
name of the principal tribe of Indians living on the Rio Negro
at the time of its discovery. In 1892 Manaos became the see
of the new bishopric of Amazonas.
MANASSAS, a district of Prince William county, Virginia,
and a town of the district, about 30 m. W.S.W. of Washing-
ton, D.C. Pop. (1910) of the district, 3381; of the town,
1217. The village of Manassas (in the town), known also as
Manassas Junction, is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio and
the Southern railways. North of the junction is Bull Run,
a small stream which empties into the Occoquan, an arm of the
Potomac. In this neighbourhood two important battles of the
American Civil War, the first and second battles of Bull Run,
were fought on the 2ist of July 1861 and on the 29th-3oth of
August 1862 respectively; by Southern historians these battles
are called the battles of Manassas. At Manassas is the Manassas
Industrial School for Coloured Youth (non-sectarian; privately
supported), which was founded in 1892 and opened in 1894;
in 1908-1909 it had nine teachers (all negroes) and 121 pupils,
all in elementary grades.
MANASSEH (7th cent. B.C.), son of Hezekiah, and king of
Judah (2 Kings xxi. 1-18). His reign of fifty-five years was
marked by a reaction against the reforming policy of his father,
and his persistent idolatry and bloodshed were subsequently
regarded as the cause of the destruction of Jerusalem and of the
dispersion of the people (2 Kings xxiii. 26 seq.; Jer. xv. 4). As
a vassal of Assyria he was contemporary with Sennacherib,
Esar-haddon (681-668 B.C.) and Assur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.),
and his name (M e-na-si-e) appears among the tributaries of the
two latter. Little is known of his history. The chronicler,
however, relates that the Assyrian army took him in chains to
Babylon, and that after his repentance he returned, and dis-
tinguished himself by his piety, by building operations in
Jerusalem and by military organization (2 Chron, xxxiii. 10 sqq.).
The story of his penitence referred to in xxxiii. 22, is untrust-
worthy, but the historical foundation may have been some
share in the revolt of the Babylonian Samas-sum-ukin (648 B.C.),
on which occasion he may have been summoned before Assur-
bani-pal with other rebels and subsequently reinstated. See
further Driver, in Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, pp. 114
sqq. Manasseh was succeeded by his son Amon, who after a
brief reign of two years perished in a conspiracy, his place being
taken by Amon's son (or brother) Josiah (q.v .) . A lament formerly
ascribed to Manasseh (cf. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18) is preserved in the
Apocrypha (see MAN ASSES, PRAYER OF; and APOCRYPHAL
LITERATURE). On Judg. xviii. 36 (marg.), see JONATHAN.
MANASSEH (apparently Hebrew for " he who causes to for-
get," but see H. W. Hogg, Encyc. Bib., s.v.); in the Bible, a
tribe of Israel, the elder but less important of the "sons" of
Joseph. Its seat lay to the north of Ephraim, but its boundaries
can scarcely be defined. It merged itself with its " brother "
in the south and with Issachar, Zebulun and other tribes in
the north (Josh. xvii. 7 sqq.). From the latter it was separated
for a time by a line of Canaanite cities extending from Dor to
Bethshean, which apparently were not all subdued till the days of
David or Solomon (Judg. i. 27; i Sam. xxxi. 10; i Kings ix. 15).
Besides its western settlement in the fertile glades of northern
Samaria, running out into the great plain, there were territories
east of the Jordan reckoned to Manasseh. Gilead and Bashan
were said to have been taken by Machir, and a number of places
of uncertain identification were occupied by Nobah and Jair
(Num. xxxii. 41 ; Judg. x. 3-5). It seems most natural to suppose
that these districts were held before the Israelites crossed over
to the west (cf. the tradition Num. xxi., Deut. iii.). On the
other hand, in Judg. v. 14, Machir may conceivably belong to
the west, and it is possible that, according to another tradition,
these movements were the result of the complaint of the Joseph
tribes that their original territory was too restricted. 1 In the
genealogical lists, Machir, perhaps originally an independent
branch, is the eldest son of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. i b, 2); but
according to later schemes he is Manasseh 's only son (Num.
xxvi. 28-34). Intermixture with Aramaeans is indicated in the
view that he was the son of Manasseh and an Aramean concubine
(i Chron. vii. 14), and this is supported by the statement that
the Arameans of Geshur and Maacah (cf. 2 Sam. x. 6; Gen. xxii.
24) dwelt among the Israelites of eastern Jordan (Josh. xiii. 13).
Subsequently, at an unknown period of history, sixty cities
were lost (i Chron. ii. 23). The story of the daughters of the
Manassite Zelophehad is of interest for the Hebrew law of
inheritance (Num. xxvii. i-n, xxxvi.).
1 So Budde (Richter u. Samuel), who recovers certain old fragments
and arranges Josh. xvii. 14-18 (. 18 read " hill-country of Gilead ");
Num. xxxii. 39, 41 seq.; Josh. xiii. 13.
MANASSES MANATI
Some details of the history of this twofold branch of the Israelites
are contained in the stories of Gideon (W. Manasseh) and Jephthah
(E. Manasseh). The relations between Saul and Jabesh-Gilead
point to the close bond uniting the two districts, but the details have
been variously interpreted : Winckler, for example, suggesting that
Saul himself was originally from E. Manasseh and that he followed
in the steps of Jephthah (Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test., pp. 216 seq. 227).
Generally speaking, its position in the west made it share the
fortunes of Ephraim, whilst on the east the proximity of Ammonites
and Moabites controlled its history; see also the articles on its
southern neighbours, GAD and REUBEN, and the 'articles GENEALOGY
(Biblical); and JEWS: History. (S. A. C.)
MANASSES, CONSTANTINE, Byzantine chronicler, flourished
in the I2th century during the reign of Manuel I. (Comnenus)
(1143-1180). He was the author of a Chronicle or historical
synopsis of events from the creation of the world to the end of the
reign of Nicephorus Botaniates (1081), written by direction of
Irene, the emperor's sister-in-law. It consists of about 7000 lines
in the so-called " political " metre. 1 There is little to be said of
it, except that it is rather more poetical than the iambic chronicle
of Ephraim (about 150 years later). It obtained great popu-
larity and appeared in a free prose translation ; it was also trans-
lated into Slavonic. The poetical romance of the Loves of
Aristander and Callilhea, also in " political " verse, is only known
from the fragments preserved in the *Po5wvia (rose-garden) of
Macarius Chrysocephalus (i4th century). Manasses also wrote
a short biography of Oppian, and some descriptive pieces (all
except one unpublished) on artistic and other subjects.
EDITIONS. Chronicle in Bonn, Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., 1st
ed. Bekker (1837) and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxxvii. ; Arist-
ander and Callilhea in R. Hercher s Scriptores erotici graeci, ii. (1859) ;
" Life of Oppian " in A. Westermann, Vitarum scriptores graeci
minores (1845). A long didactic poem in " political " verse (edited
by E. Miller in Annuaire de I'assoc. pour I' encouragement des Etudes
trecques en France, ix. 1875) is attributed to Manasses or one of
his imitators. See also F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien (1876);
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
MANASSES, PRAYER OF, an apocryphal book of the Old
Testament. This writing, which since the Council of Trent
has been relegated by the Church of Rome to the position
of an appendix to the Vulgate, was placed by Luther and the
translators of the English Bible among the apocryphal books.
In some MSS. of the Septuagint it is the eighth among the
canticles appended to the Psalter, though in many Greek
psalters, which include the canticles, it is not found at all. In
Swete's Old Testament in Greek, iii. 802 sqq., A is printed with
the variants of T (Psalterium turicense)? From the statements
in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13, 18, 19, it follows that the Old Testament
chronicler found a prayer attributed to Manasseh in his Hebrew
sources, The History of the Kings of Israel and The History of the
Seers. Naturally the question arose, had the. existing Prayer of
Manasses any direct connexion with the prayer referred to by the
chronicler? Ewald was of opinion that the Greek was an
actual translation of the lost Hebrew; but Ball more wisely takes
it as a free rendering of a lost Haggadic narrative founded on the
older document from which the chronicler drew his information.
This view he supports by showing that there was once a con-
siderable literature in circulation regarding Manasseh 's later
history. On the other hand most scholars take the Prayer to
have been written in Greek, e.g. Fritzsche, Schiirer and Ryssel
(Kautzsch, Apok. u. Pseud, i. 165-168).
" Political " verse or metre is the name given to a kind of verse
found as early as the 6th century in proverbs, and characteristic
of Byzantine and modern Greek poetry. It takes no account of the
quantity of syllables; the scansion depends on accent, and there is
always an accent on the last syllable but one. It is specially used
of an iambic verse with fifteen syllables, i.e. seven feet and an un-
accented syllable over. Byron compares (" A captain bold of
Halifax^ who lived in country quarters." Such facile metres are
called "political," in the sense of "commonplace," "of the city."
'f. Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed. Bury, 1898), vi. 108; Du Cange,
Gloss, med. el infin. lot. (vi. 395), who has an interesting quotation
from Leo Allatius. Leo explains " political " as implying that the
verses are " scorta et meretrices, quod omnibus sunt obsequiosae et
peculiares, et servitutem publican serviunt."
1 Nestle (Septuaginta Studien III.) contends that the text of A
and T is derived from the Aposl. Const, ii. 22, or from its original,
and not from a MS. of the Septuagint.
This fine penitential prayer seems to have been modelled after
the penitential psalms. It exhibits considerable unity of thought,
and the style is, in the main, dignified and simple.
As regards the date, Fritzsche, Ball and Ryssel agree in
assigning this psalm to the Maccabean period. Its eschatology
and doctrine of " divine forgiveness " may point to an earlier
date.
The best short account of the book is given by Ball (Speaker's
Apocrypha, ii. 361-371); see also Porter in Hastings's Diet. Bible,
iii. 232-233. (R. H. C.)
MANATI (often anglicized as "manatee"), the name, adapted
from the Carib manaltoui, given by the Spanish colonists of the
West Indies to the American representative of a small group of
herbivorous aquatic mammals, constituting, with their allies
the dugong and the now extinct Rhytina, the order Sirenia.
The name, though possibly of Mandingo origin (see MANDINGO),
was latinized as manalus, furnished with hands, thus referring
the etymology to the somewhat hand-like form, or hand-like use,
of the fore-flippers, which alone serve these creatures for limbs.
Manatis, as shown in the illustration in the article SIRENIA, are
somewhat whale-like in shape, having a similar horizontally
expanded tail-fin; but here the resemblance to the Cetacea ceases,
the whole organization of these animals being constructed on
entirely different lines. The American manati, Afanatus (or,
as some would have it, Trichechus latirostris) , inhabits the rivers
of Florida, Mexico, Central America and the West Indies, and
(From Murie.)
Front view of head of American Manati, showing the eyes, nostrils,
and mouth. A, with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated ; B, with
the lip contracted.
measures from 9 to 13 feet in length. The body is somewhat fish-
like, but depressed and ending posteriorly in a broad, flat, shovel-
like horizontal tail, with rounded edges. The head is of moderate
size, oblong, with a blunt, truncated muzzle, and divided from
the body by a slight constriction or neck. The fore limbs are
flattened oval paddles, placed rather low on the sides of the body,
and showing externally no signs of division into fingers, but with
three diminutive flat nails near their extremities. No traces of
hind limbs are discernible either externally or internally; and
there is no dorsal fin. The mouth is peculiar, the tumid upper
lip being cleft in the middle line into two lobes, each of which is
separately movable. The nostrils are two semilunar valve-like
slits at the apex of the muzzle. The eyes are very minute, placed
at the sides of the head, and with a nearly circular aperture with
wrinkled margins; and external ears are wanting. The skin
generally is of a dark greyish colour, not smooth or glistening
like that of whale or dolphin, but finely wrinkled. At a little
distance it appears naked, but close inspection, at all events
in young animals, shows a scanty covering of delicate hairs,
and both upper and under lips are supplied with short, stiff
bristles.
Manatis have a number as many as 20 pairs in each jaw of
two-ridged teeth, of which, however, but comparatively few are
in use at once. They lack the large tusks of the male dugong,
and the fore part of the skull is not so much bent down as in that
animal. In life the palate has a horny plate, with a similar one
in the lower jaw. The skeleton is described under SIRENIA.
Manatis pass their life in the water, inhabiting bays, lagoons,
estuaries and large rivers, but the open sea is unsuited to their
peculiar mode of life. As a rule they prefer shallow water, in
which, when not feeding, they lie near the bottom. In deeper
water they often float, with the body much arched, the rounded
542
MANBHUM MANCHE
back close to the surface, and the head, limbs and tail hanging
downwards. The air in the lungs assists them to maintain this
position. Their food consists exclusively of aquatic plants, on
which they feed beneath the water. They are slow in their
movements, and perfectly harmless, but are subject to persecu-
tion for the sake of their oil, skin and flesh. Frequent attempts
have been made to keep specimens alive in captivity, and some-
times with considerable success, one having lived in the Brighton
Aquarium for upwards of sixteen months. From such captive
specimens certain observations on the mode of life of these
animals have been made. We learn, for instance, that from the
shoulder-joint the flippers can be moved in all directions, and the
elbow and wrist permit of free extension and flexion. In feeding,
manatis push the food towards their mouths by means of one of
the hands, or both used simultaneously, and any one who has
seen these members thus employed can believe the stories of their
carrying their young under their arms. Still more interesting
is the action of the peculiar lateral pads formed by the divided
upper lip, thus described by Professor A. Garrpd: " These pads
have the power of transversely approaching towards and receding
from one another simultaneously (see fig.). When the animal
is on the point of seizing (say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are
diverged transversely in such a way as to make a median gap
of considerable breadth. Directly the leaf is within grasp the
lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is firmly seized between their
contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inwards by a back-
ward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole." The
animal is thus enabled by the unaided means of the upper lip
to introduce food placed before it without the assistance of the
comparatively insignificant lower lip, the action recalling that of
the mouth of the silkworm and other caterpillars in which the
mandibles diverge and converge laterally during mastication.
All trustworthy observations indicate that the manati has not
the power of voluntarily leaving the water. None of the speci-
mens in confinement has been observed to emit any sound.
The Amazonian manati (M. inunguis) is a much smaller
species, not exceeding 7 or 8 ft. in length, and without nails to
the flippers. It ascends most of the tributaries of the Amazon
until stopped by rapids. From a specimen which lived a short
time in London it appears that the lip-pads are less developed
than in the northern species. The third species is the West
African M . senegalensis, which extends a distance of about ten
degrees south and sixteen north of the equator, and ranges into
the heart of the continent as far as Lake Tchad. From 8 to 10 ft.
appears to be the normal length; the weight of a specimen was
500 Ib. The colour is bluish black, with a tinge of olive-green
above and yellow below. (R. L.*)
MANBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur
division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at
Purulia. Area, 4147 sq. m.; pop. (IQOI), 1,301,364, showing
an increase of 9-1% since 1891. Manbhum district forms the
first step of a gradual descent from the table-land of Chota
Nagpur to the delta of lower Bengal. In the northern and
eastern portions the country is open, and consists of a series of
rolling downs dotted here and there with isolated conical hills.
In the western and southern tracts the country is more broken
and the scenery much more picturesque. The principal hills
are Dalma (3407 ft.), the crowning peak of a range of the same
name; Gangabari or Gajboro (2220 -ft.), the highest peak of the
Baghmundi range, about 20 m. south-west of Purulia; and
Panchkot or Panchet (1600 ft.), on which stands the old fort
of the rajas of Panchet. The hills are covered with dense
jungle. The chief river is the Kasai, which flows through the
district from north-west to south-east into Midnapore, and on
which a considerable floating trade in sal timber is carried on.
The most numerous aboriginal tribe are the Sontals; but the
Bhumij Kols are the characteristic race. In Manbhum they
inhabit the country lying on both sides of the Subanrekha.
They are pure Mundas, but their compatriots to the east have
dropped the title of Munda and the use of their distinctive
language, have adopted Hindu customs, and are fast becoming
Hindus in religion. The Bhumij Kols of the Jungle Mahals
were once the terror of the surrounding districts; they are now
more peaceful.
Three principal crops of rice are grown, one sown broadcast early
in May on table-lands and the tops of ridges, an autumn crop, and
a winter crop, the last forming the chief harvest of the district.
Other crops are wheat, barley, Indian corn, pulses, oilseeds, linseeds,
jute, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo, pan and tobacco. Owing to the
completeness of the natural drainage, floods are unknown, but the
country is liable to droughts caused by deficient rainfall. The
principal articles of export are oilseeds, pulses, ghi, lac, indigo, tussur
silk (manufactured near Raghunathpur), timber, resin, coal, and (in
good seasons) rice. The chief imports are salt, piece goods, brass
utensils and unwrought iron. Cotton hand-loom weaving is carried
on all over the district. Manbhum contains the Jherria coalfield, in
the Damodar valley, where a large number of mines have been opened
since 1894. The United Free Church of Scotland has a mission
at Pakheria, with a printing press that issues a monthly journal
in Sonthali; and a German Lutheran mission has been established
since 1 864. The district is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway,
while two branches of the East Indian railway serve the coalfield.
MANCHA, LA (Arabic, Al Mansha, " the dry land " or " wilder-
ness "), a name which when employed in its widest sense denotes
the bare and monotonous elevated plateau of central Spain that
stretches between the mountains of Toledo and the western
spurs of the hills of Cuenca, being bounded on the S. by the
Sierra Morena and on the N. by the Alcarria region. It thus
comprises portions of the modern provinces of Toledo, Albacete
and Cuenca, and the greater part of Ciudad Real. Down to the
1 6th century the eastern portion was known as La Mancha de
Montearagon or de Aragon, and the western simply as La
Mancha; afterwards the north-eastern and south-western sections
respectively were distinguished by the epithets Alta and Baja
(upper and lower). La Mancha is famous as the scene of Cer-
vantes' novel Don Quixote; in appearance, with its multitude of
windmills and vast tracts of arid land, it remains almost exactly
as Cervantes described it. Many villages, such as El Toboso
and Argamasilla de Alba, both near Alcazar de San Juan, are
connected by tradition with episodes in Don Quixote.
MANCHE, a department of north-western France, made up
chiefly of the Cotentin and the Avranchin districts of Normandy,
and bounded W., N. and N.E. by the English Channel (Fr.
La Manche), from which it derives its name, E. by the depart-
ment of Calvados, S.E. by Orne, S. by Mayenne and Ille-et-
Vilaine. Pop. (1906), 487,443. Area, 2475 sq. m.
The department is traversed from south to north by a range
of hills, in many parts picturesque, and connected in the south
with those of Maine and Brittany. In the country round Mortain,
which has been called the Switzerland of Normandy, they rise
to a height of 1 200 ft. The coast-line, running northward along
the bay of the Seine from the rocks of Grand Camp to Cape
Barfleur, thence westward to Cape la Hague, and finally south-
ward to the Bay of Mont St Michel, has a length of 200 miles.
The Vire and the Taute (which near the small port of Carentan
receives the Ouve as a tributary on the left) fall into the sea at the
Calvados border, and are united by a canal some miles above their
mouths. From the mouth of the Taute a low beach runs to the
port of St Vaast-la-Hougue, where the coast becomes rocky, with
sandbanks. Off St Vaast lies the fortified island of Tatihow,
with the laboratory of marine zoology of the Natural History
Museum of Paris. Between Cape Barfleur and Cape la Hague
ie the roads of Cherbourg, protected by the famous breakwater.
The whole western coast is inhospitable; its small havens, lying
3ehind formidable barriers and reefs, are almost dry at low tide.
Great cliffs, such as the points of Jobourg (420 ft. high) and
Flamanville, alternate with long strands, such as that which
extends for 30 m. from Cape Carteret to Granville. Between
this coast and the Channel Islands the tide, pent up between
numerous sandbanks, flows with a terrific force that has given
these passages such ill-omened names as Passage de la Dtroute
and the like. The only important harbours are Granville and
the haven of refuge of Dielette between Granville and Cherbourg,
'arteret carries on a passenger traffic with the Channel Islands.
The chief stream is the Sienne, with its tributary the Soulle
lowing by Coutances. South of Granville the samds of St Pair
are the commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel,
MANCHESTER, EARLS OF
543
whose area of 60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible
tide of the year 709. The equinoctial tides reach a vertical
height of nearly 50 ft. In the bay the picturesque walls of the
abbey rise from the summit of a rock 400 ft. high. The S6e,
which waters Avranches, and the Couesnon (separating Manche
from Ille-et-Vilaine) disembogue in the bay.
The climate of Manche is mild and humid, from its propinquity
to the sea. Frosts are never severe ; myrtles and fuchsias flourish
in the open air. Excessive heat is also unusual; the predominant
winds are south-west.
The characteristic industry of the department is the rearing
of horses and cattle, carried on especially in the rich meadow of
the eastern Cotentin; sheep are raised in the western arron-
dissement of Coutances. Wheat, buckwheat, barley and oats
are the chief cereals cultivated. Manche is one of 'the foremost
departments for the production of cider-apples and pears; plums
and figs are also largely grown. Butter is an important source
of profit, as also are poultry and eggs. Flourishing market-
gardens are found in the west. The department contains
valuable granite quarries in the Cherbourg arrondissement and
the Chauscy islands; building and other stone is quarried.
Villedieu manufactures copper-ware and Sourdeval iron and
other metal-ware; and there are wool-spinning mills, paper- works
and leather-works, but the department as a whole is industrially
unimportant. There are oyster-beds on the coast (St Vaast, &c.),
and the maritime population, besides fishing for herring, mackerel,
lobsters or sole, collect seaweed for agricultural use. Coutances
is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Rouen. The depart-
ment forms part of the region of the X. army corps and of the
circumscriptions of the academic (educational division) and
appeal-court of Caen. Cherbourg (q.v.), with its important port,
arsenal and shipbuilding yards, is the chief centre of population.
St L6 (q.v.) is the capital; there are six arrondissements (St L6,
Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain, Valognes), with 48
cantons and 647 communes. Avranches, Mortain, Coutances,
Granville and Mont Saint Michel receive separate treatment.
At Lessay and St Sauveur-le-Vicomte there are the remains of
ancient Benedictine abbeys, and Torigni-sur-Vire and Tourlaville
(close to Cherbourg) have interesting chateaux of the i6th century.
Valognes, which in the I7th and i8th centuries posed as a
provincial centre of culture, has a church (isth, i6th and I7th
centuries) remarkable for its dome, the only one of Gothic archi-
tecture in France.
MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Manchester
title, in the English peerage, belongs to a branch of the family of
Montagu (q.v.). The first earl was SIR HENRY MONTAGU (c.
1563-1642), grandson of Sir Edward Montagu, chief justice of the
king's bench 1530-1545, who was named by King Henry VIII.
one of the executors of his will, and governor to his son, Edward
VI. Sir Henry Montagu, who was born at Boughton, North-
amptonshire, about 1563, was educated at Christ's College,
Cambridge,and, having been called to the bar, was elected recorder
of London in 1603, and in 1616 was made chief justice of the
king's bench, in which office it fell to him to pass sentence on
Sir Walter Raleigh in October 1618. In 1620 he was appointed
lord high treasurer, being raised to the peerage as Baron Montagu
of Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, and Viscount Mandeville. He
became president of the council in 1621, in which office he was
continued by Charles I., who created him earl of Manchester 1 in
1626. In 1628 he became lord privy seal, and in 1635 a com-
missioner of the treasury. Although from the beginning of his
public life in 1601, when he first entered parliament, Manchester
had inclined to the popular side in politics, he managed to retain
to the end the favour of the king. He was a judge of the Star
Chamber, and one of the most trusted councillors of Charles I.
His loyalty, ability and honesty were warmly praised by Claren-
don. In conjunction with Coventry, the lord keeper, he pro-
nounced an opinion in favour of the legality of ship-money in
1634. He died on the 7th of November 1642. Manchester was
1 The title was derived, not from Manchester in Lancashire, but
from Manchester (or Godmanchester) in Huntingdonshire, where
the Montagu family estates were.
married three times. One of his sons by his third wife was father
of Charles Montagu, created earl of Halifax in 1699.
EDWARD MONTAGU, 2nd earl of Manchester (1602-1671), eldest
son of the ist earl by his first wife, Catherine Spencer, grand-
daughter of Sir John Spencer of Althorpe, was born in 1602, and
was educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. He was
member of parliament for Huntingdonshire 1623-1626, and in
the latter year was raised to the peerage in his father's lifetime as
Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, but was known generally by his
courtesy title of Viscount Mandeville. His first wife, who was
related to the duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two
years of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne, daughter
of the 2nd earl of Warwick. The influence of his father-in-law,
who was afterwards admiral on the side of the parliament, drew
Mandeville to the popular side in the questions in dispute with
the crown, and at the beginning of the Long Parliament he was
one of the recognized leaders of the popular party in the upper
House, his name being joined with those of the five members of
the House of Commons impeached by the king in 1642. At the
outbreak of the Civil War, having succeeded his father in the
earldom in November 1642, Manchester commanded a regiment
in the army of the earl of Essex, and in August 1643 he was
appointed major-general of the parliamentary forces in the eastern
counties, with Cromwell as his second in command. Having
become a member of the " committee of both kingdoms " in
1644, he was in supreme command at Marston Moor (July i,
1644) ; but in the subsequent operations his lack of energy brought
him into disagreement with Cromwell, and in November 1644 he
strongly expressed his disapproval of continuing the war (see
CROMWELL, OLIVER) . Cromwell brought the shortcomings of
Manchester before parliament in the autumn of 1644; and early
in the following year, anticipating the self-denying ordinance,
Manchester resigned his command. He took a leading part in the
frequent negotiations for an arrangement with Charles, was cus-
todian with Lenthall of the great seal 1646-1648, and frequently
presided in the House of Lords. He opposed the trial of the king,
and retired from public life during the Commonwealth ; but after
the Restoration, which he actively assisted, he was loaded with
honours by Charles II. In i667hewasmadeageneral,andhedied
on the 5th of May 1671. Manchester was madea K.G. in 1661,
and became F.R.S. in 1667. Men of such divergent sympathies
as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed in describing Manchester
as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace and moderation
both in politics and religion. He was five times married, leaving
children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by his
eldest son, Robert, 3rd earl of Manchester (1634-1683).
See Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in
England (7 yols., Oxford, 1839) and Life of Clarendon (Oxford, 1827) ;
S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1640. (4 vols.,
London, 1886-1891) ; The Quarrel between Manchester and Cromwell,
CamdenSoc., N.S. 12 (London, 1875); Sir Philip Warwick, Memoirs
of the Reign of Charles I. (London, 1701).
CHARLES MONTAGU, ist duke of Manchester (c. 1656-1722),
son of Robert, 3rd earl of Manchester, was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and succeeded to his father's earldom in 1683.
Warmly sympathizing with the Whig revolution of 1688, he
attended William and Mary at their coronation, fought under
William at the Boyne, became a privy councillor in 1698, and
held various important diplomatic posts between that date and
1714, when he received an appointment in the household of
George I., by whom on the 28th of April 1719 he was created
duke of Manchester. He died on the 2oth of January 1722, and
was succeeded successively in the dukedom by his two sons,
William 2nd duke of Manchester (1700-1739), and Robert prd
duke (c. 1710-1762), who was vice-chamberlain to Queen Caroline,
wife of George II.
GEORGE MONTAGU, 4th duke of Manchester (1737-1788). was
the son of Robert, the 3rd duke. He was a supporter of Lord
Rockingham, and an active opponent in the House of Lords of
Lord North's American policy. In the Rockingham ministry
of 1782 Manchester became lord chamberlain. He died in
September 1 788.
544
MANCHESTER
WILLIAM MONTAGU, sth duke of Manchester (1768-1843),
second son of the preceding, was educated at Harrow, and having
become a colonel in the army in 1794, was appointed governor
of Jamaica in 1808. Here he remained, except for a visit to
England (1811-1813) till 1827, administering the colony with
ability in a period of considerable difficulty, and doing much to
prepare the way for emancipation of the slaves. From 1827 to
1830 he was postmaster-general in the cabinet of the duke of
Wellington, and died in Rome on the i8th of March 1843. His
wife was Susan , daughter of the 4th duke of Gordon. He was suc-
ceeded by his son George, 6th duke (1790-1855), a captain in the
navy; whose son William Drogo, 7th duke (1823-1890), married
Louise, daughter of the Comte d' Alien of Hanover, who after
his death married Spencer Cavendish, Sth duke of Devonshire.
William was succeeded by his son George Victor Drogo, Sth duke
of Manchester (1853-1892), on whose death the title devolved
on his son, William Angus Drogo, 9th duke of Manchester
(b.i8 77 ). (R.J.M.)
MANCHESTER, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., about 9 m. E. of Hartford. Pop.(i89o), 8222; (1900),
10,601, of whom 3771 were foreign-born ; (1910 census)
13,641. Manchester is served by the New York, New Haven
& Hartford railway and by electric line connecting with
Hartford, RockviDe and Stafford Springs. The township
covers an area of about 28 sq. m., and includes the villages of
Manchester, South Manchester, Buckland, Manchester Green
and Highland Park. The Hockanum River provides a good
water power, and Manchester has various manufactures. At
South Manchester, an attractive industrial village, a silk mill was
"built in 1838; the silk mills of one firm (Cheney Brothers) here
cover about 12 acres; the company has done much for its em-
ployees, whose homes are almost all detached cottages in attrac-
tive grounds. Manchester was originally a part of the township
of Hartford, and later a part of the township of East Hartford.
The first settlement within its present limits was made about
1672; the land was bought from the Indians in 1676; and the
township was separated from East Hartford and incorporated in
1823.
See also Meakin's Model Factories and Villages (1905).
MANCHESTER, a city and county of a city, municipal,
county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England,
189 m. N.W. by N. of London, and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool.
It stands for the most part on a level plain, the rising ground
being chiefly on the north side. The rivers are the Irwell, the
Medlock, the Irk, and the Tib, the last entirely overarched
and covered by streets and warehouses. The Irwell, which
separates Manchester from Salford, is crossed by a series of
bridges and discharges itself into the Mersey, which is about
10 m. distant. The chief part of the district, before it was
covered with the superficial drift of sand, gravel and clay,
consisted of upper New Red Sandstone with slight portions
of lower New Red Sandstone, magnesian marls and upper
red marls, hard sandstone and limestone rock, and cold clays
and shales of contiguous coal-fields. The city, as its thousands
of brick-built houses show, has been for the most part dug
out of its own clay-fields. The parliamentary and municipal
boroughs of Manchester are not conterminous. The city
boundaries, which in 1841 enclosed 4293 acres, have been
successively enlarged and now enclose 19,914 acres.
There are four large stations for the Lancashire & Yorkshire,
London & North-Western, the Midland, Cheshire lines, Great
Northern, and Great Central railways, and many subsidiary
stations for local traffic. Tramways, as well as railways,
run from Manchester to Oldham, Ashton, Eccles, Stockport,
&c., with which places the city is connected by continuous
lines of street. The length of the streets in the city of Man-
chester is 758 m. (exclusive of those in the district of Withing-
ton, which joined the city in 1905). The tramway lines within
the city boundaries extend to in m., and in addition there
are 58 m. leased to the corporation by adjacent local authorities.
As a matter of fact, the whole of south-east Lancashire
'and some portions of Cheshire are linked to Manchester by
railways and tramways so as to form one great urban area,
and the traveller passes from one town to another by lines of
street which, for the most part, are continuous. Facility of
communication is essential to the commercial prosperity of
Manchester, and its need was recognized by the duke of Bridge-
water, whose canal, constructed in 1761, has now been absorbed
by the Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.). The making of this
early waterway was an event only less important than the
opening of the Manchester & Liverpool railway in 1830.
The township of Manchester, which forms the nucleus of the
city, is comparatively small, and outlying hamlets having
been added, its size has increased without regularity of plan.
Roughly speaking, the city forms a square, with Market Street
as its central thoroughfare. The tendency of recent develop-
ment is to reduce the irregularities so that the other main
streets may either run parallel to or intersect Market Street.
Deansgate, which formerly ended in a narrow tangle of
buildings, is now a broad road with many handsome buildings,
and the same process of widening, enlarging and rebuilding
is going on, more or less, all over Manchester. Market Street,
which has not been widened since 1820, has been termed, and
with some reason, " the most congested street in Europe ";
.but relief is anticipated from some of the other street improve-
ments. The centre of the city is occupied by business premises;
the factories and workshops are mainly on the eastern side.
The most important of the public buildings are in the centre
and the south. The latter is also the most favoured residential
district, and at its extremity is semi-rural in character. Large
masses of the population live beyond the city boundary and
come to their daily avocations by train and tram. Such a
population is rarely homogeneous and Manchester attracts
citizens from every part of the globe; there are considerable
numbers of German, Armenian and Jewish residents. The
houses are for the most part of brick, the public buildings
of stone, which is speedily blackened by the smoky atmosphere.
Many of the warehouses are of considerable architectural merit,
and in recent years the use of terra-cotta has become more
common. It is only in the suburbs that gardens are possible;
the air is laden with black dust, and the rivers, in spite of all
efforts, are in the central part of the city mere dirty ditches.
It is impossible to describe Manchester in general terms, for
within the city boundaries the conditions vary from the most
squalid of slums to suburban and almost rural beauty.
Churches. Manchester is the seat of an Anglican bishopric,
and the chief ecclesiastical building is the cathedral, which,
however, was built simply as a parish church, and, although a
fine specimen of the Perpendicular period, is by no means
what might be expected as the cathedral of an important and
wealthy diocese. In the course of restoration a piece of Saxon
sculpture came to light. This " Angel stone " represents
a winged figure with a scroll inscribed In manus tuas Domine
in characters of the Sth century. The bulk of the building
belongs to the early part of the i sth century. The first warden
was John Huntington, rector of Ashton, who built the choir.
The building, which was noticed for its hard stone by Leland
when he visited the town, did not stand time and weather well,
and by 1.845 some portions of it were rapidly decaying. This
led to its restoration by James P. Holden. By 1868 the tower
was almost completely renovated in a more durable stone.
Further restoration was carried out by J. S. Crowther, and
the addition of a porch and vestries was executed by Basil
Champneys. The total length is 220 ft. and the breadth 112 ft.
There are several stained-glass windows, including one to the
memory of " Chinese Gordon." The recumbent statues of
Bishop James Fraser and of Hugh Birley, M.P., should also
be named. In the Ely chapel is the altar tomb of Bishop
James Stanley. In the stalls there are some curious miserere
carvings. The tower is 139 ft. high, and contains a peal of
ten bells, chiefly from the foundry of the Rudhalls. There
are two organs, one by Father Smith, and a modern one in an
oak case designed by Sir G. Scott. The parish church was
made collegiate in 1422, and when in 1847 the bishopric of
MANCHESTER
545
Manchester was created the warden and fellows became dean
and canons and the parish church became the cathedral. The
first bishop was James Prince Lee, who died in 1869; the second
was James Fraser, who died in 1885; the third was James
Moorhouse, who resigned in 1903 and was succeeded by Edmund
Arbuthnott Knox. The church endowments are considerable
and have been the subject of a special act of parliament, known
as the Manchester Rectory Division Act of 1845, which provides
1500 per annum for the dean and 600 to each of the four
canons, and divides the residue among the incumbents of the
new churches formed out of the old parish.
gallery. The art gallery already existing in 1909 was founded as
the Royal Institution, but in 1882 passed under the control of
the city council. The building was designed by Sir Charles
Barry. The collection contains some fine paintings by Etty,
Millais, Leighton and other artists. The sculpture includes
casts of the Elgin marbles and a statue of Dr John Dalton
by Chantrey. The most striking of the public buildings is
the town hall, probably the largest municipal building in the
country, but no longer entirely adequate to the increasing
business of the city council. It was completed in 1877 from
designs by Alfred Waterhouse, who selected as the style of
^MS^^it^fJfs^in^!
MANCHESTER
and Environs
Of the Roman Catholic churches that of the Holy Name,
which belongs to the Jesuits, is remarkable for its costly decora-
tion. The Greek Church and most of the Nonconformist
bodies have places of worship. There are twelve Jewish
synagogues. The meeting-house of the Society of Friends
is said to be the largest of the kind in the kingdom and will
seat 1 200 persons.
Public Buildings. The Royal Infirmary, founded in 1752,
having become inadequate for its purposes, a new building has
been erected on the south side of the city near the university,
from designs by Edwin T. Hall and John Brooke; it was opened
in 1909 by king Edward VII. The central site in Piccadilly thus
became available for other purposes, and the corporation gave
instructions for plans to be made for a new library and art
xvn. 1 8
Emery Walker *c
architecture a form of Gothic, but treated it very freely as
purposes of utility required. The edifice covers 8000 sq. yds.,
and includes more than two hundred and fifty rooms. The
building consists of continuous lines of corridors surrounding a
central courtyard and connected by bridges. The principal
tower is 286 ft. high to the top of the ball, and affords a view
which extends over a large part of south Lancashire and Cheshire
and is bounded only by the hills of Derbyshire. The tower
contains a remarkable peal of bells by Taylor of Loughborough,
forming an almost perfect chromatic scale of twenty-one bells;
each bell has on it a line from canto 105 of Tennyson's In
Memoriam. The great hall is 100 ft. long and 50 ft. wide,
and contains a magnificent organ built by Cavaill6-Coll of
Paris. The twelve panels of this room are filled with paintings
5
54-6
MANCHESTER
by Ford Madox Brown, illustrating the history and progress
of the city. The royal exchange is a fine specimen of Italian
architecture and was erected in 1869; the great meeting-hall
is one of the largest rooms in England, the ceiling having a
clear area, without supports, of 120 ft. in width. The exchange
is seen at its best on market days (Tuesday and Friday). The
assize courts were built in 1864 from designs by Waterhouse.
The style is a mixture of Early English and Decorative, and
a large amount of decorative art has been expended on the
building. The branch Bank of England is a Doric building
designed by C. R. Cockerell. There are separate town-halls
for the townships of Ardwick, Chorlton, Hulme, Cheetham,
Broughton and Pendleton. The Free Trade hall is a fine
structure in the Lombardo- Venetian style, and its great hall
will accommodate about five thousand people. It is used
for public meetings, concerts, &c., and was built by Edward
Walters. The Athenaeum, designed by Barry, was founded
by Richard Cobden and others associated with him for " the
advancement and diffusion of knowledge." The institution
has, perhaps, not developed exactly on the lines contemplated
by its promoters, but it has been very useful. The advantages
enjoyed by members of social clubs, with the addition of facili-
ties for educational classes and the use of an excellent news-
room and a well-selected library, are offered in return for a
payment which does not amount to a penny a day. The
mechanics' institution has developed into the school of Tech-
nology, which now forms a part of the university. The Portico
is a good specimen of the older proprietary libraries and news-
rooms. It dates from 1806, and has a library. The Memorial
Hall was built to commemorate the memory of the ejected
ministers of 1662; it is used for meetings, scientific, educational,
musical and religious. The Whitworth Institute is" governed
by a corporate body originating from the liberal bequests
of Sir Joseph Whitworth. The Institute contains a valuable
collection of works of art and stands in the centre of a wood-
land park. In the park, which has been transferred to the
corporation, is a sculpture group of " Christ and the Children,"
executed by George Tinworth from the designs of R. D. Darbi-
shire, by whom it was presented. The assize courts, built
from designs by Waterhouse (1864), the post office (1887),
and the police courts (1871) should also be named. Many
fine structures suffer from being hemmed in by streets which
prevent the proportions from being seen to advantage.
Monuments. In Piccadilly are bronze statues of Wellington,
Watt, Dalton, Peel and Queen Victoria. Another statue
of the Queen, by the Princess Louise, is placed on the new porch
of the cathedral. A bronze statue of Cobden occupies a prom-
inent position in St Ann's Square. There also is the South
African War Memorial of the Manchester Regiment. The
marble statue of the Prince Consort, covered by a Gothic canopy
of stone, is in front of the town hall, which dwarfs what would
otherwise be a striking monument. In Albert Square there
are also statues of Bishop Fraser, John Bright, Oliver Heywood
and W. E. Gladstone. A statue of J. P. Joule is in the town
hall, which also contains memorials of other worthies. The
Queen's Park has a statue of Benjamin Brierley, a well-known
writer in the Lancashire dialect. The most picturesque is
Matthew Noble's bronze statue of Cromwell, placed on a huge
block of rough granite as pedestal. It stands at the junction
of Deansgate and Victoria Street, near the cathedral, and was
presented to the town by Mrs E. S. Heywood.
Education. There are many educational facilities. The
oldest institution is the grammar school, which was founded
in 1519 by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter, a native of the
town. The master and usher appointed by the bishop were
to teach freely every child and scholar coming to the school,
" without any money or reward taken "; and the bishop forbade
the appointment of any member of the religious orders as
head master. Some corn mills were devised for the main-
tenance of the school, which was further endowed at both the
universities by Sarah, duchess of Somerset, in 1692. The
school has now two hundred and fifty free scholars, whilst
other pupils are received on payment of fees. Among those
educated at the grammar school were Thomas De Quincey,
Harrison Ainsworth and Samuel Bamford the Radical. After
the grammar school the oldest educational foundation is that
of Humphrey Chetham, whose bluecoat school, founded in
1653, is housed in the building formerly occupied by the college
of clergy. This also contains the public library founded by
Chetham, and is the most interesting relic of antiquity in the
city. The educational charity of William Hulme (1631-1691)
is administered under a scheme drawn up in 1881. Its income
is nearly 10,000 a year, and it supports a grammar school
and aids education in other ways. There are three high schools
for girls. The Nicholls hospital was founded in 1881 for the
education of orphan boys. Manchester was one of the first
places to adopt the powers given by Forster's Act of 1870,
and on the abolition of school boards the educational super-
vision was transferred to a committee of the corporation strength-
ened by co-opted members. In addition to the elementary
schools, the municipality provides a large and well-equipped
school of technology, and a school of art to which is attached
an arts and crafts museum. There are a pupil teachers' college,
a school of domestic economy, special schools for feeble-minded
children, and a Royal College of Music. The schools for the
deaf and dumb are situated at Old Trafford, in a contiguous
building of the same Gothic design as the blind asylum, to
which Thomas Henshaw left a bequest of 20,000. There
is also an adult deaf and dumb institution, containing a
news-room, lecture hall, chapel, &c., for the use of deaf
mutes.
The Victoria University of Manchester has developed from
the college founded by John Owens, who in 1846 bequeathed
nearly 100,000 to trustees for an institution in which should
be taught " such branches of learning and science as were
then or might be hereafter usually taught in English univer-
sities." It was opened in 1851 in a house which had formerly
been the residence of Cobden. In 1872 a new college building
was erected on the south side of the town from designs by
Waterhouse. In 1880 a university charter was granted, exclu-
ding the faculties of theology and medicine, and providing for
the incorporation of University College, Liverpool, and the
College of Science, Leeds. The federal institution thus creati
lasted until 1903, when the desire of Liverpool for a separa
university of its own led to a reconstruction. Manchest
University consists of one college Owens College in i
greatly enlarged form. The buildings include the Whitwort
Hall (the gift of the legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth), th
Manchester Museum and the Christie Library, which is
building for the university library given by R. C. Christie,
who also bequeathed his own collection. Dr Lee, the first
bishop of Manchester, left his library to Owens College, an<
the legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth bought and presentei
E. A. Freeman's books. The library has received other import-
ant special collections. The benefactions to the university
of Thomas Ashton are estimated at 80,000. There are in
Manchester a number of denominational colleges, Wesleyan,
Primitive Methodist, Unitarian, Baptist, &c., and many of
the students preparing for the ministry receive their arts training
at the university, the theological degrees of which are open
to students irrespective of creed.
Libraries, Mtiseums and Societies. Manchester is well provided
with libraries. The Chetham library, already named, contains some
rare manuscripts, the gem of the collection being a copy of the
historical compilation of Matthew Paris, with corrections in the
author's handwriting. There is a large collection of matter relating
to the history and archaeology of Lancashire and Cheshire, including
the transcripts of Lancashire MSS. bequeathed by Canon F. F
Raines. The collections of broadsides formed by Mr J. O. Halliwell-
Phillipps, and the library of John Byrom, rich in mystics and short-
hand writers, should also be named. The Manchester Free Librarie-
were founded by Sir John Potter in 1852. There is now a referenc
library containing about 170,000 volumes, including an extensiv
series of English historical works, a remarkable collection of book
of political economy and trade, and special collections relating *
local history, Dr Thomas Fuller, shorthand and the gipsies.
MANCHESTER
547
Henry Watson Music Library, and the Thomas Greenwood Library
for librarians were presented to the reference library, and the Foreign
Library' was purchased. Affiliated to the reference library there are
nineteen libraries, each of which includes a lending department and
reading rooms. The municipal libraries contain in the aggregate over
366,000 vols. There are also libraries in connexion with the Athen-
aeum, the School of Technology, the Portico, and many other in-
stitutions. The most remarkable of the Manchester libraries is that
founded by Mrs Enriqueta Rylands, and named the John Rylands
Library in memory of her husband. The beautiful building was
designed by Basil Champneys; the library includes the famous
Althorp collection, which was bought from Earl Spencer. Mrs
Rylands died in 1908, and by her will increased the endowment of
the library so that it has an income of 13,000 yearly. She also
bequeathed her own library.
Manchester possesses numerous literary and scientific associations.
The oldest of these, the Literary and Philosophical Society, founded
in 1781, has a high reputation, and has numbered among its work-
ing members John Dalton, Eaton Hodgkinson, William Fairbairn,
LI*. Joule, H. E. Roscoe and many other famous men of science. It
s published a series of memoirs and proceedings. The Manchester
Statistical Society was the first society of the kind established in the
kingdom, and has issued Transactions containing many important
papers. The Field Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Society, the
Microscopical Society, the Botanists' Association, and the Geological
Society may also be named. Manchester is the headquarters of the
Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society and of several printing
clubs, the Chetham, the Record, the Lancashire Parish Registers
societies. Seven daily papers are published, and various weekly
and other periodicals. The journalism of Manchester takes high
rank, the Manchester Guardian (Liberal) being one of the best news-
papers in the country, while the Manchester Courier (Unionist) has an
important local influence. The Manchester Quarterly is issued by
the Manchester Literary Club, which was founded in 1862. The
success of the Art Treasures Exhibition in 1857 was repeated in the
Jubilee Exhibition of 1887. The Manchester Academy of Fine
Arts is a society of artists, and holds an annual exhibition in the city
art gallery.
Parks and Open Spaces. There are fifty-three parks and open
spaces. The Queen's Park, at Harpurhey, is pleasantly situated,
though surrounded by cottages and manufactories. Philips Park
is also attractive, in spite of its close proximity to some of the most
densely populated portions of the town. The Alexandra Park has
very good ornamental grounds and a fine cactus house with a remark-
able collection presented by Charles Darrah. Some of the open
spaces are small ; Boggart Hole Clough, where great efforts have been
made to preserve the natural features, is 76 acres in extent, and was
the largest until 1902, when Heaton Park, containing 692 acres, was
purchased. It was formerly the seat of the earls of Wilton, and
includes Heaton House, one of Wyatt's structures. In the Queen's
Park there is a museum, and periodical exhibitions of works of art
are held. The total area of the city parks is 1146 acres. The
corporation are also responsible for four cemeteries, having a total
area of 228 acres.
Recreation. There are nine theatres, mostly large, and eight
music halls. The Theatre Royal was established as a patent theatre.
\\ hen the bill for it was before the House of Lords in 1775 it was
advocated as an antidote to Methodism. The Bellevue Zoological
Gardens is a favourite holiday place for working people. The
Ancoats Recreation Committee have since 1882 had Sunday lectures,
and occasional exhibitions of pictures, window gardening, &c. The
Ancoats Art Museum was founded to carry out the educational
influences of art and culture generally. In addition to works of
art, there are concerts, lectures, reading circles, &c. The museum
is worked in connexion with a university settlement. The German
element in the population has largely influenced the taste for music
by which Manchester is distinguished, and the orchestral concerts
(notably under Charles Hall6) are famous.
Population. From a census taken in 1773 it appears that
there were then in the township of Manchester and its out-
townships 36,267 persons. The first decennial census, 1801,
showed the population to be 75,275; in 1851 it was 303,382;
in i ooi, 606,824. It is not easy to make an exact comparison
between different periods, because there have been successive
enlargements of the boundaries. The population has over-
flowed into the surrounding districts, and if all that belongs
to the urban area, of which it is the centre, were included,
greater Manchester would probably rival London in the number
of its inhabitants.
Manufactures and Commerce. Manchester is the centre
of the English cotton industry (for details see COTTON and
COTTON MANUFACTURE), but owing to the enhanced value of
land many mills and workshops have been removed to the
outskirts and to neighbouring villages and towns, so that the
centre of Manchester and an ever- widening circle around are
now chiefly devoted not so much to production as to the various
offices of distribution. It would be a mistake, however, to
regard Manchester as solely dependent upon the industries
connected with cotton. There are other important manu-
factures which in another community would be described as
gigantic. Wool and silk are manufactured on a considerable
scale, though the latter industry has for some years been on
the decline. The miscellaneous articles grouped under the
designation of small-wares occupy many hands. Machinery
and tools are made in vast quantities; the chemical industries
of the city are also on a large scale. In short, there are but
few important manufactures that are wholly unrepresented.
The proximity of Manchester to the rich coal-fields of Lan-
cashire has had a marked influence upon its prosperity; but
for this, indeed, the rapid expansion of its industries would
have been impossible.
The Manchester Bankers' Clearing House returns show an
almost unbroken yearly increase. The amount in 1872 was
72,805,510; in 1907 it was 320,296,332; by the severe de-
pression of 1908 it was reduced to 288,555,307. Another
test of prosperity is the increase in rateable value. In 1839
it was 669,994; in 1871, 1,703,627; in 1881, 2,301,225; in
1891, 2,798,005; in 1901, 3,394,879; in 1907, 4,191,039; in
1909, 4,234,129-
The commercial institutions of Manchester are too numerous
for detailed description; its chamber of commerce has for more
than sixty years exercised much influence on the trade of the
district and of the nation. Manchester is the headquarters
of the Co-operative Wholesale Societv, and indeed of the co-
operative movement generally.
The most important event in the modern history of the
district is the creation of the Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.),
by which Manchester and Salford have a direct communi-
cation with the sea at Eastham, near Liverpool. The canal
was opened for traffic in January 1894. The official opening cere-
mony was on the 2ist of May 1894, when Queen Victoria visited
Manchester. The total expenditure on capital account has
been 16,567,881. The original share capital of 8,000,000
and 1,812,000, raised by debentures, having been exhausted,
the corporation of Manchester advanced on loan a further sum
of 5,000,000.
Municipality. Manchestei received a municipal charter
in 1838, received the title of city in 1853, and became a-county
borough in 1889. The city is divided into 30 wards, and the
corporation consists of 31 aldermen and 93 councillors. The
mayor received the title of lord mayor in 1893. Unlike some
of the municipalities, that of Manchester makes no pecuniary
allowance to its lord mayor, and the office is a costly one.
The water supply is controlled by the corporation. The
works at Longdendale, begun in 1848, were completed, with
extensions in 1884, at a cost of 3,147,893. The area supplied
by Manchester waterworks was about 85 square miles, inhabited
by a million people. The increase of trade and population
led to the obtaining of a further supply from Lake Thirlmere,
at the foot of Helvellyn and 96 miles from Manchester. The
watershed is about 11,000 acres. The daily consumption
is over 38 million gallons. Manchester supplies in bulk to many
local authorities in the district between Thirlmere and the
city. The corporation have also established works for the
supply of hydraulic and electric power.
The gas lighting of Manchester has been in the hands of
the corporation for many years, as also the supply of electricity
both for lighting and energy. When the works are complete
the electricity committee will supply an area of 45 sq. m.
Sanitary Condition. Dr John Tatham constructed a Manchester
life-table based on the vital statistics of the decennium 1881-1890,
from which it appeared that, while in England and Wales of looo
men aged 25 nearly 800 survived to be 45 and of 1000 aged 45, 569
survived to be 65, in Manchester the survivors were only 732 and 41!
respectively. The expectation of life, at 25, was, for England and
Wales 36-12 years, and for Manchester 30-69 years. But the death-
rate has since rapidly decreased; in 1891 it was 26-0 per thousand
iving; in 1901 it was 21-6; in 1906 it was 19-0; in 1907 it was 17-9.
The deaths of infants under one year old amounted to 169 per 1000-
MANCHESTER
The reports of the medical officer show that whilst the density of
the population, the impurity of the atmosphere, and the pollution of
the streams are difficult elements in the sanitary problem, great
efforts have been made towards improving the health of the people.
The birth-rate in 1907 was 28-4, but the population is augmented
by immigration as well as by natural increase. The number of
persons to the acre is 33.
Administration of Justice. The city has a stipendiary magistrate
who, in conjunction with lay magistrates, tries cases of summary
jurisdiction in the police courts. There are also quarter sessions,
presided over by a recorder. Separate sessions are held for the
Salford hundred. Certain sittings of the Court of Chancery for the
duchy of Lancaster are held in Manchester. In addition to the
county court, there is an ancient civil court known as the Salford
Hundred Court of Record. Assizes have been held since 1866.
Parliamentary Representation. By the first Reform Bill Man-
chester received in 1832 two representatives. In 1868 this was in-
creased to three, but each voter had only two votes. In 1885 the city
was divided into six divisions, each returning one member. Owing
to the extension of the city boundaries there are Manchester voters
in the Stretford, Prestwich and Gorton parliamentary divisions.
History. Very little is known with certainty of the early
history of Manchester. 1 A Roman station of some importance
existed at Castlefield, and a fragment of the wall still exists.
Another, perhaps earlier, was at Hunt's Bank. In the i8th
century considerable evidences of Roman occupation were
still visible; and from time to time, in the course of excavation
(especially during the making of the Bridgewater Canal),
Roman remains have been found. The coins were chiefly
those of Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Trajan, Hadrian, Nero,
Domitian, Vitellius and Cgnstantine. Investigations by the
Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society and the Classical
Association have brought to light many relics, chiefly of pottery.
The period succeeding the Roman occupation is for some
time legendary. Ablate as the i7th century there was a tra-
dition that Tarquin, an enemy of King Arthur, kept the castle
of Manchester, and was killed by Lancelot of the Lake. The
references to the town in authentic annals are very few. It
was probably one of the scenes of the missionary preaching
of Paulinus; and it is said (though by a chronicler of com-
paratively late date) to have been the residence of Ina, king
of Wessex, and his queen Ethelberga, after he had defeated
Ivor, somewhere about the year 689. Almost the only point
of certainty in its history before the Conquest is that it suffered
greatly from the devastations of the Danes, and that in 923
Edward, who was then at Thelwall, near Warrington, sent
a number of his Mercian troops to repair and garrison it. In
Domesday Book Manchester, Salford, Rochdale and Radcliffe
are the only places named in south-east Lancashire, a district
now covered by populous towns. Large portions of it were
then forest, wood and waste lands. Twenty-one thanes held
the manor or hundred of Salford among them. The church
of St Mary and the church of St Michael in Manchester are
both named in Domesday, and some difficulty has arisen as
to their proper identification. Some antiquaries consider
that the passage refers to the town only, whilst others think
it relates to the parish, and that, while St Mary's is the present
cathedral, St Michael's would be the present parish church of
Ashton-under-Lyne. In 1301 Manchester received a charter
of manorial liberties and privileges from its baron, Thomas
Gresley, a descendant of one to whom the manor had been
given by Roger of Poictou, who was created by William the
Conqueror lord of all the land between the rivers Mersey and
Ribble. The Gresleys were succeeded by the De la Warrs,
the last of whom was educated for the priesthood, and became
rector of the town. To avoid the evil of a non-resident clergy,
he made considerable additions to the lands of the church, in
order that it might be endowed as a collegiate institution. A
college of clergy was thus formed, whose fellows were bound
to perform the necessary services at the parish church, and
to whom the old baronial hall was granted as a place of residence.
The manorial rights passed to Sir Reginald West, a descendant of
* In the Antonine Itinerary the name Mancunium (?..) or Mamu-
cium is i given. This is the origin of the modern name, and has
supplied the adjective " Mancunian " (cf." Old Mancunians " applied
to old boys of Manchester Grammar School)
Joan Gresley, who was summoned to parliament as Baron
de la Warre. The West family, in 1579, sold the manorial
rights for 3000 to John Lacy, who, in 1596, resold them to
Sir Nicholas Mosley, whose descendants enjoyed the emoluments
derived from them until 1845, when they were purchased
by the municipality of Manchester for a sum of 200,000.
The lord of the manor had the right to tax and toll all articles
brought for sale into the market of the town. But, though
the inhabitants were thus to a large extent taxed for the benefit
of one individual, they had a far greater amount of local self-
government than might have been supposed, and the court leet,
which was then the governing body of the town, had, though
in a rudimentary form, nearly all the powers now possessed
by municipal corporations. This court had not only control
over the watching and warding of the town, the regulation
of the water supply, and the cleaning of the streets, but also
had power, which at times was used freely, of interfering with
the private liberty of their fellow-citizens. Thus, no single
woman was allowed to be a householder; no person might
employ other than the town musicians; and the amount to
be spent at wedding feasts and other festivities was carefully
settled. Under the protection of the barons the town appears
to have steadily increased in prosperity, and it early became
an important seat of the textile manufactures. Fulling mills
were at work in the district in the I3th century; and documen-
tary evidence exists to show that woollen manufactures were
carried on in Ancoats at that period. In 1538 Leland described
it as " the fairest, best-builded, quickest, and most populous
town in Lancashire." The right of sanctuary granted to the
town in 1540 was found so detrimental to its industrial pursuits
that after very brief experience the privilege was taken away.
The college of Manchester was dissolved in 1547, but was
refounded in Mary's reign. Under her successor the town
became the headquarters of the commission for establishing the
Reformed religion. In 1641 we hear of the Manchester people
purchasing linen yarn from the Irish, weaving it, and returning
it for sale in a finished state. They also brought cotton wool
from Smyrna to work into fustians and dimities. An act
passed in the reign of Edward VI. regulates the length of cottons
called Manchester, Lancashire and Cheshire cottons. These,
notwithstanding their name, were probably all woollen textures.
It is thought that some of the Flemish weavers who were intro-
duced into England by Queen Philippa of Hainault were settled
at Manchester; and Fuller has given an exceedingly quaint
and picturesque description of the manner in which these
artisans were welcomed by the inhabitants of the country they
were about to enrich with a new industry. The Flemish weavers
were in all probability reinforced by religious refugees from
the Low Countries.
In the civil wars, the town was besieged by the Royalists
under Lord Strange (better known as earl of Derby" the
great Stanley ") ; but was successfully defended by the in-
habitants under the command of a German soldier of fortune,
Colonel Rosworm, who complained with some bitterness of
their ingratitude to him. An earlier affray between the Puritans
and some of Lord Strange's followers is said to have occasioned
the shedding of the first blood in the struggle between the
king and parliament. The year 1694 witnessed the trial of
those concerned in the so-called Lancashire plot, which ended
in the triumphant acquittal of the supposed Jacobites. That the
district really contained many ardent sympathizers with the
Stuarts was, however, shown in the rising of 1715, when
the clergy ranged themselves to a large extent on the side of
:he Pretender; and was still more clearly shown in the rebellion
of 1 745, when the town was occupied by Prince Charles Edward
Stuart, and a regiment, known afterwards as the Manchester
regiment, was formed and placed under the command of
Colonel Francis Townley. In the fatal retreat of the Stuart
troops the Manchester contingent was left to garrison Carlisle,
and surrendered to the duke of Cumberland. The officers
were taken to London, where they were tried for high treason
and beheaded on Kennington Common.
MANCHESTER
549
The variations of political action in Manchester had been
exceedingly marked. In the i6th century, although it pro-
duced both Roman Catholic and Protestant martyrs, it was
earnestly in favour of the Reformed faith, and in the succeeding
century it became indeed a stronghold of Puritanism. Yet
the successors of the Roundheads who defeated the army of
Charles I. were Jacobite in their sympathies, and by the latter
half of the i8th century had become imbued with the aggressive
form of patriotic sentiment known as anti- Jacobinism, which
showed itself chiefly in dislike of reform and reformers of every
description. A change, however, was imminent. The distress
caused by war and taxation, towards the end of the i8th and
the beginning of the ipth century, led to bitter discontent,
and the anomalies existing in the parliamentary system of
representation afforded only too fair an object of attack. While
single individuals in some portions of the country had the power
to return members of parliament for their pocket boroughs,
great towns like Manchester were entirely without representa-
tion. The popular discontent was met by a policy of repression,
culminating in the affair of Peterloo, which may be regarded
as the starting-point of the modern reform agitation. This
was in 1819, when an immense crowd assembled on St Peter's
Fields (now covered by the Free Trade Hall and warehouses)
to petition parliament for a redress of their grievances. The
Riot Act was read by a clerical magistrate; but in such a manner
as to be quite unheard by the mass of the people; and drunken
yeomanry cavalry were then turned loose upon the unresisting
mass of spectators. The yeomanry appear to have used their
sabres freely; several people killed and many more injured;
and, although the magistrates received the thanks of the prince
regent and the ministry, their conduct excited the deepest
indignation throughout the entire country. Those who had
organized the meeting, including " Orator " Hunt with Samuel
Bamford and other working men, were imprisoned.
Naturally enough, the Manchester politicians took an impor-
tant part in the Reform agitation; when the Act of 1832 was
passed, the town sent as its representatives the Right Hon.
C. P. Thomson, vice-president of the board of trade, and
Mark Philips. With one notable exception, this was the first
time that Manchester had been represented in parliament
since its barons had seats in the House of Peers in the earlier
centuries. In 1654 Charles Worsley and R. Radcliffe were
nominated to represent it in Cromwell's parliament. Worsley
was a man of great ability, and has a place in history as the
man who carried out the injunction of the Protector to " remove
that bauble," the mace of the House of Commons. The agita-
tion for the repeal of the corn laws had its headquarters at
Manchester, and the success which attended it, not less than
the active interest taken by its inhabitants in public questions,
has made the city the home of other projects of reform. The
" United Kingdom Alliance for the Suppression of the Liquor
Traffic " was founded there in 1853, and during the continuance
of the American War the adherents both of the North and of
the South deemed it desirable to have organizations in Man-
chester to influence public opinion in favour of their respective
causes. A charter of incorporation was granted in 1838; a
bishop was appointed in 1847; and the town became a city in
1853. The Lancashire cotton famine, caused by the Civil
War in America, produced much distress in the Manchester
district, and led to a national movement to help the starving
operatives. The more recent annals of Manchester are a record
of industrial and commercial developments, and of increase
in educational opportunities of all kinds. Politically Man-
chester was Liberal, of one or other shade, under the first
Reform Act; a Conservative member was first elected in 1868,
and in 1874 two. Under household suffrage in 1885 that
party secured five out of six members; in 1886 and 1892, three
out of six. In 1895 and 1900 five Unionists were elected, but
in 1906 six Liberals were returned, one of whom (Mr Winston
Churchill) was defeated at a by-election in 1008. In 1910
throe Liberals, two Labour members and one Conservative
were elected.
AUTHORITIES. Although several excellent books have been written
on subjects connected with the town, there is no. adequate modern
history. The History of Manchester, by the Rev. John Whitaker,
appeared in 1771 ; it is a mere fragment, and, though containing much
important matter, requires to be very discreetly used. The follow-
ing may be recommended: John Reilly, History of Manchester,
(1861) ; R. W. Procter, Manchester in Holiday Dress (1866), Memorials
of Manchester Streets (1874), Memorials of Byegone Manchester
(1880); Richard Buxton, Botanical Guide to Manchester, &c. (2nd
ed., 1859); Leo Grindon, Manchester Flora (1859); Edward Baines,
History of Lancashire, edited by Croston (1886-1893), 5 vols. ;
W. A. Shaw, Manchester, Old and Nine (1894) ; W. E. A. Axon, Annals
of Manchester (1885), Cobden as a Citizen (1906); Harry Rawson,
Historical Record of some Recent Enterprises of the Corporation of
Manchester (1894) ; Official Manual of Manchester and Salford (1909) ;
J. P. Earwaker, Court Leet Records of Manchester, 1552-1686, 1731-
1846 (1884-1890), 12 vols.; Constable's Accounts, 1612-1647, 1743~
1776 (1891-1892), 3 vols.; Manchester Municipal Code (1894-1899),
5 vols.; George Samtsbury, Manchester (1887); Thomas Swindells,
Manchester Streets and Manchester Men (1906-1907), 3 vols.;
James Tail, Medieval Manchester (1904); Charles Roeder, Roman
Manchester (1900) ; Sir Bosdin Leech, History of the Manchester Ship
Canal (1907), 2 vols. (W. E. A. A.)
MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea), a township
of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 25 m. N.E. of
Boston, on Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900), 2522; (1905,
state census), 2618; (1910), 2673. Area, 7-64sq. m. It is served
by the Boston & Maine railroad, and is connected with neigh-
bouring towns and cities by electric lines. The township,
heavily wooded in parts, and with picturesque shores alternat-
ing between rocky headlands and sandy beaches, stretches for
several miles along the coast between Beverly on the west and
Gloucester on the east. It is one of the most beautiful watering-
places in America, and is the favourite summer residence of
many of the foreign diplomats at Washington. The " singing
beach " is a stretch of white sand, which, when trodden upon,
emits a curious musical sound. Manchester, originally a part
of Salem, was settled about 1630 and was at first known as
Jeffrey's Creek. It was incorporated separately under its present
name in 1645.
See Manchester Town Records (2 vols., Salem, 18891891), and
D. F. Lamson, History of the Town of Manchester, 1045-1895
(Manchester, 1895).
MANCHESTER, the largest city of New Hampshire, U.S.A.,
and one of the county-seats of Hillsboro county, on the Merrimac
river, at the mouth of the Piscataquog river, (by rail) i8m. S.
of Concord and 57 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 44,126;
(1900), 56,987; (1910 U.S. census) 70,063. Of the total popula-
tion in 1900, 24,257 were foreign-born, including 13,429 French-
Canadians; and 37,530 were of foreign parentage (both parents
foreign-born), including 18,839 of French-Canadian parentage.
Manchester is served by the Southern, the Western, the White
Mountains, and the Worcester Nashua & Portland divisions of
the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric lines.
It is situated on a plain about 90 ft. above the Merrimac river
(which is spanned here by three bridges), commands extensive
views of the beautiful Merrimac valley, and covers a land area
of about 33 sq. m. On the east side of the city are two connected
lakes known as Lake Massabesic (30 m. in circumference).
Manchester is known for the attractive appearance of the resid-
ence districts in which the factory operatives live, detached
homes and " corporation boarding-houses," instead of tenement
houses, being the rule. The Institute of Arts and Sciences
(incorporated in 1898) provides lecture courses and classes in
science, art and music. Among the other public buildings and
institutions are the United States Government building, the
city-hall, the county-court-house, the city library (1854; the
outgrowth of the Manchester Athenaeum, established in 1844),
St Anselm's College (R.C.), a Roman Catholic cathedral, four
Roman Catholic convents, the Elliot hospital, the Sacred Heart
hospital and the hospital of Notre Dame de Lourdes, the State
industrial school, the State house of correction, the Gale home
for aged women, an old ladies' home (R.C.), St Martha's
home for working girls, the Manchester children's home and
four orphan asylums. In the largest of five public squares is
a soldiers' monument, consisting of a granite column 50 ft. high,
550
MANCHESTER MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL
surmounted by a statue of Victory. The city has two parks,
and in one of them, overlooking the Merrimac, is a monument
to the memory of General John Stark, who was born and was
buried here. The water-supply is obtained from Lake Massa-
besic. Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac are 55 ft. in height, and
by means of hydraulic canals Manchester is provided with a fine
water-power. Steam power is also used, and the city is by far
the most important manufacturing centre in the state. It is
extensively engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods, boots
and shoes, worsted goods, hosiery and other knit goods, and
locomotives; among the other manufactures are linen goods,
steam fire-engines, paper, edge tools, soap, leather, carriages and
beer. The value of the city's factory products increased from
$24,628,345 in 1900 to $30,696,926 in 1905, or 24-6%. In 1905
Manchester produced 24-8% of the total factory product of
the state. Manchester ranks fifth among the cities of the
United States in cotton manufacturing, and ninth among the
cities of the country in the manufacture of boots and shoes.
On account of the abundance of fish in t he river here, Amoskeag
Falls and vicinity were a favourite resort of the Penacook Indians,
and it is said that John Eliot, the " Apostle to the Indians,"
preached to them here in the summer of 1651. The first white
settlement within the present limits of Manchester was made in
1722 by Scottish-Irish immigrants at Goffe's Falls, 5 rn. below
Amoskeag Falls. In 1723 a cabin was built by some of these
immigrants at the greater falls, and gradually a small settlement
grew up there. In 1735 Massachusetts granted to a body of men
known as " Tyng's Snow- Shoe Scouts " and their descendants
a tract of land 3 m. wide along the east bank of the Merrimac,
designated as " Tyng's Township." The Scottish-Irish claimed
this tract as part of their grant from New Hampshire, and there
arose between the rival claimants a bitter controversy which
lasted until May 1741, when the courts decided against the
Massachusetts claimants. In 1 7 5 1 the territory formerly known
as " Tyng's Township," and sometimes called " Harrytown,"
with portions of Chester and Londonderry, was incorporated
as a township under the name Derryfield; in 1810 the name was
changed to Manchester, the change having been suggested by
the town's manufacturing possibilities; and in 1846 Manchester
was chartered as a city. The first sawmill was erected as early
as 1736, and during the years from 1794 to 1807 a canal was
constructed around the Amoskeag Falls through which to carry
lumber. As late as 1830 the town had a population of only 877,
but in 1831 the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company was incorpo-
rated, the construction of hydraulic canals and the erection of
cotton mills followed, the villages of Piscataquog and Amoskeag
were annexed in 1853, and the population increased to 3235 in
1840, to 8841 in 1860, and to 33,592 in 1880.
Consult M. D. Clarke, Manchester, A Brief Record of its Past and a
Picture of its Present (Manchester, 1875).
MANCHESTER, a former city of Chesterfield county, Virginia,
U.S.A., (on the S. side of the James river), since 1910 a part of
Richmond. Pop. (1900), 9715, of whom 3338 were negroes;
(1906 estimate), 9997. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line,
the Seaboard Air Line, and the Southern railways, by electric
lines to Richmond and Petersburg, and by numerous river boats.
It is finely situated in a bend of the river, with about 2 m. of
water front; on the heights above is Forest Hill park, a pleasure
resort, and adjacent to it Woodland Heights, a beautiful resid-
ential district. From the surrounding country come much
agricultural produce, coal, lumber, bricks and granite. There
is a good harbour and excellent water power. Among the
manufactures are paper, flour, cotton goods, leather,brick,railway
supplies, &c. The value of the city's factory products increased
from $1,621,358 in 1900 to $3,226,268 in 1905, or 99%.
MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL. The advantage of a waterway
for the conveyance of goods between eastern Lancashire and the
sea is so obvious that so far back as the year 1721 Thomas Steers
designed a plan for continuing to Manchester the barge naviga-
tion which then existed between Liverpool and Warrington.
Parliamentary powers were then obtained to improve the rivers
Mersey and Irwell from Warrington to Manchester by means of
locks and weirs. This work was successfully carried out, and
proved of great benefit to the trade of the district. The duke
of Bridgewater, who had made a canal from his collieries at
Worsley to Manchester, afterwards continued the canal to the
Mersey at Runcorn; this extension was opened in 1722 and com-
peted with the Mersey and Irwell navigation, both routes being
navigated by barges carrying about fifty tons of cargo. The
Liverpool & Manchester railway at a later date afforded further
facilities for conveyance of goods, but the high rates of carriage,
added to heavy charges at the Liverpool docks, prejudiced trade,
and the question was mooted of a ship canal to bring cotton,
timber, grain and other goods direct to Manchester without
transshipment. The first plan was made by William Chapman
in 1825, and was followed by one designed by Henry Palmer in
1840, but it was not until the year 1882 that the movement was
originated that culminated in the opening of the Manchester
Ship Canal by Queen Victoria on the 2ist of May 1894.
In determining the plan of the canal the main point which arose
was whether it should be made with locks or whether it should be
on the sea-level throughout, and therefore tidal. The advantage
of a still waterway in navigating large steamers, and the facilities
afforded by one constant water-level for works on the banks and the
quick discharge of goods at the terminal docks at Manchester, secured
the adoption of the plans for a canal with locks as designed by Sir
E. Leader Williams. The fresh-water portion of the canal extended
between Manchester and Runcorn, while from the latter place to Gar-
ston it was proposed to improve the upper Mersey estuary by con-
structing training walls and dredging to form a deep central channel.
Parliamentary powers to construct the canal were sought in the
session of 1883, when the bill passed the committee of the House of
Commons but was rejected by the committee of the House of Lords.
Brought forward again the next year, it was passed by the Lords but
thrown out by the Commons. The opposition from Liverpool and
the railway companies was very strong; to meet to some extent that
of the former, a continuation of the canal was proposed from Runcorn
to Eastham along the Cheshire side of the Mersey, instead of a trained
channel in the estuary, and in this form the bill was again introduced
in the session of 1885, and, notwithstanding strong opposition, was
passed by both houses of parliament. The cost of this contest to
promoters and opponents exceeded 400,000, the various committees
on the bill having sat over 175 days. Owing to difficulties in raising
the capital the works were not begun until November 1887.
The total length of the canal is 35! m. and it may be regarded
as divided into three sections. From Eastham to Runcorn it is
near or through the Mersey estuary for I2j m., and thence to
Latchford near Warrington, 8J m., it is inland; both these sections
have the same water-level, which is raised by high tides. At Latch-
ford the locks stop tidal action, and the canal is fed by the waters
of the rivers Mersey and Irwell from that point to Manchester,
14! m. from Latchford. The canal begins on the Cheshire side of the
Mersey at Eastham, about 6 m. above Liverpool. The entrance
is well sheltered and adjoins a good low-water channel communicat-
ing with the Sloyne deep at Liverpool. Three entrance locks have
been provided close to and parallel with each other, their length and
width being 600 by 80, 350 by 50, and 150 by 30 ft. These locks
maintain the water-level in the canal nearly to mean high-water
level (14 ft. 2 in. above the Liverpool datum) ; when the tide
rises above that height the lock gates are opened and the tide flows
up to Latchford, giving on high spring tides an additional depth of
water of about 7 ft. On the ebb tide this water is returned to the
Mersey through large sluices at Randies Creek and at the junction
of the river Weaver with the canal, the level of the canal thus being
reduced to its normal height. The canal throughout to Manchester
has a minimum depth of 28 ft. ; the depth originally was 26 ft., but
the lock sills were placed 2 ft. lower to allow of the channel being
dredged to 28 ft. when necessary. The minimum width at bottom
is 120 ft., allowing large vessels to pass each other at any point on
the canal ; this width is considerably increased at the locks and other
parts. The slopes are generally about I f to I , but are flatter through
some portions; in rock-cutting the sides are nearly vertical. From
Eastham to Runcorn the canal is alternately inland and on the
foreshore of the estuary, on which embankments were constructed
to act as dams and keep out the tide during the excavation of the
canal, and afterwards to maintain the water-level at low water in
the estuary ; both sides are faced with heavy coursed stone. The
material for the embankments was principally clay excavated from
the cuttings. In some places, where the foundation was of a porous
nature, sheeting piles of timber had to be used. At Ellesmere Port,
where the embankment is 6200 ft. long on sand, 13,000 whole timber
sheeting piles 35 ft. long were driven, to secure the base of the
embankment on each side; water jets under pressure through l\ in.
wrought-iron pipes were used at the foot of each pile to assist
the sinking, which was found most difficult by ordinary means. At
the river Weaver ten Stoney roller sluices are built, each 30 ft. span,
with heavy stone and concrete piers and foundations; at Runcorn,
MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL
where the river Mersey is narrow, a concrete sea-wall 4300 ft.
long was substituted for the embankment. At various points
uni'ler the canal cast-iron siphon pipes were laid to carry off any land
drainage which was at a lower level than the canal ; the largest of these
Mphons were constructed to allow the tidal and fresh water of the
riser Gowy to pass under the canal at Stanlow Point, between
K;i-iham and Ellesmere Port. Two i2-ft. siphons are there placed
lo^rther, built of cast-iron segments; they are each 400 ft. long,
and were laid on concrete 4 ft. below the bottom of the canal. From
Runcorn to Latchford the canal is nearly straight, the depth of
rutting varying from 35 to 70 ft., partly in rock, but generally in
alluvial deposit. The whole length of the canal passes through the
New Red Sandstone formation, with its overlying beds of gravel,
clay, sand and silt, which gave much trouble during the progress
of the work ; retaining walls of stone and brickwork had to be built
in these places to maintain the sides of the canal from slips and injury
from the wash of steamers.
The canal from Latchford to Manchester is in heavy cutting
through the valleys of the rivers Mersey and Irwell. As these rivers
are circuitous in course, only very small portions could be utilized
in forming the canal ; a line as nearly straight as possible was there-
fore adopted, and involved many crossings of the river channels.
During the whole progress of the work these had to be kept open for
the discharge of floods and land water, and in some places temporary
cuts of considerable length had to be made for the same object. In
November 1890 and December 1891 high winter floods covered the
whole of the river valleys, filling many miles of the unfinished canal
and causing great damage to the slopes. Altogether 23 m. of
canal had to be pumped out to enable the work to be completed.
After the cuttings between the river channels were finished, the end
dams were removed, and the rivers Irwell and Mersey were turned
into the new channel now forming the upper portion of the ship canal.
The total rise to the level of the docks atManchester from the ordinary
level of the water in the tidal portion of the canal below Latchford
locks is 60 ft. 6 in. ; this is obtained by an average rise of about 15 ft.
at each of the sets of locks at Latchford, Irlam (7J m. nearer
Manchester), Barton (2 m. farther) and Mode Wheel (sj m. above
Barton locks at the entrance to the Manchester docks). For
the greater part of this last length the canal is widened at bottom
from 120 ft., its normal width, to 170 ft., to enable vessels to lie at
timber and other wharves without interfering with the passage of
large vessels to or from the docks. The locks are in duplicate, one
being 600 ft. long by 65 ft. wide, the other 350 ft. long by 45 ft. wide,
with Stoney's sluices adjacent. They are filled or emptied in five
minutes by large culverts on each side with side openings into the
lock. Concrete with facings of blue Staffordshire brick is largely
used, and the copings, sills, hollow quoins and fender courses are of
Cornish granite. The lock gates are constructed of greenheart
timber. The sluices near the locks take the place of the weirs
used in the old Mersey and Irwell navigation ; they are 30 ft. span
each, four being generally used at each set of locks. In ordinary
seasons any water not used for lockage purposes passes over the tops
of the sluices, which are kept closed; m flood times the sluices are
raised to a height which will pass off floods with a comparatively
small rise in the canal. There are eight hydraulic installations on
the canal, each haying duplicate steam-engines and boilers; the
mains exceed 7 m. in length, the pressure being 700 Ib to the inch.
They work the cranes, lifts and capstans at the docks, lock gates and
culvert sluices, coal tips, swing bridges and aqueduct.
At Barton, near Manchester, the Bridgewater canal crosses the
river Irwell on the first navigable aqueduct constructed in England.
It was the work of James Brindley, and since it was built at only
sufficient height to allow of barges passing under it, means had to
be found to allow of this important canal being maintained, and yet
to permit steamers to use the ship canal below it. Brindley's canal
is on one level throughout its whole length, and as its water supply
is only sufficient for the flight of locks by which it descends at Run-
corn to the Mersey, locks down to the ship canal would have involved
the waste of a lock of water on each side and caused serious delay
to the traffic. Sir E. Leader Williams surmounted the difficulty
by means of a swing aqueduct for the Bridgewater canal, which when
closed enables the traffic to pass as before, while it is opened to allow
of ships crossing it on the lower level of the ship canal. The water
in the swing portions of the aqueduct when opened is retained by
closing gates at each end, similar gates being shut at the same time
across the fixed portion of the aqueduct. The swing portion is a
jarge steel trough carried by side girders, 234 ft. long and 33 ft. high
in the centre, tapering 4 ft. to the ends; the waterway is 19 ft. wide
and 6 ft. deep. The whole works on a central pier with similar
arrangements to the largest swing bridges on the canal ; it has two
spans over the ship canal of oo ft. each. It is somewhat singular
that the first fixed canal aqueduct in England should, after the lapse
of 136 years, be replaced by the first swing aqueduct ever constructed.
The swing aqueduct is moved by hydraulic power, and has never
given any trouble in working, even in times of severe frost. The
weight of the movable portion, including the water, is 1600 tons.
The manner of dealing with the five lines of railways that were
cut through by the canal was one of importance, both in the interests
of the travelling public and the trade on the canal; they are all lines
with a heavy traffic, including the main line of the London & North
Western railway near Warrington, with its important route to
Scotland. Swing bridges, although in use on some lines to cross
navigations, are dangerous and inconvenient, and high-level devia-
tion lines were adopted for each railway crossing the canal. No
such alteration of a railway had been previously sanctioned by parlia-
ment, and it was only the importance of a ship canal to Manchester
that secured the requisite powers against the strong opposition of
the railway companies. Embankments were made close to and
parallel with the old lines, beginning about a mile and a quarter
from the canal on each side, the canal itself being crossed by
viaducts which give a clear headway of 75 ft. at ordinary water-
level. Vessels with high masts trading on the canal are pro-
vided with telescopic or sliding top-masts. The gradients on the
railways rising up to the viaducts are I in 135. The span of the
viaducts is so arranged as to maintain the full width of the canal
for navigation; and as the railways generally cross the canal on the
skew, this necessitated girders in some cases of 300 ft. span. There
are nine main roads requiring swing bridges across the canal ; all below
Barton have a span giving a clear water-way of 120 ft. The width
of these bridges varies with the importance of the roads from 20 to
36 ft., and they are constructed of steel, their weight ranging from
500 to looo tons each. They work on a live ring of conical cast-iron
rollers and are moved by hydraulic power supplied by steam, gas or
oil engines. The Trafford Road bridge at the docks at Manchester
is the heaviest swing bridge on the canal ; being of extra width, it
weighs 1800 tons.
The canal being virtually one long dock, wharves at various
points have been erected to enable chemical or manufacturing works
to be carried on, widenings being provided where necessary. At
Ellesmere Port coal tips and sheds have been erected, and the canal
is in direct communication with the docks there as well as at Weston
Point and Runcorn, where a large trade is carried on with the
Staffordshire Potteries and the Cheshire salt districts. At Partingtpn
branches from the railways connect the canal with the Yorkshire
and Lancashire coal-fields, and the canal is widened out 65 ft. on
each side for six hydraulic coal tips. At Mode Wheel there are
extensive abattoirs and lairages, erected by the Manchester Corpora-
tion ; also large petroleum oiltanks, graving dock and pontoons, cold-
air meat stores and other accommodation for traffic. At Manchester
the area of the docks is 104 acres, with 152 acres of quay space,
having over 5 m. of frontage to the docks, which are provided with
a number of three-storey transit sheds, thirteen seven-storey and
seven four-storey warehouses, and a large grain silo. The London
& North Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railway companies and
the Cheshire Lines Committee have made branch lines to the docks,
the railways and sidings at which are over 30 miles in length. Much
traffic is also carted, or dealt with by inland canals in direct com-
munication with the docks. The substitution of a wide and deep
canal, nearly straight, for comparatively shallow and narrow winding
rivers, and the use of large sluices in place of fixed weirs to carry on
the river water, have been of great advantage to the district in
greatly reducing the height of floods.
The total amount of excavation in the canal, docks and subsidiary
work amounted to over 54 million cub. yds., nearly one-fourth of
which was sandstone rock; the excavated material was used in
forming the railway deviation embankments, filling up the old beds
of the rivers and raising low lands near the canal. As many men
were employed on the works as could be obtained, but the number
never exceeded 17,000, and the greater part of the excavation was
done by about eighty steam navvies and land dredgers. For the
conveyance of excavation and materials, 228 miles of temporary
railway lines were laid, and 173 locomotives, 6300 wagons and
trucks, and 316 fixed and portable steam-engines and cranes were
employed, the total cost of the plant being nearly 1,000,000. The
expenditure on the works, including plant and equipment, to the
1st of January 1900, was 10,327,666. The purchase of the Mersey
and Irwell and Bridgewater navigations (1,786,651), land and
compensation (1,223,809), interest on capital during construc-
tions (1,170,733), and parliamentary, superintendence and general
expenses brought up the total amount to 15,248,437.
The traffic on the canal gradually increased from 925,659 tons in
1894 to 2,778,108 tons in 1899 and 5,210,759 tons in 1907. After
its opening considerable reductions were made in the railway rates
of carriage and the charges at the Liverpool docks in order to meet
the lower cost of conveyance by shipping passing up it. The result
has been of great advantage to the trade of Lancashire and the sur-
rounding districts, and the saving in the cost of carriage, estimated
at 700,000 a year, assists manufacturers to meet the competition
of their foreign opponents who have the advantage of low rates of
carriage on the improved waterways of America, Germany, France
and Belgium. Before the construction of the canal, large manu-
facturers had left Manchester to establish their works at ports like
Glasgow, where they could save the cost of inland carriage. Since
its opening, new industries have been started at Manchester and along
its banks, warehouses and mills that were formerly empty are now
occupied, while nearly 10,000 new houses have been built for the
accommodation of the workpeople required to meet the enlarged trade
of the city.
For further details see Sir Bosdin Leech, History of the Manchester
Ship Canal (Manchester, 1907). (E. L. W.)
552
MANCHURIA
MANCHURIA, the name by which the territory in the east
of Asia occupied by the Manchus is known in Europe. By the
Chinese it is called the country of the Manchus, an epithet
meaning " pure," chosen by the founder of the dynasty which
now rules over Manchuria and China as an appropriate designa-
tion for his family. Manchuria lies in a north-westerly and south-
easterly direction between 39 and 53 N. and between 116 and
134 E., and is wedged in between China and Mongolia on the
west and north-west, and Korea and the Russian territory on
the Amur on the east and north. More definitely, it is bounded
N. by the Amur, E. by the Usuri, S. by the Gulf of Liao-tung,
the Yellow Sea and Korea, and W. by Chih-li and Mongolia.
The territory thus defined is about 800 m. in length and 500 m.
in width, and contains about 390,000 sq. m. It is divided into
three provinces, viz. Hei-lung-kiang or Northern Manchuria,
Kirin or Central Manchuria, and Sheng-king or Southern Man-
churia. Physically the country is divided into two regions, the
one a series of mountain ranges occupying the northern and
eastern portions of the kingdom, and the other a plain which
stretches southwards from Mukden, the capital, to the Gulf of
Liao-tung.
A system of parallel ranges of mountains, culminating in the
Chinese Ch'ang pai Shan, " the long white mountains," on the
Korean frontier, runs in a north-easterly direction from the
shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung. In its course through Eastern
Manchuria it forms the watershed of the Sungari, Usuri and
other rivers, and in the south that of the Ya-lu and many smaller
streams. It also forms the eastern boundary of the great plain
of Liao-tung. The mountains of this system reach their greatest
height on the south-east of Kirin, where their snow-capped peaks
rise to the elevation of 8000 ft. The scenery among them is
justly celebrated, more especially in 'the neighbourhood of
Haich'eng, Siu-yen and the Korean Gate.
The three principal rivers of Manchuria are the Sungari, Mutan-
kiang and Usuri already mentioned. Of these the Sungari,
which is the largest, rises on the northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai
Shan range, and runs in a north-westerly direction to its junction
with the Nonni, from which point it turns north-east until it
empties itself into the Amur. It is navigable by native junks
above Kirin, which city may also be reached by steamer. In
its long course it varies greatly both in depth and width, in some
parts being only a few feet deep and spreading out to a width
of more than a mile, while in other and mountainous portions
of its course its channel is narrowed to 300 or 400 ft., and its
depth is increased in inverse ratio. The Usuri rises in about 44
N. and 131 E., and after running a north-easterly course for
nearly 500 m. it also joins the Amur. The Mutan-kiang takes
its rise, like the Sungari, on the northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai
Shan range, and not far from the sources of that river. It takes
a north-easterly course as far as the city of Ninguta, at which
point it turns northward, and so continues until it joins the
Sungari at San-sing. It is navigable by junks between that city
and Ninguta, though the torrents in its course make the voyage
backwards and forwards one of considerable difficulty. Next
in importance to these rivers are the Liao and Ya-lu, the former
of which rises in Mongolia, and after running in an easterly direc-
tion for about 400 m. enters Manchuria in about 43 N., and
turning southward empties itself into the Gulf of Liao-tung.
The Ya-lu rises in Korea, and is the frontier river of that
country.
Provinces and Towns, Mukden, or as it is called by the Chinese
Sheng-king, the capital city of Manchuria, is situated in the
province of Sheng-king, occupies a fine position on the river
Hun-ho, an affluent of the Liao, and is a city of considerable pre-
tensions. Liao-yang, which was once the capital of the country,
is also in the province of Sheng-king. The other cities in the
province are Kin-chow-fu on the west of the Gulf of Liao-tung;
Kin-chow, on the western extremity of the Liao-tung peninsula;
Kai-ping, on the north-western shore of the same peninsula;
Hai-cheng, on the road from Niu-chwang to Mukden; Ki-yuen,
a populous and prosperous city in the north of the province ; and
Sing-king, east of Mukden, the original seat of the founders of
the present dynasty. The most important commercial place,
however, is the treaty port of Niu-chwang, at the head of the
Gulf of Liao-tung. According to the custom-house returns the
value of the foreign imports and exports in the year 1880 was
691,954 and 1,117,790 respectively, besides a large native
trade carried on in junks. In 1904 the value of foreign imports
had risen to 2,757,962, but the exports amounted to 1,742,859
only, the comparatively low figure being accounted for by the
Russo-Japanese war.
The province of Kirin, or Central Manchuria, is bounded on the
N. and N.W. by the Sungari, on the S. by Sheng-king and Korea,
on the W. by Mongolia, and on the E. by the Usuri and the
maritime Russian province. It contains an area of about 90,000
sq. m., and is entirely mountainous with the exception of a stretch
of plain country in its north-western corner. This plain produces
large quantities of indigo and opium, and is physically remark-
able for the number of isolated conical hills which dot its surface.
These sometimes occur in a direct line at intervals of 15 or 20 m.,
and elsewhere are scattered about " like dish-covers on a table."
Kirin, the capital of the province, occupies a magnificent position,
being surrounded on the north, west and south by a semicircular
range of mountains with the broad stream of the Sungari flowing
across the front. The local trade is considerable. A-She-ho,
on the Ashe, with a population of 60,000; Petuna (Chinese, Sing-
chung), on the Sungari, population 30,000; San-sing, near the
junction of the Sungari and Mutan-kiang; La-lin, 120 m. to the
north of Kirin, population 20,000; Harbin or Kharbin and
Ninguta are the other principal cities in the province.
Hei-lung-kiang, or Northern Manchuria, which contains about
195,000 sq. m., is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Amur, on
the S. by the Sungari, and on the W. by the Nonni and Mongolia.
It is traversed by the Great and Lesser Khingan mountains
and their offshoots. This province is thinly populated, and is
cultivated only along the lines of its rivers. The only towns of
any importance are Tsitsihar and Mergen, both situated on the
Nonni and Khailar in the west.
Climate, Flora, Fauna. The climate over the greater part of the
country varies between extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer
ranging between 90 F. in the summer and 10 below zero in the
winter. As in the north of China, the rivers are frozen up
during the four winter months. After a short spring the heat of
summer succeeds, which in its turn is followed by an autumn of
six weeks' duration. The great plain in Sheng-king is in many
parts swampy, and in the neighbourhood of the sea, where the
soil emits a saline exudation such as is also common in tl
north of China, it is perfectly sterile. In other parts fine cro
of millet and various kinds of grain are grown, and on it tre
nourish abundantly. The trees and plants are much the same as
those common in England, and severe as the weather is in winter
the less elevated mountains are covered to their summits with
trees. The wild animals also are those known in Europe, with the
addition of tigers and panthers. Bears, wild boars, hares, wolves,
foxes and wild cats are very common, and in the north sables are
found in great numbers. One of the most noticeable of the birds
is the Mongolian lark (Melanocorypha mongolica), which is found
in a wild state both in Manchuria and in the desert of Mongolia.
This bird is exported in large numbers to northern China, where it
is much prized on account of its extraordinary power of imitation.
The Manchurian crane is common, as also are eagles, cuckoos,
laughing doves, &c. Insects abound, owing to the swampy nature
of much of the country. The rivers are well stocked with fish,
especially with salmon, which forms a common article of food. In
such immense shoals do these fish appear in some of the small
streams that numbers are squeezed out on to the banks and thi
perish.
Products and Industries. In minerals Manchuria is very rich:
coal, gold, iron (as well as magnetic iron ore), and precious stones
are found in large quantities. Gold mines are worked at several
places in the northern part of Manchuria, of which the principal are
on the Muho river, an affluent of the Amur, and near the Russian
frontier. Mines are also worked at Kwanyin-shan, opposite the
Russian frontier town of Radevska, and at Chia-pi-kou, on an
affluent of the upper Sungari. Indigo and opium are the most
lucrative crops. The indigo plant is grown in large quantities in
the plain country to the north of Mukden, and is transported thence
to the coast in carts, each of which carries rather more than a ton
weight of the dye. The poppy is cultivated wherever it will grow,
the crop being far more profitable than that of any otl
product. Cotton, tobacco, pulse, millet, wheat and barley are a
grown.
7
MANCHURIA
553
Population. The population is estimated as follows for each of
the three divisions :
Province of Sheng-king (Feng Tien) 4,000,000
,, Kirin .... 6,500,000
,, Hei-lung-kiang . . 2,000,000
Total . . . 12,500,000
Communications. Four principal highways traverse Manchuria.
The first runs from Peking to Kirin via Mukden, where it sends off
a branch to Korea. At Kirin it bifurcates, one branch going to
San-sing, the extreme north-eastern town of the province of Kirin,
and the other to Possiet Bay on the coast via Ninguta. The second
road runs from the treaty port of Niu-chwang through Mukden to
Petuna in the north-western corner of the Kirin province, and thence
to Tsitsihar, Mergen and the Amur. The third also starts from
English Miles
100 StV
RaiJways
Capital
Provincial Capitals
oughton Bay
BJIfofKoref
^-r. . v
A *> B Long'OKle East u of Greenwich O "*
Niu-chwang, and strikes southward to Kin-chow at the extremity
of the Liao-tung peninsula. The fourth connects Niu-chwang with
the Gate of Korea.
The original Manchurian railway was constructed under an agree-
ment made in 1896 between the Chinese government and the Russo-
Maachurlaa Chinese bank, an institution founded in 1895 to develop
Railways Russian interests in the East. The Chinese Eastern
Railway Company was formed by the bank under this
agreement, to construct and work the line, and surveys were made
in 1897, the town of Harbin being founded as headquarters for the
work. The line, which affords through communication from Europe
by way of the Trans-Siberian system, enters Manchuria near a
station of that name in the north-west corner of the country .passes
Khailar, and runs south-east, near Tsitsihar, to Harbin. Thence
the main line continues in the same general direction to the eastern
frontier of Manchuria, and so to Vladivostok. In 1898 Russia
obtained a lease of the Liao-tung peninsula, and a clause of this
contract empowered her to connect Port Arthur and Dalny (now
Tairen) with the main Manchurian railway by a branch southward
from Harbin. In spite of interruption caused by the Boxer outbreak,
through communication was established in 1901. Under the Russo-
Japanese treaty of August 1905, after the war, supplemented by a
convention between Japan and China concluded in December of the
same year, Japan took over the line from Port Arthur as far as
Kwang-cheng-tsze, now known as the Southern Manchurian railway
(508 m.). Branches were promoted (a) from Mukden to Antung
on the Yalu, to connect with the Korean system, and (6) from
Kwang-cheng-tsze to Kirin. The rest of the original Manchurian
system (1088 miles) remains under Russian control. In the south-
west of Manchuria a line of the imperial railways of Northern China
fives connexion from Peking, and
ranches at Kou-pang-tsze to Sin-
min-ting and to Niu-chwang, and
the link between Sin-min-ting and
Mukden is also under Chinese control.
The lines now under Russian control
were laid down, and remain, on the
5 ft. gauge which is the Russian
standard ; but after the Russian con-
trol of the southern lines was lost
the gauge was altered from that
standard.
History. Manchu, as has been
said, is not the name of the country
but of the people who inhabit it.
The name was adopted by a ruler
who rose to power in the begin-
ning of the I3th century. Before
that time the Manchus were more
or less a shifting population, and,
being broken up into a number
of tribes, they went mainly under
the distinctive name of those clans
which exercised lordship over them.
Thus under the Chow dynasty
(1122-225 B - c -) they w ere known
as Sewshin, and at subsequent
periods as Yih-low, Wuh-keih,
Moh-hoh, Pohai, Niichih and ac-
cording to the Chinese historians
also as Khitan. Throughout their
history they appear as a rude
people, the tribute they brought
to the Chinese court consisting
of stone arrow-heads, hawks, gold,
and latterly ginseng. Assuming
that, as the Chinese say, the
Khitans were Manchus, the first
appearance of the Manchus, as a
people, in China dates from the
beginning of the loth century,
when the Khitans, having first
conquered the kingdom of Pohai,
crossed the frontier into China
and established the Liao or Iron
dynasty in the northern portion
of the empire. These invaders
were in their turn overthrown two
centuries later by another invasion
from Manchuria. These new con-
querors were Nuchihs, and therefore direct ancestors of the
Manchus. On assuming the imperial yellow in China their
chief adopted the title of Kin or " Golden " for his dynasty.
" Iron " (Liao), he said, " rusts, but gold always keeps its
purity and colour, therefore my dynasty shall be called Kin."
In a little more than a century, however, the Kins were
driven out of China by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan.
But before the close of their rule a miraculous event occurred
on the Chang-pai-Shan mountains which is popularly believed
to have laid the seeds of the greatness of the present rulers
of the empire. Three heaven-born maidens, so runs the
554
MANCINI MANDAEANS
legend, were bathing one day in a lake under the Chang-pai-Shan
mountains when a passing magpie dropped a ripe red fruit into
the lap of one of them. The maiden ate the fruit, and in due
course a child was born to her, whom she named Aisin Gioro, or
the Golden. When quite a lad Aisin Gioro was elected chief
over three contending clans, and established his capital at Otoli
near the Chang-pai-Shan mountains. His reign, however, was
brief, for his subjects rose and murdered him, with all his sons
except the youngest, Fancha, who, like the infant Haitu in
Mongolian history, was miraculously saved. Nothing is re-
corded of the facts of Aisin Gioro's reign except that he named
the people over whom he reigned Manchu, or " Pure." His
descendants, through the rescued Fancha, fell into complete
obscurity until about the middle of the i6th century, when one
of them, Nurhachu by name, a chieftain of a small tribe, rose to
power. Nurhachu played with skill and daring the role which
had been played by Jenghiz Khan more than three centuries
before in Mongolia. With even greater success than his Mon-
golian counterpart, Nurhachu drew tribe after tribe under his
sway, and after numerous wars with Korea and Mongolia he
established his rule over the whole of Manchuria. Being thus
the sovereign of an empire, he, again like Jenghiz Khan, adopted
for himself the title of Ying-ming, " Brave and Illustrious," and
took for his reign the title of T'ien-ming. Thirteen years later,
in 1617, after numerous border fights with the Chinese, Nurhachu
drew up a list of " seven hates," or indictments, against his
southern neighbours, and, not getting the satisfaction he de-
manded, declared war against them. The progress of this war,
the peace hastily patched up, the equally hasty alliance and its
consequences, being matters of Chinese history, are treated in
the article CHINA.
Manchuria was claimed by Russia as her particular sphere dl
interest towards the close of the ipth century, and in the course
of the disturbances of 1900 Russian troops occupied various
parts of the country. Eventually a Manchurian convention
was arranged between China and Russia, by which Russia was
to evacuate the province; but no actual ratification of this con-
vention was made by Russia. The Anglo-German agreement
of October 1900, to which Japan also became a party, and by
which it was agreed to " maintain undiminished the territorial
condition of the Chinese empire," was considered by Great
Britain and Japan not to exclude Manchuria; but Germany, on
the other hand, declared that Manchuria was of no interest to
her. The Anglo- Japanese treaty of 1902, however, was osten-
sibly directed towards the preservation of Manchuria in Chinese
hands. British capital has been invested in the extension of
the Chinese Northern railway to Niu-chwang, and the fact was
officially recognized by an agreement between Great Britain and
Russia in 1899. One result of the Russo-Japanese War was the
evacuation of Manchuria by the Russians, which, after the con-
clusion of peace in 1905, was handed over by Japan to China.
See H. E. M. James, The Long White Mountain (London, 1888);
D. Christie, Ten Years in Manchuria (Paisley, 1895); F. E. Young-
husband, The Heart of a Continent : a Narrative of Travels in Man-
churia (London, 1896); P. H. Kent, Railway Enterprise in China
(London, 1907). (R. K. D.)
MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO (1817-1888), Italian
jurist and statesman, was born at Castel Baronia, in the province
of Avellino, on the I7th of March 1817. At Naples, where he
studied law and displayed great literary activity, he rapidly
acquired a prominent position, and in 1848 was instrumental
in persuading Ferdinand II. to participate in the war against
Austria. Twice he declined the offer of a portfolio in the Neapoli-
tan cabinet, and upon the triumph of the reactionary party
undertook the defence of the Liberal political prisoners. Threat-
ened with imprisonment in his turn, he fled to Piedmont, where
he obtained a university professorship and became preceptor
of the crown prince Humbert. In 1860 he prepared the legisla-
tive unification of Italy, opposed the idea of an alliance between
Piedmont and Naples, and, after the fall of the Bourbons, was
sent to Naples as administrator of justice, in which capacity he
suppressed the religious orders, revoked the Concordat, pro-
claimed the right of the state to Church property, and unified
civil and commercial jurisprudence. In 1862 he became minister
of public instruction in the Rattazzi cabinet, and induced the
Chamber to abolish capital punishment. Thereafter, for fourteen
years, he devoted himself chiefly to questions of international
law and arbitration, but in 1876, upon the advent of the Left to
power, became minister of justice in the Depretis cabinet. His
Liberalism found expression in the extension of press freedom,
the repeal of imprisonment for debt, and the abolition of ecclesi-
astical tithes. During the Conclave of 1878 he succeeded, by
negotiations with Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), in
inducing the Sacred College to remain in Rome, and, after the
election of the new pope, arranged for his temporary absence
from the Vatican for the purpose of settling private business.
Resigning office in March 1878, he resumed the practice of law,
and secured the annulment of Garibaldi's marriage. The fall
of Cairoli led to Mancini's appointment (1881) to the ministry
of foreign affairs in the Depretis administration. The growing
desire in Italy for alliance with Austria and Germany did not
at first secure his approval; nevertheless he accompanied King
Humbert to Vienna and conducted the negotiations which led
to the informal acceptance of the Triple Alliance. His desire
to retain French confidence was the chief motive of his refusal
in July 1882 to share in the British expedition to Egypt, but,
finding his efforts fruitless when the existence of the Triple
Alliance came to be known, he veered to the English interest and
obtained assent in London to the Italian expedition to Massawa.
An indiscreet announcement of the limitations of the Triple
Alliance contributed to his fall in June 1885, when he was
succeeded by Count di Robilant. He died in Rome on the
26th of December 1888.
MANCIPLE, the official title of the caterer at a college, an
inn of court, or other institution. Sometimes also the chief cook.
The medieval Latin manceps, formed from mancipium, acquisi-
tion by purchase (see ROMAN LAW), meant a purchaser of stores,
and mancipium became used of his office. It is from the latter
word that the O. Fr. manciple is taken.
MANCUNIUM, the name often (though perhaps incorrectly)
given as the Romano-British name of Manchester. Here, close
to the Medlock, in the district still called Castlefield near Knott
Mill, stood in Roman days a fort garrisoned by a cohort of Roman
auxiliary soldiers. The site is now obscured by houses, railways
and the Rochdale canal, but vestiges of Roman ramparts can
still be seen, and other remains were found in 1907 and previous
years. Traces of Romano-British inhabitation have been noted
elsewhere in Manchester, especially near the cathedral. But
there was no town here; we can trace nothing more than a fort
guarding the roads running north through Lancashire and east
into Yorkshire, and the dwellings of women-folk and traders
which would naturally spring up outside such a fort. The
ancient name is unknown. Our Roman authorities give both
Mancunium and Mamucium, but it is not clear that either
form is correct.
See W. T. Watkin's Roman Lancashire; C. Roeder's Roman
Manchester, and the account edited by F. Bruton of the excavations
in 1907. (F. J. H.)
MANDAEANS, also known as Sabians, Nasoraeans, or St
John's Christians, 1 an Oriental sect of great antiquity, interesting
to the theologian as almost the only surviving example of a
1 The first of these names (not Mendaeans or Mandaites) is that
given by themselves, and means -fvaarucol, followers of Gnosis
(K-N-UKO, from NIJND, Hebr. yp). The Gnosis of which they
profess themselves adherents is a personification, the aeon and
mediator " knowledge of life " (see below). The title Nasoraeans
(Nasoraye), according to Petermann, they give only to those among
themselves who are most distinguished for knowledge and character.
Like the Arabic Nasara, it is originally identical with the name of the
half heathen half Jewish-Christian Nofwpoioi, and indicates an early
connexion with that sect. The inappropriate designation of St John s
Christians arises from the early and imperfect acquaintance of
Christian missionaries, who had regard merely to the reverence in
which the name of the Baptist is held among them, and their frequent
baptisms. In their dealings with members of other communions
the designation they take is Sabians, in Arabic Sabi'una, from
Kjif = yi*, to baptize, thus claiming the toleration extended by the
Koran (Sur. 5,73; 22, 17; 2, 59) to those of that name.
MANDAEANS
555
religion compounded of Christian, heathen and Jewish elements
on a type which is essentially that of ancient Gnosticism.
The Mandaeans are found in the marshy lands of South Baby-
lonia (al-bataih), particularly in the neighbourhood of Basra (or
Bussorah), and in Khuzistan (Disful, Shuster). 1 They speak
the languages of the localities in which they are settled (Arabic
or Persian), but the language of their sacred books is an Aramaic
dialect, which has its closest affinities with that of the Babylonian
Talmud, written in a peculiar character suggestive of the old
Palmyrene. 2 The existence of the Mandaeans has been known
since the middle of the i;th century, when the first Christian
missionaries, Ignatius a Jesu ' and Angelus a Sancto, began to
labour among them at Basra; further information was gathered
at a somewhat later date by Pietro della Valle 1 and Jean de
Thevenot 6 (1633-1667), and in the following century by Engel-
brecht Kaempfer (1651-1716), Jean Chardin (1643-1713) and
Carsten Niebuhr. In recent times they have been visited by
A. H. Petermann 6 andAlbrecht Socin,and Siouffi 7 published in
1880 a full and accurate account of their manners and customs,
taken from the lips of a converted Mandaean. For our know-
ledge of their doctrinal system, however, we still depend chiefly
upon the sacred books already mentioned, consisting of frag-
ments of very various antiquity derived from an older literature. 8
Of these the largest and most important is the Sidra rabbd
(" Great Book "), known also as Ginza (" Treasure "), consisting
of two unequal parts, of which the larger is called yamind (to the
right hand) and the smaller s'mala (to the left hand), because
of the manner in which they are bound together. The former
is intended for the living; the latter consists chiefly of prayers
to be read at the burial of priests. As regards doctrine, the work
is exhaustive; but it is diffuse, obscure, and occasionally self-
contradictory, as might be expected in a work which consists
of a number of unconnected paragraphs of various authorship
and date. The last section of the " right-hand " part (the " Book
of Kings ") is one of the older portions, and from its allusion
to " the Persian and Arabian kings " may be dated somewhere
between A.D. 700 and 900. Many of the doctrinal portions may
in substance well be still older, and date from the time of the
Sassanids. None of the MSS., however, is older than the i6th
century. 9
The following sketch represents, as far as can be gathered from
these heterogeneous sources, the principal features of the Man-
daean system. The ground and origin of all things is Pird, or
more correctly Perd rabbd (" the great abyss," or from tys, " to
split," cf. the Gnostic /3u06s, or more probably cf . Heb. peri, " the
great fruit "), associated with whom, and forming a triad with
him, are the primal aeons Ayar zivd rabbd, " the great shining
aether," and Mdnd rabbd d'efcdrd, " the great spirit of glory,"
usually called simply Mdnd rabbd. The last-named, the most
prominent of the three, is the king of light properly so called, from
whom the development of all things begins. From him emanates
Yardlnd rabbd, " the great Jordan," which, as the higher-world
1 In 1882 they were said to have shrunk to 200 families, and to be
seeking a new settlement on the Tigris, to escape the persecutions
to which they are exposed.
SeeT. Noldeke's admirable" Manddische Grammatik (Halle, 1875).
* Narratio originis, riiuum, et errorum Christianorum S. Joannis
(Rome, 1652).
4 Reisebeschreibung, part iv. (Geneva, 1674).
Voyage au Levant (Paris, 1664).
* Reisen int Orient, ii. 447 seq.
7 M. M. Siouffi, tudes sur la religion . . . des Soubbas (Paris, 1880).
' Mandaean MSS. occur in the British Museum, the Bodleian
Library, the Bibliotheque Nationale of France, and also in Rome,
Weimar and Berlin. A number of Mandaean inscriptions relating
to popular beliefs and superstitions have been published by H.
Pognon, Inscriptions mandaites (2 vols., Paris, 1898-1899), also by
M. Lidzbarski in his Ephemeris (Giessen, 1900 seq.).
* The first printed edition and translation of the Sidra rabba, by
Matth. Norberg (Codex Nazaraeus, liber Adami appeUatus, 3 vols.,
Copenhagen, 1815-1816, followed by a lexicon in 1816, and an
onomasticon in 1817), is so defective as to be quite useless; even the
name Book of Adam is unknown to the Mandaeans. Petermann's
Thesaurus s. Liber magnus, vulgo " Liber Adami " appeUatus, opus
Mandaeorum summi ponderis (2 vols., Berlin and Leipzig, 1867), is
an excellent metallographic reproduction of the Paris MS. A German
soul, permeates the whole aether, the domain of Ayar. Along-
side of Mdnd rabbd frequent mention is made of D'mulhd, his
" image," as a female power; the name " image of the father "
arises out of the same conception as that which gives rise to the
name of tvvoia. among the Greek Gnostics. Mdnd rabbd called
into being the highest of the aeons properly so called, Hayye
gadmdye, " Primal Life," and then withdrew into deepest secrecy,
visible indeed to the highest but not to the lowest aeons (cf.
2o<ia and UpoTrarcap), yet manifesting himself also to the souls
of the more pious of the Mandaeans after their separation from
the body. Primal Life, who is properly speaking the Mandaean
god, _has the same predicates as the primal spirit, and every
prayer, as well as every section of the sacred books, begins by
invoking him. 10 The extremely fantastic delineation of the world
of light by which Hayye ftadmdye is surrounded (see for example
the beginning of Sidra rabbd) corresponds very closely with the
Manichaean description of the abode of the " king of the paradise
of light." The king of light " sits in the far north in might and
glory." The Primal Light unfolds himself by five great branches,
viz. " the highest purest light, the gentle wind, the harmony
of sounds, the voice of all the aeons, and the beauty of their
forms," all these being treated as abstractions and personified.
Out of the further development and combination of these primary
manifestations arise numerous aeons (' Ulhre, " splendours," from
nny, " is rich "), of which the number is often stated to be three
hundred and sixty. They are divided into a number of classes
(kings, hypostases, forms, &c.) ; the proper names by which they
are invoked are many, and for the most part obscure, borrowed
doubtless, to some extent, from the Parsee angelology. From
the First Life proceeds as a principal emanation the " Second
Life," Hayye Tinydne, generally called Yoshamin. This last name
is evidently meant to be Hebrew, "Yahweh of the heavens,"
the God of the Jews being of a secondary rank in the usual
Gnostic style. The next emanation after Yoshamin is " the
messenger of life " (Mandd d'hayye, literally yvuxra TTJS fonjs),
the most important figure in the entire system, the mediator and
redeemer, the \byos and the Christ of the Mandaeans, from
whom, as already stated, they take their name. He belongs
to the heathen Gnosis, and is in his essence the same as the
Babylonian Marduk. Yoshamin desired to raise himself above
the Primal Light, but failed in the attempt, and was punished
by removal out of the pure aetherial world into that of inferior
light. Manda, on the other hand, continues with the First Life
and Mdnd rabbd, and is called his " beloved son," the " first
born," " high priest " and " word of life." The " Life " calls into
existence in the visible world a series of three great Helpers,
Hibil, Shithil and Anosh (late Judaeo-Babylonian transforma-
tions of the well-known names of the book of Genesis), the
guardians of souls. The last son of the Second Life is Hayye
t'lUhaye, the " Third Life," usually called father of the Uthre
(Aba d' 'Uthre, Abdthur). His usual epithet is " the Ancient "
('Atiqa), and he is also called " the deeply hidden and guarded."
He stands on the borderland between the here and the hereafter,
translation of about a Quarter of this work has been published
in W. Brandt's Mandaische Schriften, with notes (Gottingen, 1893).
A critical edition still remains a desideratum. Next in importance to
the Sidra rdbba is the Sidra d' Yahya, or " Book of John, otherwise
known as the D'raschi d'Malke, " Discourses of the Kings," which
has not as yet been printed as a whole, although portions nave been
published by Lorsbach and Tychsen (see Museum}, bibl. u. orient. Lit.
(1807), and Staudlin's Beilr. z. Phil. u. Gesch. d. Relig. u. Sittenlehre
1796 seq.). The Kolasta (Ar. Khulafa, " Quintessence "), or accord-
ing to its fuller title 'Eny&ne uderashid'masbutha umassefrthd (" Songs
and Discourses of Baptism and the Ascent," viz. of the soul after
death), has been admirably lithographed by Euting (Stuttgart, 1867).
It is also known as Sidra d'neshmdtha, " Book of Souls," and besides
hymns and doctrinal discourses contains prayers to be offered by the
priests at sacrifice and at meals, as well as other liturgical matter.
The Mandaean marriage service occurs both in Paris and in Oxford
as an independent MS. The Dlw&n, hitherto unpublished, contains
the ritual for atonement. The Asfar maiwashe, or " Book of the
Zodiac," is astrological. Of smaller pieces many are magical and
used as amulets.
10 The use of the word " life " in a personal sense is usual in Gnosti-
cism; compare the Zaii of Valentin and el-hayat el-muallama, " the
dark life," of Mani in the Fihrist.
556
MANDAEANS
like the mysterious Trpeff/Jimjs TPITOS or senex tertius of Mani,
whose becoming visible will betoken the end of the world.
Abathur sits on the farthest verge of the world of light that lies
towards the lower regions, and weighs in his balance the deeds
of the departed spirits who ascend to him. Beneath him was
originally nothing but a huge void with muddy black water at
the bottom, in which his image was reflected, becoming ulti-
mately solidified into P'tahll, his son, who now partakes of the
nature of matter. The demiurge of the Mandaeans, and corre-
sponding to the laldabaoth of the Ophites, he at the instance of
his father frames the earth and men according to some passages
in conjunction with the seven bad planetary spirits. He created
Adam and Eve, but was unable to make them stand upright,
whereupon Hibil, Shithil and Anosh were sent by the First Life
to infuse into their forms spirit from Mana rabba himself. Hibil,
at the instance of the supreme God, also taught men about the
world of light and the aeons, and especially gave them to know
that not P'tahll but another was their creator and supreme God,
who as " the great king of light, without number, without limit,"
stands far above him. At the same time he enjoined the pair
to marry and people the world. P'tahll had now lost his power
over men, and was driven by his father out of the world of light
into a place beneath it, whence he shall at the day of judgment
be raised, and after receiving baptism be made king of the 'Uthre
with divine honours.
The underworld is made up of four vestibules and three hells
properly so called. The vestibules have each two rulers, Zartay
and Zartanay, Hag and Mag, Gaf and Gafan, Anatan and Kin.
In the highest hell rules alone the grisly king Sh'dum, " the
warrior "; in the storey immediately beneath is Giv, " the
great "; and in the lowest is Krun or Karkum, the oldest and
most powerful of all, commonly called " the great mountain of
flesh" (Turd rabba d'besra) , but also " the first-born of darkness."
In the vestibules dirty water is still to be met with, but the hells
are full of scorching consuming fire, except Krun's domain, where
is nought but dust, ashes and vacancy. Into these regions
descended Hibil the brilliant, in the power of Mana rabba, just
as in the Manichaean mythology the " primal man," armed with
the elements of the king of light, descends to a contest with the
primal devil. Hibil lingers, gradually unfolding his power, in
each of the vestibules, and finally passing from hell to hell reaches
Karkum. Hibil allows himself to be half swallowed by the
monster, but is unhurt, and compels his antagonist to recognize
the superiority of Mana rabba, the God of light, and to divulge
his profoundest secret, the hidden name of darkness. Armed
with this he returns through the successive hells, compelling the
disclosure of every secret, depriving the rulers of their power,
and barring the doors of the several regions. From the fourth
vestibule he brought the female devil Ruha, daughter of Kin,
and set her over the whole four. This Ruha, the mother of false-
hood and lies, of poisoning and fornication is an anti-Christian
parody of the Ruha d'Qudsha (Holy Spirit) of the Syriac Church.
She is the mother of Ur, the personified fire of hell, who in anger
and pride made a violent onset on the world of light (compare
the similar occurrence in the Manichaean mythology), but was
mastered by Hibil and thrown in chains down to the " black
water," and imprisoned within seven iron and seven golden walls.
By Ur, Ruha, while P'tahll was engaged in his work of creation,
became mother of three sets of seven, twelve and five sons
respectively; all were translated by P'tahll to the heavenly firma-
ment (like the Archons of Mani), the first group forming the
planets and the next the signs of the zodiac, while the third is
as yet undetermined. Of the names of the planets Estera (Ishtar
Venus, also called Ruha d'Qudsha, " holy spirit "), Enba (Nebo,
Mercury), Sin (moon), Kewan (Saturn), Bll (Jupiter), and Nirig
(Nirgal, Mars) reveal their Babylonian origin; II or II II, the sun,
is also known as Kadush and Adunay (the Adonai of the Old
Testament); as lord of the planetary spirits his place is in the
midst of them; they are the source of all temptation and evil
amongst men. The houses of the planets, as well as the earth
and a second world immediately to the north of it, rest upon
anvils laid by Hibil on the belly of Ur.
In the Mandaean representation the sky is an ocean of
water, pure and clear, but of more than adamantine solidity,
upon which the stars and planets sail. Its transparency
allows us to see even to the pole star, who is the central sun
around whom all the heavenly bodies move. Wearing a jewelled
crown, he stands before Abathur's door at the gate of the world
of light; the Mandaeans accordingly invariably pray with their
faces turned northward. The earth is conceived of as a round
disk, slightly sloping towards the south, surrounded on three
sides by the sea, but on the north by a high mountain of tur-
quoises; behind this is the abode of the blest, a sort of inferior
paradise, inhabited by the Egyptians who were saved from
drowning with Pharaoh in the Red Sea, and whom the Man-
daeans look upon as their ancestors, Pharaoh himself having been
their first high priest and king. The total duration of the earth
they fix at four hundred and eighty thousand years, divided into
seven epochs, in each of which one of the planets rules. The
Sidra Rabba knows of three total destructions of the human race
by fire and water, pestilence and sword, a single pair alone sur-
viving in each case. In the Mandaean view the Old Testament
saints are false prophets; such as Abraham, who arose six thousand
years after Nu (Noah) during the reign of the sun, Mlsha (Moses),
in whose time the true religion was professed by the Egyptians,
and Shllmun (Solomon) bar Davith, the lord of the demons.
Another false prophet and magician was Yishu M'shlha, who was
in fact a manifestation of the planet Mercury. Forty-two years
before his day, under King Pontius Pilate, there had appeared
the true prophet Yahya or John son of Zechariah, an incarnation
of Hibil, of whose birth and childhood fantastic stories are told.
Yahya by a mistake gave baptism to the false Messiah, who had
feigned humility; on the completion of his mission, after under-
going a seeming execution, he returned clothed with light into
the kingdom of light. As a contemporary of Yahya and the
false Messiah Hibil 's younger brother Anosh 'Uthra came down
from heaven, caused himself to be baptized by Yahya, wrought
miracles of healing and of raising the dead, and brought about
the crucifixion of the false Messiah. He preached the true
religion, destroyed Jerusalem (" Urashlam," i.e. " the devil
finished it "), which had been built by Adunay, dispersed over
the world the Jews who had put Yahya to death, and previous
to his return into the worlds of light sent forth three hundred and
sixty prophets for the diffusion of the true religion. All this
speaks of intense hatred alike of Jews and Christians; the fasts,
celibacy and monastic and anchoret life of the latter are
peculiarly objectionable to the Mandaeans. Two hundred and
forty years after the appearing of the false Messiah there came
to the world sixty thousand saints out of Pharaoh's world to
take the place of the Mandaeans, who had been completely
extirpated; their high priest had his residence in Damascus.
The last false prophet was M'hammad or Ahmat bar Bisbat
(Mahomet), but Anosh, who remained close beside him and his
immediate successors, prevented hostilities against the true
believers, who claim to have had in Babylonia, under the
Abbasids, four hundred places of worship. Subsequent per-
secutions compelled their withdrawal to 'Ammara in the
neighbourhood of Wasit, and ultimately to Khuzistan. At the
end of the world the devil Ur will swallow up the earth and
the other intermediate higher worlds, and thereupon will burst
and fall into the abyss of darkness where, along with all the
worlds and powers of darkness, he will ultimately cease to be, so
that thenceforward the universe will consist of but one ever-
lasting world of light.
The chief depositaries of these Mandaean mysteries are the priests,
who enjoy a high degree of power and social regard. The priest-
hood has three grades: (l) the Sh'kanda or deacon is generally
chosen from episcopal or priestly families, and must be without
bodily blemish. The candidate for orders must be at least nineteen
years old and have undergone twelve years' preparation; he is then
qualified to assist the priesthood in the ceremonies of religion. (2)
The Tarmlda (i.e. " Talmida," " initiated ") or priest is ordained
by a bishop and two priests or by four priests after a long
and extremely painful period of preparation. (3) The Ganzivra
(" treasurer ") or bishop, the highest dignitary, is chosen from
the whole body of the Tarmldas after a vanety of tests, and
MANDALAY
557
possesses unlimited authority over the clergy. A supreme priestly
r.uik, that of Risk 'ammo, or " head of the people." is recog-
nized, but only in theory; since the time of Pharaoh this sovereign
pontificate has only once been filled. Women are admitted to
priestly offices as well as men. The priestly dress, which is all white,
consists of drawers, an upper garment, and a girdle with the so-called
tdgd (" crown ") ; in all ceremonies the celebrants must be barefoot.
By far the most frequent and important of the religious ceremonies
is that of baptism (ma^biitha), which is called for in a great variety
of cases, not only for children but for adults, where consecration or
purification is required, as for example on all Sundays and feast
days, after contact with a dead body, after return from abroad,
after neglect of any formality on the part of a priest in the discharge
of his functions. In all these cases baptism is performed by total
immersion in running water, but during the five days' baptismal
festival the rite is observed wholesale by mere sprinkling of large
masses of the faithful at once. The Mandaeans observe also with
the elements of bread (pehta) and wine (mambuha, lit. " fountain ")
a sort of eucharist, which has a special sanctifying efficacy, and is
usually dispensed at festivals, but only to baptized persons of good
repute who have never willingly denied the Mandaean faith. In
receiving it the communicant must not touch the host with his
finger; otherwise it loses its virtue. The hosts are made by the
priests from unleavened fine flour. The Mandaean places of worship,
being designed only for the priests and their assistants (the wor-
shippers remaining in the forecourt), are excessively small, and very
simply furnished ; two windows, a door that opens towards the south
so that those who enter have their faces turned towards the pole
star, a few boards in the corner, and a gabled roof complete the whole
structure; there is neither altar nor decoration of any kind. The
neighbourhood of running water (for baptisms) is essential. At the
consecration of a church the sacrifice of a dove (the bird of Ishtar)
has place among the ceremonies. Besides Sundays there are six
great feasts : (i) that of the New Year (Navruz rabba), on the first
day of the first month of winter; (2) Dehwa h' mna, the anniversary
of the happy return of Hibil Ziva from the kingdom of darkness into
that of light, lasting five days, beginning with the 1 8th of the first
month of spring ; (3) the Marwana, in commemoration of the drowned
Egyptians, on the first day of the second month of spring; (4) the
great five days' baptismal festival (pantsha), the chief teast, kept
on the five intercalary days at the end of the second month of sum-
merduring its continuance every Mandaean, male and female,
must dress in white and bathe thrice daily; (5) Dehwa d'daimana,
in honour of one of the three hundred and sixty 'Uthras, on the first
day of the second month of autumn ; (6) Kanshe Zahla, the prepara-
tion feast, held on the last day of the year. Thereare also fast days
called m'battal (Arab.), on which it is forbidden to kill any living
thing or eat flesh. These, however, are really " rest-days," as
fasting is forbidden in Mandaeism. The year is solar, and has
twelve months of thirty days each, with five intercalary days between
the eighth and the ninth month. Of the seven days of the week,
next to Sunday (habshaba) Thursday has a special sacredness as
the day of Hibil Ziva. As regards secular occupation, the present
Mandaeans are goldsmiths, ironworkers, and house and ship carpen-
ters. The Sidra Rabba lays great stress upon the duty of procreation,
and marriage is a duty. In the 1 7th century, according to the old
travellers, they numbered about 20,000 families, but at the present
day they hardly number more than 1200 souls. In external appear-
ance the Mandaean is distinguished from the Moslem only by a brown
coat and a parti-coloured headcloth with a cord twisted round it.
They have some peculiar deathbed rites : a deacon with some atten-
dants waits upon the dying, and as death approaches administers
a bath first of warm and afterwards of cold water; a holy dress,
consisting of seven pieces (rasta), is then put on ; the feet are directed
towards the north and the head turned to the south, so that the body
faces the pole star. After the burial a funeral feast is held in the
house of mourning.
The Mandaeans are strictly reticent about their theological dogmas
in the presence of strangers; and the knowledge they actually
possess of these is extremejy small. The foundation of the system
is obviously to be sought in Gnosticism, and more particularly in
the older type of that doctrine (known from the serpent symbol as
Ophite or Naassene) which obtained in Mesopotamia and Further
Asia generally. But it is equally plain that the Ophite nucleus has
from time to time received very numerous and often curiously per-
verted accretions from Babylonian Judaism, Oriental Christianity
and Parsism, exhibiting a striking example of religious syncretism.
In the Gnostic basis itself it is not difficult to recognize the general
features of the religion of ancient Babylonia, and thus we are brought
nearer a solution of the problem as to the origin of Gnosticism in
general. It is certain that Babylonia, the seat of the present
Mandaeans, must be regarded also as the cradle in which their
system was reared ; it is impossible to think of them as coming from
Palestine, or to attribute to their doctrines a Jewish or Christian
origin. They do not spring historically from the disciples of John
the Baptist (Acts xviii.25; xix.3seq.; Rccog. Clem. i. 54) ; the tradi-
tion in which he and the Jordan figure so largely is not original,
and is therefore worthless; at the same time it is true that their
baptismal praxis and its interpretation place them in the same
religious group with the Hemerobaptists of Eusebius (H. E. iv. 22)
and Epiphanius (Haer., xvii.), or with the sect of disciples of John
who remained apart from Christianity. Their reverence for John is
of a piece with their whole syncretizing attitude towards the New
Testament. Indeed, as has been seen, they appropriate the entire
personate of the Bible from Adam, Seth, Abel, Enos and Pharaoh
to Jesus and John, a phenomenon which bears witness to the close
relations of the Mandaean doctrine both with Judaism and Christi-
anity not the less close because they were relations of hostility.
The history of religion presents other examples of the degradation
of holy to demonic figures on occasion of religious schism. The use
of the word " Jordan," even in the plural, for " sacred water," is
precisely similar to that by the Naassenes described in the Philoso-
phumena (v. 7); there & iifyas 'lop&anis denotes the spiritualizing
sanctifying fluid which pervades the world of light. The notions of
the Egyptians and the Red Sea, according to the same work (v. 16},
are used by the Peratae much as by the Mandaeans. And the posi-
tion assigned by the Sethians (Lrfluu/ot) to Seth is precisely similar
to that given by the Mandaeans to Abel. Both alike are merely old
Babylonian divinities in a new Biblical garb. The genesis of Man-
daeism and the older gnosis from the old and elaborate Babylonio-
Chaldaean religion is clearly seen also in the fact that the names of
the old pantheon (as for example those of the planetary divinities)
are retained, but their holders degraded to the position of demons
a conclusion confirmed by the fact that the Mandaeans, like the
allied Ophites, Peratae and Manichaeans, certainly have their
original seat in Mesopotamia and Babylonia. It seems clear that
the trinity of Anu, Bel, and Ea in the old Babylonian religion has its
counterpart in the Mandaean Pira, Ayar, and Mana rabba. The
D'mutha of Mana is the Damkina, the wife of Ea, mentioned by
Damascius as Aavn^, wife of 'A6$. Manda d'hayye and his image
Hibil Ziva with his incarnations clearly correspond to the old
Babylonian Marduk, Merodach, the " first-born " son of Ea, with his
incarnations, the chief divinity of the city of Babylon, the mediator
and redeemer in the old religion. Hibil's contest with darkness has
its prototype in Marduk's battle with chaos, the dragon Tiamat,
which (another striking parallel) partially swallows Marduk, just
as is related of Hibil and the Manichaean primal man. Other
features are borrowed by the Mandaean mythology under this head
from the well-known epos of Istar's descensus ad inferos. The sanctity
with which water is invested by the Mandaeans is to be explained
by the fact that Ea has his seat " in the depths of the world sea."
Cf. K. Kessler's article, " Mandaer," in Herzog-Hauck's Rcal-
encyklopddie, and the same author's paper, " Ueber Gnosis u.
altbabylpnische Religion," in the Abhandn. d.funften inttrnationalen
Orientalisten-congresses zu Berlin (Berlin, 1882); also W. Brandt's
Mandaische Religion (Leipzig, 1889). and M. N. Siouffi's tudes sur
la religion des Soubbas (Paris, 1880). (K. K. ; G. W. T.)
MANDALAY, formerly the capital of independent Burma,
now the headquarters of the Mandalay division and district, as
well as the chief town in Upper Burma, stands on the left bank
of the Irrawaddy, in 21 59' N. and 96 8' E. Its height above
mean sea-level is 315 ft. Mandalay was built in 1856-1857 by
King Mindon. It is now divided into the municipal area and
the cantonment. The town covers an area of 6 m. from north
to south and 3 from east to west, and has well-metalled
roads lined with avenues of trees and regularly lighted and
watered. The cantonment consists of the area inside the old
city walls, and is now called Fort Dufferin. In the centre stands
the palace, a group of wooden buildings, many of them highly
carved and gilt, resting on a brick platform 900 ft. by 500 ft.,
and 6 ft. high. The greater part of it is now utilized for military
and other offices. The garrison consists of a brigade belonging
to the Burma command of the Indian army. There are many fine
pagodas and monastic buildings in the town. The population
in 1901 was 183,816, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade.
The population is very mixed. Besides Burmese there are
Zerbadis (the offspring of a Mahommedan with a Burman wife),
Mahommedans, Hindus, Jews, Chinese, Shans and Manipuris
(called Kathe), Kachins and Palaungs. Trains run from Manda-
lay to Rangoon, Myit-kyina, and up the Mandalay-Kunlong rail-
way. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also ply
in all directions. There are twenty bazaars, the chief of which,
the Zegyo, was burnt in 1897, and again in 19(56, but rebuilt.
The MANDALAY DISTRICT has an area of 2 1 1 7 sq. m. and a popu-
lation (1901) of 366,507, giving a density of 177 inhabitants to the
square mile. About 600 sq. m. along the Irrawaddy river are
flat land, nearly all cultivated. In the north and east there are
some 1500 sq m. of high hills and table-lands, forming geogra-
phically a portion of the Shan table-land. Here the fall to the
plains averages 3000 to 4000 ft. in a distanceof lorn. This part
of the district is well wooded and watered. The Maymyo
558
MANDAMUS MANDARIN
subdivision has very fine plateaus of 3000 to 3600 ft. in height.
The highest peaks are between 4000 and 5000 ft. above sea-
level. The Irrawaddy, the Myit-nge and the Madaya are the
chief rivers. The last two come from the Shan States, and are
navigable for between 20 and 30 m. There are many canals,
most of which have fallen greatly into disrepair, and the
Aungbinle, Nanda and Shwepyi lakes also supply water for
cultivation. A systematic irrigation scheme has been under-
taken by the government. The Sagyin hills near Madaya are
noted for their alabaster; rubies are also found in small quantities.
There are 335 sq. m. of forest reserves in the district, but there
is little teak. The climate is dry and healthy. During May and
June and till August strong winds prevail. The thermometer
rises to about 107 in the shade in the hot weather, and the
minimum in the month of December is about 55. The rainfall
is light, the average being under 30 in.
The DIVISION includes the districts of Mandalay, Bhamo,
Myitkyina, Katha and Ruby Mines, with a total area of 29,373
sq. m., and a population (1901) of 777,338, giving an average
density of 30 inhabitants to the square mile. (J. G. Sc.)
MANDAMUS, WRIT OF, in English law, a high prerogative
writ issuing from the High Court of Justice (named from the first
word in the Latin form of the writ) containing a command in the
name of the king, directed to inferior courts, corporations, or
individuals, ordering them to do a specific act within the duty of
their office, or which they are bound by statute to do, and per-
formance whereof the applicant for the writ has a specific legal
right to enforce. Direct orders from the sovereign to subjects
commanding the performance of particular acts were common in
early times, and to this class of orders mandamus originally
belonged. It became customary for the court of king's bench, in
cases where a legal duty was established but no sufficient means
existed for enforcing it, to order performance by this writ.
Under the Judicature Acts and the Crown Office Rules, 1906
(r. 49), the powers of the court of king's bench as to the grant
of the prerogative writ of mandamus are exercisable only in the
king's bench division of the High Court.
The writ though of right is not of course: i.e. the applicant
cannot have it merely for the asking, but must satisfy the High
Court that circumstances exist calling for its issue. The pro-
cedure regulating the grant and enforcement of the writ is
determined by the Crown Office Rules, 1906 (rr. 49-68, 125).
Mandamus has always been regarded as an exceptional remedy
to supplement the deficiencies of the common law, or defects of
justice. Where another legal or equitable remedy exists, equally
appropriate, convenient, speedy, beneficial and effectual, the writ
will as a rule be refused. It is occasionally granted even when a
remedy by indictment is available: but is not issued unless the exist-
ence of the duty and refusal to perform it are clearly established,
nor where performance in fact has become impossible. The writ is
used to compel inferior courts to hear and determine according to
law cases within their jurisdiction, e.g. where a county court or
justices in petty or quarter sessions refuse to assume a jurisdiction
which they possess to deal with a matter brought before them.
It has in recent years been employed to compel municipal bodies to
discharge their duties as to providing proper sewerage for their
districts and to compel anti-vaccinationist guardians of the poor
to appoint officers for the execution of the Vaccination Acts; and
it is also employed to compel the promoters of railway and similar
undertakings to discharge duties imposed upon them towards the
public by their special acts, e.g. with reference to highways, &c.,
affected by their railways or other undertakings. The courts do
not prescribe the specific manner in which the duty is to be dis-
charged, but do not stay their hands until substantial compliance is
established.
Besides the prerogative common-law writ there are a number of
orders, made by the High Court under statutory authority, and de-
scribed as or as being in the nature of mandamus, e.g. mandamus to
proceed to the election of a corporate officer of a municipal corpora-
tion (Municipal Corporations Act 1882, s. 225) ; orders in the nature
of mandamus to justices to hear and determine a matter within their
jurisdiction, or to state and sign a case under the enactments relating
to special cases.
At common law mandamus lies only for the performance of acts
of a public or official character. The enforcement of merely private
obligations, such as those arising from contracts, is not within its
scope. By s. 68 of the Common Law Procedure Act 1854, the plain-
tiff in any action other than replevin and ejectment was empowered
to claim a writ of mandamus to compel the defendant to fulfil any
duty in the fulfilment of which the plaintiff was personally interested.
By s. 25 (8) of the Judicature Act 1873 a mandamus may be granted
by an interlocutory order of the High Court in all cases in which it
shall appear to the court just or convenient that such an order should
be made. This enactment does not deal with the prerogative man-
damus but empowers the king's bench and the chancery divisions
to grant an interlocutory mandamus in any pending cause or matter
by an order other than the final judgment and even by an order made
after the j udgment. S. 68 of the act of 1 854 has been repealed and re-
placed by Order LI 1 1. of the Rules of the Supreme Court. The remedy
thus created is an attempt to engraft upon the old common law
remedy by damages a right in the nature of specific performance of
the duty in question. It is not limited to cases in which the preroga-
tive writ would be granted ; but mandamus is not granted when the
result desired can be obtained by some remedy equally convenient,
beneficial and effective, or a particular and different remedy is
provided by statute. An action for mandamus does not lie against
judicial officers such as justices. The mandamus issued in the action
is no longer a writ of mandamus, but a judgment or order having
effect equivalent to the writ formerly used.
Mandatory Injunction. The High Court has a jurisdiction derived
from the court of chancery to grant injunctions at the suit of the
attorney-general or of private persons. Ordinarily these injunctions
are in the form of prohibition or restraint and not of command. But
occasionally mandatory injunctions are granted in the form of a
direct command by the court.
Specific Performance. The jurisdiction of the High Court, derived
from the court of chancery, to decree specific performance of con-
tracts has some resemblance to mandamus in the domains of public
or quasi-public law.
Ireland. The law of Ireland as to mandamus is derived from that
of England, and differs therefrom only in minor details.
British Possessions. In a British possession the power to issue
the prerogative writ is usually vested in the Supreme Court by its
charter or by local legislation.
United Slates. The writ has passed into the law of the United
States. " There is in the federal judiciary an employment of the
writ substantially as the old prerogative writ in the king's bench
practice, also as a mode of exercising appellate jurisdiction, also as a
proceeding ancillary to a judgment previously rendered, in exercise
of original jurisdiction, as when a circuit court having rendered
a judgment against a county issues a mandamus requiring its officers
to levy a tax to provide for the payment of the judgment." And in
the various states mandamus is used under varying regulations,
mandate being in some cases substituted as the name of the
proceeding.
MANDAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan
stock. When first met they were living on the Missouri at the
mouth of the Heart river. At the beginning of the igth cen-
tury they were driven up the Missouri by the Sioux. In 1845
they joined the Gros Ventres and later the Arikaras, and
settled in their present position at Fort Berthold reservation,
North Dakota. The Mandans have always been agricultural;
they are noted for their ceremonies, and from the tattooing on
face and breast were described in the sign language as " the
tattooed people."
MANDARIN, the common name for all public officials in
China, the Chinese name for whom is kwan or kwun. The word
comes through the Portuguese from Malay mantri, a counsellor
or minister of state. The ultimate origin of this word is the
Sanskrit root man-, meaning to " think," seen in " man,"
" mind," &c. The term " mandarin " is not, in its western
usage, applied indiscriminately to all civil and military officials,
but only to those who are entitled to wear a " button," which is
a spherical knob, about an inch in diameter, affixed to the top
of the official cap or hat. These officials, civil and military
alike, are divided into nine grades or classes, each grade being
distinguished by a button of a particular colour. The grade to
which an official belongs is not necessarily related to the office
he holds. The button which distinguishes the first grade is
a transparent red stone; the second grade, a red coral button;
the third, a sapphire; the fourth, a blue opaque stone; the fifth,
a crystal button; the sixth, an opaque white shell button; the
seventh, a plain gold button; the eighth, a worked gold button;
and the ninth, a worked silver button. The mandarins also
wear certain insignia embroidered on their official robes, and have
girdle clasps of different material. The first grade have, for
civilians an embroidered Manchurian crane on the breast and
back, for the military an embroidered unicorn with a girdle
clasp of jade set in rubies. The second grade, for civilians an
embroidered golden pheasant, for the military a lion with a girdle
QIC
MANDASOR MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE
559
clasp of gold set in rubies. The third grade, for civilians a pea-
cock, for the military a leopard with a clasp of worked gold.
The fourth grade, for civilians a wild goose, for the military a
tiger, and a clasp of worked gold with a silver button. The
fifth grade, for civilians a silver pheasant, for the military a
bi'ur and a clasp of plain gold with a silver button. The sixth
grade, for civilians an egret, for the military a tiger-cat with
a mother-of-pearl clasp. The seventh grade, for civilians a
mandarin duck, for the military a mottled bear with [a. silver
clasp. The eighth grade, for civilians a quail, for the military
a seal with a clear horn clasp. The ninth grade, for civilians a
long-tailed jay, for the military a rhinoceros with a buffalo-horn
clasp.
The " mandarin language " is the Chinese, which is spoken
in official and legal circles; it is also spoken over a considerable
portion of the country, particularly the northern and central
parts, though not perhaps with the same purity. Mandarin
duck (anas galericulata) and Mandarin orange (citrus nobilis)
possibly derive their names, by analogy, from the sense of
superiority implied in the title " mandarin."
Sec Society in China, by Sir R. K. Douglas; U Empire du milieu, by
E. and O. Reclus.
MANDASOR, or MANDSAUR, a town of Central India, in the
native state of Gwalior, on the Rajputana railway, 31 m. S. of
Neemuch. Pop. (1901), 20,936. It gave its name to the treaty
with Holkar, which concluded the Mahratta-Pindari War in 1818.
It is a centre of the Malwa opium trade.
Mandasor and its neighbourhood are full of archaeological
interest. An inscription discovered near the town indicated
the erection of a temple of the sun in 437, and at Sondani are
two great monolith pillars recording a victory of Yasodharma,
king of Malwa, in 528. The fort dates from the i4th and isth
centuries. Hindu and Jain remains are numerous, though the
town is now entirely Mahommedan.
MANDATE (Mandatum), a contract in Roman law constituted
by one person (the mandatarius) promising to do something
gratuitously at the request of another (the mandator), who under-
takes to indemnify him against loss. The jurist distinguished
the different cases of mandatum according as the object of
the contract was the benefit of the mandator or a third person
singly, or the mandator and a third person, the mandator
and the mandatarius, or the mandatarius and a third person
together. When the benefit was that of the mandatarius
alone, the obligations of the contract were held not to arise,
although the form of the contract might exist, the commission
being held to be merely advice tendered to the mandatarius, and
acted on by him at his own risk. Mandatum was classified as
one of the contracts established by consent of the parties alone;
but, as there was really no obligation of any kind until the man-
datarius had acted on the mandate, it has with more propriety
been referred to the contracts created by the supply of some
fact (re). The obligations of the mandatarius under the con-
tract were, briefly, to do what he had promised according to his
instructions, observing ordinary diligence in taking care of any
property entrusted to him, and handing over to his principal
the results of his action, including the right to sue in his name.
On the other hand, the principal was bound to recoup him his
expenses and indemnify him against loss through obligations he
might have incurred.
The essentials and the terminology of the contract are preserved
in most modern systems of law. But in English law mandate,
under that name, can hardly be said to exist as a separate form of
contract. To some extent the law of mandatum corresponds partly
to the law of principal and agent, partly to that of principal and
surety." Mandate " is retained to signify the contract more gener-
ally known as gratuitous bailment. It is restricted to personal
property, and it implies the delivery of something to the bailee,
both of which conditions are unknown in the mandatum of the civil
law (see BAILMENT).
MANDAUE, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu,
Philippine Islands, on the E. coast and E. coast road, about
4 m. N.E. of the town of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903), 11,078
in the same year the town of Consolaci6n (pop. 5511) was merged
with Mandaue. Its climate is very hot, but healthy. The
principal industries are the raising of Indian corn and sugar-cane
and the manufacture of salt from sea-water. Cebu-Visayan is
the language.
MANDELIC ACID (Phenylglycollic Acid), CsHsO, or
C 6 H S -CH(OH)-COOH, an isomer of the cresotinic and the
oxymethylbenzoic acids. Since the molecule contains an
asymmetric carbon atom, the acid exists in three forms, one
being an inactive " racemic " mixture, and the other two being
optically active forms. The inactive variety is known as
paramanddic acid. It may be prepared by the action of hydro-
chloric acid on the addition compound of benzaldehyde and
hydrocyanic acid:
C 6 H 6 CHO+HCN-r-HCH-2H 2 = CeHs-CHOH-COOH+NH^Cl,
(F. L. Winckler, Ann., 1836, 18,310), by boiling phenylchloracetic
acid with alkalis (A. Spiegel, Ber., 1881, 14, 239), by heating
benzpylformaldehyde with alkalis (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1887,
20, 2905), and by the action of dilute alkalies on w-dibrom-
acetophenone (C. Engler, Ber., 1887, 20, 2202):
CsH 6 COCHBr 2 + 3KHO = 2KBr+ H 2 O + C,H S -CHOH-C0 2 K.
It crystallizes from water in large rhombic crystals, which melt
at 118 C. Oxidizing agents convert it into benzaldehyde.
When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms
phenylacetic acid; whilst concentrated hydrobromic acid and
hydrochloric acid at moderate temperatures convert it into
phenylbrom- and phenylchlor-acetic acids. The inactive mix-
ture may be resolved into its active components by fractional
crystallization of the cinchonine salt, when the salt of the dextro
modification separates first; or the ammonium salt may be
fermented by Penicillium glaucum, when the laevo form is
destroyed and the dextro form remains untouched; on the other
hand, Saccharomyces ellipsoideus destroys the dextro form, but
does not touch the laevo form. A mixture of the two forms in
equivalent quantities produces the inactive variety, which is
also obtained when either form is heated for some hours to
1 60 C.
MANDER, CAREL VAN (1548-1606), Dutch painter, poet and
biographer, was born of a noble family at Meulebeke. He studied
under Lucas de Heere at Ghent, and in 1568-1569 under Pieter
Vlerick at Kortryck. The next five years he devoted to the
writing of religious plays for which he also painted the scenery.
Then followed three years in Rome (1574-1577), where he is said
to have been the first to discover the catacombs. On his return
journey he passed through Vienna, where, together with the
sculptor Hans Mont, he made the triumphal arch for the entry
of the emperor Rudolph. After many vicissitudes caused by
war, loss of fortune and plague, he settled at Haarlem where,
in conjunction with Goltzius and Cornelisz, he founded a success-
ful academy of painting. His fame is, however, principally
based upon a voluminous biographical work on the paintings
of various epochs a book that has become for the northern
countries what Vasari's Lives of the Painters became for Italy.
It was completed in 1603 and published in 1604, in which year
Van Mander removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1606.
MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733), English philo-
sopher and satirist, was born at Dordrecht, where his father
practised as a physician. On leaving the Erasmus school at
Rotterdam he gave proof of his ability by an Oratio scholastica
de medkina (1685), and at Leiden University in 1689 he main-
tained a thesis De brutorum operationibus, in which he advocated
the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In 1691 he
took his medical degree, pronouncing an " inaugural disputation,"
De chylosi vitiata. Afterwards he came to England " to learn
the language," and succeeded so remarkably that many refused
to believe he was a foreigner. As a physician he seems to have
done little, and lived poorly on a pension given him by some
Dutch merchants and money which he earned from distillers
for advocating the use of spirits. His conversational abilities
won him the friendship of Lord Macclesfield (chief justice 1710-
1718) who introduced him to Addison, described by Mandeville
as " a parson in a tye-wig." He died in January (igth or 2ist)
1733/4 at Hackney.
560 MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN
The work by which he is known is the Fable of the Bees, pub-
lished first in 1705 under the title of The Grumbling Hive, or
Knaves Turn' A Honest (two hundred doggerel couplets) . In 1 7 14
it was republished anonymously with Remarks and An Enquiry
into the Origin of Moral Virtue. In 1 7 23 a later edition appeared,
including An Essay on Charity and Charity Schools, and A Search
into the Nature of Society. The book was primarily written as a
political satire on the state of England in 1705, when the Tories
were accusing Marlborough and the ministry of advocating the
French War for personal reasons. The edition of 1723 was
presented as a nuisance by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, was
denounced in the London Journal by " Theophilus Philo-
Britannus," and attacked by many writers, notably by Archibald
Campbell (1691-1756) in his Aretelogia (published as his own by
Alexander Innes in 1728; afterwards by Campbell, under his
own name, in 1733, as Enquiry into the Original of Moral Virtue).
The Fable was reprinted in 1729, a ninth edition appeared in
1755, and it has often been reprinted in more recent times.
Berkeley attacked it in the second dialogue of the Alciphron
(1732) and John Brown criticized him in his Essay upon
Shaftesbury' s Characteristics (1751).
Mandeville's philosophy gave great offence at the time, and
has always been stigmatized as false, cynical and degrading.
His main thesis is that the actions of men cannot be divided into
lower and higher. The higher life of man is merely a fiction
introduced by philosophers and rulers to simplify government
and the relations of society. In fact, virtue (which he defined as
" every performance by which man, contrary to the impulse
of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the conquest
of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good ")
is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intel-
lectual progress, for it is the vices (i.e. the self-regarding actions
of men) which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation
of capital in connexion with luxurious living, stimulate society
into action and progress. In the Fable he shows a society
possessed of all the virtues " blest with content and honesty,"
falling into apathy and utterly paralyzed. The absence of self-
love (cf . Hobbes) is the death of progress. The so-called higher
virtues are mere hypocrisy, and arise from the selfish desire to be
superior to the brutes. " The moral virtues are the political
offspring which flattery begot upon pride." Similarly he arrives
at the great paradox that " private vices are public benefits."
But his best work and that in which he approximates most nearly
to modern views is his account of the origin of society. His
a priori theories should be compared with Maine's historical
inquiries (Ancient Law, c. V.). He endeavours to show that all
social laws are the crystallized results of selfish aggrandizement
and protective alliances among the weak. Denying any form of
moral sense or conscience, he regards all the social virtues as
evolved from the instinct for self-preservation, the give-and-take
arrangements between the partners in a defensive and offensive
alliance, and the feelings of pride and vanity artificially fed by
politicians, as an antidote to dissension and chaos. Mandeville's
ironical paradoxes are interesting mainly as a criticism of the
" amiable " idealism of Shaftesbury, and in comparison with the
serious egoistic systems of Hobbes and Helvetius. It is mere
prejudice to deny that Mandeville had considerable philosophic
insight; at the same time he was mainly negative or critical, and,
as he himself said, he was writing for " the entertainment of
people of knowledge and education." He may be said to have
cleared the ground for the cbming utilitarianism.
WORKS. Typhon: a Burlesque Poem (1704); Aesop Dress'd, or a
Collection of Fables writ in Familiar Verse (1704); The Planter's
Charity (1704) ; The Virgin Unmasked (1709, 1724, 1731, 1742), a work
in which the coarser side of his nature is prominent; Treatise of the
Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions (1711, 1715, 1730) admired
by Johnson (Mandeville here protests against merely speculative
therapeutics, and advances fanciful theories of his own about animal
spirits in connexion with " stomachic ferment ": he shows a know-
ledge of Locke's methods, and an admiration for Sydenham) ;
Free Thoughts on Religion (1720); A Conference about Whoring
(1725); An Enquiry into the Causes of the Frequent Executions at
Tyburn (1725); The Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christi-
anity in War (1732). Other works attributed, wrongly, to him are
A Modest Defence of Public Stews (1724); The World UnmaskeA
(1736) and Zoologia medicinalis hibernica (1744).
See Hill's Boswell, iii. 291-293; L. Stephen's English Thought in the
Eighteenth Century; A. Bain's Moral Science (593-598); Windel-
b&nd' s History of Ethics (Eng. trans. Tufts); J. M. Robertson, Pioneer
Humanists (1907) ; P. Sakmann, Bernard de Mandeville und die
Bienenfabel-Controverse (Freiburg i/Br., 1897), and compare articles
ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES. (J. M. M.).
MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE (d. 1144), earl of Essex,
succeeded his father, William, as constable of the Tower of
London in or shortly before 1130. Though a great Essex land-
owner, he played no conspicuous part in history till 1 140, when
Stephen created him earl of Essex in reward for his services
against the empress Matilda. After the defeat and capture of
Stephen at Lincoln (1141) the earl deserted to Matilda, but before
the end of the year, learning that Stephen's release was imminent,
returned to his original allegiance. In 1142 he was again in-
triguing with the empress; but before he could openly join her
cause he was detected and deprived of his castles by the king.
In 1 143-1 144 Geoffrey maintained himself as a rebel and a bandit
in the fen-country, using the Isle of Ely and Ramsey Abbey as
his headquarters. He was besieged by Stephen in the fens,
and met his death in September 1 144 in consequence of a wound
received in a skirmish. His career is interesting for two reasons.
The charters which he extorted from Stephen and Matilda
illustrate the peculiar form taken by the ambitions of English
feudatories. The most important concessions are grants of
offices and jurisdictions which had the effect of making Mande-
ville a viceroy with full powers in Essex, Middlesex and
London, and Hertfordshire. His career as an outlaw exemplifies
the worst excesses of the anarchy which prevailed in some parts
of England during the civil wars of 1140-1147, and it is probable
that the deeds of Mandeville inspired the rhetorical description,
in the Peterborough Chronicle of this period, when " men said
openly that Christ and his saints were asleep."
See J. H. Round, Geoffrey de Mandeville, a Study of the Anarchy
(London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.)
MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE ("Sir John Mandeville "), the
name claimed by the compiler of a singular book of travels,
written in French, and published between 1357 and 1371. By
aid of translations into many other languages it acquired
extraordinary popularity, while a few interpolated words in a
particular edition of an English version gained for Mandeville
in modern times the spurious credit of being " the father of
English prose."
In his preface the compiler calls himself a knight, and states
that he was born and bred in England, of the town of St Albans;
had crossed the sea on Michaelmas Day 1322; had travelled by
way of Turkey (Asia Minor), Armenia the little (Cilicia) and the
great, Tartary, Persia, Syria, Arabia, Egypt upper and lower,
Libya, great part of Ethiopia, Chaldaea, Amazonia, India the
less, the greater and the middle, and many countries about
India; had often been to Jerusalem, and had written in Romance
as more generally understood than Latin. In the body of the
work we hear that he had been at Paris and Constantinople;
had served the sultan of Egypt a long time in his wars against
the Bedawin, had been vainly offered by him a princely marriage
and a great estate on condition of renouncing Christianity, and
had left Egypt under sultan Melech Madabron, i.e. Muzaffar
or Mudhaffar 1 (who reigned in 1346-1347); had been at Mount
Sinai, and had visited the Holy Land with letters under the great
seal of the sultan, which gave him extraordinary facilities; had
been in Russia, Livonia, Cracow, Lithuania, " en roialme dare-
sten " (? de Daresten or Silistria), and many other parts near
Tartary, but not in Tartary itself; had drunk of the well of
youth at Polombe (Quilon on the Malabar coast), and still seemed
to feel the better; had taken astronomical observations on the
way to Lamory (Sumatra), as well as in Brabant, Germany,
Bohemia and still farther north; had been at an isle called
Pathen in the Indian Ocean; had been at Cansay (Hangchow-fu)
in China, and had served the emperor of China fifteen months
1 The on in Madabron apparently represents the Arabic nunation,
though its use in such a case is very odd.
MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN
561
against the king of Manzi; had been among rocks of adamant in
the Indian Ocean; had been through a haunted valley, which he
places near " Milstorak " (i.e. Malasgird in Armenia); had been
driven home against his will in 1357 by arthritic gout; and had
written his book as a consolation for his " wretched rest."
The paragraph which states that he had had his book con-
firmed at Rome by the pope is an interpolation of the English
version.
Part at least of the personal history of Mandeville is mere
invention. Nor is any contemporary corroboration of the exist-
ence of such a Jehan de Mandeville known. Some French MSS.,
not contemporary, give a Latin letter of presentation from him
to Edward III., but so vague that it might have been penned by
any writer on any subject. It is in fact beyond reasonable doubt
that the travels were in large part compiled by a Liege physician,
known as Johains a le Barbe or Jehan a la Barbe, otherwise
Jehan de Bourgogne.
The evidence of this is in a modernized extract quoted by the
Liege herald, Louis Abry l (1643-1720), from the lost fourth book
of the Myreur des Hystors of Johans des Preis, styled d'Oultre-
mouse. In this " Jean de Bourgogne, dit a la Barbe," is said to
have revealed himself on his deathbed to d'Oultremouse, whom
he made his executor, and to have described himself in his will
as " messire Jean de Mandeville, chevalier, comte de Montfort
en Angleterre et seigneur de 1'isle de Campdi et du chateau
P6rouse." It is added that, having had the misfortune to kill
an unnamed count in his own country, he engaged himself to
travel through the three parts of the world, arrived at Liege in
1343, was a great naturalist, profound philosopher and astrologer,
and had a remarkable knowledge of physic. And the identifica-
tion is confirmed by the fact that in the now destroyed church
of the Guillelmins was a tombstone of Mandeville, with a Latin
inscription stating that he was otherwise named " ad Barbam,"
was a professor of medicine, and died at Liege on the I7th
of November 1372: this inscription is quoted as far back as
1462.
Even before his death the Liege physician seems to have con-
fessed to a share in the composition of the work. In the common
Latin abridged version of it, at the end of c. vii., the author
says that when stopping in the sultan's court at Cairo he met a
venerable and expert physician of " our " parts, that they rarely
came into conversation because their duties were of a different
kind, but that long afterwards at Liege he composed this treatise
at the exhortation and with the help (hortatu et adiutorio) of the
same venerable man, as he will narrate at the end of it. And
in the last chapter he says that in 1355, in returning home, he
came to Liege, and being laid up with old age and arthritic
gout in the street called Bassesauenyr, i.e. Basse Savenir, con-
sulted the physicians. That one came in who was more venerable
than the others by reason of his age and white hairs, was evidently
expert in his art, and was commonly called Magister lohannes ad
Barbam. That a chance remark of the latter caused the re-
newal of their old Cairo acquaintance, and that Ad Barbam, after
showing his medical skill on Mandeville, urgently begged him
to write his travels; " and so at length, by his advice and help,
monitu et adiutorio, was composed this treatise, of which I had
certainly proposed to write nothing until at least I had reached
my own parts in England." He goes on to speak of himself as
being now lodged in Liege, " which is only two days distant from
the sea of England " ; and it is stated in the colophon (and in the
MSS.) that the book was first published in French by Mandeville,
its author, in 1355, at Liege, and soon after in the same city
translated into " the said " Latin form. Moreover, a MS. of the
French text extant at Liege about i86o 2 contained a similar
1 Quoted again from him by the contemporary Lidge herald,
Lefort, and from Lefort in 1866 by Dr S. Bormans. Dr J. Vogels
communicated it in 1884 to Mr E. W. B. Nicholson, who wrote on it
in the Academy of April 12, 1884.
1 See Dr G. F. Warner's edition (Roxburghe Club), p. 38. In the
Bull, de I'Institut archeologimie Liegeois, iv. (1860), p. 171, M. Ferd.
Henaux quotes the passage from "MSS. de la Bibliotheque publique
de Lidge, 1' University, no. 360, fol. 118," but the MS. is not in the
1875 printed catalogue of the University Library, which has no Old
statement, and added that the author lodged at a hostel called
" al hoste Henkin Levo ": this MS. gave the physician's name as
" Johains de Bourgogne dit ale barbe," which doubtless conveys
its local form.
There is no contemporary English mention of any English
knight named Jehan de Mandeville, nor are the arms said
to have been on the Liege tomb like any known Mandeville
arms. But Dr G. F. Warner has ingeniously suggested that
de Bourgogne may be a certain Johan de Bourgoyne, who
was pardoned by parliament on the 2oth of August 1321
for having taken part in the attack on the Despensers, but
whose pardon was revoked in May 1322, the year in which
" Mandeville " professes to have left England. And it should
now be added that among the persons similarly pardoned
on the recommendation of the same nobleman was a Joh'n
Mangevilayn, whose name appears closely related to that of
"de Mandeville" 3 which is merely a later form of "de
Magneville."
Mangeuilain occurs in Yorkshire as early as 16 Hen. I. (Pipe
Roll Soc., xv. 40), but is very rare, and (failing evidence of any
place named Mangeville) seems to be merely a variant spelling
of Magnevillain. The meaning may be simply " of Magneville,"
de Magneville; but the family of a I4th century bishop of Nevers
were called both " Mandevilain " and " de Mandevilain "-
where Mandevilain seems a derivative place-name, meaning the
Magneville or Mandeville district. In any case it is clear that
the name '"de Mandeville " might be suggested to de Bourgogne
by that of his fellow-culprit Mangevilayn, and it is even possible
that the two fled to England together, were in Egypt together,
met again at Liege, and shared in the compilation of the
Travels.
Whether after the appearance of the Travels either de Bour-
gogne or " Mangevilayn " visited England is very doubtful. St
Albans Abbey had a sapphire ring, and Canterbury a crystal orb,
said to have been given by Mandeville; but these might have
been sent from Liege, and it will appear later that the Li6ge
physician possessed and wrote about precious stones. St Albans
also had a legend that a ruined marble tomb of Mandeville
(represented cross-legged and in armour, with sword and shield)
once stood in the abbey; this may be true of " Mangevilayn "
or it may be a mere myth.
It is a little curious that the name preceding Mangevilayn in
the list of persons pardoned is " Johan le Barber." Did this
suggest to de Bourgogne the alias " a le Barbe," or was that only
a Liege nickname? Note also that the arms on Mandeville's
tomb were borne by the Tyrrells of Hertfordshire (the county in
which St Albans lies); for of course the crescent on the lion's
breast is only the " difference " indicating a second son.
Leaving this question, there remains the equally complex one
whether the book contains any facts and knowledge acquired
by actual travels and residence in the East. Possibly it may,
but only as a small portion of the section which treats of the
Holy Land and the ways of getting thither, of Egypt, and in
general of the Levant. The prologue, indeed, points almost
exclusively to the Holy Land as the subject of the work. The
mention of more distant regions comes in only towards the end
of this prologue, and (in a manner) as an afterthought.
By far the greater part of these more distant travels, extending
in fact from Trebizond to Hormuz, India, the Malay Archipelago,
and China, and back again to western Asia, has been appropriated
from the narrative of Friar Odoric (written in 1330). These
passages, as served up by Mandeville, are almost always, indeed,
swollen with interpolated particulars, usually of an extravagant
kind, whilst in no few cases the writer has failed to understand the
passages which he adopts from Odoric and professes to give as his
own experiences. Thus (p. 209) , 4 where Odoric has given a most
French MS. of Mandeville at present. It was probably lent out and
not returned.
3 The de Mandevilles, earls of Essex, were originally styled de
Magneville, and Leland, in his Comm. de Script. Britt. (CDV), calls
our Mandeville himself " Joannes Magnovillanus. alias Mandeville."
4 Page indications like this refer to passages in the 1866 reissue
of HalliweH's 'edition, as being probably the most ready of access.
5 62
MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN
curious and veracious account of the Chinese custom of employ-
ing tame cormorants to catch fish, the cormorants are converted
by Mandeville into " little beasts called loyres (layre, B), which
are taught to go into the water " (the word loyre being apparently
used here for "otter," lutra, for which the Provencal is luria or
loiria) .
At a very early date the coincidence of Mandeville's stories
with those of Odoric was recognized, insomuch that a MS. of
Odoric which is or was in the chapter library at Mainz begins
with the words: Incipit Itinerarius fidelis fratris Odorici socii
Militis Mendavil per Indian; licet hie [read ille] prius et alter
posterius peregrinationem suam descripsit. At a later day Sir T.
Herbert calls Odoric " travelling companion of our Sir John ";
and Purchas, with most perverse injustice, whilst calling Mande-
ville, next to Polo, " if next . . . the greatest Asian traveller
that ever the world had," insinuates that Odoric's story was
stolen from Mandeville's. Mandeville himself is crafty enough,
at least in one passage, to anticipate criticism by suggesting
the probability of his having travelled with Odoric (see p. 282
and below).
Much, again, of Mandeville's matter, particularly in Asiatic
geography and history, is taken bodily from the Historiae
Orientis of Hetoum, an Armenian of princely family, who became
a monk of the Praemonstrant order, and in 1307 dictated this
work on the East, in the French tongue at Poitiers, out of his
own extraordinary, acquaintance with Asia and its history in his
own time.
It is curious that no passage in Mandeville can be plausibly
traced to Marco Polo, with one exception. This is (p. 163) where
he states that at Hormuz the people during the great heat lie in
water a circumstance mentioned by Polo, though not by
Odoric. We should suppose it most likely that this fact had been
interpolated in the copy of Odoric used by Mandeville^ for if
he had borrowed it direct from Polo he would have borrowed
more.
A good deal about the manners and customs of the Tatars is
demonstrably derived from the famous work of the Franciscan
loannes de Piano Carpini, who went as the pope's ambassador
to the Tatars in 1245-1247; but Dr Warner considers that the
immediate source for Mandeville was the Speculum historiale of
Vincent de Beauvais. Though the passages in question are all
to be found in Piano Carpini more or less exactly, the expression
is condensed and the order changed. For examples compare
Mandeville, p. 250, on the tasks done by Tatar women, with
Piano Carpini, p. 643 ; l Mandeville. p. 250, on Tatar habits of
mating, with Piano Carpini, pp. 639-640; Mandeville, p. 231, on
the titles borne on the seals of the Great Khan, with Piano
Carpini, p. 715, &c.
The account of Prester John is taken from the famous Epistle
of that imaginary potentate, which was so widely diffused in the
I3th century, and created that renown which made it incumbent
on every traveller in Asia to find some new tale to tell of him.
Many fabulous stories, again, of monsters, such as Cyclopes,
sciapodes, hippopodes, monoscelides, anthropophagi, and men
whose heads did grow beneath their shoulders, of the phoenix and
the weeping crocodile, such as Pliny has collected, are introduced
here and there, derived no doubt from him, Solinus, the besti-
aries, or the Speculum naturale of Vincent de Beauvais. And
interspersed, especially in the chapters about the Levant, are the
stories and legends that were retailed to every pilgrim, such
as the legend of Seth and the grains of paradise from which
grew the wood of the cross, that of the shooting of old Cain by
Lamech, that of the castle of the sparrow-hawk (which appears
in the tale of Melusina), those of the origin of the balsam plants
at Matariya, of the dragon of Cos, of the river Sabbation, &c.
But all these passages have also been verified as substantially
occurring in Barrois's French MS. Nouv. Acq. Fran?. 4515 in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, mentioned below (of A.D. 1371),
cited B, and in that numbered xxxix. of the Grenville collection
(British Museum), which dates probably from the early part of the
I5th century, cited G.
1 Viz. in D'Avezac's ed. in torn. iv. of Rec. de voyages et de memoires
pub. by the Soc. de Geog., 1839.
Even in that part of the book which might be supposed to
represent some genuine experience there are the plainest traces
that another work has been made use of, more or less we might
almost say as a framework to fill up. This is the itinerary of the
German knight Wilhelm von Boldensele, written in 1336 at the
desire of Cardinal Talleyrand de Perigord. 2 A cursory com-
parison of this with Mandeville leaves no doubt that the latter
has followed its thread, though digressing on every side, and too
often eliminating the singular good sense of the German traveller.
We may indicate as examples Boldensele's account of Cyprus
(Mandeville, p. 28 and p. 10), of Tyre and the coast of Palestine
(Mandeville, 29, 30, 33, 34), of the journey from Gaza to Egypt
(34), passages about Babylon of Egypt (40), about Mecca (42),
the general account of Egypt (45), the pyramids (52), some of the
wonders of Cairo, such as the slave-market, the chicken-hatching
stoves, and the apples of paradise, i.e. plantains (49), the Red Sea
(57), the convent on Sinai (58, 60), the account of the church of
the Holy Sepulchre (74-76), &c. There is, indeed, only a small
residuum of the book to which genuine character, as containing
the experiences of the author, can possibly be attributed. Yet,
as has been intimated, the borrowed stories are frequently
claimed as such experiences. In addition to those already
mentioned, he alleges that he had witnessed the curious exhibi-
tion of the garden of transmigrated souls (described by Odoric)
at Cansay, i.e. Hangchow-fu (211). He and his fellows with
their valets had remained fifteen months in service with the
emperorof Cathay in his wars against the king of Manzi Manzi,
or Southern China, having ceased to be a separate kingdom some
seventy years before the time referred to. But the most notable
of these false statements occurs in his adoption from Odoric of the
story of the Valley Perilous (282). This is, in its original form,
apparently founded on real experiences of Odoric viewed through
a haze of excitement and superstition. Mandeville, whilst
swelling the wonders of the tale with a variety of extravagant
touches, appears to safeguard himself from the reader's possible
discovery that it was stolen by the interpolation: " And some
of our fellows accorded to enter, and some not. So there were
with us two worthy men, Friars Minor, that were of Lombardy,
who said that if any man would enter they would go in with us.
And when they had said so, upon the gracious trust of God and
of them, we caused mass to be sung, and made every man to be
shriven and houselled; and then we entered, fourteen persons;
but at our going out we were but nine," &c.
In referring to this passage it is only fair to recognize that the
description (though the suggestion of the greatest part exists in
Odoric) displays a good deal of imaginative power; and there is
much in the account of Christian's passage through the Valley
of the Shadow of Death, in Bunyan's famous allegory, which
indicates a possibility that John Bunyan may have read and
remembered this episode either in Mandeville or in Hakluyt's
Odoric.
Nor does it follow that the whole work is borrowed or fictitious.
Even the great Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, accurate and vera-
cious in the main, seems in one part at least of his narrative to
invent experiences; and in such works as those of Jan van Hees
and Arnold von Harff we have examples of pilgrims to the Holy
Land whose narratives begin apparently in sober truth, and
gradually pass into flourishes of fiction and extravagance. So
in Mandeville also we find particulars not yet traced to other
writers, and which may therefore be provisionally assigned
either to the writer's own experience or to knowledge acquired by
colloquial intercourse in the East.
It is difficult to decide on the character of his statements as to
recent Egyptian history. In his account of that country (pp. 37,
38) though the series of the Comanian (i.e. of the Bahri Mame-
luke) sultans is borrowed from Hetoum down to the accession of
Melechnasser, i.e. Malik al-Nair (Nasir ud-din Mahommed), who
came first to the throne in 1293, Mandeville appears to speak
from his own knowledge when he adds that this " Melechnasser
reigned long and governed wisely." In fact, though twice
2 It is found in the Thesaurus of Canisius (1604), v. pt. ii. p. 95.
and in the ed. of the same by Basnage (1725), iv. 337.
MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN
563
displaced in the early part of his life, Malik Nisir reigned till 1341,
a duration unparalleled in Mahommedan Egypt, whilst we are
told that during the last thirty years of his reign Egypt rose to a
high pitch of wealth and prosperity. Mandeville, however, then
goes on to say that his eldest son, Melechemad.tr, was chosen to
succeed; but this prince was caused privily to be slain by his
brother, who took the kingdom under the name of Melechmada-
bron. " And he was Soldan when I departed from those coun-
tries." Now Malik Nasir Mahommed was followed in succession
by no less than eight of his sons in thirteen years, the first three
of whom reigned in aggregate only a few months. The names
mentioned by Mandeville appear to represent those of the fourth
and sixth of the eight, viz. Salih 'Imad ud-din Isma'Il, and
Mozaffar (Saif ud-din Hajji); and these the statements of
Mandeville do not fit.
On several occasions Arabic words are given, but are not
always recognizable, owing perhaps to the carelessness of copyists
in such matters. Thus, we find (p. 50) the names (not satis-
factorily identified) of the wood, fruit and sap of the balsam
plant; (p. 99) of bitumen, " alkatran " (al-Kalrdn); (p. 168) of
t he three different kinds of pepper (long pepper, black pepper and
white pepper) as sorbotin, fulful and bano or bauo (fulfill is the
common Arabic word for pepper; the others have not been satis-
factorily explained). But these, and the particulars of his narra-
tive for which no literary sources have yet been found, are too few
to constitute a proof of personal experience.
Mandeville, again, in some passages shows a correct idea of the
form of the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by
observation of the pole star; he knows that there are antipodes,
and that if ships were sent on voyages of discovery they might
sail round the world. And he tells a curious story, which he
had heard in his youth, how a worthy man did travel ever east-
ward until he came to his own country again (p. 183). But he
repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the centre
of the world (79, 183), and maintains in proof of this that at the
equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at
noon, which, if true, would equally consist with the sphericity of
the earth, provided that the city were on the equator.
The sources of the book, which include various authors besides
those whom we have specified, have been laboriously investigated
by Dr Albert Bovenschen 1 and Dr G. F. Warner, 2 and to them
the reader must be referred for more detailed information on the
subject.
The oldest known MS. of the original once Barrois's, afterwards
the earl of Ashburnham's, now Nouv. Acq. Franc. 4515 in the
Biblioth^que Nationale, Paris is dated 1371, but is nevertheless
very inaccurate in proper names. An early printed Latin transla-
tion made from the French has been already quoted, but four others,
unprinted, have been discovered by Dr J. Vogels.* They exist in
eight MSS., of which seven are in Great Britain, while the eighth
was copied by a monk of Abingdon ; probably, therefore, all these
unprinted translations were executed in this country. From one
of them, according to Dr Vogels, 4 an English version was made
which has never been printed and is now extant only in free abbre-
viations, contained in two isth century MSS. in the Bodleian Library,
Oxford MS. e Museo 116, and MS. Rawlinson D. 99: the former,
which is the better, is in Midland dialect, and may possibly have
belonged to the Augustinian priory of St Osyth in Essex, while the
latter is in Southern dialect.
The first English translation direct from the French was made
(at least as early as the beginning of the ysth century) from a MS.
of which many pages were lost. 6 Writing of the name Califfes
1 Die Quellen fur die Reisebeschreibung des Johann von Mandeville,
Inaugural-Dissertation . . . Leipzig (Berlin, 1888). This was revised
and enlarged as " Untersuchungen liber Johann von Mandeville
und die Quellen seiner Reisebeschreibung," in the Zeiischrift jaer
Gesellschaftfur Erdkunde zu Berlin, Bd. 23, Heft 3 u. 4 (No. 135, 136).
* In his edition (Roxburghe Club).
'Die ungedruckten lateinischen Versionen Mandeville's (Crefeld,
1886).
4 Handschriftliche Untersuchungen uber die englische Version
Mandeville's (Crefeld, 1891), p. 46.
1 Dr Vogels controverts these positions, arguing that the first
English version from the French was the complete Cotton text,
and that the defective English copies were made from a defective
English MS. His supposed evidences of the priority of the Cotton
text equally consist with its being a later revision, and for Roys Us
(Khalif), the author says (Roxburghe Clubed., p. 18) that it istantadire
come roi (s). II y soleit auoir v. soudans " as much as to say king.
There used to be 5 sultans." In the defective French MS. a page
ended with Ily so; then came a gap, and the next page went on with
part of the description of Mount Sinai, Et est celle vallee mult froide
(ibid. p. 32). Consequently the corresponding English version has
" That ys to say amonge hem Roys Us and this vale ys ful colde " !
All English printed texts before 1725, and Ashton's 1887 edition,
follow these defective copies, and in only two known MSS. has the
lacuna been detected and filled up.
One of them is the British Museum MS. Egerton 1082 (Northern
dialect, about 1410-1420?), in which, according to Dr Vogels, the
corresponding portion has been borrowed from that English version
which had already been made from the Latin. The other is in the
British Museum MS. Cotton Titus C. xvi. (Midland dialect, about
1410-1420 ?), representing a text completed, and revised throughout,
from the French, though not by a competent hand. The Egerton
text, edited by Dr G. F. Warner, has been printed by the Roxburghe
Club, while the Cotton text, first printed in 1725 and 1727, is in
modern reprints the current English version.
That none of the forms of the English version can be from the
same hand which wrote the original is made patent by their glaring
errors of translation, but the Cotton text asserts in the preface that
it was made by Mandeville himself, and this assertion was till lately
taken on trust by almost all modern historians of English literature.
The words of the original " je eusse cest livret mis en latin . . . mais
. . . je 1'ay mis en romant " were mistranslated as if " je eussc "
meant " I had " instead of " I should have," and then (whether of
fraudulent intent or by the error of a copyist thinking to supply an
accidental omission) the words were added " and translated it
ajen out of Frensche into Englyssche." Matzner (Allenglische
Sprachproben, I., ii., 154-155) seems to have been the first to show
that the current English text cannot possibly have been made by
Mandeville himself. Of the original French there is no satisfactory
edition, but Dr Vogels has undertaken a critical text, and Dr Warner
has added to his Egerton English text the French of a British
Museum MS. with variants from three others.
It remains to mention certain other works bearing the name of
Mandeville or de Bourgogne.
MS. Add. C. 280 in the Bodleian appends to the " Travels " a
short French life of St Alban of Germany, the author of which calls
himself Joh'n Mandivill[e], knight, formerly of the town of St Alban,
and says he writes to correct an impression prevalent among his
countrymen that there was no other saint of the name: this life
is followed by part of a French herbal.
To Mandeville (by whom de Bourgogne is clearly meant) d'Oultre-
mouse * ascribes a Latin " lappidaire scion 1'oppinion des Indois,"
from which he quotes twelve passages, stating that the author (whom
he calls knight, lord of Montfort, of Castelperouse, and of the isle of
Campdi) had been " baillez en Alexandrie " seven years, and had
been presented by a Saracen friend with some fine jewels which had
passed into d'Oultremouse's own possession: of this Lapidaire,
a French version, which seems to have been completed after 1479,
has been several times printed. 7 A MS. of Mandeville's travels
offered for sale in 1862 8 is said to have been divided into five books :
(i) the travels, (2) de Id forme de la terre et comment et par quelle
manilre eUe fut faite, (3) de la forme del ciel, (4) des heroes selon les
yndois et les pkilosophes par de Id, and (5) ly lapidaire while the
cataloguer supposed Mandeville to have been the author of a con-
cluding piece entitled La Venianche de nostre Signeur Ihesu-Crist
fayte par Vespasian fil del empereur de Romme et comment lozeph
daramathye fu deliures de la prizon. From the treatise on herbs a
passage is quoted asserting it to have been composed in 1357 in
honour of the author's natural lord, Edward, king of England. This
date is corroborated by the title of king of Scotland given to Edward,
who had received from Baliol the surrender of the crown and kingly
dignity on the 2Oth of January 1356, but on the 3rd of October 1357
released King David and made peace with Scotland: unfortunately
we are not told whether the treatise contains the author's name, and,
if so, what name. Tanner (Bibliotheca) alleges that Mandeville
wrote several books on medicine, and among the Ashmolean
MSS. in the Bodleian are a medical receipt by John de Magna Villa
(No. 1479), an alchemical receipt by him (No. 1407), and another
alchemical receipt by Johannes de Villa Magna (No. 1441).
in the defective English MSS. he has only offered a laboured and
improbable explanation.
Stanislas Bormans, Introduction to d'Oultremouse's Chronicle,
pp. Ixxxix., xc. ; see also Warner's edition of the Travels, p. xxxv.
The ascription is on ff. 5 and 6 of Le Tresorier de philosophic naturele
des pierrcslprecieuses, an unprinted work by d'Oultremouse in MS.
Ponds fran$ais 12326 of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The
passage about Alexandria is on f. 81.
7 See L. Pannier, Les Lapidairesfranc.ais, pp. 189-204: not knowing
d'Oultremouse's evidence, he has discredited the attribution to Man-
deville and doubted the existence of a Latin original.
8 Description . . . d'une collection . . . d'anciens manuscrits . . .
reunis par les soins de M. J. Techener, pt. i. (Paris, 1862), p. 159
(referred to by Pannier, pp. 193-194).
MANDHATA MANDINGO
Finally, de Bourgogne wrote under his own name a treatise on the
plague, 1 extant in Latin, French and English texts, and in Latin
and English abridgments. Herein he describes himself as Johannes
de Burgundia, otherwise called cum Barba, citizen of Li6ge and
professor of the art of medicine; says that he had practised forty
years and had been in Li6ge in the plague of 1365; and adds that he
had previously written a treatise on the cause of the plague, according
to the indications of astrology (beginning Deus deorum), and another
on distinguishing pestilential diseases (beginning^ Cum nimiunt
propler instans tempus epidimiale). "Burgundia" is sometimes
corrupted into " Burdegalia," and in English translations of the
abridgment almost always appears as " Burdews " (Bordeaux) or
the like. MS. Rawlinson D. 251 (isth century) in the Bodleian also
contains a large number of English medical receipts, headed
" Practica phisicalia Magistri Johanwis de Burgundia."
See further Dr G. F. Warner's article in the Dictionary of National
Biography for a comprehensive account, and for bibliographical
references; Ulysse Chevalier's Repertoire des sources historiques du
moyen age for references generally; and the Zeitschr.f. celt. Philologie
II., i. 126, for an edition and translation, by Dr Whitley Stokes, of
Fingin O'Mahony's Irish version of the Travels.
(E. W. B. N. ; H. Y.)
MANDHATA, a village with temples in India, in Nimar district
of the Central Provinces, on the south bank of the Narbada.
Pop. (1901), 832. It is a famous place of Hindu pilgrimage, as
containing one of the twelve great lingas of Siva; and as late as
the beginning of the ipth century it was the scene of the self-
immolation of devotees who threw themselves from the cliffs into
the river.
MANDI, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks
as the most important of the hill states to which British influence
extended in 1846 after the first Sikh War. The territory lies
among the lower ranges of the Himalaya, between Kangra and
Kulu. The country is mountainous, being intersected by two
great parallel ranges, reaching to an average height of 5000 to
7000 ft. above sea-level. The valleys between the hill ranges are
fertile, and produce all the ordinary grains, besides more valuable
crops of rice, maize, sugar-cane, poppy and tobacco. Iron is
found in places, and also gold in small quantities. Area, 1200
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 174,045; estimated revenue, 28,000; tribute,
6666. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of old family.
Considerable sums have been expended on roads and bridges.
An important product of the state is salt, which is mined in two
places.
The town of Mandi is on the Beas, which is here a mountain
torrent, crossed by a fine iron bridge; 2991 ft. above sea-level;
88 m. from Simla. Pop. (1901), 8144. It was founded in 1527,
and contains a palace of the i7th century and other buildings of
interest. It is a mart for transfrontier trade with Tibet and
Yarkand.
See Mandi State Gazetteer (Lahore, 1908).
MANDINGO, the name currently given to a very important
division of negro peoples in West Africa. It is seemingly a cor-
ruption of a term applied to an important section of this group, the
Mande-nka or Mande-nga. The present writer has usually heard
this word pronounced by the Mandingo themselves " Mandiiia,"
or even " Madifia." It seems to be derived from the racial name
Mande, coupled with the suffix nka or nke, meaning " people,"
the people of Mande. Then again this word Mande seems to
take the varying forms of Male, Meli, Mane, Modi, and, accord-
ing to such authorities as Binger, Delafosse and Desplagnes,
it is connected with a word Mali, which means " hippopotamus "
or else " manati " probably the latter. According to Des-
plagnes, the word is further divisible' into ma, which would have
meant " fish," and nde, a syllable to which he ascribes the mean-
ing of " father." In no Mandingo dialect known to the present
writer (or in any other known African language) does the vocable
ma apply to " fish," and in only one very doubtful far eastern
Mandingo dialect is the root nde or any other similar sound
applied to " father." This etymology must be abandoned
probably in favour of Mani, Mali, Modi, Mande, meaning
" hippopotamus," and in some cases the other big water mammal
the manati. 2
1 Respecting this, see David Murray, The Black Book of Paisky
&c. (1885), and John de Burdeus, &c. (1891).
1 Indeed it is possible that the European name for this Sirenian
manati derived from the West Indies, is the corruption of a West
The West African tribes speaking Mandingo languages vary
very much in outward appearance. Some of them may be West
African negroes of the forest type with little or no intermixture
with the Caucasian; others, such as the typical Mandingos or the
Susus, obviously contain a non-negro element in their physique.
This last type resembles very strongly the Swahilis of the Zanzi-
jar littoral or other crosses between the Arab and the negro;
and though nearly always black-skinned, often has a well-shaped
nose and a fairly full beard. The tribes dwelling in the West
African forest, but speaking languages of Mandingo type, do not
perhaps exhibit the very prognathous, short-limbed, " ugly " de-
velopment of West African negro, but are of rather a refined type,
and some of them are lighter in skin colour than the more Arab-
ooking Mandingos of the north. But in these forest Mandingos
the beard is scanty. Occasionally the Mandingo physical type
appears in eastern Liberia and on the Ivory Coast amongst
people speaking Kru languages. In other cases it is associated
with the Senufo speech-family.
Delafosse divides the Mandingo group linguistically into three
main sections: (i) the Mande-tamu, (2) the Mande-fu, and (3) the
Mande-ta, according as they use for the numeral 10 the root
tamu, la or/. Of the first group are the important tribes of the
Soni-nke (called Sarakulle by the Fula, and Sarakole by the
French) ; the Swaninki people of Azer, and the oases of Tishitt,
Wadan and Walata in the south-west Sahara; and the Bozo,
who are the fishermen along the banks of the Upper Niger and
the Bani from Jenne to Timbuktu. The Soni-nke are also known
as Marka, and they include (according to Binger) the Samogho
and even the Kurtei along the banks of the Niger east of
Timbuktu as far as Say.
The group of Mande-ta would include the Bamana (incorrectly
called Bambara) of the upper Senegal and of Segu on the Upper
Niger, the Toronke, the Mandenga, the Numu of the district west
of the Black Volta, the Vai of south-western Liberia, and the
Dyula or Gyula of the region at the back of the Ivory Coast.
The group of the Mande-fu includes a great many different
languages and dialects, chiefly in the forest region of Sierra Leone
and Liberia, and also the dialects of the celebrated Susu or Spso
tribe, and the Mandingo tribes of Futa Jallon, of the Grand
Scarcies River and of the interior of the Ivory Coast, and of the
regions between the eastern affluents of the Upper Niger and the
Black Volta. To this group Delafosse joins the Boko dialect
spoken by people dwelling to the west of the Lower Niger at
Bussa between Bussa and Borgu. If this hypothesis be correct
it gives a curious eastern extension to the range of the Mandingo
family at the present day; or it may be a vestige left by the Man-
dingo invasion which, according to legend, came in prehistoric
times from the Hausa countries across the Niger to Senegambia.
It is remarkable that this Boko dialect as recorded by the
missionary Koelle most resembles certain dialects in central
Liberia and in the Ivory Coast hinterland.
The Mandingos, coming from the East and riding on horses
(according to tradition), seem to have invaded western Nigeria
about A.D. 1000 (if not earlier), and to have gradually displaced
and absorbed the Songhai or Fula (in other words, Negroid,
" White ") rulers of the countries in the basin of the Upper Niger
or along its navigable course as far as the Bussa Rapids and the
forest region. On the ruins of these Songhai, Berber, or Fula
kingdoms rose the empire of Mali (Melle). Considerable sections
of the Mandingo invaders had adopted Mahommedanism, and
extended a great Mahommedan empire of western Nigeria far
northwards into the Sahara Desert. In the i6th century the
Songhai regained supreme power. See infra, The Melle Empire.
Although the Mandingos, and especially the Susu section, may
have come as conquerors, they devoted themselves through the
succeeding centuries more and more to commerce. They became
to the extreme west of Africa what the Hausa are in the west-
central regions. Some of the Mandingo invasions, especially in
African word manti, applied very naturally to the animal by the West
African slaves, who at once recognized it as similar to the creatur
found on the West African coast in their own rivers, and also on the
Upper Niger.
MANDLA MANDOLINE
565
the forest region, left little more than the imposition of their
language; but where there was any element of Caucasian blood
(for the original Mandingo invaders were evidently dashed with
the Caucasian by intermingling with some of the negroid races
of north-central Africa), they imposed a degree of civilization
which excluded cannibalism (still rampant in much of the forest
region of West Africa), introduced working in leather and in
metals, and was everywhere signalized by a passionate love of
music, a characteristic of all true Mandingo tribes at the present
day. It is noteworthy that many of the instruments affected
by the Mandingos are found again in the more civilized regions
of Bantu Africa, as well as in the central Sudan. Many of these
types of musical instruments can also be traced originally to
ancient Egypt. The Mandingos also seem to have brought with
them in their westward march the Egyptian type of ox, with the
long, erect horns. It would almost seem as if this breed had been
preceded by the zebu or humped ox; though these two types are
evidently of common origin so far as derivation from one wild
species is concerned. The Mandingos maintain the system of
totems or clans, and each section or tribe identifies itself with a
symbol, which is usually an animal or a plant. The Mandenga
are supposed to have either the manati or the hippopotamus
as lanna (totem). (Binger states that the manati was the
totem of the Mande group, to which perhaps belonged originally
the Susu and the Dyula.) The Bamana are the people of the
crocodile; the Samanke are the people of the elephant; the
Samokho of the snake. Other totems or symbols of special
families or castes are the dog, the calabash or gourd, the lion,
the green monkey, the leopard, the monitor lizard, a certain
spice called bandugu, certain rats, the python, the puff-adder, &c.
AUTHORITIES. The bibliography dealing with the Mandingo
peoples is very extensive, but only the following works need be cited :
Captain L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee, &c. (1892);
Maurice Delafosse, Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues
el dialectes parUs a la Cote d'lvoire, &c. (1904); Lieut. Desplagnes,
Le Plateau central nigerien (1907); Lady Lugard, A Tropical Depen-
dency (1905) ; Sir Harry Johnston, Liberia (1906). Most of these works
contain extensive bibliographies. (H. H. J.)
The Melle Empire. The tradition which ascribes the arrival
of the Mandingo in the western Sudan to the loth or i ith century
is referred to in the previous section. It is not known by whom
the Melle (Mali) state was founded. Neither is there certainty
as to the site of the capital, also called Melle. Idrisi in the I2th
century describes the Wangara (a Hausa name for the Mandingo)
as a powerful people, and El Bakri writes in similar terms. But
the first king whose name is preserved was Baramindana,
believed to have reigned from 1213 to 1235. His territory lay
south of that of Jenne, partly within the bend of the Niger and
partly west of that river. The people were already Moslem, and
the capital was a rendezvous for merchants from all parts of the
western Sudan and the Barbary States. Mari Jatah (or Diara),
Baramindana's successor, about the middle of the I3th century
conquered the Susu, then masters of Ghanata (Ghana). Early
in the i4th century Mansa, i.e. Sultan, Kunkur Musa, extended
the empire, known as the Mellistine, to its greatest limits, making
himself master of Timbuktu, Gao and all the Songhoi dominions.
His authority extended northward over the Sahara to the Tuat
oases. Mansa Suleiman was on the throne when in 1352-1353
Melle was visited by Ibn Batuta. By this monarch the empire
was divided into three great provinces, ruled by viceroys. For
a century afterwards Melle appears to have been the dominant
Sudan state west of the Lower Niger, but it had to meet the
hostility of the growing power of the pagan Mossi, of the Tuareg
in the north and of the Songhoi, who under Sunni Ali (c. 1325)
had already regained a measure of independence. Cadamosto
nevertheless describes Melle in 1454 as being still the most
powerful of the negro-land kingdoms and the most important
for its traffic in gold and slaves. The Songhoi sovereign Askia
is said to have completed the conquest of Melle at the beginning
of the i6th century. It nevertheless retained some sort of
national existence though with the advent of the Moors in the
Niger countries (end of the i6th century) native civilization
suffered a blow from which it never recovered. Civil war is
said to have finally wrought the ruin of Melle about the middle
of the 1 7th century. 1 The Portuguese, from their first appear-
ance on the Senegal and Gambia, entered into friendly relations
with the rulers of Melle. Barros relates (Da Asia, Decade I.)
that John II. of Portugal sent embassies to the court of Melle by
way of the Gambia (end of the isth century). At that time the
authority of Melle was said to extend westward to the coast.
The king, pressed by the Mossi, the Songhoi and the Fula,
solicited the help of his " friends and allies " the Portuguese
with what result does not appear; but in 1534 Barros himself
despatched an ambassador to the king of Melle concerning the
trade of the Gambia. By way of that river the Portuguese
themselves penetrated as far as Bambuk, a country conquered
by the Mandingo in the I2th century. By Barros the name of
the Melle ruler is given as Mandi Mansa, which may be the
native form for " Sultan of the Mandi " (Mandingo).
See further TIMBUKTU and the authorities there cited; cf. also
L. Marc, Le Pays Mossi (Paris, 1909). Lists of Mandingo sovereigns
are given in Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888).
(F. R. C.)
MANDLA, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbul-
pore division of the Central Provinces. The town is on the river
Nerbudda, 1787 ft. above the sea. It has a manufacture of
bell-metal vessels. Pop. (1901), 5054. The district of Mandla,
among the Satpura hills, has an area of 5054 sq. m. It consists
of a wild highland region, broken up by the valleys of numerous
rivers and streams. The Nerbudda flows through the centre of
the district, receiving several tributaries which take their rise
in the Maikal hills, a range densely clothed with sal forest, and
forming part of the great watershed between eastern and
western India. The loftiest mountain is Chauradadar, about
3400 ft. high. Tigers abound, and the proportion of deaths
caused by wild animals is greater than in any other district of the
Central Provinces. The magnificent sal forests which formerly
clothed the highlands have suffered greatly from the nomadic
system of cultivation practised by the hill tribes, who burned the
wood and sowed their crops in the ashes; but measures have been
taken to prevent further damage. The population in 1901 was
318,400, showing a decrease of 6-5% in the decade, due to
famine. The aboriginal or hill tribes are more numerous in
Mandla than in any other district of the Central Provinces,
particularly the Gonds. The principal crops are rice, wheat,
other food grains, pulse and oil-seeds. There is a little manu-
facture of country cloth. 'A branch of the Bengal-Nagpur
railway touches the south-western border of the district.
Mandla suffered most severely from the famine of 1896-1897,
partly owing to its inaccessibility, and partly from the shy
habits of the aboriginal tribes. The registered death-rate in
1907 was as high as 96 per thousand.
MANDOLINE (Fr. mandoline; Ger. Mandoline; It. tnandolina),
the treble member of the lute family, and therefore a stringed
instrument of great antiquity. The mandoline is classified
amongst the stringed instruments having a vaulted back, which
is more accentuated than even that of the lute. The mandoline
is strung with steel and brass wire strings. There are two
varieties of mandolines, both Italian: (i) the Neapolitan, 2 ft.
long, which is the best known, and has four courses of pairs of
unisons tuned like the violin in fifths; (2) the Milanese, which is
slightly larger and has five or six courses of pairs of unisons.
The neck is covered by a finger-board, on which are distributed
the twelve or more frets which form nuts at the correct points
under the strings on which the fingers must press to obtain the
chromatic semitones of the scale. The strings are twanged by
means of a plectrum or pick, held between the thumb and first
finger of the right hand. In order to strike a string the pick is
given a gliding motion over the string combined with a down or an
up movement, respectively indicated by signs over the notes. In
order to sustain notes on the mandoline the effect known as
tremolo is employed; it is produced by means of a double move-
ment of the pick up and down over a pair of strings.
1 On the ruins of the old Melle dominions arose five smaller
kingdoms, representing different sections of the Mandingo peoples.
5 66
MANDRAKE MANDVI
The mandoline is a derivative of the mandola or mandore, which
was smaller than the lute but larger than either of the mandolines
described above. It had from four to eight courses of strings,
the chanterelle or melody string being single and the others
in pairs of unisons. The mandore is mentioned in Robert de
Calenson (i2th cent.), and elsewhere; it may be identified with the
pandura.
The Neapolitan mandoline was scored for by Mozart as an accom-
paniment to the celebrated serenade in Don_ Juan. Beethoven
wrote for it a Sonatina per il mandoline, dedicated to his friend
Krumpholz. Gretry and Paisiello also introduced it into their
operas as an accompaniment to serenades.
The earliest method for the mandoline was published by Fouchette
in Paris in 1770. The earliest mention of the instrument in England,
in 1707, is quoted in Ashton's Social Life in the Reign of Queen
Anne: "Signior Conti will play .... on the mandoline, an
instrument not known yet." (K. S.)
MANDRAKE (Mandragora officinarum), a plant of the potato
family, order Solanaceae, a native of the Mediterranean region.
It has a short stem bearing a tuft of ovate leaves, with a thick
fleshy and often forked root. The flowers are solitary, with a
purple bell-shaped corolla; the fruit is a fleshy orange-coloured
berry. The mandrake has been long known for its poisonous
properties and supposed virtues. It acts as an emetic, purgative
and narcotic, and was much esteemed in old times; but, except
in Africa and the East, where it is used as a narcotic and anti-
spasmodic, it has fallen into well-earned disrepute. In ancient
times, according to Isidorus and Serapion, it was used as a
narcotic to diminish sensibility under surgical operations, and
the same use is mentioned by KazwinI, i. 297, s.v. " Luffah."
Shakespeare more than once alludes to this plant, as in Antony
and Cleopatra: " Give me to drink mandragora." The notion
that the plant shrieked when touched is alluded to in Romeo and
Juliet: " And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth, that
living mortals, hearing them, run mad." The mandrake, often
growing like the lower limbs of a man, was supposed to have
other virtues, and was much used for love philtres, while the
fruit was supposed, and in the East is still supposed, to facili-
tate pregnancy (Aug., C. Faust, xxii. 56; cf. Gen. xxx. 14,
where the Hebrew nrtrn is undoubtedly the mandrake). Like
the mallow, the mandrake was potent in all kinds of enchantment
(see Maimonides in Chwolson, Ssabier, ii. 459). Dioscorides
identifies it with the wp/caia, the root named after the enchantress
Circe. To it appears to apply the fable of the magical herb
Baaras, which cured demoniacs, and was procured at great risk
or by the death of a dog employed to drag it up, in Josephus
(B. J. vii. 6, 3). The German name of the plant (Alraune;
O. H. G. Alruna) indicates the prophetic power supposed to be
in little images (homunculi, Goldmannchen, Galgenmannchen)
made of this root which were cherished as oracles. The
possession of such roots was thought to ensure prosperity.
(See Du Cange, s.m. " Mandragora " and Littr6.)
Gerard in 1597 (Herball, p. 280) described male and female
mandrakes, and Dioscorides also recognizes two such plants corre-
sponding to the spring and autumn species (M. vernalis and M.
officinarum respectively), differing in the colour of the foliage and
shape of fruit.
MANDRILL (a name formed by the prefix " man " to the
word " drill," which was used in ancient literature to denote
an ape, and is probably of West African origin), the common
title of the most hideous and most brilliantly coloured of all
the African monkeys collectively denominated baboons and
constituting the genus Papio. Together with the drill (q.v.),
the mandrill, Papio maimon, constitutes the subgenus Maimon,
which is exclusively West African in distribution, and character-
ized, among other peculiarities, by the extreme shortness of
the tail, and the great development of the longitudinal bony
swellings, covered during life with naked skin, on the sides of
the muzzle. As a whole, the mandrill is characterized by heavi-
ness of body, stoutness and strength of limb, and exceeding
shortness of tail, which is a mere stump, not 2 in. long, and
usually carried erect. It is, moreover, remarkable for the
prominence of its brow-ridges, beneath which the small and
closely approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the immense size
of the canine teeth; and more especially for the extraordinarily
vivid colouring of some parts of the skin. The body generally
is covered with soft hair light olive-brown above and silvery
grey beneath and the. chin is furnished underneath with a small
pointed yellow beard. The hair of the forehead and temples is
directed upwards so as to meet in a point on the crown, which
gives the head a triangular appearance. The ears are naked,
and bluish black. The hands and feet are naked, and black. A
large space around the greatly developed callosities on the
buttocks, as well as the upper part of the insides of the thighs,
is naked and of a crimson colour, shading off on the sides to
lilac or blue, which, depending upon injection of the superficial
blood-vessels, varies in intensity according to the condition of
the animal increasing under excitement, fading during sickness,
and disappearing after death. It is, however, in the face that
the most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occurs, more re-
sembling those of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might
be expected in a mammal. The cheek-prominences are of an
intense blue, the effect of which is heightened by deeply sunk
longitudinal furrows of a darker tint, while the central line and
termination of the nose are bright scarlet. It is only to fully
adult males that this description applies. The female is of
much smaller size, and more slender; and, though the general
tone of the hairy parts of the body is the same, the prominences,
furrows, and colouring of the face are much less marked. The
young males have black faces.
Old males are remarkable for the ferocity of their disposition,
as well as for other disagreeable qualities; but when young they
can easily be tamed. Like baboons, mandrills appear to be
indiscriminate eaters, feeding on fruit, roots, reptiles, insects,
scorpions, &c., and inhabit open rocky ground rather than
forests. Not much is known of the mandrill's habits in the
wild state, nor of the exact limits of its geographical distribution;
the specimens brought to Europe coming from the west coast
of tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Gaboon. (See also
PRIMATES.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
MANDU, or MANDOGARH, a ruined city in the Dhar state of
Central India, the ancient capital of the Mahommedan kingdom
of Malwa. The city is situated at an elevation of 2079 ft. and
extends for 8 m. along the crest of the Vindhyan mountains.
It reached its greatest splendour in the i5th century under
Hoshang Shah (1405-1434). The circuit of the battlemented
wall is nearly 23 m., enclosing a large number of palaces, mosques
and other buildings. The oldest mosque dates from 1405; the
finest' is the Jama Masjid or great mosque, a notable example
of Pathan architecture, founded by Hoshang Shah. The marble-
domed tomb of this ruler is also magnificent.
For a description and history of Mandu, see Sir James Campbell's
Gazetteer of Bombay, vol. i. part ii. (1896), and Journal of the Bombay
Asiatic Society (vol. xxi.).
MANDURIA, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce,
from which it is 27 m. W. by road (22 m. E. of Taranto), 270 ft.
above sea-level, and 8 m. N. of the coast. Pop. (1901), 12,199
(town); 13,190 (commune). It is close to the site of the ancient
Manduria, considerable remains of the defences of which can
still be seen; they consisted of a double line of wall built of
rectangular blocks of stone, without mortar, and with a broad
ditch in front. Some tombs with gold ornaments were found
in 1886 (L. Viola in Notizie degli Scam, 1886, 100). It was an
important stronghold of the Messapii against Tarentum, and
Archidamus III., king of Sparta, fell beneath its walls in 338 B.C.,
while leading the army of the latter (Plut., Agis, 3, calls the place
Mandonion: see s.v. ARCHIDAMUS). It revolted to Hannibal,
but was stormed by the Romans in 209 B.C. Pliny mentions
a spring here which never changed its level, and may still be.
seen. The town was destroyed by the Saracens in the loth
century; the inhabitants settled themselves on the site of the
present town, at first called Casalnuovo, which resumed the old
name in 1700. (T. As.)
MANDVI, a seaport of India, in the native state of Cutch,
within the Gujarat province of Bombay, 36 m. from Bhuj, and
182 m. by sea from Karachi. Pop. (1901), 24,683. It is a
weekly port of call for steamers of the British India line, vessels
MANES MANETHO
5 6 7
of 70 tons cannot come nearer than 500 yards. The pilots and
sailors of Mandvi have a high reputation.
MANES, in Roman mythology, the disembodied and immortal
spirits of the dead. The word is an old adjective manis, manus,
meaning " good," the opposite of which is immanis; hence the
Manes, clearly a euphemistic term, are the " good people." They
were looked upon as gods; hence the dedication, of great an-
tiquity and frequent occurrence, Dims or Dis Manibus in sepul-
chral inscriptions, used even in Christian times. When a body
was consumed on the funeral pyre, relations and friends invoked
the deceased as a divinity, and the law of the Twelve Tables
prescribed that therightsof thedivine Manes should be respected,
and that each man should regard the dead members of his family
as gods. Their home was in the bowels of the earth, from which
they only emerged at certain times. It was an old Italian
custom especially at the foundation of cities to dig a pit in
the form of an inverted sky (hence called mundus), the lower
part of which was supposed to be sacred to the gods of the
underworld, including the Manes. Such a pit existed on the
Palatine at Rome. It was covered by a stone called lapis manalis,
representing the entrance to the lower world, which was removed
three times in the year (Aug. 24, Oct. 5, Nov. 8). The Manes
were then believed to issue forth, and these days were regarded
as religiosi that is, all important business in public and private
life was suspended. Offerings were made to propitiate the dead:
libations of water, wine, warm milk, honey, oil, and the blood
of sacrificial victims black sheep, pigs and oxen (suovetaurilid)
was poured upon the graves; ointment and incense were
offered, lamps were lighted, and the grave was adorned with
garlands of flowers, especially roses and violets. Beans, eggs,
lentils, salt, bread and wine, placed on the grave, formed the
chief part of a meal partaken of by the mourners. There was
also a public state festival in honour of the dead, called Paren-
talia, held from the I3th to the 2ist of February, the last month
of the old Roman year, the last day of the festival being called
Feralia. During its continuance all the temples were shut,
marriages were forbidden, and the magistrates had to appear
without the insignia of their office.
There was considerable analogy between the Manes and the
received idea of " souls " and there was a corresponding idea
that they could be conjured up and appear as ghosts. They
were also supposed to have the power of sending dreams. It is
to be noticed that, unlike the Lares, the Manes are never spoken
of singly.
For authorities, see LARES and PENATES.
MANET, EDOUARD (1832-1883), French painter, regarded
as the most important master of Impressionism (q.v.), was born
in Paris on the 23rd of January 1832. After spending some
time under the tuition of the Abbe Poiloup, he entered the
College Rollin, where his passion for drawing led him to neglect
all his other lessons. His studies finished in 1848, he was placed
on board the ship Guadeloupe, voyaging to Rio de Janeiro. On
his return he first studied in Couture's studio (1851), where his
independence often infuriated his master. For six years he
was an intermittent visitor to the studio, constantly taking
leave to travel, and going first to Cassel, Dresden, Vienna and
Munich, and afterwards to Florence, Rome and Venice, where
he made some stay. Some important drawings date from this
period, and one picture, " A Nymph Surprised." Then, after
imitating Couture, more or less, in " The Absinthe-drinker "
(1866), and Courbet in " The Old Musician," he devoted himself
almost exclusively to the study of the Spanish masters in the
Louvre. A group was already gathering round him Whistler,
Legros, and Fantin-Latour haunted his studio in the Rue Guyot.
His " Spaniard playing the Guitar," in the Salon of 1861, excited
much animadversion. Delacroix alone defended Manet, but,
this notwithstanding, his " Fifer of the Guard " and " Breakfast
on the Grass " were refused by the jury. Then the " Exhibition
of the Rejected" was opened, and round Manet a group was
formed, including Bracquemond, Legros, Jongkind, Whistler,
Harpignies and Fantin-Latour, the writers Zola, Duranty and
Duret, and Astruc the sculptor. In 1863, when an amateur,
M. Martinet, lent an exhibition-room to Manet, the painter
exhibited fourteen pictures; and then, in 1864, contributed
again to the Salon " The Angels at the Tomb " and " A Bull-
fight." Of this picture he afterwards kept nothing but the
toreador in the foreground, and it is now known as " The Dead
Man." In 1865 he sent to the Salon " Christ reviled by the
Soldiers " and the famous " Olympia," which was hailed with
mockery and laughter. It represents a nude woman reclining
on a couch, behind which is seen the head of a negress who
carries a bunch of flowers. A black cat at her feet emphasizes
the whiteness of the sheet on which the woman lies. This
work (now in the Louvre) was presented to the Luxembourg by
a subscription started by Claude Monet (1890). It was hung
in 1897 among the Caillebotte collection, which included the
" Balcony," and a study of a female head called " Angelina."
This production, of a highly independent individuality, secured
Manet's exclusion from the Salon of 1866, so that he determined
to exhibit his pictures in a place apart during the Great Exhibi-
tion of 1867. In a large gallery in the Avenue de 1'Alma, half
of which was occupied by Courbet, he hung no fewer than fifty
paintings. Only one important picture was absent, " The
Execution of the Emperor Maximilian"; its exhibition was
prohibited by the authorities. From that time, in spite of the
fierce hostility of some adversaries, Manet's energy and that
of his supporters began to gain the day. His " Young Girl "
(Salon of 1868) was justly appreciated, as well as the portrait
of Lola; but the " Balcony " and the " Breakfast " (1860)
were as severely handled as the " Olympia " had been. In
1870 he exhibited " The Music Lesson " and a portrait of Mile
E. Gonzales. Not long before the Franco-Prussian War, Manet,
finding himself in the country with a friend, for the first time
discovered the true value of open air to the effects of painting
in his picture " The Garden," which gave rise to the " open
air " or plein air school. After fighting as a gunner, he returned
to his family in the Pyrenees, where he painted " The Battle of
the Kearsarge and the Alabama." His " Bon Bock " (1873)
created a furore. But in 1875, as in 1860, there was a fresh
outburst of abuse, this time of the." Railroad," " Polichinelle,"
and " Argenteuil," and the jury excluded the artist, who for
the second time arranged an exhibition in his studio. In 1877
his " Hamlet " was admitted to the Salon, but " Nana " was
rejected. The following works were exhibited at the Salon of
1881: " In the Conservatory," " In a Boat," and the portraits
of Rochefort and Proust; and the Cross of the Legion of Honour
was conferred on the painter on the 3ist of December in that
year. Manet died in Paris on the 2oth of April 1883. He left,
besides his pictures, a number of pastels and engravings. He
illustrated Les Chats by Champfleury, and Edgar Allan Poe's
The Raven.
See Zola, Manet (Paris, 1867); E. Bazire, Manet (Paris, 1884);
G. Geffroy, La Vie artistique (1893). (H. FR.)
MANETENERIS, a tribe of South American Indians of the
upper Purus river, and between it and the Jurua, north-western
Brazil. They manufacture cotton cloth, and have iron axes
and fish hooks. The men wear long ponchos, the women sacks
open at the bottom. The Maneteneris are essentially a waterside
people. Their cedarwood canoes are very long and beautifully
made.
MANETHO (Mavfffuv in an inscription of Carthage; Mavegw?
in a papyrus), Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of
Sebennytus in the Delta. The name which he bears has a
good Egyptian appearance, and has been found on a contem-
porary papyrus probably referring to the man himself. The
evidence of Plutarch and other indications connect him with
the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. His most important work was
an Egyptian history in Greek, for which he translated the native
records. It is now only known by some fragments of narrative
in Josephus's treatise Against Apion, and by tables of dynasties
and kings with lengths of reigns, divided into three books, in
the works of Christian chronographers. The earliest and best
of the latter is Julius Africanus, besides whom Eusebius and
568
MANFRED MANGALORE
some falsifying apologists offer the same materials; the chief
text is that preserved in the Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus.
It is difficult to judge the value of the original from these ex-
tracts: it is clear from the different versions of the lists that
they have been corrupted. Manetho's work was probably based
on native lists like that of the Turin Papyrus of Kings: even
his division into dynasties may have been derived from such.
The fragments of narrative give a very confused idea of Egyptian
history in the time of the Hyksos and the XVIIIth Dynasty.
The royal lists, too, are crowded with errors of detail, both
in the names and order of the kings, and in the lengths attributed
to the reigns. The brief notes attached to some of the names
may be derived from Manetho's narrative, but they are chiefly
references to kings mentioned by Herodotus or to marvels that
were supposed to have occurred: they certainly possess little
historical value. A puzzling annotation to the name of
Bocchoris, " in whose time a lamb spake 990 years," has been
well explained by KralFs reading of a demotic story written in
the twenty-third year of Augustus. According to this a lamb
prophesied that after Bocchoris's reign Egypt should be in the
hands of the oppressor 900 years; in Africanus's day it was
necessary to lengthen the period in order to keep up the spirits
of the patriots after the stated term had expired. This is
evidently not from the pure text of Manetho. Notwithstanding
all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have provided the
accepted scheme of Egyptian dynasties and have been of great
service to scholars ever since the first months of Champollion's
decipherment.
See C. Muller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, ii. 511-616;
A. Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte (Gotha, 1884), pp. 121 et sqq. ;
J. Krall in Festgaben fur Budinger (Innsbruck, 1898); Grenfell
and Hunt, El Hibeh Papyri, i. 223; also the section on chron-
ology in EGYPT, and generally books on Egyptian history and
chronology. (F. LL. G.)
MANFRED (c. 1232-1266), king of Sicily, was a natural son
of the emperor Frederick II. by Bianca Lancia, or Lanzia, who
is reported on somewhat slender evidence to have been married
to the emperor just before his death. Frederick himself appears
to have regarded Manfred as legitimate, and by his will named
him as prince of Tarentum and appointed him as the represen-
tative in Italy of his half-brother, the German king, Conrad IV.
Although only about eighteen years of age Manfred acted loyally
and with vigour in the execution of his trust, and when Conrad
appeared in southern Italy in 1252 his authority was quickly
and generally acknowledged. When in May 1254 the German
king died, Manfred, after refusing to surrender Sicily to Pope
Innocent IV., accepted the regency on behalf of Conradin, the
infant son of Conrad. But the strength of the papal party in
the Sicilian kingdom rendered the position of the regent so
precarious that he decided to open negotiations with Innocent.
By a treaty made in September 1254, Apulia passed under the
authority of the pope, who was personally conducted by Manfred
into his new possession. But Manfred's suspicions being aroused
by the demeanour of the papal retinue, he fled to the Saracens
at Lucera. Aided by Saracen allies, he defeated the papal
troops at Foggia on the 2nd of December 1254, and soon estab-
lished his authority over Sicily and the Sicilian possessions on
the mainland.
Taking advantage in 1258 of a rumour that Conradin was
dead, Manfred was crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the
toth of August in that year. The falsehood of this report was
soon manifest; but the new king, supported by the popular
voice, declined to abdicate, and pointed out to Conradin's envoys
the necessity for a strong native ruler. But the pope, to whom
the Saracen alliance was a serious offence, declared Manfred's
coronation void and pronounced sentence of excommunication.
Undeterred by this sentence Manfred sought to obtain power
in central and northern Italy, and in conjunction with the
Ghibellines his forces defeated the Guelphs at Monte Aperto on
the 4th of September 1 260. He was then recognized as protector
of Tuscany by the citizens of Florence, who did homage to his
representative, and he was chosen senator of the Romans by a
faction in the city. Terrified by these proceedings, Pope Urban
IV. implored aid from France, and persuaded Charles count of
Anjou, a brother of King Louis IX., to accept the investiture
of the kingdom of Sicily at his hands. Hearing of the approach
of Charles, Manfred issued a manifesto to the Romans, in which
he not only defended his rule over Italy but even claimed the
imperial crown. The rival armies met near Benevento on the
26th of February 1266, where, although the Germans fought
with undaunted courage, the cowardice of the Italians quickly
brought destruction on Manfred's army. The king himself,
refusing to fly, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was
killed. Over his body, which was buried on the battlefield, a
huge heap of stones was placed, but afterwards with the con-
sent of the pope the remains were unearthed, cast out of the
papal territory, and interred on the banks of the Liris. Manfred
was twice married. His first wife was Beatrice, daughter of
Amadeus IV. count of Savoy, by whom he had a daughter,
Constance, who became the wife of Peter III. king of Aragon;
and his second wife, who died in prison in 1271, was Helena,
daughter of Michael II. despot of Epirus. Contemporaries
praise the noble and magnanimous character of Manfred,
who was renowned for his physical beauty and intellectual
attainments.
Manfred forms the subject of dramas by E. B. S. Raupach, O.
Marbach and F. W. Roggee. Three letters written by Manfred are
published by J. B. Carusius in Bibliotheca historica regni Siciliae
(Palermo, 1732). See Cesare, Storia di Manfredi (Naples, 1837);
Munch, Konig Manfred (Stuttgart, 1840) ; Riccio, Alcuni sludii storici
intorno a Manfredi e Conradino (Naples, 1850); F. W. Schirrmacher,
Die letzten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871); Capesso, Hisloria
diplomatica regni Sicilian (Naples, 1874); A. Karst, Geschichte
Manfreds vom Tode Friedrichs II. bis zu seiner Kronung (Berlin, 1897) ;
and K. Hampe, Urban IV. und Manfred (Heidelberg, 1905).
MANFREDONIA, a town and archiepiscopal see (with Viesti)
of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is
225 m. N.E. by rail, situated on the coast, facing E., 13 ft.
above sea-level, to the south of Monte Gargano, and giving its
name to the gulf to the east of it. Pop. (1901), 11,549. It was
founded by Manfred in 1263, and destroyed by the Turks in
1620; but the medieval castle of the Angevins and parts of the
town walls are well preserved. In the church of S. Domenico,
the chapel of the Maddalena contains old paintings of the I4th
century. Two miles to the south-west is the fine cathedral
of S. Maria Maggiore di Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque
style, with a dome and crypt. S. Leonardo, nearer Foggia,
belonging to the Teutonic order, is of the same date. This marks
the site of the ancient Sipontum, the harbour of Arpi, which
became a Roman colony in 194 B.C., and was not deserted in
favour of Manfredonia until the i3th century, having become
unhealthy owing to the stagnation of the water in the lagoons.
See A. Beltramelli, // Gargano (Bergamo, 1907). (T. As.)
MANGABEY, a name (probably of French origin) applied to
the West African monkeys of the genus Cercocebus, the more
typical representatives of which are characterized by 'their bare,
flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, and the uniformly coloured hairs
of the fur. (See PRIMATES.)
MANGALIA, a town in the department of Constantza Rumania,
situated on the Black Sea, and at the mouth of a small stream,
the Mangalia, 10 m. N. of the Bulgarian frontier. Pop. (1900),
1459. The inhabitants, among whom are many Turks and
Bulgarians, are mostly fisherfolk. Mangalia is to be identified
with the Thracian Kallatis or Acervetis, a colony of Miletus
which continued to be a flourishing place to the close of the
Roman period. In the I4th century it had 30,0x30 inhabitants,
and a large trade with Genoa.
HANGALORE, a seaport of British India, administrative
headquarters of the South Kanara district of Madras, and ter-
minus of the west coast line of the Madras railway. Pop. (1901),
44,108. The harbour is formed by the backwater of two small
rivers. Vessels ride in 24 to 30 ft. of water, and load from and
unload into lighters. The chief exports are coffee, coco-nut
products, timber, rice and spices. Mangalore clears and exports
all the coffee of Coorg, and trades directly with Arabia and the
MANGAN MANGANESE
569
Persian Gulf. There is a small shipbuilding industry. The
town has a large Roman Catholic population, with a European
bishop, several churches, a convent and a college. It is the
headquarters of the Basel Lutheran mission, which possesses
one of the most active printing presses in southern India, and
has also successfully introduced the industries of weaving and
the manufacture of tiles. Two colleges (Government and St
Aloysius) are situated here. Mangalore was gallantly defended
by Colonel John Campbell of the 42nd regiment from May 6,
1783, to January 30, 1784, with a garrison of 1850 men, of
whom 412 were English, against Tippoo Sultan's whole army.
HANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE (1803-1849), Irish poet, was
born in Dublin on the ist of May 1803. His baptismal name
was James, the "Clarence" being his own addition. His
father, a grocer, who boasted of the terror with which he inspired
his children, had ruined himself by imprudent speculation and
extravagant hospitality. The burden of supporting the family
fell on James, who entered a scrivener's office, at the age of
fifteen, and drudged as a copying clerk for ten years. He was
employed for some time in the library of Trinity College, and in
1833 he found a place in the Irish Ordnance Survey. He suffered
a disappointment in love, and continued ill health drove him to
the use of opium. He was habitually the victim of hallucinations
which at times threatened his reason. For Charles Maturin, the
eccentric author of Melmoth, he cherished a deep admiration, the
results of which are evident in his prose stories. He belonged
to the Comet Club, a group of youthful enthusiasts who carried
on war in their paper, the Comet, against the levying of tithes
on behalf of the Protestant clergy. Contributions to the
Dublin Penny Journal followed; and to the Dublin University
Magazine he sent translations from the German poets. The
mystical tendency of German poetry had a special appeal for
him. He chose poems that were attuned to his own melancholy
temperament, and did much that was excellent in this field. He
also wrote versions of old Irish poems, though his knowledge of
the language, at any rate at the beginning of his career, was but
slight. Some of his best-known Irish poems, however, O'Hussey's
Ode to the Maguire, for instance, follow the originals very closely.
Besides these were " translations " from Arabic, Turkish and
Persian. How much of these languages he knew is uncertain,
but he had read widely in Oriental subjects, and some of the
poems are exquisite though the original authors whom he cites
are frequently mythical. He took a mischievous pleasure in
mystifying his readers, and in practising extraordinary metres.
For the Nation he wrote from the beginning (1842) of its career,
and much of his best work appeared in it. He afterwards con-
tributed to the United Irishman. On the aoth of June 1849 he
died at Meath Hospital, Dublin, of cholera. It was alleged at
the time that starvation was the real cause. This statement
was untrue, but there is no doubt that his wretched poverty
made him ill able to withstand disease.
Mangan holds a high place among Irish poets, but his fame was
deferred by the inequality and mass of his work, much of which
lay buried in inaccessible newspaper files under his many
pseudonyms, " Vacuus," " Terrae Filius," " Clarence," &c.
Of his genius, morbid though it sometimes is, as in his tragic
autobiographical ballad of The Nameless One, there can be no
question. He expressed with rare sincerity the tragedy of
Irish hopes and aspirations, and he furnished abundant proof
of his versatility in his excellent nonsense verses, which are in
strange contrast with the general trend of his work.
An autobiography which appeared in the Irish Monthly (1882) does
not reproduce the real facts of his career with any fidelity. For
some time after his death there was no adequate edition of his works,
but German Anthology (1845), and The Poets and Poetry of Munster
(1849) had appeared during his lifetime. In 1850 Hercules Ellis
included thirty of his ballads in his Romances and Ballads of Ireland.
Other selections appeared subsequently, notably one (1897), by Miss
L. I. Guiney. The Poems of James Clarence Magan (1903), and the
Prose Writings (1904), were both edited by D. J. O'Donoghue, who
wrote in 1897 a complete account of the Life and Writings o? the poet.
MANGANESE [symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54-93 (O=i6)], a
metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite) has been
known from very early times, and was at first mistaken for a
magnetic oxide of iron. In 1740 J. H. Pott showed that it did
not contain iron and that it yielded a definite series of salts,
whilst in 1774 C. Scheele proved that it was the oxide of a dis-
tinctive metal. Manganese is found widely distributed in nature,
being generally found to a greater or less extent associated with
the carbonates and silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium,
and also as the minerals braunite, hausmannite, psilomelane,
manganite, manganese spar and hauerite. It has also been
recognized in the atmosphere of the sun (A. Cornu, Complex
rendus, 1878, 86, pp. 315, 530), in sea water, and in many
mineral waters.
The metal was isolated by J. G. Gahn in 1774, and in 1807
J. F. John (Gehlen's Jour. chem. phys., 1807, 3, p. 452) obtained
an impure metal by reducing the carbonate at a high temperature
with charcoal, mixed with a small quantity of oil. R. Bunsen
prepared the metal by electrolysing manganese chloride in a
porous cell surrounded by a carbon crucible containing hydro-
chloric acid. Various reduction methods have been employed
for the isolation of the metal. C. Brunner (Pogg. Ann., 1857, 101,
p. 264) reduced the fluoride by metallic sodium, and E. Glatzel
(Ber., 1889, 22, p. 2857) the chloride by magnesium, H. Moissan
(Ann. Chim. Phys., 1896 (7) 9, p. 286) reduced the oxide with
carbon in the electric furnace; and H. Goldschmidt has
prepared the metal from the oxide by means of his " ther-
mite " process (see CHROMIUM). W. H. Green and W. H. Wahl
[German patent 70773 (1893)] prepare a 97% manganese from
pyrolusite by heating it with 30% sulphuric acid, the product
being then converted into manganous oxide by heating in a cur-
rent of reducing gas at a dull red heat, cooled in a reducing
atmosphere, and finally reduced by heating with granulated
aluminium in a magnesia crucible with lime and fluorspar as
a flux. A purer metal is obtained by reducing manganese
amalgam by hydrogen (0. Prelinger, Monals., 1894, 14,
P- 353)-
Prelinger's manganese has a specific gravity of 7-42, and the
variety obtained by distilling pure manganese amalgam in
vacua is pyrophoric (A. Guntz, Bull. Soc. [3], 7, 275), and burns
when heated in a current of sulphur dioxide. The pure metal
readily evolves hydrogen when acted upon by sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids, and is readily attacked by dilute nitric
acid. It precipitates many metals from solutions of their salts.
It is employed commercially in the manufacture of special
steels. (See IRON AND STEEL.)
COMPOUNDS
Manganese forms several oxides, the most important of which
are manganous oxide, MnO, trimanganese tetroxide, MnjOi, man-
ganese sesquioxide, Mn 2 Oj, manganese dioxide, MnOj, manganese
trioxide, MnOj, and manganese heptoxide, MnjO?.
Manganous oxide, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixture of anhy-
drous manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with a small quantity
of ammonium chloride (J. v. Liebig and F. Wohler, Pogg. Ann.,
1830, 21, p. 584); or by reducing the higher oxides with hydrogen
or carbon monoxide. It is a dark coloured powder of specific gravity
5-09. Manganous hydroxide, Mn(OH) 2 , is obtained as a white precipi-
tate on adding a solution of a caustic alkali to a manganous salt. For
the preparation of the crystalline variety identical with the mineral
pyrochroite (see A. de Schulten, Comptes rendus, 1887, 105, p. 1265).
It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air and turns brown, going ulti-
mately to the sesquioxide. Trimanganese tetroxide, MnO4, is pro-
duced more or less pure when the other oxides are heated. It may
be obtained crystalline by heating manganese sulphate and potas-
sium sulphate to a bright red heat (H. Debray, Comptes rendus,
1861, 52, p. 985). It is a reddish-brown powder, which when heated
with hydrochloric acid yields chlorine. Manganese sesquioxide,
MnjOj, found native as the mineral braunite, may be obtained
by igniting the other oxides in a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen,
containing not more than 26% of the latter gas (W. Dittmar, Jour.
Chem. Soc., 1864, 17, p. 294). The hydrated form, found native as
the mineral manganite, is produced by the spontaneous oxidation
of manganous hydroxide. In the hydrated condition it is a dark
brown powder which readily loses water at above 1 00 C., it dissolves
in hot nitric acid, giving manganous nitrate and manganese dioxide:
2MnO(OH) -|- 2HNO, = Mn(NO,), + MnO, + 2H,O. Manganese
dioxide, or pyrolusite (q.v.), MnOs, the most important oxide, may be
prepared by heating crystallized manganous nitrate until red fumes
are given off, decanting the clear liquid, and heating to 150 to
160 C. for 40 to 60 hours (A. Gorgen, Bull. Soc., 1890 [3], 4, p. 16),
570
MANGANESE
or by heating manganese carbonate to 260 C. in the presence
of air and washing the residue with very dilute cold hydrochloric
acid. It is a hard black solid which readily loses oxygen when
strongly heated, leaving a residue of MnsOj. When heated with
concentrated hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine, and with concen-
trated sulphuric acid it yields oxygen. It is reduced to the monoxide
when heated in a current of hydrogen. It is a strong oxidizing agent.
It dissolves in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid, forming a dark
brown solution which probably contains manganic chloride (see
R. J. Meyer, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1899, 22, p. 169; G. Neumann,
Monats., 1894, 15, p. 489). It is almost impossible to prepare a pure
hydrated manganese dioxide owing to the readiness with which it
loses oxygen, leaving residues of the type xMnO-yMnOj. Such mix-
tures are obtained by the action of alkaline hypochlorites on manga-
nous salts, or by suspending manganous carbonate in water and pass-
ing chlorine through the mixture. The solid matter is filtered off,
washed with water, and warmed with 10% nitric acid (A. Gorgen).
It is a dark brown powder, which reddens litmus. Manganese
dioxide combines with other basic oxides to form manganites, and
on this property is based the Weldon process for the recovery of
manganese from the waste liquors of the chlorine stills (see CHLORINE).
The manganites are amorphous brown solids, insoluble in water,
and decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine.
Manganese trioxide, MnOa, is obtained in small quantity as an un-
stable deliquescent red solid by dropping a solution of potassium
permanganate in sulphuric acid on to dry sodium carbonate (B.
Franke, Jour. prak. Chem., 1887 [2], 36, p. 31). Above 50 C. it
decomposes into the dioxide and oxygen. It dissolves in water
forming manganic acid, H 2 MnC>4. Manganese heptoxide, Mn 2 O7, pre-
pared by adding pure potassium permanganate to well cooled,
concentrated sulphuric acid, when the oxide separates as a dark oil
(H. Aschoff, Fogg. Ann., 1860, in, p. 217), is very unstable, con-
tinually giving off oxygen. It decomposes violently on heating,
and explodes in contact with hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c.
It dissolves in water to form a deep red solution which contains
permanganic acid, H M nO.(. This acid is also formed by decomposing
barium or lead permanganate with dilute sulphuric acid. It is
only known in aqueous solution. This solution is of a deep violet-
red colour, and is somewhat fluorescent ; it decomposes on exposure
to light, or when heated. It is a monobasic acid, and a very power-
ful oxidizing agent (M. M. P. Muir, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, 91,
p. 1485).
Manganous Salts. The anhydrous chloride, MnCl 2 , is obtained
as a rose-red crystalline solid by passing hydrochloric acid gas over
manganese carbonate, first in the cold and afterwards at a moder-
ate red heat. The hydrated chloride, MnCl 2 -4H 2 O, is obtained in
rose-red crystals by dissolving the metal or its carbonate in aqueous
hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. It may be
obtained in at least two different forms, one isomorphous with
NaCl-aHjO, by concentrating the solution between isC.and 20 C. ;
the other, isomorphous with FeCl 2 -4H 2 O, by slow evaporation of
the mother liquors from the former. It forms double salts with the
chlorides of the alkali metals. The bromide MnBr 2 -4H 2 O, iodide,
MnI 2 , and fluoride, MnF 2 , are known.
Manganous Sulphate, MnSO, is prepared by strongly heating a
paste of pyrolusite and concentrated sulphuric acid until acid fumes
cease to be evolved. The ferric and aluminium sulphates present
are thus converted into insoluble basic salts, and the residue yields
manganous sulphate when extracted with water. The salt crystal-
lizes with varying quantities of water, according to the temperature
at which crystallization is effected: between 4 C. and +6 C.
with 7H 2 O, between 15 C. and 20 C. with 5H 2 O, and between 25 C.
and 31 C, with 4H 2 O. It crystallizes in large pink crystals, the
colour of which is probably due to the presence of a small quantity
of manganic sulphate or of a cobalt sulphate. It combines with the
sulphates of the alkali metals to form double salts.
Manganous Nitrate, Mn(NOn) 2 -6H 2 O, obtained by dissolving the
carbonate in nitric acid and concentrating the solution, crystallizes
from nitric acid solutions in long colourless needles, which melt at
25-8 C. and boil at 129-5 C. with some decomposition.
Manganous Carbonate, MnCOs, found native as manganese spar,
may be prepared as an amorphous powder by heating manganese
chloride with sodium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150 C., or in the
hydrated form as a white flocculent precipitate by adding sodium
carbonate to a manganous salt. In the moist condition it rapidly
turns brown on exposure to air.
Manganous Sulphide, MnS, found native as manganese glance,
may be obtained by heating the monoxide or carbonate in a porcelain
tube in a current of carbon bisulphide vapour. R. Schneider
(Pogg. Ann., 1874, 151, 449) obtained a crystalline variety by
melting sulphur with anhydrous manganous sulphate and dry
potassium carbonate, extracting the residue and drying it in a
current of hydrogen. Four sulphides are known ; the red and green
are anhydrous, a grey variety contains much water, whilst the
pink is a mixture of the grey and red (J. C. Olsen and W. S. Rapalje,
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1904, 26, p. 1615). Ammonium sulphide
alone gives incomplete precipitation of the sulphide. In the
presence of ammonium salts the precipitate is dirty white in colour,
whilst in the presence of free ammonia it is a buff colour. This
form of the sulphide is readily oxidized when exposed in the moist
condition, and is easily decomposed by dilute mineral acids.
Manganese Disulphide, MnS^, found native as hauerite, is formed
as a red coloured powder by heating manganous sulphate with
potassium polysulphide in a sealed tube at i6o-i7O C. (H. v.
Senarmont, Jour. prak. Chem., 1850, 51, p. 385).
Manganic Salts. The sulphate, Mn 2 (SO4)s, is prepared by gradu-
ally heating at 138 C. a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and
manganese dioxide until the whole becomes of a dark green colour.
The excess of acid is removed by spreading the mass on a porous
plate, the residue stirred for some hours with nitric acid, again spread
on a porous plate, and finally dried quickly at about 130 C. It is
a dark green deliquescent powder which decomposes on heating
or on exposure to moist air. It is readily decomposed by dilute
acids. With potassium sulphate in the presence of sulphuric acid
it forms potassium manganese alum, K 2 SO4-Mn 2 (SO4)s-24H 2 O.
A. Piccini (Zeit. anorg. Chem. 1898, 17, p. 355) has also obtained
a manganese caesium alum. Manganic Fluoride, MnFs, a solid
obtained by the action of fluorine on manganous chloride, is decom-
posed by heat into manganous fluoride and fluorine. By suspending
the dioxide in carbon tetrachloride and passing in hydrochloric
acid gas, W. B. Holmes (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii., p. 873) obtained
a black trichloride and a reddish-brown tetrachloride.
Manganese Carbide, Mn 3 C, is prepared by heating manganous
oxide with sugar charcoal in an electric furnace, or by fusing
manganese chloride and calcium carbide. Water decomposes
it, giving methane and hydrogen (H. Moissan) ; Mn3C-f-6HO =
3 Mn(OH) 2 +CH4+H 2 .
Manganates. These salts are derived from manganic acid
H 2 MnO 4 . Those of the alkali metals are prepared by fusing rtanga-
nese dioxide with sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of
air or of some oxidizing agent (nitre, potassium chlorate, &c.);
MnO 2 +2KHO+O = K 2 Mnq 4 +H 2 O. In the absence of air the
reaction proceeds slightly differently, some manganese sesquioxide
being formed ; 3MnO 2 +2KHO = K 2 MnO 4 -f-Mn 2 O ? +H 2 O. The fused
mass has a dark olive-green colour, and dissolves in a small quantity
of cold water to a green solution, which is, however, only stable in
the presence of an excess of alkali. The green solution is readily
converted into a pink one of permanganate by a large dilution with
water, or by passing carbon dioxide through it: 3K 2 MnO<+2CO2 =
2K 2 CO,+2KMnO < +MnO 2 .
Permanganates are the salts of permanganic acid, HMn(>4. The
potassium salt, KMnO<, may be prepared by passing chlorine or
carbon dioxide through an aqueous solution of potassium manganate,
or by the electrolytic oxidation of the manganate at the anode
[German patent 101710 (1898)]. It crystallizes in dark purple-red
prisms, isomorphous with potassium perchlorate. It acts as a
powerful oxidizing agent, both in acid and alkaline solution; in the
first case two molecules yield five atoms of available oxygen and in
the second, three atoms:
2KMnO 4 +3H 2 O =2MnO 2 -H 2 O+2KHO+3O.
It completely decomposes hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric acid
solution
It decomposes when heated to
200 - 240C. : 2KMnO4 = K 2 MnO 4 +MnO 2 +O 2 ;
and when warmed with hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine :
2KMnO 4 + l6HCl=2KCl+2MnCl2+8H 2 O+5Cl 2 .
Sodium Permanganate, NaMnO4-3H 2 O (?), may be prepared in a
similar manner, or by precipitating the silver salt with sodium
chloride. It crystallizes with great difficulty. A solution of the crude
salt is used as a disinfectant under the name of " Condy's fluid."
Ammonium Permanganate, NH 4 -MnO4, explodes violently on
rubbing, and its aqueous solution decomposes on boiling (W. Muth-
mann, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1018); NH4-MnO 4 = MnO ? -|-N 2 -|-2H 2 O.
Barium Permanganate, BaMn 2 O 8 , crystallizes in almost black
needles, and is formed by passing carbon dioxide through water
containing suspended barium manganate.
Detection. Manganese salts can be detected by the amethyst
colour they impart to a borax-bead when heated in the Bunsen
flame, and by the green mass formed when they are fused with a
mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate. Manganese
may be estimated quantitatively by precipitation as carbonate,
this salt being then converted into the oxide, Mn 3 O 4 by ignition;
or by precipitation as hydrated dioxide by means of ammonia and
bromine water, followed by ignition to Mn 3 O4. The valuation of
pyrolusite is generally carried out by means of a distillation with
hydrochloric acid, the liberated chlorine passing through a solution
of potassium iodide, and the amount of iodine liberated being
ascertained by means of a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate.
The atomic weight of manganese has been frequently determined.
J. Berzelius, by analysis of the chloride, obtained the value 54-86;
K. v. Hauer (Sitzb. Akad. Wien., 1857, 25, p. 132), by conversion
of the sulphate into sulphide, obtained the value 54-78; J. Dewar
and A. Scott (Chem. News, 1883, 47, p. 98), by analysis of silver
permanganate, obtained the value 55-038; J. M. Weeren (Slahl. u.
MANGANITE MANG LON
s
571
drf
\isen, 1893, 13, p. 559), by conversion of manganous oxide into
the sulphate obtained the value 54-883, and of the sulphate into
sulphide the value 54-876 (H = i), and finally G. P. Baxter and
Hines (Jour. Amer. them. Soc., 1006, 28, p. 1360), by analyses of
the chloride and bromide, obtained 54-96 (O = 16).
MANGANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated manganese
sesquioxide, MnjOs-HzO, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system
and isomorphous with diaspore and gothite. Crystals are pris-
matic and deeply striated parallel to their length; they are often
grouped together in bundles. The colour is dark steel-grey to
iron-black, and the lustre brilliant and submetallic: the streak
is dark reddish-brown. The hardness is 4, and the specific
gravity 4-3. There is a perfect cleavage
parallel to the brachypinacoid, and less
perfect cleavage parallel to the prism faces
m. Twinned crystals are not infrequent.
The mineral contains 89-7% of manganese
sesquioxide; it dissolves in hydrochloric
acid with evolution of chlorine. The best
crystallized specimens are those from Ilfeld
in the Harz, where the mineral occurs with
calcite and barytes in veins traversing
porphyry. Crystals have also been found at
Ilmenau in Thuringia, Neukirch near Schlett-
stadt in Alsace (" newkirkite "), Granam near Towie in Aber-
deenshire, Upton Pyne near Exeter and Negaunee in Michigan.
As an ore of manganese it is much less abundant than pyrolusite
or psilomelane. The name manganite was given by W. Haidinger
in 1827: French authors adopt F. S. Beudant's name " acerdese,"
(Gr. aictpdris, unprofitable) because the mineral is of little value
for bleaching purposes as compared with pyrolusite.
(L.J.S.)
MANGBETTU (Monbuttu), a negroid people of Central Africa
living to the south of the Niam-Niam in the Welle district of
Belgian Congo. They number about a million. Their country
is a table-land at an altitude of 2500 to 2800 ft. Despite its
abundant animal life, luxuriant vegetation and rich crops of
plantain and oil-palm, the Mangbettu have been some of the most
inveterate cannibals in Africa; but since the Congo State estab-
lished posts in the country (c. 1895) considerable efforts have
been made to stamp out cannibalism. Physically the Mangbettu
differ greatly from their negro neighbours. They are not so
black and their faces are less negroid, many having quite aquiline
noses. The beard, too, is fuller than in most negroes. They
appear to have imposed their language and customs on the
surrounding tribes, the Mundu, Abisanga, &c. Once a consider-
able power, they have practically disappeared as far as the
original stock is concerned; their language and culture, however,
remain, maintained by their subjects, with whom they have to a
large extent intermixed. The men wear bark cloth, the art of
weaving being unknown, the women a simple loin cloth, often
not that. Both sexes paint the body in elaborate designs. As
potters, sculptors, boatbuilders and masons the Mangbettu
have had few rivals in Africa. Their huts, with pointed roofs,
were not only larger and better built, but were cleaner than those
of their neighbours, and some of their more important buildings
were of great size and exhibited some skill in architecture.
See G. A. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (1874); W. Junker,
Travels in Africa (1890); G. Casati, Ten Years in Equatoria (1891).
MANGEL-WURZEL, or field-beet, a variety of the common
beet, known botanically as Beta vulgaris, var. macrorhiza. The
name is German and means literally " root of scarcity." R. C. A.
Prior (Popular Names of British Plants) says it was originally
mangold, a word of doubtful meaning. The so-called root con-
sists of the much thickened primary root together with the
" hypocotyl," i.e. the original stem between the root and the
seed-leaves. A transverse section of the root shows a similar
structure to the beet, namely a series of concentric rings of
firmer " woody " tissue alternating with rings of soft thin-walled
parenchymatous " bast-tissue " which often has a crimson or
yellowish tint. The root is a store of carbohydrate food-stuff
in the form of sugar, which is formed in the first year of growth
when the stem remains short and bears a rosette of large leaves.
If the plant be allowed to remain in the ground till the following
year strong leafy angular aerial stems are developed, 3 ft. or
more in height, which branch and bear the inflorescences. The
flowers are arranged in dense sessile clusters subtended by a
small bract, and resemble those of the true beet. The so-called
seeds are clusters of spurious fruits. After fertilization the
fleshy receptacle and the base of the perianth of each flower
enlarge and the flowers in a cluster become united; the fleshy
parts with the ovaries, each of which contains one seed, become
hard and woody. Hence several seeds are present in one " seed "
of commerce, which necessitates the careful thinning of a young
crop, as several seedlings may spring from one " seed."
This plant is very susceptible of injury from frost, and hence
in the short summer of Scotland it can neither be sown so early
nor left in the ground so late as would be requisite for its mature
growth. But it is peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of
England where the climate is too hot and dry for the successful
cultivation of the turnip. In feeding quality it rivals the
swede; it is much relished by livestock pigs especially doing
remarkably well upon it; and it keeps in good condition till
midsummer if required. The valuable constituent of mangel
is dry matter which averages about 12% as against 1 1 % in
swedes. Of this two-thirds may be sugar, which only develops
fully during storage. Indeed, it is only after it has been some
months in the store heap that mangel becomes a palatable and
safe food for cattle. It is, moreover, exempt from the attacks
of the turnip beetle. On all these accounts, therefore, it is
peculiarly valuable in those parts of Great Britain where the
summer is usually hot and dry.
Up to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of prepara-
tion for mangel are similar to those described for the turnip;
winter dunging being even more appropriate for the former than
for the latter. The common drilling machines are easily fitted
for sowing its large rough seeds, which should be sown from the
beginning of April to the middle of May and may be deposited
either on ridges or on the flat. The after culture is like that of
the turnip. The plants are thinned out at distances of not less
than 15 in. apart. Transplanting can be used for filling up of
gaps with more certainty of success than in the case of swedes,
but it is much more economical to avoid such gaps by sowing a
little swede seed along with the mangel. Several varieties of the
plant are cultivated those in best repute being the long red,
the yellow globe and the tankard, intermediate in shape. This
crop requires a heavier dressing of manure than the turnip to
grow it in perfection, and is much benefited by having salt
mixed with the manure at the rate of 2 or 3 cwt. per acre. Nitro-
genous manures are of more marked value than phosphatic
manures. The crop requires to be secured in store heaps as
early in autumn as possible, as it is easily injured by frost.
MANGLE, (i) A machine for pressing and smoothing clothes
after washing (see LAUNDRY). The word was adopted from the
Dutch; mangel-stok means a rolling pin, and linnen mangtlen, to
press linen by rolling; similarly in O. Ital. mangano meant,
according to Florio, "a presse to press buckrom," &c. The
origin of the word is to be found in the medieval Latin name,
manganum,' mangonus or mangana, for an engine of war, the
" mangonel," for hurling stones and other missiles (see CATA-
PULT). The Latin word was adapted from the Greek iMyyavov,
a trick or device, cognate with nrfxari], a machine. (2) To
cut in pieces, to damage or disfigure; to mutilate. This word is
of obscure origin. According to the New English Dictionary
it presents an Anglo-French mahangler, a form of mahaigncr
from which the English " maim " is derived, cf. the old form
" mayhem," surviving in legal phraseology. Skeat connects
the word with the Latin tnancus, maimed, with which " maim "
is not cognate.
MANG LON, a state in the northern Shan states of Burma.
It is the chief state of the Wa or Vii tribes, some of whom are
head-hunters, and Mang Lon is the only one which as yet has
direct relations with the British government. Estimated area,
3000 sq. m.; estimated population, 40,000. The state extends
from about 21 30' to 23 N., or for 100 m. along the river
572
MANGNALL MANICHAEISM
Salween. Its width varies greatly, from a mile or even less on
either side of the river to perhaps 40 m. at its broadest part near
Takiit, the capital. It is divided into East and West Mang Lon,
the boundary being the Salween. There are no Wa in West
Mang Lon. Shans form the chief population, but there are
Palaungs, Chinese and Yanglam, besides Lahu. The bulk of
the population in East Mang Lon is Wa, but there are many
Shans and Lahu. Both portions are very hilly; the only flat
land is along the banks of streams in the valleys, and here the
Shans are settled. There are prosperous settlements and bazaars
at Nawng Hkam and Mong Kao in West Mang Lon. The Wa
of Mang Lon have given up head-hunting, and many profess
Buddhism. The capital, Takiit, is perched on a hill-top 6000 ft.
above sea-level. The sawbwa is a Wa, and has control over
two sub-states, Mot Hai to the north and Maw Hpa to the
south.
MANGNALL, RICHMAL (1769-1820), English schoolmistress,
was born, probably at Manchester, on the 7th of March 1769.
She was a pupil and finally mistress of a school at Crofton Hall,
near Wakefield, Yorkshire, which she conducted most success-
fully until her death there on the ist of May 1820. She was
the author of Historical and Miscellaneous Questions for the
Use of Young People (1800), generally known as " Mangnall's
Questions," which was prominent in the education of English
girls in the first half of the igth century.
MANGO. The mango-tree (Mangifera indica, natural order
Anacardiaceae) is a native of tropical Asia, but is now exten-
sively cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions of the
New as well as the Old World. It is indigenous in India at the
base of the Himalayas, and in Further India and the Andaman
Islands (see A. de Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants). The
cultivation of the fruit must have spread at an early age over the
Indian Peninsula, and it now grows everywhere in the plains.
It grows rapidly to a height of 30 to 40 ft., and its dense, spreading
and glossy foliage would secure its cultivation for the sake of its
shade and beauty alone. Its fruit, a drupe, though in the wild
variety (not to be confused with that of Spondias mangifera,
belonging to the same order, also called wild mango in India)
stringy and sour, from its containing much gallic acid, and with
a disagreeable flavour of turpentine, has become sweet and
luscious through culture and selection, to which we owe many
varieties, differing not only in flavour but also in size, from that
of a plum to that of an apple. When unripe, they are used to
make pickles, tarts and preserves; ripe, they form a wholesome
and very agreeable dessert. In times of scarcity the kernels
also are eaten. The timber, although soft and liable to decay,
serves for common purposes, and, mixed with sandal-wood, is
employed in cremation by the Hindus. It is usually propagated
by grafts, or by layering or inarching, rather than by seed.
See G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1891).
MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia Mangostana), a tree belonging to
the order Guttiferae. It is a native of the Malay Peninsula, and
is extensively cultivated in southern Tenasserim, and in some
places in the Madras presidency. Poor results have followed the
attempt to introduce it to other countries; and A. de Candolle
refers to it as one of the most local among cultivated plants both
in its origin, habitation and cultivation. It belongs to a family
in which the mean area of the species is very restricted. It is an
evergreen about 20 ft. high, and is somewhat fir-like in general
form, but the leaves are large, oval, entire, leathery and glistening.
Its fruit, the much-valued mangosteen, is about the size andshape
of an orange, and is somewhat similarly partitioned, but is of
a reddish-brown to chestnut colour. Its thick rind yields a very
astringent juice, rich in tannin, and containing a gamboge-like
resin. The soft and juicy pulp is snow-white or rose-coloured,
and of delicious flavour and perfume. It is wholesome, and may
be administered in fever.
The genus Garcinia is a genus of trees containing about fifty
species in the tropics of the Old World, and usually yielding a
yellow gum-resin (gamboge). G. Morella, a native of India,
yields the true gamboge.
MANGROVE. The remarkable " mangrove forests " which
fringe tidal estuaries, overrun salt marshes, and line muddy
coasts in the tropics of both Old and New Worlds, are composed
of trees and shrubs belonging mainly to the Rhizophoraceae,
but including, especially in the eastern mangrove formations of
Further India and the Malay Archipelago, members of other
orders of Dicotyledons, such as Lythraceae (Sonneratia), Ver-
benaceae (Avicennia), and the acaulescent Nipa-palm. Their
trunks and branches constantly emit adventitious roots, which,
descending in arched fashion, strike at some distance from the
parent stem, and send up new trunks, the forest thus spreading
like a banyan grove. An advantage in dispersal, very charac-
teristic of the order, is afforded by the seeds, which have a striking
peculiarity of germination. While the fruit is still attached to
the parent branch the long radicle emerges from the seed and
descends rapidly towards the mud, where it may even establish
itself before falling off. Owing to its clubbed shape, this is
always in the right position; the plumule then makes its appear-
ance. An interesting feature of the mangrove is the air-roots,
erect or kneed branches of the roots, which project above the mud,
and are provided with minute openings (stomata or lenticels),
into which the air passes and is then carried by means of passages
in the soft spongy tissue to the roots which spread beneath the
mud. The wood of some species is hard and durable, and the
astringent bark is used in tanning. The fruit of the common
mangrove, Rhizophora Mangle, is sweet and wholesome, and
yields a light wine.
MANICHAEISM. Towards the close of the 3rd century two
great religions stood opposed to one another in western Europe,
one wholly Iranian, namely Mithraism, the other of Jewish
origin, but not without Iranian elements, part and parcel prob-
ably of the Judaism which gave it birth, namely Christianity.
Professor Franz Cumont has traced the progress of Mithraism all
over the Balkan Peninsula, Italy, the Rhine-lands, Britain,
Spain and Latin Africa. It was peculiarly the religion of the
Roman garrisons, and was carried by the legionaries wherever
they went. It was an austere religion, inculcating self-restraint,
courage and honesty; it secured peace of conscience through for-
giveness of sins, and abated for those who were initiated in its
mysteries the superstitious terrors of death and the world tocome.
In these respects it resembled Christianity. Soldiers may have
espoused it rather than the rival faith, because in the primitive
age Christian discipline denied them the sacraments, on the
ground that they were professional shedders of blood. The
cumbrous mythology and cosmogony of Mithraism at last
weakened its hold upon men's minds, and it disappeared during
the 4th century before a victorious Catholicism, yet not until
another faith, equally Iranian in its mythology and cosmological
beliefs, had taken its place. This new faith was that of Mani,
which spread with a rapidity only to be explained by supposing
that Mithraism had prepared men's minds for its reception.
Mani professed to blend the teachings of Christ with the old
Persian Magism. Kessler, the latest historian of Manichaeism,
opines that Mani's own declaration on this point is not to be
relied upon, and has tried to prove that it was rather of Semitic
or Chaldaic origin. He certainly shows that the old Assyrian
mythology influenced Mani, but not that this element did not
reach him through Persian channels. In genuine Manichaean
documents we only find the name Mani, but Manes, Mdir/s,
Manichaeus, meet us in 4th-century Greek and Latin documents.
In the Ada Archelai his first name is said to have been Cubricus,
which Kessler explains as a corruption of Shuravik, a name
common among the Arabs of the Syrian desert.
Life of Mani. According to the Mahommedan tradition,
which is more trustworthy than the account contained in these
Ada, Mani was a high-born Persian of Ecbatana. The year of
his birth is uncertain, but Kessler accepts as reliable the state-
ment made by Biruni, that Mani was born in the year 527 of the
astronomers of Babylon (A.D. 215-216). He received a careful
education at Ctesiphon from his father Fatak, Babak or Patak
(HciTeKios). As the father connected himself at a later period
with the confession of the Moghtasilah, or " Baptists," in
MANICHAEISM
573
southern Babylonia, the son also was brought up in the religious
doctrines and exercises of this sect. These Baptists (see the
Fihrist) were apparently connected with the Elkesaites and the
Hemerobaptists, and certainly with the Mandaeans. It is prob-
able that this Babylonian sect had absorbed Christian elements.
Thus the boy early became acquainted with very different
forms of religion. If even a small part of the stories about
his father is founded on fact, it was he who first introduced Mani
to that medley of religions out of which his system arose. Mani-
chaean tradition relates that Mani received revelations while
yet a boy, and assumed a critical attitude towards the religious
instruction that was being imparted to him. This is the more
incredible since the same tradition informs us that the boy was as
yet prohibited from making public use of his new religious views.
It was only when Mani had reached the age of twenty-five or
thirty years that he began to proclaim his new religion. This he
did at the court of the Persian king, Shapur I., and, according
to the story, on the coronation day of that monarch (241/2).
A Persian tradition says that he had previously been a Christian
presbyter, but this is certainly incorrect. Mani did 'not remain
long in Persia, but undertook long journeys for the purpose of
spreading his religion, and also sent forth disciples. According
to the Acta Archelai, his missionary activity extended west-
wards into the territory of the Christian church; but from
Oriental sources it is certain that Mani rather went into Trans-
oxiana, western China, and southwards as far as India. His
labours there as well as in Persia were not without result. Like
Mahomet after him and the founder of the Elkesaites before him,
he gave himself out for the last and highest prophet, who was to
surpass all previous divine revelation, which only possessed a
relative value, and to set up the perfect religion. In the closing
years of the reign of Shapur I. (c. 270) Mani returned to the
Persian capital, and gained adherents even at court. But the
dominant priestly caste of the Magians, on whose support the
king was dependent, were naturally hostile to him, and after
some successes Mani was made a prisoner, and had then to flee.
The successor of Shapur, Hormizd (272-273), appears to have
been favourably disposed towards him, but Bahrain I. abandoned
him to the fanaticism of the Magians, and caused him to be
crucified in the capital in the year 276/7. The corpse was
flayed, and Mani's adherents were cruelly persecuted by the
king.
Mani's Writings. Mani himself composed a large number of
works and epistles, which were in great part still known to the
Mahommedan historians, but are now mostly lost. The later
heads of the Manichaean churches also wrote religious treatises, so
that the ancient Manichaean literature must have been very ex-
tensive. According to the Fihrist, Mani made use of the Persian
and Syriac languages; but, like the Oriental Marcionites before
him, he invented an alphabet of his own, which the Fihrist has
handed down to us. In this alphabet the sacred books of the
Manichaeans were written, even at a later period. The Fihrist
reckons seven principal works of Mani, six being in the Syriac and
one in the Persian language ; regarding some of these we also have
information in Epiphanius, Augustine, Titus of Bostra, and Photius,
as well as in the formula of abjuration (Cotelerius, PP. Apost. Opp.
' 543) and in the Acta Archelai. They are (i) The Book of Secrets
(see Acta Archel.), containing discussions bearing on the Christian
sects spread throughout the East, especially the Marcionites and
Bardesanites, and dealing also with their conception of the Old and
New Testaments; (2) The Book of the Giants (Demons?); (3) The
Book of Precepts for Hearers (probably identical with the Epistola
Fundamenti of Augustine and with the Book of Chapters of Epipha-
nius and the Acta Archelai; this was the most widely spread and
most popular Manichaean work, having been translated into Greek
and Latin; it contained a short summary of all the doctrines of
fundamental authority); (4) The Book Shahpurakan (Flugel was
unable to explain this name ; according to Kessler it signifies epistle
to King Shapur "; the treatise was of an eschatological character);
(5) The Book of Quickening (Kessler identifies this work with the
Thesaurus [vitae] " of the Acta Archelai, Epiphanius, Photius
and Augustine, and if this be correct it also must have been in use
among the Latin Manichaeans); (6) The Book Trpaynarda (of un-
known contents) ; (7) a book in the Persian language, the title of
which is not given in our present text of the Fihrist, but which is
in all probability identical with the " holy gospel " of the Manichaeans
(mentioned in the Ada Archel. and many other authorities).
It was this work which the Manichaeans set up in opposition to the
Gospels. Besides these principal works, Mani also wrote a large
number of smaller treatises and epistles. The practice of writing
epistles was continued by his successors. These Manichaean dis-
sertations also became known in the Graeco-Roman Empire, and
existed in collections. 1 There also existed a Manichaean book of
memorabilia, and of prayers, in Greek, as well as many others,*
all of which were destroyed by the Christian bishops acting in con-
junction with the authorities. A Manichaean epistle, addressed
to one Marcellus, has, however, been preserved for us in the Acta
Archelai.'
Manichaean System. Though the leading features of Mani-
chaean doctrine can be exhibited clearly even at the present
day, and though it is undoubted that Mani himself drew up-
a complete system, many details are nevertheless uncertain,
since they are differently described in different sources, and
it often remains doubtful which of the accounts that have
been transmitted to us represents the original teaching of the
founder.
The Manichaean system is one of consistent, uncompro-
mising dualism, in the form of a fantastic philosophy of nature.
The physical and the ethical are not distinguished, and in
this respect the character of the system is thoroughly material-
istic; for when Mani co-ordinates good with light, and evil
with darkness, this is no mere figure of speech, but light is
actually good and darkness evil. From this it follows that
religious knowledge involves the knowledge of nature and
her elements, and that redemption consists in a physical process
of freeing the element of light from the darkness. Under
such circumstances ethics becomes a doctrine of abstinence
in regard to all elements which have their source within the
sphere of darkness.
The self-contradictory character of the present world forms
the point of departure for Mani's speculations. This contra-
diction presents itself to his mind primarily as elemental, and
only in the second instance as ethical, inasmuch as he considers
the sensual nature of man to be the outflow of the evil elements
in nature. From the contradictory character of the world he
concludes the existence of two beings, originally quite separate
from each other light and darkness. Each is to be thought
of according to the analogy of a kingdom. Light presents
itself to us as the good primal spirit (God, radiant with the
ten [twelve] virtues of love, faith, fidelity, high-mindedness,
wisdom, meekness, knowledge, understanding, mystery and
insight), and then further as the heavens of light and the earth
of light, with their guardians the glorious aeons. Darkness
is likewise a spiritual kingdom (more correctly, it also is con-
ceived of as a spiritual and feminine personification), but it
has no " God " at its head. It embraces an " earth of darkness."
As the earth of light has five tokens (the mild zephyr, cooling
wind, bright light, quickening fire, and dear water), so has
the earth of darkness also five (mist, heat, the sirocco, darkness
and vapour). Satan with his demons was born from the kingdom
of darkness. These two kingdoms stood opposed to each other
from all eternity, touching each other on one side, but remaining
unmingled. Then Satan began to rage, and made an incursion
into the kingdom of light, into the earth of light. The God
of light, with his syzygy, " the spirit of his right hand," now
begot the primal man, and sent him, equipped with the five
pure elements, to fight against Satan. But the latter proved
himself the stronger, and the primal man was for a moment
vanquished. And although the God of light himself now
took to the field, and with the help of new aeons (the spirit
of life, &c.) inflicted total defeat upon Satan, and set the
1 A fiiffKloy 4jri<rroXaji> is spoken of in the formula of abjuration,
and an Epistola ad virnnem Menoch by Augustine. Fabncius has
collected the " Greek Fragments of Manichaean Epistles " in his.
Bibliotheca Graeca (vii. 311 seq.).
5 The Canticum amatorium is cited by Augustine.
' Zittwitz assumes that this epistle was in its original form of
much larger extent, and that the author of the Acts took out of it
the matter for the speeches which he makes Mani deliver during
his disputation with Bishop Archelaus. The same scholar traces
back the account by Turbo in the Acts, and the historical data
riven in the fourth section, to the writings of Turbo, a Mesopotamian,
ivho is assumed to have been a Manichaean renegade and a Christian^
But as to this difference of opinion is at least allowable.
574
MANICHAEISM
primal man free; the latter had already been robbed of part
of his light by the darkness, and the five dark elements had
already mingled themselves with the generations of light.
It only remained now for the primal man to descend into the
abyss and prevent the further increase of the generations
of darkness by cutting off their roots; but he could not imme-
diately separate again the elements that had once mingled.
These mixed elements are the elements of the present visible
world, which was formed from them at the command of the
God of light. The forming of the world is in itself the beginning
of the deliverance of the imprisoned elements of light. The
world is represented as an orderly structure of various heavens
and various earths, which is borne and supported by the aeons,
the angels of light. It possesses in the sun and moon, which
are in their nature almost quite pure, large reservoirs, in which
the portions of light that have been rescued are stored up.
In the sun dwells the primal man himself, as well as the glorious
spirits which carry on the work of redemption; in the moon
the mother of life is enthroned. The twelve constellations
of the zodiac form an ingenious machine, a great wheel with
buckets, which pour into the sun and moon, those shining
ships that sail continually through space, the portions of light
set free from the world. Here they are purified anew, and
attain finally to the kingdom of pure light and to God
Himself. The later Western Manichaeans termed those por-
tions of light which are scattered throughout the world in its
elements and organisms awaiting their deliverance, the Jesus
patibilis.
It is significant of the materialistic and pessimistic character
of the system that, while the formation of the world is con-
sidered as a work of the good spirits, the creation of man is
referred to the princes of darkness. The first man, Adam,
was engendered by Satan in conjunction with " sin," " cupid-
ity," " desire." But the spirit of darkness drove into him
all the portions of light he had stolen, in order to be able to
dominate them the more securely. Hence Adam is a discordant
being, created in the image of Satan, but carrying within him
the stronger spark of light. Eve is given him by Satan as his
companion. She is seductive sensuousness, though also having
in her a small spark of light. But if the first human beings
thus stood entirely under the dominion of the devil, the glorious
spirits took them under their care from the very outset, sending
aeons down to them (including Jesus), who instructed them
regarding their nature, and in particular warned Adam against
sensuality. But this first man fell under the temptation of
sexual desire. Cain and Abel indeed are not sons of Adam,
but of Satan and Eve; Seth, however, who is full of light, is
the offspring of Adam by Eve. Thus did mankind come into
existence, its various members possessing very different shares
of light, but the men having uniformly a larger measure of it
than the women. In the course of history the demons sought
to bind men to themselves by means of sensuality, error and
false religions (among which is to be reckoned above all the
religion of Moses and the prophets), while the spirits of light
carried on their process of distillation with the view of gaining
the pure light which exists in the world. But these good
spirits can only save men by imparting to them the true gnosis
concerning nature and her forces, and by calling them away
from the service of darkness and sensuality. To this end
prophets, preachers of true knowledge, have been sent into
the world. Mani, following the example of the gnostic Jewish
Christians, appears to have held Adam, Noah, Abraham (perhaps
Zoroaster and Buddha) to be such prophets. Probably Jesus
was also accounted a prophet who had descended from the
world of light not, however, the historical Jesus, the devilish
Messiah of the Jews, but a contemporaneous phantom Jesus,
who neither suffered nor died (Jesus impatibilis). According
to the teaching of some Manichaeans, it was the primal man
who disseminated the true gnosis in the character of Christ.
But at all events Mani himself, on his own claim, is to be reckoned
the last and greatest prophet, who took up the work of Jesus
.impatibilis and of Paul (for he too finds recognition), and first
brought full knowledge. He is the " leader," the " ambassa-
dor of the light/' the " Paraclete." It is only through
agency and that of his imitators, " the elect," that the separation
of the light from the darkness can be completed. The system
contains very fantastic descriptions of the processes by which
the portions of light when once set free finally ascend even to
the God of light. He who during his lifetime did not become
one of the elect, who did not completely redeem himself, has
to go through a severe process of purification on the other side
of the grave, till he too is gathered to the blessedness of the
light. It is erroneous, however, to ascribe, as has been done,
a doctrine of transmigration to the Manichaeans. Of course
men's bodies as well as the souls of the unsaved, who according
to the oldest conception have in them no light whatever, fall
under the sway of the powers of darkness. A later view,
adapted to the Christian one, represents the portions of light
in the unsaved as actually becoming lost. When the elements
of light have at last been completely, or as far as possible,
delivered from the world, the end of all things comes. All
glorious spirits assemble, the God of light himself appears,
accompanied by the aeons and the perfected just ones. The
angels supporting the world withdraw themselves from their
burden, and everything falls in ruins. A tremendous con-
flagration consumes the world; the perfect separation of the
two powers takes place once more; high above is the kingdom
of light, again brought into a condition of completeness, and
deep below is the (? now powerless) darkness.
Ethics, Social Polity and Worship of tlie Manichaeans. On the
basis of such a cosmical philosophy, ethics can only have a dualistic
ascetic character. Mamchaean ethics is not merely negative, how-
ever, since it is necessary to cherish, strengthen and purify the
elements of light, as well as free oneself from the elements of dark-
ness. The aim is not self-destruction, but self-preservation; and
yet the ethics of Manichaeism appears in point of fact as thoroughly
ascetic. The Manichaean had, above all, to refrain from sensual
enjoyment, shutting himself up against it by three seals the signa-
culum oris, manus and sinus. The signaculum oris forbids all
eating of unclean food (which included all bodies of animals, wine,
&c. vegetable diet being allowed because plants contained more
light, though the killing of plants, or even plucking their fruit and
breaking their twigs, was not permitted), as well as all impure
speech. The signaculum manus prohibits all traffic with things
generally, in so far as they carry in them elements of darkness.
Finally, by the signaculum sinus every gratification of sexual desire,
and hence also marriage, are forbidden. Besides all this, life was
further regulated by an exceedingly rigorous system of fasts.
Certain astronomical conjunctions determined the selection of the
fast-days, which in their total number amounted to nearly a quarter
of the year. Sunday was regularly solemnized as one, and the
practice was also generally observed on Monday. Hours of prayer
were determined with equal exactness. The Manichaean had to
pray four times a day, each prayer being preceded by ablutions.
The worshipper turned towards the sun, or the moon, or the north,
as the seat of light ; but it is erroneous to conclude from this, as has
been done, that in Manichaeism the sun and moon were themselves
objects of worship. Forms of prayer used by the Manichaeans
have been preserved to us in the Fihrist. The prayers are addressed
to the God of light, to the whole kingdom of light, to the glorious
angels, and to Mani himself, who is apostrophized in them as " the
great tree, which is all salvation." According to Kessler, these
prayers are closely related to the Mandaean and the ancient Baby-
lonian hymns. An asceticism so strict and painful as that demanded
by Manichaeism could only be practised by few; hence the religion
must have abandoned all attempts at an extensive propaganda
had it not conceded the principle of a twofold morality. A dis-
tinction was made in the community between the electi (perfects),
the perfect Manichaeans, and the catechumeni (auditores), the secular
Manichaeans. Only the former submitted themselves to all the
demands made by their religion; for the latter the stringency of the
precepts was relaxed. They had to avoid idolatry, sorcery, avarice,
falsehood, fornication, &c. ; above all, they were not allowed to
kill any living being (the ten commandments of Mani). They had
also to free themselves as much as possible from the world ; but in
truth they lived very much as their non-Manichaean fellow-citizens.
We have here essentially the same condition of things as in the
Catholic Church, where a twofold morality was also in force, that
of the religious orders and that of secular Christians only that
the position of the electi in Manichaeism was a more distin-
guished one than that of the monks in Catholicism. For, after all,
the Christian monks never quite forgot that salvation is given by
God through Christ, whereas the Manichaean electi were actually
themselves redeemers. Hence it was the duty of the auditores
to pay the greatest respect and most assiduous attention to the
MANICHAEISM
575
electi. These " perfect ones," wasting away under their asceticism,
were objects of admiration and of the most elaborate solicitude. 1
Food was presented to them in abundance, and by their eating it
the electi set free the portions of light from the vegetables. They
prayed for the auditores, they blessed them and interceded for them,
thereby shortening the process of purification the latter had to
pass through after death. It was only the electi, too, who possessed
full knowledge of religious truths, a point of distinction from
Catholicism.
The distinction between electi and auditores, however, does not
exhaust the conception of the Manichaean Church; on the contrary,
the latter possessed a hierarchy of three ranks, so that there were
altogether five gradations in the community. These were regarded
as a copy of the ranks of the kingdom of light. At the head stood
the teachers (" the sons of meekness," Mam himself and his succes-
sors) ; then follow the administrators (" the sons of knowledge,"
the bishops); then the elders ("the sons of understanding," the
presbyters); the electi ("the sons of mystery"); and finally the
auditores (" the sons of insight "). The number of the electi must
always have been small. According to Augustine the teachers
were twelve and the bishops seventy-two in number. One of the
teachers appears to have occupied the position of superior at the
head of the whole Manichaean Church. At least Augustine speaks
of such a personage, and the Fihrist also has knowledge of a chief
of all Manichaeans. The constitution, therefore, had a monarchic
head.
The worship of the Manichaeans must have been very simple,
and must have essentially consisted of prayers, hymns and cere-
monies of adoration. This simple service promoted the secret
dissemination of their doctrines. The Manichaeans too, at least
in the West, appear to have adapted themselves to the Church's
system of festivals. The electi celebrated special feasts; but the
principal festival with all classes was the Bema (Prjua), the feast
of the " teacher's chair," held in commemoration of the death of
Mani in the month of March. The faithful prostrated themselves
before an adorned but empty chair, which was raised upon a podium
of five steps. Long fasts accompanied the feasts. The Christian
and Mahommedan historians could learn little of the Manichaean
mysteries and " sacraments," and hence the former charged them
with obscene rites and abominable usages. It may be held as
undoubted that the later Manichaeans celebrated mysteries ana-
logous to Christian baptism and the Lord's Supper, which may
have rested upon ancient consecration rites and other ceremonies
instituted by Mani himself and having their origin in nature worship.
Recent Discoveries. F. Cumont (Revue d'ftistoire et de litlera-
lure religieuse, t. xii., 1907, No. 2) showed that one at least
of the fundamental myths of Mani was borrowed from the
Avesta, namely, that which recounts how through the mani-
festation of the virgin of light and of the messenger of salvation
to the libidinous princes of darkness the vital substance or
light held captive in their limbs was liberated and recovered
for the realm of light. The legend of the Omophorus and
Splenditeneus, rival giants who sustain earth and luminous
heavens on their respective shoulders, even if it already figures
in the cuneiform texts of Assyria, is yet to be traced in Mithraic
bas-reliefs. It also may therefore have come to Mani through
Magian channels.
When, however, we turn to the numerous fragments of authen-
tic Manichaean liturgies and hymns lately discovered in Turfan
in East Turkestan, Mani's direct indebtedness to the cycle of
Magian legends rather than to Chaldaic sources (as Kessler
argued) is clearly exhibited.
In fr. 472, taken from the Shapurakan, as part of a description
of the sun-god in his ship or reservoir the sun, we have a mention
of Az and Ahriman and the devas (demons), the Pairikas. Az in
the Avestan mythology was the demon serpent who murders
Gayomert in the old Persian legend, and an ally of Ahriman, as also
are the Pairikas or Peris. In the same fragment we read of the
ruin of Azidahdka Mdzainya, which name Darmesteter interprets
in the Persian sources as the demon serpent, the sorcerer (Ormazd
et Ahriman, Paris, 1877, p. 157). In fr. 470, descriptive of the
conflagration of the world, we read of how, after Az and the demons
have been struck down, the pious man is purified and led up to sun
and moon and to the being of Ahura Mazda, the Divine.
In another fragment (388) of a hymn Mani describes himself as
" the first stranger " (cf. Matt. xxv. 43), the son of the god Zarvan,
the Ruler-Child. In the orthodox literature of fire-worship Zarvan
was Time or Destiny. Later on Zarvan was elevated to the position
of supreme principle, creator of Ormazd and Ahriman, and, long
1 Analogous to this is the veneration in which the Catholic monks
and the Nepplatonic "philosophers" were held; but the prestige
of the Manichaean electi was greater than that of the monks and
the philosophers.
before Mani, ZarvSn accompanied Mithras in all his westward
migrations.
In fr. 20, in an enumeration of angels, we hear of Narsus, who may
be the Neryosang (Armenian Nerses or Narsai) of the Avesta.
The other angels are Jacob, the mighty angel and leader of angels,
the Lord Bar Simus, Qaftinus the mighty, Raphael, Gabriel, Michael,
Sarael and Nastikus a truly Catholic list.
In fr. 4 a rubric enjoins the recital of the hymn of the Frasegerd.
Here we recognize a technical term of the Avesta namely, the
" Frasho-kereti," that is the reanimation of the world or resurrec-
tion of the dead (Darmesteter, op. cit., p. 239). In this hymn we
read how the gods shall release us from this sinful time, from the
oppression of this world. In fr. 4, under the rubric Bar Simus,
we find the god Mihir_(Mihryazd), the liberator, the compassionate,
invoked along with Fredon, the good ; and later on we read as follows :
"with his mighty glance may the god of pure name, Pred5n, the
king and Jacob Nareman, protect religion and us the sons." Mihr
or Mithras and Feridoun or Thraetaona, the slayer of Ajis ( or Azi)
Dahaka, also Nariman, spelled Nairimanau, are familiar figures in
the old Persian pantheon. In the same prayer the votary- begs
**-* " new blessing may come, new victory from the god Zarvan
that
over the glories and angels, the spirits of this world, to the end
that he accept our holy religion, become a watcher within and
without, helper and protector," and the prayer ends thus: " I
invoke the angels, the strong ones, the mighty, Raphael, Michael,
Gabriel, Sarael, who shall protect us from all adversity, and free
us from the wicked Ahriman."
In fr. 176 Jesus is invoked: " Jesus, of the gods first new moon,
thou art God. . . . Jesus, O Lord, of waxing fame full moon,
O Jesus. Lord . . . fight, our hearts' prayer. Jesus, God and
Vahman. Sheen God! We will praise the God Naresaf. MSr
Mani will we bless. O new moon and spring. Lord, we will bless.
The angels, the gods . . . New sun, Mihr."
In the above Vahman is Vohu Mano, the good thought or inspira-
tion of the Zoroastrian religion. Mihr is Mithras. The god Naresaf
is also invoked in other fragments.
In fr. 74 is invoked, together with Jesus and Mani, the " strong
mighty Zrosch, the redeemer of souls." In the Avesta Sraosha is
the angel that guards the world at night from demons, and is styled
" the righteous " or " the strong."
Fr. 38 is as follows: " Mithras (MS. Mitra) great . . . messenger
of the gods, mediator (or interpreter) of religion, of the elect one
Jesus virgin of light. Mar Mani, Jesus virgin of light, Mar
Mani. Do thou in me make peace, O light-bringer, mayest thou
redeem my soul from this born-dead (existence)."
Fr. 543 runs thus: " ...and ladder of the Mazdean faith.
Thou, new teacher of Chorasan (of the East), and promoter of
those that have the good faith. For thou wast born under a
glittering star in the family of the rulers. Elect are these Jesus
and Vahman."
The above examples bear out Mani's own declaration, as
reported by the Fihrist, that his faith was a blend of the old
Magian cult with Christianity. Whether the Hebrew names
of angels came to him direct from the Jews or not we cannot
tell, but they were, as the Greek magical papyri prove, widely
diffused among the Gentiles long before his age. The Armenian
writer Eznik (c. 425) also attests that Mani's teaching was
merely that of the Magi, plus an ascetic morality, for which
they hated and slew him.
Just as the background of Christianity was formed by the
Hebrew scriptures, and just as the Hebrew legends of the
creation became the basis of its scheme of human redemption
from evil, so the Avesta, with its quaint cosmogony and myths,
formed the background of Mani's new faith. He seems to have
quarrelled with the later Magism because it was not dualistic
enough, for in fr. 28 we have such a passage as the following:
" They also that adore the fire, the burning, by this they them-
selves recognize that their end shall be in fire. And they say
that Ormuzd and Ahriman are brothers, and in consequence of
this saying they shall come to annihilation." In the same
fragment the Christians are condemned as worshippers of
idols, unless indeed the writer has genuine pagans in view.
There is a mention of Marcion in the same context, but it is
unintelligible. There can be no doubt that in the form in
which Mani became acquainted with it Christianity had been
disengaged and liberated from the womb of Judaism which
gave it birth. This presentation of it as an ethical system
of universal import was the joint work of Paul and Marcion.
It remains to add that in these newly found fragments Mani
styles himself " the apostle (lit. the sent forth) of Jesus the
friend in the love of the Father, of God." He uses the formula:
MANICHAEISM
" Praise and laud to the Father and the Son and the Holy
Spirit." In fr. 4 he attests that he was sprung from the
land Babel; in fr. 566 that he was a physician from the land
Babel. Fr. 3 recounts his interview with King Shapur I. The
Gospel of Peter seems to have been in use, for one lengthy
citation is taken from it in fr. 18. The Manichaeans of Chinese
Turkestan also used a version of the Shepherd of Hermas.
Several of the hymns (e.g. in fr. 7 and 32) reproduce the ideas
and almost the phases of the Syriac " Hymn of the Soul,"
so confirming the hypothesis that Mani was influenced by
Bardesanes.
With the exception of a few fragments written in a Pehlevi
-dialect, all this recovered Manichaean literature is in the Ouigour
or Vigur dialect of Tatar. The alphabet used is the one adapted
by Mani himself from the Syriac estrangelo. The fragments. are
800 in number, both on paper and vellum, written and adorned
with the pious care and good taste which the Manichaeans are
known to have bestowed on their manuscripts. They were brought
back by Professor Griinwedel and Dr Huth from Turfan in East
Turkestan, and were partly translated by Dr F. W. K. Miiller in the
Abhandlungen der k. preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin,
1904). Much of this literature is still left in Turfan, where the
natives use the sheets of Vigur and Chinese vellum MSS. as window-
panes in their huts. The Russian and German governments have
sent out fresh expeditions to rescue what is left before it is too late.
We may thus hope to recover some priceless monuments of early
Christianity, hymns and treatises perhaps of Marcion and Bardesanes,
the Gospel of Peter, and even the Diatessaron. Muller's translations
includes a long extract of Mani's book called Schapurakan, parts of
his Evangelium, and epistles, with liturgies, hymns and prayers,
for Tatar Khans who espoused the faith in Khorasan.
Manichaeism and Christianity. It is very difficult to deter-
mine what was the extent of Mani's knowledge of Christianity,
how much he himself borrowed from it, and through what
channels it reached him. It is certain that Manichaeism, in
those districts where it was brought much into contact with
Christianity, became additionally influenced by the latter
at a very early period. The Western Manichaeans of the
4th and 5th centuries are much more like Christians than
their Eastern brethren. In this respect Manichaeism ex-
perienced the same kind of development as Neo-Platonism.
As regards Mani himself, it is safest to assume that he held
both Judaism and Catholic Christianity to be entirely false
religions. It is indeed true that he not only described himself
as the promised Paraclete for this designation probably
originated with himself but also conceded a high place in
his system to " Jesus "; we can only conclude from this, how-
ever, that he distinguished between Christianity and Christi-
anity. The religion which had proceeded from the historical
Jesus he repudiated together with its founder, and Catholicism
as well as Judaism he looked upon as a religion of the devil.
But he distinguished between the Jesus of darkness and the
Jesus of light who had lived and acted contemporaneously
with the former. This distinction agrees with that made
by the gnostic Basilides no less strikingly than the Manichaean
criticism of the Old Testament does with that propounded by
the Marcionites (see the Ada Archelai, in which Mani is made
to utter the antitheses of Marcion). Finally, the Manichaean
doctrines exhibit points of similarity to those of the Christian
Elkesaites. The historical relation of Mani to Christianity
is then as follows. From Catholicism, which he very prob-
ably had no, detailed knowledge of, he borrowed nothing,
rejecting it as devilish error. On the other hand, he looked
upon what he considered to be Christianity proper that is,
Christianity as it had been developed among the sects of Basili-
dians, Marcionites, and perhaps Bardesanites, as a compara-
tively valuable and sound religion. He took from it the moral
teaching of the Sermon on the Mount, and a criticism of the
Old Testament and of Judaism so far as he required it. Indi-
cations of the influence of Marcionitism are found in the high
estimation in which Mani held the apostle Paul, and in the
fact that he explicitly rejects the Book of Acts. Mani appears
to have given recognition to a portion of the historical matter
of the Gospels, and to have interpreted it in accordance with
his own doctrine.
Manichaeism and Buddhism. It remains to be asked whether
Buddhistic elements can also be detected in Manichaeism.
Most modern scholars since F. C. Baur have answered this
question in the affirmative. According to Kessler, Mani made
use of the teaching of Buddha, at least as far as ethics was
concerned. It cannot be doubted that Mani, who undertook
long journeys as far as India, knew of Buddhism. The name
Buddha (Buddas) which occurs in the legendary account of
Mani, and perhaps in the latter's own writings, indicates further
that he had occupied his attention with Buddhism when engaged
in the work of founding his new religion. But his borrowings
from this source must have been quite insignificant. A detailed
comparison shows the difference between Buddhism and Mani-
chaeism in all their principal doctrines to be very great, while
it becomes evident that the points of resemblance are almost
everywhere accidental. This is also true of the ethics and
the asceticism of the two systems. There is not a single point
in Manichaeism which demands for its explanation an appeal
to Buddhism. Such being the case, the relationship between
the two religions remains a mere possibility, a possibility which
the inquiry of Geyler (Das System des Manichaeismus und
sein Verhiiltniss zum Buddhismus, Jena, 1875) has not been
able to elevate into a probability. ,
The Secret of Manichaeism. How are we to explain the
rapid spread of Manichaeism, and the fact that it really became
one of the great religions? What gave it strength was that
it united an ancient mythology and a thorough-going material-
istic dualism with an exceedingly simple spiritual worship
and a strict morality. On comparing it with the Semitic
religions of nature we perceive that it was free from their
sensuous cultus, substituting instead a spiritual worship as
well as a strict morality. Manichaeism was thus able to satisfy
the new wants of an old world. It offered revelation, redemp-
tion, moral virtue and immortality, spiritual benefits on the
basis of the religion of nature. A further source of strength
lay in the simple yet firm social organization which was given
by Mani himself to his new institution. The wise man and
the ignorant, the enthusiast and the man of the world, could
all find acceptance here, and there was laid on no one more
than he was able and willing to bear. Each one, however,
was attached and led onward by the prospect of a higher rank
to be attained, while the intellectually gifted had an additional
inducement in the assurance that they did not require to submit
themselves to any authority, but would be led to God by pure
reason. Thus adapted from the first to individual require-
ments, this religion also showed itself able to appropriate from
time to time foreign elements. Originally furnished from
fragments of various religions, it could increase or diminish
this possession without rupturing its own elastic framework.
And, after all, great adaptability is just as necessary for a
universal religion as a divine founder in whom the highest
revelation of God may be seen and reverenced. Manichaeism
indeed, though it applies the title " redeemer " to Mani, has
really no knowledge of a redeemer, but only of a physical and
gnostic process of redemption; on the other hand, it possesses
in Mani the supreme prophet of God. If we consider in con-
clusion that Manichaeism gave a simple, apparently profound,
and yet convenient solution of the problem of good and evil,
a problem that had become peculiarly oppressive to the human
race in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, we shall have named the
most important factors which account for the rapid spread
of the system.
Sketch of the History of Manichaeism. Manichaeism first
gained a firm footing in the East, i.e. in Persia, Mesopotamia
and Transoxiana. The persecutions it had to endure did not
hinde? its extension. The seat of the Manichaean pope was
for centuries in Babylon, at a later period in Samarkand. Even
after the conquests of Islam the Manichaean Church continued to
maintain itself, indeed it seems to have become still more widely
diffused by the victorious campaigns of the Mahommedans,
and it frequently gained secret adherents, among the latter
themselves. Its doctrine and discipline underwent little change
MANICHAEISM
577
in the East; in particular, it drew no nearer to the Christian
religion. More than once, however, Manichaeism experienced
attempts at reformation; for of course the auditores very easily
became worldly in character, and movements of reformation
led temporarily to divisions and the formation of sects. Towards
the close of the loth century, at the time the Fihirst was written,
the Manichaeans in Mesopotamia and Persia had already been
in large measure ousted from the towns, and had withdrawn
to the villages. But in Turkestan, and as far as the Chinese
frontier, there existed numerous Manichaean communities
and even whole tribes that had adopted the name of Mani.
Probably it was the great migrations of the Mongolian race
that first put an end to Manichaeism in Central Asia. But even
in the isth century there were Manichaeans living beside the
Thomas-Christians on the coast of Malabar in India (see Ger-
mann, Die Thomas-Christen, 1875). Manichaeism first penetrated
the Greek-Roman Empire about the year 280, in the time of
the emperor Probus (see the Chronicon of Eusebius). If we
may take the edict of Diocletian against the Manichaeans
as genuine, the system must have gained a firm footing in the
West by the beginning of the 4th century, but we know that
as late as about the year 325 Eusebius had not any accurate
knowledge of the sect. It was only subsequent to about 330
that Manichaeism spread rapidly in the Roman Empire. Its
adherents were recruited on the one hand from the old gnostic
sects (especially from the Marcionites Manichaeism exerted
besides this a strong influence on the development of the Mar-
cionite churches of the 4th century), on the other hand from
the large number of the " cultured," who were striving after
a '' rational " and yet in some manner Christian religion. Its
polemics and its criticism of the Catholic Church now became
the strong side of Manichaeism, especially in the West. It
admitted the stumbling-blocks which the Old Testament
offers to every intelligent reader, and gave itself out as a Chris-
tianity without the Old Testament. Instead of the subtle
Catholic theories concerning divine predestination and human
freedom, and instead of a difficult theodicaea, it offered an
exceedingly simple conception of sin and goodness. The doc-
trine of the incarnation of God, which was especially objection-
able to those who were going over to the new universal religion
from the old cults, was not proclaimed by Manichaeism. In its
rejection of this doctrine Manichaeism agreed with Neo-Platon-
ism; but, while the latter, notwithstanding all its attempts
to conform itself to Christianity, could find no formula by
which to inaugurate within its own limits the special veneration
of Christ, the Western Manichaeans succeeded in giving their
teaching a Christian tinge. The only part of the Manichaean
mythology that became popular was the crude, physical
dualism. The barbaric elements were judiciously screened
from view as a " mystery "; they were, indeed, here and there
explicitly disavowed even by the initiated. The farther
Manichaeism advanced into the West the more Christian and
philosophic did it become. In Syria it maintained itself in com-
parative purity. In North Africa it found its most numerous
adherents, gaining secret support even among the clergy.
Augustine was an auditor for nine years, while Faustus was
at that time the most esteemed Manichaean teacher in the
West. Augustine in his later writings against the Manichaeans
deals chiefly with the following problems: (i) the relation
between knowledge and faith, and between reason and autho-
rity; (2) the nature of good and evil, and the origin of the
latter; (3) the existence of free will, and its relation to the
divine omnipotence; (4) the relation of the evil in the world
to the divine government.
The Christian Byzantine and Roman emperors, from Valens
onwards, enacted strict laws against the Manichaeans. But
at first these bore little fruit. The auditores were difficult to
trace out, and besides they really gave little occasion for per-
secution. In Rome itself between 370 and 440 Manichaeism
gained a large amount of support, especially among the scholars
and public teachers. It also made its way into the life of
the people by means of a popular literature in which the apostles
xvn. 19
were made to play a prominent part (Apocryphal Acts of the
Apostles). Manichaeism in the West had also some experience
of attempts at reformation from the ascetic side, but of these
we know little. In Rome Leo the Great was the first who
took energetic measures, along with the state authorities,
against the system. Valentinian III. decreed banishment
against its adherents, Justinian the punishment of death.
In North Africa Manichaeism appears to have been extinguished
by the persecution of the Vandals. But it still continued to
exist elsewhere, both in the Byzantine Empire and in the West,
and in the earlier part of the middle ages it gave an impulse
to the formation of new sects, which remained related to it.
And if it has not been quite proved that so early as the
4th century the Priscillianists of Spain were influenced by
Manichaeism, it is at least undoubted that the Paulicians and
Bogomiles, as well as the Catharists and the Albigenses, are to
be traced back to Manichaeism (and Marcionitism). Thus the
system, not indeed of Mani the Persian, but of Manichaeism
as modified by Christian influences, accompanied the Catholic
Church until the i3th century.
Sources. (a) Orientaj. Among the sources for a history of
Manichaeism the most important are the Oriental. Of these the
Mahommedan, though of comparatively late date, are distinguished
by the excellent manner in which they have been transmitted to
us, as well as by their impartiality. They must be named first,
because ancient Manichaean writings have been used in their con-
struction. At the head of all stands En-Nedim, Fihrist (c. 980),
ed. by Flugel (1871-1872); cf. the latter's work Mani, seine Lehre
u. seine Schriften (1862). See also Shahrastfim, Kilab al-milal wan-
nufral (izth cent.), ed. by Cureton (1846) and translated into German
by Haarbriicker (1851), and individual notes and excerpts by Tabari
(loth cent.), Al-Birum (nth cent.), and other Arabian and Persian
historians. Next come the Turfan fragments described in the
body of this article. See also W. Brandt, Schriften aus der Genza
oder Sidva Rabba (Gottingen, 1803).
Of the Christian Orientals those that afford most information
are Ephraem Syrus (d. 373), in various writings; the Armenian
Esnik (German translation by J. M. Schmid, Vienna, 1900, see also
Zeitsch.f. hist. Theol., 1840, ii. ; Langlois, Collection, ii. 375 seq.), who
wrote in the 5th century against Marcion and Mani ; and the Alex-
andrian patriarch Eutychius d. 916), Annales, ed. Pococke (1628).
There are, besides, scattered pieces of information in Aphraates
(4th cent.), Barhebraeus (i3th cent.) and others. The newly found
Syriac Book of Scholia of Theodor bar Khouni (see Pognon, Les
Coupes de Kouabir, Paris, 1898) gives many details about Mani's
teaching (also ed. without translation by Dr M. Lewin, Berlin, 1905).
(b) Greek and Latin. The earliest mention of the Manichaeans
in the Graeco-Roman Empire is to be found in an edict of Diocletian
(see Hanel, Cod. Gregor., tit. xv.), which is held by some to be
spurious, while others assign it to one or other of the years 287,
290, 296, 308 (so Mason, ThePersec. of Diod., pp. 275 seq.). Eusebius
gives a short account of the sect (a. E., vii. 31). It was the Acta
Archelai, however, that became the principal source on the subject
of Manichaeism for Greek and Roman writers. These Acta are not
indeed what they give themselves out for, viz. an account of a dis-
putation held between Mani and the bishop Archelaus of Cascar,
in Mesopotamia ; but they nevertheless contain much that is trust-
worthy, especially regarding the doctrine of Mani, and they also
include Manichaean documents. They consist of various distinct-
pieces, and originated in the beginning of the 4th century, probably
at Edessa. They were translated as early as the first half of the
same century from the Syriac (as is maintained by Jerome, De vir.
illust., 72 ; though this is doubted by modern scholars) into Greek,
and soon afterwards into Latin. It is only this secondary Latin
version that we possess (ed. by C. H. Beeson, Leipzig, 1906, under
title Hegemonius acta Archelai); earlier editions, Zacagni (1698);
Routh, Reliquiae sac., vol. v. (1848); translated in Clark's Ante-
Nicene Library, vol. xx.); small fragments of the Greek version
have been preserved. Regarding the Acta Archelai, see Zittwitz
in Zeitschr. f. d. histor. Theol. (1873) and Oblasinski, Acta disp.
Arch, et Manetis (1874). In the form in which we now possess
them, they are a compilation after the pattern of the Clementine
Homilies, and have been subjected to manifold redactions. These
Acta were used by Cyril of Jerusalem (Catech. 6), Epiphanius (Haer.
66), and a great number of other writers. All the Greek and Latin
heresiologists have included the Manichaeans in their catalogues;
but they seldom adduce any independent information regarding
them (see Theodoret, Haer. fab. i. 26). Important matter is to be
found in the resolutions of the councils from the 4th century onwards
(see Mansi, Acta concil., and Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vols. i.-iii.).
and also in the controversial writings of Titus of Bostra (6th century ),
ITpos Mortxaioi* (ed. Lagarde, 1859), and of Alexander of Lycopolis
AAyof Tfpfa ria M<mxaioi> Sofas (ed. Combcfis; transl. in Ante-
Nic. Lib., vol. xiv. ). Of the Byzantines, the most worthy of mention
578
MANIFEST MANILA
are John of Damascus (De haeres. and Dialog.) and Photius (cod.
179 Biblioth.). The struggle with the Paulicians and the Bogomiles,
who were often simply identified with the Manichaeans, again
directed attention to the latter. In the West the works of Augustine
are the great repertory for information on the subject of Mani-
chaeism (Contra epistolam Manichaei, quam vacant fundamenti;
Contra Faustum Manichaeum; Contra Fortunatum; Contra, Adiman-
tum ; Contra Secundinum ; De actis cum Felice Manichaeo ; De genesi
c. Manichaeos; De natura boni; De duabus animabus; De utilitate
credendi; De moribus eccl. cathol. et de moribus Manichaeorum; De
haeres.). The more complete the picture, however, which may
here be obtained of Manichaeism, the more cautious must we be
in making generalizations from it, for it is beyond doubt that
Western Manichaeism adopted Christian elements which are want-
ing in the original and in the Oriental Manichaeism. The " Dispute
of Paul the Persian with a Manichaean " in Migne P.G., 88, col.
529-578 (first ed. by A. Mai) is shown by G. Mercati, Studi e testi
(Rome, 1901) to be the procks verbal of an actual discussion held
under Justinian at Constantinople in 527.
LITERATURE. The most important works on Manichaeism are
Beausobre, Hist, critique de Manichee et du Manicheisme (2 vols.,
1734 seq.; the Christian elements in Manichaeism are here strongly,
indeed too strongly, emphasized) ; Baur, Das manich. Religions-
system (1831; in this work Manichaean speculation is exhibited
from a speculative standpoint); Flugel, Mani (1862; a very careful
investigation on the basis of the Fihrist) ; Kessler, Unlersuchung zur
Genesis des manich. Religionssystems (1876) ; and the article " Mani,
Manichaer," by the same writer in Herzog-Hauck's^?..,xii. 193-228;
Kessler, Mani (2 vols., Berlin, 1889, 1903) ; Ernest Rochat, Essai sur
Mani et sa doctrine (Geneva, 1897); Recherches sur le manicheisme:
I. La cosmogonie manicheisme d'apres Theodore Bar Khoui, by Franz
Cumont (Brussels, 1908) ; //. Fragments syriaques d'ouvrages
manicheens, by Kugener and F. Cumont. ///. Les Formules grecques
a' abjuration imposees aux manicheens, by F. Cumont. The accounts
of Mosheim, Lardner, Walch and Schrockh, as well as the monograph
by Trechsel, Ueber Kanon, Kritik und Exegese der Manichaer (1832),
may also be mentioned as still useful. The various researches which
have been made regarding Parsism, the ancient Semitic religions,
Gnosticism, &c., are of the greatest importance for the investigation
of Manichaeism. (A. HA. ; F. C. C.)
MANIFEST (Lat. manifeslus, clear, open to view), in com-
mercial law, a document delivered to the officer of customs
by the captain of a ship before leaving port, giving a description
of the shipped goods of every kind, and setting forth the marks,
numbers and descriptions of the packages and the names of
the consignors thereof. In England, by the Revenue Act
1884, s. 3, where goods are exported for which no bond is re-
quired, a manifest must be delivered to the officer of customs
by the master or owner of the ship within six days after the
final clearance, or a declaration in lieu thereof, the penalty in
default being a sum not exceeding five pounds.
MANI HI KI (MANAHIKI, MONAHIKI), a scattered archi-
pelago in the central Pacific Ocean, between 4 and 11 S.,
and 150 and 162 W., seldom visited, and producing only
a little copra and guano. It may be taken to include the
Caroline or Thornton Islands, Vostok and Flint to the east;
Suvarov, Manihiki or Humphrey, and Tongareva or Penrhyn
to the west, and Starbuck and Maiden to the north, the whole
thus roughly forming the three corners of a triangle. There
are pearl and pearl-shell fisheries at Tongareva and Suvarov.
The natives (about 1000) are Polynesians and nominally
Christian. There are ancient stone buildings of former in-
habitants on Maiden Island. The islands were mostly dis-
covered early in the igth century, and were annexed by Great
Britain mainly in 1888-1889.
MANIKIALA, a village of India, in Rawalpindi district of
the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 734. It contains one of the largest
stupas or Buddhist memorial shrines in N. India, and the one
first known to Europeans, who early detected traces of Greek
influence in the sculpture. The stupa was excavated by General
Court in 1834, and has been identified by Sir A. Cunningham
with the scene of Buddha's " body-offering."
MANILA, the capital city and principal port of the Philip-
pine Islands, situated on the W. coast of the island of Luzon,
on the E. shore of Manila Bay, at the mouth of the Pasig river,
in lat. 14 35' 31* N., and in long. 120 58' 8* E. It is about
4890 m. W.S.W. of Honolulu, 6990 m. W.S.W. of San Francisco,
628 m. S.E. of Hong-Kong, and 1630 m. S. by W. of Yokohama.
Pop. (1876), 93,595; (1887), 176,777; (1903), 219,928. Of
the total population in 1903, 185,351 were of the brown race,
21,838 were of the yellow race, 7943 were of the white race,
and 232 were of the black race (230 of those of this race were
foreign-born), and 4564 were of mixed races; of the same
total 131,659, or nearly 60% were males. The foreign-born
in 1903 numbered 29,491, comprising 21,083 natives of China,
4300 natives of the United States of America, 2065 natives
of Spain, and 721 natives of Japan. Nearly all of the brown
race were native-born, and 80 '6% of them were Tagalogs.
The city covers an area of about 20 sq. m. of low ground,
through which flow the Pasig river and several esteros, or tide-
water creeks. To the west is the broad expanse of Manila Bay,
beyond which are the rugged Mariveles Mountains; to the
eastward the city extends about half-way to Laguna de Bay,
a lake nearly as large as Manila Bay and surrounded on three
sides by mountains. On the south bank of the Pasig and fronting
the bay for nearly a mile is the " Ancient City," or Intramuros,
enclosed by walls 23 m. long, with a maximum height of 25 ft.,
built about 1590. Formerly a moat flanked the city on the
land sides, and a drawbridge at each of six gates was raised
every night. But this practice was discontinued in 1852 and the
moat was filled with earth in 1905. In the north-west angle
of the walled enclosure stands Fort Santiago, which was built
at the same time as the walls to defend the entrance to the
river; the remaining space is occupied largely by a fine cathedral,
churches, convents, schools, and government buildings. Out-
side the walls the modern city has been formed by the union
of several towns whose names are still retained as the names
of districts. The Pasig river is crossed by two modern steel
cantilever bridges. Near the north-east angle of Intramuros is
the Bridge of Spain, a stone structure across the Pasig, leading
to Binondo, the principal shopping and financial district;
here is the Escolta, the most busy thoroughfare of the city,
and the Rosario, noted for its Chinese shops. Between Binondo
and the bay is San Nicholas, with the United States custom-
house and large shipping interests. North of San Nicholas
is Tondo, the most densely populated district; in the suburbs,
outside the fire limits, the greater part of the inhabitants live
in native houses of bamboo frames roofed and sided with nipa
palm, and the thoroughfares consist of narrow streets and navi-
gable streams. Paco, south-west of Intramuros, has some large
cigar factories, and a large cemetery where the dead are buried in
niches in two concentric circular walls. Ermita and Malate along
the bay in the south part of the city, San Miguel on the north
bank of the river above Intramuros, and Sampaloc farther
north, are the more attractive residential districts.
Most of the white inhabitants live in Ermita and Malate, or
San Miguel, where there are several handsome villas along the rivi
front, among them that of the governor-general of the Philippines.
The better sort of houses in Manila have two storeys, the lower one
built of brick or stone and the upper one of wood, roofed with red
Spanish tile or with corrugated iron ; the upper storey contains the
living-rooms, and the lower has servants' rooms, store-houses, stables,
carriage-houses and poultry yards. On account of the warm climate
the cornices are wide, the upper storey projects over the lower, and
the outer walls are fitted with sliding frames. Translucent oyster
shells are a common substitute for glass; and the walls are white-
washed, but on account of the frequency of earthquakes are not
plastered. More than one half of the dwellings in the city are mere
shacks or nipa huts. Few of the public buildings are attractive or
imposing. There are, however, some churches with graceful towers
and beautiful facades and a few attractive monuments; among the
latter are one standing on the Magellan Plaza (Plaza or Paseo de
Magellanes) beside the Pasig, to the memory of Ferdinand Magellan,
the discoverer of the islands; and another by A. Querol on the shore
of the bay, to the memory of Don Miguel de Legaspi (d. 1572), the
founder of the Spanish city, and of Andres de Urdaneta (1498-1568),
the Augustinian friar who accompanied Legaspi to Cebu (but not
to what is now Manila).
Many improvements have been made in and about the cit;
since the American occupation in 1898. The small tram-
cars drawn by native ponies have been replaced by a modern
American electric street-railway service, and the railway service
to and from other towns on the island of Luzon has been ex-
tended; in 1908, 267 m. were open to traffic and 400 m. were
under construction. Connected with Manila by electric railway
auwajr
MANILA
579
is Fort William McKinley, a U.S. army post in the hills five miles
away, quartering about 3000 men. The scheme for dredging
some of the esteros in order to make them more navigable and
for filling in others has been in part executed. But the greatest
improvement affecting transportation is the construction of
a safe and deep harbour. Although Manila Bay is nearly
landlocked, it is so large that in times of strong winds it becomes
nearly as turbulent as the open sea, and it was formerly so shallow
that vessels drawing more than 16 ft. could approach no nearer
than two miles to the shore, where typhoons of the south-
west monsoon not infrequently obliged them to lie several days
before they could be unloaded. Two long jetties or break-
waters have now been constructed, about 350 acres of harbour
area have been dredged to a depth of 30 ft., and two wharves
of steel and concrete, one 600 ft. long and 70 ft. wide, and the
other 650 ft. long and no ft. wide, were in process of construc-
tion in 1909. The Pasig river has been dredged up to the
Bridge of Spain to a depth of 18 ft. and from the Bridge of
Spain to Laguna de Bay to a depth- of 6 ft. The construction
of the harbour was begun about 1880 by the Spanish govern-
ment, but the work was less than one-third completed when
the Americans took possession. Among other American
improvements were: an efficient fire department, a sewer
s) stem whereby the sewage by means of pumps is discharged
into the bay more than a mile from the shore; a system of
gravity waterworks (1908) whereby the city's water supply
is taken from the Mariquina river about 23 m. from the city
into a storage reservoir which has a capacity of 2,000,000,000
gallons and is 212 ft. above the sea; the extension of the Luneta,
the principal pleasure-ground; a boulevard for several miles
along the bay; a botanical garden; and new market buildings.
Climate. Manila has a spring and summer hot season, an autumn
and winter cooler season, a summer and autumn rainy season, and a
winter and spring dry season. For the twenty years 1883-1902 the
annual average of mean monthly temperatures was 26-8 C., the
maximum being 27-4 in 1889 and 1897, and the minimum 26-2
in 1884. From May until October the prevailing wind is south-
east, from November to January it is north, and from February to
April it is east. July and August are the cloudiest months of the
year; the average number of rainy days in each of those months
bring 21, and in February or March only 3. The annual average
of rainy days is 138: 94 in the wet season (average precipitation for
the six months, 1556-3 mm.) and 44 in the dry season (average pre-
cipitation for the six dry months, 382 mm.). Thunderstorms are
frequent and occasionally very severe, between May and September;
the annual average of thunderstorms for the decennium 1888-1807
was 505, the greatest frequency was in May (average 100-3) an .d in
June (average 90-7); the severity of these storms may be imagined
from the fact that in a half-hour between 5 and 6 p.m. on the 2 1st of
May 1892 the fall (probably the maximum) was 60 mm. The air
> very damp: for the period 1883-1902 the annual average of
humidity was 79-4%, the lowest average for any one month was
6-6 % in April 1896 (the average for the twenty Aprils was 70-7),
and the highest average for any one month was 89-9 % for September
1897 (the average for the twenty Septembers was 85-5). The city
is so situated as to be affected by shocks from all the various seismo-
logical centres of Luzon, especially those from the active volcano
Taal, 35 m. south of the city. At the Manila observatory, about I m.
south-east of the walled city, the number of perceptible earthquakes
registered by seismograph between 1880 and 1897 inclusive was 221 ;
the greatest numbers for any one year were 26 in 1882 and 23 in
1892, and the least, 5 in 1896 and 6 in 1889 and in 1894; the average
number in each May was 1-44, in each July, 1-33, and in January
and in February 0-72; the frequency is much greater in each of the
spring summer months (except June, average 0-78) than in the
months of autumn and winter.
Public Institutions. The public school system of Manila includes,
besides the common schools and Manila high school, the American
school, the Philippine normal school (1901), the Philippine school
of arts and trades (1901), the Philippine medical school (1907) and
the Philippine school of commerce (1908). The Philippine govern-
ment also maintains here a bureau of science which publishes the
monthly Philippine Journal of Science, and co-operates with the
Jesuits in maintaining, in Ermita, the Manila observatory (meteoro-
logical, seismological and astronomical), which is one of the best
equipped institutions of the kind in the East. The royal and
pontifical university of St Thomas Aquinas (generally known as the
university of Santo Tomas) was founded in 1857 with faculties of
theology, law, philosophy, science, medicine and pharmacy, and
[rew out of a seminary, for the foundation of which Philip II. of
spam (jave a grant in 1585, and which opened in 1601 ; and of the
Dominican college of St Thomas, dating from 1611. Other educa-
tional institutions are the (Dominican) San Jps6 medical and pharma-
ceutical college, San Juan de Letran (Dominican), which is a
primary and secondary school, the ateneo municipal, a corresponding
secondary and primary school under the charge of the Jesuits, and
the college of St Isabel, a girls' school. In 1908 there were thirty-
four newspapers and periodicals published in the city, of which
thirteen were Spanish, fourteen were English, two were Chinese, and
five were Tagalog; the principal dailies were the Manila Times,
Cablenews American, El Comercio, El Libertas, El Mercantil, El
Renacimiento and La Democracia. There are several Spanish
hospitals in Manila, in two of which the city's indigent sick are cared
for at its expense; in connexion with another a reform school is
maintained; and there are a general hospital, built by the govern-
ment, a government hospital for contagious diseases, a government
hospital for government employees, a government hospital for lepers,
an army hospital, a free dispensary and hospital supported by
American philanthropists, St Paul's hospital (Roman Catholic),
University hospitaj (Protestant Episcopal), and the Mary Johnson
hospital (Methodist Episcopal). There are several American
Protestant churches in the city, notably a Protestant Episcopal
cathedral and training schools for native teachers. In Bibilid
prison, in the Santa Cruz district, nearly 80% of the prisoners of
the archipelago are confined ; it is under the control of the department
of public instruction and its inmates are given an opportunity to
learn one or more useful trades.
Trade and Industry. Manila is important chiefly for its commerce,
and to make it the chief distributing point for American goods con-
signed to_ Eastern markets the American government undertook the
harbour improvements, and abolished the tonnage dues levied under
Spanish rule. Manila is the greatest hemp market in the world;
1 1 0.399 .tons, valued at $19,444,769, were exported from the archi-
pelago in 1906, almost all being shipped from Manila. Other
important exports are sugar, copra and tobacco. The imports
represent a great variety of food stuffs and manufactured articles.
In 1906 the the total value of the exports was $23 ,902 ,986 and the
total value of the imports was $21,868,257. The coastwise
trade is large. The principal manufactures are tobacco, cigars,
cigarettes, malt liquors, distilled liquors, cotton fabrics, clothing,
ice, lumber, foundry and machine shop products, carriages, waggons,
furniture and boots and shoes. There is some ship and boat building.
Lumber is sawed by steam power, and cotton mills in the Tondo
district are operated by steam. In the foundries and machine shops
small engines, boilers and church bells are made, and the government
maintains an ice and cold-storage plant. With these exceptions
manufacturing is in a rather primitive state. Another industry of
importance, especially in the district of Tondo, is fishing, and the
city's markets are well supplied with many varieties of choice fish.
Administration. Manila is governed under a charter enacted
in 1901 by the Philippine commission, and amended in 1903.
This vests the legislative and administrative authority mainly
in a municipal board of five members, of whom three are ap-
pointed by the governor of the Philippines by the advice and
with the consent of the Philippine commission, and the others
are the president of the advisory board and the city engineer.
The administration is divided into eight departments: engineer-
ing and public works; sewer and waterworks construction;
sanitation and transportation; assessments and collections;
police, fire, law and schools. There are no elective offices, but
there is an advisory board, appointed by the governor and
consisting of one member from each of eleven districts; its recom-
mendations the municipal board must seek en all important
matters. The administration of justice is vested in a municipal
court and in one court under justices of the peace and auxiliary
justices; the administration of school affairs is vested in a special
board of six members; and matters pertaining to health are
administered by the insular bureau of health.
History. The Spanish city of Manila (named from " nilad," a
weed or bush which grew in the locality) was founded by Legaspi
in 1571- The site had been previously occupied by a town under
a Mahommedan chieftain, but this town had been burned before
Legaspi gained possession, although a native settlement still
remained, within the present district of Tondo. In 1572, while
its fortifications were still slight, the Spanish city was attacked
and was nearly captured by a force of Chinese pirates who
greatly outnumbered the Spaniards. About 1590 the con-
struction of the present walls and other defences was begun.
At the beginning of the I7th century Manila had become the
commercial metropolis of the Far East. To it came fleets from
China, Japan, India, Malacca and other places in the Far East for
an exchange of wares, and from it rich cargoes were sent by way
of Mexico to the mother country in exchange for much cheaper
5 8
MANILA HEMP MANILIUS
goods. Before the close of the century, however, a decline began,
from which there was but little recovery under Spanish rule.
Several causes contributed to this, among them the waning of
the power of Spain, an exclusive commercial policy, dishonest
administration, hostilities with the Chinese, ravages of the Malay
pirates, and the growth of Dutch commerce. On several occa-
sions the city has been visited with destructive earthquakes;
those of 1645 and 1863 were especially disastrous. In 1762,
during war between England and Spain, an English force under
Vice- Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish (d. 17 70) and Lieut.-General
Sir William Draper (1721-1787) breached the walls and captured
the city, but by the Treaty of Paris (1763) it was returned to
Spain. In 1837 the port of Manila was opened to foreign trade,
and there was a steady but slow increase in prosperity up to
about 1 890. During this period, however, progress was hampered
by vested interests, and the spirit of rebellion among the natives
became increasingly threatening. About 1892 a large number
of Filipinos in and near Manila formed a secret association whose
object was independence and separation from Spain. In August
1896 members of this association began an attack; and late in
December the movement was reinforced as a result of the execu-
tion in Manila of Dr JoseRizaly Mercado(i86i-i896), a Filipino
patriot. It spread to the provinces, and was only in part sup-
pressed when, in April 1898, the United States declared war
against Spain. On the ist of May an American fleet under
Commodore George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet stationed
in Manila Bay (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). The smouldering
Filipino revolt then broke out afresh and an American army
under General Wesley Merritt (1836- ) was sent from San
Francisco to assist in capturing the city. The Spaniards, after
making a rather weak defence, surrendered it on the I3th of
August 1898. Trouble now arose between the Americans and
the Filipinos under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, for
the latter wished to establish a government of their own. On
the night of the 4th of February 1899 the Filipinos attacked the
American army which was defending the city, but were repulsed
after suffering a heavy loss. A military government, however,
was maintained in the city until August 1901.
MANILA HEMP, the most valuable of all fibres for cordage,
the produce of the leaf-stalks of Musa texlilis, a native of the
Philippine Islands. The plant, called abacd by the islanders,
throws up a spurious stem from its underground rootstocks,
consisting of a cluster of sheathing leaf-stalks, which rise to a
height of from 15 to 25 ft. and spread out into a crown of huge
undivided leaves characteristic of the various species of Musa
(plantain, banana, &c.). From 12 to 20 clusters are developed
on each rhizome. In its native regions the plant is rudely culti-
vated solely as a source of fibre ; it requires little attention, and
when about three years old develops flowers on a central stem,
at which stage it is in the most favourable condition for yielding
fibre. The stock is then cut down, and the sheathing stalks are
torn asunder and reduced to small strips. These strips in their
fresh succulent condition are drawn between a knife-edged instru-
ment and a hard wooden block to which it is fixed. The knife is
kept in contact with the block except when lifted to introduce the
ribbons. Sufficient weight is suspended to the end of the knife
to keep back all pith when the operator is drawing forward the
ribbon between the block and knife. By repeated scraping in
this way the soft cellular matter which surrounds the fibre is
removed, and the fibre so cleaned has only to be hung up to dry
in the open air, when, without further treatment, it is ready for
use. Each stock yields, on an average, a little under i Ib of
fibre; and two natives cutting down plants and separating fibre
will prepare not more than 25 Ib per day. The fibre yielded by
the outer layer of leaf -stalks is hard, fully developed and strong,
and used for cordage, but the produce of the inner stalks is
increasingly thin, fine and weak. The finer fibre is used by the
natives, without spinning or twisting (the ends of the single fibres
being knotted or gummed together), for making exceedingly
fine, light and transparent yet comparatively strong textures,
which they use as articles of dress and ornament. According
to Warden, " muslin and grass-cloth are made from the finest
fibres of Manila hemp, and some of them are so fine that a gar-
ment made of them may, it is said, be enclosed in the hollow of
the hand." In Europe, especially in France, articles of clothing,
such as shirts, veils, neckerchiefs and women's hats, are made
from abacd. It is also used for matting and twines. It is of a
light colour, very lustrous, and possesses great strength, being
thus exceptionally suitable for the best class of ropes. It is
extensively used for marine and other cordage. The hemp
exported for cordage purposes is a somewhat woody fibre, of a
bright brownish-white colour, and possessing great durability
and strain-resisting power. The strength of Manila hemp
compared with English hemp is indicated by the fact that a
Manila rope 3j in. in circumference and 2 fathoms long stood
a strain of 4669 Ib before giving way, while a similar rope of
English hemp broke with 3885 Ib. The fibre contains a very
considerable amount of adherent pectinous matter, and in its
so-called dry condition an unusually large proportion, as much
as 12% of water. In a damp atmosphere the fibre absorbs
moisture so freely that it has been found to contain not less than
40% of water, a circumstance which dealers in the raw fibre
should bear in mind. From the old and disintegrated ropes
is made the well-known manila paper. The plant has been
introduced into tropical lands the West Indies, India, Borneo,
&c. but only in the Philippines has the fibre been successfully
produced as an article of commerce. It is distributed through-
out the greater part of the Philippine Archipelago. The area of
successful cultivation lies approximately between 6 and 15 N.
and 121 and 126 E.; it may be successfully cultivated up to
about 4000 ft. above sea-level. The provinces, or islands, where
cultivation is most successful are those with a heavy and evenly
distributed rainfall. H. T. Edwards, fibre expert to the Philip-
pine bureau of agriculture, wrote in 1904:
" The opportunities for increasing the production of abacd in the
Philippines are almost unlimited. Enormous areas of good abacd
land are as yet untouched, while the greater part of land already
under cultivation might yield a greatly increased product if more
careful attention were given to the various details of cultivation.
The introduction of irrigation will make possible the planting of
abacd in many districts where it is now unknown. The perfection
of a machine for the extraction of the fibre will increase the entire
output by nearly one-third, as this amount is now lost by the waste-
ful hand-stripping process."
Hitherto, while numerous attempts have been made to extract
the fibre with machinery, some obstacle has always prevented
the general use of the process. The exports have increased
with great rapidity, as shown by the following table:
1870 . 31,426 tons.
1880 . 50,482
1890 . 67,864
1900 . 89,438 .
1904 . . 121,637 .-
In 1901 the value of the export was $14,453, 410, or 62-3% of t
total exports from the Philippines. The fibre is now so valuable
that Manila hemp cordage is freely adulterated by manufacturers,
chiefly by admixture of phormium (New Zealand flax) and
Russian hemp.
MANILIUS, a Roman poet, author of a poem in five books
called Astronomica. The author is neither quoted nor mentioned
by any ancient writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was
probably Marcus Manilius; in the earlier MSS. the author is
anonymous, the later give Manilius, Manlius, Mallius. The poem
itself implies that the writer lived under Augustus or Tiberius,
and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome. According
to R. Bentley he was an Asiatic Greek; according to F. Jacob
an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied
his subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most
advanced views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology ).
He frequently imitates Lucretius, whom he resembles in earnest-
ness and originality and in the power of enlivening the dry bones
of his subject. Although his diction presents some peculiarities,
the style is metrically correct. Firmicus, who wrote in the time
of Constantine, exhibits so many points of resemblance with the
work of Manilius that he must either have used him or have
followed some work that Manilius also followed. As Firmicus
MANILIUS MAKING
581
says that hardly any Roman except Caesar, Cicero and Fronto
had treated the subject, it is probable that he did not know the
work of Manilius. The latest event referred to in the poem
(i. 898) is the great defeat of Varus by Arminius in the Teuto-
burgiensis Saltus (A.D. 9). The fifth book was not written till
the reign of Tiberius; the work appears to be incomplete, and
was probably never published.
See editions by J. Scaliger (1579); R. Bentley (1739): F. Jacob
(1846); A. G. PingnS (1786); and T. Breiter (Leipzig, 1007; and
commentary 1909) ; of book i. by A. E. Housman (1903). On the
subject generally see M. Bechert, De emendandi Manilii Ratione
(1878) and De M. M. Astronomicorum Poeta (1891); B. Freier, De
M. Astronom. Aetate (1880); A. Cramer, De Manilii Elocutione (very
full; 1882); G. Lanson, De Manilio Poeta, with select bibliog.
(1887); P. Monceaux, Les Africains (a study of the Latin literature
of Africa; 1894); R. Ellis, Noctes Manilianae (1891); J. P. Postgate,
Silva Maniliana (1897), chiefly on textual questions; P. Thomas,
Lucubraliones Manilianae (1888), a collation of the Gemblacensis
(Gembloux )MS. ; F. Plessis, La Poesie latine (1909), pp. 477-483.
MANILIUS, GAIUS, Roman tribune of the people in 66 B.C.
At the beginning of his year of office (Dec. 67) he succeeded in
getting a law passed (de libertinorum suffragiis), which gave
freedmen the privilege of voting together with those who had
manumitted them, that is, in the same tribe as their patroni; this
law, however, was almost immediately declared null and void
by the senate. Both parties in the state were offended by the
law, and Manilius endeavoured to secure the support of Pompey
by proposing to confer upon him the command of the war
against Mithradates with unlimited power (see POMPEY). The
proposal was supported by Cicero in his speech, Pro lege Manilla,
and carried almost unanimously. Manilius was later accused
by the aristocratical party on some unknown charge and defended
by Cicero. He was probably convicted, but nothing further
is heard of him.
See Cicero's speech ; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 25-27 ; Plutarch, Pompey,
30; Veil. Pat. ii. 33; art. ROME: History, II.
MANIN, DANIELE (1804-1857), Venetian patriot and states-
man, was born in Venice, on the I3th of May 1804. He was the
son of a converted Jew, who took the name of Manin because that
patrician family stood sponsors to him, as the custom then was.
He studied law at Padua, and then practised at the bar of his
native city. A man of great learning and a profound jurist, he was
inspired from an early age with a deep hatred for Austria. The
heroic but foolhardy attempt of the brothers Bandiera, Venetians
who had served in the Austrian navy against the Neapolitan
Bourbons in 1844, was the first event to cause an awakening of
Venetian patriotism, and in 1847 Manin presented a petition
to the Venetian congregation, a shadowy consultative assembly
tolerated by Austria but without any power, informing the
emperor of the wants of the nation. He was arrested on a
charge of high treason (Jan. 18, 1848), but this only served to
increase the agitation of the Venetians, who were beginning to
know and love Manin. Two months later, when all Italy and
half the rest of Europe were in the throes of revolution, the
people forced Count Palffy, the Austrian governor, to release him
(March 17). The Austrians soon lost all control of the city, the
arsenal was seized by the revolutionists, and under the direction
of Manin a civic guard and a provisional government were
instituted. The Austrians evacuated Venice on the 26th of
March, and Manin became president of the Venetian republic.
He was already in favour of Italian unity, and though not
anxious for annexation to Piedmont (he would have preferred
to invoke French aid), he gave way to the will of the majority,
and resigned his powers to the Piedmontese commissioners on the
7th of August. But after the Piedmontese defeats in Lombardy,
and the armistice by which King Charles Albert abandoned
Lombardy and Venetia to Austria, the Venetians attempted to
lynch the royal commissioners, whose lives Manin saved with
difficulty; an assembly was summoned, and a triumvirate
formed with Manin at its head. Towards the end of 1848 the
Austrians, having been heavily reinforced, reoccupied all the
Venetian mainland; but the citizens, hard-pressed and threatened
with a siege, showed the greatest devotion to the cause of freedom,
all sharing in the dangers and hardships and all giving what they
could afford to the state treasury. Early in 1849 Manin was
again chosen president of the republic, and conducted the defence
of the city with great ability. After the defeat of Charles
Albert's forlorn hope at Novara in March the Venetian assembly
voted "Resistance at all costs!" and granted Manin unlimited
powers. Meanwhile the Austrian forces closed round the city;
but Manin showed an astonishing power of organization, in
which he was ably seconded by the Neapolitan general, Guglielmo
Pepe. But on the 26th of May the Venetians were forced to
abandon Fort Malghera, half-way between the city and the
mainland; food was becoming scarce, on the igth of June the
powder magazine blew up, and in July cholera broke out. Then
the Austrian batteries began to bombard Venice itself, and when
the Sardinian fleet withdrew from the Adriatic the city was also
attacked by sea, while certain demagogues caused internal
trouble. At last, on the 24th of August 1849, when all pro-
visions and ammunition were exhausted, Manin, who had courted
death in vain, succeeded in negotiating an honourable capitula-
tion, on terms of amnesty to all save Manin himself, Pepe and
some others, who were to go into exile. On the 27th Manin left
Venice for ever on board a French ship. His wife died at
Marseilles, and he himself reached Paris broken in health and
almost destitute, having spent all his fortune for Venice. In
Paris he maintained himself by teaching and became a leader
among the Italian exiles. There he became a convert from
republicanism to monarchism, being convinced that only under
the auspices of King Victor Emmanuel could Italy be freed, and
together with Giorgio Pallavicini and Giuseppe La Farina he
founded the Societa Nazionale Ilaliana with the object of .pro-
pagating the idea of unity under the Piedmontese monarchy.
His last years were embittered by the terrible sufferings of his
daughter, who died in 1854, and he himself died on the 22nd of
September 1857, and was buried in Ary Scheffer's family tomb.
In 1868, two years after the Austrians finally departed from
Venice, his remains were brought to his native city and honoured
with a public funeral. Manin was a man of the greatest honesty,
and possessed genuinely statesmanlike qualities. He believed
in Italian unity when most men, even Cavour, regarded it as
a vain thing, and his work of propaganda by means of the
National Society greatly contributed to the success of the cause.
See A. Errera, Vita di D. Manin (Venice, 1872); P. de la Farge,
Documents, &fc., de D. Manin (Paris, 1860) ; Henri Martin, D. Manin
(Paris, 1859); V. Marches!, Settant'annidellastoria di Venezia (Turin)
and an excellent monograph in Countess Martinengo Cesaresco's
Italian Characters (London, 1901).
HANING, FREDERICK EDWARD (1812-1883), New Zealand
judge and author, son of Frederick Maning, of Johnville, county
Dublin, was born on the 5th of July 1812. His father emigrated
to Tasmania in the ship " Ardent " in 1824 and took up a grant
of land there. Young Maning served in the fatuous expedition
which attempted to drive in the Tasmanian blacks by sweeping
with an unbroken line of armed men across the island. Soon
afterwards he decided to try the life of a trader among the wild
tribes of New Zealand, and, landing in the beautiful inlet of
Hokianga in 1833, took up his abode among the Ngapuhi. With
them the tall Irish lad he stood 6 ft. 3 in. full of daring and
good-humour and as fond of fun as of fighting, quickly became
a prime favourite, was adopted into the tribe, married a chief's
daughter, and became a " Pakeha-Maori " (foreigner turned
Maori). With the profits of his trading he bought a farm of
200 acres on the Hokianga, for which, unlike most white adven-
turers of the time, he paid full value. When New Zealand was
peacefully annexed in 1840, Maning 's advice to the Maori was
against the arrangement, but from the moment of annexation
he became a loyal friend to the government, and in the wars of
1845-46 his influence was exerted with effect in the settlers'
favour. Again, in 1860, he persuaded the Ngapuhi to volunteer
to put down the insurrection in Taranaki. Finally, at the end
of 1865, he entered the public service as a judge of the native
lands court, where his unequalled knowledge of the Maori
language, customs, traditions and prejudices was of solid value.
MANIPLE MANIPUR
In this office he served until 1881, when ill-health drove him to
resign, and two years later to seek surgical aid in London,
where, however, he died of cancer on the 25th of July 1883. At
his wish, his body was taken back to New Zealand and buried
there. A bust of him is placed in the public library at Auckland.
Maning is chiefly remembered as the author of two short books,
Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New
Zealand against the Chief Heke. Both books were reprinted in
London in 1876 and 18*84, with an introduction by the earl of
Pembroke.
MANIPLE (Lat. manipulus, from manus, hand, and plere, to
fill), a liturgical vestment of the Catholic Church, proper to all
orders from the subdeacon upwards. It is a narrow strip of
material, silk or half-silk, about a yard long, worn on the left
fore-arm in such a way that the ends hang down to an equal
length on either side. In order to secure it, it is sometimes tied
on with strings attached underneath, sometimes provided with
a hole in the lining through which the arm is passed. It is
ornamented with three crosses, one in the centre and one at each
end, that in the centre being obligatory, and is often elaborately
embroidered. It is the special ensign of the office of subdeacon,
and at the ordination is placed on the arm of the new subdeacon
by the bishop with the words: " Take the maniple, the symbol
of the fruit of good works." 1 It is strictly a "mass vestment,"
being worn, with certain exceptions (e.g. by a subdeacon singing
the Gospel at the service of blessing the palms), only at Mass,
by the celebrant and the ministers assisting.
The most common name for the maniple up to the beginning
of the nth century in the Latin Church was mappula (dim. of
mappa, cloth), the Roman name for the vestment until the
time of Innocent III. The designation manipulus did not come
into general use until the i5th century. Father Braun (Lilurg.
Gewandung, p. 517) gives other early medieval names: sudanum,
fano, mantile, all of them meaning " cloth" or " handkerchief."
He traces the vestment ultimately to a white linen cloth of
ceremony (pallium linostinum) worn in the 4th century by the
Roman clergy over the left arm, and peculiar at that time to
them. Its ultimate origin is obscure, but is probably traceable
to some ceremonial handkerchiefs commonly carried by Roman
dignitaries, e.g. those with which the magistrates were wont
to signal the opening of the games of the circus. As late as the
9th century, indeed, the maniple was still a handkerchief, held
folded in the left hand. By what process it became changed
into a narrow strip is not known; the earliest extant specimen of
the band-like maniple is that found in the grave of St Cuthbert
(gth century); by the nth century (except in the case of
subdeacons, whose maniples would seem to have continued
for a while to be cloths in practical use) the maniple had uni-
versally assumed its present general form and purely ceremonial
character.
The maniple was originally carried in the left hand. In pictures
of the gth, loth and nth centuries it is represented as either so
carried or as hung over the left fore-arm. By the I2th century
the rule according to which it is worn over the left arm had been
universally accepted. According to present usage the maniple
is put on by priests after the alb and girdle; by deacons and
subdeacons after the dalmatic or tunicle; by bishops at the altar
after the Confiteor, except at masses for the dead, when it is
assumed before the stole. 2
In the East the maniple in its Western form is known only to
the Armenians, where it is peculiar to subdeacons. This vest-
ment is not derived from the Roman rite, but is properly a stole,
which the subdeacons used to carry in the left hand. It is now
laid over the subdeacon's left arm at ordination. The true
equivalent of the maniple (in the Greek and Armenian rites only)
is not, as has been assumed, the epimanikion, a sort of loose,
embroidered cuff (see VESTMENTS), but the epigonalion. This
is a square of silk, stiffened with cardboard, surrounded by an
1 According to Father Braun this custom cannot be traced earlier
than the gth century. It forms no essential part of the ordination
ceremony (Liturg. Gewandung, p. 548).
1 For the evolution of these rules see Braun, op. cit. pp. 546 seq.
embroidered border, and usually decorated in the middle with
a cross or a sword (the " sword of the Spirit," which it is supposed
to symbolize) ; sometimes, however, the space within the border
is embroidered with pictures. It is worn only by bishops and
the higher clergy, and derives its name from the fact that it hangs
down over the k-nee (yovv) . It is worn on the right side, under the
phelonion, but when the sakkos is worn instead of the phelonion,
by metropolitans, &c., it is attached to this. The epigonation,
like the maniple, was originally a cloth held in the hand; a fact
sufficiently proved by the ancient name ey\tipu>v (xP, hand),
which it retained until the i2th century. For convenience' sake
this cloth came to be suspended from the girdle on the right side,
and is thus represented in the earliest extant paintings (see
Braun, p. 552). The name epigonation, which appears in the
latter half of the i2th century, probably marks the date of the
complete conventionalizing of the original cloth into the present
stiff embroidered square; but the earliest representations of the
vestment in its actual form date from the i4th century, e.g. the
mosaic of St Athanasius in the chapel of St Zeno in St Mark's
at Venice.
See J. Braun, S. J.,Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau,
I 97)i PP- 5 l 5~5(>i, and the bibliography to VESTMENTS.
MANIPUR, a native state on the north-east frontier of India,
in political subordination to the lieutenant-governor of Eastern
Bengal and Assam. Area, 8456 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 284,465.
It is bounded on the N. by the Naga country and the hills over-
looking the Assam valley, on the W. by Cachar district, on the E.
by Upper Burma, and on the S. by the Lushai hills. The state
consists of a wide valley, estimated at about 650 sq. m., and a
large surrounding tract of mountainous country. The hill
ranges generally run north and south, with occasional connecting
spurs and ridges of lower elevation between. Their greatest
altitude is in the north, where they reach to upwards of 8000 ft.
above sea-level. The principal geographical feature in the valley
is the Logtak lake, an irregular sheet of water of considerable
size, but said to be yearly growing smaller. The valley is watered
by numerous rivers, the Barak being the most important. The
hills are densely clothed with tree jungle and large forest timber.
Some silk is produced and there are a few primitive manufactur-
ing industries, e.g. of pottery. Rice and forest produce, however,
are the principal exports. The road from Manipur to the Assam-
Bengal railway at Dimapur is the principal trade route.
The kingdom of Manipur, or, as the Burmans call it, Kasse
or Kathe, first emerges from obscurity as a neighbour and ally
of the Shan kingdom of Pong, which had its capital at Mogaung.
The valley appears to have been originally occupied by several
tribes which came from different directions. Although their
general facial characteristics are Mongolian, there is a great
diversity of feature among the Manipuris, some of them showing
a regularity approaching the Aryan type. In the valley the
people are chiefly Hindus, that religion being of recent introduc-
tion. Their own name for themselves is Meithei, and their
language is a branch of the Kuki-Chin family, spoken by 273,000
persons in all India in 1901. One of their peculiarities is the high
position enjoyed by women, who conduct most of the trade of
the valley. They have a caste system of their own, different
from that of India, and chiefly founded on the system of lallup,
or forced labour, which has been abolished by the British. Every
male between the ages of seventeen and sixty was formerly
obliged to place his services at the disposal of the state for
a certain number of days each year, and to different classes of
the people different employments were assigned. About four
hundred Mahommedan families, descendants of settlers from
Bengal, reside to the east of the capital. The aboriginal hill-
men belong to one of the two great divisions of Nagas and Kukis,
and are subdivided into innumerable clans and sections with
slight differences in language, customs or dress. The state is
noted for the excellence of its breed of ponies. The English game
of polo was introduced from Manipur, where it forms a great
national pastime.
The first relations of the British with Manipur date from 1762,
when the raja solicited British aid to repel a Burmese invasion,
MANISA MANITOBA
583
and a treaty was entered into. The force was recalled, and little
communication between the two countries took place until 1824,
on the outbreak of the first Burmese War. British assistance
was again invoked by the raja, and the Burmese were finally
expelled from both the Assam and the Manipur valleys. Dis-
puted successions have always been a cause of trouble. The raja,
Chandra Kirtti Singh, died in 1886, and was succeeded by his
eldest son, Sur Chandra Singh, who appointed his next brother,
Kula Chandra Dhuya Singh, jubraj, or heir-apparent. In 1890
another brother, the senapati, or commander-in-chief, Tikend-
rajit Singh, dethroned the raja, and installed the jubraj as regent,
the ex-raja retiring to Calcutta. In March 1891 the chief commis-
sioner of Assam (Quinton) marched to Manipur with 400 Gurkhas,
in order to settle the question of succession. His purpose was to
recognize the new ruler, but to remove the senapati. After some
futile negotiations, Quinton sent an ultimatum, requiring the
surrender of the senapati, by the hands of the political resident,
F. Grimwood, but no result followed. An attempt was then made
to arrest the senapati, but after some sharp fighting, in which
Lieut. Brackenbury was killed, he escaped; and the Manipuris
then attacked the British residency with an overwhelming force.
Quinton was compelled to ask for a parley, and he, Colonel Skene,
Grimwood, Cossins and Lieut. Simpson, unarmed, went to the
fort to negotiate. They were all there treacherously murdered,
and when the news arrived the Gurkhas retreated to Cachar,
Mrs Grimwood and the wounded being with them. This led to
a military expedition, which did not encounter much resistance.
The various columns, converging on Manipur, found it deserted;
and the regent, senapati, and others were captured during May.
After a formal trial the senapati and one of the generals of the
rebellion were hanged and the regent was transported to the
Andaman Islands. But it was decided to preserve the existence
of the state, and a child of the ruling family, named Chura Chand,
of the age of five, was nominated raja. He was sent to be
educated in the Mayo College at Ajmere, and he afterwards served
for two years in the imperial cadet corps. Meanwhile the admin-
istration was conducted under British supervision. The oppor-
tunity was seized for abolishing slavery and unpaid forced labour,
a land revenue of Rs. 2 per acre being substituted in the valley
and a house-tax in the hills. The boundaries of the state were
demarcated, disarmament was carried out, and the construction
of roads was pushed forward. In 1901 Manipur was visited by
Lord Curzon, on his way from Cachar to Burma. In May 1907
the government of the state was handed over to Chura Chand,
who was to be assisted by a Council of six Manipuris, with a
member of the Indian civil service as vice-president. At the
same time it was announced that the government of India would
support the raja with all its powers and suppress summarily
all attempts to displace him. The revenue is 26,000. The
capital is Imphal, which is really an overgrown village; pop.
(1901), 67,093.
See Mrs Ethel St Clair Grimwood, My Three Years in Manipur
(1891) ; Manipur State Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905) ; T. C. Hodson, The
Meitheis (1908).
HANISA (anc. Magnesia ad Sipylum), the chief town of the
Saru-khan sanjak of the Aidin (Smyrna) vilayet of Asia Minor,
situated in the valley of the Gediz Chai (Hermus), at the foot of
Mt Sipylus, and connected by railway with Smyrna and Afium
Kara-Hissar. Pop. about 35,000, half being Mussulman.
Manisa is an important commercial centre, and contains inter-
esting buildings dating from the times of the Seljuk and early
Osmanli sultans, including mosques built by Murad II. and III.
and a Mevlevi Tekke second only to that at Konia. It is the
seat of a flourishing American mission. In 1204 Manisa was
occupied by John Ducas, who when he became emperor made
it the Byzantine seat of government. In 1305, after the in-
habitants had massacred the Catalan garrison, Roger de Flor
besieged it unsuccessfully. In 1313 the town was taken by Saru
Khan and became the capital of the Turcoman emirate of that
name. In 1398 it submitted to the Osmanli sultan Bayezid I.,
and in 1402 was made a treasure city by Timur. In 1419 it was
the scene of the insurrection of the liberal reformer, Bedr ed-Din,
which was crushed by Prince Murad, whose residence in the town
as Murad II., after twice abdicating the throne, is one of the most
romantic stories in Turkish history. In the I7th century Manisa
became the residence of the greatest of the Dere Bey families,
Kara Osman Oglu, Turcoman by origin, and possibly connected
with the former emirs of Sarukhan, which seems to have risen
to power by farming the taxes of a province which princes of the
house of Othman had often governed and regarded with especial
affection. The liva of Sarukhan was one of the twenty-two in
the Ottoman Empire leased on a life tenure up to the time of
Mahmud II. In the i8th century the family of Kara Osman
Oglu (or Karasman) ruled de facto all west central Anatolia, one
member being lord of Bergama and another of Aidin, while the
head of the house held Manisa with all the Hermus valley and
had greater power in Smyrna than the representative of the
capitan pasha in whose province that city nominally lay. Out-
side their own fiefs the family had so much property that it was
commonly said they could sleep in a house of their own at any
stage from Smyrna to Baghdad. The last of its great beys was
Haji Hussein Zade, who was frequently called in to Smyrna on
the petition of his friends, the European merchants, to assure
tranquillity in the troublous times consequent on Napoleon's
invasion of Egypt, and the British and Russian attacks on the
Porte early in the igth century. He always acquitted himself
well, but having refused to bring his contingent to the grand
vizier when on the march to Egypt in 1798, and awakened the
jealousy of the capitan pasha, he was in continual danger.
Exiled in 1812, he was subsequently restored to Manisa, and died
there in 1821. His son succeeded after sanguinary tumults;
but Mahmud II., who had long marked the family for destruc-
tion, was so hostile towards it, after he had got rid of the
janissaries, that it had lost all but the shadow of power by 1830.
Descendants survived in Manisa who retained a special right of
granting title-deeds within the district, independent of the local
administration. (D. G. H.)
MANISTEE, a city and the county-seat of Manistee county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Manistee river (which here broadens
into a small lake) near its entrance into Lake Michigan, about
114 m. W.N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1800), 12,812; (1900),
14,260 (4966 foreign-born); (1904, state census), 12,708; (1910),
12,381. It is served by the Pere Marquette, the Manistee &
Grand Rapids, the Manistee & North-Eastern, and the Manistee
& Luther railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee and other lake ports. The channel between Lake
Manistee and Lake Michigan has been considerably improved
since 1867 by the Federal government. There is a United States
life-saving station at the harbour entrance. The city has a
county normal school, a school for the deaf and dumb, a domestic
science and manual training school, a business college, and a
Carnegie library. Manistee is a summer resort, with good
trout streams and well-known brine-baths. One mile from the
city limits, on Lake Michigan, is Orchard Beach, a bathing resort,
connected with the city by electric railway; and about 9 m.
north of Manistee is Portage Lake (about 2 m. long and i m.
wide), a fishing resort and harbour of refuge (with a good channel
from Lake Michigan), connected with the city by steamboat
and railway. Manistee has large lumber interests, is the centre
of an extensive fruit-growing region, and has various manufac-
tures, including lumber and salt. 1 The total value of the factory
product in 1904 was $3,256,601. The municipality owns and
operates its waterworks. Manistee (the name being taken from
a former Ottawa Indian village, probably on Little Traverse
Bay, Mich.) was settled about 1849, and was chartered as a
city in 1869, the charter of that year being revised in 1890.
MANITOBA, a lake of Manitoba province, Canada, situated
between 50 n' and 51 48' N. and 97 56' and 99 35' W. It
has an area of 1711 sq. m., a length of shore line of 535 m.,
and is at an altitude of 810 ft. above the sea. It has a total length
of 119 m., a maximum width of 29 m., discharge of 14,833 cub. ft.
1 There is a very large salt block at Eastlake, I m. east of
Manistee, and Filer City, a few miles south-east, is another source
of supply.
5 8 4
MANITOBA
per second, and has an average depth of 12 ft. Its shores are
low, and for the most part swampy. The Waterhen river,
which carries the discharge of Lake Winnipegosis, is the only
considerable stream entering the Jake. It is drained by the
Little Saskatchewan river into Lake Winnipeg. It was dis-
covered by De la Verendrye in 1739.
MANITOBA, one of the western provinces of the Dominion
of Canada, situated midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific
coasts of the Dominion, about 1090 m. due west of Quebec.
It is bounded S. by the parallel 49 N., which divides
it from the United States; W. by 101 20' W.; N. by 52
50' N.; and E. by the western boundary of Ontario.
Manitoba formerly belonged to the Hudson's Bay Company,
and after the transfer of its territory to Canada was admitted
in 1870 as the fifth province of the Dominion. At that time
the infant province had an area of 13,500 sq. m., and some
12,000 people, chiefly Indian half-breeds. In 1881 the limits
were increased as above, and the province now contains upwards
of 73>9S6 sq. m., extending 264 m. from north to south and
upwards of 300 from east to west. The old district of Assiniboia,
the result of the efforts in colonization by the earl of Selkirk
in 1811 and succeeding years, was the nucleus of the province.
The name Manitoba sprang from the union of two Indian
words, Manito (the Great Spirit), and Waba (the " narrows "
of the lake, which may readily be seen on the map). This well-
known strait was a sacred place to the Crees and Saulteaux,
who, impressed by the weird sound made by the wind as it
rushed through the narrows, as simple children of the prairies
called them Manito-Waba, or the " Great Spirit's narrows."
The name, arising from this unusual sound, has been by meto-
nymy translated into " God's Voice." The word was afterwards
contracted into its present form. As there is no accent in
Indian words, the natural pronunciation of this name would
be Man-1-to-ba.. On this account, the custom of both the French
and English people of the country was for years before and for
several years after 1870 to pronounce it Man-i-to-ba, and even
in some cases to spell it " Manitobah." After the formation
of the province and the familiar use of the provincial name
in the Dominion parliament, where it has occupied much
attention for a generation, the pronunciation has changed,
so that the province is universally known from ocean to ocean
as Man-i-to-ba.
Physical Features. The drainage of Manitoba is entirely north-
eastward to Hudson Bay. The three lakes whose greatest lengths
are 260, 122 and 1 19 m. respectively are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and
Manitoba. They are all of irregular shape, but average respectively
30, 1 8 and 10 m. in width. They are fresh, shallow and tideless.
Winnipegosis and Manitoba at high water, in spring-time, discharge
their overflow through small streams into Winnipeg. The chief
rivers emptying into Lake Winnipeg are the Winnipeg, the Red and
the Saskatchewan. The Assiniboine river enters the Red river 45 m.
from Lake Winnipeg, and at the confluence of the rivers (" The
Forks ") is situated the city of Winnipeg. The Winnipeg, which
flows from the territory lying south-east of Lake Winnipeg, is a noble
river some 200 m. long, which after leaving Lake of the Woods dashes
with its clear water over many cascades, and traverses very beautiful
scenery. At its falls from Lake of the Woods is one of the greatest
and most easily utilized water-powers in the world, and from falls
lower down the river electric power for the city of Winnipeg is
obtained. The Red river is at intervals subject to freshets. In a
century's experience of the Selkirk colonists there have been four
" floods." The highest level of the site of the city of Winnipeg is
said to have been under 5 ft. of water for several weeks in May and
June in 1826, and 2| ft. in 1852, not covered in 1861 ; only the lowest
levels were under water in 1882. The extent of overflow has thus
on each occasion been less. The loose soil on the banks of the river
is every year carried away in great masses, and the channel has so
widened as to render the recurrence of an overflow unlikely. The
Saskatchewan, though not in the province, empties into Lake
Winnipeg less_than half a degree from the northern boundary. It
is a mighty river, rising in the Rocky Mountains, and crossing
eighteen degrees of longitude. Near its mouth are the Grand Rapids.
Above these steamers ply to Fort Edmonton, a point upwards of
800 m. north-west of the city of Winnipeg. Steamers run from
Grand Rapids, through Lake Winnipeg, up Red river to the city
of Winnipeg, important locks having been constructed on the river
at St Andrews.
The surface of Manitoba is somewhat level and monotonous. It
is chiefly a prairie region, with treeless plains of from 5 to 40 m.
extent, covered in summer with an exuberant vegetable growth,
which dies every year. The river banks, however, are fringed with
trees, and in the more undulating lands the timber belts vary from
a few hundreds of yards to 5 or 10 m. in width, forming at times
forests of no inconsiderable size. The chief trees of the country
are the aspen (Populus tremuloides), the ash-leaved maple (Negundo
aceroides), oak (Quercus alba), elm (Ulmus Americana), and many
varieties of willow. The strawberry, raspberry, currant, plum,
cherry and grape are indigenous.
Climate. The climate of Manitoba, being that of a region of wide
extent and of similar conditions, is not subject to frequent variations.
MANITOBA
Scare, 1:5.750^00
English Mile&
5" too
Winter, with cold but clear and bracing weather, usually sets in
about the middle of November, and ends with March. In April
and May the rivers have opened, the snow has disappeared, and the
opportunity has been afforded the farmer of sowing his grain. June
is often wet, but most favourable for the springing crops; July and
August are warm, but, excepting two or three days at a time, not
uncomfortably so; while the autumn weeks of late August and
September are very pleasant. Harvest generally extends from the
middle of August to near the end of September. The chief crops
of the farmer are wheat (which from its flinty hardness and full kernel
is the specialty of the Canadian north-west), oats, barley and pease.
Hay is made of the native prairie grasses, which grow luxuriantly.
From the richness and mellowness of the soil potatoes and all tap-
roots reach a great size. Heavy dews in summer give the needed
moisture after the rains of June have ceased. The traveller and
farmer are at times annoyed by the mosquito.
Area and Population. The area is 73,956 sq. m., of which
64,066 are land and 9890 water. Pop. (1871), 18,995; (1881),
62,260; (1891), 152,506; (1901), 254,947 (138,332 males, 116,615
females); (1906), 365,688 (205,183 males and 160,505 females).
The principal cities and towns are: Winnipeg (90,153), Brandon
(10,408), Portage la Prairie (5106), St Boniface (5119), West
Selkirk (2701), and Morden (1437). In 1901, 49,102 families
inhabited 48,415 houses, and the proportion of the urban popu-
lation to the rural was 27-5 to 72-5. Classified according to place
of birth, the principal nationalities were as follows in 1901:
Canada, 180,853; England, 20,392; Scotland, 8099; Ireland,
4537; other British possessions, 490; Germany, 2291; Iceland,
5403; Austria, 11,570; Russia and Poland, 8854; Scandinavia,
1772; United States, 6922; other countries, 4028. In 1901
the Indians numbered 5827; half-breeds, 10,372. Of the
Indian half-breeds, one half are of English-speaking parentage,
and chiefly of Orkney origin; the remainder are known as
Metis or Bois-brules, and are descended from French-Canadian
voyageurs. In 1875 a number of Russian Mennonites (descen-
dants of the Anabaptists of the Reformation) came to the
MANITOBA
585
country. They originally emigrated from Germany to the
plains of southern Russia, but came over to Manitoba to escape
the conscription. They number upwards of 15,000. About
4000 French Canadians, who had emigrated from Quebec to
the United States, have also made the province their home,
as well as Icelanders now numbering 20,000. During the
decade ending 1907 large reserves were settled with Ruthenians
often known as Galicians, Poles and other peoples from central
and northern Europe. Some 30,000 of these are found in the
province. The remainder of the population is chiefly made up
of English-speaking people from the other provinces of the
Dominion, from the United States, from England and Scotland
and the north of Ireland.
Religion. Classified according to religion, the various de-
nominations were, in 1901, a's follows: Presbyterians, 65,310;
Episcopalians, 44,874; Methodists, 49,909; Roman Catholics,
35,622; Baptists, 9098; Lutherans, 16,473; Mennonites, 15,222;
Greek Catholics, 7898; other denominations, 9903; not specified,
638.
Government. The province is under a lieutenant-governor,
appointed for a term of five years, with an executive council
of six members, responsible to the local legislature, which con-
sists of forty-two members. It has four members in the Canadian
Senate and ten in the House of Commons.
Education. The dual system of education, established in
1871, was abolished in 1890, and the administrative machinery
consolidated under a minister of the Crown and an advisory
board. This act was amended in 1897 to meet the wishes of
the Roman Catholic minority, but separate schools were not re-
established; nor was the council divided into denominational
committees. There are collegiate institutes for more advanced
education at Winnipeg, Brandon and Portage la Prairie, with
a total of 1094 pupils enrolled. There is also a normal school
at Winnipeg for the training of teachers. Higher education is
represented by the provincial university, which teaches 'science
and mathematics, holds examinations, distributes scholarships,
and grants degrees in all subjects. It has affiliated to it colleges
of the Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian and
Methodist denominations, with medical and pharmaceutical
colleges. The arts colleges of the churches carry on the several
courses required by the university, and send their students
to the examinations of the university. A well-equipped
agricultural college near Winnipeg is provided for sons and
daughters of farmers.
Agriculture is the prevailing industry of Manitoba. Dairy-
farming is rapidly increasing in importance, and creameries
for the manufacture of butter and cheese are established in
almost all parts of the province. Large numbers of horses,
cattle, swine and poultry are reared. The growth of cereals is
the largest department of agriculture followed.
The following statistics are interesting:
1883.
1890.
1894.
1901.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Wheat
5,686,355
14,665,769
17,172,883
50,502,085
Oats
9,478,965
9,513.443
11,007,854
27,796,588
Barley
Flax
1,898,430
No stattsti
2,069,415
cs collected.
2,981,716
366,000
6,536,155
266,420
Rye
H
,
59,924
62,261
Peas
lf
18,434
16,349
Potatoes
II
,,
2,035,336
4,797,433
Other roots .
..
,.
1,841,942
2,925,362
The enormous development of the wheat-growing industry is
shown by these and the following statistics:
Wheat inspected in Winnipeg.
1902 .... 51,833,000 bushels
1903 .... 40,396,650
1904 .... 39,784,900
1905 55,849,840
1906 .... 66,636,390
These figures do not include the wheat ground into flour and sent
by way of British Columbia to Asia and Australia, nor the wheat
retained by the farmers for seed. The Dominion government
maintains an experimental farm of 670 acres at Brandon. The
fisheries are all fresh-water, principally white-fish, pickerel and pike.
Large quantities of fresh fish caught in lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba
are exported to all parts of the United States.
Communications. The region of the Red River and Assiniboine
valleys was opened up by the fur traders, who came by the water-
ways from Lake Superior, and afterwards by the water communica-
tion with Hudson Bay. While these early traders used the canoe
and the York boat, 1 yet the steam-boat played an important part
in the early history of the region from 1868 till 1885, when access
from the United States was gained by steamers down the Red River.
The completion of the St Andrew s Rapids canal on Red River,
and the Grand Rapids canal on the Saskatchewan river will again
give an impetus to inland navigation on the tributaries of Lake
Winnipeg. Lake Manitoba also affords opportunity for inland
shipping.
The broad expanse of prairie-land in the western provinces of
Canada is well suited for the cheap and expeditious building of
railways. The first connexion with the United States was by two
railways coming down the Red River valley. But the desire for
Canadian unity led the Dominion to assist a transcontinental line
connecting Manitoba with eastern Canada. The building of the
Canadian Pacific railway through almost continuous rocks for 800
miles was one of the greatest engineering feats of modern times.
Immediately on the formation of the Canadian Pacific railway
company branch lines were begun at Winnipeg and there are eight
radial jines running from this centre to all parts of the country. Win-
nipeg is thus connected with Montreal on the east, and Vancouver
on the west, and is the central point of the Canadian Pacific system,
having railway yards and equipment equalled by few places in
America. In opposition to the Canadian Pacific railway a southern
Jine was built from Winnipeg to the American boundary. This fell
into the hands of the Northern Pacific railway, but was purchased
by the promoters of the Canadian Northern railway. This railway
has six radiating lines leaving the city of Winnipeg, and its main
line connects Port Arthur on Lake Superior with Edmonton in the
west. The Canadian Northern railway has a remarkable network
of railways connecting Winnipeg with every corner of Manitoba.
The Great Northern railway has also three branch lines in Manitoba
and one of these has Winnipeg as its terminus. The grand Trunk
Pacific railway, the great transcontinental line promoted by the
Laurier government, passes through Manitoba north of the Canadian
Pacific, coming from the east deflects southward to pass through
Winnipeg, and then strikes northward in a direct line of easy
gradients to find its way through the Rocky Mountains to its
terminus of Prince Rupert on the north coast of British Columbia.
History. The first white settlement in Manitoba was made
by Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Verendrye (d. 1749),
who, gradually pushing westward from Lake Superior, reached
Lake Winnipeg in 1733, and in the following year built a fort
not far from the present Fort Alexander. In October 1738
he built another at Fort Rouge, at the junction of the Red
and Assiniboine rivers, where is now the city of Winnipeg.
After the British conquest of 1763 the west became the scene
of a rapidly increasing fur trade, and for many years there was
keen rivalry between the Hudson's Bay Company, with its
headquarters in England, and the North-West Company of
Montreal. French and Scottish farmers and fur-traders gradu-
ally settled along the Red River, and by their frequent marriages
with the Indians produced a race of metis or half-breeds.
From 1811 to 1818 Lord Selkirk's attempted colonization
greatly increased the population; from the time of his failure
till 1869 the settlers lived quietly under the mild rule of the
Hudson's Bay Company. In that year the newly formed
Dominion of Canada bought from the company its territorial
and political rights. A too hasty occupation by Canadian
officials and settlers led to the rebellion of the Metis under
Louis Riel, a native leader. The rebellion was quieted and
Sir Garnet Wolseley (now Lord Wolseley) was sent from Canada
by the lake route, with several regiments of troops regulars
and volunteers. The Manitoba Act constituting the province
was passed by the Canadian parliament in 1870. (See RED
RIVER SETTLEMENT; and RIEL, LOOTS.)
The admixture of races and religions, and its position as the
key to the great West, have ever since made Manitoba the
1 A round-bottomed, strongly built boat, 30 to 36 ft. long, pro-
pelled by 8 men. It was devised by the Hudson's Bay Company for
carrying freight, as a substitute for the less serviceable canoe, and
was named alter their York factory, the centre to which the traders
brought down the furs for shipment to England and from which they
took back merchandise and supplies to the interior of Rupert s
Land.
5 86
MANITOU MANLIUS
storm centre of Canadian politics. In the charter granted
by the Canadian parliament to the Canadian Pacific railway a
clause giving it for twenty years control over the railway
construction of the province led to a fierce agitation, till the
clause was repealed in 1888. Till 1884 an equally fierce agitation
was carried on against Ontario with regard to the eastern
boundary of Manitoba. (See ONTARIO.) In both these disputes
the provincial leader was the Hon. John Norquay, in whose
veins ran a large admixture of Indian blood. In 1890 changes
in the school system unfavourable to the Roman Catholic
Church led to a constitutional struggle, to which was due the
defeat of the Federal ministry in 1896. Since 1896 its rapid
material progress has produced numerous economic problems
and disputes, many of which are still unsolved.
(G. B R .;W. L. G.)
MANITOU or MANITO (Algonquian Indian, " mystery,"
" supernatural "), among certain American Indian tribes, a spirit
or genius of good or evil. The manitou is almost always an
animal, each individual having one assigned him, generally
by dream-inspiration, at the greatest religious act of his life
his first fast. This animal then becomes his fetish; its skin is
carried as a charm, and representations of it are tattooed and
painted on the body or engraved on the weapons.
MANITOWOC (Indian, " Spirit-land"), a city and the county-
seat of Manitowoc county, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake
Michigan, 75 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 7710; (1900),
11,786, of whom 2998 were foreign-born; (1910 census),
13,027. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western,
and the Wisconsin Central railways; by ferry across the lake to
Frankfort, Mich., and Ludington, Mich.; by the Ann Arbor
and the Pere Marquette railways; and by the Goodrich line
of lake steamers. The city is finely situated on high ground
above the lake at the mouth of the Manitowoc river. At
Manitowoc are the county insane asylum and a Polish
orphan asylum. The city has a training school for county
teachers, a business college, two hospitals and a Carnegie
library. There are ship-yards for the construction of both
steel and wooden vessels, and several grain elevators. The
value of the factory products increased from $1,935,442 in
1900 to $4,427,816 in 1905, or 128-8 per cent. a greater increase
than that of any other city in the state during this period. There
is a good harbour, and the city has a considerable lake commerce
in grain, flour, and dairy products. Jacques Vieau established
here a post for the North-west Company of fur traders in 1795.
The first permanent settlement was made about 1836, and Mani-
towoc was chartered as a city in 1870. In Manitowoc county,
1 8 m. south-west of the city of Manitowoc, is St Nazianz,
an unorganized village near which in 1854 a colony or
community of German Roman Catholics was established
under the leadership of Father Ambrose Oswald, the primary
object being to enable poor people by combination and co-
operation to supply themselves with the comforts of life at
minimum expense and have as much time as possible left for
religious thought and worship. The title of the colony's land
was vested in Father Oswald after the panic of 1857 until his
death in 1874, when he devised the lands to " the colony founded
by me." The colony had no legal existence at the time, but
was then incorporated as the " Roman Catholic Religious Society
of St Nazianz," and as such sued Successfully for the bequest.
Financially the colony was successful, but as there were some
desertions and no new recruits after Father Oswald's death,
there were few members by 1909. There are no longer
any traces of communism, and the colony's property is
actually held by an organization of the local Roman Catholic
church.
MANIZALES, a city of Colombia and capital of the department
of Caldas (up to 1905 the northern part of Antioquia, 75 m. S.
of Medellin, on the old trade route across the Cordillera between
Honda, on the Magdalena, and the Cauca Valley. Pop. (1906,
estimate), 20,000. The city is situated on a plateau of the
western slope of the Cordillera, 6988 ft. above the sea. It is
surrounded by rich mineral and agricultural districts.
MANKATO, a city and the county-seat of Blue Earth county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., at the southern bend of the Minnesota
river, where it is joined by the Blue Earth about 86 m. S.W.
of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890), 8838; (1900), 10,599, of whom
2578 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,365. Mankato is
served by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, the
Chicago & North-Western (both " North -Western Lines "), the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago Great-Western
railways. The city has two fine parks, a Carnegie library, a
Federal building, the Immanuel and St Joseph hospitals, two
commercial colleges, and a state normal school (1868). The
numerous lakes in the neighbourhood, particularly Lake Madison
and Lake Washington, are widely known as summer resorts.
Four miles west of the city is Minneopa state park (area, 60
acres), in which are Minneopa Falls (60 ft.) and a fine gorge;
the park was established by the state in 1905-1906. Mankato
has an extensive trade in dairy and agricultural products
(especially grain) , stone (a pinkish buff limestone is quarried in
the vicinity), and forest products. The value of its factory
products increased from $1,887,315 in 1900 to $3,422,117 in
1905, or 81-3%.
Mankato was settled about 1853, and was first chartered as
a city in 1868. On or near the site of the city stood a village
of the Mankato (" blue earth ") band of the Mdewakanton
Sioux, who derived their name from one of their chiefs, " Old
Mankato." In this region occurred the Sioux uprising of
1862, and from this point operations were carried on which
eventually resulted in the subjugation of the Indians and the
hanging, at Mankato, in December 1862, of 38 leaders of the
revolt. In the uprising the Mankato band was led by another
chief named Mankato, who took part in the attack on Ft
Ridgeley, Minn., in August, in the engagement on the 3rd of
September at Birch Coolie, Minn., and in that on the 23rd of
September at Wood Lake, where he was killed.
MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE (c. 1663-1724), English
writer, daughter of Sir Roger Manley, governor of the Channel
Islands, was born on the 7th of April 1663 in Jersey. She
wrote her own biography under the title of The Adventures of
Rivella, or the History of the Author of the Atalanlis by " Sir
Charles Lovemore " (1714). According to her own account
she was left an orphan at the age of sixteen, and beguiled into
a mock marriage with a kinsman who deserted her basely three
years afterwards. She was patronized for a short time by the
duchess of Cleveland, and wrote an unsuccessful comedy, The
Lost Lover (1696); in freedom of speech she equalled the most
licentious writers of comedy in that generation. Her tragedy,
The Royal Mischief (1696) was more successful. From 1696 Mrs
Manley was a favourite member of witty and fashionable society.
In 1705 appeared The Secret History of Queen Zarah and the
Zarazians, a satire on Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, in the
guise of romance. This was probably by Mrs Manley, who,
four years later, achieved her principal triumph as a writer
by her Secret Memoirs . ... of Several Persons of Quality
(1709), a scandalous chronicle "from the New Atalantis, an
island in the Mediterranean." She was arrested in the autumn
of 1709 as the author of a libellous publication, but was dis-
charged by the court of queen's bench on the I3th of February
1710. Mrs Manley sought in this scandalous narrative to
expose the private vices of the ministers whom Swift, Bolingbroke
and Harley combined to drive from office. During the keen
political campaign in 1711 she wrote several pamphlets, and
many numbers of the Examiner, criticizing persons and policy
with equal vivacity. Later were published her tragedy Lucius
(1717); The Power of Love, in Seven Novels (1720), and A Stage
Coach Journey to Exeter (1725).
MANLIUS, the name of a Roman gens, chiefly patrician,
but containing plebeian families also.
i. MARCUS MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS, a patrician, consul392 B.C.
According to tradition, when in 390 B.C. the besieging Gauls
were attempting to scale the Capitol, he was roused by the
cackling of the sacred geese, rushed to the spot and threw down
the foremost assailants (Livy v. 47; Plutarch, Camillus, 27).
MANN MANNA
57
Several years after, seeing a centurion led to prison for debt,
he freed him with his own money, and even sold his estate
to relieve other poor debtors, while he accused the senate of
embezzling public money. He was charged with aspiring to
kingly power, and condemned by the comitia, but not until
the assembly had adjourned to a place without the walls, where
they could no longer see the Capitol which he had saved. His
house on the Capitol (the origin of his surname) was razed, and
the Manlii resolved that henceforth no patrician Manlius should
bear the name of Marcus. According to Mommsen, the story
of the saving of the Capitol was a later invention to explain
his surname, and his attempt to relieve the debtors a fiction
of the times of Cinna.
Livy vi. 14-20; Plutarch, Camillas, 36; Cicero, De domo, 38.
2. TITUS MANLIUS IMPERIOSUS TORQUATUS, twice dictator
(353, 349 B.C.) and three times consul (347, 344, 340). When
his father, L. Manlius Imperiosus (dictator 363), was brought
to trial by the tribune M. Pomponius for abusing his office of
dictator, he forced Pomponius to drop the accusation by threaten-
ing his life (Livy vii. 3-5). In 360, during a war with the
Gauls, he slew one' of the enemy, a man of gigantic stature,
in single combat, and took from him a torques (neck-ornament),
whence his surname. When the Latins demanded an equal
share in the government of the confederacy, Manlius vowed
to kill with his own hand the first Latin he saw in the senate-
house. The Latins and Campanians revolted, and Manlius,
consul for the third time, marched into Campania and gained
two great victories, near Vesuvius, where P. Decius Mus(<7..),
his colleague, " devoted " himself in order to gain the day,
and at Trifanum. In this campaign Manlius executed his
own son, who had killed an enemy in single combat, and thus
disobeyed the express command of the consuls.
Livy vii. 4, IO, 27, viii. 3; Cicero, De off. iii. 31.
3. TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, consul 235 B.C. and 224,
censor 231, dictator 208. In his first consulship he subjugated
Sardinia, recently acquired from the Carthaginians, when the
temple of Janus was shut for the second time in Roman history
(Livy i. 19). In 216 he opposed the ransoming of the Romans
taken prisoners at Cannae ; and in 2 1 5 he was sent to Sardinia and
defeated a Carthaginian attempt to regain possession of the
island.
Livy xxiii. 34; Polybius ii. 31.
4. GNAEUS MANLIUS VULSO, praetor 193, consul 189. He
was sent to Asia to conclude peace with Antiochus III., king
of Syria. He marched into Pamphylia, defeated the Celts
of Galatia on Mt Olympus and drove them back across the
Halys. In the winter, assisted by ten delegates sent from
Rome, he settled the terms of peace with Antiochus, and in 187
received the honour of a triumph.
Polybius xxii. 16-25; Livy xxxviii. 12-28, 37-50; xxxix. 6.
MANN, HORACE (1796-1859), American educationist, was
born in Franklin, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1796.
His childhood and youth were passed in poverty, and his health
was early impaired by hard manual labour. His only means
for gratifying his eager desire for books was the small library
founded in his native town by Benjamin Franklin and consisting
principally of histories and treatises on theology. At the age
of twenty he was fitted, in six months, for college, and in 1819,
graduated with highest honours, from the Brown University at
Providence, Rhode Island, having devoted himself so unremit-
tingly to his studies as to weaken further his naturally feeble
constitution. He then studied law for a short time at Wrentham ,
Massachusetts; was tutor in Latin and Greek (1820-1822) and
librarian (1821-1823) at Brown University; studied during 1821-
1823 in the famous law school conducted by Judge James Gould
at Litchfield, Connecticut; and in 1823 was admitted to the
Norfolk (Mass.) bar. For fourteen years, first at Dedham,
Massachusetts, and after 1833 at Boston, he devoted himself,
with great success, to his profession. Meanwhile he served,
with conspicuous ailbity, in the Massachusetts House of Repre-
sentatives from 1827 to 1833 and in the Massachusetts Senate
from 1833 to 1837 , for the last two years as president. It was not
until he became secretary (1837) of the newly created board of
education of Massachusetts, that be began the work which
was soon to place him in the foremost rank of American
educationists. He held this position till 1848, and worked with
a remarkable intensity holding teachers' conventions, deliver-
ing numerous lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive
correspondence, introducing numerous reforms, planning and
inaugurating the Massachusetts normal school system, founding
and editing The Common School Journal (1838), and preparing
a series of Annual Reports, which had a wide circulation and
are still considered as being " among the best expositions,
if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of the practical
benefits of a common school education both to the individual
and to the state " (Hinsdale). The practical result of his
work was the virtual revolutionizing of the common school
system of Massachusetts, and indirectly of the common
school systems of other states. In carrying out his work he
met with bitter opposition, being attacked particularly by
certain school-masters of Boston who strongly disapproved of
his pedagogical theories and innovations, and by various
religious sectaries, who contended against the exclusion of
all sectarian instruction from the schools. He answered
these attacks in kind, sometimes perhaps with unnecessary
vehemence and rancour, but he never faltered in his work,
and, an optimist by nature, a disciple of his friend George
Combe (q.v.), and a believer in the indefinite improvability of
mankind, he was sustained throughout by his conviction that
nothing could so much benefit the race, morally, intellectually
and materially, as education. Resigning the secretaryship
in 1848, he was elected to the national House of Representatives,
as an anti-slavery Whig to succeed John Quincy Adams, and
was re-elected in 1849, and, as an independent candidate, in
1850, serving until March 1853. In 1852 he was the candidate
of the Free-soilers for the governorship of Massachusetts, but
was defeated. In Congress he was one of the ablest opponents
of slavery, contending particularly against the Compromise
Measuresof 1850, but he was never technically an Abolitionist and
he disapproved of the Radicalism of Garrison and his followers.
From 1853 until his death, on the second of August 1859, he
was president of the newly established Antioch College at Yellow
Springs, Ohio, where he taught political economy, intellectual
and moral philosophy, and natural theology. The college
received insufficient financial support and suffered from the
attacks of religious sectaries he himself was charged with
insincerity because, previously a Unitarian, he joined the
Christian Connexion, by which the college was founded but he
earned the love of his students, and by his many addresses exerted
a beneficial influence upon education in the Middle West.
A collected edition of Mann's writings, together with a memoir
(i vol.) by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann, a sister of Miss
E. P. Peabody, was published (in 5 vols. at Boston in 1867-1891) as
the Life and Works of Horace Mann. Of subsequent biographies the
best is probably Burke A. Hinsdale's Horace Mann and the Common
School Revival in the United States (New York, 1898), in " The Great
Educators " series. Among other biographies O. H. Lane's Horace
Mann, his Life and Work (New York, 1893), Albert E. VVinship's
Horace Mann, the Educator (Boston, 1896), and George A. Hubbcll's
Life of Horace Mann, Educator, Patriot and Reformer (Philadelphia,
1910), may be mentioned. In vol. I. of the Report for 1895-1896 of
the United States commissioner of education there is a detailed
" Bibliography of Horace Mann," containing more than 700 titles.
MANNA, a concrete saccharine exudation obtained by making
incisions on the trunk of the flowering or manna ash tree, Fraxi-
nus Orints. The manna ash is a small tree found in Italy, and
extending to Switzerland, South Tirol, Hungary, Greece, Turkey
and Asia Minor. It also grows in the islands of Sicily, Corsica
and Sardinia. It blossoms early in summer, producing numerous
clusters of whitish flowers. At the present day the manna of
commerce is collected exclusively in Sicily from cultivated trees,
chiefly in the districts around Capaci, Carini, Cinisi and Favarota,
small towns 20 to 25 m. W. of Palermo, and in the townships of
Geraci, Castelbuono, and other places in the district of Cefalu,
50 to 70 m. E. of Palermo. In the frassinetti or plantations the
588
MANNERS MANNHEIM
trees are placed about 7 ft. apart, and after they are eight years
old, and the trunk at least 3 in. in diameter, the collection of
manna is begun. This operation is performed in July or August
during the dry weather, by making transverse incisions ij to 2 in.
long, and about i in. apart, through the bark, one cut being made
each day, the first at the bottom of the tree, another directly
above the first, and so on. In succeeding years the process is
repeated on the untouched sides of the trunk, until the tree has
been cut all round and exhausted. It is then cut down, and a
young plant arising from the same root takes its place. The
finest or flaky manna appears to have been allowed to harden
on the stem. A very superior kind, obtained by allowing the
juice to encrust pieces of wood or straws inserted in the cuts, is
called manna a cannolo. The fragments adhering to the stem,
after the finest flakes have been removed are scraped off, and
form the small or Tolfa manna of commerce. That which flows
from the lower incisions is often collected on tiles or on a concave
piece of the prickly pear (Opimtia), but is less crystalline and
more glutinous, and is less esteemed.
Manna of good quality dissolves at ordinary temperatures in
about 6 parts of water, forming a clear liquid. Its chief consti-
tuent is mannite or manna sugar, a hexatomic alcohol, C6Hg(OH)e,
which likewise occurs, in much smaller quantity, in certain species
of the brown seaweed, Fucus, and in plants of several widely
separated natural orders. Mannite is obtained by extracting
manna with alcohol and crystallizing the solution. The best
manna contains 70 to 80%. It crystallizes in shining rhombic
prisms from its aqueous solution and as delicate needles from
alcohol. Manna possesses mildly laxative properties, and on
account of its sweet taste is employed as a mild aperient for
children. It is less used in England now than formerly, but is
still largely consumed in South America. In Italy mannite is
prepared for sale in the shape of small cones resembling loaf
sugar in shape, and is frequently prescribed in medicine instead
of manna.
The manna of the present day appears to have been unknown
before the isth century, although a mountain in Sicily with the
Arabic name Gibelman, i.e. " manna mountain," appears to
point to its collection there during the period that the island was
held by the Saracens, 827-1070. In the i6th century it was
collected in Calabria, and until recently was produced in the
Tuscan Maremma, but none is now brought into commerce from
Italy, although the name of Tolfa, a town near Civita Vecchia, is
still applied to an inferior variety of the drug.
Various other kinds of manna are known, but none of these has
been found to contain mannite. Alhagi manna (Persian and Arabic
tar-angubin, also known as terendschabin) is the produce of Alhagi
maurorum, a small, spiny, leguminous plant, growing in Arabia, Asia
Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and northern India. This
manna occurs in the form of small, roundish, hard, dry tears, varying
from the size of a mustard seed to that of a coriander, of a light-
brown colour, sweet taste, and senna-like odour. The spines and
pods of the plant are of ten mixed with it. It is collected near Kanda-
har and Herat, and imported into India from Cabul and Kandahar.
Tamarisk manna (Persian gaz-angufon, tamarisk honey) exudes in
June and July from the slender branches of Tamarix gallica, var.
mannifera, in the form of honey-like drops, which, in the cold tem-
perature of the early morning, are found in the solid state. This
secretion is caused by the puncture of an insect, Coccus manniparus.
In the valleys of the peninsula of Sinai, especially in the Wady el-
Sheikh, this manna (Arabic man) is collected by the Arabs and sold
to the monks of St Catherine, who supply it to the pilgrims visiting
the convent. It is found also in Persia and the Punjab, but does
not appear to be collected in any quantity. This kind of manna
seems to be alluded to by Herodotus (vii. 31). Under the same
name of gaz-angufnn there are sold commonly in the Persian bazaars
round cakes, of which a chief ingredient is a manna obtained to the
south-west of Ispahan, in the month of August, by shaking the
branches or scraping the stems of Astragalus florulentus and A.
adscendens. 1 Shir Khist, a manna known to writers on materia
medica in the i6th century, is imported into India from Afghanistan
and Turkestan to a limited extent ; it is the produce of Cotoneaster
nummularia (Rosaceae), and to a less extent of Atraphaxis spinosa
(Polygonaceae) ; it is brought chiefly from Herat.
1 See Bombay Lit. Tr., vol. i. art. 16, for details as to the gazaneubln.
A common Persian sweetmeat consists of wheat-flour kneaded with
manna into a thick, paste.
Oak manna or Gueze-elefi, according to Haussknecht, is collected
from the twigs of Quercus Vallonia and Q. persica, on which it is
produced by the puncture of an insect during the month of August.
This manna occurs in the state of agglutinated tears, and forms an
object of some industry among the wandering tribes of Kurdistan.
It is collected before sunrise, by shaking the grains of manna on to
linen cloths spread out beneath the trees, or by dipping the small
branches in hot water and evaporating the solution thus obtained.
A substance collected by the inhabitants of Laristan from Pyrus
glabra strongly resembles oak manna in appearance.
Australian or Eucalyptus manna is found on the leavesof Eucalyptus
mminalis, E. Gunnii, var. rubida, E. pulverulenta, &c. The Lerp
manna of Australia is of animal origin.
Briangon manna is met with on the leaves of the common Larch
.v.), and bide-kheckt on those of the willow, Salix fragilis ; and a
kind of manna was at one time obtained from the cedar.
The manna of the Biblical narrative, notwithstanding the miracu-
lous circumstances which distinguish it from anything now known,
answers in its description very closely to the tamarisk manna.
See Bentley and Tnmen, Medicinal Plants (1880) ; Watt, Dictionary
of Economic Products of India, under" Manna" (1891). For analyses
see A. Ebert, Abst. J.C.S., 1909, 96, p. 176.
MANNERS, CHARLES (1857- ), English musician, whose
real name was Southcote Mansergh, was born in London, son of
Colonel Mansergh, an Irishman. He had a fine bass voice, and
was educated for the musical profession in Dublin and at the
Royal Academy of Music in London. He began singing in
opera in 1881, and in 1882 had great success as the sentry in
lolanthe at the Savoy, following this with numerous engagements
in opera both in England and America. He married the singer
Fanny Moody, already a leading soprano on the operatic stage,
in 1890; and in 1897 they formed the Moody-Manners opera
company, which had a great success in the provinces and under-
took seasons in London in 1902. Manners and his wife were
assisted by some other excellent artists, and their enterprise had
considerable influence on contemporary English music.
MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES (1755-1828), archbishop of
Canterbury, was educated at Charterhouse and Cambridge. In
1785 he was appointed to the family living at Averham-with-
Kelham,in Nottinghamshire, and in 1791 became dean of Peter-
borough. He was consecrated bishop of Norwich in 1792, and
two years later received the appointment of dean of Windsor
in commendam. In 1805 he was chosen to succeed Archbishop
Moore in the see of Canterbury. During his primacy the old
archiepiscopal palace at Croydon was sold and the country palace
of Addington bought with the proceeds. He presided over the
first meeting which issued in the foundation of the National
Society, and subsequently lent the scheme his strong support.
He also exerted himself to promote the establishment of the
Indian episcopate. His only published works are two sermons,
one preached before the Lords (London, 1794), the other before
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (London, 1797).
His brother, THOMAS MANNERS-SUTTON, ist BARON MANNERS
(1756-1842), was lord chancellor of Ireland. For his son Charles
see CANTERBURY, ist VISCOUNT.
MANNHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
Baden, lying on the right bank of the Rhine, at its confluence
with the Neckar, 39 m. by rail N. of Karlsruhe, 10 m. W. of
Heidelberg and 55 m. S. of Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1900).
141,131; (1905), 162,607 (of whom about 70,000 are Roman
Catholics and 6000 Jews). It is perhaps the most regularly
built town in Germany, consisting of twelve parallel streets
intersected at right angles by others, which cut it up into 136
square sections of equal size. These blocks are distinguished,
after the American fashion, by letters and numerals. Except on
the south side all the streets debouch on the promenade, which
forms a circle round the town on the site of the old ramparts.
Outside this ring are the suburbs Schwetzinger-Vorstadt to the
south and Neckar- Vorstadt to the north, others being Lindenhof,
Miihlau, Neckarau and Kaferthal. Mannheim is connected by a
handsome bridge with Ludwigshafen, a rapidly growing com-
mercial and manufacturing town on the left bank of the Rhine, in
Bavarian territory. The Neckar is spanned by two bridges.
Nearly the whole of the south-west side of the town is occupied
by the palace (1720-1759), formerly the residence of the elector
palatine of the Rhine. It is one of the largest buildings of the
MANNING, CARDINAL
589
kind in Germany, covering an area of 15 acres, and having a
frontage of about 600 yards. It has 1500 windows. The left
wing was totally destroyed by the bombardment of 1795, but
has since been restored. The palace contains a picture gallery
and collections of natural history and antiquities, and in front of
it are two monumental fountains and a monument to the emperor
William I. The large and beautiful gardens at the back form
the public park of the town. Among the other prominent build-
ings are the theatre, the arsenal, the synagogue, the " Kaufhaus,"
the town-hall (Rathaus, 1771) and the observatory. A newer
building is the fine municipal Festhalle with magnificent rooms.
The only noteworthy churches are the Jesuit church (1737-
1760), the interior of which is lavishly decorated with marble
and painting; the Koncordienkirche and the Schlosskirche.
In front of the theatre are statues of Schiller, August Wilhelm
Iffland the actor, and Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg (1750-
1806), intendant of the theatre in the time of Schiller. Mannheim
is the chief commercial town on the upper Rhine, and yields in
importance to Cologne alone among the lower Rhenish towns.
It stands at the head of the effective navigation on the Rhine, and
is not only the largest port on the upper course of that stream,
but is the principal emporium for south Germany for such com-
modities as cereals, coal, petroleum, timber, sugar and tobacco,
with a large trade in hops, wine and other south German produce.
Owing to the rapid increase in the traffic, a new harbour at the
mouth of the Neckar was opened in 1898. The industries are
equal in importance to the transit trade, and embrace metal-
working, ironfounding and machine building, the manufac-
ture of electric plant, celluloid, automobiles, furniture, cables
and chemicals, sugar refining, cigar and tobacco making, and
brewing.
Mannheim is the seat of the central board for the navigation
of the Rhine, of a high court of justice, and of the grand ducal
commissioner for north Baden.
History. The name of Mannheim was connected with its
present site in the 8th century, when a small village belonging
to the abbey of Lorsch lay in the marshy district between the
Neckar and the Rhine. To the south of this village, on the
Rhine, was the castle of Eicholzheim, which acquired some
celebrity as the place of confinement assigned to Pope John
XXIII. by the council of Constance. The history of modern
Mannheim begins, however, with the opening of the I7th century,
when the elector palatine Frederick IV. founded a town here,
which was peopled chiefly with Protestant refugees from Holland.
The strongly fortified castle which he erected at the same time
had the unfortunate result of making the infant town an object
of contention in the Thirty Years' War, during which it was five
times taken and retaken. In 1688 Mannheim, which had in the
meantime recovered from its former disasters, was captured by
the French, and in 1689 it was burned down. Ten years later
it was rebuilt on an extended scale, and provided with fortifica-
tions by the elector John William. For its subsequent import-
ance it was indebted to the elector Charles Philip, who, owing
to ecclesiastical disputes, transferred his residence from Heidel-
berg to Mannheim in 1720. It remained the capital of the Pala-
tinate for nearly sixty years, being especially flourishing under
the elector Charles Theodore. In 1794 Mannheim fell into the
hands of the French, and in the following year it was retaken by
the Austrians after a severe bombardment, which left scarcely
a single building uninjured. In 1803 it was assigned to the grand
duke of Baden, who caused the fortifications to be razed. To-
wards the end of the i8th century Mannheim attained great
celebrity in the literary world as the place where Schiller's early
plays were performed for the first time. It was at Mannheim
that Kotzebue was assassinated in 1819. During the revolution
in Baden in 1849 the town was for a time in the hands of the
insurgents, and was afterwards occupied by the Prussians.
See Feder, Geschichte der Stadt Mannheim (1875-1877, 2 vols.,
new ed. 1903); Pichler, Chronik des Hof-und National Theaters in
Mannheim (Mannheim, 1879); Landgraf, Mannheim und Ludwigs-
hafen (Zurich, 1890); Die lairthschaftliche Bedeutung Mannheims,
published by the Mannheim Chamber of Commerce (Mannheim,
'905); the Forschungen zur Geschichte Mannheims und der Pfalz,
published by the Mannheimer Altertumsverein (Leipzig, 1898); and
the annual Chronik der Hauptstadt Mannheim (1901 seq.).
MANNING, HENRY EDWARD (1808-1892), English Roman
Catholic cardinal, was born at Totteridge, Hertfordshire, on the
1 5th of July 1808, * being the third and youngest son of William
Manning, a West India merchant, who was a director of the Bank
of England and governor, 1812-1813, and who sat in Parliament
for some thirty years, representing in the Tory interest Plympton
Earle, Lymington, Evesham, and Penryn consecutively. His
mother, Mary, daughter of Henry Leroy Hunter, of Beech Hill,
Reading, was of a family said to be of French extraction. Man-
ning's boyhood was mainly spent at Coombe Bank, Sundridge,
Kent, where he had for companions Charles and Christopher
Wordsworth, afterwards bishops of St Andrews and of Lincoln.
He was educated at Harrow, 1822-1827, D r G. Butler being
then the head master, but obtained no distinction beyond being
in the cricket eleven in 1825. He matriculated at Balliol College,
Oxford, in 1827, and soon made his mark as a debater at the
Union, where Gladstone succeeded him as president in 1830.
At this date he was ambitious of a political career, but his father
had sustained severe losses in business, and in these circumstances
Manning, having graduated with first-class honours in 1830,
obtained the year following, through Viscount Goderich, a post
as supernumerary clerk in the colonial office. This, however,
he resigned in 1832, his thoughts having been turned towards a
clerical career under Evangelical influences, which affected him
deeply throughout life. Returning to Oxford, he was elected a
fellow of Merton College, and was ordained; and in 1833 he was
presented to the rectory of Lavington-with-Graffham in Sussex
by Mrs Sargent, whose granddaughter Caroline he married on
the 7th of November 1833, the ceremony being performed by the
bride's brother-in-law, Samuel Wilberforce, afterwards bishop
of Oxford and of Winchester. Manning's married life was of
brief duration. His young and beautiful wife was of a con-
sumptive family, and died childless (July 24, 1837). The
lasting sadness that thus early overshadowed him tended to
facilitate his acceptance of the austere teaching of the Oxford
Tracts; and though he was never an acknowledged disciple of
Newman, it was due to the latter's influence that from this date
his theology assumed an increasingly High Church character,
and his printed sermon on the " Rule of Faith " was taken as a
public profession of his alliance with the Tractarians. In 1838 he
took a leading part in the Church education movement, by which
diocesan boards were established throughout the country; and he
wrote an open letter to his bishop in criticism of the recent
appointment of the ecclesiastical commission. In December
of that year he paid his first visit to Rome, and called on Dr
Wiseman in company with W. E. Gladstone. In January 1841
Shuttleworth, bishop of Chichester, appointed him archdeacon,
whereupon he began a personal visitation of each parish within
his district, completing the task in 1843. In 1842 he published
a treatise on The Unity of the Church, and his reputation as an
eloquent and earnest preacher being by this time considerable,
he was in the same year appointed select preacher by his univer-
sity, thus being called upon to fill from time to time the pulpit
which Newman, as vicar of St Mary's, was just ceasing to occupy.
Four volumes of his sermons appeared between the years 1842
and 1850, and these had reached the 7th, 4th, 3rd and 2nd edi-
tions respectively in 1850, but were not afterwards reprinted.
In 1844 his portrait was painted by Richmond, and the same
year he published a volume of university sermons, in which,
however, was not included the one on the Gunpowder Plot.
This sermon had much annoyed Newman and his more advanced
disciples, but it was a proof that at that date Manning was loyal
to the Church of England as Protestant. Newman's secession
in 1845 placed Manning in a position of greater responsibility,
as one of the High Church leaders, along with Pusey and Keble
and Marriott ; but it was with Gladstone and James Hope (after-
wards Hope-Scott) that he was at this time most closely associ-
ated. In the spring of 1 847 he was seriously ill, and that autumn
1 Purcell's assertion that the year of his birth was 1807 rests on
no trustworthy evidence.
590
MANNING, CARDINAL
and the following winter he spent abroad, chiefly in Rome,
where he saw Newman " wearing the Oratorian habit and dead
to the world." He had public and private audiences with the
pope on the gth of April and the nth of May 1848, but recorded
next to nothing in his diary concerning them, though numerous
other entries show an eager interest in everything connected
with the Roman Church, and private papers also indicate that
he recognized at this time grave defects in the Church of England
and a mysterious attractiveness in Roman Catholicism, going
so far as to question whether he might not one day be a Roman
Catholic himself. Returning to England, he protested, but with
moderation, against the appointment of Hampden as bishop of
Hereford, and continued to take an active part in the religious
education controversy. Through the influence of Samuel
Wilberforce, he was offered the post of sub-almoner to Queen
Victoria, always recognized as a stepping-stone to the episcopal
bench, and his refusal of it was honourably consonant with all
else in his career as an Anglican dignitary, in which he united
pastoral diligence with an asceticism that was then quite excep-
tional. In 1850 the decision of the privy council, that the bishop
of Exeter was bound to institute the Rev. G. C. Gorham to the
benefice of Brampford Speke in spite of the latter's acknowledged
disbelief in the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, brought to a
crisis the position within the Church of England of those who
believed in that Church as a legitimate part of the infallible
Ecclesia docens. Manning made it clear that he regarded the
matter as vital, though he did not act on this conviction until no
hope remained of the decision being set aside or practically an-
nulled by joint action of the bishops. In July he addressed to
his bishop an open letter on " The Appellate Jurisdiction of the
Crown in Matters Spiritual," and he also took part in a meeting
in London which protested against the decision. In the autumn
of this year (1850) was the great popular outcry against the
" Papal aggression " (see WISEMAN), and Manning, feeling himself
unable to take part in this protest, resigned, early in December
his benefice and his archdeaconry; and writing to Hope-Scott,
who a little later became a Roman Catholic with him, stated his
conviction that the alternative was " either Rome or licence of
thought and will." He was received into the Roman Catholic
Church by Father Brownbill, S.J., at the church in Farm Street,
on Passion Sunday, the 6th of April 1851. On the following
Sunday he was confirmed and received to communion by Cardinal
Wiseman, who also, within ten weeks of his reception, ordained
him priest. Manning thereupon proceeded to Rome to pursue
his theological studies, residing at the college known as the
" Academy for Noble Ecclesiastics," and attending lectures by
Perrone and Passaglia among others. The pope frequently
received him in private audience, and in 1854 conferred on him
the degree of D.D. During his visits to England he was at the
disposal of Cardinal Wiseman, who through him, at the time of
the Crimean War, was enabled to obtain from the government the
concession that for the future Roman Catholic army chaplains
should not be regarded as part of the staff of the Protestant
chaplain-general. In 1857 the pope, proprio motu, appointed
him provost (or head of the chapter) of Westminster, and the
same year he took up his residence in Bayswater as superior
of a community known as the " Oblates of St Charles," an associ-
ation of secular priests on the same lines as the institute of the
Oratory, but with this difference, that they are by their consti-
tution at the beck and call of the bishop in whose diocese they
live. The community was thus of the greatest service to Cardinal
Wisemaa, whose right-hand man Manning thenceforward be-
came. During the eight years of his life at Bayswater he was
most active in all the duties of the priesthood, preaching, hearing
confessions, and receiving converts; and he was notably zealous
to promote in England all that was specially Roman and papal,
thus giving offence to old-fashioned Catholics, both clerical and
lay, many of whom were largely influenced by Gallican ideas,
and had with difficulty accepted the restoration of the hierarchy
in 1850. In 1860 he delivered a course of lectures on the pope's
temporal power, at that date seriously threatened, and shortly
afterwards he was appointed a papal domestic prelate, thus
becoming a " Monsignor," to be addressed as " Right Reverend."
He was now generally recognized as the able and effective leader
of the Ultramontane party among English Roman Catholics,
acting always, however, in subordination to Cardinal Wiseman;
and on the latter's death (Feb. 15, 1865) it was felt that, if
Manning should succeed to the vacant archbishopric, the triumph
of Ultramontanism would be secured. Such a consummation
not being desired by the Westminster chapter, they submitted
to the pope three names, and Manning's was not one of them.
Great efforts were made to secure the succession for the titular
archbishop Errington, who at one time had been Wiseman's
coadjutor with that right reserved to him, but who had been
ousted from that position by the pope acting under Manning's
influence. In such circumstances Pius IX. could hardly do
otherwise than ignore Errington's nomination, as he also ignored
the nomination of Clifford, bishop of Clifton, and of Grant, bishop
of Southwark; and, by what he humorously described as " the
Lord's own coup d'itat," he appointed Manning to the archi-
episcopal see. Consecrated at the pro-cathedral at Moorfields
(since destroyed) by Dr Ullathorne, bishop of Birmingham
(June 8, 1865), and enthroned there (Nov. 6), after receiving the
pallium in Rome, Manning began his work as archbishop by
devoting himself especially to the religious education of the poor
and to the establishment of Catholic industrial and reformatory
schools. He steadily opposed whatever might encourage the
admission of Catholics to the national universities, and so put
his foot down on Newman's project to open a branch house of the
Oratory at Oxford with himself as superior. He made an un-
successful and costly effort to establish a Catholic university at
Kensington, and he also made provision for a diocesan seminary
of strictly ecclesiastical type. Jealous of the exclusive claims
of the Roman Church, he procured a further condemnation at
Rome of the " Association for the Promotion of the Unity of
Christendom," which advocated prayers for the accomplishment
of a kind of federal union between the Roman, Greek and Angli-
can Churches, and in a pastoral letter he insisted on the heretical
assumption implied in such an undertaking. He also worked for
the due recognition of the dignity of the secular or pastoral clergy,
whose position seemed to be threatened by the growing ascend-
ancy of the regulars, and especially of the Jesuits, whom, as a
practically distinct organization within the Church, he steadily
opposed. In addition to his diocesan synods, he presided in
1873 over the fourth provincial synod of Westminster, which
legislated on " acatholic " universities, church music, mixed mar-
riages, and the order of a priest's household, having previously
taken part, as theologian, in the provincial synods of 1853 and
1859, with a hand in the preparation of their decrees. But it
was chiefly through his strenuous advocacy of the policy of
defining papal infallibility at the Vatican council (1869-1870)
that Manning's name obtained world-wide renown. In this he
was instant in season and out of season. He brought to Rome a
petition in its favour from his chapter at Westminster, and during
the progress of the council he laboured incessantly to overcome
the opposition of the " inopportunists." And he never ceased
to regard it as one of the chief privileges of his life that he had
been able to take an active part in securing the definition, and in
having heard with his own ears that doctrine proclaimed as a
part of divine revelation. In 1875 he published a reply to
Gladstone's attack on the Vatican decrees; and on the isth of
March in that year he was created cardinal, with the title of
SS. Andrew and Gregory on the Coelian. He was present at the
death of Pius IX. (Feb. 7, 1878); and in the subsequent con-
clave, while some Italian cardinals were prepared to vote for his
election to fill the vacant chair, he himself supported Cardinal
Pecci, afterwards known as Leo XIII. With him, however,
Manning found less sympathy than with his predecessor, though
Manning's advocacy of the claims of labour attracted Leo's
attention, and influenced the encyclical which he issued on the
subject. After the Vatican council, and more especially after the
death of Pius IX., Manning devoted his attention mainly to social
questions, and with these his name was popularly associated
during the last fifteen years of his life. From 1872 onwards he
MANNY MANNYNG
59 1
was a strict teetotaller, not touching alcohol even as a medicine,
and there was some murmuring among his clergy that his teach-
ing on this subject verged on heresy. But his example and his
zeal profoundly influenced for good the Irish poor forming the
majority of his flock; and the " League of the Cross " which he
founded, and which held annual demonstrations at the Crystal
Palace, numbered nearly 30,000 members in London alone in
1874. He sat on two royal commissions, the one on the housing
of the working classes (1884), and the other on primary education
(1886); and in each case the report showed evident marks of his
influence, which his fellow-commissioners recognized as that of a
wise and competent social reformer. In the cause of labour he
was active for many years, and in 1872 he set an example to the
clergy of all the churches by taking a prominent part in a meeting
held in Exeter Hall on behalf of the newly established Agri-
cultural Labourers' Union, Joseph Arch and Charles Bradlaugh
being among those who sat with him on the platform. In later
years his strenuous advocacy of the claims of the working
classes, and his declaration that " every man has a right to
work or to bread " led to his being denounced as a Socialist.
That he was such he denied more than once (Lemire, Le Cardinal
Manning el son action sociale, Paris, 1803, p. 210), nor was he
ever a Socialist in principle; but he favoured some of the
methods of Socialism, because they alone seemed to him practi-
cally to meet the case of that pressing poverty which appealed
to his heart. He took a leading part in the settlement of the
dockers' strike in the autumn of 1889, and his patient and
effectual action on this and on similar occasions secured for
him the esteem and affection of great numbers of working
men, so that his death on the I4th of January 1892, and his
funeral a week later, were the occasion for a remarkable
demonstration of popular veneration. The Roman Catholic
Cathedral at Westminster is his joint memorial with his
predecessor, Cardinal Wiseman.
Whatever may have been the value of Manning's services
to the Roman Catholic Church in England in bringing it, as
he did, up to a high level of what in earlier years was com-
monly denounced as Ultramontanism, it is certain that by his
social action, as well as by the earnestness and holiness of his
life, he greatly advanced, in the minds of his countrymen generally,
their estimate of the character and value of Catholicism. Pre-
eminently he was a devout ecclesiastic, a " great priest "; and
his sermons, both Anglican and Catholic, are marked by fervour
and dignity, by a conviction of his own authoritative mission as
preacher, and by an eloquent insistence on considerations such
as warm the heart and bend the will rather than on such as force
the intellect to assent. But many of his instincts were those of a
statesman, a diplomatist, a man of the world, even of a business
man; and herein lay, at least in part, the secret of his influence
and success. Intellectually he did not stand in the front rank.
He was neither a philosopher nor a literary genius. Among his
many publications, written, it is only fair to admit, amidst the
urgent pressure of practical work, there is barely a page or even
a sentence that bears the stamp of immortality. But within a
somewhat narrower field he worked with patience, industry, and
self-denying zeal; his ambition, which seemed to many personal,
was rather the outcome of his devotion to the cause of the
Church; and in the later years of his life especially he showed
that he loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and that he
realized as dearly as any one that the service of God was
incomplete without the service of man.
The publication in 1896 of Manning's Life, by Purcell, was the
occasion for some controversy on the ethics of biography. Edward
Purcell was an obscure Catholic journalist, to whom Manning, late
in life, had entrusted, rather by way of charitable bequest, his private
diaries and other confidential papers. It thus came to pass that in
Purcell's voluminous biography much that was obviously never
intended for the public eye was, perhaps inadvertently, printed,
together with a good deal of ungenerous comment. The facts
disclosed which mainly attracted attention were: (i) that Manning,
while yet formally an Anglican, and while publicly and privately
dissuading others from joining the Roman Catholic Church, was yet
within a Tittle convinced that it was his own duty and destiny to
take that step himself; (2) that he was continually intriguing at
the back-stairs of the Vatican for the furtherance of his own views
as to what was desirable in matters ecclesiastical ; (3) that his rela-
tions with Newman were very unfriendly; and (4) that, while for
the most part he exhibited towards his own clergy a frigid and
masterful demeanour, he held privately very cordial relations with
men of diverse religions or of no theological beliefs at all. And
certainly Manning does betray in these autobiographical fragments
an unheroic sensitiveness to the verdict of posterity on his career.
But independent critics (among whom may specially be named
Francois de Pressensd) held that Manning came well through the
ordeal, and that Purcell's Life had great value as an unintentionally
frank revelation of character. (A. W. Hu.)
MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY, BARON DE (d. 1372),
soldier of fortune and founder of the Charterhouse, younger son
of Jean de Mauny, known as Le Borgne de Mauny, by his wife
Jeanne de Jenlain, was a native of Hainaut, from whose counts
he claimed descent. Manny the name is thus spelt by most
English writers was a patron and friend of Froissart, in whose
chronicles his exploits have a conspicuous and probably an
exaggerated place. He appears to have first come to England
as an esquire of Queen Philippa in 1327, and he took a distin-
guished part in the Scottish wars of Edward III. In 1337 he
was placed in command of an English fleet, and in the following
year accompanied Edward to the continent, where in the
campaigns of the next few years he proved himself one of the
boldest and ablest of the English king's military commanders.
He was summoned to parliament as a baron by writ from the
I2th of November 1347 to the 8th of January 1371. In 1359 he
was made a knight of the Garter; and at various times he received
extensive grants of land both in England and in France. He was
frequently employed by King Edward in the conduct of diplo-
matic negotiations as well as in military commands. He was
one of those charged with the safe custody of the French king
John when a prisoner at Calais in 1360; in 1369 he was second
in command under John of Gaunt in his invasion of France.
But Manny is chiefly remembered for his share in the found-
ation of the Charterhouse in London. In 1349 he bought some
acres of land near Smithfield, which were consecrated as a bury-
ing-place where large numbers of the victims of the Black Death
were interred ; and here he built a chapel, from which the place
obtained the name of " Newchurchhaw." The chapel and ground
were bought from Manny by the bishop of London, Michael de
Northburgh, who died in 1361 and by his will bequeathed a large
sum of money to found there a Carthusian convent. It is not
clear whether this direction was ever carried out; for in 1371
Manny obtained letters patent from King Edward III. per-
mitting him to found, apparently on the same site, a Carthusian
monastery called " La Salutation Mere Dieu," where the monks
were to pray for the soul of Northburgh as well as for the soul of
Manny himself. The bishop's bequest may have contributed
to the building and endowment of the house; or possibly, as
seems to be implied by a bull granted by Urban VI, in 1378,
there were originally two kindred establishments owing their
foundation to Northburgh and Manny respectively. At all
events Manny, who died early in 1372, left instructions that he
was to be buried in the church of the Carthusian monastery
founded by himself. About 1335 he married Margaret, daughter
and heiress of Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Norfolk, son of King
Edward I., whose first husband had been John, Lord Segrave.
This lady, who outlived Manny by many years, was countess of
Norfolk in her own right, and she was created duchess of Norfolk
in 1397. Manny left no surviving son. His daughter Anne,
Baroness de Manny in her own right, married John Hastings,
2nd earl of Pembroke; and on the death of her only son unmarried
in 1389, the barony of Manny became extinct.
See (Euvres de Froissart, I. Chroniques, edited by Baron Kervyn
de Lettenhove (Brussels, 1867-1877), and the Globe edition of
Froissart's Chronicles (Eng. trans., London, 1895); G. F. Beltz,
Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (London, 1841);
Chronicon Angliae 1323-1388, edited by E. Maunde Thompson (Rolls
series 64, London, 1874); Philip Bearcroft, An Historical Account
of Thomas Sutton and of his Foundation in Charterhouse (London,
1737).
MANNYNG, ROBERT (ROBERT OF BRUNNE) (c. 1264-1340?),
English poet, was a native of Brunne, now Bourne, in
592
MANOEUVRES, MILITARY
Lincolnshire. About 6 m. from Bourne was the Gilbertine
monastery of Sempringham, founded by Sir Gilbert de Sempring-
ham in 1139. The foundation provided for seven to thirteen
canons, with a number of lay brothers and a community of nuns.
No books were allowed to the lay brothers and nothing could be
written in the monastery without the prior's consent. Mannyng
entered this house in 1288, when, according to the rules, he must
have been at least 24 years of age, it, as is supposed, he was a
lay brother. He says he was at Cambridge with Robert de
Bruce and his two brothers, Thomas and Alexander, but this
does not necessarily imply that he was a fellow-student. There
was a Gilbertine monastery at Cambridge, and Mannyng may
have been there on business connected with his order. When
he wrote Handlyng Synne he had been (n. 63-76) fifteen years
in the priory, beginning to wrile in " englysch rime in 1303."
Thirty-five years later he began his Story of Inglande, and had
removed (n. 139, &c.) to the monastery of Sixille (now Sixhills),
near Market Rasen, in north Lincolnshire.
Handlyng Synne, a poem of nearly 13,00x3 lines, is a free trans-
lation, with many additions and amplifications, from William of
Waddington's Manuel des Pechiez. It is a series of metrical
homilies on the Ten Commandments, the Seven Deadly Sins
and the Seven Sacraments, illustrated by a number of amusing
stories from various sources. The Cursor Mundi had turned re-
ligious history into something not very different from a romance
of chivalry, and in the stories of Handlyng Synne the in-
fluence of the fabliaux is not far to seek. Mannyng wrote in
the English tongue not for learned but for " lewd " men, " that
talys and ryme wyl blethly here," to occupy the leisure hours
during which they might otherwise fall into " vylanye, dedly
synne or other folye." Each of his twenty-four topics has its
complement of stories. He tells of the English observance of
Saturday afternoon as holy to the Virgin, and has much to say
of popular amusements, which become sins when they keep
people away from church. Tournaments in particular are fer-
tile occasions of all the deadly sins; and mystery plays, except
those of the birth and resurrection of Christ performed in the
churches, also lead men into transgression. He inveighs
against the oppression of the poor by the rich, reproves those
who, weary of matins or mass, spend their time in church " jang-
ling," telling tales, and wondering where they will get the best
ale, and revives the legend of the dancers at the church door
during mass who were cursed by the priest and went on dancing
for a twelvemonth without cessation. He loved music himself,
and justified this profane pleasure by the example of Bishop
Grosseteste, who lodged his harper in the chamber next his own;
but he holds up as a warning to gleemen the fate of the minstrel
who sang loud while the bishop said grace, and was miserably
killed by a falling stone in consequence. The old monk's keen
observation makes the book a far more valuable contribution
to history than his professed chronicle. It is a storehouse of
quaint stories and out-of-the-way information on manners and
customs.
His chronicle, The Story of Inglande, was also written for the
solace and amusement of the unlearned when they sit together in
fellowship (n. 6-10). The earlier half is written in octosyllabic
verse, and begins with the story of the Deluge. The genealogy
of Locrine, king of Britain, is traced back to Noah, through
Aeneas, and the chronicler relates the incidents of the Trojan
war as told by Dares the Phrygian. From this point he follows
closely the Brut of Wace. He loved stories for their own sake,
and found fault with Wace for questioning the miraculous
elements in the legend of Arthur. In the second half of his
chronicle, which is less simple in style, he translates from the
French of Pierre de Langtoft. He writes in rhyming alexan-
drines, and in the latter part of the work uses middle rhymes.
Mannyng's Chroiticle marks a change in national sentiment.
Though he regards the Norman domination as a " bondage," he
is loud in his praises of Edward I., "Edward of Inglond."
The linguistic importance of Mannyng's work is very great. He
used very few of those Teutonic words which, though still in use,
were eventually to drop 1 out of the language, and he introduced
a great number of French words destined to be permanently
adopted in English. Moreover, he employed comparatively
few obsolete inflexions, and his work no doubt furthered the
adoption of the Midland dialect as the acknowledged literary
instrument. T. L. Kington-Oliphant (Old and Middle English,
1878) regards his work as the definite starting point of the New
English which with slight changes was to form the language of
the Book of Common Prayer.
A third work, usually ascribed to Mannyng, chiefly on the
ground of its existing side by side with the Handlyng Synne
in the Harleian and Bodleian MSS., is the Medytacyuns of the
So per of oure lorde Jhesu, And also of hys passyun And eke of the
peynes of hys swete modyr, Mayden marye, a free translation of
St Bonaventura's De coena et passione Domini. . . .
Robert of Brunne's Chronicle exists in two MSS. : Petyt MS. 511,
written in the Northern dialect, in the Inner Temple library; and
Lambeth MS. 131 in a Midland dialect. The first part was edited
The Story of England . . . (1887) for the Rolls Series, with an
introductory essay by F. J. Furnivall; the second part was published
by Thomas Hearne as Peter Langtoffs Chronicle . . . (1725). Peter
Langtoft's French version was edited by Thomas Wright for the
" Rolls Series " in 1866. Of Handlyng Synne there are complete
by F. J. Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club (1862), and for the Early
English Text Society (1901-1903). The Meditacyun was edited from
the Bodleian and Harleian MSS. by J. Meadow Cooper for the same
society (1875). See also Gerhard Hellraers, Ueber die Sprache
Robert Mannyngs of Brunne und uber die Autorschaft der ihm zuge-
schriebenen Meditations . . . (Gottingen, 1885), which contains
an analysis of the dialectic peculiarities of Mannyng's work; O.
Boerner, " Die Sprache Robert Mannyngs " ... in Studien zur engl.
Philologie (vol. xii., Halle, 1904) and Oskar Preussner, Robert
Mannyng of Brunne's i)bersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle
(Breslau, 1891). All accounts of his life are based on his own work.
For the Sempringham priory see Dugdale, Monasticon vi. 947 seq.,
and Miss Rose Graham s 5. Gilbert of Sempringham and the Gtibertines
(1901).
MANffiUVRES, MILITARY. Manoeuvres may be defined
as the higher training for war of troops of all arms in large bodies,
and have been carried out in most countries ever since the first
formation of standing armies. In England no manoeuvres or
camps of exercise appear to have been held till the beginning of
the igth century, when Sir John Moore trained the famous
Light Brigade at Shorncliffe camp. In France, however, under
Louis XIV., large camps of instruction were frequently held,
the earliest recorded being that of 18,000 troops at Compiegne in
1666; and these were continued at intervals under his successor.
At these French camps much time was devoted to ceremonial,
and the manoeuvres performed were of an elementary descrip-
tion. Still their effect upon the training of the army for war
was far-reaching, and bore fruit in the numerous wars in the first
half of the i8th century. Moreover, experiments were made
with proposed tactical systems and technical improvements, as
in the case of the contest between I'ordre mince and I'ordre
profonde (see INFANTRY) between 1785 and 1790. Other coun-
tries followed suit, but it was reserved for Frederick the Great
to inaugurate a system of real manoeuvres and to develop on
the training-ground the system of tactics which bore such good
fruit in his various campaigns. The numbers of troops assem-
bled were large; for example, at Spandau in 1753, when 36,000
men carried out manoeuvres for twelve days. The king laid
the greatest stress on these exercises, and took immense pains to
turn to account the experience gained in his campaigns. Great
secrecy was observed, and before the Seven Years' War no
stranger was allowed to be present. The result of all this careful
training was shown in the Seven Years' War, and after it the
Prussian manoeuvres gained a reputation which they have
maintained to this day. But with the passing away of the
great king they became more and more pedantic, and the fatal
results were shown in 1806. After the Napoleonic wars yearly
manoeuvres became the custom in every large Continental army.
Great Britain alone thought she could dispense with them,
perhaps because of the constant practical training her troops
and officers received in the various Indian and colonial wars:
MANOMETER
593
and it was not till 1853 that, by the advice of the Prince Consort,
a body of troops were gathered together for a camp of exercise
on Chobham Common, and that eventually a standing camp of
exercise was evolved out of the temporary camp formed during
the Crimean War at Aldershot.
Most continental armies have, since the great successes of the
Germans in 1870, copied more or less their system of military train-
ing; hence it is appropriate to consider their methods first. The
whole training of the army is based on a yearly programme of gradual
progression, from the joining of the recruits in October to the training
by squads, companies, battalions and regiments, the latter finishing
their field training about the middle of August, when the manoeuvre
period begins. First of all, the brigades go through five working
days of drills on flat ground, to get them under the hand of their
commanders and prepare them for manoeuvres. Then follow ten
working days of manoeuvres in new and varied ground, of which
four are " brigade," four " divisional " and two " corps " manoeuvres,
in each case the unit named being divided into two portions of all
arms, which manoeuvre against one another. Each year two or
more army corps carry out manoeuvres before the emperor, working
against one another. The chief feature of the German manoeuvres
is the free hand allowed to leaders of sides. Of course, for reasons
of supply and transport, it is necessary to keep the troops within a
certain area, but the general and special ideas ' are so framed that,
while retaining their own initiative, the leaders of sides have to give
such orders as will suit the arrangements made by the director of
manoeuvres for supply. The faculty of quartering troops on private
individuals to any extent, and the fact of the troops being provided
with portable tent equipment, give great latitude to the German
leaders in their choice of quarters for troops, and so increase the
similitude of manoeuvres to war. The Austrian and Italian man-
oeuvres are a close copy of the German, but those of the French
present the peculiarity of a certain amount of prearrangement,
especially at grand manoeuvres, when it is frequently laid down
beforehand which side is to be victorious. Thus a series of pictures
of war is presented, but the manoeuvres are hardly a test of the skill
of the rival leaders. But, just as in recent years in France this
practice has been modified, so also the entire liberty given to com-
manders in the German manoeuvres in 1906-7 had to be curtailed
in the following years owing to the strain of forced marches which
it entailed on the troops.
In Russia the climatic and social conditions, and the distribution
of the army, necessitate a quite peculiar system. The troops leave
their barracks and move into standing camps, generally in May, and
in these for about three months their training up to that in battalions
is carried out on the drill ground. Camps of mixed units are then
formed for a month, and from them, but always over the same
ground, the manoeuvres of regiments, brigades and divisions are
performed. Then follow the so-called mobile manoeuvres, which last
for ten days or a fortnight. Of all European manoeuvres these are
perhaps the nearest approach to war, for the sides start a great
distance apart, and ample time is allowed for cavalry reconnaissance.
Besides, the Russian soldier does not require elaborate arrangements
for supply ; hence the director is not so tied down by consideration
of this matter as in other armies. A political colour is sometimes
given to such large assemblages of troops, especially when the
manoeuvres take place in frontier districts.
In England the military authorities have long been hampered in
the organization of manoeuvres by the necessity of carrying them
out on very limited portions of government land or on areas lent as
a favour by, or hired from, private individuals. There has been no
want of recognition by the military authorities of the necessity for,
and value of, manoeuvres, and the training at the camps of instruc-
tion has been supplemented as far as possible by small manoeuvres
on such portions of country as could be made available. But, with
the exception of spasmodic efforts in 1871 and 1872, it was not until
1897 that the government allowed itself to be convinced by its
military advisers, and passed a Military Manoeuvres Act, by which
certain districts could be " proclaimed " for purposes of manoeuvres,
and troops in consequence could traverse all ground. In 1898 the
first manoeuvres under this Act were held in Wilts and Dorset, and
were intended to be repeated at fixed intervals in future years. In
addition, every effort was made to add to the exjsting permanent
training grounds for troops, and ground was acquired on Salisbury
Plain with the intention of developing it into a second Aldershot.
But the training on those well-known grounds, excellent as it is in
itself as a preparation, is not " manoeuvres," and never can do away
with the necessity for them, with a more or less free hand given to
the leaders over fresh country.
Much misconception prevails as to the nature and limitation of
the military instruction to be imparted at manoeuvres. Manoeuvres
are a school for the leaders, in a less degree for the led, and conse-
1 The " general idea " is a document, communicated to both sides,
containing such general information of the war the supposed
frontiers, previous battles, &c. as would be matters of coi.imon
knowledge. The " special idea " of each side comprises the in-
structions upon which it is acting.
quently the minor details of instruction must be cdmpleted, and the
troops fully trained as units, before they can take part in them with
advantage. The time during which large bodies of troops can be
kept together for manoeuvres is too short, and the expense too great,
to justify time being spent on exercises which might as well be carried
out in the ordinary stations or at the great training camps. There-
fore it may be laid down as a principle that manoeuvres, properly
so-called, should be begun with units not smaller than a brigade of
infantry on each side, with a due proportion of the other arms
attached. It is useful if these can precede the manoeuvres of larger
bodies, as the training is then progressive and the result more
satisfactory. 1
The choice of ground is oi great importance. Its extent should
be proportionate to the force to be employed and the nature of the
instruction to be imparted. It should not be too hilly nor yet too
flat, but both descriptions should be judiciously combined; and
regard must be had to the water supply and the road and railway
net for the convenience of the supply service. Once the ground has
been selected, the general and special ideas must be so framed that
the troops are thereby confined to the chosen ground without seeming
to tie the hands of the leaders of sides. It is of great advantage
if the same idea can be maintained throughout each series of opera-
tions, as thereby the interest of all concerned and the likeness to
actual warfare are increased ; and, if possible, the " state of war "
should be continuous also. Within the limits of the special idea, the
utmost latitude should be left to leaders; but if the orders of one or
both sides seem to render a collision unlikely, the director should
so modify the special idea as to compel one or other to re-cast his
orders in such a way that contact is Drought about. Such interfer-
ence will scarcely be necessary after the first issues of orders in each
series. In war the number of marching days vastly outnumbers
those of fighting, but in manoeuvres this must not be alfowed ; tactical
instruction is what is desired, and a manoeuvre day in which none
is imparted is not fully utilized. It is not necessary that all the
troops should be engaged, but at least the advanced bodies must
come into contact, and the rest must carry out marches as on active
service. Each action should be fought to its end, " Cease firing "
being sounded when the crisis has been reached ; and on a decision
being given by the director, one side should retire and the fight be
broken off in a proper military manner. The troops should place
outposts each day, and act in all respects as if on active service.
The quartering and supply of troops are the chief difficulties in
the arrangement of manoeuvres, and afford ample opportunity for
the practising of the officers and departments responsible for these
matters. In England, where in peace it is not possible to billet
troops on private individuals, quartering must be replaced by en-
campments or bivouacs, and the selection of ground for them affords
invaluable practice. If possible, their position should be selected
to conform to the military situation ; but if it is found necessary, for
reasons of water or food supply, to withdraw troops to positions
other than such as they would occupy in real warfare, time should
be allowed them on the following day to regain the positions they
would otherwise have occupied. It is next to impossible, for various
reasons, financial and other, to organize the food supply in man-
oeuvres as it would be in war. Sufficient transport cadres cannot
be kept up in peace, and consequently recourse must be had to hired
transport, which cannot be treated as a military body. Again, food
cannot be requisitioned, and local purchase at the time cannot be
trusted to; so dp6ts of supplies must be formed beforehand in the
manoeuvres area, which more or less tie the hands of the supply
service. Still, with a judicious choice of the points at which these
are formed, much may be done to approximate to service conditions,
and the more nearly these are realized the more instructive for the
supply will the manoeuvres become.
Finally, a word must be said as to the umpire staff, which repre-
sents the bullets. The most careful selection of officers for this
important duty is necessary, and they must have sufficient authority
and be in sufficient number to make their influence everywhere
felt. Their principal object should be to come to a decision quickly,
so as to prevent the occurrence of unreal situations; and by constant
intercommunication they must ensure uniformity in their decisions,
and so maintain continuity of the action all over the manoeuvres
battlefield. (J. M. GR.)
MANOMETER (Gr. pavos, thin or loose; nerpov, a measure),
an instrument for measuring the pressures exerted by gases or
vapours. An alternative name is pressure gauge, but this
term may conveniently be restricted to manometers used in
connexion with steam-boilers, &c. The principle of hydro-
statics suggest the most common forms. Suppose we have a U
tube (fig. i), containing a liquid: if the pressures on the surfaces
of the liquid be equal, then the surfaces will be at the same
height. If, on the other hand, the pressure in one limb be
greater than the pressure in the other, the surfaces will be at
1 Manoeuvres incidentally afford an excellent opportunity of
testing new patterns of equipment, transport or other materiel under
conditions approximating to those of active service.
594
MANOR
different heights, the difference being directly proportional to
the difference of pressures and inversely as the specific gravity
of the liquid used.
Two forms are in use: (i) the " open-tube," in which the pressure
in one limb is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and (2) the " closed-
tube," in which the experimental pressure is balanced against the
liquid column and the air compressed into the upper part of a closed
limb of the tube. In the " open tube " form (fig. i) the pressure on
FIG. i.
FIG.
the surface a is equal to the pressure on the surface at b (one atmo-
sphere) plus the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid column
of height a b. The liquid commonly used is mercury. If a scale
be placed behind the limbs of the tube, so that the difference a b can
be directly determined, then the pressure in a is at once expressible
as P + a b in millimetres or inches of mercury, where P is the atmos-
pheric pressure, known from an ordinary barometric observation.
In the " closed tube " form (fig. 2) the calculation is not so simple,
for the variation of pressure on the mercury surface in the closed
limb has to be taken into account. Suppose the length of the air
column in the closed limb be h when the mercury is at the same
height in both tubes. Applying the experimental pressure to
the open end, if this be greater than atmospheric pressure the
mercury column will rise and the air column diminish in the closed
limb. Let the length of the air column be h', then its pressure is h/h'
atmospheres. The difference in height of the mercury columns in
the two limbs is 2(h-h'), and the pressure in the open limb is obviously
equal to that of a column of mercury of length 2(h-h'), plus h/h'
atmospheres. These instruments are equally serviceable for deter-
mining pressures less than one atmosphere. In laboratory practice,
e.g. when it is required to determine the degree of exhaust of a water
pump, a common form consists of a vertical glass tube having its
lower end immersed in a basin of mercury, and its upper end con-
nected by means of an intermediate vessel to the exhaust. The
mercury rises in the tube, and the difference between the barometric
height and the length of the mercury column gives the pressure
attained.
MANOR. Any definition of a manor, in land tenure, must
take note of two elements economic and political. The
manor has an estate for its basis, although it need not coincide
with an estate, but may be wider. It is also a political unit, a
district formed for purposes of government, although the political
functions made over to it may greatly vary. As a lordship
based on land tenure, the manor necessarily comprises a ruler
and a population dependent on him, and the characteristic trait
of such dependence consists not in ownership extending over
persons, as in slave-holding communities, nor in contractual
arrangements, as in a modern economic organization, but in
various forms and degrees of subjection, chiefly regulated by
custom. In the sense mentioned the manor is by no means a
peculiarly English institution; it occurs in every country where
feudalism got a hold. Under other names we find'it not only
in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, but also, to a certain extent,
in the Byzantine Empire, Russia, Japan, &c. It is especially
representative of an aristocratic stage in the development of
European nations. When tribal notions and arrangements
ceased to be sufficient for upholding their commonwealths,
when social and political life had to be built up on the basis of
land-tenure, the type of manorial organization came forward in
natural course. It was closely connected with natural economy,
and was suited to a narrow horizon of economic wants and politi-
cal requirements. At the same time it provided links for a kind
of national federation of military estates. We shall only speak
of the course of manorial evolution in France and Germany,
because this presents the clearest expression of the fundamental
principles of manorial life and the best material for comparison
with English facts.
One problem common to the entire European world has to be
considered from the very beginning. Does the manor date
from the Roman Empire, or not? Can its chief features be
traced in Roman institutions ? There can be no doubt that at
the end of the Roman period certain traits are noticeable which
might, under favourable conditions, develop into a manorial
combination. Great estates with political functions, populations
subjected to the political lordship of landowners, appear in the
closing centuries of the empire, and have to be reckoned with as
precursors of medieval manorial life. The original organization
of the ancient world was built up on the self-government of cities
and on the sharp distinction between citizens and slaves. Both
features were gradually modified by the Roman Empire. Self-
government was atrophied by bureaucratic interference; the
economy based on the exploitation of slaves began to give way
before relations in which the elements of freedom and serfdom
were oddly mixed. During the last centuries of its existence
the Western Empire became more and more a conglomerate of
barbaric and half-civilized populations, and it is not strange
that the characteristic germs of feudalism began to show them-
selves within its territory as well as outside it. As far
political institutions are concerned, we notice that the centra
power, after claiming an absolute sway over its subjects,
obliged more and more to lean on private forces in order to
maintain itself. One of its favourite resources in the 4th and
5th centuries consists in making great landowners responsibli
for the good behaviour of their tenants and even of their le
important neighbours. The saltus, the great domain, is occasion-
ally recognized as a separate district exempt from the ordinary
administration of the city, subordinated to its owner in respe
of taxes and police. Even in ordinary estates (fundi) there is i
tendency to make the landowner responsible for military con-
scription, for the presentation of criminals to justice. On tb
other hand the incumbents of ecclesiastical offices are nominate
in accordance with the wishes of patrons among the landowners;
in the administration of justice the influence of this same clas
makes itself felt more and more. Nor are signs of a convergent
evolution wanting on the economic side. Slaves are used mor
and more as small householders provided with rural tenement
and burdened with rents and services. Free peasant farmer
holding by free agreement get more and more reduced to a statii
of half-free settlers occupying their tenancies on the strength
of custom and traditional ascription to the glebe. Eventuall>
this status is recognized as a distinct class by imperial legislation
Ominous symptoms of growing political disruption and of an
aristocratic transformation of society were visible every where at
the close of the empire. Yet there could be no talk of a manoria
system as long as the empire and the commercial intercou
protected by it continued to exist.
The fall of the empire hastened the course of evolution. It
brought into prominence barbaric tribes who were unable to
uphold either the political power or the economic system of the
Romans. The Germans had from old certain manorial features
in the constitution of their government and husbandry. The
owner of a house had always been possessed of a certain political
power within its precincts, as well as within the fenced area sur-
rounding it : the peace of the dwelling and the peace of the hedged-
in yard were recognized by the legal customs of all the German
tribes. The aristocratic superiority of warriors over all classes
engaged in base peaceful work was also deeply engraved in the
minds of the fighting and conquering tribes. On the other hand
the downfall of complicated forms of civilization and civil inter-
course rendered necessary a kind of subjection in which tributary
labourers were left to a certain extent to manage their own affairs.
The Germanic conqueror was unable to move slaves about like
draughts: he had no scope for a complicated administration of
capital and work. The natural outcome was to have recourse
to serfdom with its convenient system of tribute and services.
But, as in the ca e of the Roman Empire, the formation of
regular manors was held back for a time in the early Germanic
monarchies by the lingering influence of tribal organization.
In the second period of medieval development in continental
Europe, in the Carolingian epoch, the features of the estate as
a political unit are more sharply marked. Notwithstanding
the immense efforts of Charles Martel, Pippin and Charlemagne
MANOR
595
to strengthen the tottering edifice of the Prankish Empire,
public authority had to compromise with aristocratic forces
in order to ensure regular government. As regards military
organization this is expressed in the recognition of the power
of seniores, called upon to lead their vassals in the host; as re-
gards jurisdiction, in the increase of the numbers of commended
freemen who seek to interpose the powerful patronage of lay
and secular magnates between themselves and the Crown.
Great estates arose not only on the lands belonging to the king,
but on that of churches and of lay potentates, and the con-
stitution of these estates, as described for instance in the
Polyptique of St Germain des Pres or in the " Brevium
exempla ad describendas res ecclesiasticas et fiscales " (Capi-
tularia, ed. Boretius, i. 250), reminds us forcibly of that of
later feudal estates. They contain a home-farm, with a court
and a casa indominicata, or manor-house, some holdings (mansi)
of free men (ingenuiles) , of serfs (serviles), and perhaps of half-
free people (lidiles). The rents and services of this dependent
population are stated in detail, as in later custumals, and there
is information about the agricultural implements, the stores and
stock on the home-farm. Thus the economic basis of the manor
exists in more or less complete order, but it cannot be said as
yet to form the prevailing type of land tenure in the country.
Holdings of independent free men and village organizations of
ancient type still surround the great estates, and in the case of
ecclesiastical possessions we are often in a position to watch
their gradual extension at the expense of the neighbouring
free settlers, by way of direct encroachment, and by that of
surrender and commendation on the part of the weaker citizens.
Another factor which plays a great part in the gradual process
of infeudation is the rise of private jurisdictions, which falls
chiefly into the loth and nth centuries. The struggle against
Northmen, Magyars and Slavs gave a crowning touch to the
process of localization of political life and of the aristocratic
constitution of society.
In order to describe the full-grown continental manor of the
nth century it is better to take French examples than German,
Italian or Spanish. Feudalism in France attained the greatest
extension and utmost regularity, while in other European
countries it was hampered and intermixed with other institu-
tional features. The expression best corresponding to the
English " manor," in the sense of an organized district, was
stigneurle. Manoir is in use, and is, of course, a French word
corresponding to manerium, but it meant strictly " mansion "
or chief homestead in France. Baronie is another term which
might be employed in some instances as an equivalent of the
English manor, but, in a sense, it designates only one species
of a larger genus, the estate of a full-baron in contrast to a mere
knight's fee, as well as to a principality. Some of the attributes
of a baron are, however, typical, as the purest expression of
manorial rights, and may be used in a general characterization
of the latter.
The seigneurie may be considered from three points of view as
a unit of administration, as an economic unit, and as a union of
social classes.
(a) In principle the disruption of political life brought about by
feudalism ought to have resulted in the complete administrative
independence of the manor. Chaque baron esl souverain dans sa
baronie is a proverb meant to express this radical view of manorial
separatism. As a matter of fact this separatism was never com-
pletely realized, and even at the time of the greatest prevalence of
feudalism the little sovereigns of France were combined into a loose
federation of independent fiefs. Still, the proverb was not a mere
play of words, and it took a long time for the kings of.France to break
in potentates, like the little Sire de Coucy in the immediate vicinity
of Paris, who sported in his crest the self-complacent motto : Je ne
suis ni comte, ni marquis, je suis le sire de Coucy. The institutional
expression of this aspect of feudalism in the life of the seigneurie was
the jurisdiction combined with the latter. Th~ principal origin of
this jurisdiction was the dismemberment of roya/justice, the acquisi-
tion by certain landowners of the right of holding royal pleas. The
assumption of authority over public tribunals of any kind was
naturally considered as equivalent to such a transmission of royal
right. But other sources may be noticed also. It was assumed by
French feudal law that in all cases when land was granted by a
seigneur in subinfeudation the recipients would be bound to appear
as members of a court of tenants for the settlement of conflicts in
regard to land. A third source may be traced in the extension of
the patrimonial justice of a person over his serfs and personal
dependents to the classes of free and half-free population connected
with the seigneurie in one way or another. There arose in conse-
quence of these assumptions of jurisdiction a most bewildering con-
fusion of tribunals and judicial rights. It happened sometimes that
the question as to who should be the judge in some particular contest
was decided by matter-of-fact seizure the holder of pleas who was
the first on the spot to proclaim himself judge in a case was deemed
entitled to jurisdiction. In other cases one seigneur held the pleas
in a certain place for six days in the week, while some competitor
of his possessed jurisdiction during the seventh. A certain order
was brought into this feudal chaos by the classification of judiciary
functions according to the four categories of high, middle, low and
tenurial justice. The scope of the first three subdivisions is suffici-
ently explained by their names; the fourth concerned cases arising
from subinfeudation. As a rule the baron or seigneur sat in justice
with a court of assessors or peers, but the constitution of such courts
varied a great deal. They represented partly the succession of the
old popular courts with their scabini, partly courts of vassals and
tenants. In strict feudal law an appeal was allowed from a lower to a
higher court only in a case of a denial of justice (dhtie de justice),
not in error or revision of sentence. This rule was, however, very
often infringed, and gave way ultimately before the restoration of
royal justice.
(V) The economic fabric of the French seigneurie varied greatly,
according to localities. In the north of France it was not unlike
that of the English manor. The capital messuage, or castle, and the
home-farm of the lord, were surrounded by dependent holdings,
censives, paying rent, and villein tenements burdened with services.
Between these tenancies there were various ties of neighbourhood
and economic solidarity recalling the open-field cultivation in Eng-
land and Germany. When the harvest was removed from the open
strips they returned to a state of undivided pasture in which the
householders of the village exercised rights of common with their
cattle. Wild pasture and woods were used more or less in the same
fashion as in England (droit de pacage de vaine pdture). The inhabi-
tants often formed courts and held meetings in order to settle the by-
laws, and to adjudicate as to trespasses and encroachments (courts
colonglres). In the south, individual property was more prevalent
and the villagers were not so closely united by ties of neighbourhood.
Yet even there the dependent households were arranged into mansi
or colonicae, subjected to approximately equal impositions in respect
of rents and services. In any case the characteristic dualism of
manorial life, the combined working of a central home-farm, and of
its economic satellites providing necessary help in the way of services,
and contributing towards the formation of manorial stores, is quite
as much a feature of French as of English medieval husbandry.
(c) The social relations between the manorial lord and his subjects
are marked by various forms'of the exploitation of the latter by the
former. Apart from jurisdictional profits, rents and agricultural
services, dues of all kinds are exacted from the rural population.
Some of these dues have to be traced to servile origins, although they
were evidently gradually extended to groups of people who were
not descended from downright serfs but had lapsed into a state of
considerable subjection. The main morte of rustic tenants meant
that they had no goods of their own, but held movable property
on sufferance without the right of passing it on to their successors.
As a matter of fact, sons were admitted to inheritance after their
fathers, and sometimes succession was extended to other relatives,
but the person taking inheritance paid a heavy fine for entering
into possession, or gave up a horse, an ox, or some other especially
valuable piece of property. The formariage corresponded to the
English merchetum, and was exacted from rustics on the marriage
of their daughters. Although this payment assumed very different
shapes, and sometimes only appeared in ease consorts belonged to
different lords, it was considered a badge of serfdom. Chevage
(capitagium) might be exacted as a poll-tax from all the unfree
inhabitants of a seigneurie, or, more especially, from those who left
it to look for sustenance abroad. The power of the lord as a land-
owner was more particularly expressed in his right of pre-emption
(retrait seigneurial), and in taxes on alienation (lods et rentes). As a
person wielding political authority, a kind of sovereignty, the lord
enjoyed divers rights which are commonly attributed to the state
the right of coining money, of levying direct taxes and toll (taUagium,
tolneta) and of instituting monopolies. These latter were of common
occurrence, and might take the shape, for instance, of forcing the
inhabitants to make use of the lord s mill (moulin banal), or of his
oven (four banal), or of his bull (taureau banal).
In Germany the history of the manorial system is bound up
with the evolution of the Grundherrschaft (landlordship), as
opposed to Gutsherrschaft (estate-ownership). The latter need
not include any elements of public authority and aristocratic
supremacy: the former is necessarily connected with public
functions and aristocratic standing. The centre of the Grund-
herrschaft was the Hof, the court or hall of the lord, from
which the political and economic rights of the lord radiated.
596
MANOR
The struggle of the military aristocracy and of ecclesiastical
institutions with common freedom was more protracted than in
France or England; the lordships very often took the shape of
disparate rights over holdings and groups of population scattered
over wide tracts of country and intermixed with estates and
inhabitants subjected to entirely different authority. Therefore
the aspect of German manorialism is more confused and hetero-
geneous than that of the French or English systems. One
remarkable feature of it is the consistent separation of criminal
justice from other kinds of jurisdiction on Church property.
Episcopal sees and abbeys delegated their share of criminal
justice to lay magnates in the neighbourhood (Vogtei), and this
division of power became a source of various conflicts and of many
entangled relations. The main lines of German manorialism
are not radically different from those of France and England.
The communal element, the Dorfverband, is usually more strongly
developed than in France, and assumes a form more akin to
the English township. But there were regions, e.g. Westphalia,
where the population had settled in separate farms (H of system) ,
and where the communal solidarity was reduced to a union for
administrative purposes and for the use of pasture.
It need hardly be added that every step in the direction of
more active economic intercourse and more efficient public
authority tended to lessen the influence of the manorial system
in so far as the latter was based on the localization of govern-
ment, natural husbandry and aristocratic authority.
See Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions de la France,
especially the volumes " L' Alleu et le domaine rural " and " L'lnva-
sion germanique "; Beaudouin, Les Grands domaines dans 1'empire
remain " (Nouvelle revue de droit franfais et etranger, 1898) ; J. Flach,
Les Origines de I'ancienne France, I., II., III. (1886); Paul Viollet,
Histoire des institutions de la France, I., II. (1890, 1898); A. Luchaire,
Manuel des institutions fran^aises (1892); G. Waitz, Deutsche Ver-
fassungsgeschichte, I.-VIII. (1865-1883); K. T. von Inama-Sternegg,
Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte, I., II. (1879-1891); K. Lamprecht,
Deutsches Wirthschaftsleben, 1. -IV. (1885) ; A. Meitzen, Ansiedelungen,
Wanderungen und Agrarwesen der Volker Europas, I.-IV. (1895 ff.);
W. Wittich, Die Grundherrschaft in Nordwestdeulschland (1896);
G. F. von Maurer, Geschichte der Mark-, Dorf- und Hofverfassung in
Deutschland; and F. Seebohm, The English Village Community
(1883). (P. Vi.)
The Manor in England. It will be most convenient to describe
a typical English manor in its best known period, the I3th
century, and to indicate briefly the modifications of the type
which varying conditions may produce. Topographically such a
manor consisted partly of the houses of the inhabitants more or
less closely clustered together, and surrounded by arable land
divided into large fields, two or three in number. Each of these
fields was divided again into shots or furlongs, and each of the
shots was broken up into cultivated strips a pole wide, each
containing an acre, separated by narrow balks of turf. There
were also certain meadows for supplying hay; and beyond the
cultivated land lay the wood and waste of the manor. Portions
of arable or meadow land might be found apart from the organi-
zation of the remainder; the lord of the manor might have a
park, and each householder a garden, but the land of the manor
was the open fields, the meadows and the wastes or common.
The condition of the inhabitants of such a manor is as complex
as its geography. At the head of the society came the lord of
the manor, with his hall, court, or manor-house,
Lorrfand an( ^ tne ' an< ^ immediately about it, and his demesne
Tenants, both in the fields and in the meadow land. The
arable demesne consisted of certain of the acre strips
lying scattered over the various furlongs ; his meadow was a por-
tion assigned to him each year by the custom of the manor. He
had also rights over the surrounding waste paramount to those
enjoyed by the other inhabitants. Part of his demesne land
would be granted out to free tenants to hold at a rent or by
military or other service; part would be in the lord's own hands,
and cultivated by him. Each part so granted out will carry with
it a share in the meadow land and in the profits of the waste.
These rights of the free tenants over the waste limited the lord's
power over it. He could not by enclosure diminish their interest
in it. The statute of Merton in 1236 and the second statute
Klghts ol
Villeins.
of Westminster in 1285 marked the utmost limit of enclosure
allowed in the i3th century. Below the lord and the free ten-
ants came the villeins, natives, bondmen, or holders of virgates
or yard-lands, each holding a house, a fixed number of acre
strips, a share of the meadow and of the profits of the waste.
The number of strips so held was usually about thirty; but vir-
gates of fifteen acres or even eighty are not unknown. In any
one manor, however, the holdings of all the villeins were equal.
Normally the holder of a virgate was unfree; he had
no rights in the eye of the law against his lord, who
was protected from all suits by the exceptio inllenagii;
he could not without leave quit the manor, and could be re-
claimed by process of law if he did; the strict contention of law
deprived him of all right to hold property; and in many cases
he was subject to certain degrading incidents, such as merchet
(merchetum), a payment due to the lord upon the marriage of a
daughter, which was regarded as a special mark of unfree con-
dition. But there are certain limitations to be made. Firstly,
all these incidents of tenure, even merchet, might not affect
the personal status of the tenant ; he might still be free, though
holding by an unfree tenure; secondly, even if unfree, he was
not exposed to the arbitrary will of his lord but was protected
by the custom of the manor as interpreted by the manor court.
Moreover, he was not a slave, he was not bought and sold apart
from his holding. The hardship of his condition lay in the
services due from him. As a rule a villein paid for his holding
in money, in labour and in kind. In money he paid, firstly, a
small fixed rent called rent of assize; and, secondly, dues under
various names, partly in lieu of services commuted into money
payments, and partly for the privileges and profits enjoyed by
him on the waste of the manor. In labour he paid more heavily.
Week by week he had to come with his own plough and oxen to
plough the lord's demesne; when ploughing was done he had to
harrow, to reap the crops, to thresh and carry them, or do what-
ever might be required of him, until his allotted number of days'
labour in the year was done. Beyond this his lord might
request of him extra days in harvest or other seasons of emer-
gency, and these requests could not be denied. Further, all the
carriage of the manor was provided by the villeins, even to places
as much as a hundred miles away from the manor. The mending
of the ploughs, hedging, ditching, sheepshearing and other
miscellaneous work also fell upon him, and it is sometimes hard
to see what time remained to him to work upon his own holding.
In kind he usually rendered honey, eggs, chickens and perhaps a
ploughshare, but these payments were almost always small in
value. Another class of inhabitants remains to be mentioned
the cotters. These are the poor of the manor, cotter*.
who hold a cottage and garden, or perhaps one acre
or half an acre in the fields. They were unfree in condition,
and in most manors their services were modelled upon those of
the villeins. From their ranks were usually drawn the shepherd
of the manor, the bee-keeper and other minor officials of the
manor.
A complicated organization necessarily involves administra-
tors. Just as the services of the tenants and even their names
vary from manor to manor, so does the nature of the staff.
Highest in rank came the steward; he was attached to no manor
in particular, but controlled a group, travelling from one to
another to take accounts, to hold the courts, and generally
represent the lord. Under him are the officers of 5^
the several manors. First came the bailiff or beadle,
the representative of the lord in the manor; his duty was to
collect the rents and services, to gather in the lord's crops and
account for the receipts and expenditure of the manor. Closely
connected with him was the " messor " or reaper; in many cases,
indeed, "reaper" seems to have been only another name for
the bailiff. But the villeins were not without their own officer,
the provost or reeve. His duty was to arrange the distribution
of the services due from the tenants, and, as their representative,
to assist the bailiff in the management of the manor. Sometimes
the same man appears to have united both offices, and we find
the reeve accounting to the lord for the issues of the manor.
MANOR-HOUSE
597
Manor
Court.
To these important officials may be added a number of smaller
ones, the shepherd, the swineherd, the beekeeper, the cowherd,
the ploughman and so on, mostly selected from the cotters, and
occupying their small holdings by the services expressed in
their titles. The number varies with the constitution and needs
of each estate, and they are often replaced by hired labour.
The most complicated structure in the system is the manor
court. The complication is, indeed, partly the work of lawyers
interpreting institutions they did not understand by
formulae not adapted to describe them. But be-
yond this there remain the facts that the court was
the meeting-point of the lord and the tenants both free and un-
free, that any question touching on the power and constitution
of the court was bound to affect the interests of the lord and the
tenants, and that there was no external power capable of settling
such questions as did arise. Amid this maze a few clear lines
can be laid down. In the first place, so far as the I3th century
goes, all the discussion that has collected about the terms
court leet, court baron and court customary may be put aside;
it relates to questions which in the I3th century were only just
emerging. The manor court at that date exercised its criminal,
civil, or manorial jurisdiction as one court; its names may differ,
the parties before it may be free or unfree, but the court is the
same. Its president was the lord's steward; the bailiff was the
lord's representative and the public prosecutor; and the tenants
of the manor, both free and unfree, attended at the court and
gave judgment in the cases brought before it. To modern ears
the constitution sounds unfamiliar. The president of the court
settled the procedure of the court, carried it out, and gave the
final sentence, but over the law of the court he had no power.
All that is comprised in the word " judgment " was settled by the
body of tenants present at the court. This attendance was,
indeed, compulsory, and absence subjected to a fine any tenant
owing and refusing the service known as " suit of court." It
may be asked who in these courts settled questions of fact.
The answer must be that disputed questions of fact could only
be settled in one way, by ordeal; and that in most manorial
courts the method employed was the wager of law. The business
of the court may be divided into criminal, manorial and civil.
Its powers under the first head depended on the franchises
enjoyed by the lord in the particular manor; for the most
part only petty offences were triable, such as small thefts,
breaches of the assize of bread and ale, assaults, and the like;
except under special conditions, the justice of great offences
remained in the king. But offences against the custom of the
manor, such as bad ploughing, improper taking of wood from
the lord's woods, and the like, were of course the staple criminal
business of the court. Under the head of manorial business the
court dealt with the choice of the manorial officers, and had some
power of making regulations for the management of the manor;
but its most important function was the recording of the surren-
ders and admittances of the villein tenants. Into the history
and meaning of this form of land transfer it is not necessary to
enter here. But it must be noted that the conveyance of a
villein's holding was effected by the vendor surrendering his
land to the lord, who thereupon admitted the purchaser to the
holding. The same procedure was employed in all cases of
transfer of land, and the transaction was regularly recorded
upon the rolls of the court among the records of all the other
business transacted there. Finally, the court dealt with all
suits as to land within the manor, questions of dower and inheri-
tance, and with civil suits not connected with land. But it need
hardly be said that in an ordinary rural manor very few of these
would occur.
It will be clear on consideration that the manor court as here
described consisted of conflicting elements of very different
origin and history. Founded partly on express grants of fran-
chises, partly on the inherent right of a feudal lord to hold a court
for his free tenants, partly on the obscure community traceable
among the unfree inhabitants of the manor, it is incapable of
strict legal definition. All these elements, moreover, contain
in themselves reasons for the decay which gradually came over
the system. The history of the decay of the manorial jurisdic-
tions in England has not yet been written. On the one hand
were the king's courts, with new and improved processes of law;
on the other hand the gradual disintegration which marks the
history of the manor during the I4th and isth centuries. The
criminal jurisdiction was the first to disappear, and was closely
followed by the civil jurisdiction over the free tenants; and in
modern times all that is left is the jurisdiction over the custom-
ary tenants and their holdings, and that in an attenuated form.
A few words must be given to the legal theories of the 1 5th century
on the manor court. It would seem to have become the law that to
the existence of the manor two courts were necessary a court
customary for customary tenants, and a court baron for free tenants.
In the court customary the lord's steward is the judge; in the court
baron the freeholders are the judges. If the freeholders in the manor
diminish to less than two in number the court baron cannot be held,
and the manor perishes. Nor can it be revived by the grant of new
freehold tenures, because under the statute of Quid Emptores such
new freeholders would hold not of the lord of the manor, but of his
lord. The customary tenants and the court customary may survive,
but the manor is only a reputed manor. Of the I3th century all
this is untrue, but even at that date the existence of free tenants was
in a measure essential to the existence of the manor court. If there
were none the jurisdiction of the court over free tenants of course
collapsed; but in addition to this the lord also lost his power of exer-
cising the highest criminal franchises, even if he otherwise possessed
them ; he could, for instance, no longer hang a murderer on his own
gallows. Perhaps it may be said that to the exercise of the feudal
power and of the royal franchises the presence of free tenants was
necessary. But it is clear that no such condition was necessary to
the existence of the manor.
Apart from the change in the court of the manor, the most impor-
tant thread in its history is the process which converted the villein
into the copyholder. Here again the subject is imperfectly explored,
and part of it is still subject to controversy. In the strict view of
contemporary lawyers the holding of the villein tenant of the 1 3th
century was at the will of the lord, and the king's courts of law would
not protect him in his possession. If, however, the villein were a
tenant on the king's ancient demesne his condition was improved.
The writs of monstroverunt and the little writ of right close protected
him from the improper exaction of services and from ejection by the
lord. But in ordinary manors there was no such immunity. That
ejection was common cannot be believed, but it was legally possible;
and it was not until the well-known decision of Danby, C.J., and
Bryan, C.J., in 7 Edw. IV., that the courts of law would entertain
an action of trespass brought against his lord by a customary tenant.
From that date the courts, both of law and equity, begin to intervene ;
and the records of the Courts of Star Chamber and Requests show
that in the Tudor period equitable suits brought by tenants against
their lords are not infrequent. Side by side with the alteration in
the legal condition of the manor there went on an economic change.
The labour rents and other services slowly disappeared, and were
replaced by money payments. The field divisions gave way before
inclosures, effected sometimes by the lords and sometimes by the
tenants. Change in legal and agricultural practice went on side by
side, and finally the manor ceased to be an important social form,
and became only a peculiar form of land tenure and the abode of
antiquarian curiosities.
See G. L. von Maurer, Einleitung in die Geschichie der Hof-, Mark-,
Dorf- and Stadtverfassung in Deutschland (Erlangen, 1856) ; G. Nasse,
Zur Geschichie der mittelalterlichen Feldgemeinschaft in England
(Bonn, 1869); H. S. Maine, Village Communities in the East and
West (Cambridge, 1872) ; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community
(1883); W. I. Ashley, English Economic History, pts. i. ii. (1888-
1893); F. W. Maitland, Select Pleas in Manorial Courts (London,
Selden Society, 1888); P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Cam-
bridge, 1892) ; The Growth of the Manor (1905) and English Society in
the nth Century (1908); A. Meitzen, Siedelung und Agrarwesen der
Westgermanen und Ostgermanen (Berlin, 1896); W. Cunningham,
Growth of English Industry and Commerce (Cambridge, 1896) ;
F. Pollock andF. W. Maitland, History of English Law (Cambridge,
1896) ; F.W.Maitland.DoomsdayBookand Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) ;
and C. M. Andrews, The Old English Manor (1892). (C. G. CR.)
MANOR-HOUSE (Lat. manerium; Fr. manoir), in architecture,
the name given to the dwelling-house of the lord of the manor.
The manor-house was generally arranged for defence against
robbers and thieves and was often surrounded by a moat with
drawbridge, but was not provided with a keep or with towers
or lofty curtain walls so as to stand a siege. The early buildings
were comparatively small, square in plan, comprising a hall
with one or two adjacent chambers; at a later period wings
were added, thus forming three sides of a quadrangle, like the
house designed by John Thorpe as his residence, the plan of
which is among his drawings in the Soane Museum. One of
598
MANRESA MANSE
the most ancient examples is the manor-house built by Richard
Coeur de Lion at Southampton as a rendezvous when he was
about to cross into France. This consisted of a hall and chapel
on the first floor, with cellars on the ground floor; the walls of
this structure, with the chimney-piece, are still in existence.
The distinction between the " manor-house " and " castle "
is not always very clearly defined; in France such buildings as
the castles of Aydon (Northumberland) and of Stokesay (Shrop-
shire) would be regarded as manor-houses in that they were
built as country houses and not as fortresses, like Coucy and
Pierrefonds; some of the smaller castles in France were, in the
i6th century, transformed into manor-houses by the introduction
of windows on the second floors of their towers and the partial
destruction of their curtain walls, as in the manor-houses of
Sedieres (Correze), Nantouillet and Compiegne; and in the same
century, as at Chenonceaux, Blois and Chambord, though angle
towers and machicolated parapets still formed part of the design,
they were considered to be purely decorative features. The
same is found in England; thus in Thornburyand Hurstmonceaux
castles, and in Cowdray House, the fortifications were more for
show than for use. There is an interesting example of a French
manor-house near Dieppe, known as the Manoir-d'Ango, built
in 1525, of which a great portion still exists, where the proprietor
Ango received Francois I., so that it must have been of con-
siderable size.
In England the principal examples of which remains exist are the
manor-houses of Appleton, Berkshire, with a moat; King John's
house at Warnford (Hampshire); Boothby Ragnell, Lincolnshire,
with traces of moat; Godmersham, Kent; Little Wenham Hall,
Suffolk, built partly in brick and flint, and one of the earliest in which
the bricks, probably imported from Flanders, are found; Charney
Hall, Berkshire (T-shaped in plan in two storeys); Longthorpe
House, near Peterborough ; Stokesay, Shropshire, already referred
to; Cottesford, Oxfordshire; Woodcraft, Northamptonshire; Acton
Burnell, Shropshire; Old Soar, Plaxtol, Kent, in two storeys, the
ground storey vaulted and used as cellar and storehouse, and the
upper floor with hall, solar and chapel. The foundation of all these
dates from the I3th century. Ightham Mote, Kent, portions of
which, with the moat, date from the I4th century, is one of the
best preserved manor-houses; then follow Norborough Hall, North-
amptonshire; Creslow manor-house, Bucks, with moat; Sutton
Courtenay, Berkshire; the Court Lodge, Great Chart, Kent; Stanton
St Quentin, Great Chalfield, and South Wraxhall, all in Wilts;
Meare manor-house, Somerset; Ockwell, Berks; Kingfield manor-
house, Derbyshire; Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire; Stoke Albany,
Northamptonshire; and, in the i6th century, Large Marney Hall,
Essex (1520); Sutton Place, Surrey (1530) ; the Vyne, Hampshire,
already influenced by the first Renaissance. In the i?th and i8th
centuries the manor-house is generally rectangular in plan, and,
though well and solidly built, would seem to have been erected more
with a view to internal comfort than to exterior embellishments.
There is one other type of manor-house, which partakes of the
character of the castle in its design, and takes the form of a tower,
rectangular or square, with angle turrets and in several storeys;
in France it is represented by the manor-houses of St Medard
near Bordeaux and Camarsae (Dordogne), and in England by
Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire and Middleton Tower, Norfolk,
both being in brick. (R. P. S.)
MANRESA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of
Barcelona, on the river Cardoner and the Barcelona-Lerida
railway. Pop. (1900), 23,252. Manresa is the chief town of
the highlands watered by the Cardoner and upper Llobregat,
which meet below the town, and are also connected by a canal
1 8 m. long. Two bridges, one built of stone and dating from
the Roman period, the other constructed of iron in 1804, unite
the older and larger part of Manresa with the modern suburbs on
the right bank of the river. The principal buildings are the colle-
giate church of Santa Maria de la Seo, the Dominican monastery,
and the church of San Ignazio, built over the cavern (cueva
santa) where Ignatius de Loyola spent most of the year 1522 in
penitentiary exercises and the composition of his Exercitia
spiritualia. Santa Maria is a fine example of Spanish Gothic,
and consists, like many Catalan churches, of nave and chancel,
aisles and ambulatory, without transepts. One of its chief
treasures is an exquisite isth-century Florentine altar-frontal,
preserved in the sacristy. The Dominican monastery, adjoining
the cueva santa, commands a magnificent view of the Montserrat
(<?..), and is used for the accommodation of the pilgrims who
yearly visit the cavern in thousands. Manresa has important
iron-foundries and manufactures of woollen, cotton and linen
goods, ribbons, hats, paper, soap, chemicals, spirits and flour.
Building-stone is quarried near the town.
Manresa is probably the Munorisa of the Romans, which was
the capital of the Jacetani or Jaccetani, an important tribe of
the south-eastern Pyrenees. A large portion of the town was
burned by the French in 1811.
MANRIQUE, GOMEZ (i4i2?-i49o?), Spanish poet, soldier,
politician and dramatist, was born at Amusco. The fifth son
of Pedro Manrique, adelantado mayor of Leon, and nephew of
Santillana (q.v.), G6mez Manrique was introduced into public
life at an early age, took a prominent part against the constable
Alvaro de Luna during the reign of John II., went into opposition
against Miguel Lucas de Iranzo in the reign of Henry IV., and
declared in favour of the infanta Isabel, whose marriage with
Ferdinand he promoted. Besides being a distinguished soldier,
he acted as a moderating political influence and, when appointed
corregidor of Toledo, was active in protecting the converted
Jews from popular resentment. His will was signed on the 3 ist
of May 1490, and he is known to have died before the i6th of
February 1491. He inherited the literary taste of his uncle
Santillana, and was greatly esteemed in his own age; but his
reputation was afterwards eclipsed by that of his nephew Jorge
Manrique (q.v.), whose Coplas were continually reproduced.
Gomez Manrique's poems were not printed till 1885, when they
were edited by Antonio Paz y Melia. T,hey at once revealed
him to be a poet of eminent merit, and it seems certain that
his Consejos, addressed to Diego Arias de Avila, inspired the
more famous Coplas of his nephew. His didactic verses are
modelled upon those of Santillana, and his satires are somewhat
coarse in thought and expression; but his place in the history
of Spanish literature is secure as the earliest Spanish dramatist
whose name has reached posterity. He wrote the Representacidn
del nascimiento de Nuestro Senor, a play on the Passion, and
two momos, or interludes, played at court.
MANRIQUE, JORGE (i440?-i478), Spanish poet and soldier,
was born probably at Paredes de Nava. The fourth son of
Rodrigo Manrique, count de Paredes, he became like the rest
of his family a fervent partisan of Queen Isabel, served with
great distinction in many engagements, and was made comendador
of Montizon in the order of Santiago. He was killed in a
skirmish near the fortress of Garci-Munoz in 1478, and was
buried in the church attached to the convent of Ucles. His
love-songs, satires, and acrostic verses are merely ingenious
compositions in the taste of his age; he owes his imperishable
renown to a single poem, the Coplas par la muerte de su padre,
an elegy of forty stanzas on the death of his father, which was
apparently first printed in the Cancionero llamado de Fray
Inigo de Mendoza about the year 1482. There is no foundation
for the theory that Manrique drew his inspiration from an Arabic
poem by Abu '1-Baka Salih ar-Rundi; the form of the Coplas
is influenced by the Consejos of his uncle, G6mez Manrique,
and the matter derives from the Bible, from Boethius and from
other sources readily accessible. The great sonorous common-
places on death are vitalized by the intensely personal grief of
the poet, who lent a new solemnity and significance to thoughts
which had been for centuries the common property of mankind.
It was given to Jorge Manrique to have one single moment of
sublime expression, and this isolated achievement has won him
a fame undimmed by any change of taste during four centuries.
The best edition of the Coplas is that issued by R. Foulche-Delbosc
in the Bibliotheca hispanica; the poem has been admirably translated
by Longfellow. Manrique's other verses were mostly printed in
Hernando del Castillo's Cancionero general (1511).
MANSE (Med. Lat. mansa, mansus or mansum, from manere,
to dwell, remain), originally a dwelling-house together with a
portion of land sufficient for the support of a family. It is
defined by Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. Mansus) as ... certatn
agri portionem quae colerelur et in qua coloni aedes esset. The
term was particularly applied, in ecclesiastical law, to the house
and glebe to which every church was entitled by common right,
;
MANSEL MANSFELD, E.
599
the rule of canon law being sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae
nuns mansus integer absque ullo serritio Iribuatur (Phillimore,
Eccles. Law, 1895, ii. 1125). The word is now chiefly used for
the residence of a minister of the Established Church of Scotland;
to this every minister of a rural parish is entitled, and the landed
proprietors must build and keep it up. " Manse " is also loosely
used for the residence of a minister of various Free Church
denominations (see GLEBE).
MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871), English
philosopher, was born at Cosgrove, Northamptonshire (where his
father, also Henry Longueville Mansel, fourth son of General
John Mansel, was rector), on the 6th of October 1820. He was
educated at Merchant Taylors' School and St John's College,
Oxford. He took a double first in 1843, and became tutor of his
college. He was appointed reader in moral and metaphysical
philosophy at Magdalen College in 1855, and Waynflete professor
in 1859. He was a great opponent of university reform and
of the Hegelianism which was then beginning to take root in
Oxford. In 1867 he succeeded A. P. Stanley as professor of
ecclesiastical history, and in 1868 he was appointed dean of St
Paul's. He died on the 3ist of July 1871.
The philosophy of Mansel, like that of Sir William Hamilton,
was mainly due to Aristotle, Kant and Reid. Like Hamilton,
Mansel maintained the purely formal character of logic, the
duality of consciousness as testifying to both self and the
external world, and the limitation of knowledge to the finite
and " conditioned." His doctrines were developed in his edition
of Aldrich's Artis logicae rudimenta (1849) his chief contribu-
tion to the reviving study of Aristotle and in his Prolegomena
logica: an Inquiry into the Psychological Character of Logical
Processes (1851, 2nd ed. enlarged 1862), in which the limits of
logic as the " science of formal thinking " are rigorously deter-
mined. In his Bampton lectures on The Limits oj Religious
Thought (1858, 5th ed. 1867; Danish trans. 1888) he applied to
Christian theology the metaphysical agnosticism which seemed
to result from Kant's criticism, and which had been developed
in Hamilton's Philosophy of the Unconditioned. While denying
all knowledge of the supersensuous, Mansel deviated from Kant
in contending that cognition of the ego as it really is is itself
a fact of experience. Consciousness, he held agreeing thus
with the doctrine of " natural realism " which Hamilton
developed from Reid implies knowledge both of self and of
the external world. The latter Mansel's psychology reduces to
consciousness of our organism as extended; with the former is
given consciousness of free will and moral obligation. A
summary of his philosophy is contained in his article " Meta-
physics " in the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
(separately published, 1860). Mansel wrote also The Philosophy
of the Conditioned (1866) in reply to Mill's criticism of Hamilton;
Letters, Lectures, and Reviews (ed. Chandler, 1873), and The
Gnostic Heresies (ed. J. B. Lightfoot, 1875, with a biographical
sketch by Lord Carnarvon). He wrote a commentary on the
first two gospels in the Speaker's Commentary.
See J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888-1889) ; James
Marlineau, Essays, Reviews and Addresses (London, 1 891 ),iii. nyseq. ;
A. W. Benn, History of Rationalism (1906), ii. 100-112; Masson,
Recent British Philosophy (yd ed., London, 1877), pp. 252 seq. ; Sir
Leslie Stephen in Diet. Nat. Biog.
MANSFELD, the name of an old and illustrious German family
which took its name from Mansfeld in Saxony, where it was
seated from the nth to the i8th century. One of its earliest
members was Hoyer von Mansfeld (d. 1115), a partisan of the
emperor Henry V. during his struggles with the Saxons; he
fought for Henry at Warnstadt and was killed in his service at
Welfesholz. Still more famous was Albert, count of Mansfeld
(1480-1560), an intimate friend of Luther and one of the earliest
and staunchest supporters of the Reformation. He helped to crush
the rising of the peasants under Thomas Munzer in Thuringia
in 1525; he was a member of the league of Schmalkalden,
and took part in all the movements of the Protestants against
Charles V. With Albert was associated his brother Gebhard,
and another member of the family was Johann Gebhard, elector
of Cologne from 1558 to 1562. A scion of another branch of
the Mansfelds was Peter Ernst, Fiirst von Mansfeld (1517-1604),
governor of Luxemburg, who unlike his kinsmen was loyal to
Charles V. He went with the emperor to Tunis and fought
for him in France. He was equally loyal to his son, Philip II.
of Spain, whom he served at St Quentin and in the Netherlands.
He distinguished himself in the field an'd found time to lead a
body of troops to aid the king of France against the Huguenots.
In this capacity he was present in 1569 at the battle of
Moncontour, where another member of his family, Count
Wolrad of Mansfeld (d. 1578) was among the Huguenot
leaders. The Mansfeld family became extinct in 1780 on the
death of Josef Wenzel Nepomuk, prince of Fondi, the lands
being divided between Saxony and Prussia.
See L. F. Niemann, Geschichte der Grafen von Mansfeld (Aschers-
leben, 1834).
MANSFELD, ERNST, GRAF VON (c. 1580-1626), German
soldier, was an illegitimate son of Peter Ernst, Fiirst von Mansfeld,
and passed his early years in his father's palace at Luxemburg.
He gained his earliest military experiences in Hungary, where
his half-brother Charles (1543-1595,) also a soldier of renown,
held a high command in the imperial army. Later he served
under the Archduke Leopold, until that prince's ingratitude,
real or fancied, drove him into the arms of the enemies of the
house of Habsburg. Although remaining a Roman Catholic he
allied himself with the Protestant princes, and during the earlier
part of the Thirty Years' War he was one of their foremost
champions. He was despatched by Charles Emmanuel, duke
of Savoy, at the head of about 2000 men to aid the revolting
Bohemians when war broke out in 1618. He took Pilsen, but
in the summer of 1619 he was defeated at Zablat; after this he
offered his services to the emperor Ferdinand II. and remained
inactive while the titular king of Bohemia, Frederick V., elector
palatine of the Rhine, was driven in headlong rout from Prague.
Mansfeld, however, was soon appointed by Frederick to command
his army in Bohemia, and in 1621 he took up his position in 'the
Upper Palatinate, successfully resisting the efforts made by
Tilly to dislodge him. From the Upper he passed into the
Rhenish Palatinate. Here he relieved Frankenthal and took
Hagenau; then, joined by his master, the elector Frederick, he
defeated Tilly at Wiesloch in April 1622 and plundered Alsace
and Hesse. But Mansfeld's ravages were not confined to the
lands of his enemies; they were ruinous to the districts he was
commissioned to defend. At length Frederick was obliged to
dismiss Mansfeld's troops from his service. Then joining
Christian of Brunswick the count led his army through Lorraine,
devastating the country as he went, and in August 1622 defeating
the Spaniards at Fleurus. He next entered the service of the
United Provinces and took up his quarters in East Friesland,
capturing fortresses and inflicting great hardships upon the
inhabitants. A mercenary and a leader of mercenaries, Mansfeld
often interrupted his campaigns by journeys made for the
purpose of raising money, or in other words of selling his services
to the highest bidder, and in these diplomatic matters he showed
considerable skill. About 1624 he paid three visits to London,
where he was hailed as a hero by the populace, and at least one
to Paris. James I. was anxious to furnish him with men and
money for the recovery of the palatinate, but it was not until
January 1625 that Mansfeld and his army of " raw and poor
rascals " sailed from Dover to the Netherlands. Later in the
year, the Thirty Years' War having been renewed under the
leadership of Christian IV., king of Denmark, he re-entered
Germany to take part therein. But on the asth of April 1626
Wallenstein inflicted a severe defeat upon him at the bridge of
Dessau. Mansfeld, however, quickly raised another army,
with which he intended to attack the hereditary lands of the
house of Austria, and pursued by Wallenstein he pressed forward
towards Hungary, where he hoped to accomplish his purpose
by the aid of Bethlem Gabor, prince of Transylvania. But wnen
Gabor changed his policy and made peace with the emperor,
Mansfeld was compelled to disband his troops. He set out for
Venice, but when he reached Rakowitza he was taken ill, and
6oo
MANSFIELD, R. MANSFIELD, EARL OF
here he died on the agth of November 1626. He was buried
at Spalato.
See F. Stieve, Ernst von Mansfeld (Munich, 1890); R. Reuss,
Graf Ernst von Mansfeld im bohmischen Kriege (Brunswick, 1865);
A. C. de Villermont, Ernest de Mansfeldt (Brussels, 1866); L. Graf
Uetterodt zu Schaffenberg, Ernst Graf zu Mansfeld (Gotha, 1867);
J. Grossmann, Des Grafen Ernst von Mansfeld letzte Plane und
Thaten (Breslau, 1870); E. Fischer, Des Mansfelders Tod (Berlin,
1873); S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vols. iv. and v. (IQOI);
J.^L. Motley, Life and Death of John of Barneveld (ed. 1904; vol. ii.).
MANSFIELD, RICHARD (1857-1907), American actor, was
born on the 24th of May 1857, in Berlin, his mother being
Madame [Erminia] Rudersdorff (1822-1882), the singer, and his
father, Maurice Mansfield (d. 1861), a London wine merchant.
He first appeared on the stage at St George's Hall, London,
and then drifted into light opera, playing the Major-General
in The Pirates of Penzance, and the Lord High Executioner in
The Mikado, both in the English provinces and in America.
In 1883 he joined A.M. Palmer's Union Square theatre company
in New York, and made a great hit as Baron Chevrial in A
Parisian Romance, He appeared successfully in several plays
adapted from well-known stories, and his rendering (1887) of
the doubled title-parts in R. L. Stevenson's Strange Case of
Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde created a profound impression. It was
with this play that he made his London reputation during a
season (1888) at the Lyceum theatre, by invitation of Henry
Irving. He produced Richard III. the next year at the Globe.
Among his other chief successes were Prince Karl, Cyrano de
Bergerac and Monsieur Beaucaire. He was one of the earliest
to produce G. Bernard Shaw's plays in America, appearing in
1894 as Bluntschli in Arms and the Man, and as Dick Dudgeon
in The Devil's Disciple in 1897. As a manager and producer of
plays Mansfield was remarkable for his lavish staging. He died
in New London, Connecticut, on the 3Oth of August 1907.
;See the lives by Paul Wilstach (1908) and William Winter (1910).
MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY, IST EARL or (1705-
i793)> English judge, was born at Scone in Perthshire, on the
2nd of March 1705. He was a younger son of David Murray,
5th Viscount Stormont (c. 1665-1731), the dignity having been
granted in 1621 by James I. to his friend and helper, Sir David
Murray (d. 1631), a Scottish politician of some note. Lord
Stormont's family was Jacobite in its politics, and his second
son James (c. 1690-1728), being apparently mixed up in some
of the plots of the time, joined the court of the exiled Stuarts
and in 1721 was created earl of Dunbar by James Edward, the
Old Pretender.
William Murray was educated at Perth grammar school and
Westminster School, of which he was a king's scholar. Entering
Christ Church, Oxford, he graduated in 1727. A friend of the
family, Lord Foley, provided the funds for his legal training,
and he became a member of Lincoln's Inn on his departure
from Oxford, being called to the bar in 1730. He was a good
scholar and mixed with the best literary society, being an
intimate friend of Alexander Pope. His appearance in some
important Scottish appeal cases brought him into notice, and in
Scotland at least he acquired an immense reputation by his
appearance for the city of Edinburgh when it was threatened
with disfranchisement for the affair of the Porteous mob. His
English practice had as. yet been scanty, but in 1737 a single
speech in a jury trial of note placed him at the head of the bar,
and from this time he had all he could attend to. In 1738 he
married Lady Elizabeth Finch, daughter of the earl of Win-
chelsea. His political career began in 1742 with his appointment
as solicitor-general. During the next fourteen years he was one
of the most conspicuous figures in the parliamentary history
of the time. By birth a Jacobite, by association a Tory, he
was nevertheless a Moderate, and his politics were really domi-
nated by his legal interests. Although holding an office of
subordinate rank, he was the chief defender of the government
in the House of Commons, and during the time that Pitt was
in opposition had to bear the brunt of his attacks. In 1754
he became attorney-general, and for the next two years acted
as leader of the House of Commons under the administration
of the duke of Newcastle. But in 1756, when the government
was evidently approaching its fall, an unexpected vacancy
occurred in the chief justiceship of the king's bench, and he
claimed the office, being at the same time raised to the peerage
as Baron Mansfield.
From this time the chief interest of his career lies in his
judicial work, but he did not wholly dissever himself from
politics. He became by a singular arrangement, only repeated
in the case of Lord Ellenborough, a member of the cabinet,
and remained in that position through various changes of
administration for nearly fifteen years, and, although he per-
sistently refused the chancellorship, he acted as Speaker of the
House of Lords while the Great Seal was in commission. During
the time of Pitt's ascendancy he took but little part in politics,
but while Lord Bute was in power his influence was very con-
siderable, and seems mostly to have been exerted in favour of
a more moderate line of policy. He was on the whole a supporter
of the prerogative, but within definite limits. Macaulay terms
him, justly enough, " the father of modern Toryism, of Toryism
modified to suit an order of things in which the House of
Commons is the most powerful body in the state. " During
the stormy session of 1770 he came into violent collision with
Chatham and Camden in the questions that arose out of the
Middlesex election and the trials for political libel; and in the
subsequent years he was made the subject of the bitter attac
of Junius, in which his early Jacobite connexions, and his
apparent leanings to arbitrary power, were used against his
with extraordinary ability and virulence. In 1776 he wa
created earl of Mansfield. In 1783, although he declined to
re-enter the cabinet, he acted as Speaker of the House of Lor
during the coalition ministry, and with this his political career
may be said to have closed. He continued to act as chief
justice until his resignation in June 1788, and after five ye
spent in retirement died on the 2oth of March 1793. He left
no family, but his title had been re-granted in 1792 with
direct remainder to his nephew David Murray, 7th Viscount
Stormont (1727-1796). The 2nd earl was ambassador to Vienna
and then to Paris; he was secretary of state for the souther
department from 1779 to 1782, and lord president of the council
in 1783, and again from 1794 until his death. In 1906
descendant Alan David Murray (b. 1864) became 6th earl
Mansfield.
Lord Mansfield's great reputation rests chiefly on his judicial
career. The poh'tical trials over which he presided, although
they gave rise to numerous accusations against him, wer<
conducted with singular fairness and propriety. He was accused
with especial bitterness of favouring arbitrary power by the
law which he laid down in the trials for libel which arose out of
the publications of Junius and Home Tooke, and which at a
later time he reaffirmed in the case of the dean of St Asaph
(see LIBEL). But we must remember that his view of the law
was concurred in by the great majority of the judges and lawyers
of that time, and was supported by undoubted precedents. In
other instances, when the government was equally concerned,
he was wholly free from suspicion. He supported Lord Camden's
decision against general warrants, and reversed the outlawry
of Wilkes. He was always ready to protect the rights of con-
science, whether they were claimed by Dissenters or Catholics,
and the popular fury which led to the destruction of his house
during the Gordon riots was mainly due to the fact that a
Catholic priest, who was accused of saying Mass, had escaped
the penal laws by his charge to the jury. His chief celebrity,
however, is founded upon the consummate ability with which
he discharged the civil duties of his office. He has always
been recognized as the founder of English mercantile law. The
common law as it existed before his time was wholly inadequate
to cope with the new cases and customs which arose with the
increasing development of commerce. The facts were left to
the jury to decide as best they might, and no principle was
ever extracted from them which might serve as a guide in
subsequent cases. Mansfield found the law in this chaotic
state, and left it in a form that was almost equivalent to a
MANSFIELD MANSUR
60 1
code. He defined almost every principle that governed com-
mercial transactions in such a manner that his successors had
only to apply the rules he had laid down. His knowledge of
Roman and foreign law, and the general width of his education,
freed him from the danger of relying too exclusively upon
narrow precedents, and afforded him a storehouse of principles
and illustrations, while the grasp and acuteness of his intellect
enabled him to put his judgments in a form which almost
always commanded assent. A similar influence was exerted by
him in other branches of the common law; and although, after
his retirement, a reaction took place, and he was regarded for
a while as one who had corrupted the ancient principles of
English law, these prejudices passed rapidly away, and the value
of his work in bringing the older law into harmony with the
needs of modern society has long been fully recognized.
See Holliday's Life (1797); Campbell's Chief Justices; Foss's
Judges; Greyille's Memoirs, passim; Horace Walpole's Letters; and
other memoirs and works on the period.
MANSFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in the
Mansfield parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England,
on the small river Mann or Maun; the junction of several
branches of the Midland railway, by which it is 142 m. N.N.W.
from London. Pop. (1891), 13,094; (i9i), i5, 2 5- Area,
7068 acres. The church of St Peter is partly Early Norman,
and partly Perpendicular. There is a grammar school founded
by Queen Elizabeth in 1561, occupying modern buildings.
Twelve almshouses were founded by Elizabeth Heath in 1693,
and to these six were afterwards added. There are a number
of other charities. The industries are the manufacture of lace,
thread, boots and machinery, iron-founding and brewing.
In the neighbourhood, as at Mansfield Woodhouse to the north,
there are quarries of limestone, sandstone and freestone. The
town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
During the heptarchy Mansfield was occasionally the residence
of the Mercian kings, and it was afterwards a favourite resort of
Norman sovereigns, lying as it does on the western outskirts
of Sherwood Forest. By Henry VIII. the manor was granted
to the earl of Surrey. Afterwards it went by exchange to the
duke of Newcastle, and thence to the Portland family. The
town obtained a fair from Richard II. in 1377. It became a
municipal borough in 1891.
MANSFIELD, a city and the county-seat of RichJand county,
Ohio, U.S.A., about 65 m. S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890),
!3>473; (1900), 17,640, of whom 1781 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 20,768. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburg,
Ft Wayne & Chicago division), the Erie, and the Baltimore &
Ohio railways. It is built on an eminence (1150 ft.), and has
two public parks, a substantial court-house, a soldiers' and
sailors' memorial building, a public library, a hospital and many
fine residences. It is the seat of the Ohio state reformatory.
Mansfield has an extensive trade with the surrounding agricul-
tural country, but its largest interests are in manufactures.
The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $7,353,578.
There are natural gas wells in the vicinity. The waterworks
and the sewage disposal plant are owned and operated by the
municipality. Mansfield was laid out in 1808, and was named
in honour of Lieut. -Colonel Jared Mansfield.(i759-i83o), United
States surveyor of Ohio and the North-west Territory in 1803-
1812, and professor of natural and experimental philosophy at
West Point from 1812 to 1828. Mansfield was incorporated as
a village in 1828 and was first chartered as a city in 1857. It
was the home of John Sherman from 1840 until his death.
MANSION (through O. Fr. mansion, mod. maison, from Lat.
mansio, dwelling-place, stage on a journey; manere, to remain),
a term applied in early English use to the principal house of the
lord of a manor. By the Settled Land Act 1890, 10, subsec.
2, repealing 15 of the act of 1882, " the principal mansion house
... on any settled land shall not be sold or exchanged or leased
by the tenant for life without the consent of the trustees of the
settlement or an order of the court." The principles guiding
an English court of law for making or refusing such an order
are laid down in In re the Marquess of AUesbury's Settled Estate
(1892), i Ch. 506, 546; A.C. 356. In general usage, the term
" mansion " is given to any large and important house in town
or country; and " mansion house " to the official residence, when
provided, of the mayor of a borough, particularly to that of the
lord mayors of London and Dublin. From the general meaning
of a conspicuously large dwelling-place comes the modern
employment of the term " mansions," in London and elsewhere,
for large buildings composed of " flats."
MANSLAUGHTER (O. Eng., mannslaeht, from mann, man, and
slaeht, act of slaying, slean, to slay, properly to smite; cf. Ger.
schlagen, Schlacht, battle), a term in English law signifying
" unlawful homicide without malice aforethought " (Stephen,
Digest of the Criminal Law, Art. 223). The distinction between
manslaughter and murder and other forms of homicide is treated
under HOMICIDE.
MANSON, GEORGE (1850-1876), Scottish water-colour
painter, was born in Edinburgh on the 3rd of December 1850.
When about fifteen he was apprenticed as a woodcutter with
W. & R. Chambers, with whom he remained for over five years,
diligently employing all his spare time in the study and practice
of art, and producing in his morning and evening hours water-
colours of much delicacy and beauty. In 1871 he devoted
himself exclusively to painting. His subjects were derived from
humble Scottish life especially, child-life, varied occasionally
by portraiture, by landscape, and by views of picturesque archi-
tecture. In 1873 he visited Normandy, Belgium and Holland;
in the following year he spent several months in Sark; and in
1875 he resided at St L6, and in Paris, where he mastered the
processes of etching. Meanwhile in his water-colour work he
had been adding more of breadth and power to the tenderness
and richness of colour which distinguished his early pictures,
and he was planning more complex and important subjects.
But his health had been gradually failing, and he was ordered
to Lympstone in Devonshire, where he died on the 27th of
February 1876. .
A volume of photographs from his water-colours and sketches,
with a memoir by J. M. Gray, was published in 1880. For an account
of Manson's technical method as a wood engraver see P. G. Hamer-
ton's Graphic Arts, p. 311.
MAN$UR (Arab. " victorious "), a surname (laqab) assumed
by a large number of Mahommedan princes. The best known
are: (i) ABU JA'FAR IBN MAHOMMED, second caliph of the
Abbasid house, who reigned A.D. 754-775 (see CALIPHATE: C,
2); (2) ABU TAHIR ISMA'IL IBN AL-QAni, the third Fatimite
caliph of Africa (946-953) (see FATDIITES); (3) ABU YUSUF
YA 'QUB IBN YUSUF, often described as Jacob Almanzor, of the
Moorish dynasty of the Almohades, conqueror of Alfonso III. in
the battle of Alarcos (1195); (4) IBN ABI 'AMIR MAHOMMED,
commonly called Almanzor by European writers, of an ancient
but not illustrious Arab family, which had its seat at Torrox
near Algeciras. The last-named was born A.D. 939, and began
life as a lawyer at Cordova. In 967 he obtained a place at the
court of Hakam II., the Andalusian caliph, and by an unusual
combination of the talents of a courtier with administrative
ability rapidly rose to distinction, enjoying the powerful support
of Subh, the favourite of the caliph and mother of his heir
Hisham. The death of Hakam (976) and the accession of a
minor gave fresh scope to his genius, and in 978 he became chief
minister. The weak young caliph was absorbed in exercises
of piety, but at first Mansur had to share the power with his father-
in-law Ghalib, the best general of Andalusia, and with the mother
of Hisham. At last a rupture took place between the two
ministers. Ghalib professed himself the champion of the caliph
and called in the aid of the Christians of Leon ; but Mansur,
anticipating the struggle, had long before remodelled the army
and secured its support. Ghalib fell in battle (981) ; a victorious
campaign chastised the Leonese; and on his return to Cordova
the victor assumed his regal surname of al-Man$ur bill ah, and
became practically sovereign of Andalusia. The caliph was a
mere prisoner of state, and Mansur ultimately assumed the title
as well as the prerogatives of king (996). Unscrupulous in the
means by which he rose to power, he wielded the sovereignty
6O2
MANSURA MANTEGNA
nobly. His strict justice and enlightened administration were
not less notable than the military prowess by which he is best
known. His arms were the terror of the Christians, and raised
the Moslem power in Spain to a pitch it had never before attained.
In Africa his armies were for a time hard pressed by the revolt
of Zlri, viceroy of Mauretania, but before his death this enemy
had also fallen. Mansur died at Medinaceli on the i oth of August
1002, and was succeeded by his son Mozaffar.
MANSURA, the capital of the province of Dakahlia, Lower
Egypt, near the west side of Lake Menzala, and on the Cairo-
Damietta railway. Pop. (1907), 40,279. It dates from 1221,
and is famous as the scene of the battle of Mansura, fought on
the 8th of February 1250, between the crusaders commanded
by the king of France, St Louis, and the Egyptians. The battle
was drawn, but it led to the retreat of the crusaders on Damietta,
and to the surrender of St Louis. Mansura has several cotton-
ginning, cotton, linen and sail-cloth factories.
MANT, RICHARD (1776-1848), English divine, was born at
Southampton on the I2th of February 1776, and was educated
at Winchester and Trinity College, Oxford. He was elected
fellow of Oriel in 1 798, and after taking orders held a curacy at
Southampton (1802), and then the vicarage of Coggeshall, Essex
(1810). In 1811 he was Bampton lecturer, in 1816 was made
rector of St Botolph's, and in 1820 bishop of Killaloe and
Kilfenoragh (Ireland). In 1823 he was translated to Down and
Connor, to which Dromore was added in 1842. In connexion
with the Rev. George D'Oyly he wrote a commentary on the
whole Bible. Other works by him were the Psalms in an English
Metrical Version (1842) and a History of the Church of Ireland
(1839-1841; 2 vols.).
MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO (1831-1910), Italian physiologist and
anthropologist, was born at Monza on the 3ist of October 1831.
After spending his student-days at the universities of Pisa and
Milan, he gained his M.D. degree at Pa via in 1854. After travel-
ling in Europe, India and America, he practised as a doctor in
the Argentine Republic and Paraguay. Returning to Italy in
1858 he was appointed surgeon at Milan Hospital and professor
of general pathology at Pa via. In 1870 he was nominated
professor of anthropology at the Institute di Studii Superior!,
Florence. Here he founded the first Museum of Anthropology
and Ethnology in Italy, and later the Italian Anthropological
Society. From 1865 to 1876 he was deputy for Monza in the
Italian parliament, subsequently being elected to the senate.
He became the object of bitter attacks on the ground of the
extent to which he carried the practice of vivisection. His
published works include Fisiologia del dolore (1880); Fisiolegia
dell' amore (1896); Elementid' igiene (1875); Fisonomia e mimica
(1883); Le Estasi umane (1887).
MANTEGNA, ANDREA (1431-1506), one of the chief heroes
in the advance of painting in Italy, was born in Vicenza, of very
humble parentage. It is said that in his earliest boyhood Andrea
was, like Giotto, put to shepherding or cattle-herding; this is
not likely, and can at any rate have lasted only a very short
while, as his natural genius for art developed with singular
precocity, and excited the attention of Francesco Squarcione,
who entered him in the gild of painters before he had completed
his eleventh year.
Squarcione, whose original vocation was tailoring, appears to
have had a remarkable enthusiasm for ancient art, and a pro-
portionate faculty for acting, with profit to himself and others,
as a sort of artistic middleman; his own performances as a painter
were merely mediocre. He travelled in Italy, and perhaps in
Greece also, collecting antique statues, reliefs, vases, &c., forming
the largest collection then extant of such works, making drawings
from them himself, and throwing open his stores for others to
study from, and then undertaking works on commission for
which his pupils no less than himself were made available. As
many as one hundred and thirty-seven painters and pictorial
students passed through his school, established towards 1440,
which became famous all over Italy. Mantegna was, as he
deserved to be, Squarcione's favourite pupil. Squarcione
adopted him as his son, and purposed making him the heir of
his fortune. Andrea was only seventeen when he painted, in the
church of S. Sofia in Padua, a Madonna picture of exceptional
and recognized excellence. He was no doubt fully aware of
having achieved no common feat, as he marked the work with
his name and the date, and the years of his age. This painting
was destroyed in the 1 7th century.
As the youth progressed in his studies, he came under the
influence of Jacopo Bellini, a painter considerably superior to
Squarcione, father of the celebrated painters Giovanni and
Gentile, and of a daughter Nicolosia; and in 1454 Jacopo gave
Nicolosia to Andrea in marriage. This connexion of Andrea with
the pictorial rival of Squarcione is generally assigned as the
reason why the latter became alienated from the son of his adop-
tion, and always afterwards hostile to him. Another suggestion,
which rests, however, merely on its own internal probability, is
that Squarcione had at the outset used his pupil Andrea as the
unavowed executant of certain commissions, but that after a
while Andrea began painting on his own account, thus injuring
the professional interests of his chief. The remarkably definite
and original style formed by Mantegna may be traced out as
founded on the study of the antique in Squarcione's atelier,
followed by a diligent application of principles of work exempli-
fied by Paolo Uccello and Donatello, with the practical guidance
and example of Jacopo Bellini in the sequel.
Among the other early works of Mantegna are the fresco of
two saints over the entrance porch of the church of S. Antonio
in Padua, 1452, and an altar-piece of St Luke and other saints
for the church of S. Giustina, now in the Brera Gallery in Milan,
1453. It is probable, however, that before this time some of the
pupils of Squarcione, including Mantegna, had already begun
that series of frescoes in the chapel of S. Cristoforo, in the church
of S. Agostino degli Eremitani, by which the great painter's
reputation was fully confirmed, and which remain to this day con-
spicuous among his finest achievements. 1 The now censorious
Squarcione found much to carp at in the earlier works of this
series, illustrating the life of St James; he said the figures were
like men of stone, and had better have been coloured stone-colour
at once. Andrea, conscious as he was of his own great faculty
and mastery, seems nevertheless to have felt that there was
something in his old preceptor's strictures; and the later subjects,
from the legend of St Christopher, combine with his other excel-
lences more of natural character and vivacity. Trained as he
had been to the study of marbles and the severity of the antique,
and openly avowing that he considered the antique superior to
nature as being more eclectic in form, he now and always affected
precision of outline, dignity of idea and of figure, and he thus
tended towards rigidity, and to an austere wholeness rather
than gracious sensitiveness of expression. His draperies are
tight and closely folded, being studied (as it is said) from models
draped in paper and woven fabrics gummed. Figures slim,
muscular and bony, action impetuous but of arrested energy,
tawny landscape, gritty with littering pebbles, mark the athletic
hauteur of his style. He never changed, though he developed
and perfected, the manner which he had adopted in Padua; his
colouring, at first rather neutral and undecided, strengthened
and matured. There is throughout his works more balancing
of colour than fineness of tone. One of his great aims was optical
illusion, carried out by a mastery of perspective which, though
not always impeccably correct, nor absolutely superior in prin-
ciple to the highest contemporary point of attainment, was
worked out by himself with strenuous labour, and an effect of
actuality astonishing in those times.
Successful and admired though he was in Padua, Mantegna
left his native city at an early age, and never afterwards resettled
1 His fellow-workers were Bono of Ferrara, Ansuino of Forli,
and Niccolo Pizzolo, to whom considerable sections of the fresco-
paintings are to be assigned. The acts of St James and St Chris-
topher are the leading subjects of the series. St James Exorcizing
may have been commenced by Pizzolo, and completed by Mantegna.
The Calling of St James to the Apostleship appears to be Mantegna s
design, partially carried out by Pizzolo; the subjects of St James
baptizing, his appearing before the judge, and going to execution,
and most of the legend of St Christopher, are entirely by Mantegna.
MANTELL
603
there; the hostility of Squarcione has been assigned as the cause.
The rest of his life was passed in Verona, Mantua and Rome
chiefly Mantua; Venice and Florence have also been named, but
without confirmation.
It may have been in 1459 that he went to Verona; and he
painted, though not on the spot, a grand altar-piece for the church
of S. Zeno, a Madonna and angels, with four saints on each side.
The Marquis Lodovico Gonzaga of Mantua had for some time
been pressing Mantegna to enter his service; and the following
year, 1460, was perhaps the one in which he actually established
himself at the Mantuan court, residing at fi/st from time to time
at (loito, but, from December 1466 onwards, with his family in
Mantua itself. His engagement was for a salary of 75 lire
(about 30) a month, a sum so large for that period as to mark
conspicuously the high regard in which his art was held. He
was in fact the first painter of any eminence ever domiciled in
Mantua. He built a stately house in the city, and adorned it
with a multitude of paintings. The house remains, but the
pictures have perished. Some of his early Mantuan works are
in that apartment of the Castello which is termed the Camera
degli Sposi full compositions in fresco, including various
portraits of the Gonzaga family, and some figures of genii, &c.
In 1488 he went to Rome at the request of Pope Innocent VIII.,
to paint the frescoes in the chapel of the Belvedere in the Vatican;
the marquis of Mantua (Federigo) created him a cavaliere before
his departure. This series of frescoes, including a noted " Bap-
tism of Christ," was ruthlessly destroyed by Pius VI. in laying
out the Museo Pio-Clementino. The pope treated Mantegna
with less liberality than he had been used to at the Mantuan
court; but on the whole their connexion, which ceased in 1490,
was not unsatisfactory to either party. Mantegna then returned
to Mantua, and went on with a series of works the nine tempera-
pictures, each of them 9 ft. square, of the "Triumph of Caesar "
which he had probably begun before his leaving for Rome, and
which are now in Hampton Court. These superbly invented
and designed compositions, gorgeous with all splendour of
subject-matter and accessory, and with the classical learning
and enthusiasm of one of the master-spirits of the age, have
always been accounted of the first rank among Mantegna's
works. They were sold in 1628 along with the bulk of the
Mantuan art treasures, and were not, as is commonly said,
plundered in the sack of Mantua in 1630. They are now greatly
damaged by patchy repaintings. Another work of Mantegna's
later years was the so-called " Madonna della Vittoria," now in
the Louvre. It was painted in tempera about 1495, in com-
memoration of the battle of Fornovo, which Ginfrancesco
Gonzaga found it convenient to represent to his lieges as an
Italian victory, though in fact it had been a French victory; the
church which originally housed the picture was built from
Mantegna's own design. The Madonna is here depicted with
various saints, the archangel Michael and St Maurice holding
her mantle, which is extended over the kneeling Gianfrancesco
Gonzaga, amid a profusion of rich festooning and other accessory.
Though not in all respects of his highest order of execution,
this counts among the most obviously beautiful and attractive
of Mantegna's works from which the qualities of beauty and
attraction are often excluded, in the stringent pursuit of those
other excellences more germane to his severe genius, tense energy
passing into haggard passion.
Vasari eulogizes Mantegna for his courteous, distinguished
and praiseworthy deportment, although there are indications
of his having been not a little litigious in disposition. With his
fellow-pupils at Padua he had been affectionate; and for two of
them, Dario da Trevigi and Marco Zoppo, he retained a steady
friendship. That he had a high opinion of himself was natural,
for no artist of his epoch could produce more manifest vouchers
of marked and progressive attainment. He became very expen-
sive in his habits, fell at times into difficulties, and had to urge
his valid claims upon the marquis's attention. After his return
to Mantua from Rome his prosperity was at its height, until the
death of his wife. He then formed some other connexion, and
became at an advanced age the father of a natural son, Giovanni
Andrea; and at the last, although he continued launching out into
various expenses and schemes, he had serious tribulations, such
as the banishment from Mantua of his son Francesco, who had
incurred the marquis's displeasure. Perhaps the aged master
and connoisseur regarded as barely less trying the hard necessity
of parting with a beloved antique bust of Faustina. Very soon
after this transaction he died in Mantua, on the I3th of Septem-
ber 1506. In 1517 a handsome monument was set up to him
by his sons in the church of S. Andrea, where he had painted
the altar-piece of the mortuary chapel.
Mantegna was no less eminent as an engraver, though his history
in that respect is somewhat obscure, partly because he never signed
or dated any of his plates, unless in one single disputed instance,
1472. The account which has come down to us is that Mantegna
began engraving in Rome, prompted by the engravings produced
by Baccio Baldmi of Florence after Sandro Botticelli; nor is there
anything positive to invalidate this account, except the consideration
that it would consign all the numerous and elaborate engravings made
by Mantegna to the last sixteen or seventeen years of his life, which
seems a scanty space for them, and besides the earlier engravings
indicate an earlier period of his artistic style. It has been sug-
gested that he began engraving while still in Padua, under the tuition
of a distinguished goldsmith, Niccol6. He engraved about fifty
plates, according to_ the usual reckoning; some thirty of them are
mostly accounted indisputable often large, full of figures, and
highly studied. Some recent connoisseurs, however, ask us to re-
strict to seven the number of his genuine extant engravings which
appears unreasonable. Among the principal examples are " Roman
Triumphs " (not the same compositions as the Hampton Court
pictures), " A Bacchanal Festival," " Hercules and Antaeus,"
Marine Gods," " Judith with the Head of Holophernes," the
" Deposition from the Cross," the " Entombment," the " Resurrec-
tion, the " Man of Sorrows," the " Virgin in a Grotto." Mantegna
has sometimes been credited with the important invention of engrav-
ing with the burin on copper. This claim cannot be sustained on a
comparison of dates, but at any rate he introduced the art into upper
Italy. Several of his engravings are supposed to be executed on
some metal less hard than copper. The technique of himself and his
followers is characterized by the strongly marked forms of the design,
and by the oblique formal hatchings of the shadows. The prints
are frequently to be found in two states, or editions. In the first
state the prints have been taken off with the roller, or even by hand-
pressing, and they are weak in tint; in the second state the printing
press has been used, and the ink is stronger.
The influence of Mantegna on the style and tendency of his age
was very marked, and extended not only to his own flourishing
Mantuan school, but over Italian art generally. His vigorous
perspectives and trenchant foreshortenings pioneered the way to
other artists: in solid antique taste, and the power of reviving the
aspect of a remote age with some approach to systemand consistency,
he distanced all contemporary competition. He did not, however,
leave behind him many scholars of superior faculty. His two legiti-
mate sons were painters of only ordinary ability. His favourite
pupil was known as Carlo del Mantegna; Caroto of Verona was
another pupil, Bonsignori an imitator. Giovanni Bellini, in his
earlier works, obviously followed the lead of his brother-in-law
Andrea.
The works painted by Mantegna, apart from his frescoes, are not
numerous; some thirty-five to forty are regarded as fully authenti-
cated. We may name, besides those already specified in the Naples
Museum, " St Euphemia," a fine early work; in Casa Melzi, Milan,
the " Madonna and Child with Chanting Angels " (1461) ; in the Tri-
bune of the Uffizi, Florence, three pictures remarkable for scrupulous
finish; in the Berlin Museum, the " Dead Christ with two Angels ";
in the Louvre, the two celebrated pictures of mythic allegory
" Parnassus " and " Minerva Triumphing over the Vices "; in the
National Gallery, London, the " Agony in the Garden," the " Virgin
and Child Enthroned, with the Baptist and the Magdalen," a late
example; the monochrome of "Vestals," brought from Hamilton
Palace; the " Triumph of Scipio " (or Phrygian Mother of the Gods
received by the Roman Commonwealth), a tempera in chiaroscuro,
painted only a few months before the master's death ; in the Brera,
Milan, the Dead Christ, with the two Maries weeping," a remarkable
tour de force in the way of foreshortening, which, though it has a
stunted appearance, is in correct technical perspective as seen from
all points ofview. With all its exceptional merit, this is an eminently
ugly picture. It remained in Mantegna's studio unsold at his death,
and was disposed of to liquidate debts.
Not to speak of earlier periods, a great deal has been written
concerning Mantegna of late years. See the works by Maud Crutwell
(1901), Paul Kristeller (1901), H. Thode (1897), Paul Yriarte (1901),
Julia Cartwright, Mantegna and Francia (1881). (W. M. R.)
MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON (1790-1852), English
geologist and palaeontologist, was born in 1790 at Lewes,
Sussex. Educated for the medical profession, he first practised
in his native town, afterwards in 1835 in Brighton, and finally
604
MANTES-SUR-SEINE MANTINEIA
at Clapham, near London. He found time to prosecute
researches on the palaeontology of the Secondary rocks,
particularly in Sussex a region which he made classical in
the history of discovery. While he was still a country doctor
at Lewes his eminence as a geological investigator was fully
recognized on the publication of his work on The Fossils of
the South Downs (1822). His most remarkable discoveries
were made in the Wealden formations. He demonstrated the
fresh-water origin of the strata, and from them he brought to
light and described the remarkable Dinosaurian reptiles known
as Iguanodon, Hylaeosaurus, Pelorosaurus and Regnosaurus.
For these researches he was awarded the Wollaston medal by
the Geological Society and a Royal medal by the Royal Society.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1825. Among his other contribu-
tions to the literature of palaeontology was his description of
the Triassic reptile Telerpelon elginense. Towards the end of
his life Dr Mantell retired to London, where he died on the
loth of November 1852. His eldest son, WALTER BALDOCK
DURRANT MANTELL (1820-1895), settled in New Zealand, and
there attained high public positions, eventually being secretary
for Crown-lands. He obtained remains of the Notornis, a
recently extinct bird, and also brought forward evidence to show
that the moas were contemporaries of man.
In addition to the works above mentioned Dr Mantell was author
of Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex (410, 1827); Geology of the
South-east of EnglandXiStf) ; The Wonders of Geology, 2 vols. (1838;
ed- 7 1 1857); Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight, and along
the Adjacent Coast of Dorsetshire ( 1 847 ; ed. 3, 1 854) ; Petrifactions and
their Teachings (1851); The Medals of Creation (2 vols., 1854).
MANTES-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Oise on the left
bank of the Seine, 34 m. W.N.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906),
8113. The chief building in Mantes is the celebrated church
of Notre-Dame which dates in the main from the end of the i2th
century. A previous edifice was burnt down by William the
Conqueror together with the rest of the town, at the capture of
which he lost his life in 1087; he is said to have bequeathed a
large sum for the rebuilding of the church. The plan, which
bears a marked resemblance to that of Notre-Dame at Paris,
includes a nave, aisles and choir, but no transepts. Three portals
open into the church on the west, the two northernmost, which
date from the I2th century, being decorated with fine carving;
that to the south is of the I4th century and still more ornate.
A fine rose-window and an open gallery, above which rise the
summits of the western towers, occupy the upper part of the
facade. In the interior, chapels dating from the I3th and
I4th centuries are of interest. The tower of St Maclou (i4th
century) , relic of an old church and the h6tel de ville (isthtoivth
centuries), are among the older buildings of the town, and there is
a fountain of the Renaissance period. Modern bridges and a
medieval bridge unite Mantes with the opposite bank of the Seine
on which the town of Limay is built. The town has a sub-
prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. Mantes was occupied
by the English from 1346 to 1364, and from 1416 to 1449.
MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN, FREIHERR VON (1809-1885), Prus-
sian general field marshal, son of the president of the superior
court of Magdeburg, was born at Dresden on the 24th of February
1809. He was brought up with his cousin, Otto von Manteuffel
(1805-1882), the Prussian statesman, entered the guard cavalry
at Berlin in 1827, and became an officer in 1828. After attending
the War Academy for two years, and serving successively as
aide-de-camp to General von Muffling and to Prince Albert of
Prussia, he was promoted captain in 1843 and major in 1848,
when he became aide-de-camp to Frederick William IV., whose
confidence he had gained during the revolutionary movement
in Berlin. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1852, and colonel to
command the sth Uhlans in 1853, he was sent on important
diplomatic missions to Vienna and St Petersburg. In 1857 he
became major-general and chief of the military cabinet. He
gave hearty support to the prince regent's plans for the re-
organization of the army. In 1861 he was violently attacked in a
pamphlet by Karl Twesten (1820-1870), a Liberal leader, whom
he wounded in a duel. He served as lieutenant-general
which rank he was promoted on the coronation of William I.,
Oct. 18, 1861) in the Danish war of 1864, and at its conclusion
was appointed civil and military governor of Schleswig. In the
Austrian War of 1866 he first occupied Holstein and afterwards
commanded a division under Vogel von Falkenstein in the
Hanoverian campaign, and succeeded him, in July, in command
of the Army of the Main (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). His suc-
cessful operations ended with the occupation of Wurzburg, and
he received the order pour le merite. He was, however, on
account of his monarchist political views and almost bigoted
Roman Catholicism, regarded by the parliament as a reactionary,
and, unlike the other army commanders, he was not granted
a money reward for his services. He then went on a diplomatic
mission to St Petersburg, where he was persona grata, and suc-
ceeded in gaining Russia's assent to the new position in north
Germany. On returning he was gazetted to the colonelcy of
the sth Dragoons. He was appointed to the command of the
IX. (Schleswig-Holstein) army corps in 1866. But having
formerly exercised both civil and military control in the Elbe
duchies he was unwilling to be a purely military commander
under one of his late civil subordinates, and retired from the
army for a year. In 1868, however, he returned to active service.
In the Franco-German War of 1870-71 he commanded the
I. corps under Steinmetz, distinguishing himself in the battle of
Colombey-Neuilly, and in the repulse of Bazaine at Noisseville
(see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR; andMEiz). He succeeded Steinmetz
in October in the command of the I. army, won the battle of
Amiens against General Farre, and occupied Rouen, but was less
fortunate against Faidherbe at Pont Noyelles and Bapaume.
In January 1871 he commanded the newly formed Army of the
South, which he led, in spite of hard frost, through the Coted'Or
and over the plateau of Langres, cut off Bourbaki's army of the
east (80,000 men) , and, after the action of Pontarlier, compelled
it to cross the Swiss frontier, where it was disarmed. His
immediate reward was the Grand Cross of the order of the Iron
Cross, and at the conclusion of peace he received the Black Eagle.
When the Southern Army was disbanded Manteuffel commanded
first the II. army, and, from June 1871 until 1873, the army of
occupation left in France, showing great tact in a difficult
position. On leaving France at the close of the occupation, the
emperor promoted Manteuffel to the rank of general field marshal
and awarded him a large grant in money, and about the same
time Alexander II. of Russia gave him the order of St Andrew.
After this he was employed on several diplomatic missions, was
for a time governor of Berlin, and in 1879, perhaps, as was com-
monly reported, because he was considered by Bismarck as a
formidable rival, he was appointed governor-general of Alsace-
Lorraine; and this office he exercised more in the spirit, some
said, of a Prussian than of a German official until his death
at Carlsbad, Bohemia, on the i7th of June 1885.
See lives by v. Collas (Berlin, 1874), and K. H. Keck (Bielefeld
and Leipzig, 1890).
MANTINEIA, or MANTINEA, an ancient city of Arcadia,
Greece, situated in the long narrow plain running north and
south, which is now called after the chief town Tripolitsa.
Tegea was in the same valley, about 10 m. S. of Mantineia,
and the two cities continually disputed the supremacy of the
district. In every great war we find them ranged on opposite
sides, except when superior force constrained both. The
worship and mysteries of Cora at Mantineia were famous.
The valley in which the city lies has no opening to the coast,
and the water finds its way, often only with much care and
artificial aid, through underground passages (katavothra] to
the sea. It is bounded on the west by Mount Maenalus, on
the east by Mount Artemision.
Mantineia is mentioned in the Homeric catalogue of ships,
but in early Greek times existed only as a cluster of villages
inhabited by a purely agricultural community. In the 6th
century it was still insignificant as compared with the neigh-
bouring city of Tegea, and submitted more readily to Spartan
MANTINEIA
605
overlordship. The political history of Mantineia begins soon
after the Persian wars, when its five constituent villages, at
the suggestion of Argos, were merged into one city, whose
military strength forthwith secured it a leading position in the
Peloponnesus. Its policy was henceforth guided by three
main considerations. Its democratic constitution, which
seems to have been entirely congenial to the population of
small freeholders, and its ambition to gain control over the
Alpheus watershed and both the Arcadian high roads to the
isthmus, frequently estranged Mantineia from Sparta and
threw it into the arms of Argos. But the chronic frontier
disputes with Tegea, which turned the two cities into bitter
enemies, contributed most of all to determine their several
a notable victory but lost his own life. After the withdrawah
of the Thebans from Arcadia Mantineia failed to recover
its pre-eminence from Megalopolis, with which city it had
frequent disputes. In contrast with the Macedonian sym-
pathies of Megalopolis Mantineia joined the leagues against
Antipater (322) and Antigonus Gonatas (266). A change of
constitution, imposed perhaps by the Macedonians, was nullified
(about 250) by a revolution through which democracy was.
restored. About 235 B.C. Mantineia entered the Achaean
League, from which it had obtained protection against Spartan
encroachments, but soon passed in turn to the Aetolians and
to Cleomenes III. of Sparta. A renewed defection, inspired
apparently by aversion to the aristocratic government of the
WALLS OF MANTINEIA.
AGORA OF MANTINEIA.
By permission from plans by F.de Billi. Fougtrw, Jc Brard
la Ike Bulletin <! Correspoo<tej>c HeUeaique. !>.
policies. About 469 B.C. Mantineia alone of Arcadian town-
ships refused to join the league of Tegea and Argos against
Sparta. Though formally enrolled on the same side during
the Peloponnesian War the two cities used the truce of 423 to
wage a fierce but indecisive war with each other. In the time
following the peace of Nicias the Mantineians, whose attempts
at expansion beyond Mount Maenalus were being foiled by
Sparta, formed a powerful alliance with Argos, Elis and Athens
(420), which the Spartans, assisted by Tegea, broke up after
a pitched battle in the city's territory (418). In the sub-
sequent years Mantineia still found opportunity to give the
Athenians covert help, and during the Corinthian War (394-
387) scarcely disguised its sympathy with the anti-Spartan
league. In 385 the Spartans seized a pretext to besiege and
dismantle Mantineia and to scatter its inhabitants among
four villages. The city was reconstituted after the battle of
Leuctra and under its statesman Lycomedes played a promi-
nent part in -organizing the Arcadian League (370). But
the long-standing jealousy against Tegea, and a recent one
against the new foundation of Megalopolis, created dissensions
which resulted in Mantineia passing over to the Spartan side.
In the following campaign of 362 Mantineia, after narrowly
escaping capture by the Theban general Epaminondas, became
the scene of a decisive conflict in which the latter achieved
Achaeans and jealousy of Megalopolis, was punished in 22*
by a thorough devastation of the city, which was now recon-
stituted as a dependency of Argos and renamed Antigoneia
in honour of the Achaeans' ally Antigonus Doson. Mantineia
regained its autonomous position in the Achaean League
in 192, and its original name during a visit of the emperor
Hadrian in A.D. 133. Under the later Roman Empire the
city dwindled into a mere village, which since the 6th century
bore the Slavonic name of Goritza. It finally became a prey
to the malaria which arose when the plain fell out of culti-
vation, and under Turkish rule disappeared altogether.
(M. O. B. C.)
The site was excavated by M. Fougeres, of the French School
at Athens, in 1888. The plan of the agora and adjacent build-
ings has been recovered, and the walls have been completely
investigated. The town was situated in an unusual position
for a Greek city, on a flat marshy plain, and its walls form a
regular ellipse about 2$ m. in circumference. When the town
was first formed in 470 B.C. by the " synoecism " of the neigh-
bouring villages, the river Ophis flowed through the midst of
it, and the Spartan king Agesipolis dammed it up below the
town and so flooded out the Mantineians and sapped their
walls, which were of unbaked brick. Accordingly, when the
city was rebuilt in 370 B.C., the river Ophis was divided into
606
MANTIS MANTLE
two branches, which between them encircled the walls; and
the walls themselves were constructed to a height of about
3 to 6 feet of stone, the rest being of unbaked brick. These
are the walls of which the remains are still extant. There are
towers about every 80 ft.; and the gates are so arranged that
the passage inwards usually runs from right to left, and so
an attacking force would have to expose its right or shieldless
side. Within the walls the most conspicuous landmark is
the theatre, which, unlike the majority of Greek theatres,
consists entirely of an artificial mound standing up from the
level plain. Only about a quarter of its original height remains.
Its scena is of rather irregular shape, and borders one of the
narrow ends of the agora. Close to it are the foundations
of several temples, one of them sacred to the hero Podaros.
The agora is of unsymmetrical form; its sides are bordered
by porticoes, interrupted by streets, like the primitive agora of
Elis as described by Pausanias, and unlike the regular agoras
of Ionic type. Most of these porticoes were of Roman period
the finest of them were erected, as we learn from inscriptions,
by a lady named Epigone: one, which faced south, had a double
colonnade, and was called the Batnj: close to it was a large
exedra. The foundations cf a square market-hall of earlier
date were found beneath this. On the opposite side of the
agora was an extensive Bouleuterion or senate-house. Traces
remain of paved roads both within the agora and leading out
of it; but the whole site is now a deserted and feverish swamp.
The site is interesting for comparison with Megalopolis; the
nature of its plan seems to imply that its main features must
survive from the earlier " synoecism " a century before the
time of Epaminondas.
See Strabo viii. 337; Pausanias viii. 8; Thucyd. iv. _I34,_ v.;
Xenophon, Hellenica, iv.-vii. ; Diodorus xv. 85-87; Polybius ii. 57
sqq., vi. 43; D. Worenka, Mantineia (1905); B. V. Head, Historia
numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 376-377; G. Foug&res in Bulletin de
correspondence hellenique (1890), id. Mantinte et I'Arcadie orientate
(Paris, 1898). Consult also TEGEA; ARCADIA.
Five battles are recorded to have been fought near Mantineia;
418, 362 (see above), 295 (Demetrius Poliorcetes defeats Archidamus
of Sparta), 242 (Aratus beats Agis of Sparta), 207 (Philopoemen
beats Machanidas of Sparta). The battles of 362 and 207 are
discussed at length by J. Kromayer, Antike SMacktfelder in Griechen-
land (Berlin, 1903), 27-123, 281-314; Wiener Studien (1905), pp.
1-16. (E. GR.)
MANTIS, an insect belonging to the order Orthoplera. Prob-
ably no other insect has been the subject of so many and wide-
spread legends and superstitions as the common " praying
mantis," Mantis religiosa, L. The ancient Greeks endowed
it with supernatural powers (fnavris, a diviner); the Turks and
Arabs hold that it prays constantly with its face turned
towards Mecca; the Provencals call it Prega-Diou (Prie-Dieu);
and numerous more or less similar nanies preacher, saint,
nun, mendicant, soothsayer, &c. are widely diffused through-
out southern Europe. In Nubia it is held in great esteem,
and the Hottentots, if not indeed worshipping the local species
(M. fausta), as one traveller has alleged, at least appear to
regard its alighting upon any person both as a token of saintli-
ness and an omen of good fortune.
Yet these are " not the saints but the tigers of the insect
world." The front pair of limbs are very peculiarly modified
the coxa being greatly elongated, while the strong third joint
or femur bears on its curved underside a channel armed on
each edge by strong movable spines. Into this groove the
stout tibia is capable of closing like the blade of a penknife,
its sharp, serrated edge being adapted to cut and hold. Thus
armed, with head raised upon the much-elongated and semi-
erect prothorax, and with the half-opened fore-limbs held
outwards in the characteristic devotional attitude, it rests
motionless upon the four posterior limbs waiting for prey,
or occasionally stalks it with slow and silent movements, finally
seizing it with its knife-blades and devouring it. Although
apparently not daring to attack ants, these insects destroy
great numbers of flies, grasshoppers and caterpillars, and
the larger South-American species even attack small frogs,
lizards and birds. They are very pugnacious, fencing with
In r<rAt*
their sword-like limbs " like hussars with sabres," the larger
frequently devouring the smaller, and the females the males.
The Chinese keep them in bamboo cages, and match them
like fighting-cocks.
The common species fixes its somewhat nut-like egg capsules
on the stems of plants in September. The young are hatched
in early . summer, and resemble the adults, but are without
wings.
The green coloration and shape of the typical mantis are
procryptic, serving to conceal the insect alike from its enemies
Praying Mantis (Mantis religiosa).
and prey. The passage from leaf to flower simulation is
a step which, without interfering with the protective value
of the coloration so far as insectivorous foes are concerned,
carries with it the additional advantage of attracting flower-
feeding insects within reach of the raptorial limbs. This
method of allurement has been perfected in certain tropical
species of Mantidae by the development on the prothorax
and raptorial limbs of laminate expansions so coloured on
the under side as to resemble papilionaceous or other blossoms,
to which the likeness is enhanced by a gentle swaying kept
up by the insect in imitation of the effect of a lightly blowing
breeze. As instances of this may be cited Idalum diabolicum,
an African insect, and Gongylus gongyloides, which comes
from India. Examples of another species (Empusa eugena)
when standing upon the ground deceptively imitate in shape
and hue a greenish white anemone tinted at the edges with
rose; and Bates records what appears to be a true case of
aggressive mimicry practised by a Brazilian species which
exactly resembles the white ants it preys upon.
MANTIS-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of
the family Mantispidae, related to the ant-lions, lace-wing
flies, &c., and named from their superficial resemblance to
a Mantis owing to the length of the prothorax and the shape
and prehensorial nature of the anterior legs. The larva, at
first campodeiform, makes its way into the egg-case of a spider
or the nest of a wasp to feed upon the eggs or young. Sub-
sequently it changes into a fat grub with short legs. When
full grown it spins a silken cocoon in which the transformation
into the pupa is effected. The latter escapes from its double
case before moulting into the mature insect.
MANTLE, a long flowing cloak without sleeves, worn by
either sex. Particularly applied to the long robe worn over
the armour by the men-at-arms of the middle ages, the name
is still given to the robes of state of kings, peers, and the members
of an order of knights. Thus the " electoral mantle " was
a robe of office worn by the imperial electors, and the Teutonic
knights were known as the orde alborum mantellorum from
their white mantles. As an article of women's dress a mantle
now means a loose cloak or cape, of any length, and made
of silk, velvet, or other rich material. The word is derived
from the Latin mantellum or mantdum, a cloak, and is probably
the same as, or another form of, mantelium or mantele, a table-
napkin or table-cloth, from manus, hand, and tela, a cloth.
A late Latin mantum, from which several Romance languages
have taken words (cf. Ital. manto, and Fr. mottle), must,
as the New English Dictionary points out, be a " back-forma-
tion," and this will explain the diminutive form of the Spanish
mantilla. From the old French mantel came the English
MANTON MANTUA
607
compounds " mantel-piece," " mantel-shelf," for the stone
or wood beam which serves as a support for the structure above
a fire-place, together with the whole framework, whether of
wood, stone, &c., that acts as an ornament of the same (see
CHIMNEYPIECE). The modern French form manteau is used
in English chiefly as a dressmaker's term for a woman's mantle.
" Mantua," much used in the i8th century for a similar garment,
is probably a corruption of manleau, due to silk or other
materials coming from the Italian town of that name, and
known by the trade name of " mantuas." The Spanish mantilla
is a covering for the head and shoulders of white or black lace
or other material, the characteristic head-dress of women in
southern and central Spain. It is occasionally seen in the
other parts of Spain and Spanish countries, and also in Portugal.
" Mantle " is used in many transferred senses, all with the
meaning of " covering," as in zoology, for an enclosing sac
or integument; thus it is applied to the " tunic " or layer of
connective-tissue forming the body-wall of ascidians enclosing
muscle-fibres, blood-sinuses and nerves (see TUNICATA). The
term is also used for a meshed cap of refractory oxides employed
in systems of incandescent lighting (see LIGHTING). The verb
is used for the creaming or frothing of liquids and of the suffus-
ing of the skin with blood. In heraldry " mantling," also
known as " panache," " lambrequin " or " contoise," is an
ornamental appendage to an escutcheon, of flowing drapery,
forming a background (see HERALDRY).
MANTON, THOMAS (1620-1677), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Laurence Lydiard, Somerset, in 1620,
and was educated at Hart Hall, Oxford. Joseph Hall, bishop
of Norwich, ordained him deacon: he never took priest's orders,
holding that " he was properly ordained to the ministerial
office." He was one of the clerks at the Westminster Assembly,
one of Cromwell's chaplains and a " trier," and held livings
at Stoke Newington (1645) and St Paul's, Covent Garden
(1656). He disapproved of the execution of Charles I. In
1658 he assisted Baxter to draw up the " Fundamentals of
Religion." He helped to restore Charles II. and became one
of his chaplains, refusing the deanery of Rochester. In 1662
he lost his living under the Act of Uniformity and preached
in his own rooms and in other parts of London. For this he
was arrested in 1670.
His works are best known in the collected edition by J. C. Ryle
(22 vols. 1870-1875).
MAN-TRAPS, mechanical devices for catching poachers and
trespassers. They have taken many forms, the most usual
being like a large rat-trap, the steel springs being armed with
teeth which met in the victim's leg. Since 1827 they have
been illegal in England, except in houses between sunset and
sunrise as a defence against burglars.
MANTUA (Ital. Mantova), a fortified city of Lombardy,
Italy, the capital of the province of Mantua, the see of a bishop,
and the centre of a military district, 25 m. S.S.W. of Verona
and 100 m. E.S.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1906), 31,783.
It is situated 88 ft. above the level of the Adriatic on an almost
insular site in the midst of the swampy lagoons of the Mincio.
As the belt of marshy ground along the south side can be laid
under water at pleasure, the site of the city proper, exclusive
of the considerable suburbs of Borgo di Fortezza to the north
and Borgo di San Giorgio to the east, may still be said to con-
sist, as it formerly did more distinctly, of two islands separated
by a narrow channel and united by a number of bridges. On
the west side lies Lago Superiore, on the east side Lago Inferiore
the boundary between the two being marked by the Argine
del Mulino, a long mole stretching northward from the north-
west angle of the city to the citadel.
On the highest ground in the city rises the cathedral, the
interior of which was built after his death according to the
plans of Giulio Romano; it has double aisles, a fine fretted
ceiling, a dome-covered transept, a bad baroque facade, and
a large unfinished Romanesque tower. Much more important
architecturally is the church of St Andrea, built towards the
close of the isth century, after plans by Leon Battista Alberti,
and consisting of a single, barrel-vaulted nave 350 ft. long
by 62 ft. wide. It has a noble facade with a deeply recessed
portico, and a brick campanile of 1414. The interior is
decorated with 18th-century frescoes, to which period the dome
also belongs. Mantegna is buried in one of the side chapels.
S. Sebastiano is another work of Alberti's. The old ducal
palace one of the largest buildings of its kind in Europe
was begun in 1302 for Guido Bonaccolsi, and probably com-
pleted in 1328 for Ludovico Gonzaga; but many of the accessory
apartments are of much later date, and the internal decorations
are for the most part the work of Giulio Romano and his pupils.
There are also some fine rooms of the early igth century. Close
by are the Piazza dell' Erbe and the Piazza Sordello, with
Gothic palaces. The Castello di Corte here, the old castle
of the Gonzagas (1395-1406), erected by Bartolino da Novara,
the architect of the castle of Ferrara, now contains the archives,
and has some fine frescoes by Mantegna with scenes from the
life of Ludovico Gonzaga. Outside of the city, to the south of
Porta Pusterla, stands the Palazzo del Te, Giulio's architectural
masterpiece, erected for Frederick Gonzaga in 1523-1535; of
the numerous fresco-covered chambers which it contains,
perhaps the most celebrated is the Sala dei Giganti, where,
by a combination of mechanical with artistic devices, the
rout of the Titans still contending with artillery of uptorn
rocks against the pursuit and thunderbolts of Jove appears
to rush downwards on the spectator. The architecture of
Giulio's own house in the town is also good.
Mantua has an academy of arts and sciences (Accademia
Vergiliana), occupying a fine building erected by Piermarini,
a public library founded in 1780 by Maria Theresa, a museum
of antiquities dating from 1779, many of which have been
brought from Sabbioneta, a small residence town of the Gonzagas
in the late i6th century, a mineralogical museum, a good
botanical garden, and an observatory. There are ironworks,
tanneries, breweries, oil-mills and flour-mills in the town, which
also has printing, furriery, doll-making and playing-card
industries. As a fortress Mantua was long one of the most
formidable in Europe, a force of thirty to forty thousand men
finding accommodation within its walls; but it had two serious
defects the marshy climate told heavily on the health of
the garrison, and effective sorties were almost impossible.
It lies on the main line of railway between Verona and Modena;
and is also connected by rail with Cremona and with Mon-
selice, on the line from Padua to Bologna, and by steam tramway
with Brescia and other places.
S. Maria delle Grazie, standing some 5 m. outside the town,
was consecrated in 1399 as an act of thanksgiving for the cessa-
tion of the plague, and has a curious collection of ex wto pictures
(wax figures), and also the tombs of the Gonzaga family.
Mantua had still a strong Etruscan element in its population
during the Roman period. It became a Roman municipium,
with the rest of Gallia Transpadana; but Martial calls it little
Mantua, and had it not been for Virgil's interest in his native
place, and in the expulsion of a number of the Mantuans (and
among them the poet himself) from their lands in favour of
Octavian's soldiers, we should probably have heard almost
nothing of its existence. In 568 the Lombards found Mantua
a walled town of some strength; recovered from their grasp
in 590 by the exarch of Ravenna, it was again captured by
Agilulf in 601. The gth century was the period of episcopal
supremacy, and in the nth the city formed part of the vast
possessions of Bonifacio, marquis of Canossa. From him
it passed to Geoffrey, duke of Lorraine, and afterwards to the
countess Matilda, whose support of the pope led to the con-
quest of Mantua by the emperor Henry IV. in 1090. Reduced
to obedience by Matilda in 1113, the city obtained its liberty
on her death, and instituted a communal government of its
own, salva imperials justitia. It afterwards joined the Lombard
League; and the unsuccessful attack made by Frederick II.
in 1236 brought it a confirmation of its privileges. But after
a period of internal discord Ludovico Gonzaga attained to
power (1328), and was recognized as imperial vicar (1329);
6o8
MANU MANUEL I.
and from that time till the death of Ferdinando Carbo in 1708
the Gonzagas were masters of Mantua (see GONZAGA). Under
Gian Francesco II., the first marquis, Ludovico III., Gian
Francesco III. (whose wife was Isabella d'Este), and Federico
II., the first duke of Mantua, the city rose rapidly into impor-
tance as a seat of industry and culture. It was stormed and
sacked by the Austrians in 1630, and never quite recovered.
Claimed in 1708 as a fief of the empire by Joseph I., it was
governed for the greater part of the century by the Austrians.
In June 1796 it was besieged by Napoleon; but in spite of
terrific bombardments it held out till February 1797. A three
-days' bombardment in 1799 again placed Mantua in the hands of
the Austrians; and, though restored to the French by the peace
of Luneville (1801), it became Austrian once more from 1814
till 1866. Between 1849 and 1859, when the whole of Lombardy
except Mantua was, by the peace of Villafranca, ceded to Italy,
the city was the scene of violent political persecution.
See Gaet. Susani, Nuovo prospetto delle pitture, &c., di Mantova
(Mantua, 1830) ; Carlo d'Arco, Delle arli e degli artefici di Mantova
(Mantua, 1857); and Storia di Mantova (Mantua, 1874).
MANU (Sanskrit, " man "), in Hindu mythology, the first
man, ancestor of the world. In the Satapatha-Brahmana
he is represented as a holy man, the chief figure in a flood-myth.
Warned by a fish of the impending disaster he built a ship,
and when the waters rose was dragged by the fish, which he
harnessed to his craft, beyond the northern mountains. When
the deluge ceased, a daughter was miraculously born to him
and this pair became the ancestors of the human race. In
the later scriptures the fish is declared an incarnation of Brahma.
See SANSKRIT LITERATURE; INDIAN LAW (Hindu).
MANUAL, i.e. belonging to the hand (Lat. manus), a word
chiefly used to describe an occupation which employs the hands,
as opposed to that which chiefly or entirely employs the mind.
Particular uses of the word are: " sign-manual," a signature
or autograph, especially one affixed to a state document;
" manual-exercise," in military usage, drill in the handling
of the rifle; " manual alphabet," the formation of the letters
of the alphabet by the fingers of one or both hands for com-
munication with the deaf and dumb; and " manual acts,"
the breaking of the bread, and the taking of the cup in the
hands by the officiating priest in consecrating the elements
during the celebration of the Eucharist. The use of the word
for tools and implements to be used by the hand, as distinct
from machinery, only survives in the " manual fire-engine."
From the late Latin use of manuale as a substantive, meaning
" handbook," comes the use of the word for a book treating
a subject in a concise way, but more particularly of a book
of offices, containing the forms to be used in the administration
of the sacraments other than the Mass, but including com-
munion out of the Mass, also the forms for churching, burials,
&c. In the Roman Church such a book is usually called a
rituale, " manual " being the name given to it in the English
Church before the Reformation. The keyboard of an organ,
as played by the hands, is called the " manual," in distinction
from the " pedal " keys played by the feet.
MANUCODE, from the French, an abbreviation of Manu-
todiata, and the Latinized form of the Malay Manukdewata,
meaning, says Crawfurd (Malay and Engl. Dictionary, p. 97),
the " bird of the gods," and a name applied for more than
two hundred years apparently to birds-of- paradise in general.
In the original sense of its inventor, Montbeillard (Hist. nat.
oiseaux, iii. 163), Manucode was restricted to the king bird-
of-paradise and three allied species; but in English it has
curiously been transferred l to a small group of species whose
1 Manucodiata was used by M. J. Brisson (Ornithologie, ii. 130)
as a generic term equivalent to the Linnaean Paradisea. In 1783
Boddaert, when assigning scientific names to the birds figured by
Daubenton, called the subject of one of them (PI. enlum. 634)
Manucodia chalybea, the first word being apparently an accidental
curtailment of the name of Brisson's genus to which he referred it.
Nevertheless some writers have taken it as evidence of an intention
to found a new genus by that name, and hence the importation of
Manucodia into scientific nomenclature, and the English form to
correspond.
relationship to the Paradiseidae has been frequently doubt
and must be considered uncertain. These manucodes have
a glossy steel-blue plumage of much beauty, but are distinguished
from other birds of similar coloration by the outer and middle
toes being united for some distance, and by the extraordinary
convolution of the trachea, in the males at least, with which
is correlated the loud and clear voice of the birds. The con-
voluted portion of the trachea lies on the breast, between the
skin and the muscles, much as is found in the females of the
painted snipes (Rostratida) , in the males of the curassows
(Cracidae), and in a few other birds, but wholly unknown
elsewhere among the Passeres. The manucodes are peculiar
to the Papuan sub-region (including therein the peninsula
of Cape York), and comprehend, according to R. B. Sharpe
(Cat. B. Brit. Museum, iii. 164), two genera, for the first
of which, distinguished by the elongated tufts on the head,
he adopts R. P. Lesson's name Phonygama, and for the second,
having no tufts, but the feathers of the head crisped, that
of Manucodia; and W. A. Forbes (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1882,
p. 349) observed that the validity of the separation was con-
firmed by their tracheal formation. Of Phonygama Sharpe
recognizes three species, P. keraudreni (the type) and P. jamesi,
both from New Guinea, and P. gouldi, the Australian repre-
sentative species; but the first two are considered by D. G.
Elliot (Ibis. 1878, p. 56) and Count Salvadori (Ornitol. delta
Papuasia, ii. 510) to be inseparable. There is a greater
unanimity in regard to the species of the so-called genus Manu-
codia proper, of which four are admitted M. chalybeata or
chalybea from north-western New Guinea, M . comriei from
the south-eastern part of the same country, M. atra of wide
distribution within the Papuan area, and M. jobiensis peculiar
to the island which gives it a name. Little is known of the
habits of these birds, except that they are, as already mentioned,
remarkable for their vocal powers, which, in P. keraudreni, Lesson
describes (Voy. de la Coquille, " Zoologie," i. 638) as enabling
them to pass through every note of the gamut. (A. N.)
MANUEL I., COMNENUS (c. 1120-1180), Byzantine emperor
(1143-1180), the fourth son of John II., was born about 1120.
Having distinguished himself in his father's Turkish war,
he was nominated emperor in preference to his elder surviving
brother. Endowed with a fine physique and great personal
courage, he devoted himself whole-heartedly to a military
career. He endeavoured to restore by force of arms the pre-
dominance of the Byzantine empire in the Mediterranean
countries, and so was involved in conflict with his neighbours
on all sides. In 1144 he brought back Raymond of Antioch
to his allegiance, and in the following year drove the Turks
out of Isauria. In 1147 he granted a passage through his
dominions to two armies of crusaders under Conrad III. of
Germany and Louis VII. of France; but the numerous out-
breaks of overt or secret hostility between the Franks and
the Greeks on their line of march, for which both sides were
to blame, nearly precipitated a conflict between Manuel and
his guests. In the same year the emperor made war upon
Roger of Sicily, whose fleet captured Corfu and plundered
the Greek towns, but in 1148 was defeated with the help of
the Venetians. In 1149 Manuel recovered Corfu and prepared
to take the offensive against the Normans. With an army
mainly composed of mercenary Italians he invaded Sicily and
Apulia, and although the progress of both these expeditions
was arrested by defeats on land and sea, Manuel maintained
a foothold in southern Italy, which was secured to him by a
peace in 1155, and continued to interfere in Italian politics.
In his endeavour to weaken the control of Venice over the
trade of his empire he made treaties with Pisa and Genoa;
to check the aspirations of Frederic I. of Germany he supported
the free Italian cities with his gold and negotiated with pope
Alexander III. In spite of his friendliness towards the Roman
church Manuel was refused the title of " Augustus " by Alex-
ander, and he nowhere succeeded in attaching the Italians
permanently to his interests. None the less in a war with the
Venetians (1172-74), he not only held his ground in Italy but
MANUEL II. MANUEL DE MELLO
609
drove his enemies out of the Aegean Sea. On his northern
frontier Manuel reduced the rebellious Serbs to vassalage
(1150-52) and made repeated attacks upon the Hungarians
with a view to annexing their territory along the Save. In
the wars of 1151-53 and 1163-68 he led his troops into Hungary
but failed to maintain himself there; in 1168, however, a decisive
victory near Semlin enabled him to conclude a peace by which
Dalmatia and other frontier strips were ceded to him. In
1169 he sent a joint expedition with King Amalric of Jerusalem
to Egypt, which retired after an ineffectual attempt to capture
Damietta. In 1158-59 he fought with success against Raymond
of Antioch and the Turks of Iconium, but in later wars against
the latter he made no headway. In 1176 he was decisively
beaten by them in the pass of Myriokephalon, where he allowed
himself to be surprised in line of march. This disaster, though
partly retrieved in the campaign of the following year, had
a serious effect upon his vitality; henceforth he declined in
health and in 1180 succumbed to a slow fever.
In spite of his military prowess Manuel achieved but in a
slight degree his object of restoring the East Roman empire.
His victories were counterbalanced by numerous defeats,
sustained by his subordinates, and his lack of statesmanlike
talent prevented his securing the loyalty of his subjects. The
expense of keeping up his mercenary establishment and the
sumptuous magnificence of his court put a severe strain upon
the financial resources of the state. The subsequent rapid
collapse of the Byzantine empire was largely due to his brilliant
but unproductive reign. Manuel married, firstly, a sister-in-
law of Conrad III. of Germany; and secondly, a daughter
of Raymond of Antioch. His successor, Alexis II., was a son
of the latter.
See John Cinnamus, History of John and Manuel (ed. 1836, Bonn) ;
E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
London, 1806), v. 229 sqq., vi. 214 sqq. ; G. Finlay, History df Greece
(ed. 1877, Oxford), iii. 143-197; H. v. Kap-Herr, Die abendlandische
Politik Kaiser Manuels (Strassburg, 1881). (M. O. B. C.)
MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS (1350-1425), Byzantine em-
peror from 1391 to 1425, was bom in 1350. At the time of his
father's death he was a hostage at the court of Bayezid at
Brusa, but succeeded in making his escape; he was forthwith
besieged in Constantinople by the sultan, whose victory over the
Christians at Nicopolis, however (Sept. 28, 1396), did not secure
for him the capital. Manuel subsequently set out in person
to seek help from the West, and for this purpose visited Italy,
France, Germany and England, but without material success;
the victory of Timur in 1402, and the death of Bayezid in the
following year were the first events to give him a genuine respite
from Ottoman oppression. He stood on friendly terms with
Mahommed I., but was again besieged in his capital by Murad II.
in 1422. Shortly before his death he was forced to sign an
agreement whereby the Byzantine empire undertook to pay
tribute to the sultan.
Manuel was the author of numerous works of varied character
theological, rhetorical, poetical and letters. Most of these are
printed in Migne, Patrologia graeca, clvi. ; the letters have been edited
by E. Legrand (1893). There is a special monograph, by B. de
Xivrey (in Memoires de I'Institut de France, xix. (1853), highly com-
mended by C. Krumbacher, whose Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (1897) should also be consulted.
MANUEL I. (d. 1263), emperor of Trebizond, surnamed the
Great Captain (6 OTpanryiKwraTOs), was the second son of
Alexius I., first emperor of Trebizond, and ruled from 1228 to
1263. He was unable to deliver his empire from vassalage,
first to the Seljuks and afterwards to the Mongols. He vainly
negotiated for a dynastic alliance with the Franks, by which he
hoped to secure the help of Crusaders.
MANUEL II., the descendant of Manuel I., reigned only a few
months in 1332-1333. Manuel III. reigned from 1300 to 1417,
but the only interest attaching to his name arises from his con-
nexion with Timur, whose vassal he became without resistance.
See G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877, Oxford), iv. 338-340,
340-341, 386; Ph. Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaiscrtums Tropezunt
XVH. 20
(Munich, 1827), i. chs. 8, 14, ii. chs. 4, 5; T. E. Evangelides, 'l<rropla
TIJJ TpairefoDvroj (Odessa, 1898), 71-73, 87-88, 126-132.
MANUEL, EUGENE (1823-1001), French poet and man of
letters, was born in Paris, the son of a Jewish doctor, on the I3th
of July 1823. He was educated at the Ecole Normale, and taught
rhetoric for some years in provincial schools and then in Paris.
In 1870 he entered the department of public instruction, and in
1878 became inspector-general. His works include: Pages
inlimes (1866), which received a prize from the Academy;
Palmes populaires (1874); Pendant la guerre (1871), patriotic
poems, which were forbidden in Alsace-Lorraine by the German
authorities; En voyage (1881), poems; La France (4 vols., 1854-
1858) ; a school-book written in collaboration with his brother-in-
law, L6vi Alavares; Les Ouvriers (1870), a drama dealing with
social questions, which was crowned by the Academy; L' Absent
(1873), a comedy; Poesies du foyer et de I'ecole (1889), and editions
of the works of J. B. Rousseau (1852) and Andre Chenier (1884).
He died in Paris in 1901.
His Poesies completes (2 vols., 1899) contained some fresh poems;
to his Melanges en prose (Paris, 1905) is prefixed an introductory
note by A. Cahen.
MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827), French politician
and orator, was born on the loth of December 1775. When
seventeen years old he entered the army, which he left in 1797
to become a lawyer. In 1814 he was chosen a member of the
chamber of representatives, and in 1815 he urged the claim of
Napoleon's son to the French throne and protested against the
restoration of the Bourbons. After this event he actively
opposed the government, his eloquence making him the foremost
orator among the members of the Left. In February 1823 his
opposition to the proposed expedition into Spain to help
Ferdinand VII. against his rebellious subjects produced a tumult
in the Assembly. Manuel was expelled, but he refused to accept
this sentence, and force was employed to remove him. He died
on the 2oth of August 1827.
MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793), French writer and
Revolutionist, was born at Montargis (Loiret). He entered the
Congregation of the Christian Doctrine, and became tutor to
the son of a Paris banker. In 1783 he published a pamphlet,
called Essais historiques, critiques, litteraires, et phtiosophiques,
for which he was imprisoned in the Bastille. He embraced the
revolutionary ideas, and after the taking of the Bastille became
a member of the provisional municipality of Paris. He was one
of the leaders of the emeutes of the 2oth of June and the loth of
August 1792, played an important part in the formation of the
revolutionary commune which assured the success of the latter
coup, and was made procureur of the commune. He was
present at the September massacres and saved several prisoners,
and on the 7th of September 1792 was elected one of the deputies
from Paris to the convention, where he was one of the promoters
of the proclamation of the republic. He suppressed the decora-
tion of the Cross of St Louis, which he called a stain on a man's
coat, and demanded the sale of the palace of Versailles. His
missions to the king, however, changed his sentiments; he be-
came reconciled to Louis, courageously refused to vote for the
death of the sovereign, and had to tender his resignation as
deputy. He retired to Montargis, where he was arrested, and
was guillotined in Paris on the I7th of November 1793. Besides
the work cited above and his political pamphlets, he was the
author of Coup d'ceil philosophique sur le rlgne de St Louis (i 786) ;
L' Annie franqaise (1788); La Bastille devoilie (1789); La Police
de Paris dtvoiUe (1791); and Lettres sur la Revolution (1792).
In 1792 he was prosecuted for publishing an edition of the
Lettres de Mirabeau a Sophie, but was acquitted.
MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO (? 1611-1666),
Portuguese writer, a connexion on his father's side of the royal
house of Braganza, was a native of Lisbon. He studied the
Humanities at the Jesuit College of S. Antao, where he showed
a precocious talent, and tradition says that at the age of fourteen
he composed a poem in ottava rima to celebrate the recovery of
Bahia from the Dutch, while at seventeen he wrote a scientific
work, Concordancias mathematicas. The death of his father.
6io
MANUL MANURES
Dom Luiz de Mello, drove him early to soldiering, and having
joined a contingent for the Flanders war, he found himself in
the historic storm of January 1627, when the pick of the Portu-
guese fleet suffered shipwreck in the Bay of Biscay. He spent
much of the next ten years of his life in military routine work
in the Peninsula, varied by visits to the court of Madrid, where
he contracted a friendship with the Spanish poet Quevedo and
earned the favour of the powerful minister Olivares. In 1637
the latter despatched him in company with the conde de
Linhares on a mission to pacify the revolted city of Evora, and
on the same occasion the duke of Braganza, afterwards King
John IV. (for whom he acted as confidential agent at Madrid),
employed him to satisfy King Philip of his loyalty to the Spanish
crown. In the following year he suffered a short imprisonment
in Lisbon. In 1639 he was appointed colonel of one of the regi-
ments raised for service in Flanders, and in June that year he
took a leading part in defending Corunna against a French fleet
commanded by the archbishop of Bordeaux, while in the
following August he directed the embarcation of an expeditionary
force of 10,000 men when Admiral Oquendo sailed with seventy
ships to meet the French and Dutch. He came safely through
the naval defeat in the channel suffered by the Spaniards at the
hands of Van Tromp, and on the outbreak of the Catalonian
rebellion became chief of the staff to the commander-in-chief
of the royal forces, and was selected to write an account of the
campaign, the Historia de la guerra de Cataluna, which became a
Spanish classic. On the proclamation of Portuguese independence
in 1640 he was imprisoned by order of Olivares, and when
released hastened to offer his sword to John IV. He travelled
to England, where he spent some time at the court of Charles I.,
and thence passing over to Holland assisted the Portuguese
ambassador to equip a fleet in aid of Portugal, and himself
brought it safely to Lisbon in October 1641. For the next three
years he was employed in various important military commis-
sions and further busied himself in defending by his pen the king's
title to his newly acquired throne. An intrigue with the beau-
tiful countess of Villa Nova, and her husband's jealousy, led to
his arrest on the igth of November 1644 on a false charge of
assassination, and he lay in prison about nine years. Though
his innocence was clear, the court of his Order, that of Christ,
influenced by his enemies, deprived him of his commenda and
sentenced him to perpetual banishment in India with a heavy
money fine, and the king would not intervene to save him.
Owing perhaps to the intercession of the queen regent of France
and other powerful friends, his sentence was finally commuted
into one of exile to Brazil. During his long imprisonment he
finished and printed his history of the Catalonian War, and also
wrote and published a volume of Spanish verses and some
religious treatises, and composed in Portuguese a volume of
homely philosophy, the Carlo, de Cuia de Casados and a Memorial
in his own defence to the king, which Herculano considered
" perhaps the most eloquent piece of reasoning in the language."
During his exile in Brazil, whither he sailed on the 1 7th of April
1655, he lived at Bahia, where he wrote one of his Epanaphoras
de varia historia and two parts of his masterpiece, the Apologos
dialogues. He returned home in 1659, and from then until
1663 we find him on and off in Lisbon, frequenting the celebrated
Academia dos Generosos, of which he was five times elected
president. In the last year he proceeded to Parma and Rome, by
way of England, and France, and Alphonso VI. charged him to
negotiate with the Curia about the provision of bishops for Portu-
guese sees and to report on suitable marriages for the king and
his brother. During his stay in Rome he published his Obras
morales, dedicated to Queen Catherine, wife of Charles II. of
England, and his Cartas familiares. On his way back to
Portugal he printed his Obras metricas at Lyons in May 1665,
and he died in Lisbon the following year.
^ Manuel de Mello's early Spanish verses are tainted with
Gongorism, but his Portuguese sonnets and cartas on moral
subjects are notable for their power, sincerity and perfection
of form. He strove successfully to emancipate himself from
foreign faults of style, and by virtue of his native genius, and his
knowledge of the traditional poetry of the people, and the best
Quinhentista models, he became Portugal's leading lyric poet
and prose writer of the i7th century. As with Camoens, im-
prisonments and exile contributed to make Manuel de Me'ilo a
great writer. His Letters, addressed to the leading nobles
ecclesiastics, diplomats and literati of the time, are written in a
conversational style, lighted up by flashes of wit and enriched
with apposite illustrations and quotations. His commerce with
the best authors appears in the Hospital das lettras, a brilliant
chapter of criticism forming part of the Apologos dialogaes.
His comedy in redondilhas, the Auto do Fidalgo Aprendiz, is one
of the last and quite the worthiest production of the school of
Gil Vicente, and may be considered an anticipation of Moliere's
Le Bourgeois genlilhomme.
There is no uniform edition of his works, but a list of them will
be found in his Obras morales, and the various editions are set out
in Innocencio da Silva's Diccionario bibliographico portueuez
See Dom Francisco Manuel de Mello, his Life and Writings bv
Edgar Prestage (Manchester, 1905), " D. Francisco Manuel de
Mello, documentos biographicos " and " D. Francisco Manuel de
Mello, obras autographas e ineditas," by the same writer, in the
Archwo histonco portuguez for 1909. Manuel de Mello's prose style
is considered at length by G. Cirot in Mariana historien (Bordeaux
1905), pp. 378 seq. ( E . p R-) '
MANUL (Felis manul), a long-haired small wild cat from the
deserts of Central Asia, ranging from Tibet to Siberia. The coat
is long and soft, pale silvery grey or light buff in hue, marked
with black on the chest and upper parts of the limbs, with trans-
verse stripes on the loins and rings on the tail of the same hue.
The Manul preys upon small mammals and birds. A separate
generic name, Trichaelurus, has been proposed for this species
by Dr K. Satunin.
MANURES AND MANURING. The term " manure " origin-
ally meant that which was " worked by hand " (Fr. manaeurre),
but gradually came to apply to any process by which the soil
could be improved. Prominent among such processes was that
of directly applying " manure " to the land, manure in this sense
being what we now call " farmyard manure " or "dung," the
excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other litter. Grad-
ually, however, the use of the term spread to other materials,
some of home origin, some imported, some manufactured by
artificial processes, but all useful as a means of improving the
fertility of the soil. Hence we have two main classes of manures:
(a) what may be termed " natural manures," and (b) "artificial
manures." Manures, again, may be divided according to the
materials from which they are made e.g. " bone manure,"." fish
manure," " wool manure," &c.; or according to the constituents
which they mainly supply e.g. " phosphatic manures," " potash
manures," " nitrogenous manures," or there may be numerous
combinations of these to form mixed or " compound " manures.
Whatever it be, the word " manure " is now generally applied to
anything which is used for fertilizing the soil. In America the
term " fertilizers " is more generally adopted, and in Great
Britain the introduction of the " Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
Act " has effected a certain amount of change in the same
direction. The modern tendency to turn attention less to the
consideration of manurial applications given to land and more
to the physical and mechanical changes introduced thereby in
the soil itself, would seem to be carrying the word " manure "
back more to its original meaning.
The subject of manures and their application involves a prior
consideration of plant life and its requirements. The plant,
growing in the soil, and surrounded by the atmosphere, derives
from these two sources its nourishment and means of growth
through the various stages of its development.
Chemical analysis has shown that plants are composed of water,
organic or combustible matters, and inorganic or mineral matters.
Water constitutes by far the greater part of a living plant ; a grass
crop will contain about 75% of water, a turnip crop 89 or 90%.
The organic or combustible matters are those which are lost, along
with the water, when the plant is burnt; the inorganic or mineral
matters are those which are left behind as an " ash after the burn-
ing. The combustible matter is composed of six elements: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and a little phosphorus. About
one-half of the combustible matter of plants is carbon. Along with
MANURES
6n
hydrogen and oxygen the carbon forms the cellulose, starch, sugar,
&c., which plants contain, and with these same elements and sulphur
the carbon forms the albuminoids of plants. The inorganic or mineral
matters comprise a comparatively small part of the plant, but they
contain, as essential constituents of plant life, the following elements:
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur.
In addition, other, but not essential, elements are found in the ash
e.g. sodium, silicon and chlorine, together with small quantities of
manganese and other rarer elements.
The above constituents that have been classed as " essential,"
are necessary for the growth of the plant, and absence of any one will
involve failure. This has been shown by growing plants in water
dissolved in which are salts of the elements present in plants. By
omitting in turn one or other of the elements aforesaid it is found
that the plants will not grow after they have used up the materials
contained in the seed itself. These elements are accordingly termed
" essential," and it therefore becomes necessary to inquire how
they are to be supplied.
The atmosphere is the great storehouse of organic plant food.
The leaves take up, through their stomata, the carbonic acid and
other gases of the atmosphere. The carbonic acid, under the in-
fluence of light, is decomposed in the chlorophyll cells, oxygen is
given off and carbon is assimilated, being subsequently built up into
the various organic bodies forming the plant's structure. It would
!. too, that plants can take up a small quantity of ammonia
by their leaves, and also water to some extent, but the free or un-
combined nitrogen of the air cannot be directly assimilated by the
of plants.
From the soil, on the other hand, the plant obtains, by means of
its roots, its mineral requirements, also sulphur and phosphorus,
and nearly all its nitrogen and water. Carbon, too, in the case of
fungi, is obtained from the decayed vegetable matter in the soil.
The roots are able not only to take up soluble salts that are presented
to them, but they can attack and render soluble the solid constit-
uents of the soil, thus transforming them into available plant food.
In this way important substances, such as phosphoric acid and potash,
are supplied to the plant, as also lime. Roots can further supply
themselves with nitrogen in the form of nitrates, the ammonia
and other nitrogenous bodies undergoing ready conversion into
nitrates in the soil. These various mineral constituents, being now
transferred to the plant, go to form new tissue, and ultimately
or else accumulate in the sap and are deposited on the older
tissue.
Whether the nitrogen of the air can be utilized by plants or not
has been long and strenuously discussed, Boussingault first, and then
Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh, maintaining that there was no evidence
of this utilization. But it was always recognized that certain plants,
clover for example, enriched the land with nitrogen to an extent
greater than could be accounted for by the mere supply to them of
nitrates in the soil. Ultimately Hellriegel supplied the explanation
by showing that, at all events, certain of the Leguminosae, by the
medium of swellings or " nodules " on their roots, were able to fix
the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, and to convert it into nitrates
for the use of the plant. This was found to be the result of the action
of certain organisms within the nodules themselves, which in turn
5 in a
been
pruuii uigaiuauiB \\HIIIII uu uuuuics menisci vcs, WIIK.II 111 LU
fed upon the carbohydrates of the plant and were thus living ir
state of " symbiosis ' with it. So far, however, this has not be
| shown to be the case with any other plants than the Leguminosae,
I and, though it is asserted by some that many other plants can take up
the nitrogen of the air directly through their leaves, there is no clear
evidence as yet of this.
We must now consider how the different requirements of the
| plant in regard to the elements necessary to maintain its life
] and to build up its structure affect the question of manuring.
Under conditions of natural growth and decay, when no
crops are gathered in, or consumed on the land by live stock,
the herbage, on dying down and decaying, returns to the atmos-
phere and the soil the elements taken from them during life;
but, under cultivation, a succession of crops deprives the land
of the constituents which are essential to healthy and luxuriant
growth. Without an adequate return to the land of the matters
removed in the produce, its fertility cannot be maintained for
many years. In newly opened countries, where old forests
have been cleared and the land brought under cultivation, the
virgin soil often possesses at first a high degree of fertility, but
gradually its productive power decreases from year to year.
1 Where land is plentiful and easy to be obtained it is more con-
venient to clear fresh forest land than to improve more or less
exhausted land by the application of manure, labour and skill.
But in all densely peopled countries, and where the former mode
of cultivation cannot be followed, it is necessary to resort to
artificial means to restore the natural fertility of the land and to
maintain and increase its productiveness. That continuous
cropping without return of manure ends in deterioration of the
soil is well seen in the case of the wheat-growing areas in America.
Crops of wheat were taken one after another, the straw was
burned and nothing was returned to the land; the produce began
to fall off and the cultivators moved on to fresh lands, there to
meet, in time, with the same experience; and now that the avail-
able land has been more or less intensely occupied, or that new
land is too far removed for ready transport of the produce, it has
been found necessary to introduce the system of manuring, and
America now manufactures and uses for herself large quantities
of artificial and other manures.
That the same exhaustion of soil would go on in Great Britain,
if unchecked by manuring, is known to every practical farmer,
and, if evidence were needed, it is supplied by the renowned
Rothamsted experiments of L,awes and Gilbert, on a heavy
land, and also by the more recent Woburn experiments of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, conducted on a light
sandy soil. The following table will illustrate this point, and
show also how under a system of manuring the fertility is main-
tained:
TABLE I. Showing Exhaustion of Land by continuous Cropping without Manure, and the maintenance of fertility through manuring.
(Rothamsted 50 years; Woburn 30 years.)
i. Rothamsted (heavy land).
Crop.
Plot.
Treatment.
Average yield of corn per acre.
8 years,
1844-1851.
10 years,
1852-1861.
10 years,
1862-1871.
10 years,
1872-1881.
10 years,
1882-1891.
10 years,
1892-1901.
Average
of 50 years,
1852-1901.
Wheat
Barley
3
2
7-2
I-O
Unmanured continuously ....
Farm-yard manure yearly ....
Unmanured continuously ....
Farm-yard manure yearly . . .
Bush.
17-2
28-0
Bush.
15-9
34-2
22-4
45-o
Bush.
H-5
37-5
17-5
51-5
Bush.
10-4
28-7
13-7
50-2
Bush.
12-6
38-2
12-7
47-6
Bush.
12-3
39-2
IO-O
44-3
Bush.
'3-1
35-6
5'3
47-7
2. Woburn (light land).
Crop.
Plot
Treatment.
Average yield of corn per acre.
10 years,
1877-1886.
10 years,
1887-1896.
10 years,
1897-1906.
Average of
30 years,
1877-1906.
Wheat
Barley-
nb
,?b
Unmanured continuously ....
Farm-yard manure yearly ....
Unmanured continuously ....
Farm-yard manure yearly ....
Bush.
17-4
26-7
23-0
40-0
Bush.
14-5
27-8
18-1
39-9
Bush.
10-8
24-0
13-3
36-6
.Bush.
14-2
26-2
18-1
jg-a
6l2
MANURES
Whereas on the heavier and richer land of Rothamsted the
produce of unmanured wheat has fallen in 58 years from 17-2
bushels to 12-3 bushels, on the lighter and poorer soil of Woburn
it has fallen in 30 years from 17-4 bushels to 10-8 bushels; barley
has in 50 years at Rothamsted gone from 22-4 bushels to 10
bushels, whilst at Woburn (which is better suited for barley)
it has fallen in 30 years from 23 bushels to 13-3 bushels. At both
Rothamsted and Woburn the application of farm-yard manure
has kept the produce of wheat and barley practically up to what
it was at the beginning, or even increased it. Similar conclu-
sions can be drawn from the use of artificial manures at each of
the experimental stations named, exemplifying the fact that
with suitable manuring crops of wheat or barley can be grown
years after year without the land undergoing deterioration,
whereas if left unmanured it gradually declines in fertility.
Practical proof has further been given of this in the well-known
" continuous corn-growing " system pursued, in his regular
farming, by Mr John Prout of Sawbridgeworth, Herts, and sub-
sequently by his son, Mr W. A. Prout, since the year 1862. By
supplying, in the form of artificial manures, the necessary con-
stituents for his crops, Mr Prout was enabled to grow year after
year, with only an occasional interval for a clover crop and to
allow of cleaning the land, excellent crops of wheat, barley and
oats, and without, it may be added, the use of farm-yard manure
at all.
In considering the economical use of manures on the land
regard must be had to the following points: (i) the require-
ments of the crops intended to be cultivated; (2) the physical
condition of the soil; (3) the chemical composition of the soil; and
(4) the composition of the manure. Briefly stated, the guiding
principle of manuring economically and profitably is to meet
the requirements of the crops intended to be cultivated, by incor-
porating with the soil, in the most efficacious states of combina-
tion, the materials in which it is deficient, or which the various
crops usually grown on the farm do not find in the land in a
sufficiently available condition to ensure an abundant harvest.
Soils vary greatly in composition, and hence it will be readily
understood that in one locality or on one particular field a certain
manure may be used with great benefit, while in another field
the same manure has little or no effect upon the produce.
For plant life to thrive certain elements are necessary, viz.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, among
the organic or combustible matters, and among the inorganic
or mineral matters, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phos-
phorus and sulphur. We must now examine the extent to which
these necessary elements occur in either of the two great store-
houses, the atmosphere and the soil, and how their removal in
the form of crops may be made up for by the use of manures, so
that the soil may be maintained in a state of fertility. Further,
we must consider what functions these elements perform in
regard to plant life, and, lastly, the forms in which they can best
be applied for the use of crops. -.
Of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen there is no lack, the atmo-
sphere providing carbonic acid in abundance, and rain giving
the elements hydrogen and oxygen, so that these are supplied
from natural sources. Iron, magnesium and sulphur also are
seldom or never deficient in soils, and do not require to be
supplemented by manuring. Accordingly, the elements for which
there is the greatest demand by plants, and which the soil does
not provide in sufficiency, are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
and, possibly, calcium. Manuring, apart from the physical and
mechanical advantages which it confers upon soils, practically
resolves itself, therefore, into the supply of nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium, and it is with the supply of these that we shall
accordingly deal in particular.
I. Nitrogen. Though we are still far from knowing what are
the exact functions which nitrogen fulfils in plant life, there is no
doubt as to the important part which it plays in the vegetable
growth of the plant and in the formation of stem and leaf. Without
a sufficiency of nitrogen the plant would be stunted in growth.
Its growth, indeed, may be said to be measured by the supply of
nitrogen, for while mineral constituents like phosphoric acid and
potash are only taken up to the extent that the plant can use them
i.e. according to its rate of growth, this actual growth itself would
seem to be determined by the extent of the nitrogen supply. This
it is which causes the ready response given to a crop by the applica-
tion of some quickly-acting nitrogenous material like nitrate of soda,
and which is marked by the dark-green colour produced and the
pushing-on of the growth. Similarly, this use of nitrogen, by pro-
longing growth, defers maturity, while over-use of nitrogen tends
to produce increase of leaf and lateness of ripening. Along with this
growth of the vegetative portions, and seen, in the case of corn crops,
mainly in the straw, there is a corresponding decrease, from the use
of nitrogen in excess, in the quality of the grain. In corn a smaller
grain and lesser weight per bushel are the result of over-nitrogen
manuring. The composition of the grain is likewise affected, becom-
ing more nitrogenous. With crops, however, where rapid green
growth is required, nitrogen effects the purpose well, though here,
too, over-manuring with nitrogen will tend to produce rankness and
coarseness of growth. Experiments at Rothamsted and elsewhere,
as well as everyday practice of the farm, bear testimony to the
paramount importance of nitrogen-supply, and to the crops it is
capable of raising. This applies not only to corn crops of all kinds,
but to root crops, grass, potatoes, &c. Leguminous crops alone seem
to have no need of it. In view of this practical experience, Liebig's
" mineral theory " according to which he laid down that plants
only needed to have mineral constituents, such as phosphoric acid,
potash and lime, supplied to them reads strangely nowadays.
The use of mineral manures without nitrogen other than that already
present in the soil or supplied in rain has been shown, alike at
Rothamsted and Woburn, to produce crops of wheat and barley
little better than those from unmanured land. The lack of nitrogen
in ordinary cultivated soils is much more marked than is that of
mineral constituents, and consequently even with the application
of nitrogen alone (as by the use of nitrate of soda or sulphate of
ammonia), good crops have been grown for a large number of years.
This has been shown both at Rothamsted and at Woburn. On the
other hand, experiments at these stations have demonstrated that
better and more lasting results are obtained by the judicious use of
nitrogenous materials in conjunction with phosphates and potash.
The form in which nitrogen is taken up by plants is mainly, if not
wholly, that of nitrates, which are readily-soluble salts. Ammonia
and other nitrogenous bodies undergo in the soil, through the agency
of nitrifying organisms present in it (Bacterium nitrificans, &c.),
rapid conversion into nitrates, and as such are easily assimilable
by the plant. Similarly, they are the constituents which are most
readily removed in drainage, and hence the adequate supply of nitro-
gen for the plant's use is a constant problem in agriculture. Experi-
ments on the rate of removal of nitrates from the soil by drainage
showed that every inch of rain passing through the drains caused a
loss of 2j Ih of nitrogen per acre (Voelcker and Frankland). At the
same time, soils, as Way showed, have the power of absorbing, in
different degrees, ammonia from its solution in water, and when
salts of ammonia are passed through soils the ammonia alone is
absorbed, the acids passing, generally in combination with lime, into
the drainage.
Other experiments at Rothamsted on drainage showed that,
though large quantities of ammonia salts were applied to the land,
the drainage water contained merely traces of ammonia, but, on the
other hand, nitrates in quantity, thus proving that it is as nitrates,
and not as ammonia, that plants mainly, if not entirely, take up their
nitrogenous food.
From these investigations it follows that much more nitrogen
must be added to the land than would be needed to produce a given
increase in the crop. Nitrogen, then, being so all-important, the ques-
tion is, where is it to come from? We have seen that the leaves take
up only minute quantities of ammonia, comparatively small amounts
are supplied in the rain, dew, snow, &c.,' and in the case of Legumi-
nosae alone have we any evidence of plants being able to provide
themselves with nitrogen from atmospheric sources. Some few
organisms present in fertile soils, e.g. Azotobacter chroococcum, have
also the power, under certain conditions, of fixing the free nitrogen
of the atmosphere without the intervention of a " host," but all these
sources would be very inadequate to meet the demands of an
intensive cultivation. An ordinary fertile arable soil will not show, on
analysis, much more than -15% of nitrogen, and it is evident that
the great source of supply of the needed nitrogen must be the direct
manuring of the sqil with materials containing nitrogen. These
materials will be considered in detail later.
2. Phosphorus. This is the most important mineral element
which has to be supplied to the soil by the agency of manuring.
It occurs in ordinary fertile soils to the extent of only about '15%!
reckoned as phosphoric acid, and though its absence in sufficiency
not so marked or so soon shown under prolonged cultivation as is that
of nitrogen, yet the fact that it is needed by all classes of crops, and
that its application in manurial form is attended with great benefits,
makes its supply one of great importance. From the time that Liebig,
in 1840, suggested the treatment of bones with sulphuric acid in orde
to make them more readily available for the use of crops, and that
1 The amount of nitrogen thus deposited annually was found at
Rothamsted to be 7-21 ft per acre.
MANURES
613
the late Sir John Lawes (in 1843) began the dissolving of mineral
phosphates for the purpose of manufacturing superphosphate, the
artificial manure " trade took its rise, and ever since then the whole
globe has been exploited for the purpose of obtaining the raw phos-
phatic materials which form the base of the artificial manures of the
past and of the present day. The functions which phosphoric acid
Fulfils in plant life would appear to be connected rather with the
maturing of the plant than with the actual growth of the structure.
Phosphates are found concentrated in those parts of the plant where
cell growth and reproduction are most active. More especially is
this the case with the seed in which phosphates are present in greatest
quantity. While nitrogen delays maturity, phosphoric acid has
just the opposite effect, and cereal crops not sufficiently supplied
with it ripen much more tardily than do others. Moreover, the grain
is formed more early when phosphatic manures have been given
than when they are withheld. Phosphates increase the proportion
of corn to straw, and, as regards the grain itself, they render it less
nitrogenous, richer in phosphates, and altogether improve its
quality.
While these are the principal functions of phosphates, they also
exercise an influence on the young plant in its early stages. This
is well seen in the almost universal practice of applying super-
phosphate to the young turnip or swede crop in order to push it
beyond the attack of '"fly." Undoubtedly phosphates in readily
available form stimulate the young seedling, enabling it to develop
root growth, and, later on, causing the plant to " tiller out " well.
Phosphoric acid occurs in the soil bound up with the oxides of iron
and alumina, or, it may be, with lime, and the extent to which it
may become useful to plants will depend largely upon the readiness
with which it becomes available. For the purpose of ascertaining
this different analytical methods have been suggested, the best
known one being that of B. Dyer, in which a I % solution of citric
acid is used as a solvent. As a result of experimenting with
Rothamsted soils of known capability it has been put forward that
if a soil shows, by this treatment, less than -01 % of phosphoric
acid it is in need of phosphatic manuring.
Experiments carried on for many years at Rothamsted and
Woburn have clearly established the beneficial effects of phosphatic
manuring on corn crops, for though no material increase marks
the application of mineral manures in the absence of nitrogen, yet
the results when phosphates and nitrogen are used together are
very much greater than when nitrogen alone has been applied ; and
this is true as regards not only the better ripening and quality of
the grain, but also as regards the actual crop increase.
With root crops phosphates are almost indispensable; and,
owing to the limited power which these crops have of utilizing
the phosphoric acid in the soil, the supply of a readily avail-
able phosphatic manure like superphosphate is of the highest
importance.
The assimilation of phosphoric acid goes on in a cereal crop after
the time of flowering and to a later date than does that of nitrogen
and potash, and it is ultimately stored in the seed. Soils possess
a retentive power for phosphoric acid which enables the latter
to be conserved and not removed to any extent by drainage.
This function ^is exercised mainly by the presence of oxide of
iron. Alumina acts in a similar way. In the case of soils that
contain clay only traces of phosphoric acid are found in the drainage
water.
3. Potassium. The element third in importance, which requires
to be supplied by manuring, is potassium, or, as it is generally ex-
pressed, potash. This in its functions resembles phosphoric acid
somewhat, being concerned rather with the mature development
of the plant than with its actual increase of growth. Like phos-
phoric acid, potash is found concentrated throughout the plant in
the early stages of its growth, but, unlike it, is in the case of a
cereal crop all taken up by the time of full bloom, whereas with
phosphoric acid the assimilation continues later. Potash would
appear to have an intimate connexion with the quality of crops,
and to be favourable to the production of seed and fruit rather than
to stem and leaf development. Certain crops, such as vegetables,
fruit, hops, as well as root crops generally, make special demands
upon potash supply, and, as checking the tendency to over-develop-
ment of leaf, &c., induced by nitrogenous manures when used alone,
potash has great practical importance. Potash appears to be
bound up in a special way with the process of assimilation, for it
has been clearly shown that whenever potash is deficient the forma-
tion of the carbohydrates, such as sugar, starch and cellulose, does
not go on properly. Hellriegel and Wilfarth showed by experiment
the dependence of starch formation on an adequate supply of potash.
Cereal grains remained small and undeveloped when potash was
withheld, because the formation of starch did not go on. The
same effect has been strikingly shown in the Rothamsted experi-
ments with mangels, a plot receiving potash salts as manure giving
a crop of roots nearly 2j times as heavy as that grown on a plot
which has received no potash. In this case the increase is due
almost entirely to the sugar and other carbohydrates elaborated
in the leaves, and not to any increase of mineral constituents.
The effect of potash on maturity is somewhat uncertain, inasmuch
as in the case of grain crops it would appear to delay maturity and
to hasten it in that of root crops.
The influence of potash on particujar crops is very marked.
On clovers and other leguminous crops it is highly beneficial, while
on grass land it is of particular importance as inducing the spread
of clovers and other leguminous herbage. This is well seen in the
Rothamsted grass experiments, where with a mineral manure
containing potash one-half of the herbage is leguminous in nature,
whereas the same manure without potash gives only 15% of legu-
minous plants. Similarly, where nitrogen is used by itself and no
potash given there are no leguminous plants at all to be found.
Potash occurs in an ordinary fertile soil to the extent of about "20 %;
a sandy soil will have less, a clay soil may have considerably more.
Potash, however, is mostly bound up in the soil in the form of
insoluble silicates, and these are often in a far from available form,
but require cultivation, the use of lime and other means for getting
them acted on by the air and moisture, and so liberating the potash.
According to B. Dyer's method of ascertaining the availability of
potash in soils, the amount of potash soluble in a I % citric acid
solution should be about -005%, otherwise the addition of potash
manures will be a requisite. In the case of soils containing much
lime a larger quantity would, no doubt, be needed.
Potash, like phosphoric acid, is readily retained by soils, and so
is not subject to any considerable losses by drainage. This retention
is exercised by the ferric-oxide and alumina in soils, but still more
so by the double silicates, and to some extent also by the humus
of the soil. Potash will be liberated from its salts by the action
of lime in the soil, the lime taking the place of the potash. Lime
is, therefore, of much importance in setting free fresh stores of
potash. Soda salts also, when in considerable excess, are able to
liberate potash from its compounds, and to this is probably due, in
many cases, the beneficial action attending the use of common salt.
4. Calcium. Though calcium, or lime, is found in sufficiency in
most cultivated soils, there are, nevertheless, soils in which lime
is clearly deficient and where that deficiency has shown itself in
practice. Moreover, so comparatively easy is the removal of lime
from the soil by drainage, and so important is the part which lime
plays in liberating potash from its compounds, and in helping to
retain bases in the soil so that they are not lost in drainage, that
the significance of lime cannot be ignored. Further, the avail-
ability of both potash and phosphoric acid in the soil has been
found to be much increased by the presence of lime. Lime, as
carbonate of calcium, is also necessary for the process of nitrification
to go on in the soil. Some sandy soils, and even some clays, contain
so Tittle lime as to call for the direct supply of lime as an addition
to the soil. When this is the case nothing can adequately take
the place of lime, and in this sense lime may be called a " manure."
In the majority of cases, however, the practice of liming or chalk-
ing, which was a common one in former times, was resorted to
mainly because of the ameliorating effects it produced on the land,
both in a mechanical and in a physical direction. Thus, on clay
soil it flocculates the particles, rendering the soil less tenacious of
moisture, improving the drainage and making the soil warmer.
Nor must the directly chemical results be overlooked, for in addition
to those already mentioned, of liberating plant food (chiefly pot-
ash and phosphoric acid), retaining bases, and aiding nitrification,
lime acts in a special way as regards the sourness or " acidity "
which is sometimes produced in land when lime is deficient. In
soils that are acid through the accumulation of humic acid nitrifica-
tion does not go on, and bacterial life is repressed. The addition
of lime has the effect of " sweetening " the land, and of restoring
its bacterial activity. This acidity is also seen in the occurrence of
the disease known as " finger and toe " in turnips, the fungus pro-
ducing this being one that thrives in an acid soil. It is only found
in soils poor in lime, and the only remedy for it is liming. The
growth of weeds like spurry, marigold, sorrel, &c., is also a sign of
land being wanting in lime. The most striking instance of this
" soil acidity " is that afforded by the Woburn experiments,
where, on a soil originally poor in lime, the soil has, through the
continuous use of ammonia salts, been impoverished of its lime to
such an extent that it has become quite sterile and is distinctly
acid in character. The application of lime, however, to such a soil
has had the effect of quite restoring its fertility.
The amount of lime which soils contain is a very variable one,
chalk soils being very rich in lime, whereas sandy and peaty soils
are generally very poor in it. If the amount of lime in a soil falls
below i % of carbonate of lime on the dried soil, the soil will sooner
or later require liming.
5. Magnesium. This is not known to be deficient in soils, although
an essential element in them, and it is seldom directly applied
as a mammal ingredient. Some natural potash salts, such as
kainit, contain magnesia salts in considerable quantity; but their
influence is not known to be of beneficial nature, though, like
common salt, magnesia salts will, doubtless, render some of the
potash in the soil available. At the same time magnesia salts are
not without their influence on crops, and experiments have been
undertaken at the Woburn experimental farm and elsewhere to
determine the nature of this influence. Carbonate of magnesia
has been tried in connexion with potato-growing, and, it is said,
with good results.
6. Iron. Iron is another essential ingredient of soil that is found
in abundance and does not call for special application in manurial
614
MANURES
form. Iron is essential for the formation of chlorophyll in the
leaves, and its presence is believed also to be beneficial for the
development of colour in flowers, and for producing flavour in
fruits and in vines especially. Ferrous sulphate has, partly with
this view, and partly for its fungus-resisting properties, been
suggested as a desirable constituent of manures. The function
performed by ferric oxide in the soil of retaining phosphoric
acid, potash and ammonia has been already alluded to.
7. Sulphur. This, the last of the " essential " elements, is seldom
specially employed in manurial form. There would appear to be
no lack of it for the plant's supply, and it is little required except
for the building-up, with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen,
of the albuminoids. There are few artificial manures which do not
contain considerable amounts of sulphur, notably superphosphate.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum) is sometimes applied to the land direct
as a way of giving lime; this is employed in the case of clover and
hops principally.
Having thus dealt with the essential ingredients which plants
must have, and which may require to be supplied to them in the
form of additional manures, we may briefly pass over the other
constituents found in plants, which may, or may not, be
given as manures.
8. Sodium. This is a widely distributed element. The influence
of common salt (chloride of sodium) in liberating, when used in
large excess, potash from the silicates in which it is combined in
the soil has been already referred to, and in this way common salt
and also nitrate of soda (the two forms in which soda salts are used
as manures) may have some benefit. The principal purpose for
which common salt, however, is used, is that of retaining moisture
in the land. It is specially useful in a dry season, or for succulent
crops such as cabbage, kale, &c., or again for plants of maritime
origin (such as mangels), which thrive near the sea shore.
9. Silicon. All soils contain silica in abundance. Though
silica forms so large a part of the ash of plants and is especially
abundant in the straw of cereals, there is no evidence that it is
required in plant life. Popularly, it is believed to " stiffen " the
stems of cereals and grasses, but plants grown without it will do
perfectly well. It would, however, appear that soluble silica does
lay some part in enabling phosphoric acid to be better assimilated
y the plant. Silicates, however, have not justified their use as
direct fertilizers.
10. Chlorine. A certain amount of chlorine is brought down in
the rain, and chlorides are also used in the form of common salt, with
the effect, as aforesaid, of liberating potash from silicates, when given
in excess, but there is no evidence as to any particular part which
the chlorine itself plays.
it. Manganese, &c. Manganese occurs in minute quantities in
most plants, and it, along with lithium (found largely in the tobacco-
plant), caesium, titanium, uranium and other rare elements, may
be found in soils. Experiments at the Woburn pot-culture station
and elsewhere, point to stimulating effects on vegetation produced
by the action of minute doses of salts of these elements, but, so far,
their use as manurial ingredients need not be considered in practice.
12. Humus. Though not an element, or itself essential, this
body, which may be described as decayed vegetable matter, is not
without importance in plant life. Of it, farmyard manure is to
a large extent composed, and many " organic manures," as they
are termed, contain it in quantity. Dead leaves, decayed vegeta-
tion, the stubble of cereal crops and many waste materials add
humus to the land, and this humus, by exposure to the air, is always
undergoing further changes in the soil, opening it out, distributing
carbonic acid through it, and supplying it, in its further decom-
position, with nitrogen. The principal effects of humus on the
soil are of a physical character, and it exercises particular benefit
through its power of retaining moisture. Humus, however, has
a distinct chemical action, in that it forms combinations with iron,
calcium and ammonia. It thus becomes one of the principal sources
of supply of the nitrogenous food of plants, and a soil rich in humus
is one rich in nitrogen. The nitrogen in humus is not directly
available as a food for plants, but many kinds of fungi and bacteria
are capable of converting it into ammonia, from which, by the
agency of nitrifying organisms, it is turned into nitrates and made
available for the use of plants. Humus is able to retain phosphoric
acid, potash, ammonia and other bases. So important were the
functions of humus considered at one time that on this Thaer built
his " humus theory," which was, in effect, that, if humus was
supplied to the soil, plants required nothing more. This was based,
however, on the erroneous belief that the carbon, of which the bulk
of the plant consists, was derived from the humus of the soil, and
not, as we now know it to be, from the carbonic acid of the
atmosphere. This theory was in turn replaced by the " mineral
theory " of Liebig, and then both of them by the " nitrogen theory "
of Lawes and Gilbert.
We pass next to review, in the light of the foregoing, the
manures in common use at the present day.
Manures, as already stated, may be variously classified
according to the materials they are made from, the constituents
which they chiefly supply, or the uses to which they are put.
But, except with certain few manures, such as nitrate of soda,
sulphate of ammonia and potash salts, which are used purely for
one particular purpose, it is impossible to make any definite
classification of manures, owing to the fact that the majority of
them serve more than one purpose, and contain more than one
fertilizing constituent of value. It is only on broad lines, there-
fore, that any division can be framed. Between so-called
" natural " manures like farm-yard manure, seaweed, wool
waste, shoddy, bones, &c., which undergo no particular artificial
preparation, and maufactured manures like superphosphate,
dissolved bones, and other artificially prepared materials, there
may, however, be a distinction drawn, as also between these
and such materials as are imported and used without further
preparation, e.g. nitrate of soda, kainit, &c. On the whole, the
best classification to attempt is that according to the fertilizing
constituents which each principally supplies, and this will be
adopted here, with the necessary qualifications.
I. NITROGENOUS (WHOLLY OR MAINLY) MANURES
These divided themselves into : (a) Natural nitrogenous
manures; (b) imported or manufactured manures.
a. NATURAL NITROGENOUS MANURES
Under this heading come farm-yard manure; seaweed; refuse
cakes and meals; wool dust and shoddy; hoofs and horns; blood;
soot ; sewage sludge.
Farm-yard Manure. This is the most important, as well as the
most generally used, of all natural manures. It consists of the
solid and liquid excreta of animals that are fed at the homestead,
together with the material used as litter. The composition of
farm-yard manure will vary greatly according to the conditions
under which it is produced. The principal determining factors
are (i) the nature and age of the animals producing it, (2) the food
that is given them, (3) the kind and quantity of litter used, (4)
whether it be made in feeding-boxes, covered yards or open yards,
(5) the length of time and the way in which it has been stored.
The following analysis represents the general composition of well-
made farm-yard manure, m which the litter used is straw :
Water 75-42
"Organic matter 16-52
Oxide of iron and alumina . . . . -36
Lime 2-28
Magnesia . -14
Potash -48
Soda -08
fPhosphoric acid -44
Sulphuric acid -12
Chlorine -02
Carbonic acid, &c. 1-38
Silica 2-76
*Containing nitrogen =
ammonia
59 %i which is equal to
-72%
tEqual to phosphate of lime -96
Put broadly, farm-yard manure will contain from 65 to 80 % of
water, from -45 to -65 % of nitrogen, from -4 to -8 % of potash, and
from -2 to -5 % of phosphoric acid.
This analysis shows that farm-yard manure contains all the
constituents, without exception, which are required by cultivated
crops in order to bring them to perfection, and hence it may be called
a " perfect " manure. Dung, it may be observed, contains a great
variety of organic and inorganic compounds of various degrees of
solubility, and this complexity of composition difficult, if not
impossible, to imitate by art is one of the circumstances which
render farm-yard manure a perfect as well as a universal manure.
The excrements of different kinds of animals vary in composition,
and those of the same animal will vary according to the nature and
quantity of the food given, the age of the animal, and the way it
is generally treated. Thus, a young animal which is growing,
needs food to produce bone and muscle, and voids poorer dung than
one which is fully grown and only has to keep up its condition.
Similarly, a milking-cow will produce poorer dung than a fattening
bullock. Again, cake-feeding will produce a richer manure than
feeding without cake. Straw is the most general litter used, but
peat-moss litter, sawdust, &c., may be used, and they will affect
the quality of the manure to some extent. Peat-moss is the best
absorbent and has a higher manurial value than straw. Box-fed
manure, and that made in covered yards will suffer much less loss
than that made in an open yard. Lastly, manure kept in a heap
covered with earth will be much richer than that left in an uncovered
heap. The solid and liquid excrements differ much in composition,
MANURES
615
for, while the former contain principally phosphoric acid, lime,
magnesia, and silica and comparatively little nitrogen, the urine
is almost destitute of phosphoric acid, and abounds in alkaline salts
(including salts of potash) and in nitrogenous organic matters,
among which are urea and uric acid, and which on decomposition
yield ammonia. Unless, therefore, the two kinds of excrements
are mixed, a perfect manure supplying all the needs of the plant is
not obtained; care must accordingly be taken to absorb all the urine
by the litter. Farm-yard manure, it is well known, is much affected
by the length of time and the way in which it has been kept. Fresh
dung is soluble in water only to a limited extent, and, in consequence,
it acts more slowly on vegetation, and the action lasts longer than
when dung is used which has been kept some time; fresh dung is
therefore generally used in autumn or winter, and thoroughly rotten
dung in spring, when an immediate forcing effect is required.
The changes which farm-yard manure undergoes on keeping, have
been made the subject of much inquiry. In Germany, Maercker
and Schneidewind ; in France, Muntz and Girard; and in England,
Voelcker, Wood, Russell and others, have investigated these losses,
coming to very similar conclusions concerning them. Perhaps the
most complete set of experiments is one conducted at the Woburn
experimental station and extending over three years (18991901).
The dung was cake-fed manure made in feeding-boxes from which
no drainage issued, and, after removal, it was kept in a heap,
covered with earth. Hence it was made under as good conditions
as possible; but, even then, the losses after deduction for live-
weight increase of the animals were found to be 15% of the total
nitrogen of the food, during the making, and 34% (or a further 19%)
during storing and by the time the manure came to be put on the
land. Accordingly, under ordinary farm conditions it is quite
clear that only about 50% of the nitrogen of the food given is re-
covered in the dung that goes on the land. This is the figure which
Lawes and Gilbert suggested in the practical application of their
Tables of Compensation for Unexhausted Manure Value.
During the fermentation of dung a large proportion of the non-
nitrogenous organic matters disappear in the forms of carbonic
acid and water, while another portion is converted into humic
acids which fix the ammonia gradually produced from the nitro-
genous constituents of the solid and liquid excreta. The mineral
matters remain behind entirely in the rotten dung, if care be taken
to prevent loss by drainage. For proper decomposition, both air
and moisture are requisite, while extreme dryness or too much
water will arrest the due fermentation of the mass.
Well-fermented dung is more concentrated and consequently
more efficacious than fresh farm-yard manure. Neither fresh nor
rotten dung contains any appreciable quantity of volatile ammonia,
and there is no advantage from applying gypsum, dilute acid,
superphosphate, kainit, or other substances recommended as fixers
of ammonia. If dung is carted into the field and spread out at
once in thin layers it will suffer comparatively little loss. But if
dung be kept for a length of time in shallow heaps, or in open
straw-yards and exposed to rain, it loses by drainage a considerable
proportion of its most valuable soluble fertilizing constituents.
Experiments with farm-yard manure kept in an open yard showed
that, after twelve months' exposure to the weather, nearly all the
soluble nitrogen and 78-2% of the soluble mineral matters were
lost by drainage (A. Voelcker). To prevent this loss, farmyard
manure, as had been pointed out, should, whenever possible, be
carted into the field, spread out at once, and ploughed in at the
convenience of the farmer. It is, however, not always practicable
to apply farm-yard manure just at the time it is made, and, as the
manure heap cannot be altogether dispensed with, it is necessary
to see how the manure may best be kept. The best dung is that
made in regular pits or feeding-boxes. In them the urine is
thoroughly absorbed, and, the manure being more compact through
the constant treading, air enters less freely and the decomposition
goes on less rapidly, the volatile matters, in consequence, not being
so readily lost. External agents, such as rain, wind, sun, &c., do
not affect the manure as they would in the case of open yards.
Next best to box-fed manure is that made in covered yards, then
that in sheds, and lastly that in open yards. When removed from
the box or yard, the manure should be put in a heap upon a floor
of clay or well-beaten-down earth, and then be covered with earth.
When kept in an open yard, care should be taken not to let spout-
ings of buildings lead on to it, and if there be a liquid-manure tank,
this might be pumped out over the manure again when the latter
is too dry.
The advantages of farm-yard manure consist, not only in its
supplying all the constituents of plant food, but also in the improved
physical condition of the soil which results from its application,
inasmuch as the land is thereby kept porous, and air is allowed
free access. While, however, farm-yard manure has these advan-
tages, experience has shown that artificial manures, properly
selected so as to meet the requirements of the crops intended to be
grown on the particular land, may be employed to greater advantage.
In farm-yard manure about two-thirds of the weight is water
and one-third dry matter; a large bulk thus contains only a small
proportion of fertilizing substances, and expense is incurred for
carriage of much useless matter when dung has to be carted to
distant fields. When a plentiful supply of good farm-yard manure
can be produced on the farm or bought at a moderate price in the
immediate neighbourhood, it is economy to use it either alone or
in conjunction with artificial manures; but when food is dear and
fattening does not pay, or farm-yard manure is expensive to buy,
it will be found more economical to use artificial manures. This
has obtained confirmation from the experience of Mr Prout, at
Sawbridgeworth, Herts, where since 1866, successive crops of corn
have been grown, and entirely with the use of artificial manures.
The real difficulty with farm-yard manure is to get enough of it,
and, if it were available in sufficiency, it would be safe to say that
farmers generally would not require to go farther in regard to the
manuring of any of the crops of the farm. Moreover, experiments
at Rothamsted and Woburn have shown of how " lasting " a cha-
racter farm-yard manure is, its influence having told for some 15
to 20 years after its application had ceased.
Light land is benefited by farm-yard manure through its supplying
to the soil organic matter, and imparting to it " substance " whereby
it becomes more consolidated and is better able to retain the manurial
ingredients given to it. By improving the soil's moisture-holding
capacity, moreover, " burning " of the land is prevented.
With heavy clay soils the advantages are that these are kept
more open in texture, drainage is improved, and the soil rendered
easier of working. On light land, well-rotted manure is best to
apply; and in spring, whereas on heavy land freshly-made, " long,"
manure is best, and should be put on in autumn or winter.
Farm-yard manure, where the supply is limited, is mostly saved
for the root-crop, which, however, generally needs a little super-
phosphate to start it, as farm-yard manure is not sufficiently rich
in this constituent. It serves a great purpose in retaining the
needed moisture in the soil for the root crop.
For potato-growing, for vegetables, and in market-gardening,
farm-yard manure is almost indispensable. On grass-land and on
clover-ley it is also very useful, and in the neighbourhood of large
towns is employed greatly for the production of hay.
For corn crops also, and especially for wheat on heavy land,
farm-yard manure is much used, and, in a dry season in particular,
shows excellent results, though experiments at Rothamsted and
Woburn have shown that, on heavy and light land alike, heavier
crops of wheat and barley can be produced in average seasons by
artificial manures.
Seaweed. Along the sea-coast seaweed is collected, put in heaps
and allowed to rot, being subsequently used on the land, just as
farm-yard manure is. According to the nature of the weed and its
water-contents, it may have from -3 to I % of nitrogen, or more,
with potash in some quantity.
Green-manuring. Though properly belonging to cultivation
rather than to manuring, and acting chiefly as a means of improving
the condition of the soil, the practice of green-manuring carries
with it manurial benefits also, in that it supplies humus and nitrogen
to the soil, and provides a substitute for farm-yard manure. The
ploughing-in of a leguminous green-crop which has collected nitrogen
from the atmosphere should result in a greater accumulation of
nitrogen for a succeeding corn-crop, and thus supply the cheapest
form of manuring. Green-manuring is most beneficial on light
land, poor in vegetable matter.
Manure Cakes, Malt Dust, Spent Hops, Sfc. Many waste materials
of this kind are used because of their supplying, in the form of
nitrogenous organic matter, nitrogen for crop uses. The nitrogen
in these is of somewhat slow-acting, but lasting, nature. In addition
to nitrogen, some of these materials, e.g. rape cake, cotton cake
and castor cake, contain appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid
and potash. Rape cake, or land cake," as it is called in Norfolk,
is used considerably for wheat. It is also believed to be a pre-
ventive of wireworm, and so is often employed for potatoes and
root-crops. Rape-seed from which the oil has been extracted by
chemical means, and which is called " rape refuse," is made use of
in hopgardens as a slowly acting supplier of nitrogen. It will
contain 4 to 5 % of nitrogen with 3 to 4 % of phosphates. Damaged
cotton and other feeding-cakes, no longer fit for feeding, are ground
into meal and put on the land. Castor cake is directly imported
for manurial purposes, and will have up to 5% of nitrogen with
4 to 5% of phosphates. Spent hops, malt dust and other waste
materials are similarly used. The principal use of these materials
is on light land,- and to give bulk to the soil while supplying nitrogen
in suitable form.
Wool-dust, Shoddy, &c. The clippings from wool, the refuse from
cloth factories, silk, fur and hair waste, carpet clippings and similar
waste materials are comprised in this category. They are valuable
purely for their nitrogen, and should be purchased according to
their nitrogen-contents. They are favourite materials with hop-
growers and fruit-farmers, whose experience leads them to prefer
a manure which supplies its nitrogen in organic form, and which
acts continuously, if not too readily. It is the custom in hop-lands
to manure the soil annually with large quantities of these waste
materials till it has much fertility stored up in it for succeeding
crops. According to its nature, wool-dust or shoddy may contain
anything from 3 % of nitrogen up to 14 %.
Leather is another waste material of the same class, but the
process of tanning it has undergone makes its nitrogen but very
slowly available and it is avoided, in consequence, as a manure.
6i6
MANURES
There have been several processes started with the object of render-
ing leather more useful as a manure.
Hoofs and Horns. The clippings and shavings from horn factories
are largely used by some hop-growers, and, though very slow in
their action, they will contain 14 to 15% of nitrogen. They are
sometimes very finely ground and sold as " keronikon," chiefly
for use in compound artificial manures.
Dried Blood is another purely nitrogenous material, which how-
ever seldom finds its way to the farmer, being used up eagerly
by the artificial manure maker. It will contain from 12 to 14%
of nitrogen. It is obtained by simply evaporating down the blood
obtained from slaughter-houses. It is the most rapidly acting
of the organic nitrogenous materials enumerated, and, when obtain-
able, is a favourite manure with fruit-growers, being also used for
root and vegetable growing.
Soot is an article of very variable nature. It owes its manurial
value mainly to the ammonia salts it contains, and a good sample
will have about 4% of ammonia. It is frequently adulterated,
being mixed with ashes, earth, &c. Flue sweepings of factory
chimneys are sometimes sold as soot, but possess little value. Be-
sides the ammonia that soot contains, there would undoubtedly
seem to be a value attaching to the carbonaceous matter. Soot is
a favourite top-dressing for wheat on heavy land, and is efficacious
in keeping off slugs, &c. Speaking generally, the lighter a sample
of soot is the more likely is it to be genuine.
Sewage Manure. Where methods of dealing with the solid
matters of sewage are in operation, it frequently happens that
these matters are dried, generally with the aid of lime, and sold
locally. Occasionally they are prepared with the addition of other
fertilizing materials and made up as special manures. It may be
taken for granted that sewage refuse by itself is not worth transport-
ing to any distance. When made up with lime, the " sludge," as
it is generally termed, is often useful because of the lime it contains.
But, on the whole, the value of such preparations has been greatly
exaggerated. Where land is in need of organic matter, or where
it is desirable to consolidate light land by the addition of material
of this class, sludge may, however, have decided value on mechanical
and physical grounds, but such land requires to be near at hand.
b. Imported or Manufactured Nitrogenous Manures.
These are nitrate of soda; sulphate of ammonia; calcium cyana-
mide; calcium nitrate.
Nitrate of Soda. This is the best known and most generally used
of purely nitrogenous manures. It comes from the rainless districts
of Chile and Peru, from which it was first shipped about the year
1830. By 1899 the export had reached to 1,344,550 tons. It is
uncertain what its origin is, but it is generally believed to be the
deposit from an ancient sea which was raised by volcanic eruption
and its waters evaporated. Another theory puts it as the deposit
from the saline residues of fresh-water streams. The crude deposit
is termed caliche, and from this (which contains common salt and
sulphates of soda, potash and lime) the nitrate is crystallized out
and obtained as a salt containing 95 to 96% pure nitrate of
soda. It is sold on a basis of 95 % pure, and is but little subject to
adulteration.
As a quickly acting nitrogenous manure nitrate of soda has no
equal, and it is in great demand as a top-dressing for corn crops, also
for roots. On grass-land, if used alone, it tends to produce grass
but to exterminate leguminous herbage. Its tendency with corn
crops is to produce, if used in quantity, inferiority of quality in grain.
It can be employed in conjunction with superphosphate and other
artificial manures, though it should not be mixed with them long
before the mixture is to be put on. It is a very soluble salt, and the
nitrogen being in the form of nitrates, it can be readily taken up
by plants. On the other hand, it is readily removed from the soil
by drainage, and its effects last only for a single season. Owing to
its solubility, it requires to be used in much larger amount than the
crop actually will take up. On a heavy soil it has a bad influence
if used repeatedly and in quantity, causing the land to " run," and
making the tilth bad. Though, doubtless, exhaustive to the soil,
when used alone, there is no evidence yet of nitrate of soda causing
land to " run out," as has been shown to be the case with sulphate
of ammonia. One cwt. to the acre, is a common dressing for corn
crops, but for mangels it has been used to advantage up to 4 cwt.
per acre. As a top-dressing for corn crops it differs little in its crop-
results from its rival sulphate of ammonia, but in a dry season it
answers better, owing to its more ready solubility and quicker action,
whereas in a wet season sulphate of ammonia does better.
Sulphate of Ammonia. This is the great competitor with nitrate
of soda, and, like the latter, is useful purely as a nitrogenous manure.
It is obtained in the manufacture of gas and as a by-product in the
distillation of shale, &c., as also from coke ovens. By adding
sulphuric acid to the ammoniacal liquor distilled over from the coal,
&c., the salt is crystallized out. It is seldom adulterated, and, as
sold in commerce, generally contains 24 to 25 % of ammonia. It is
not quite so readily soluble as nitrate of soda; it does not act quite
so quickly on crops, but is less easily removed from the soil by
drainage, leaving also a slight amount of residue for a second crop.
It is nearly as efficacious as a top-dressing for corn crops as is nitrate
of soda, and for some crops, e.g. potatoes, it is considered superior.
It may also be used like nitrate of soda for root crops. On grass-land
its effect in increasing gramineous but reducing leguminous herbage
is similar to that of nitrate of soda, but with corn crops it has not
the same deteriorating influence on the quality of grain. It can be
mixed quite well with superphosphate and other artificial manures,
and is therefore a common form in which nitrogen is supplied in
compound manures. It does not produce the bad effect on the tilth
of certain soils that nitrate of soda does, but it is open to the objec-
tion that, if used continually on soil poor in lime, it will gradually
exhaust the soil and leave it in an acid condition, so that the soil is
unable to bear crops again until fertility is restored by the addition
of lime. A usual dressing of sulphate of ammonia is I cwt. per acre.
Calcium Cyanamide. This is a new product which represents
the earliest result of the utilization, in a commercial form, of atmo-
spheric nitrogen as a manurial substance. It is obtained by passing
nitrogen gas over the heated calcium carbide obtained in the electric
furnace, the nitrogen then uniting with the carbide to form calcium
cyanamide. The product contains from 19 to 20% of nitrogen,
and, though still under trial as a nitrogenous manure, it bids fair
to form a valuable source of supply, especially should the natural
deposits of nitrate of soda become exhausted. The cost of produc-
tion limits its manufacture to places where electrical power can be
cheaply generated. In its action it would seem to resemble most
closely sulphate of ammonia.
Cakium Nitrate. This is another product of the utilization of
atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial agent. Nitrogen and oxygen
are made to combine within the electric arc and the nitric acid pro-
duced is then combined with lime, forming nitrate of lime. Nitrate
of lime contains, as put on the market, about 13% of nitrogen. In
its action it should be very similar to nitrate of soda, with, possibly,
some added benefit to certain soils by reason of the lime it contains.
Like cyanamide, it is still in the experimental stage as regards its
agricultural use, and can only be produced where electric power is
cheaply obtainable.
Neither material is altogether free from objection, the cyanamide
heating when mixed with other manures and even with soil, and
being liable to give off acetylene gas owing to the presence of calcium
carbide, whereas the calcium nitrate is a salt which on exposure to a
moist atmosphere readily deliquesces.
II. PHOSPHATIC MANURES
Under the heading of manures that are used purely for their
phosphatic benefit to the soil are superphosphate and basic slag.
Superphosphate. This is the typical phosphatic manure, and is
the base of the numerous artificial manures used on the farm.
Superphosphate is made by dissolving raw phosphatic minerals in
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), the tribasic phosphate of lime which
these contain being converted into the so-called " soluble phosphate,"
sulphate of lime being formed at the same time. The first impetus
to the manufacture of superphosphate was given by Liebig, when
he suggested, in 1840, the treatment of bones with oil of vitriol
in order to make them act more quickly in the soil. Lawes
subsequently, in 1843, applied this to mineral phosphates, using
phosphorite, first of all, and- the great manufacture of mineral
superphosphate then began. Coprolites, as found in Cambridgeshire,
Suffolk, Bedfordshire and elsewhere were the raw materials at first
employed in the United Kingdom. But gradually the demand
for the new manure became so great that distant parts of the world
were searched to bring in the raw material for conversion into
superphosphate. Many new sources of supply have been worked,
and many worked out or abandoned in favour of better and richer
phosphates. Among these were the crystalline apatites of Canada
and Norway, French, Spanish and German (Lahn) phosphates, and,
at a later period, Carolina (land and river), Florida, Tennessee,
Somme, Belgian, Algerian and Tunisian phosphates. In addition
to these came other materials which, in their origin, were really of
the nature of guano, being bird deposits the ammoniacal matters of
which were gradually washed out. The mineral matters remained
and altered the composition of the original rock on which the guano
was deposited, thus forming rich deposits of phosphate of lime.
Such were the phosphates obtained from many of the islands of the
West Indies and South Pacific, and known under such various names
as Sombrero, Curacao, Aruba, Maiden Island, Megillones, Baker
Island, Fanning Islands, Lacepedes Islands, &c. guanos. Few of
these are now worked, but their place has been largely taken by the
rich deposits of Ocean Island and Christmas Island, which are of
similar origin. The principal supplies of phosphatic minerals at'
the present time come from Florida, Algeria, Tunis, Ocean Island
and Christmas Island. Other phosphates imported are Redonda
and Alta Vela phosphates, but these consist mainly of phosphate
of alumina, and are not used for superphosphate manufacture but
for phosphorus production.
Coprolites, as formerly used, contained from 50 to 60% of phos-
phate of lime, but they are not worked now, the richer sources, which
are also better adapted for superphosphate manufacture, having
taken their place. The amount of oxide of iron and alumina in raw
phosphates is of great importance, as phosphates containing these
bodies are liable to cause superphosphate to " go back " or form
what is called " reverted " phosphate, the percentage of " soluble
luble
MANURES
617
phosphate " being reduced thereby. For this reason many of the
older supplies have been replaced by newer and better ones. Florida
rock phosphate of high grade contains 75 to 78 % of phosphate of
lime, and Florida land pebble phosphate about 70%. Algerian
and Tunisian phosphates have from 55 to 65 % of phosphate of lime,
and are very free from iron and alumina, this fitting them especially
for superphosphate making. Tennessee phosphate has about 70%
of phosphate, Somme and Belgian phosphates 40 to 50%, while
Ocean Island and Christmas Island phosphates are of very high
grade and yield over 80 and up to 86 % of phosphate of lime. Super-
phosphate is made by finely grinding the raw phosphate and mixing
ft with oil of vitriol (chamber acid) ; what actual product is formed
is a matter of some uncertainty, but it is a phosphate soluble in water,
and believed to be mono-calcic phosphate. This is the true " soluble
phosphate," but in commercial transactions it is universal to express
the amount in terms of the original tribasic phosphate which has
been rendered soluble. Ordinary grades of mineral superphosphate
give from 25 to 27 % of soluble phosphate and higher grades 30 to
35%. On reaching the soil, the soluble phosphate becomes pre-
cipitated by the calcium and iron compounds in the soil. _ But it is
precipitated in a very fine form of division, in which it is readily
attacked by the plant roots. Superphosphate is used practically
for all crops, including cereals, clover and other leguminous crops.
Its use tends to early maturity in a crop. Its value for giving a start
to root crops is particularly recognized, and root crops generally
are dependent on it, as they have Tittle power of utilizing the phos-
phoric acid in the soil itself. On land poor in lime superphosphate
must be used with caution owing to its acid nature, and in such cases
an undissolved phosphate is preferable. The quantity in which it
is applied ranges from 2 and 3 cwt. per acre to 5 cwt. It suffers but
little loss through drainage, and will exercise an influence on crops
beyond the year of application.
Basic Slag. This other principal phosphatic manure is of more
recent origin, and is an undissolved phosphate. It is the waste
product of steel-making where the Thomas-Gilchrist or " basic "
process of manufacture has been employed. This process is used
with ores containing much phosphorus, the removal of which is
necessary in steel-manufacture. The " converters " which hold
the molten iron are lined with lime and magnesia, and the impurities
of the iron form a " slag " with these materials. For a long time
the slag was regarded as a waste product, but ultimately it was
found that, by grinding it very finely, it had distinct agricultural
value, and now its use is universal. Basic slag is of various grades,
containing 12 to 20% of phosphoric acid, which is believed
to exist in the form of a tetracalcic phosphate. This phosphate is
found to be readily attacked by a weak solution of citric acid, and this
probably accounts for the comparative ease with which plants can
utilize the phosphate. With it is also a good deal of lime, and the
presence of this undoubtedly, in many cases, accounts partly for the
benefits that follow the use of basic slag. It should be very finely
ground ; a common standard is that 80 to 90% should pass through
a sieve having 10,000 meshes to the square inch.
The principal use of basic slag is on grass-land, especially where
the soil is heavy or clayey. Its effect on such land in causing white
clover to appear is in many cases most remarkable, and without
doubt, much poor, cold grass-land has been immensely benefited by
its use. It is also employed for root crops; but its effect on these,
as on cereals, is not so marked as on grass-land. On light land its
benefit is not nearly so great or universal as on heavier land.
III. MANURES CONTAINING NITROGEN AND PHOSPHATES
These may be classified as follows: (a) Natural manures
bones, fish and meat guanos, Peruvian guano, bats' guano;
(6) Manufactured manures dissolved bones, compound
manures.
a. Natural Manures
Bones. The value and use of these in agriculture has long been
known, as also the comparative slowness of their action, which latter
induced Liebig to suggest their treatment with sulphuric acid.
Natural bones will contain from 45 to 50 % of phosphate of lime with
4 to 4$ % of nitrogen. It is usual to boil bones lightly aftercollection,
in order to remove the adhering particles of flesh and the fat. If
steamed under pressure the nitrogenous matter is to a great extent
extracted, yielding glue, size, gelatine, &c., and the bones known
then in agriculture as " steamed bones " will contain from 55 to
60 % of phosphate of lime with I toi i % of nitrogen. Bones are also
imported from India, and these are of a very hard and dry nature.
Bones are principally used for root crops, and to some extent on grass-
land. The more finely they are ground the quicker is their action,
but they are a slow-acting manure, which remains some years in the
land. Mixed with superphosphate, bone meal forms an excellent
manure for roots, ana obviates the difficulty of using superphos-
phate on land poor in lime. Steamed bones, sometimes ground into
flour, are much used in dairy pastures.
Fisk and Meat Guanos. The term " guano," though generally
applied to these manures, is wrongly so used, for they are in no sense
guano (meaning thereby the droppings of sea birds). They are really
fish or meat refuse, being generally the dried fish-offal or the residue
from meat-extract manufacture. They vary much in composition,
according to their origin, some being highly nitrogenous (n to 12%
nitrogen) and comparatively low in phosphate of lime, and others
being more; highly phosphatic (30 to 40% phosphate of lime) with
lower nitrogen. These materials are to some extent used for root
and vegetable crops, and chiefly for hop-growing, but they go largely
also to the artificial manure maker.
Peruvian Guano. This material, though once a name to conjure
with, has now not much more than an academic interest, owing to
the rapid exhaustion of the supplies. It is true guano, i.e. the deposit
of sea birds, and was originally found on islands off the coast of Peru.
Peruvian guano was first discovered in 1804 by A. von Humboldt,
and the wonderful results attending its use gave an enormous impulse
to its exportation. The Chincha Islands yielded the finest qualities
of guano, this giving up to 14 and 15 % of nitrogen. Gradually the
Chincha Islands deposits became worked out, and other sources,
such as the Pabellon de Pica, Lohos, (uanapc and Huanillos deposits
were worked in turn. In many instances the guano had suffered
from washing by rain or by decomposition, or in other cases the
bare rock was reached and the shipments contained some consider-
able quantity of this rocky matter, so that the highly nitrogenous
guanos were no longer forthcoming and deposits more phosphatic
in character took their place. Gradually the shipments fell off, and
with them the great reputation of the guano as a manure. On some
of the islands the birds, after having been driven off, have returned
and fresh deposits are being formed. On the west coast of Africa
also some new deposits have been found, and a certain amount of
guano comes from Ichaboe Island ; but the trade will never be what
it once was. Occasional shipments come from the Ballista Islands,
giving from IO to 11% of nitrogen with 1 1 to 12% of phosphoric
acid, and lower-grade guanos (7% of nitrogen and 16% of phos-
phoric acid) are arriving from Guanape, while from Lobos de Tierra
comes a still lower grade.
The particular feature that marked guano was that it contained
both its nitrogenous and phosphatic ingredients in forms in which
they could be very readily assimilated by plants. Moreover, the
occurrence of the nitrogenous and phosphatic matters in different
forms of combination gave to them a special value, and one that
could not be exactly imitated in artificial manures. The nitrogenous
matters, e.g., exist as urates, carbonates, oxalates and phosphates
of ammonia, and a particular nitrogenous body termed guanine "
is also found. Guano contains much alkaline salts, and is, from its
containing alike phosphates, nitrogen and potash in suitable forms
and quantity, an exceedingly well balanced manure. In agriculture
it is used for corn crops, and also for root crops, potatoes and hops.
It is esteemed for barley, as tending to produce good quality. For
vegetable and market-garden crops that require forcing guano is also
still in demand. The more phosphatic kinds are sometimes treated
with sulphuric acid, and constitute " Dissolved Peruvian Guano."
Bats' Guano. In caves in New Zealand, parts of America, South
Africa and elsewhere, are found deposits formed by bats, and these
are used to some extent as a manure, though they have no great
commercial value.
b. Manufactured Manures
Dissolved Bones. These are bones treated with oil of vitriol, as
in superphosphate manufacture. By this treatment bones become
much more readily available, and are used to a considerable extent,
more especially for root crops. Their composition varies with the
method of manufacture and the extent to which they are dissolved.
Speaking generally, they will have from 1 1 to 19 % of soluble phos-
phate, with 20 to 24% of insoluble phosphates, and if pure should
contain 3 % of nitrogen. When mixed with superphosphate in vary-
ing amount, or if made with steamed and not raw bone, they are
generally known under the indefinite name of " bone manure.'
Compound Manures. To this class belong the manures of every
description which it is the aim of the artificial manure manufacturer
to compound for particular purposes or to suit particular soils or
crops. The base of all these is, as a rule, mineral superphosphate
or else dissolved bones, or the two together, and with these are mixed
numerous different manurial substances calculated to supply definite
amounts of nitrogen, potash, &c. Such manures, the trade in which
is a very large one, are variously known as " corn manure," " turnip
manure," " grass manure " and the like, and much care is bestowed
on their compounding and on their preparation in good condition to
allow of their ready distribution over the land.
IV. POTASH MANURES
These, with few exceptions, are natural products from the
potash mines of Stassfurt (Prussia). Until the discovery of these
deposits, in 1861, the use of potash as a fertilizing constituent
was very limjted, being confined practically to the employment
of wood ashes. At the present time a small quantity of potash
salts principally carbonate of potash is obtained from sugar
refinery and other manufacturing processes, but the great bulk
of the potash supply comes from the German mines. In these
the different natural salts occur in different layers and in
conjunction with layers of rock-salt, carbonate of lime and
6i8
MANUSCRIPT
other minerals, from which they have to be separated out and
undergo subsequently a partial purification by re-crystallization.
The principal potash salts used in agriculture are (i) sulphate of
potash, which is about 90% pure; (2) kainit, an impure form of
sulphate of potash, and containing much common salt and magnesia
salts, and giving about 12 % of potash (K 2 O) ; (3) muriate of potash,
which is used to a great extent in agriculture, and contains 75 to
90 % of muriate of potash ; and (4) potash manure salts, a mixture
of different salts and containing from 20 to 30 % of potash.
Potash is much esteemed in agriculture, more especially on light
land (which is frequently deficient in it) and on peaty soils, and for
use with root crops and potatoes in particular. For fruit and vege-
table growing and for flowers potash manures are in constant request.
Clay land, as a rule, is not benefited by their use, these oils contain-
ing generally an abundance of potash. Along with basic slag, potash
salts have been frequently used for grass on light land with advantage.
V. MISCELLANEOUS MANURES
There are, in addition to the foregoing, certain materials which
in a limited sense only can be called " manures," but the influ-
ences of which are mostly seen in the mechanical and physical
improvements which they effect in soil. Such are salt, and also
lime in its different forms.
Salt. The action of salt in liberating potash from the soil has been
explained. As a manure it is sometimes used along with nitrate
of soda as a top-dressing for corn crops, in the belief that it stiffens
the straw. For root crops also, and mangels in particular, it is
employed ; also for cabbage and other vegetables.
Lime. The use of this is almost solely to be considered as a soil
improvement, and not as that of a manure. Sulphate of lime
(gypsum) is, however, occasionally used as a dressing for clover, and
also for hops. The fact that superphosphate itself contains a con-
siderable amount of sulphate of lime renders the special application
of gypsum unnecessary, as a rule.
As compared with natural " manures, like farm-yard manure,
artificial manures have the disadvantage that they, unlike it, do not
improve the physical condition of the soil. Artificial manures have,
however, the advantage over farm-yard manure that they can supply
in a small compass, and even if used in small quantity, the needed
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, &c., which crops require,
and which farm-yard manure has but in small proportion. They,
further, present the expensive fertilizing matters in a concentrated
form, and by their application save expense in labour.
(J- A. V.*)
MANUSCRIPT, a term applied to any document written by
the human hand (Lat. manti scriptum) with the aid of pen, pencil
or other instrument which can be used with cursive facility, as
distinguished from an inscription engraved with chisel or graver,
worked laboriously. By usage the word has come to be employed
in a special sense to indicate a written work of the ancient world
or of the middle ages; collections of such " ancient manuscripts "
being highly prized and being stored for preservation in public
libraries. Down to the time of the invention of printing, and
until the printed book had driven it out of the field, the manu-
script was the vehicle for the conservation and dissemination of
literature, and discharged all the functions of the modern book.
In the present article a description is given of the development
of the ancient manuscript, particularly among the Greeks and
Romans, leading on to the medieval manuscripts of Europe,
and bringing down the history of the latter to the invention of
printing; the history of the printed volume is dealt with in the
article BOOK (q.v.).
Materials. The handbooks on palaeography describe in full the
different materials which have been employed from remote time
to receive writing, and may be referred to for minuter details. To
dispose, in the first place, of the harder materials that have been put
under requisition, we find metals both referred to by writers and
actually represented by surviving examples. Thin leaves of gold
or silver were recommended for the inscription of charms in particular.
Leaden plates were in common use for incantations; the material
was cheap and was supposed to be durable. On such plates were
scratched the dirae or solemn devotions of obnoxious persons to the
infernal deities; many examples have survived. As an instance
of the use of soft substance afterwards hardened may be cited the
practice by the Babylonians and Assyrians of writing, or rather of
puncturing, their cuneiform characters on clay tablets while moist,
which were afterwards dried in the heat of the sun or baked in the
oven. Potsherds, or ostraka, were employed for all kinds of tem-
porary purposes. Thousands of them have been found in Egypt
inscribed with tax receipts and ephemeral drafts and memoranda,
children's dictation lessons, &c. Analogous to the clay documents
of western Asia are the tablets coated with wax in vogue among the
Greeks and Romans, offering a surface not to be inscribed with 1
pen but to be scratched with the sharp pointed stilus. These v .._
be described more fully below. With them we class the wooden
boards, generally whitened with a coating of paint or composition
and adapted for the pen, which were common in Egypt, and were
specially used for educational purposes. Such boards were also
employed for official notices in Athens in the 4th century B.C.
Of the more pliant, and therefore generally more convenient,
substances there were many, such as animal skins and vegetable
growths. Practically we might confine our attention to three of
them : papyrus, parchment or vellum, and paper, the employment
of which, each in turn, as a writing material became almost universal.
But there are also others which must be mentioned.
In a primitive state of society leaves of plants and trees strong
enough for the purpose might be taken as a ready-made material
to receive writing. Palm leaves are used for this purpose to the
present day in parts of India; and the references in classical authors
to leaves as early writing material among the Greeks and Romans
cannot be dismissed as entirely fanciful.
The bark of trees, and particularly the inner bark of the lime-tree,
<pi\iipa, tilia, was employed. The fact that the Latin word liber,
bark, eventually meant also a book, would be sufficient proof that
that material was once in common literary use, even if it were not
referred to by writers.
Linen, too, was a writing material among the early Romans, as it
was also among the Etruscans, and as it had been to some extent
among the Egyptians.
Skins of animals, tanned, have doubtless served as a writing
material from the very earliest period of the use of letters. The
Egyptians occasionally employed this material. Instances of the
use of leather in western Asia are recorded by ancient authors, and
from Herodotus we learn that the Ionian Greeks applied to the rolls of
the later-imported papyrus the title St^depat, skins, by which they
had designated their writing material of leather. The Jews, also,
to the present day hold to the ancient Eastern custom and inscribe
the law upon skin rolls.
But generally these materials were superseded in the old world
by the famous Egyptian writing material manufactured from the
papyrus plant, which gradually passed beyond the boundaries of its
native land and was imported at a remote period into other countries.
Into Greece and into Rome it was introduced at so early a time that
practically it was the vehicle for classical literature throughout its
course. A description of the manufacture and use of this material
will be found under PAPYRUS. Here it need only be noted that
papyrus is associated in Greek and Roman literature with the roll
form of the ancient manuscript, as will be more fully explained below,
and that it was the supersession of this material by parchment or
vellum which led to the change of shape to the book form.'
The introduction of the new material, parchment or vellum, was
not a revival of the use of animal skins as followed by the old world.
The skins were now not tanned into leather, but were prepared by
a new process to provide a material, thin, strong, flexible, and smooth
of surface on both faces. This improved process was the secret
of the success of the new material in ousting the time-honoured
papyrus from its high position. The common story, as told by
Pliny, that Eumenes II. of Pergamum (197-158 B.C.), seeking to
extend the library of his capital, was opposed by the jealousy of the
Ptolemies, who forbade the export of papyrus, hoping thus to check
the growth of a rival library, and that he was thus compelled to have
recourse to skins as a writing material, at all events points to Per-
gamum as the chief centre of trade in the material, -rcpyainiifj,
charta pergamena. The old terms Su/iBtpai, membranae, applied
originally to the older leather, were transferred to the newly im-
proved substance. In describing MSS. written on, this material,
by common consent the term parchment has in modern times given
place to that of vellum, properly applicable only to calfskin, but
now generally used in reference to a medieval skin-book of any kind.
Parchment is a title now usually reserved for the hard sheepskin
or other skin material on which law deeds are engrossed. (See
PARCHMENT.)
Vellum had a long career as a writing material for the literature
of the early centuries of our era and of the middle ages. But in its
turn it eventually gave place to paper (q.v.). As early as the I3th
century paper, an Asiatic invention, was making its way into Europe
and was adopted in the Eastern Empire as a material for Greek
literature side by side with vellum. It soon afterwards began to
appear in the countries of southern Europe. In the course of the
1 4th century the use of it became fairly established, and in the middle
of the century a number of paper manuscripts were produced along
with those on vellum, particularly in Italy. Finally, in the I5th
century paper became the common material for the manuscript
book. The new paper, however, made no further change in the
form of the manuscript. It possessed exactly the same qualities,
as a writing material, as vellum : it could be inscribed on both sides;
it could be made up into quires and bound in the codex form; and
it had the further advantage of being easily manufactured in large
quantities, and therefore of being comparatively cheap.
The Forms of the Manuscript Book. In describing the de-
velopment of the manuscript book in the ancient world, and
MANUSCRIPT
619
subsequently in the middle ages, we have to deal with it in two
forms. The common form of the book of the ancient world was
the roll, composed of one continuous sheet of material and
inscribed only on one side. This form had a long career. In
Egyptian literature it can be traced back for thousands of
years. In Greek literature it may be assumed to have been
in vogue from the earliest times; actual examples have sur-
vived of the latter part of the 4th and beginning of the $rd
centuries B.C. As to its early use in Latin literature we cannot
speak so definitely ; but Rome followed th6 example of Greece
in letters, and therefore no doubt also in the material shape
of literary productions. Both in Greek and Latin literature
the roll lasted down to the early centuries of the Christian
era. It was superseded by the codex, the manuscript in book
form (in the modern sense of the word book), composed of
separate leaves stitched together into quires and made avail-
able to receive writing on both sides of the material. This
form is still in vogue as the modern printed book, and prob-
ably will never be superseded. But the codex in this developed
shape was only an evolution from the early waxen tablets of
the Greeks and Romans, two or more of which, hinged together,
formed the primitive codex which suggested the later form.
Therefore it will be necessary to include the description of the
tablets with that of the later codex.
The ordinary terms in use among the Greeks for a book (that
is, a roll) were 0i$Xos (another, form of jSii/SXos, papyrus) and
The Roll ' ts diminutive f$ifi\iov, which included the idea of a
written book. The corresponding Latin terms were
liber and libellus; volumen was a rolled-up roll. A roll of material
uninscribed was X^PTJJS, charla, OTT&HOS (originally a cutting of
papyrus), applicable also to a roll containing a portion or
division of a large work which extended to more than one
roll. A work contained within the compass of a single roll was
a juovo/3i(3Xos, or /ju>voj3ip\ov. The term TeOxos seems also to
have meant a single roll, but it was also applied at a later time
to indicate a work contained in several rolls.
In writing the text of a work, the scribe might choose to make
use of separate sheets of papyrus, KoXXrj/iiaTa, schedae, and
then join them to one another consecutively so as to make up the
roll; or he might purchase from the stationers a scapus, or ready-
made roll of twenty sheets at most; and if this length were not
sufficient, he might add other sheets or scapi, and thus make a
roll of indefinite length. But proverbially a great book was a
great evil, and, considering the inconvenience of unrolling a
long roll, not only for perusal, but, still more so, for occasional
reference, the practice of subdividing lengthy works into divisions
of convenient size, adapted to the capacity of moderate-sized
rolls, must have come into vogue at a very early period.
It was the practice to write on one side only of the papyrus;
to write on both front and back of a roll would obviously be a
clumsy and irritating method. Works intended for the market
were never opisthograph. Of course the blank backs of written
rolls which had become obsolete might be turned to account for
personal or temporary purposes, as we learn not only from refer-
ences in classical authors but also from actual examples. The
most interesting extant case of an opisthograph papyrus is the
copy of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens in the British Museum,
which is written on the back of a farmer's accounts, of the end
of the ist century but only for private use. It being the rule,
then, to confine the writing to one side of the material, that is,
to the inner surface of the made-up roll, that surface was more
carefully prepared and smoothed than the other; and, further,
the joints of the several sheets were so well made that they offered
no obstacle to the action of the pen. Still further, care was taken
that this, the recto surface of the material, should be that in
which the shreds of papyrus of which it was composed lay
horizontally, so that the pen might move freely along the fibres;
the shreds of the verso side, on the other hand, being in vertical
position. This point is of some importance, as, in cases where
two different handwritings are found on the two sides of a
papyrus, it may be usually assumed that the one on the recto
surface is the earlier.
The text was written in columns, aeXt&s, paginae, the width
of which seems not to have been prescribed, but which for
calligraphic effect were by preference made narrow, sufficient
margins being left at head and foot. The average width of the
columns in the best extant papyri ranges from two to three-and-
a-half inches. The written lines were parallel with the length
of the roll, so that the columns stood, so to say, with the height
of the rolled-up roll, and were disclosed consecutively as the roll
was unwound. Ruling with lead to guide the writing is mentioned
by writers, but it does not appear that the practice was generally
followed. The number of lines in the several columns of extant
papyri is not constant, nor is the* marginal boundary of the
beginnings of the lines, for the accuracy of which a ruled vertical
line would have proved useful, ordinarily kept even. No doubt
in practice the horizontal fibres of the material were found to
afford a sufficient guide for the lines of writing.
If the title of the work was to be given, the scribe appears to
have written it ordinarily at the end of the text. But something
more was needed. To be obliged to unroll a text to the end, in
order to ascertain the name of the author, would be the height
of inconvenience. Its title was therefore sometimes written at
the head of the text. It appears also that at an early period it
was inscribed on the outside of the roll, so as to be visible as the
roll lay in a chest or on the shelf. But a more general practice
was to attach to the top edge of the roll a label or ticket, aXXu/3os,
or airTvftos, tittdus, index, which hung down if the roll lay on
the shelf, or was conveniently read if the roll stood along with
others in the ordinary cylindrical roll-box, /cwmj, (o/Scoroj,
cista, capsa. One such label made of papyrus has survived and
is in the British Museum.
The scribe would not commence his text at the very beginning,
nor would he carry it quite down to the end, of the roll. He
would leave blank a sufficient length of material at either ex-
tremity, where the roll would naturally be most exposed to wear
and tear by handling in unrolling and re-rolling; and, further,
the extreme vertical edges might each be strengthened by the
addition of a strip of papyrus so as to form a double thickness of
material.
According to the particulars given by classical authors, the
roll would be finished off somewhat elaborately; but the details
described by them must be taken to apply to the more expensive
productions of the book trade, corresponding with the full-
bound volumes of our days. In practice, a large proportion of
working copies and ordinary editions must have been dealt with
more simply. Firstly, the roll should be rolled up round a
central stick, of wood or bone, called the 6/i<aX6s, umbilicus,
to which the last sheet of the papyrus may or may not have been
attached. But as a matter of fact no rolling-sticks have been
found in company with extant papyri, and it has therefore been
suggested that they were not attached to the material but were
rolled in loose, and were therefore liable to drop out. In some
instances, as in the rolls found at Herculaneum, a central core of
papyrus instead of a stick was thought sufficient. The edges,
frontes, of the roll, after it had been rolled up, were shorn and were
rubbed smooth with pumice, and they were sometimes coloured.
A valuable roll might be protected with a vellum wrapper,
<t>aii>6\i)s, paenula, stained with colour; and, further, it might
be secured with ornamental thongs. The central stick might
also be adorned with knobs or " horns," plain or coloured. This
seems to be the natural explanation of the nipara, or cornua,
mentioned by the ancient writers. Finally, the title-label
described above was attached to the completed roll, now ready
for the book-market.
In the perusal of a work the reader held the roll upright and
unrolled it gradually with the right hand; with the left hand
he rolled up in the reverse direction what he had read. Thus.
when he had finished, the roll had become reversed, the beginning
of the text being now in the centre of the roll and the end of it
being outside. The roll was " explicitus ad umbilicum," or
" ad sua cornua." It had therefore now to be unrolled afresh
and to be re-rolled into its normal shape a troublesome pro-
cess which the lazy man shirked, and which the careful man
620
MANUSCRIPT
accomplished by making the revolutions with his two hands
while he held the revolving material steady under his chin.
Although the codex or manuscript in book-form began to
make its way in Greek and Roman literature as early as the ist
century of our era, the roll maintained its position as the recog-
nized type of literary document down to the 3rd, and even into
the 4th, century, when it was altogether superseded. We shall
proceed to describe the codex after giving some account of the
waxen, or, to speak more correctly, the waxed, tablet, its pre-
cursor in the book-form.
The ordinary waxen tablet in use among the Greeks and
Romans was a small oblong slab of wood, beech, fir, and especially
box, the surface of which on one or both sides, with
Tablet!" e " the exception of the surrounding margins which were
left intact in order to form a frame, was sunk to a
slight depth and was therein coated with a thin layer of wax,
usually black. The tablet thus presented the appearance of a
child's school-slate of the present day. Such tablets were single,
double, triple, or of several pieces or leaves. In Greek they
were called nival-, mvaids, SeXros, deXrlov.: in Latin cera,
tabula, lobelia, &c. Two or more put together and held together
by rings or thongs acting as hinges formed a caudex or codex,
literally a stock of wood, which a set of tablets might resemble,
and from which they might actually be made by cleaving the
wood. A codex of two leaves was called SLdvpoL, Biirrvxa,
diptycha; of three, Tpiirrvxa, triplycha: and so on. The
triptych appears to have been most generally used. A general
term was also libellus.
Tablets served for the ordinary minor affairs of life : for memo-
randa, literary and other notes and drafts, school exercises,
accounts, &c. The writing incised with the stilus could be easily
obliterated by smoothing the wax, and the tabula rasa was thus
rendered available for a fresh inscription. But tablets were also
employed for official purposes, when documents had to be
protected from unauthorized scrutiny or from injury. Thus
they were the receptacles for wills, conveyances, and other legal
transactions; 'and in such cases they were closed against inspec-
tion by being bound round with threads which were covered by
the witnesses' seals.
Small tablets, codicilli, pugillares, often of more valuable
material, such as ivory, served for correspondence among other
purposes; very small specimens are mentioned as mtelliani, for
the exchange of love-letters.
A certain number of Greek waxen tablets have been recovered,
chiefly from Egypt, but none of them is very early. They are
generally of the 3rd century, and are mostly inscribed with
school exercises. The largest and most perfect extant codex is
one in the British Museum (Add. MS. 33,270), perhaps of the
3rd century, being made up of nine leaves, measuring nearly
9 by 7 in., and inscribed with documents in shorthand.
Of Latin tablets we are fortunate in having a fairly large
number of examples. Exclusive of a few isolated specimens,
they are the result of two important finds. Twenty-four tablets
containing the records of a burial club, A.D. 131-167, were re-
covered between 1786 and 1855 from some ancient mining works
in Dacia. In 1875 as many as 127 tablets, containing deeds con-
nected with sales by auction and payment of taxes, A.D. 15-62,
were found in the ruins of Pompeii. These specimens have
afforded the means of ascertaining the mechanical arrangement
of waxen tablets when adopted for legal instruments among
the Romans. Most of them are triptychs, severally cloven from
single blocks of wood. Subject to some variations, the triptych
was usually arranged as follows. Of the six sides or pages of the
codex, pages i and 6 (the outside pages) were of plain wood; pages
2 > 3. 5 were waxed; and page 4, which had a groove cut across the
middle was sometimes of plain wood, sometimes waxed. The
authentic deed was inscribed with the stilus on the waxed pages
2 and 3; and the first two leaves were then bound round with
three twisted threads which passed down the groove so as to
close the deed from inspection. On page 4 the witnesses' names
were then inscribed (in ink if the page was plain; with the stilus
if waxed), and their seals were impressed in the groove, thus
The
Codei.
securing the threads. In addition to the protection afforded to
the seals from casual injury by their position in the groove, the
third leaf acted as a cover to them. On page 5 an abstract or
duplicate of the deed, as required by law, was inscribed. The
arrangement of the Dacian tablets differed in this respect, that
page 4 was waxed, and that the duplicate copy was begun on
that page in the space on the left of the groove, that on the right
being reserved for the names of the witnesses. In the case
of one of the Pompeian tablets the threads and seals still remain.
The survival of the use of tablets to a late time should be noted.
St Augustine refers to his tablets, and St Hilary of Aries also
mentions their employment for the purpose of correspondence;
there is a record of a letter written in lobelia as late as A.D. 1148.
They were very commonly used throughout the middle ages in
all the west of Europe. Specimens inscribed with money accounts
of the I3th and i4th centuries have survived in France, and
similar documents of the i4th and isth centuries are to be found
in several of the municipal archives of Germany. Reference to
their use in England occurs in literature, and specimens of the
i4th or 1 5th century are said to have been dug up in Ireland.
In Italy their employment is both recorded and proved by actual
examples of the I3th and I4th centuries. With the beginning
of the i6th century they seem to have practically come to an
end, although a few survivals of the custom of writing on wax
have lingered to modern times.
As already stated, the codex, or MS. in book-form, owed its
existence to the substitution of vellum for papyrus as the common
writing material for Greek and Roman literature. The
fact that vellum was a tough material capable of being
inscribed on both sides, that writing, particularly
if freshly written, could be easily washed off or erased from
it, and that the material could thus be made available for
second use, no doubt contributed largely to its ready adoption.
In Rome in the ist century B.C. it was used, like the waxen tablets
for notes, drafts, memoranda, &c.; and vellum tablets began to
take the place of the cerae. References are not wanting in the
classical writers to its employment for such temporary purposes.
To what extent it was at first pressed into the service of literature
and used in the preparation of books for the market must remain
uncertain. But in the first three centuries of our era it may be
assumed that vellum codices were not numerous. The papyrus
roll still held its position as the liber or book of literature. Yet
we learn from the poems of Martial that in his day the works of
some of the best classical authors were to be had on vellum.
From the way in which, in his Apophorela, he has contrasted as
exchangeable gifts certain works written respectively on papyrus
and on vellum, it has been argued that vellum at that time was a
cheap material, inferior to papyrus, and only used for roughly
written copies. Up to a certain point this may be true, but the
fact that the earliest great vellum Greek codices of the Bible and
of Latin classical authors, dating back to the 4th century, are
composed of very finely prepared material would indicate a
perfection of manufacture of long standing.
But, apart from the references of writers, we have the results
of recent excavations in Egypt to enable us to form a more correct
judgment on the early history of the vellum codex. There have
been found a certain number of inscribed leaves and fragments
of vellum of early date which without doubt originally formed
part of codices or MSS. in book-form. It is true that they are not
numerous, but from the character of the writing certain of them
can be individually assigned to the 3rd, to the 2nd, and even to
the ist century. We may then take it for an established fact
that the codex form of MS. was gradually thrusting its way into
use in the first centuries of our era.
The convenience of the codex form for easy reference was also
a special recommendation in its favour. There can be little
doubt that such compilations as public registers must at once
have been drawn up in the new form. The jurists also were
quick to adopt it, and the very title " codex " has been attached
to great legal compilations, such as those of Theodosius and
Justinian. Again, the book-form was favoured by the early
Christians. The Bible, the book which before all others became
MANUSCRIPT
621
the great work of reference in their hands, could only be consulted
with convenience and despatch in the new form. A single
codex could hold the contents of a work which formerly must have
been distributed through many volumes in roll-form. The term
OUHO.TVOV, which was one of the names given to a codex, was
expressive of its capacity. Turning again to discoveries in
Egypt, it appears that in the early centuries the codex-form had
become so usual among the Christians in that land that even the
native material, papyrus, the recognized material for the roll,
was now also made up by them into leaved books. The greater
number of papyri of the 3rd century containing Christian writings,
fragments of the Scriptures, the " Sayings of Our Lord," and
the like, are in book-form. On the other hand, the large majority
of the non-Christian papyri of the same period keep to the old
roll-form. Thus the codex becomes at once identified with the
new religion, while the papyrus roll to the last is the chosen
vehicle of pagan literature.
In the 4th century the struggle between the roll and the codex
for supremacy in the literary field was finished, and the victory of
the codex was achieved. Henceforward the roll-form remained in
use for records and legal documents, and in certain instances for
liturgies; and for such purposes it survives to the present day.
But so completely was it superseded in literature by the codex
that even when papyrus, the material once identified with the
roll-form, was used as it sometimes was down to the 6th and 7th
centuries and later, it was made up into the leaved codex, not
only in Egypt but also in western Europe.
The shape which the codex usually assumed in the early cen-
turies of the middle ages was the broad quarto. The quires or
gatherings of which the book was formed generally
consisted, in the earliest examples, of four sheets
folded to make eight leaves (reTpds or Ttrp&Siov, quaternio),
although occasionally quinterns, or quires of five sheets (ten
leaves), were adopted. Sexterns, or quires of six sheets
(twelve leaves), came into use at a later period. In
making up the quires, care was generally taken to lay the
sheets of vellum in such a way that hair-side faced hair-
side, and flesh-side faced flesh-side; so that, when the book
was opened, the two pages before the reader had the same appear-
ance, either the yellow tinge of the hair-side, or the fresh white-
ness of the flesh-side. In Greek MSS. the arrangement of the
sheets was afterwards reduced to a system; the first sheet was laid
with the flesh-side downwards, so that that side began the quire;
yet in so early an example as the Codex Alexandrinus the first
page of a quire is the hair-side. In Latin MSS. also the hair-side
appears generally to have formed the first page. When paper
came into general use for codices in the isth century, it was not
an uncommon practice to give the paper quires additional
strength by an admixture of vellum, a sheet of the latter material
forming the outer leaves, and sometimes the middle leaves also,
of the quire. The quire mark, or " signature," was usually
written at the foot of the last page, but in some early instances
(e.g. the Codex Alexandrinus) it appears at the head of the first
page of each quire. The numbering of the separate leaves in a
quire, in the fashion followed by early printers, came in in the
I4th century. Catch-words to connect the quires appear first in
the nth century and are not uncommon in the 12th century.
No exact system was followed in ruling the guiding lines on the
pages of the codex. In the case of papyri it was enough to mark
Ruling W * 1 ^ tne P enc il the vertical marginal lines to bound
the text, if indeed even this was considered needful
(see above); the fibres of the papyrus were a sufficient guide
for the lines of writing. On vellum it became necessary to
rule lines to keep the writing even. These lines were at first
drawn with a blunt point, almost invariably on the hair (or outer)
side of the skin, and strongly enough to be in relief on the flesh
(or inner) side. Marginal lines were drawn to bound the text
laterally; but the ruled lines which guided the writing were not
infrequently drawn right across the sheet. Each sheet should
be ruled separately; but two or more sheets were often laid and
ruled together, the lines being drawn with so much force that the
lower sheets also received the impressions. In rare instances
lines are found ruled on both sides of the leaf, as in some parts of
the Codex Alexandrinus. In this same MS. and in other early
codices the ruling was not always drawn for every line of writing,
but was occasionally spaced so that the writing ran between the
ruled lines as well as on them. The lines were evenly spaced by
means of guiding pricks made at measured intervals with a
compass or rotary instrument down the margins; in some early
MSS. these pricks run down the middle of the page. Ruling
with the plummet or lead-point is found in the nth century and
came into ordinary use in the 1 2th century ; coloured inks, e.g. red
and violet, were used for ornamental ruling in the isth century.
Mechanical Arrangement oj Writing in MSS. It has already
been stated above that in the papyrus rolls the text was written
in columns. They stood with convenient intervals column*.
between them and with fair margins at top and
bottom. The length of the lines was to some extent governed
by the nature of the text. If it was a poetical work, the metrical
line was naturally the line of the column, unless, as sometimes
was the case, the verse was written continuously as prose. For
prose works a narrow column was preferred. It is noticeable
that the columns in papyri have a tendency to lean to the right
instead of being perpendicular an indication that it was not the
practice to rule marginal lines. In codices the columnar arrange-
ment was also largely followed, and the number of columns in a
page was commonly two. There are instances, however, of a
larger number. The Codex Sinaiticus of the Bible has four
columns to the page; and the Codex Vaticanus, three columns.
And the tricolumnar arrangement occurs every now and then in
later MSS.
In both Greek and Latin literary MSS. of early date the writing
runs on continuously without separation of words. This practice
however, may be regarded as rather artificial, as -in feit with-
papyri written in non-literary hands and in Latin out separm-
deeds also, contemporary with these early literary tio " of
MSS., there is a tendency to separation. In a text
thus continuously written occasional ambiguities necessarily
occurred, and then a dot or apostrophe might be inserted
between words to aid the reader. Following the system of
separation of words which appears in ancient inscriptions,
wherein the several words are marked off by single, double, or
treble dots or points, the words of the fragmentary poem on the
battle of Actium found at Herculaneum are separated by single
points, probably to facilitate reading aloud; monosyllables or
short prepositions and conjunctions, however, being left un-
separated from the words immediately following them a systete
which is found in practice at a later time. But such marks of
separation are not to be confounded with similar marks of punctu-
ation whereby sentences are marked off and the sense of the text
is made clear. Throughout the career of the uncial codices down
to the 6th century, continuity of text was maintained. In
the yth century there is some evidence of separation of words,
but without system. In early Latin minuscule codices partial
separation in an uncertain and hesitating manner went on to the
time of the Carolingian reform. In early Irish and English MSS.,
however, separation is more consistently practised. In the pth
and xoth centuries long words tend to separation, but short words,
prepositions and conjunctions, still cling to the following word.
It was not till the nth century that the smaller words at length
stood apart, and systematic separation of words was established.
In Greek minuscule codices of the xoth century a certain degree
of separation takes place; yet a large proportion of words remain
linked together, and they are even incorrectly divided. Indeed
a correct system of distinct separation of words in Greek texts
was never thoroughly established even as late as the isth
century.
But while distinction of words was disregarded in early
literary texts, distinction of important pauses in the sense was
recognized from the first. The papyrus of the Persae parf-mb,.
of Timotheus of Miletus, the oldest MS. of a Greek
classic in existence, of the end of the 4th century B.C., is written
in independent paragraphs. This is a natural system, the
simplicity of which has caused it to be the system of modern
622
MANUSCRIPT
times. But, in addition, the Greek scribe also separated para-
graphs by inserting a short horizontal stroke, Trapaypafos,
between them at the commencement of the lines of writing. It
should be noted that this stroke indicated the close of a passage,
and therefore belonged to the paragraph just concluded, and did
not stand for an initial sign for the new paragraph which followed.
The dividing stroke was also used to mark off the different
speeches of a play. Besides the stroke, a wedge-shaped sign
or tick might be used. But to make every paragraph stand
distinctly by itself would have entailed a certain loss of space.
If the concluding line were short, there would remain a long
space unfilled. Therefore, when this occurred, it became
customary to leave only a short space blank to mark the termin-
ation of the paragraph, and then to proceed with the new
paragraph in the same line, the irapaypafos at the same time
preventing possible ambiguity. The next step was to project the
first letter of the first full line of the new paragraph slightly into
the margin, as a still further distinction; and lastly to enlarge it.
The enlargement of the letter gave it so much prominence that
the dividing stroke could then be dispensed with, and in this form
the new paragraph was henceforward indicated in Greek MSS.,
it being immaterial whether the enlarged letter was the initial
or a medial letter of a word. As early as the sth century there
is evidence that the irapaypafos was losing its meaning with
the scribes, for in the Codex Alexandrinus of the Bible it is not
infrequently found in anomalous positions, particularly above
the initial letters of different books, as if it were a mere ornament.
In Latin MSS. there was no such fixed system of marking
off paragraphs as that just described. A new paragraph
began with a new line, or a brief space in a line separated the
conclusion of a paragraph from the beginning of the next one. It
was only by the ultimate introduction of large letters, as the
initial letters of the several sentences and paragraphs, and by
the establishment of a system of punctuation, in the modern
sense of the word, that a complete arrangement of the text
was possible into sentences and paragraphs in accordance
with its sense.
From the earliest times an elementary system of punctuation
by points is found in papyri. Thus the papyrus of the Curse
Puactua- of Artemisia, at Vienna, which is at least as early
tioa. as the 3rd century B.C., and in one or two other
ancient examples, a double point, resembling the modern colon,
separates sentences. But more commonly a single point,
placed high in the line of writing, is employed. This single
punctuation was reduced to a system by the Alexandrian
grammarians, its invention being ascribed to Aristophanes
of Byzantium, 260 B. c. The point placed high on a level with
the top of the letters had the value of a full-stop; in the middle
of the line of writing, of a comma; and low down on the line, of
a semicolon. But these distinctions were not observed in the
MSS. In the early vellum codices both the high and the middle
point are found. In medieval MSS. other signs, coming nearer
to our modern system, make their appearance. In Latin MSS.
by the 7th century the high point has the value of the modern
comma, the semicolon appears with its present value, and a
point emphasized with additional signs, such as a second point
or point and dash, marks a full-stop. In the Carolingian period
the comma appears, as well as the inverted semicolon holding
a position between our comma and semicolon.
Another detail which required the scribe's attention in writing
his text was the division of the last word in a line, when for
Division at wan t of room a portion of it had to be carried over
Words at into the next line. It was preferable, indeed, to
the .f aiot avoid such division, and in the papyri as well as
in the codices letters might be reduced in size and
huddled together at the end of the line with this view.
In the early codices too it was a common practice to link
letters together in monogrammatic form, such as the common
verbal terminations ur, unt, and thus save space. But when
the division of a word was necessary, it was subject to certain
rules. According to the Greek practice the division was or-
dinarily made after a vowel, as &v\xov (even monosyllables
might be so treated, as O>|K). But in the case of double
consonants the division fell after the first of them, as Iir|jros:
and, when the first of two or more consonants was a liquid
or nasal the division followed it, as 64>0aX|/i6s, nav\6avu. When
a word was compounded with a preposition, the division
usually followed the preposition, as irpos\ti.wov, but not
infrequently the normal practice of dividing after a vowel
prevailed, as irpolaflirov. In Latin the true syllabic
division was followed, but occasionally the scribes adopted
the Greek system and divided after a vowel.
A modification of the practice of writing the text continuously
was allowed in the case of certain works. Rhetorical texts,
such as the orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, ...
and the text of the Bible, might be broken up into
short clauses or sense-lines, apparently with the view of assisting
reading aloud. Instances of MSS. so written are still extant.
This system, to which the name of " colometry " has been
given, is the arrangement by cola and commata referred to by
St Jerome in his preface to Isaiah. It will be found more fully
explained under the heading of STICHOMETRY; where also is
described the mechanical computation of the length of a text
by measured lines, for the purpose or calculating the pay of
the scribe.
The title of a MS., both in roll-form and in codex-form, was
frequently written at the end of the text, but even at an early
date it stood in some instances at the beginning;
and the latter practice in course of time prevailed,
although even in the isth century the title was
sometimes reserved for the close of the MS. In this latter
position it might stand alone or be accompanied by other
particulars concerning the MS., such as the length of the work,
the date of writing, the name of the scribe, &c., all combined
in a final paragraph called the colophon. For distinction, title
and colophon might be written in red, as might also the first
few lines of the text. This method of rubrication was a very
early practice, appearing even in ancient Egyptian papyri.
Such rubrics and titles and colophons were at first written in
the same character as the text; afterwards, when the admixture
of different kinds of writing was allowed, capitals and uncials
were used at discretion. Running titles or head-lines are found
in some of the earliest Latin MSS. in the same characters as
the text, but of a small size. Quotations were usually indicated
by ticks or arrow-heads in the margin, serving the Q UOta:Uoat
purpose of the modern inverted commas. Some-
times the quoted words were arranged as a sub-paragraph
or indented passage. In commentaries of later date, the quota-
tions from the work commented upon were often written in a
different style from the text of the commentary itself.
Accentuation, &c. Accentuation was not systematically applied
to Greek MSS. before the 7th century, but even in the literary papyri
it appears occasionally. In the latter instances accents were applied
specially to assist the reader, and they seem to have been used more
frequently in texts which may have presented greater difficulties
than usual. For example, they are found fairly plentifully in the
papyrus of Bacchylides of the 1st century B.C. In the less well-
wntten papyri they are fewer in number; and papyri written in non-
literary hands are practically devoid of them. Accents have been
frequently added to the ancient texts of Homer, as in the Harris and
Bankes papyri, but apparently long after the date of the writing.
They were not used in the early uncial MSS. Breathings also appear
occasionally in the papyri. The rough and the smooth breathings
are found in the form of the two halves of the H (H) in the Bacchy-
lides papyrus; in other papyri they are in rectangular form, never
rounded like an apostrophe; in fact rounded breathings do not come
into general use until the I2th century. Other signs resembling
accents are used occasionally in Greek MSS. For example, a short
accent or horizontal stroke was employed to indicate a single-letter
word, and an apostrophe was sometimes used to separate words
order to prevent ambiguity and was placed after words ending in
*> x. > P> an d after proper names not having a Greek termination.
Accents were seldom employed by Latin scribes. In early Irish
and English MSS., in particular, an acute accent is occasionally
found over a monosyllabic word or one consisting of a single letter.
In the 9th and loth centuries a curious occasional practice obtained
among the correctors of the texts of expressing the aspirate by the
Greek half-eta symbol H , instead of writing the letter h in the ordinary
way perhaps only an affectation.
MANUSCRIPT
623
Corrections. For obliteration or removing pen strokes from the
surface of the material the sponge was used in ancient times. While
the writing was still fresh, the scribe could easily wash off the ink
by this means; and for a fragile material, such as papyrus, he could
well use no other. On vellum he might use sponge or knife. But
after a MS. had left his hands it would undergo revision at the hands
of a corrector, who had to deal with the text in a different manner.
He could no longer conveniently apply the sponge. On hard material
he might still use the knife to erase letters or words or sentences. But
he could also use his pen for such purposes. Thus we find that a very
early system of indicating erasure was the placing of dots or minute
strokes above the letters to be thus " expunged.' The same marks
were also (and generally at later periods) placed under the letters;
in rare instances they stood inside them. It need scarcely be said
that letters were also struck out with strokes of the pen or altered
into others, and that letters and words were interlined. A long
sentence, however, which could not be admitted between the lines,
was entered in the margin, and its place in the text indicated by
corresponding reference marks, such as hd., hs.=hic deest, hoc supra
or hie scribas, &c.
Abbreviations and Contractions. The practice of shortening words
in writing has played an important part in the history of the ancient
and the medieval manuscript. Two reasons have disposed men to
follow this practice : 'firstly, the desire to avoid the labour of writing
over and over again words or portions of words of common occurrence
which can be readily understood in a shortened form as when written
in full; and, secondly, the necessity of saving space at a time when
it was an object to make the most of the writing material to hand.
To meet the former requirement, a simple and limited method alone
was needed; to satisfy the second, a more elaborate system was
necessary. The most natural method of reducing the length of a
word is to suppress as much as possible of its termination, consist-
ently with intelligibility, that is, by simple abbreviation. But if
space of any appreciable value is to be saved in a page of writing, a
system is necessary for eliminating letters from the body of the word
as well as curtailing the termination, that is, a system of contraction
as well as abbreviation ; and, in addition, the employment of arbitrary
signs, analogous to shorthand, will serve still further to condense the
text. An elaborate system of contraction of this nature was natur-
ally only fully developed after very long practice. Both in Greek
and in Latin MSS. from the gth to the I5th century such a system
was in full force.
Different kinds of literature were, according to their nature, more
or less abbreviated and contracted. From early times such curtail-
ment was more freely employed in works written in technical
language, such as works on law or grammar or mathematics, wherein
particular words are more liable to repetition, than in MSS. of general
literature. The oldest system of abbreviation is that in which a
single letter (nearly always the initial letter) or at most two or three
letters represent the whole word. This system we know was in
common use among both Greek and Latin writers, and ancient
inscriptions afford plentiful examples. It is well adapted for the
brief expression of the common words and phrases in works of a
technical nature (as for example such a phrase asCDERNE =
cujus de ea re notioest) ; but for general literature it is of little use, and
practically has been restricted to express proper names and numerals.
When abbreviations were employed only with the view of speed
in writing, it is obvious that they would occur more frequently in
Abbrevla- ^ e . ephemeral documents of daily life than in carefully
tlon la ' wf itten literary works intended for the book-market,
free* MSS. Hence they are not' to be found in Greek papyri of the
latter class. On the other hand in literary papyri
written in non-literary script they naturally occur just as they would
in contemporary common documents. As early as the 3rd and
2nd centuries B.C. the ordinary method of abbreviation was to omit
the termination or latter portion of the word and to mark the
omission by a short horizontal stroke or dash; or the letter which
immediately preceded the omission was written above the line as a
key to the reading, as T**- for riXos. Such a system obviously might
be extended indefinitely at the discretion of the writer. But in
addition, at quite an early period, symbols and monogrammatic
forms for particular words must have been developed, for they are
found in common use in cursive papyri. A notable instance of their
employment in a full degree occurs in the papyrus of Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens, of the 1st century.
Like the well-written literary papyri, the early vellum uncial
codices of the Bible, being inscribed with calligraphic formality,
avoided in principle the use of abbreviations. But by the 4th to
the 6th century, the period when they were chiefly produced, the
contraction or abbreviation of certain words and terminations had,
it seems, become so fixed by usage that the_contracted_forms were
adopted in the texts. Theyjare ec =0Aj,__ ic =l7j<roOs, xc_f \piarr6s,
IINA = TftOna, CHP=<TUT^p 1 _KC = it6p)s, CTPOC =<rr<ivp6t, nHP=TOT^p,
MHP =fftfnip, YC = uiij, ANOC = iWpwiroj, OYNOC = obpnv/K, K = /coJ,
T =TOI, ft =nov, fioi, &c. Final N, especially at the end of a line, was
dropped, and its place occupied by the horizontal stroke, as TO .
_ But while this limited system was used in biblical, and also in
liturgical MSS., in profane literature a greater licence was recognized.
For example, in a fragment of a mathematical work at Milan, of the
7th century, we find instances of abbreviation by dropping termina-
tions, just as in the earlier papyri, and, in addition, contracted
particles and prepositions are numerous. Technical works, in fact,
inherited the system instituted in the early papyri written in non-
literary or cursive hands; and this system, undergoing continual
development, had a larger scope when the cursive writing was cast
into a literary form and became the literary minuscule script of the
middle ages. From the 9th century onwards a fully developed sys-
tem of abbreviation and contraction was practised in Greek MSS.,
comprising the early system of the papyri, the special contractions of
the early biblical MSS., and also a large number of special symbols,
derived in great measure from tachygraphical signs.
In the early Greek minuscule MSS. contractions are not very fre-
quent in the texts; but in the marginal glosses, where it was an object
to save space, they are found in great numbers as early as the loth
century. The MS. of Nonnus, of A.D. 972, in the British Museum
(Wattenb. and Von Vels., Exempla, 7) is an instance of a text con-
tracted to a degree that almost amounts to tachygraphy. In the
I2th, I3th and I4th centuries texts were fully contracted; and as
the writing became more cursive contraction-marks were more care-
lessly applied, until, in the 15th century, they degenerated into mere
nourishes.
As far back as material is available for comparison, it appears that
abbreviations and contractions in Latin MSS. followed the same lines
as those in Greek MSS. We have no very early papyri
written in Latin as we have in Greek to show us what'*
the practice of Roman writers was in the 3rd and 2nd . f MSS.
and early 1st centuries B.C.; but there can be little doubt "
that in that remote time there was followed in Latin writing a
system of abbrevjation similar to that in Greek, that is, by curtail-
ment of terminations, and that in ephemeral documents written in
cursive characters such abbreviation was allowed more freely than in
carefully written literary works. The early system of representing
words by their initial letters has already been referred to. It was
in common use, as we know, in the inscriptions on coins and monu-
ments, and to some extent in the texts of Roman writers. But the
ambiguity which must have always accompanied such a system
of single-letter abbreviations, or sigla, naturally induced an improve-
ment by expressing a word by two or more of its letters. Hence was
developed the more regular syllabic system of the Romans, by which
the leading letters of_ the several syllables were written, as EG =
ergo, HR~=fcrM, ST= satis. At a later time Christian writers
secured greater exactness by expressing the final letter of a contracted
word, as ds=deus, do=deo, scs=sanctus. Further, certain marks
and signs, many derived from shorthand symbols, came into use to
indicate inflections and terminations ; or the terminating letter or a
leading letter to indicate the termination might be written above
the line, asQ=quo, V m = verum,N = noster,S?=sint. This practice
became capable of greater development later on. Among the special
signs are c=est, \=vel, n = non, p'=pre, p = per, = pro,* = termina-
tion us. The letter q with distinctive strokes applied in different
positions represented the often recurring relative and other short
words, as quod, quia.
In Latin Biblical uncial MSS. the same restrictions on abbrevia-
tions were exercised as in the Greek.^ The sacred names and titles
DS=<fewj, DMS, DNS = dominus, SCS = sanctus, 5F5=spiritus, and
others appear in the oldest codices. The contracted terminations
Q- =que, B- =bus, and the omission of final m, or (more rarely) final
n, are common to all Latin MSS. of the earliest period. There is a
peculiarity about the contracted form of our Saviour's name that it
is always written by the Latin scribes in letters imitating the Greek
IfTc; XFC,"tE", xpc, and Ths, xps.
The full development of the medieval system of abbreviation and
contraction was effected at the time when the Carolingian schools
were compelling the reform of the handwriting of western Europe.
Then came a freer practice of abbreviation by suppression of termina-
tions and the latter portions of words, the omission of which was
indicated by the ordinary signs, the horizontal or oblique stroke or the
apostrophe ; then came also a freer practice of contraction by omit-
ting letters and syllables from the middle as well as the end of words,
as oio, omnino, prb, presbyter; and then from the practice of writing
above the line a leading fetter of an omitted syllable, as int* = intra,
t r = tur, conventional signs, with special significations, were also
gradually developed. Such growths are well illustrated in the change
undergone by the semicolon, which was attached to the end of a word
to indicate the omission of the termination, as b; = frits, q; = que,
deb;=debet, and which in course of time became_ converted into
a z, a form which survives in our ordinary abbreviation, viz. (i.e.
vi;=videlicet). The different forms of contraction were common
to all the nations of western Europe. The Spanish scribes, however,
attached different values to certain of them. For example, in
Visigothic MSS., qm, which elsewhere represented quoniam, may be
read as quum; and ,p, which elsewhere = pro, is here = per. Nor
must the use of arbitrary symbols for special words be forgotten.
These are generally adaptations of the shorthand signs known as
Tironian notes. Such are K -autem, -*-=est, & = ejus, tt = itm,
7 = et, v and li = ut, which were employed particularly in early M SS. of
English and Irish origin.
624
MANUTIUS
By the nth century the system of Latin contractions had been
reduced to exact rules; and from this time onwards it was universally
practised. It reached its culminating point in the I3th century,
the period of increasing demand for MSS., when it became more than
ever necessary to economize space. After this date the exact forma-
tion of the signs of contractions was less strictly observed, and the
system deteriorated together with the decline of handwriting. In
conclusion, it may be noticed that in MSS. written in the vernacular
tongues contractions are more rarely used than in Latin texts.
A system suited to the inflexions and terminations of this language
could not be readily adapted to other languages so different in
grammatical structure.
Palimpsests, &c. Palimpsest MSS., that is, MSS. written upon
material from which older writing has been previously removed by
washing or scraping, are described in a separate article (PALIMPSEST).
The ornamentation of MSS. is fully dealt with under the headings
ILLUMINATED MSS., and MINIATURES.
Writing Implements. In conclusion, a few words may be added
respecting the writing implements employed in the production of
MSS. The reed, icoXa/nos, calamus, was adapted for tracing charac-
ters either on papyrus or vellum. By the ancient Egyptians, and also
Crobably by the early Greek scribes in Egypt, it was used with a soft
rush-like point, rather as a paint-brush than as a pen. The Greek
and Roman scribes used the reed cut to a point and slit like the quill-
pen; and it survived as a writing implement into the middle ages.
For scratching letters on the waxen tablet the sharp pointed bodkin,
rrOXos, ypafciov, stilus, graphium, was necessary, made of iron,
bronze, ivory, or other suitable material, with a knobbed or flattened
butt-end wherewith corrections could be made by smoothening the
wax surface (hence vertere stilum, to correct). Although there is no
very early record of the use of quills as pens, it is obvious that, well
adapted as they are for the purpose and to be had everywhere, they
must have been in request even in ancient times as they afterwards
were in the middle ages. Bronze pens, fashioned exactly on the
model of the quill-pen, that is in form of a tube ending in a slit nib
(sometimes even with a nib at each end), of late Roman manufacture,
are still in existence. A score of them are to be found scattered
among public and private museums. The ruler for guiding
ruled Tines was the KO.V&V, canon, regula ; the pencil was the i*6\vf}&os,
plumbum, the plummet ; the pricker for marking the spacing out of
the ruled lines was the Sto/Sirtjj, circinus, punctorium; the pen-knife,
y\(i<i>avov, anl\n, scalprum; the erasing-knife, rasorium, novacula.
Inks. Inks of various colours were employed from early times.
The ink of the early papyri is a deep glossy black; in the Byzantine
period it deteriorates. In the middle ages black ink is generally of
excellent quality; it tends to deteriorate from the I4th century.
But its quality varies in different countries at different periods.
Red ink, besides being used for titles and colophons, also served for
contrast, as, for example, in glosses. In the Carolingian period
entire MSS. were occasionally written in red ink. Other coloured
inks green, violet and yellow are also found, at an early date.
Gold and silver writing fluids were used in the texts of the ancient
purple vellum MSS., and writing in gold was reintroduced under
Charlemagne for codices of ordinary white vellum. It was intro-
duced into English MSS. in the loth century.
AUTHORITIES. H. Geraud, Essai sur Us limes dans I'antiquite
(1840) ; E. Egger, Histoire du livre depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos
jours (1880) ; T. Birt, Das antike Buchwesen (1882) and Die Buchrolle
in der Kunst (1907) ; W. Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter
(1896); K. Dziatzko, Untersuchungen uber ausgewdhlte Kapitel des
antiken Buchwesens (1900); J. W. Clark, The Care of Books (1901);
W. Schubart, Das Buck bei den Griechen und Romern (1907) ; and
generally the authorities quoted in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. See
also TEXTUAL CRITICISM. (E. M. T.)
HANUTIUS, the Latin name of an Italian family (Mannucci,
Manuzio), famous in the history of printing as organizers of
the Aldine press.
i. ALDUS MANUTITJS (1450-1515). Teobaldo Mannucci,
better known as Aldo Manuzio, the founder of the Aldine press,
was born in 1450 at Sermoneta in the Papal States. He received
a scholar's training, studying Latin at Rome under Gasparino
da Verona, and Greek at Ferrara under Guarino da Verona. In
1482 he went to reside at Mirandola with his old friend and fellow-
student, the illustrious Giovanni Pico. There he stayed two
years, prosecuting his studies in Greek literature. Before Pico
removed to Florence, he procured for Aldo the post of tutor
to his nephews Alberto and Lionello Pio, princes of Carpi.
Alberto Pio supplied Aldo with funds for starting his printing
press, and gave him lands at Carpi. It was Aide's ambition
to secure the literature of Greece from further accident by com-
mitting its chief masterpieces to type. Before his time four
Italian towns had won the honours of Greek publications:
Milan, with the grammar of Lascaris, Aesop, Theocritus, a
Greek Psalter, and Isocrates, between 1476 and 1493; Venice,
with the Erotemaia of Chrysoloras in 1484; Vicenza, with reprints
of Lascaris's grammar and the Erolemata, in 1488 and 1490;
Florence, with Alopa's Homer, in 1488. Of these works, only
three, the Milanese Theocritus and Isocrates and the Florentine
Homer, were classics. Aldo selected Venice as the most appro-
priate station for his labours. He settled there in 1490, and
soon afterwards gave to the world editions of the Hero and
Leander of Musaeus, the Galeomyomachia, and the Greek Psalter.
These have no date; but they are the earliest tracts issued from
his press, and are called by him " Precursors of the Greek
Library."
At Venice Aldo gathered an army of Greek scholars and com-
positors around him. His trade was carried on by Greeks, and
Greek was the language of his household. Instructions to type-
setters and binders were given in Greek. The prefaces to his
editions were written in Greek. Greeks from Crete collated MSS.,
read proofs, and gave models of calligraphy for casts of Greek
type. Not counting the craftsmen employed in merely manual
labour, Aldo entertained as many as thirty of these Greek
assistants in his family. His own industry and energy were
unremitting. In 1495 he issued the first volume of his Aristotle.
Four more volumes completed the work in 1497-1498. Nine
comedies of Aristophanes appeared in 1498. Thucydides,
Sophocles and Herodotus followed in 1502; Xenophon's Hellenics
and Euripides in 1503; Demosthenes in 1504. The troubles of
Italy, which pressed heavily on Venice at this epoch, suspended
Aide's labours for a while. But in 1508 he resumed his series
with an edition of the minor Greek orators; and in 1509 appeared
the lesser works of Plutarch. Then came another stoppage.
The league of Cambray had driven Venice back to her lagoons,
and all the forces of the republic were concentrated on a struggle
to the death with the allied powers of Europe. In 1513 Aldo
reappeared with Plato, which he dedicated to Leo X. in a preface
eloquently and earnestly comparing the miseries of warfare and
the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects of the
student's life. Pindar, Hesychius, and Athenaeus followed in
These complete the list of Aldo's prime services to Greek
literature. But it may be well in this place to observe that
his successors continued his work by giving Pausanias, Strabo,
Aeschylus, Galen, Hippocrates and Longinus to the world
in first editions. Omission has been made of Aldo's reprints,
in order that the attention of the reader might be concentrated
on his labours in editing Greek classics from MSS. Other presses
were at work in Italy; and, as the classics issued from Florence,
Rome or Milan, Aldo took them up, bestowing in each case
fresh industry upon the collation of codices and the correction
of texts. Nor was the Aldine press idle in regard to Latin
and Italian classics. The Asolani of Bembo, the collected
writings of Poliziano, the Hypnerotomachia PoliphUi, Dante's
Divine Comedy, Petrarch's poems, a collection of early Latin
poets of the Christian era, the letters of the younger Pliny,
the poems of Pontanus, Sannazzaro's Arcadia, Quintilian,
Valerius Maximus, and the Adagia of Erasmus were printed,
either in first editions, or with a beauty of type and paper never
reached before, between the years 1495 and 1514. For these
Italian and Latin editions Aldo had the elegant type struck
which bears his name. It is said to have been copied from
Petrarch's handwriting, and was cast under the direction of
Francesco da Bologna, who has been identified by Panizzi with
Francia the painter.
Aldo's enthusiasm for Greek literature was not confined to
the printing-room. Whatever the students of this century
may think of his scholarship, they must allow that only vast
erudition and thorough familiarity with the Greek language
could have enabled him to accomplish what he did. In his
own days Aldo's learning won the hearty acknowledgment of
ripe scholars. To his fellow workers he was uniformly generous,
free from jealousy, and prodigal of praise. While aiming at
that excellence of typography which renders his editions the
treasures of the book-collector, he strove at the same time to
make them cheap. We may perhaps roughly estimate the
MANUTIUS
625
current price of his pocket series of Greek, Latin and Italian
classics, begun in 1501, at 2S. per volume of our present money.
The five volumes of the Aristotle cost about 8. His great
undertaking was carried on under continual difficulties, arising
from strikes among his workmen, the piracies of rivals, and the
interruptions of war. When he died, bequeathing Greek
literature as an inalienable possession to the world, he was a
poor man. In order to promote Greek studies, Aldo founded an
academy of Hellenists in 1 500 under the title of the New Academy.
Its rules were written in Greek. Its members were obliged to
speak Greek. Their names were Hellenized, and their official
titles were Greek. The biographies of all the famous men
who were enrolled in this academy must be sought in the pages
of Didot's Aide Manuce. It is enough here to mention that
they included Erasmus and the English Linacre.
In 1499 Aldo married Maria, daughter of Andrea Torresano
of Asola. Andrea had already bought the press established
by Nicholas Jenson at Venice. Therefore Aldo's marriage com-
bined two important publishing firms. Henceforth the names
Aldus and Asolanus were associated on the title pages of the
Aldine publications; and after Aldo's death in 1515, Andrea
and his two sons carried on the business during the minority
of Aldo's children. The device of the dolphin and the anchor,
and the motto festina lente, which indicated quickness combined
with firmness in the execution of a great scheme, were never
wholly abandoned by the Aldines until the expiration of their
firm in the third generation.
2. PAULUS MANUTIUS (1512-1574). By his marriage with
Maria Torresano, Aldo had three sons, the youngest of whom,
Paolo, was born in 1512. He had the misfortune to lose his
father at the age of two. After this event his grandfather
and two uncles, the three Asolani, carried on the Aldine press,
while Paolo prosecuted his early studies at Venice. Excessive
application hurt his health, which remained weak during the
rest of his life. At the age of twenty-one he had acquired a
solid reputation for scholarship and learning. In 1533 Paolo
undertook the conduct of his father's business, which had latterly
been much neglected by his uncles. In the interregnum between
Aldo's death and Paolo's succession (1514-1533) the Asolani
continued to issue books, the best of which were Latin classics.
But, though their publications count a large number of first
editions, and some are works of considerable magnitude, they
were not brought out with the scholarly perfection at which
Aldo aimed. The Asolani attempted to perform the whole
duties of editing, and to reserve all its honours for themselves,
dispensing with the service of competent collaborators. The
result was that some of their editions, especially their Aeschylus
of 1518, are singularly bad. Paolo determined to restore the
glories of the house, and in 1540 he separated from his uncles.
The field of Greek literature having been well-nigh exhausted, he
devoted himself principally to the Latin classics. He was a
passionate Ciceronian, and perhaps his chief contributions to
scholarship are the corrected editions of Cicero's letters and
orations, his own epistles in a Ciceronian style, and his Latin
version of Demosthenes. Throughout his life he combined
the occupations of a student and a printer, winning an even
higher celebrity in the former field than his father had done.
Four treatises from his pen on Roman antiquities deserve to
be commemorated for their erudition no less than for the elegance
of their Latinity. Several Italian cities contended for the
possession of so rare a man; and he received tempting offers
from the Spanish court. Yet his life was a long struggle with
pecuniary difficulties. To prepare correct editions of the
classics, and to print them in a splendid style, has always been
a costly undertaking. And, though Paolo's publications were
highly esteemed, their sale was slow. In 1556 he received for
a time external support from the Venetian Academy, founded
by Federigo Badoaro. But Badoaro failed disgracefully in
1559, and the academy was extinct in 1562. Meanwhile Paolo
had established his brother, Antonio, a man of good parts but
indifferent conduct, in a printing office and book shop at Bologna.
Antonio died in 1559, having been a source of trouble and
expense to Paolo during the last four years of his life. Other
pecuniary embarrassments arose from a contract for supplying
fish to Venice, into which Paolo had somewhat strangely entered
with the government. In 1561 pope Pius IV. invited him to
Rome, offering him a yearly stipend of 500 ducats, and under-
taking to establish and maintain his press there. The profits
on publications were to be divided between Paolo Manuzio
and the Apostolic camera. Paolo accepted the invitation, and
spent the larger portion of his life, under three papacies, with
varying fortunes, in the city of Rome. Ill-health, the commercial
interests he had left behind at Venice, and the coldness shown
him by pope Pius V., induced him at various times and for
several reasons to leave Rome. As was natural, his editions
after his removal to Rome were mostly Latin works of theology
and Biblical or patristic literature.
Paolo married Caterina Odoni in 1546. She brought him
three sons and one daughter. His eldest son, the younger
Aldus, succeeded him in the management of the Venetian
printing house when his father settled at Rome in 1561. Paolo
had never been a strong man, and his health was overtaxed
with studies and commercial worries. Yet he lived into his
sixty-second year, and died at Rome in 1574.
3. ALDUS MANUTIUS, JUNIOR (1547-1597). The younger
Aldo born in the year after his father Paolo's marriage, proved
what is called an infant prodigy. When he was nine years
old his name was placed upon the title page of the famous
Eleganze della lingua Toscana e Latina. The Ekganze was
probably a book made for his instruction and in his company
by his father. In 1561, at the age of fourteen, he produced a
work upon Latin spelling, called Orthographiae ratio. During
a visit to his father at Rome in the next year he was able to
improve this treatise by the study of inscriptions, and in 1575
he completed his labours in the same field by the publication
of an Epitome orthographiae. Whether Aldo was the sole
composer of the work on spelling, in its first edition, may be
doubted; but he appropriated the subject and made it his own.
Probably his greatest service to scholarship is this analysis
of the principles of orthography in Latin.
Aldo remained at Venice, studying literature and superin-
tending the Aldine press. In 1 5 7 2 he married Francesca Lucrezia
daughter of Bartolommeo Giunta, and great-grandchild of the
first Giunta, who founded the famous printing house in Venice.
This was an alliance which augured well of the Giunta for the
future of the Aldines, especially as Aldo had recently found time
to publish a new revised edition of Velleius Paterculus. Two
years later the death of his father at Rome placed Aldo at the
head of the firm. In concert with the Giunta, he now edited
an extensive collection of Italian letters, and in 1576 he published
his commentary upon the Ars poetica of Horace. About the
same time, that is to say, about the year 1576, he was appointed
professor of literature to the Cancelleria at Venice. The Aldine
press continued through this period to issue books, but none
of signal merit; and in 1585 Aldo determined to quit his native
city for Bologna, where he occupied the chair of eloquence for
a few months. In 1587 he left Bologna for Pisa, and there,
in his quality of professor, he made the curious mistake of
printing Alberti's comedy Philodoxius as a work of the classic
Lepidus. Sixtus V. drew him in 1588 from Tuscany to Rome;
and at Rome he hoped to make a permanent settlement as
lecturer. But his public lessons were ill attended, and he soon
fell back upon his old vocation of publisher under the patronage
of a new pope, Clement VIII. In 1 597 he died, leaving children,
but none who cared or had capacity to carry on the Aldine
press. Aldo himself, though a precocious student, a scholar
of no mean ability, and a pubb'sher of some distinction, was
the least remarkable of the three men who gave books to the
public under the old Aldine ensign. This does not of necessity
mean that we should adopt Scaliger's critique of the younger
Aldo without reservation. Scaliger called him " a poverty-
stricken talent, slow in operation; his work is very commonplace;
he aped his father." What is true in this remark lies partly
in the fact that scholarship in Aldo's days had flown beyond
626
MANWARING MANZONI
the Alps, where a new growth of erudition, on a basis different
from that of the Italian Renaissance, had begun.
See Renouard's Annales de I'imprimerie des Aides (Paris, 1834);
Didot's Aide Manuce (Paris, 1873); Omont's Catalogue of Aldine
publications (Paris, 1892). (J. A. S.)
MANWARING, ROBERT, English iSth-century furniture
designer and cabinet maker. The dates of his birth and death
are unknown. He was a contemporary and imitator of Chippen-
dale, and not the least considerable of his rivals. He prided
himself upon work which he described as " genteel," and his
speciality was chairs. He manifests the same surprising varia-
tions of quality that are noticed in the work of nearly all the
English cabinet-makers of the second half of the i8th century,
and while his best had an undeniable elegance his worst was
exceedingly bad squat, ill-proportioned and confused. Some
of his chairbacks are so nearly identical with Chippendale's that
it is difficult to suppose that the one did not copy from the other,
and most of the designs of the greater man enjoyed priority
of date. During a portion of his career Manwaring was a
devotee of the Chinese taste; he likewise practised in the Gothic
manner. He appears to have introduced the small bracket
between the front rail of the seat and the top of the chair leg,
or at all events to have made such constant use of it that it
has come to be regarded as characteristic of his work. Man-
waring described certain of his own work as " elegant and
superb," and as possessing " grandeur and magnificence." He
did not confine himself to furniture but produced many designs
for rustic gates and railings, often very extravagant. One of
his most absurd rural chairs has rock-work with a waterfall
in the back.
Among Manwaring's writings were The Cabinet and Chair Makers'
Real Friend and Companion, or the Whole System of Chairmaking
Made Plain and Easy (1765); The Carpenters' Compleat Guide to
Gothic Railing (1765); and The Chair-makers' Guide (1766).
MANYCH, a river and depression in S. Russia, stretching
between the lower river Don and the Caspian Sea, through
the Don Cossacks territory and between the government
of Astrakhan on the N. and that of Stavropol on the S.
During the greater part of the year it is either dry or occupied
in part by a string of saline lakes (limans or ilmens); but in
spring when the streams swell which empty into it, the water
flows in two opposite directions from the highest point (near
Shara-Khulusun). The western stream flows westwards, with
an inclination northwards, until it reaches the Don, though
when the latter river is running high, its water penetrates some
60 miles up the Manych. The eastern stream dies away in
the sandy steppe about 25 miles from the Caspian, though it
is said sometimes to reach the Kuma through the Huiduk, a
tributary of the Kuma. Total length of the depression, 330 m.
For its significance as a former (geologic) connexion between
the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea, see CASPIAN SEA. By
some authorities the Manych depression is taken as part of
the boundary between Europe and Asia.
MANYEMA (Una-Ma-Nyema, eaters of flesh), a powerful
and warlike Bantu-Negroid people in the south-east of, the
Congo basin. Physically they are of a light colour, with well
formed noses and not over-full lips, the women being described
as singularly pretty and graceful. Manyemaland was for the
greater part of the igth century an Eldorado of the Arab slave
raiders.
MANZANARES, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad
Real, on the river Azuer, a large sub-tributary of the Zancara,
and on the railways from Madrid to Ciudad Real and Linares.
Pop. (1900), 11,229. Manzanares is one of the chief towns
of La Mancha, and thus in the centre of the district described
by Cervantes in Don Quixote. Its citadel was founded as a
Christian fortress after the defeat of the Moors at Las Navas
de Tolosa (1212). Bull-fights were formerly held in the main
plaza, where galleries to accommodate spectators were built
between the buttresses of an ancient parish church. Manzanares
has manufactures of soap, bricks and pottery, and an active
trade in wheat, wine, spirits, aniseed and saffron.
MANZANILLO, a town and port on the Pacific coast of
Mexico, in the state of Colima, 52 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city
of that name. It is situated on a large harbour partly formed
and sheltered by a long island extending southwards parallel
with the coast. Southward also, and in the vicinity of the
town, is the large stagnant, shallow lagoon of Cayutlan which
renders the town unhealthy. Manzanillo is a commercial
town of comparatively recent creation. Its new harbour works,
the construction of which was begun in 1899, and its railway
connexion with central Mexico, promise to make it one of the
chief Pacific ports of the republic. These works include a
breakwater 130x3 ft. long, with a depth of 12 to 70 ft. and a
maximum breadth of 320 ft. at the base and 25 ft. on top, and
all the necessary berthing and mechanical facilities for the
handling of cargoes. A narrow-gauge railway was built between
Colima and Manzanillo toward the end of the nineteenth century,
but the traffic was only sufficient for a tri-weekly service up
to 1908, when the gauge was widened and the railway became
part of the Mexican Central branch, completed in that year from
Irapuato through Guadalajara to Colima. The exports include
hides and skins, palm leaf hats, Indian corn, coffee, palm oil,
fruit, lumber and minerals.
MANZANILLO, an important commercial city of Cuba, in
Santiago province, on the gulf of Guacanabo, about 17 m. S.
of the mouth of the Rio Cauto, on the shore of Manzanillo Bay.
Pop. (1907), 15,819. It is shut off to the east and south by the
Sierra Maestra. Besides the Cauto, the rivers Yara and Buey
are near the city. Manzanillo is the only coast town of importance
between Trinidad and Santiago. It exports large quantities of
sugar, hides, tobacco, and bees- wax; also some cedar and
mahogany. The history of the settlement begins in 1784,
but the port was already important at that time for a trade
in woods and fruits; French and English corsairs resorted
thither for ship-building woods. The settlement was sacked
by the French in 1792, and in the following year a fort was
built for its protection. In 1833 it received an ayuntamiento
(council) and in 1837, for its " loyalty " in not following the
lead of Santiago in proclaiming the Spanish Constitution,
received from the crown the title of Fid. In 1827 the port
was opened to commerce, national and foreign.
MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO, Italian author, was born about
the end of the fifteenth century at La Stellata, near Ferrara.
He wrote a poem entitled Zodiacus vitae, published at Basel
in 1543, and dedicated to Hercules II. of Ferrara. The poem is
full of didactic writing on the subject of human happiness in
connexion with scientific knowledge, and combines metaphysical
speculation with satirical attacks on ecclesiastical hypocrisy,
and especially on the Pope and on Luther. It was translated
into several languages, but fell under the ban of the Inquisition
on the ground of its rationalizing tendencies.
MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO TOMMASO ANTONIO
(1785-1873), Italian poet and novelist, was born at Milan
on the 7th of March 1785. Don Pietro, his father, then
about fifty, represented an old family settled near Lecco, but
originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina, where
the memory of their violence is still perpetuated in a local
proverb, comparing it to that of the mountain torrent. The
poet's maternal grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was a well-known
author, and his mother Giulia a woman of some literary ability.
Manzoni's intellect was slow in maturing, and at the various
colleges where his school days were passed he ranked among
the dunces. At fifteen, however, he developed a passion for
poetry, and wrote two sonnets of considerable merit. On the
death of his father in 1805, he joined his mother at Auteuil,
and spent two years there, mixing in the literary set of the
so-called " ideologues," philosophers of the i8th century school,
among whom he made many friends, notably Claude Fauriel.
There too he imbibed the negative creed of Voltairianism, and
only after his marriage, and under the influence of his wife,
did he exchange it for that fervent Catholicism which coloured
his later life. In 1806-1807, while at Auteuil, he first appeared
before the public as a poet, with two pieces, one entitled Urania,
MAORI
627
in the classical style, of which he became later the most conspicu-
ous adversary, the other an elegy in blank verse, on the death
of Count Carlo Imbonati, from whom, through his mother, he
inherited considerable property, including the villa of Brusuglio,
thenceforward his principal residence.
Manzoni's marriage in 1808 to Henriette Blondel, daughter of
a Genevese banker, proved a most happy one, and he led for
many years a retired domestic life, divided between literature
and the picturesque husbandry of Lombardy. His intellectual
energy at this, period was devoted to the composition of the
I/ini sacri, a series of sacred lyrics, and a treatise on Catholic
morality, forming a task undertaken under religious guidance,
in reparation for his early lapse from faith. In 1818 he had
to sell his paternal inheritance, as his affairs had gone to ruin
in the hands of a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity
was shown on this occasion in his dealings with his peasants,
who were heavily indebted to him. He not only cancelled
on the spot the record of all sums owing to him, but bade them
keep for themselves the whole of the coming maize harvest.
In 1819 Manzoni published his first tragedy, // Conte di Car-
magnola, which, boldly violating all classical conventionalisms,
excited a lively controversy. It was severely criticized in the
Quarterly Review, in an article to which Goethe replied in its
defence, "one genius," as Count de Gubernatis remarks, " having
divined the other." The death of Napoleon in 1821 inspired
Manzoni's powerful stanzas // Cinque maggio, the most popular
lyric in the Italian language. The political events of that year,
and the imprisonment of many of his friends, weighed much
on Manzoni's mind, and the historical studies in which he sought
distraction during his subsequent retirement at Brusuglio sug-
gested his great work. Round the episode of the Innominate,
historically identified with Bernardino Visconti, the novel
/ Promessi sposi began to grow into shape, and was com-
pleted in September 1822. The work when published, after
revision by friends in 1825-1827, at the rate of a volume a
year, at once raised its author to the first rank of literary
fame. In 1822, Manzoni published his second tragedy Adelchi,
turning on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard
domination in Italy, and containing many veiled allusions to
the existing Austrian rule. With these works Manzoni's
literary career was practically closed. But he laboriously
revised I Promessi sposi in the Tuscan idiom, and in 1840
republished it in that form, with a sort of sequel, La
Storia della Colonna infame, of very inferior interest. He also
wrote a small treatise on the Italian language.
The end of the poet's long life was saddened by domestic
sorrows. The loss of his wife in 1833 was followed by that
of several of his children, and of his mother. In 1837 he
married his second wife, Teresa Borri, widow of Count
Stampa, whom he also survived, while of nine children
born to him in his two marriages all but two preceded him
to the grave. The death of his eldest son, Pier Luigi, on
the 28th of April 1873, was the final blow which hastened
his end; he fell ill immediately, and died of cerebral meningitis,
on the 22nd of May. His country mourned him with almost
royal pomp, and his remains, after lying in state for some days,
were followed to the cemetery of Milan by a vast cortege,
including the royal princes and all the great officers of state.
But his noblest monument was Verdi's Requiem, specially
written to honour his memory.
Biographical sketches of Manzoni have been published by Cesare
Cantii (1885), Angelo de Gubernatis (1879), Arturp Graf (1898).
Some of his letters have been published by Giovanni Sforza (1882).
MAORI (pronounced " Mown "; a Polynesian word meaning
"native," "indigenous"; the word occurs in distinction from
pakeha, " stranger," in other parts of Polynesia in the forms
Maoi and Maoli), the name of the race inhabiting New Zealand
when first visited by Tasman in 1642.
That they were not indigenous, but had displaced an earlier
Melanesian or Papuan race, the true aborigines, is certain. The
Maoris are Polynesians, and, in common with the majority of
their kinsfolk throughout the Pacific, they have traditions which
point to Savaii, originally Savaiki, the largest island of the
Samoan group, as their cradle-land. They say they came to
New Zealand from " Hawaiki," and they appear to distinguish
between a large and small, or a nearer and farther, " Hawaiki."
" The seed of our coming is from Hawaiki; the seed of our nour-
ishing, the seed of mankind." Their great chief, Te Kupe, first
landed, they say, on Aotearoa, as they called the north island,
and, pleased with his discovery, returned to Hawaiki to tell his
fellow-countrymen. Thereafter he returned with seven war
canoes, each holding a hundred warriors, priests, stone idols and
sacred weapons, as well as native plants and animals. Hawaiki,
the name of Te Kupe's traditional home, is identical with several
other Polynesian place-names, e.g. Hawaii, Apai in the Tonga
Islands, Evava in the Marquesas, all of which are held to be
derived from Savii or Savaiki. Dr Thomson, in his Story of New
Zealand, quotes a Maori tradition, published by Sir George Grey,
that certain islands, among which it names Rarotonga, Parima
and Manono, are islands near Hawaiki. The Rarotongas call
themselves Maori, and state that their ancestors came from
Hawaiki, and Pirima and Manono are the native names of two
islands in the Samoan group. The almost identical languages
of the Rarotongas and the Maoris strengthen the theory that
the two peoples are descended from Polynesians migrating,
possibly at widely different dates, from Samoa. The distance
from Rarotonga to New Zealand is about 2000 m., and, with the
aid of the trade wind, large canoes could traverse the distance
within a month. Moreover the fauna and flora of New Zealand
in many ways resemble those of Samoa. Thus it would seem
certain that the Maoris, starting from " further Hawaiki,"
or Samoa, first touched at Rarotonga, " nearer Hawaiki," whence,
after forming a settlement, they journeyed on to New Zealand.
Maori tradition is explicit as to the cause of the exodus from
Samoa, gives the names of the canoes in which the journey was
made and the time of year at which the coast of New Zealand
was sighted. On the question of the date a comparison of
genealogies of Maori chiefs shows that, up to the beginning of
the 2oth century, about eighteen generations or probably not
much more than five centuries had passed since the first Maori
arrivals. There is some evidence that the " tradition of the six
canoes " does not represent the first contact of the Polynesian
race with New Zealand. If earlier immigrants from Samoa or
other eastern Pacific islands arrived they must have become
absorbed into the native Papuan population arguing from
the absence of any distinct tradition earlier than that " of the
six canoes." Some have sought to find in the Morioris of
Chatham Island the remnants of this Papuan-Polynesian
population, expelled by Te Kupe and his followers. The
extraordinary ruined fortifications found, and the know-
ledge of the higher art of war displayed by the Maoris,
suggest (what is no doubt the fact) that there was a hard
fight for them when they first arrived, but the greatest
resistance must have been from the purer Papuan inhabitants,
and not from the half-castes who were probably easily over-
whelmed. The shell heaps x found on the coasts and elsewhere
dispose of the theory that New Zealand was uninhabited or
practically so six centuries back.
Any description of the Maoris, who in recent years have come
more and more under the influence of white civilization, must
necessarily refer rather to what they have been than what they
are. Physically the Maoris are true Polynesians, tall, well-built,
with straight or slightly curved noses, high foreheads and oval
faces. Their colour is usually a darker brown than that of their
kinsfolk of the eastern Pacific, but light-complexioned Maoris,
almost European in features, are met with. Their hair is black
and straight or wavy, scarcely ever curly. They have long been
celebrated for their tattooing, the designs being most elaborate.
Among the most industrious of Polynesian races, they have
always been famed for wood-carving; and in building, weaving
and dyeing they had made great advances before the whites
arrived. They are also good farmers and bold seamen. In the
Maori wars they showed much strategic skill, and their know-
ledge of fortification was very remarkable. Politically the
6a8
MAP, WALTER
Maoris have always been democratic. No approach to a mon-
archy ever existed. Each tribe under its chief was autonomous.
Tribal lands were held in common and each man was entitled
to a share hi the products. They had slaves, but so few as not
to alter the social conditions. Every Maori was a soldier, and
war was the chief business and joy of his life. Tribal wars were
incessant. The weapons were wooden spears, clubs and stone
tomahawks. Cannibalism, which earned them in earlier years
a terrible name, was generally restricted to the bloodthirsty
banquets which always followed a victory. The Maoris ate
their enemies' hearts to gain their courage, but to whatever
degree animistic beliefs may have once contributed to their
cannibalism, it is certain that long before Captain Cook's visit
religious sanction for the custom had long given place to mere
gluttonous enjoyment.
The Maoris had no regular marriage ceremony. Polygamy
was universal, and even to-day they are not strictly monogamous.
The power of the husband over the wife was absolute, but women
took their meals with the men, were allowed a voice in the tribe's
affairs, and sometimes accompanied the men into battle. Some
tribes were endogamic, and there matriarchy was the rule,
descent being traced through the female line. Ferocious as they
were in war, the Maoris are generally hospitable and affectionate
in their home-life, and a pleasant characteristic, noticed by
Captain Cook, is their respect and care of the old. The Maoris
buried their dead, the cemeteries being ornamented with carved
posts. Their religion was a nature-worship intimately con-
nected with the veneration of ancestors. There was a belief
in the soul, which was supposed to dwell in the left eye. They
had no doubt as to a future state, but no definite idea of a
supreme being. They had no places of worship, nor, though
they had sacred wooden figures, is there any reason to' consider
that they were idolaters in the strict sense of the word. The
custom of taboo was very fully developed. Nowadays they
are all nominally Christians. While they had no written
language, a considerable oral literature of songs, legends and
traditions existed. Their priesthood was a highly trained
profession, and they had schools which taught a knowledge of
the stars and constellations, for many of which they had names.
All Maoris are natural orators and poets, and a chief was expected
to add these accomplishments to his prowess as a warrior or
his skill as a seaman. The Maoris of to-day are law-abiding,
peaceable and indolent. They have been called the Britons of
the south, and their courage in defending their country and
their intelligence amply justify the compliment. By the New
Zealanders they are cordially liked. At the census of 1906 they
numbered 47,731, as against 45,470 in 1874; and there were
6516 half-castes. See also POLYNESIA and SAMOA.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir G. Grey, Polynesian Mythology and Maori
Legends (Wellington, 1885); A. de Quatrefages, Les Polyntsiens et
lews migrations (Paris, 1866) ; Abraham Fornander, An Account of
the Polynesian Race (1877-1885) ; Henri Mager, Le Monde polynesien
(Paris, 1902) ; Pierre Adolphe Lesson, Les Polynksiens, leur origine,
dfc. (Paris, 1880-1884); W. Pember Reeves, New Zealand; A. R.
Wallace, Australasia (Stanford's Compendium, 1894) ; G. W. Rusden,
History of New Zealand (1895); Alfred Saunders, History of New
Zealand (1896); James Cowan, The Maoris of New Zealand
(1909).
MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9), medieval ecclesi-
astic, author and wit, to whose authority the main body of prose
Arthurian literature has, at one time or another, been assigned,
flourished in the latter part of the I2th and early years of the
I3th centuries. Concerning the date of his birth and his parent-
age nothing definite is known, but as he ascribes his position
at court to the merits of his parents they were probably people
of some importance. He studied at Paris under Girard la
Pucelle, who began to teach in or about 1160, but as he states
in his book De nugis curialium that he was at the court of
Henry II. before 1162, his residence at Paris must have been
practically comprised in the decade 1150-1160.
Map's career was an active and varied one; he was clerk of the
royal household and justice itinerant ; in 1 1 79 he was present at
the Lateran council at Rome, on his way thither being enter-
tained by the count of Champagne; at this time he apparently
held a plurality of ecclesiastical benefices, being a prebend of
St Paul's, canon and precentor of Lincoln and parson of Westbury,
Gloucestershire. There seems to be no record of his ordination,
but as he was a candidate for the see of Hereford in 1199 it is
most probable that he was in priest's orders. The last reference
to him, as living, is in 1208, when an order for payment to him
is on record, but Giraldus Cambrensis, in the second edition of
his Hibernica, redacted in 1210, utters a prayer for his soul,
" cujus animae propitietur Deus," a proof that he was no longer
alive.
The special interest of Map lies in the perplexing question of
his relation to the Arthurian legend and literature. He is in-
variably cited as the author of the Lancelot proper (consisting
of two parts), the Queste and the Mart Artus, all three of which
are now generally found in one manuscript under the title of
Lancelot. The Mart Artus, however, we know to be the prose
working over of an earlier and independent poem. Sundry
manuscripts of the yet more extensive compilation which begins
with the Grand Saint Graal also refer to Map as having composed
the cycle in conjunction with Robert de Borron, to whom, as a
rule, the Grand Saint Graal and Merlin are exclusively assigned.
The curious Merlin text, Bibl. Nat. 337 (fonds Francais), refers
throughout to Map as authority; and the enormous Lancelot
codex, B. N. 112, a combination of the Lancelot and the Tristan,
also couples his name with that of Robert de Borron. In fact
it may safely be said that, with the exception of the prose Tristan,
always attributed either to Luces de Cast, or Helie de Borron,
the authority of Map has been invoked for the entire vast mass
of Arthurian prose romantic literature. Now it is practically
impossible that one man, and that one an occupier of court and
public offices, constantly employed in royal and public business,
very frequently travelling abroad (e.g. we know he was at
Limoges in 1173; at Rome in 1179; in Anjou in 1183; and
at Angers in 1199), could have found the necessary leisure.
On this point we have the testimony of his one undoubted
work, De nugis curialium, which he tells us he composed " by
snatches " during his residence at court. De nugis is a
comparatively small book; if it were difficult to find leisure for
that, much more would it have been difficult to find the time
requisite for the composition of one only of the many long-winded
romances which have been fathered on Map. Giraldus Cam-
brensis, with whom he was on most friendly terms, and who
frequently refers to and quotes him, records a speech in which
Map contrasted Giraldus' labours with his own, apparently to the
disadvantage of the latter, " vos scripta dedistis, et nos verba "
a phrase which has been interpreted as meaning that Map
himself had produced no literary work. But inasmuch as the
De nugis is undoubtedly, and certain satirical poems directed
against the loose life of the clergy of the day most probably, his
work, the speech must not be taken too literally. It seems
difficult also to believe that Map's name should be so constantly
connected with our Arthurian tradition without any ground
whatever; though it must be admitted that he himself never
makes any such claim the references in the romances are all
couched in the third person, and bear no sign of being other than
the record by the copyist of a traditional attribution.
A different and very interesting piece of evidence is afforded
by the Ipomedon of Hue de Rotelande; in relating how his hero
appeared at a tournament three days running, in three different
suits of armour, red, black and white, the author remarks,
Sul ne sai pas de mentir I' art
Walter Map reset ben sa part.
This apparently indicated that Map, also, had made himself
responsible for a similar story. Now this incident of the " Three
Days' Tournament " is found alike in the prose Lancelot and in
the German Lanzelet, this latter translated from a French poem
which, in 1194, was in the possession of Hugo de Morville. The
Ipomedon was written somewhere in the decade 1180-1190, and
there is no evidence of the prose romance having then been in
existence. We have no manuscript of any prose Arthurian
romance earlier than the -I3th century, to which period Gaston
CLASSIFICATION: SCALE]
MAP
629
Paris assigned them; they are certainly posterior to the verse
romances. Chretien de Troyes, in his Cliffs (the date of which
falls somewhere in the decade 1160-1170), knew and utilized
the story of the " Three Days' Tournament," and moreover
makes Lancelot take part in it. Map was, as we have seen,
frequently in France; Chr6tien had for patroness Marie, countess
of Champagne, step-daughter to Henry II., Map's patron; Map's
position was distinctly superior to that of Chretien. Taking all
the evidence into consideration it seems more probable that Map
had, at a comparatively early date, before he became so impor-
tant an official, composed a poem on the subject of Lancelot,
which was the direct source of the German version, and which
Chretien also knew and followed.
The form in which certain of the references to him are couched
favours the above view; the compiler of Guiron le Cortois says in his
prologue that " maistre Gautier Map qui fu clers au roi Henry
devisa cil I'estoire de monseigneur Lancelot du Lac, que d'autre chose
ne parla il mie gramment en son livre "; and in another place he
refers to Map, " qui fit lou propre livre de monsoingnour Lancelot dou
Lac." Now only during the early part of his career could Map fairly
be referred to as simple " clers au roi Henry," and both extracts
emphasize the fact that his work dealt, almost exclusively, with
Lancelot. Neither of these passages would fit the prose romance,
as we know it, but both might well suit the lost French source of the
Lanzelet ; where we are in a position to compare the German versions
of French romances with their originals we find, as a rule, that the
translators have followed their source faithfully.
One of the references to Map's works in the Merlin manuscript
above referred to (B.N. 337) has an interesting touch not found else-
where. After saying how Map translated the romance from the
Latin at the bidding of King Henry, the usual statement, the scribe
adds " qui riche loier Ven dona." It is of course possible that Map's
rise at court may have been due to his having hit the literary taste
of the monarch, who, we know, was interested in the Arthurian tradi-
tion, but it must be admitted that direct evidence on the subject
is practically nil, and that in the present condition of our knowledge
we can only advance possible hypotheses.
See art. Map " in Diet. Nat. Biog. De nugis curialium and the
Latin Poems attributed to Map have been edited for the Camden
Society by T. Wright (1841). For discussion of his authorship of the
Lancelot cf. The Three Days' Tournament, Grimm Library XV.
See also under LANCELOT. The passages relating to Map cited above
have been frequently quoted by scholars, e.g. Hucher, Le Grand
Saint Graal; Paulin Paris, Romans de la Table Ronde; Alfred Nutt,
Studies in the Legend of the Holy Grail. (J. L. W.)
MAP, a representation, on a plane and a reduced scale, of
part or the whole of the earth's surface. If specially designed
to meet the requirements of seamen it is called a chart, if on an
exceptionally large scale a plan. The words map and chart are
derived from mappa and charta, the former being the Latin for
napkin or cloth, the latter for papyrus or parchment. Maps
were thus named after the material upon which they were drawn
or painted, and it should be noted that even at present maps
intended for use in the open air, by cyclists, military men and
others, are frequently printed on cloth. In Italian, Spanish and
Portuguese the word mappa has retained its place, by the side
of carta, for marine charts, but in other languages both kinds
of maps * are generally known by a word derived from the Latin
charta, as carte in French, Karte in German, Kaart in Dutch.
A chart, in French, is called carte hydrographique, marine or des
cdles; in Spanish or Portuguese carta de marear, in Italian carta
da navigare, in German Seekarte (to distinguish it from Landkarte),
in Dutch Zeekaart or Paskaart. A chart on Mercator's projec-
tion is called Wassende graadkaarl in Dutch, carte reduite in
French. Lastly, a collection of maps is called an atlas, after
the figure of Atlas, the Titan, supporting the heavens, which
ornamented the title of Lafreri's and Mercator's atlases in the
i6th century.
Classification of Maps. Maps differ greatly, not only as to
the scale on which they are drawn, but also with respect to the
fullness or the character of the information which they convey.
Broadly speaking, they may be divided into two classes, of
which the first includes topographical, chorographical and general
maps, the second the great variety designed for special purposes.
1 The ancient Greeks called a map Pinax, The Romans Tabula
geographica. Mappa mundi was the medieval Latin for a map of
the world which the ancients called Tabula totius orbis descriptionem
continent.
Topographical maps and plans are drawn on a scale sufficiently
large to enable the draughtsman to show most objects on a scale
true to nature. 2 Its information should not only be accurate,
but also conveyed intelligibly and with taste. Exaggeration,
however, is not always to be avoided, for even on the British
i in. ordnance map the roads appear as if they were 130 ft.
in width.
Chorographical (Gr. \iapa., country or region) and general
maps are either reduced from topographical maps or compiled
from such miscellaneous sources as are available. In the former
case the cartographer is merely called upon to reduce and general-
ize the information given by his originals, to make a judicious
selection of place names, and to take care that the map is not
overcrowded with names and details. Far more difficult is
his task where no surveys are available, and the map has to
be compiled from a variety of sources. These materials
generally include reconnaissance survey of small districts, route
surveys and astronomical observations supplied by travellers,
and information obtained from native sources. The compiler,
in combining these materials, is called upon to examine the
various sources of information, and to form an estimate of their
value, which he can only do if he have himself some knowledge
of surveying and of the methods of determining positions by
astronomical observation. A knowledge of the languages in
which the accounts of travellers are written, and even of native
languages, is almost indispensable. He ought not to be satisfied
with compiling his map from existing maps, but should subject
each explorer's account to an independent examination, when he
will frequently find that either the explorer himself, or the
draughtsman employed by him, has failed to introduce into
his map the whole of the information available. Latitudes from
the observations of travellers may generally be trusted, but
longitudes should be accepted with caution; for so competent
an observer as Captain Speke placed the capital of Uganda in
longitude 32 44' E., when its true longitude as determined by
more trustworthy observations is 32 26' E., an error of 18'.
Again, on the map illustrating Livingstone's " Last Journals "
the Luapula is shown as issuing from the Bangweulu in the
north-west, when an examination of the account of the natives
who carried the great explorer's remains to the coast would
have shown that it leaves that lake on the south.
The second group includes all maps compiled for special
purposes. Their variety is considerable, for they are designed
to illustrate physical and political geography, travel and naviga-
tion, trade and commerce, and, in fact, every subject connected
with geographical distribution and capable of being illustrated
by means of a map. We thus have (i) physical maps in great
variety, including geological, orographical and hydrographical
maps, maps illustrative of the geographical distribution of
meteorological phenomena, of plants and animals, such as are
to be found in Berghaus's " Physical Atlas," of which an enlarged
English edition is published by J. G. Bartholomew of Edinburgh;
(2) political maps, showing political boundaries; (3) ethnological
maps, illustrating the distribution of the varieties of man, the
density of population, &c.; (4) travel maps, showing roads or
railways and ocean-routes (as is done by Philips' " Marine
Atlas "), or designed for the special use of cyclists or aviators;
(5) statistical maps, illustrating commerce and industries; (6)
historical maps; (7) maps specially designed for educational
purposes.
Scale of Maps. Formerly map makers contented themselves
with placing upon their maps a linear scale of miles, deduced
from the central meridian or the equator. They now add the
proportion which these units of length have to nature, or state
how many of these units are contained within some local measure
of length. The former method, usually called the " natural
scale," may be described as " international," for it is quite
independent of local measures of length, and depends exclu-
sively upon the size and figure of the earth. Thus a scale of
1:1,000,000 signifies that each unit of length on the map
1 Close, " The Ideal Topographical Map," Geog. Journal, vol. xxv.
(1905)-
630
MAP
[DELINEATION OF GROUND
represents one million of such units in nature. The seconc
method is still employed in many cases, and we find thus:
i in. = i statute mile (of 63,366 in.) corresponds to
6 in. = i ,,
I in. = 5 chains (of 858 in.) . .
i jn. = i nautical mile (of 73,037 in.) .
1 in. = i verst (of 42,000 in.) . .
2 Vienna in. = i Austrian mile (of
288,000 in.) ....,,
i cm. =500 metres (of 100 cm.) . .
63,366
10,560
4.890
73-037
42,000
144,000
50,000
In cases where the draughtsman has omitted to indicate the
scale we can ascertain it by dividing the actual length of a meri-
dian degree by the length of a degree measure upon the map.
Thus a degree between 50 and 51 measures 111,226,000 mm.;
on the map it is represented by in mm. Hence the scale is
i : 1,000,000 approximately.
The linear scale of maps can obviously be used only in the
case of maps covering a small area, for in the case of maps of
greater extension measurements would be vitiated owing to
the distortion or exaggeration inherent in all projections, not
to mention the expansion or shrinking of the paper in the process
of printing. As an extreme instance of the misleading character
of the scale given on maps embracing a wide area we may refer
to a map of a hemisphere. The scale of that map, as determined
by the equator or centre meridian, we will suppose to be
i : 125,000,000, while the encircling meridian indicates a scale
of i : 80,000,000; and a " mean " scale, equal to the square root
of the proportion which the area of the map bears to the actual
area of a hemisphere, is i : 112,000,000. In adopting a scale
for their maps, cartographers will do well to choose a multiple
of 1000 if possible, for such a scale can claim to be
international, while in planning an atlas they ought to avoid
a needless multiplicity of scales.
Map Projections are dealt with separately below. It will
suffice therefore to point out that the ordinary needs of the
cartographer can be met by conical projections, and, in the case
of maps covering a wide area, by Lambert's equal area projection.
The indiscriminate use of Mercator's projection, for maps of the
world, is to be deprecated owing to the inordinate exaggeration
of areas in high latitudes. In the case of topographical maps
sheets bounded by meridians and parallels are to be commended.
The meridian of Greenwich has been universally accepted as
the initial meridian, but in the case of most topographical
maps of foreign countries local meridians are still adhered to
the more important among which are:
2 20' 14' E. of Greenwich.
30 19' 39' E.
18 3'30'E.
12 28' 40' E.
4 22' n' E.
3 41' 16' W.
20 o' o'W. of Paris.
Paris (Obs. nationale) .
Pulkova (St Petersburg)
Stockholm ....
Rome (Collegio Romano)
Brussels (Old town)
Madrid
Ferro (assumed)
The outline includes coast-line, rivers, roads, towns, and in
fact all objects capable of being shown on a 'map, with the
exception of the hills and of woods, swamps, deserts and the
like, which the draughtsman generally describes as "ornament."
Conventional signs and symbols are universally used in depicting
these objects.
Delineation of the Ground. The mole-hills and serrated ridges
of medieval maps were still in almost general use at the close of
the 1 8th century, and are occasionally met with at the present
day, being cheaply produced, readily understood by the un-
learned, and in reality preferable to the uncouth and misleading
hatchings still to be seen on many maps. Far superior are
those scenographic representations which enable a person con-
sulting the map to identify prominent landmarks, such as the
Pic du Midi, which rises like a pillar to the south of Pau, but is
not readily discovered upon an ordinary map. This advantage
is still fully recognized, for such views of distant hills are still
commonly given on the margin of marine charts for the assistance
of navigators; military surveyors are encouraged to introduce
sketches of prominent landmarks upon their reconnaissance
plans, and the general public is enabled to consult " Picturesque
Relief Maps "such as F. W. Delkeskamp's Switzerland (1830)
or his Panorama oj the Rhine. Delineations such as these do not,
however, satisfy scientific requirements. All objects on a map
are required to be shown as projected horizontally upon a plane.
This principle must naturally be adhered to when delineating
the features of the ground. This was recognized by J. Picard
and other members of the Academy of Science whom Colbert, in
1668, directed to prepare a new map of France, for on David
Vivier's map of the environs of Paris (1674, scale i : 86,400)
very crude hachures bounding the rivers have been substituted
for the scenographic hills ......
Section of a
of older maps. Little pro-
gress in the delineation of *
the ground, however, was
made until towards the
close of the i8th century,
when horizontal contours
and hachures regulated
according to the angle of
inclination of all slopes,
were adopted. These
contours intersect the
ground at a given dis-
tance above or below the
level of the sea, and thus
bound a series of hori-
zontal planes (see fig. i).
Contours of this kind
were first utilized by
M. S. Cruquius in his
chart of the Merwede
(1728); Philip Buache
(1737) introduced such
contours or isobaths (Gr.
laos, equal; ftadiis, deep)
upon his chart of the FIG. i.
Channel, and intended to introduce similar contours or isohypses
(inf'os, height) for a representation of the land. Dupain-
Triel, acting upon a suggestion of his friend M. Ducarla,
published his La France considerie dans les difftrentes hauteurs
de ses plaines (1791), upon which equidistant contours at
intervals of 16 toises found a place. The scientific value of
these contoured maps is fully recognized. They not only
indicate the height of the land, but also enable us to compute
the declivity of the mountain slopes; and if minor features of
ground lying between two contours such as ravines, as also
rocky precipices and glaciers are indicated, as is done on the
Siegfried atlas of Switzerland, they fully meet the requirements
of the scientific man, the engineer and the mountain-climber.
At the same rime it cannot be denied that these maps, unless the
contours are inserted at short intervals, lack graphic expression.
Two methods are employed to attain this: the first distinguishes
the strata or layers by colours; the second indicates the varying
slopes by shades or hachures. The first of these methods yields
a hypsographical, or if the sea-bottom be included, in which
case all contours are referred to a common datum line a bathy
bypsographical map. Carl Ritter, in 1806, employed graduated
tints, increasing in lightness on proceeding from the lowlands
to the highlands; while General F. von Hauslab, director of the
Austrian Surveys, in 1842, advised that the darkest tints should
be allotted to the highlands, so that they might not obscure
details in the densely peopled plains. The desired effect may
t>e produced by a graduation of the same colour, or by a poly-
chromatic scale such as white, pale red, pale brown, various
shades of green, violet and purple, in ascending order. C. von
Sonklar, in his map of the Hohe Tauern (i : 144,000; 1864)
coloured plains and valleys green; mountain slopes in five shades
of brown; glaciers blue or white. E. G. Ravenstein's map of
Ben Nevis (1887) first employed the colours of the spectrum,
viz. green to brown, in ascending order for the land; blue, indigo
and violet for the sea, increasing in intensity with the height
or the depth. At first cartographers chose their colours rather
arbitrarily. Thus Horsell, who was the first to introduce tints
NAMES AND ORTHOGRAPHY)
MAP
631
on his map of Sweden and Norway (1:600,000; 1833), coloured
the lowlands up to 300 ft. in green, succeeded by red, yellow and
white for the higher ground; while A. Papen, on his hypso-
graphical map of Central Europe (1857) introduced a perplexing
range of colours. At the present time compilers of strata maps
generally limit themselves to two or three colours, in various
vs, with green for the lowlands, brown for the hills and blue
for the sea. On the international map of the world, planned by
Professor A. Penck on a scale of i : 1,000,000, which has been
undertaken by the leading governments of the world, the ground
is shown by contours at intervals of 100 metres (to be increased
to 200 and 500 metres in mountainous districts); the strata
are in graded tints, viz. blue for the sea, green for lowlands up
to 300 metres, yellow between 300 and 500 metres, brown up to
2000 metres, and reddish tints beyond that height.
The declivities of the ground are still indicated in most
topographical maps by a system of strokes or hachures, first
devised by L. Chr. Miiller (Plan und Kartenzeichnen, 1788) and
J. G. Lehmann, who directed a survey of Saxony, 1780-1806,
and published his Theorie der Bergzeichnung in 1799. By this
method the slopes are indicated by strokes or hachures crossing
the contour lines at right angles, in the direction of flowing water,
and varying in thickness according to the degree of declivity
they represent (cf. for example, the map of SWITZERLAND in
this work). The light is supposed to descend vertically upon
the country represented, and in a true scale of shade the intensity
increases with the inclination from o to 90; but as such a scale
does not sufficiently differentiate the lesser inclinations which
are the most important, the author adopted a conventional
scale, representing a slope of 45 or more, supposed to be inacces-
sible, as absolutely black, the level surfaces, which reflect all the
light which falls upon them, as perfectly white, and the inter-
vening slopes by a proportion between black and white, as in
fig. 2. The main principles of this system have been maintained,
Slope
Degrees
FIG. 2.
but its details have been modified frequently to suit special
cases. Thus the French survey commission of 1828 fixed the
proportion of black to white at one and a half times the angle of
slope; while in Austria, where steep mountains constitute an
important feature, solid black has been reserved for a slope of
80, the proportion of black to white varying from 80:0 (for
50) to 8 : 72 (for 5). On the map of Germany (1:100,000)
a slope of 50 is shown in solid black while stippled hachures are
used for gentle slopes up to 10. Instead of shading lines
following the greatest slopes, lines following the contours and
varying in their thickness and in their intervals apart, according
to the slope of the ground to be represented, may be employed
This method affords a ready and expeditious means of sketching
the ground, if the draughtsman limits himself to character-
istically indicating its features by what have been called " form
lines." This method can be recommended in the case of plotting
the results of an explorer's route, or in the case of countries
of which we have no regular survey (cf. the map of AFGHANISTAN
in this work).
Instead of supposing the light to fall vertically upon the
surface it is often supposed to fall obliquely, generally at an
angle of 45 from the upper left-hand corner. It is claimed for
this method that it affords a means of giving a graphic repre-
sentation of Alpine districts where other methods of shading
fail. The Dufour map of Switzerland (1:100,000) is one of the
finest examples of this style of hill-shading. For use in the field,
however, and for scientific work, a contoured map like Siegfried's
atlas of Switzerland, or, in the case of hilly country, a map
shaded on the assumption of a vertical light, will prove more
useful than one of these, notwithstanding that truth to nature
and artistic beauty are claimed on their behalf.
Instead of shading by lines, a like effect may be produced by
mezzotint shading (cf. the map of ITALY, or other maps, in this
work, on a similar method), and if this be combined with contour
lines very satisfactory results can be achieved. If this tint be
printed in grey or brown, isohypses, in black or red, show
distinctly above it. The same combination is possible if hills
engraved in the ordinary manner are printed in colours, as is
done in an edition of the i-inch ordnance map, with contours
in red and hills hachured in brown.
Efforts have been made of late years to improve the available
methods of representing ground, especially in Switzerland, but
the so-called stereoscopic or relief maps produced by F. Becker,
X. Imfeld, Kummerly, F. Leuzinger and other able cartographers,
however admirable as works of art, do not, from the point of
utility, supersede the combination of horizontal contours with
shaded slopes, such as have been long in use. There seems to be
even less chance for the combination of coloured strata and
hachures proposed by K. Peucker, whose theoretical disquisitions
on aerial perspective are of interest, but have not hitherto led to
satisfactory practical results. 1
The above remarks apply more particularly to topographic
maps. In the case of general maps on a smaller scale, the
orographic features must be generalized by a skilful draughtsman
and artist. One of the best modern examples of this kind is
Vogel's map of Germany, on a scale of i : 500,000.
Selection of Names and Orthography. The nomenclature or
" lettering " of maps is a subject deserving special attention.
Not only should the names be carefully selected with special
reference to the objects which the map is intended to serve, and
to prevent overcrowding by the introduction of names which
can serve no useful object, but they should also be arranged in
such a manner as to be read easily by a person consulting the
map. It is an accepted rule now that the spelling of names in
countries using the Roman alphabet should be retained, with
such exceptions as have been familiarized by long usage. In
such cases, however, the correct native form should be added
within brackets, as Florence (Firenze), Leghorn (Livorno),
Cologne (Coin) and so on. At the same time these corrupted
forms should be eliminated as far as possible. Names in
languages not using the Roman alphabet, or having no written
alphabet should be spelt phonetically, as pronounced on the spot.
An elaborate universal alphabet, abounding in diacritical marks,
has been devised for the purpose by Professor Lepsius, and various
other systems have been adopted for Oriental languages, and by
certain missionary societies, adapted to the languages in which
they teach. The following simple rules, laid down by a
Committee of the Royal Geographical Society, will be found
sufficient as a rule; according to this system the vowels are to be
sounded as in Italian, the consonants as in English, and no
redundant letters are to be introduced. The diphthong at is
1 K. Peucker, Schattenplastik und Farbenplastik (Vienna, 1898);
Ceograph. Zeitschrift (1902 and 1908).
632
MAP
[MEASUREMENT
to be pronounced as in aisle ; au as ow in how ; aiv as in law. Ch
is always to be sounded as in church, g is always hard; y always
represents a consonant; whilst kh and gh stand for gutturals.
One accent only is to be used, the acute, to denote the syllable
on which stress is laid. This system has in great measure been
followed throughout the present work, but it is obvious that in
numerous instances these rules must prove inadequate. The
introduction of additional diacritical marks, such as - and -,
used to express quantity, and the diaeresis, as in ai, to express
consecutive vowels, which are to be pronounced separately,
may prove of service, as also such letters as a, o and u, to be
pronounced as in German, and in lieu of the French ai, eu or u.
The United States Geographic Board acts upon rules
practically identical with those indicated, and compiles
official lists of place-names, the use of which is binding upon
government departments, but which it would hardly be wise to
follow universally in the case of names of places outside America.
MEASUREMENT ON MAPS
Measurement of Distance. The shortest distance between two
places on the surface of a globe is represented by the arc of a great
circle. If the two places are upon the same meridian or upon the
equator the exact distance separating them is to be found by
reference to a table giving the lengths of arcs of a meridian and
of the equator. In all other cases recourse must be had to a map,
a globe or mathematical formula. Measurements made on a
topographical map yield the most satisfactory results. Even a
general map may be trusted, as long as we keep within ten
degrees of its centre. In the case of more considerable distances,
however, a globe of suitable size should be consulted, or and this
seems preferable they should be calculated by the rules of
spherical trigonometry. The problem then resolves itself in the
solution of a spherical triangle.
In the formulae which follow we suppose I and /' to represent the
latitudes, a and b the co-latitudes (go / or go /'), and / the
difference in longitude between them or the meridian distance,
whilst D is the distance required.
If both places have the same latitude we have to deal with an
isosceles triangle, of which two sides and the included angle are
given. This triangle, for the convenience of calculation, we divide
into two right-angled triangles. Then we have sin } D = sin a sin %l,
and since sin o = sin (go /) = cos /, it follows that
sin JD = cos / sin J<.
If the latitudes differ, we have to solve an oblique-angled spherical
triangle, of which two sides and the included angle are given. Thus,
cos t =
cos D
cos D cos a cos b
sin a sin b
cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos t
= sin / sin /' + cos / cos /' cos t.
In order to adapt this formula to logarithms, we introduce a
subsidiary angle p, such that cot p = cot / cos / ; we then have
cos D = sin / cos(/' p) / sin p.
In the above formulae our earth is assumed to be a sphere, but
when calculating and reducing to the sea-level, a base-line, or the
side of a primary triangulation, account must be taken of the
spheroidal shape of the earth and of the elevation above the sea-
level. The error due to the neglect of the former would at most
amount to I %, while a reduction to the mean level of the sea
necessitates but a trifling reduction, amounting, in the case of a
base-line 100,000 metres in length, measured on a plateau of 3700
metres (12,000 ft.) in height, to 57 metres only.
These orthodromic distances are 0f course shorter than those
measured along a loxodromic line, which intersects all parallels
at the same angle. Thus the distance between New York and
Oporto, following the former (great circle sailing), amounts to
3000 m., while following the rhumb, as in Mercator sailing, it
would amount to 3120 m.
These direct distances may of course differ widely with the
distance which it is necessary to travel between two places along
a road, down a winding river or a sinuous coast-line. Thus, the
direct distance, as the crow flies, between Brig and the hospice
of the Simplon amounts to 4-42 geogr. m. (slope nearly g),
while the distance by road measures 13-85 geogr. m. (slope nearly 3).
Distances such as these can be measured only on a topo-
graphical map of a fairly large scale, for on general maps many of
the details needed for that purpose can no longer be represented.
Space runners for facilitating these measurements, variously known
as chartometers, curvimeters, opisometers, &c., have been devised
in great variety. Nearly all these instruments register the revolution
of a small wheel of known circumference, which is run along the
line to be measured.
The Measurement of Areas is easily effected if the map at our
disposal is drawn on an equal area projection. In that case we
need simply cover the map with a network of squares the area of
each of which has been determined with reference to the scale of
the map-^-count the squares, and estimate the contents of those
only partially enclosed within the boundary, and the result will
give the area desired. Instead of drawing these squares upon the
map itself, they may be engraved or etched upon glass, or drawn
upon transparent celluloid or tracing-paper. Still more expeditious
is the use of a planimeter, such as Captain Prytz's " Hatchet
Planimeter, "_ which yields fairly accurate results, or G. Coradi's
" Polar Planimeter," one of the most trustworthy instruments of
the kind. 1
When dealing with maps not drawn on an equal area projection
we substitute quadrilaterals bounded by meridians and parallels,
the areas for which are given in the " Smithsonian Geographical
Tables " (i8g<|), in Professor H. Wagner's tables in the geographical
Jahrbuch, or similar works.
It is obvious that the area of a group of mountains projected on
a horizontal plane, such as is presented by a map, must differ widely
from the area of the superficies or physical surface of those mountains
exposed to the air. Thus, a slope of 45 having a surface of I oo sq . m.
projected upon a horizontal plane only measures sg sq. m., whilst
100 sq. m. of the snowclad Sentis in Appenzell are reduced to lojsq. m.
A hypsographical map affords the readiest solution of this question.
Given the area^A of the plane between the two horizontal contours,
the height h of the upper above the lower contour, the length of
the upper contour /, and the area of the face presented by the
edge; of the upper stratum l.h = Ai, the slope a is found to be tan
a = h J, I (A Ai) ; hence its superficies, A = A 2 sec a. The result
is an approximation, for inequalities of the ground bounded by the
two contours have not been considered.
The hypsographical map facilitates likewise the determination
of the mean height of a country, and this height, combined with the
area, the determination of volume, or cubic contents, is a simple
matter. 2
Relief Maps are intended to present a representation of the
ground which shall be absolutely true to nature. The object,
however, can be fully attained only if the scale of the map is
sufficiently large, if the horizontal and vertical scales are identical,
so that there shall be no exaggeration of the heights, and if
regard is had, eventually, to the curvature of the earth's surface.
Relief maps on a small scale necessitate a generalization of the
features of the ground, as in the case of ordinary maps, as like-
wise an exaggeration of the heights. Thus on a relief on a scale
of i : 1,000,000 a mountain like Ben Nevis would only rise to a
height of 1-3 mm.
The methods of producing reliefs vary according to the scale
and the materials available. A simple plan is as follows draw
an outline of the country of which a map is to be produced upon
a board; mark all points the altitude of which is known or can
be estimated by pins or wires clipped off so as to denote the
heights; mark river-courses and suitable profiles by strips of
vellum and finally finish your model with the aid of a good map,
in clay or wax. If contoured maps are available it is easy to
build up a strata-relief, which facilitates the completion of the
relief so that it shall be a fair representation of nature, which the
strata-relief cannot claim to be. A pantograph armed with
cutting-files 3 which carve the relief out of a block of gypsum, was
employed in 1893-190x5 by C. Perron of Geneva, in producing his
relief map of Switzerland on a scale of i : 100,000. After copies
of such reliefs have been taken in gypsum, cement, statuary
pasteboard, fossil dust mixed with vegetable oil, or some other
suitable material, they are painted. If a number of copies is
required it may be advisable to print a map of the country
represented in colours, and either to emboss this map, backed
with papier-mache 1 , or paste it upon a copy of the relief a task
of some difficulty. Relief maps are frequently objected to on
1 Professor Henrici, Report on Planimeters (64th meeting of the
British Association, Oxford, 1894); J. Tennant, " The Planimeter
(Engineering, xlv. 1903).
2 H. Wagner's Lehrbuch (Hanover, igo8, pp. 241-252) refers i
numerous authorities who deal fully with the whole question of
measurement.
3 Kienzl of Leoben in 1891 had invented a similar apparatus
which he called a Relief Pantograph (Zeitschrift, Vienna Geog.
Soc. 1891).
HISTORY]
MAP
633
account of their cost, bulk and weight, but their great use in
teaching geography is undeniable.
Globes. 1 It is impossible to represent on a plane the whole of
the earth's surface, or even a large extent of it, without a consider-
able amount of distortion. On the other hand a map drawn
on the surface of a sphere representing a terrestrial globe will
prove true to nature, for it possesses, in combination, the
qualities which the ingenuity of no mathematician has hitherto
succeeded in imparting to a projection intended for a map of
some extent, namely, equivalence of areas of distances and angles.
Nevertheless, it should be observed that our globes take no
account of the oblateness of our sphere; but as the difference in
length between the circumference of the equator and the
perimeter of a meridian ellipse only amounts to 0-16%, it could
be shown only on a globe of unusual size.
The method of manufacturing a globe is much the same as it
was at the beginning of the i6th century. A matrix of wood or
iron is covered with successive layers of papers, pasted together
so as to form pasteboard. The shell thus formed is then cut along
the line of the intended equator into two hemispheres, they are
then again glued together and made to revolve round an axis the
ends of which passed through the poles and entered a metal
meridian circle. The sphere is then coated with plaster or
whiting, and when it has been smoothed on a lathe and dried, the
lines representing meridians and parallels are drawn upon it.
Finally the globe is covered with the paper gores upon which the
map is drawn. The adaption of these gores to the curvature
of the sphere calls for great care. Generally from 12 to 24 gores
and two small segments for the polar regions printed on vellum
paper are used for each globe. The method of preparing these
gores was originally found empirically, but since the days of
Albert Diirer it has also engaged the minds of many mathe-
maticians, foremost among whom was Professor A. G. Kastner of
Gottingen. One of the best instructions for the manufacture of
globes we owe to Altmiitter of Vienna. 2
Larger globes are usually on a stand the top of which supports
an artificial horizon. The globe itself rotates within a metallic
meridian to which its axis is attached. Other accessories are an
hour-circle, around the north pole, a compass placed beneath
the globe, and a flexible quadrant used for finding the distances
between places. These accessories are indispensable if it be
proposed to solve the problems usually propounded in books on
the " use of the globes," but can be dispensed with if the globe
is to serve only as a map of the world. The size of a globe is
usually given in terms of its diameter. To find its scale divide
the mean diameter of the earth (1,273,500 m.) by the diameter
of the globe; to find its circumference multiply the diameter by
T (3-1416).
Map Printing. Maps were first printed in the second half of the
I5th century. Those in the Rudimentum noviliarum published
at Liibeck in 1475 are from woodcuts, while the maps in the first
two editions of Ptolemy published in Italy in 1472 are from
copper plates. Wood engraving kept its ground for a consider-
able period, especially in Germany, but copper in the end sup-
planted it, and owing to the beauty and clearness of the maps
produced by a combination of engraving and etching it still
maintains its ground. The objection that a copper plate shows
signs of wear after a thousand impressions have been taken has
been removed, since duplicate plates are readily produced by
electrotyping, while transfers of copper engravings, on stone,
zinc or aluminium, make it possible to turn out large editions in
a printing-machine, which thus supersedes the slow-working
hand-press. 3 These impressions from transfers, however, are
liable to be inferior to impressions taken from an original plate
or an electrotype. The art of lithography greatly affected the
production of maps. The work is either engraved upon the
stone (which yields the most satisfactory result at half the cost
of copper-engraving), or it is drawn upon the stone by pen, brush
* M. Fiorini, Erd- und Himmelsgloben, frei bearbeitet von S.
Gilnther (Leipzig, 1895).
1 Jahrb. des polytechn. Institute in Wien, vol. xv.
1 Compare the maps of EUROPE, ASIA, &c., in this work.
or chalk (after the stone has been " grained "), or it is transferred
from a drawing upon transfer paper in lithographic ink. In
chromolithography a stone is required for each colour. Owing
to the great weight of stones, their cost and their liability of
being fractured in the press, zinc plates, and more recently
aluminium plates, have largely taken the place of stone. The
processes of zincography and of algraphy (aluminium printing)
are essentially the same as lithography. Zincographs are
generally used for producing surface blocks or plates which may
be printed in the same way as a wood-cut. Another process of
producing such blocks is known as cerography (Gr. tajpos), wax.
A copper plate having been coated with wax, outline and orna-
ment are cut into the wax, the lettering is impressed with type,
and the intaglio thus produced is electrotyped. 4 Movable types
are utilized in several other ways in the production of maps.
Thus the lettering of the map, having been set up in type, is
inked in and transferred to a stone or a zinc-plate, or it is
impressed upon transfer-paper and transferred to the stone.
Photographic processes have been utilized not only in reducing
maps to a smaller scale, but also for producing stones and plates
from which they may be printed. The manuscript maps intended
to be produced by photographic processes upon stone, zinc or alu-
minium, are drawn on a scale somewhat larger than the scale on
which they are to be printed, thus eliminating all those imper-
fections which are inherent in a pen-drawing. The saving in
time and cost by adopting this process is considerable, for a plan,
the engraving of which takes two years, can now be produced in
two days. Another process, photo- or heliogravure, for obtain-
ing an engraved image on a copper plate, was for the first time
employed on a large scale for producing a new topographical
map of the Austrian Empire in 718 sheets, on a scale of i : 75,000,
which was completed in seventeen years (1873-1890). .The
original drawings for this map had to be done with exceptional
neatness, the draughtsman spending twelve months on that
which he would have completed in four months had it been
intended to engrave the map on copper; yet an average chart,
measuring 530 by 630 mm., which would have taken two years
and nine months for drawing and engraving, was completed in
less than fifteen months fifty days of which were spent in
" retouching " the copper plate. It only cost 169 as compared
with 360 had the old method been pursued.
For details of the various methods of reproduction see LITHO-
GRAPHY; PROCESS, &c.
HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY
A capacity to understand the nature of maps is possessed even
by peoples whom we are in the habit of describing as " savages."
Wandering tribes naturally enjoy a great advantage in this
respect over sedentary ones. Our arctic voyagers Sir E.W.
Parry, Sir J. Ross, Sir F. L. MacClintock and others have
profited from rough maps drawn for them by Eskimos. Speci-
mens of such maps are given in C. F. Hall's Life with the Esqui-
maux (London, 1864). Henry Youle Hind, in his work on the
Labrador Peninsula (London, 1863) praises the map which the
Montagnais and Nasquapee Indians drew upon bark. Similar
essays at map-making are reported in connexion with Australians,
Maoris and Polynesians. Tupaya, a Tahitian, who accompanied
Captain Cook in the " Endeavour " to Europe, supplied his patron
with maps; Raraka drew a map in chalk of the Paumotu archi-
pelago on the deck of Captain Wilkes's vessel; the Marshall
islanders, according to Captain Winkler (Marine Rundschau, Oct.
1893) possess maps upon which the bearings of the islands are
indicated by small strokes. Far superior were the maps
found among the semi-civilized Mexicans when the Spainiards
first discovered and invaded their country. Among them were
cadastral plans of villages, maps of the provinces of the empire of
the Aztecs, of towns and of the coast. Montezuma presented
Cortes with a map, painted on Nequen cloth, of the Gulf coast.
Another map did the Conquistador good service on his campaign
against Honduras (Lorenzana, Historia de nueva Espana, Mexico,
1770; W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico, New
4 The great majority of the maps in this work are made by thia
process.
MAP
York, 1843). Peru, the empire of the Incas, had not only
ordinary maps, but also maps in relief, for Pedro Sarmiento da
Gamboa (History of the Incas, translated by A. R. Markham,
1907) tells us that the gth Inca (who died in 1191) ordered such
reliefs to be produced of certain localities in a district which he
had recently conquered and intended to colonize. These were
the first relief maps on record. It is possible that these primitive
efforts of American Indians might have been further developed,
but the Spanish conquest put a stop to all progress, and for a
consecutive history of the map and map-making we must turn to
the Old World, and trace this history from Egypt and Babylon,
through Greece, to our own age.
The ancient Egyptians were famed as " geometers," and as
early as the days of Rameses II. (Sesostris of the Greeks, 1333-
1300 B.C.) there had been made a cadastral survey of the country
showing the rows of pillars which separated the nomens as well as
the boundaries of landed estates. It was upon a map based upon
such a source that Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) measured the
distance between Syene and Alexandria which he required for
his determination of the length of a degree. Ptolemy, who had
access to the treasures of the famous library of Alexandria was
able, no doubt, to utilize these cadastral plans when compiling
his geography. It should be noted that he places Syene only two
degrees to the east of Alexandria instead of three degrees, the
actual meridian distance between the two places; a difference
which would result from an error of only 7 is the orientation of
the map used by Ptolemy. Scarcely any specimens of ancient
Egyptian cartography have survived. In the Turin Museum are
preserved two papyri with rough drawings of gold mines estab-
lished by Sesostris in the Nubian Desert. 1 These drawings have
been commented upon by S. Birch, F. Chabas, R. J. Lauth and
other Egyptologists, and have been referred to as the two most
ancient maps in existence. They can, however, hardly be
described as maps, while in age they are surpassed by several
cartographical clay tablets discovered in Babylonia. On another
papyrus in the same museum is depicted the victorious return of
Seti I. (1366-1333) from Syria, showing the road from Pelusium
to Heroopolis, the canal from the Nile with crocodiles, and a
lake (mod. Lake Timsah) with fish in it. Apollonius of Rhodes
who succeeded Eratosthenes as chief librarian at Alexandria
(196 B.C.) reports in his Argonautica (iv. 279) that the inhabitants
of Colchis whom, like Herodotus (ii., 104) he looks upon as the
descendants of Egyptian colonists, preserved, as heirlooms,
certain graven tablets (Kt>p/3) on which land and sea, roads
and towns were accurately indicated. 2 Eustathius (since 1160
archbishop of Thessalonica) in his commentary on Dionysius
Periegetes, mentions route-maps which Sesostris caused to be
prepared, while Strabo (i., i. 5) dwells at length upon the
wealth of geographical documents to be found in the library of
Alexandria.
A cadastral survey for purposes of taxation was already at
work in Babylonia in the age of Sargon of Akkad, 3800 B.C.
In the British Museum may be seen a series of clay tablets,
circular in shape and dating back to 2300 or 2100 B.C., which
contain surveys of lands. One of these depicts in a rough way
lower Babylonia encircled by a " salt water river," Oceanus.
Development of Map-making among the Greeks 3 Ionian
mercenaries and traders first arrived in Egypt, on the invitation
of Psammetichus I. about the middle of the 7th century B.C.
Among the visitors to Egypt, there were, no doubt, some who
took an interest in the science of the Egyptians. One of
the most distinguished among them was Thales of Miletus
(640-543 B.C.), the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy,
whose pupil, Anaximander (611-546 B.C.) is credited by Eratos-
thenes with having designed the first map of the world. Anaxi-
mander looked upon the earth as a section of a cylinder, of
1 Lepsius, Urkundenbuch, PI. XXII.
2 These Colchians certainly were not Egyptians. The maps
referred to may have been Assyrian.
3 We are indebted to Strabo for nearly all we know about Greek
cartographers anterior to Ptolemy, for none of their maps has been
preserved.
[HISTORY
considerable thickness, suspended in the centre of the circul;
vault of the heavens, an idea perhaps borrowed from the Baby-
lonians, for Job (xxvi. 7) already speaks of the earth as " hanging
upon nothing." Like Homer he looked upon the habitable
world (o'iKovntvri) as being circular in outline and bounded
by a circumfluent river. The geographical knowledge of
Anaximander was naturally more ample than that of Homer,
for it extended from the Cassiterides or Tin Islands in the west
to the Caspian in the east, which he conceived to open out into
Oceanus. The Aegean Sea occupied the centre of the map,
while the line where ocean and firmament seemed to meet
represented an enlarged horizon.
Anaximenes, a pupil of Anaximander, was the first to reject
the view that the earth was a circular plane, but held it to be
an oblong rectangle, buoyed up in the midst of the heavens by
the compressed air upon which it rested. Circular maps, however,
remained in the popular favour long after their erroneousness
had been recognized by the learned.
Even Hecataeus of Miletus (549-472 B.C.), the author of a
Periodos or description of the earth, of whom Herodotus borrowed
the terse saying that Egypt was the gift of the Nile, retained
this circular shape and circumfluent ocean when producing
his map of the world, although he had at his disposal the results
of the voyage of Scylax of Caryanda from the Indus to the
Red Sea, of Darius' campaign in Scythia (513), the information
'to be gathered among the merchants from all parts of the world
who frequented an emporium like Miletus, and what he had
learned in the course of his own extensive travels. Hecataeus
was probably the author of the " bronze tablets upon which
was engraved the whole circuit of the earth, the sea and rivers "
(Herod, v. 49), which Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, showed
to Cleomenes, the king of Sparta, in 504, whose aid he sought
in vain in a proposed revolt against Darius, which resulted
disastrously in 494 in the destruction of Miletus. The map
of the world brought upon the stage in Aristophanes' comedy
of The Clouds (423 B.C.), whereon a disciple of the Sophists
points out upon it the position of Athens and of other places
known to the audience, was probably of the popular circular
type, which Herodotus (iv. 36) not many years before had
derided and which was discarded by Greek cartographers ever
after. Thus Democritus of Abdera (b. c. 450, d. after 360),
the great philosopher and founder, with Leucippus, of the
atomic theory, was also the author of a map of the inhabited
world which he supposed to be half as long again from west
to east, as it was broad.
Dicaearcus of Messana in Sicily, a pupil of Aristotle (326-296
B.C.), is the author of a topographical account of Hellas, with
maps, of which only fragments are preserved; he is credited
with having estimated the size of the earth, and, as far as known
he was the first to draw a parallel across a map. 4 This parallel,
or dividing line, called diaphragm (partition) by a commentator,
extended due east from the Pillars of Hercules, through the
Mediterranean, and along the Taurus and Imaus (Himalaya) to
the eastern ocean. It divided the inhabited world, as then
known, into a northern and a southern half. In compiling
his map he was able to avail himself of the information obtained
by the bematists (surveyors who determined distances by pacing)
who accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns;
of the results of the voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the
Euphrates, and of the " Periplus " of Scylax of Caryanda,
which described the coast from between India and the head
of the Arabian Gulf. On the other hand he unwisely rejected
the results of the observations for latitude made by Pytheas
in 326 B.C. at his native town, Massilia, and during a subsequent
voyage to northern Europe. In the end the map of Dicaearcus
resembled that of Democritus.
Scientific geography profited largely from the labours of
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, whom Ptolemy Euergetes appointed
4 The gnomon was known to the Chinese in the 5th century B.C.,
and reached the Greeks (Anaximander) through Babylon. Pytheas,
as far as known, was the first to utilize it for the determination of a
latitude.
HISTORY]
MAP
635
keeper of the famous library of Alexandria in 247 B.C., and
died in that city in 195 B.C. He won fame as having been the
first to determine the size of the earth by a scientific method.
Having determined the difference of latitude between Alexandria
and Syene which he erroneously believed to lie on the same
meridian, and obtained the distance of those places from each
other from the surveys made by Egyptian geometers, he
concluded that a degree of the meridan measured 700 stadia. 1
Eratosthenes is the author of a treatise which deals systema-
tically with the geographical knowledge of his time, but of
which only fragments have been preserved by Strabo and others.
This treatise was intended to illustrate and explain his map of
the world. In this task he was much helped by the materials
collected in his library. Among the travellers of whose informa-
tion he was thus able to avail himself were Pytheas of Massilia,
Patroclus, who had visited the Caspian (285-282 B.C.), Megas-
thenes, who visited Palibothra on the Ganges, as ambassador
of Seleucus Nicator (302-291 B.C.), Timosthenus of Rhodes,
the commander of the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus (284-246
B.C.) who wrote a treatise " On harbours," and PhUo, who visited
Meroe on the upper Nile. His map formed a parallelogram
measuring 75,800 stadia from Usisama (Ushant island) or
Sacrum Promontorium in the west to the mouth of the Ganges
and the land of the Coniaci (Comorin) in the east, and 46,000
stadia from Thule in the north to the supposed southern limit
of Libya. Across it were drawn seven parallels, running
through Meroe, Syene, Alexandria, Rhodes, Lysimachia on the
Hellespont, the mouth of the Borysthenes and Thule, and these
were crossed at right angles by seven meridians, drawn at
irregular intervals, and passing through the Pillars of Hercules,
Carthage, Alexandria, Thapsacus oh the Euphrates, the Caspian
gates, the mouth of the Indus and that of the Ganges. The
position of all the places mentioned was supposed to have been
determined by trustworthy authorities. The inhabited world
thus delineated formed an island of irregular shape, surrounded
on all sides by the ocean, the Erythrean Sea freely communi-
cating with the western ocean. In his text Eratosthenes ignored
the popular division of the world into Europe, Asia and
Libya, and substituted for it a northern and southern division,
divided by the parallel of Rhodes, each of which he subdivided
into sphragides or plinthia seals or plinths. The principles
on which these divisions were made remain an enigma to the
present day.
This map of Eratosthenes, notwithstanding its many errors,
such as the assumed connexion of the Caspian with a northern
ocean .and the supposition that Carthage, Sicily and Rome lay
on the same meridian, enjoyed a high reputation in his day.
Even Strabo (c. 30 B.C.) adopted its main features, but while
he improved the European frontier, he rejected the valuable
information secured by Pytheas and retained the connexion
between the Caspian and the outer ocean. In the extreme
east his information extended no further than that of Eratos-
thenes, viz. to India and Taprobane (Ceylon) and the Sacae
(Kirghiz).
Hipparchus, the famous astronomer, on the other hand,
(c. 150 B.C.) proved a somewhat captious critic. He justly
objected to the arbitrary network of the map of Eratosthenes.
The parallels or climata* drawn through places, of which the
longest day is of equal length and the decimation (distance)
from the equator is the same, he maintained, ought to have
been inserted at equal intervals, say of half an hour, and the
meridians inserted on a like principle. In fact, he demanded
that maps should be based upon a regular projection, several
1 If, with VV. Dorpfeld, we assume an Attic stadium of 200 steps
(500 ft.) to be equal to 164 metres, a degree of 700 stad. would be
equal to 114,800 metres, its actual length according to modern
measurement being 1 10,808 metres.
1 Climata based on the length of the longest day were introduced
by Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.). Zones similar to those already drawn out
for the celestial sphere were first introduced by the Pythagoreans.
Parmenides of Elea (544-430 B.C.) distinguishes five of these zones,
viz. a torrid zone, between the tropics of summer and winter, which
was uninhabitable on account of heat ; two frigid zones, uninhabitable
on account of cold, and two intermediate temperate zones.
descriptions of which he had adopted for his star maps. He
moreover accuses Eratosthenes, (whose determination of a
degree he accepts without hesitation) with trusting too much
to hypothesis in compiling his map instead of having recourse
to latitudes and longitudes deduced by astronomical observa-
tions. Such observations, however, were but rarely available
at the time. A few latitudes had indeed been observed, but
although Hipparchus had shown how longitudes could be
determined by the observation of eclipses, this method was in
reality not available for want of trustworthy time-keepers.
The determination of an ocean surrounding the inhabited earth
he declared to be based on a mere hypothesis and that it
would be equally allowable to describe the Erythraea as a sea
surrounded by land. Hipparchus is not known to have compiled
a map himself.
About the same time Crates of Mallus (d. 145 B.C.) embodied
the views of the Stoic school of philosophy in a globe which
has become typical as one of the insignia of royalty. On this
globe an equatorial and a meridional ocean divide our earth
FIG. 2. The Globe of Crates of Mallus.
into four quarters, each inhabited, thus anticipating the discovery
of North and South America and Australia. 5
The period between Eratosthenes and Marinus of Tyre was
one of great political importance. Carthage had been destroyed
(146 B.C.), Julius Caesar had carried on his campaign in Gaul
(58-51 B.C.), Egypt had been occupied (30 B.C.), Britannia
conquered (A.D. 41-79), and the Roman empire had attained
its greatest extent and power under the emperor Trajan (A.D. 98-
117). But although military operations added to our knowledge
of the world, scientific cartography was utterly neglected.
Among Greek works written during this period there are
several which either give us an idea of the maps available at
that time, or furnish information of direct service to the compiler
of a map. Among the latter a Periplus or coastal guide of the
Erythrean Sea, which clearly reveals the peninsular shape of
India (A.D. 90) and Arrian's Periplus Ponti Euxeni (A.D. 131)
which Festus Avienus translated into Latin. Among travellers
Eudoxus of Cyzicus occupies a foremost rank, since, between
115-87 B.C. he visited India and the east coast of Africa, which
subsequently he attempted in vain to circumnavigate by
1 Celestial globes were made much earlier than terrestrial ones.
In the museum of Naples there is a celestial globe, 2 metres in
diameter, supported upon the shoulders of an Atlas, which E. Heis,
judging by the constellations engraved upon it (Alias coelestis novus,
Bonn, 1872) judges to date from the 4th century B.C. It may
even be the work of Eudoxus (d. 386 B.C.) the famous astronomer.
Aratus of Soli in Cilicia, in his poetical Prognostics of Stars and the
World, refers to a globe in his possession. Archimedes, the famous
mathematician, had a celestial globe of glass, in the centre of which
was a small terrestrial globe. Hero of Alexandria (284-221 B.C.),
the ingenious inventor of " Hero's Fountain," is believed to have
possessed a similar apparatus. The celestial globe of Hipparchus
still existed in the Alexandrian library in the time of Ptolemy, who
himself refers to globes in his Almagest, as also in the Geography.
Leontius, who wrote a book on_ the manufacture of globes
(first published at Basel in 1539), is identified by Fiorini with a
bishop of Neapolis (Cyprus) of the time of Constantine III.
(642-668).
636
MAP
[HISTORY
following the route of Hanno, along the west coast. Among
geographers should be mentioned Posidonius (13-551), the head
of the Stoic school of Rhodes, who is stated to be responsible for
having reduced the length of a degree to 500 stadia; Artemidorus
of Ephesus, whose " Geographumena " (c. 100 B.C.) are based
upon his own travels and a study of itineraries, and above all,
Strabo, who has already been referred to. Among historians
who looked upon geography as an important aid in their work
are numbered Polybius (c. 210-120 B.C.), Diodorus Siculus
(c. 30 B.C.) and Agathachidus of Cnidus (c. 120 B.C.) to whom
we are indebted for a valuable account of the Erythrean Sea
and the adjoining parts of Arabia and Ethiopia. The Perie^esis
of Dionysius of Alexandria is a popular description of the world
in hexameters, of no particular scientific value (c. A.D. 130).
He as well as Artemidorus and others accepted a circular or
ellipsoidal shape of the world and a circumfluent ocean; Strabo
alone adhered to the scientific theories of Eratosthenes.
thus led to assume that the distance from the first meridian
drawn through the Fortunate islands to Sera (mod. Si-ngan-fu),
the capital of China, was equal to 225, which Ptolemy reduced
to 177, but which in reality only amount to 126. A like
overestimate of the distances covering the march of Julius
Maternus to Agisymba, which Marinus places 24 south of the
equator, a latitude which Ptolemy reduces to 18, but which is
probably no farther south than lat. 12 N. The map of Marinus
was accompanied by a list of places arranged according to latitude
and longitude. It must have been much in demand, for three
editions of it were prepared. Masudi (loth century) saw a copy
of it and declared it to be superior to Ptolemy's map.
Ptolemy (q.v.) was the author of a Geography 1 (c. A.D. 150)
in eight books. " Geography," in the sense in which he uses
the term, signifies the delineation of the known world, in the
shape of a map, while chorography carries out the same objects
in fuller detail, with regard to a particular country. In Book
FIG. 3. Ptolemy's Map.
The credit of having returned to the scientific principles
innovated by Eratosthenes and Hipparchus is due to Marinus of
Tyre (c. A.D. 120) which, though no longer occupying the pre-
eminent position of former times, was yet an emporium of no
inconsiderable importance, having extensive connexions by sea
and land. The map of Marinus and the descriptive accounts
which accompanied it have perished, but we learn sufficient
concerning them from Ptolemy to be able to appreciate their
merits and demerits. Marinus was the first who laid down the
position of places on a projection according to their latitude
and longitude, but the projection used by him was of the rudest.
Parallels and meridians were represented by straight lines
intersecting each other at right angles, the relative proportions
between degrees of longitude and latitude being retained only
along the parallel of Rhodes. The distortion of the countries
represented would thus increase with the distance, north and
south, from this central parallel. The number of places whose
position had been determined by astronomical observation
was as yet very small, and the map had thus to be compiled
mainly from itineraries furnished by travellers or the dead
reckoning of seamen. The errors due to an exaggeration of
distances were still further increased on account of his assuming
a degree to be equal to 500 stadia, as determined by Posidonius,
instead of accepting the 700 stadia of Eratosthenes. He was
he deals with the principles of mathematical geography, map
projections, and sources of information with special reference
FIG. 4.
to his predecessor Marinus. Books II. to VII. form an index
to the maps. They contain about 8000 names, with their
1 The oldest MS. of Ptolemy's Geography is found in the Vatopedi
monastery of Mt Athos. It dates from the I2th or I3th century
and was published by Victor Langlois in 1867. For the latest
edition we are indebted to the late Carl Muller (Paris, 1883-1906)
to whom we are likewise indebted for an edition of the GeograpM
graeci minores (1855-1861).
HISTORY]
MAP
637
latitudes and longitudes, and with their aid it is possible to
reconstruct the maps. These maps existed, as a matter of
course, before such an index could be compiled, but it is doubtful
whether the maps in our available manuscript, which are attri-
buted to Agathodaemon, are copies of Ptolemy's originals or
have been compiled, after their loss, from this index. Book
VIII. gives further details with reference to the principal
towns of each map, as to geographical position, length of day,
climata, &c.
Ptolemy's great merit consists in having accepted the views
of Hipparchus with respect to a projection suited for a map of
the world. Of the two projections proposed by him one is a
modified conical projection with curved parallels and straight
meridians; in the second projection (see fig. 3) both parallels and
meridians are curved. The correct relations in the length of
degrees of latitude and longitude are maintained in the first
case along the latitude of Thule and the equator, in the second
along the parallel of Agisymba, the equator and the parallels
of Meroe, Syene and Thule. Following Hipparchus he divided
the equator into 360 drawing his prime meridian through the
Fortunate Islands (Canaries). The 26 special maps are drawn
on a rectangular projection. As a map compiler Ptolemy does
not take a high rank. In the main he copied Marinus whose
work he revised and supplemented in some points, but he failed
to realize the peninsular shape of India, erroneously exaggerated
the size of Taprobane (Ceylon), and suggested that the Indian
Ocean had no connexion with the western ocean, but formed
Mare Clausum. Ptolemy knew but of a few latitudes which had
been determined by actual observation, while of three longitudes
resulting from simultaneous observation of eclipses he unfor-
tunately accepted the least satisfactory, namely, that which
placed Arbela 45 to the east of Carthage, while the actual
meridian distance only amounts to 34. An even graver source
of error was Ptolemy's acceptance of a degree of 500 instead of
700 stadia. The extent to which the more correct proportion
would have affected the delineation of the Mediterranean is
illustrated by fig. 4. But in spite of his errors the scientific
method pursued by Ptolemy was correct, and though he was
neglected by the Romans and during the middle ages, once he
had become known, in the isth century, he became the teacher
of the modern world.
Map-Making among the Romans. We learn from Cicero,
Vitruvius, Seneca, Suetonius, Pliny and others, that the Romans
had both general and topographical maps. Thus, Varro (De
rustici) mentions a map of Italy engraved on marble, in the
temple of Tellus, Pliny, a map of the seat of war in Armenia, of
the time of the emperor Nero, and the more famous map of the
Roman Empire which was ordered to be prepared for Julius
Caesar (44 B.C.), but only completed in the reign of Augustus,
who placed a copy of it, engraved in marble, in the Porticus of
his sister Octavia (7 B.C.) . M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the son-in-law
of Augustus (d. 12 B.C.), who superintended the completion of
this famous map, also wrote a commentary illustrating it,
quotations from which of Ammianus Marcellinus of Antioch
(d. 330), Pliny and others, afford the only means of judging of
its character. The map is supposed to be based upon actual
surveys or rather reconnaissances, and if it be borne in mind that
the Roman Empire at that time was traversed in all directions
by roads furnished with mile-stones, that the Agrimensores
employed upon such a duty were skilled surveyors, and that the
official reports of the commanders of military expeditions and
of provincial governors were available, this map, as well as the
provincial maps upon which it was based, must have been a work
of superior excellence, the loss of which is much to be regretted.
A copy of it may possibly have been utilized by Marinus and
Ptolemy in their compilations. The Romans have been re-
proached for having neglected the scientific methods of map-
making advocated by Hipparchus. Their maps, however, seem
to have met the practical requirements of political administration
and of military undertakings.
Only two specimens of Roman cartography have come down
to us, viz. parts of a plan of Rome, of the time of the emperor
Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211), now in the Museo Capitolino,
and an itinerarium scriptum, or road map of the world, com-
pressed within a strip 745 mm. in length and 34 mm. broad.
Of its character the reduced copy of one of its 12 sections (fig. 5)
conveys an idea. The map, apparently of the 3rd century,
was copied by a monk at Colmar, in 1265, who fortunately
contented himself with adding a few scriptural names, and
having been acquired by the learned Conrad Peutingerof
FIG. 5. A Section of Peutinger's Tabula.
Augsburg it became known as Tabula peiUingeriana. The
original is now in the imperial library of Vienna. 1
Map-Making in the Middle Ages. In scientific matters the
early middle ages were marked by stagnation and retrogression.
The fathers of the church did not encourage scientific pursuits,
which Lactantius (4th century) declared to be unprofitable. The
doctrine of the sphericity of the earth was still held by the more
learned, but the heads of the church held it to be unscriptural.
Pope Zachary, when in 741 he condemned the views of Virgilius,
the learned bishop of Salzburg, an Irishman who had been
denounced as a heretic by St Boniface, declares it to be peroersa
et iniqua doctrina. Even after Gerbert of Aurillac, better known
as Pope Sylvester II. (999-1063), Adam of Bremen (1075),
Albertus Magnus (d. 1286), Roger Bacon (d. 1294), and indeed
all men of leading had accepted as a fact and not a mere hypo-
thesis the geocentric system of the universe and sphericity of*
the globe, the authors of maps of the world, nearly all of whom
were monks, still looked in the main to the Holy Scriptures
for guidance in outlining the inhabited world. We have to
deal thus with three types of these early maps, viz. an oblong
rectangular, a circular and an oval type, the latter being either
The forth beyond tht Ocean where men dwelt befon the Flood
FIG. 6. The World according to Cosmas Indicopleustes (535).
a compromise between the two former, or an artistic development
of the circular type. In every instance the inhabited world is
surrounded by the ocean. The authors of rectangular maps
look upon the Tabernacle as an image of the world at large, and
believe that such expressions as the " four corners of the earth "
(Isa. x. 12), could be reconciled only with a rectangular world.
On the other hand there was the expression " circuit of the
earth " (Isa. xl. 22), and the statement (Ezek. v. 5) that " God
had set Jerusalem in the midst of the nations and countries." In
1 Facsimiles of it have been published by Desjardins(i869-i87i),
by K. Miller (1886), who ascribes it to Castorius, A.D. 366, and by
others.
6 3 8
MAP
[HISTORY
nearly every case the East occupies the top of the map. Neither
parallels nor meridians are indicated, nor is there a scale. Other
features frequently met with are the Paradise in the Far East,
miniatures of towns, plants, animals, human beings and monsters,
and an indication of the twelve winds around the margin.
The oldest rectangular map of the world is contained in a
most valuable work written by Cosmas, an Alexandrian monk,
surnamed Indicopleustes, after
returning from a voyage to
India (535 A.D.), and entitled
Christian Topography. Accor-
ding to Cosmas (fig. 6) the
inhabited earth has the shape
of an oblong rectangle sur-
rounded by an ocean which
breaks in in four great gulfs
the Roman or Mediterranean,
the Arabian, Persian and
Caspian Sea. Beyond this
ocean lies another world, which
was occupied by man before
the Deluge, and within which
Cosmas placed the Terrestrial
Paradise. Above this rise the walls of the heavens like
unto the tent of the Tabernacle. Far more simple is a small
map of the world of the 8th century found in a codex in the
library of Albi, an archiepiscopal seat in the department of
Tarn. Its scanty nomenclature is almost wholly derived
from the " Historiae adversum paganos " of Paulus Orosius
(418). Far greater interest attaches to the so-called Anglo-
Saxon Map of the World in the British Museum (Cotton
MSS.), where it is bound up in a codex which also contains a
copy of the Periegesis of Priscianus. Map and Periegesis are
FIG. 7. Mapof Albi (8th century).
FIG. 8. Anglo-Saxon Map of the World (gth century),
copies by the same hand, but no other connexion exists between
them. More than half the nomenclature of the map is derived
from Orosius, an annotated Anglo-Saxon version of which had
been produced by King Alfred (871-901). The Anglo-Saxons
of the time were of course well acquainted with Island (first
thus named in 870) Slesvic and Norweci (Norway), and there is
no need to have recourse to Adam of Bremen (1076) to account
for their presence upon this map. The broad features of the
map were derived no doubt from an older document which may
likewise have served as the basis for the map of the world
engraved on silver for Charlemagne, and was also consulted by
the compilers of the Hereford and Ebstorf maps (see fig. n).
Oriens.
Septen-
trio.
Paradisus.
Sem. Asia.
Hierosalem.
Meri-
dies.
Occidens.
FIG. 9. T map from Isidor of Seville's Origines.
The map or diagram of which Leonardo Dati in his poem on
the Sphere (Delia Spera) wrote in 1422 " un T dentre a uno O
mostra il disegno " (a T within an O shows the design) is one of
the most persistent types among the circular or wheel maps of
the world. It perpetuates the tripartite division of the world
by the ancient Greeks and survives in the Royal Orb. A
diagram of this description will be found in Isidor of Seville's
Origines (630), see fig. 9.
T maps of more elaborate design illustrate the MS. copies of
Sallust's Bellum jugurthinum; one of these taken from a codex of
the nth century in the Leipzig town library is shown in fig. 10.
The outlines of several medieval maps resemble each other
to such an extent that there can be no doubt that they are
derived from the same original source. This source by some
FIG. 10. Map illustrating Sallust's Bellum jugurthinum (nth
century, Leipzig).
authors is assumed to have been the official map of the Roman
Empire, but if we compare the crude outline given to the
Mediterranean with the more correct delineation of Ptolemy,
who was certainly in a position to avail himself of these official
sources, such an assumption is untenable. The earliest delinea-
tion of the description has already been referred to as the Anglo-
Saxon map of the world. Next in the order of age, follows the
oval map which Henry, canon of Mayence Cathedral, dedicated
to Mathilda, consort of the emperor Henry V. (mo). Of far
greater importance is the map seen in Hereford Cathedral. It is
the work of Richard of Haldingham, and has a diameter of 134
cm. (53 ins.). The" survey " ordered by Julius Caesar is referred
to in the legend, evidently derived from the Cosmography of
HISTORY]
MAP
6 39
Aethicus a work widely read at the time, but this does not prove
that the author was able to avail himself of a map based upon
that survey. A map essentially identical with that of Hereford,
but larger its diameter is 156 cm. (6 in.), and consequently
FIG. ii. The Hereford Map (c. 1280).
fuller of information was discovered in 1830 in the old monas-
tery of Ebstorf in Hanover. Its date is 1484. Both maps
abound in miniature pictures of towns, animals, fabulous beings
and other subjects. The Hereford map is surmounted by a
picture of the Day of Judgment. Similar in design, though
much smaller of scale and oval in form, are the maps which
illustrate the popular Polychronicon of Ranulf Higden, a monk
of St Werburgh's Abbey of Chester (d. 1363).
FIG. 12. The Map of Beatus (776).
Pomponius Mela tells us that beyond the Ethiopian Ocean
which sweeps round Africa in the south and the uninhabitable
torrid zone, there lies an alter orbis, or fourth part of the world
inhabited by Antichthones. On a diagram illustrating the
origines of Isidore of Seville (d. 636) this country is shown, but
is described as a terra inhabitabilis. It is shown likewise upon
a number of maps which illustrate the Commentaries on the
Apocalypse, by Beatus, a Benedictine monk of the abbey of
Valcavado at the foot of the hills of Liebana in Asturia (776).
Our little map (fig. 12) is taken from a copy of Beatus' work
made in 1 203, and preserved at Burgo de Osma in Castille. Similar
maps illustrating the Commentaries exist at St Sever (1050),
Paris (1203), and Tunis; others are rectangular, the oldest being
in Lord Ashburnham's library (970). Beatus, too, describes the
southern land as inhabitabilis. The habitable world is divided
among the twelve apostles, whose portraits are given. On the
maps illustrating the encyclopaedic Liber floridus by Lambert,
FIG. 13.
a canon of St Omer (1120), this south land " unknown to the
sons of Adam," is stated to be inhabited " according to the
philosophers " by Antipodes. Lambert, indeed, seems to have
believed in the sphericity of the earth. Fig. 13 shows his map of
the world reduced from a MS. at Wolfenbiittel, to which is added
a diagram of the zones from a MS. at Ghent, which illustrates
Macrobius' commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis. Dia-
grams illustrating the division of the world into climata, are
to be found in the opus majus of Roger Bacon (d. 1294) and in
Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly's De imagine Mundi (1410).
Among countries represented on a larger scale on maps,
Palestine not unnaturally occupies a prominent place in this
age of pilgrimages and crusades (1095-1291). The maps which
accompany St Jerome's translation of the Onomasticon of St
Eusebius (388) . The same subject is illustrated by a picture-map
in mosaic, portions of which were discovered in 1896 on the floor
of the church of Madaba to the east of the Dead Sea. This is
the oldest original of a map in existence, for it dates back to the
6th century. Among more recent maps of Palestine, that by
Petrus Vesconte (1320) is greatly superior to the earlier maps.
It illustrates Marino Sanuto's Secreta fidelium cruets, in which
its author vainly appeals to Christendom to undertake another
crusade. One of the earliest plans of Jerusalem is contained in
Gesla Francorum, a history of the Crusades up to 1106, based
upon information furnished by Fulcherius of Chartres (c. 1109).
There existed, no doubt, special maps of European countries,
but the only documents of that description are two maps of
Great Britain, the one of the I2th
century, the other by Matthew of
Paris, the famous historiographer
of the monastery of St Albans
(i 236-1 259). 1
Celestial globes were known in
the time of Bede; they formed
part of the educational apparatus
of the monastic schools. Gerbert
of Aurillac is known to have made
such globes (929). Their manufac-
ture is described by Alphonso the
Wise (1252), as also in De sphaera
solida of G. Campanus of Novara
(1303). Terrestrial globes, how-
ever, are not referred to.
Map-making among the Arabians
and other Nations of the East.
Bagdad early became a famous
seat of learning. Indian astrono-
FIG.
14. Matthew of Paris
(1236-1259).
mers found apt pupils there among the Arabs; the works of
1 R. Cough. British Topography (London 1768). His " Histories "
are published in Rerun brit. scriptores XL. and LVII. 1866-1860.
640
MAP
[HISTORY
Ptolemy were translated into Arabic, and in 827, in the reign
of the caliph Abdullah al Mamun, an arc of the meridian was
measured in the plain of Mesopotamia. Most famous among
these Arabian astronomers were Al Batani (d. 998), Ibn Yunis of
Cairo (d. 1008), Zarkala (Azarchel), who determined the meridian
<Iistance between his observatory in Toledo and Bagdad to
amount to 51 30', an error of 3 only, as compared with Ptolemy's
error of 18, and Abul Hassan (1230) who reduced the great
ajds of the Mediterranean to 44.
Further materials serviceable to the compilers of maps were
supplied by numerous Arabian travellers and geographers, among
FIG. 15. Idrisi (1154).
whom Masudi (915-940), Istakhri (950), Ibn Haukal (942-
^70), Al Biruni (d. 1038), Ibn Batuta (1325-1356) and Abul
Feda (1331-1370), occupy a foremost place, yet the few maps
which have reached us are crude in the extreme. Masudi, who
saw the maps in the Horismos or Rasm el Ard, a description of
which was engraved for King Roger of Sicily upon a silver
plate, or the rectangular map in 70 sheets which accompanies
his geography (Nushat-ul Mushtat) take rank with Ptolemy's
work. These maps are based upon information collected during
many years at the instance of King Roge*. The seven climates
adopted by Idrisi are erroneously supposed to be equal in latitu-
dinal extent. The Mediterranean occupies nearly half the
inhabited world in longitude, and the east coast of Africa is
shown as if it extended due east.
The Arabians are not known to have produced a terrestrial
globe, but several of their celestial globes are to be found in our
collections. The oldest of these globes was made at Valentia,
and is now in the museum of Florence. Another globe (of 1225)
is at Velletri; a third by Ibn Hula of Mosul (1275) is the property
of the Royal Asiatic Society of London; a fourth (1289) from the
observatory of Maragha, in the Dresden Museum, two globes
of uncertain age at Paris (see fig. 17) and another in London.
All these globes are of metal (bronze), or they might not have
survived so many years.
The charts in use of the medieval navigators of the Indian
Ocean Arabs, Persians or Dravidas were equal in value if
not superior to the charts of the Mediterranean. Marco Polo
mentions such charts; Vasco da Gama (1498) found them in
the hands of his Indian pilot, and their nature is fully explained
in the Mohit or encyclopaedia of the sea compiled from ancient
sources by the Turkish admiral Sidi Ali Ben Hosein in 1554.'
These charts are covered with a close network of lines intersecting
each other at right angles. The horizontal lines are parallels,
depending upon the altitude of the pole star, the Calves of the
Little Bear and the Barrow of the Great Bear above the horizon.
This altitude was expressed hi isbas or inches each equivalent
to i 42' 50". Each isba was divided into zams or eights. The
interval between two parallels thus only amounted to 12' .51*.
These intervals were mistaken by the Portuguese occasionally
for degrees, which account for Malacca, which is in lat. 2' 13*
N., being placed on Cantino's Chart (1502) in lat. 14' S. It may
have been a map of this kind which accounts for Ptolemy's
moderate exaggerations of the size of Taprobana (Ceylon). A
first meridian, separating a leeward from a windward region,
passed through Ras Kumhari (Comorin) and was thus nearly
identical with the first meridian of the Indian astronomers
which passed through the sacred city of Ujjain (Ozere of Ptolemy)
or the meridian of Azin of the Arabs. Additional meridians
FlG. 16. Idrisi (1154).
the world by Abu Jafar Mahommed ben Musa of Khiva, the
librarian of the caliph el Mamun (833), declares them to be
superior to the maps of Ptolemy or Marinus, but maps of a later
date by Istakhri (950) or Ibn al Wardi (1349) are certainly of a
most rudimentary type. Nor can Idrisi's map of the world,
were drawn at intervals of zams, supposed to be equal to three
hours' sail.
In China, maps in the olden time were engraved on bronze
1 M. Bittner, Die topogr. Capital des ind. Seespiegds (Vienna,
1897).
HISTORY]
MAP
641
or stone, but after the roth century they were printed from
wood-blocks. Among the more important productions of more
recent times, may be mentioned a map of the empire, said to be
based upon actual surveys by Yhang (721), who also manufactured
FIG. 17. Globe in Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
a celestial globe (an older globe by Ho-shing-tien, 4 metres in
circumference was produced in 450), and an atlas of the empire on
a large scale by Thu-sie-pun (1311-1312) of which new enlarged
editions with many maps were published in the i6th century and
in 1799. None of these maps was graduated, which is all the
Sidi All Ben Hosein's
MO H I T
MM
FIG. 18. The Indian Ocean according to Mohit, as interpreted
by Dr Tomaschek.
more surprising as the Chinese astronomers are credited with
having made use of the gnomon as early as 1000 B.C. for deter-
mining latitudes.
In the case of Japan, the earliest reference to a map is of 646,
in which year the emperor ordered surveys of certain provinces to
be made.
Portolano Maps. During the long period of stagnation in
cartography, which we have already dealt with, there survived
among the seamen of the Mediterranean charts of remarkable
accuracy, illustrating the Porlolani or sailing directories in use
among them. Charts of this description are first mentioned in
connexion with the Crusade of Louis XI. in 1270, but they
originated long before that time, and in the eastern part of the
xvn. 21
Mediterranean they embody materials available even in the days
before Ptolemy, while the correct delineation of the west seems
to be of a later date, and may have been due to Catalan seamen.
These charts are based upon estimated bearings and distances
between the principal ports or capes, the intervening coast-line
being filled in from more detailed surveys. The bearings were
FIG. 19. The Eastern Mediterranean, by Petrus Vesconte (1311).
dependent upon the seaman's observation of the heavens, for
these charts were in use long before the compass had been
Introduced on board ship (as early as 1 205, according to Guiot de
Provins) although it became fully serviceable only after the needle
had been attached to the compass card, an improvement pro-
bably introduced by Flavio Gioja of Amalfi in the beginning of
A.DULCETI
039
FIG. 20. The Mediterranean.
a. According to A. Dulceti, 1339, and
b, On Mercator's projection, according to modern maps.
the 1 4th century. The compass may of course have been used
for improving these charts, but they originated without its aid,
and it is therefore misleading to describe them as Compass or
Loxodromic charts, and they are now known as Portolano charts.
642
MAP
[HISTORY
None of these charts is graduated, and the horizontal and
vertical lines which cross many of them represent neither
parallels nor meridians. Their most characteristic feature, and
FIG. 21. Map illustrating Marino Sanuto's Liber secrelorum
fidelium cruets.
one by which they can most readily be recognized, is presented
by groups or systems of rhumb-lines, each group of these lines
radiating from a common centre,
the central group being generally
encircled by eight or sixteen satel-
lite groups. In the course of time
the centres of radiation of all these
groups had imposed upon them
ornate rose dei venti, or windroses,
such as may still be seen upon our
compass-cards. Each chart was fur-
nished with a scale of miles. These
miles, however, were not the ordi-
nary Roman miles of 1000 paces or
5000 ft., but smaller miles of Greek
or Oriental origin, of which six were
equal to five Roman miles, and as
the latter were equal to 1480 metres,
the Portolano miles had a length of
only 1233 metres, and 75-2 of the
former, and 903 of the latter were
equal to a degree. The difference
between these miles was known,
however, only to the more learned
among the map-makers, and when
the charts were extended to the
Atlantic seaboard the two were
assumed to be identical.
On these old charts the Mediter-
ranean is delineated with surprising
fidelity. The meridian distance be-
tween the Straits of Gibraltar and
Beirut in Syria amounts upon them
to about 3000 Portolano miles, equal
in lat. 36 N. to 40-9, as compared
with an actual difference of 41-2,
and a difference of 61 assumed by
Ptolemy. There exists, however, a
serious error of orientation, due, ac-
cording to Professor H. Wagner, to
the inexperience of the cartographers
who first combined the charts of the separate basins of the
Mediterranean so as to produce a chart of the whole. This
accounts for Gibraltar and Alexandria being shown as lying
due east and west of each other, although there is a difference of
5 of latitude between them, a fact known long before Ptolemy.
The production of these charts employed numerous licensed
draughtsmen in the principal seaports of Italy and Catalonia,
and among seamen these MS. charts remained popular long
after the productions of the printing-press had become available.
The oldest of these maps which have been preserved, the so-
called " Pisan chart," which belongs probably to the middle of
the i3th century, and a set of eight charts, known by the name
of its former owner, the Cavaliere Tamar Luxoro, of somewhat
later date, are both the work of Genoese artists. Among more
eminent Genoese cartographers are Joannes da Carignano
(d. 1344), Petrus Vesconte, who worked in 1311 and 1327, and is
the draughtsman of the maps illustrating Marino Sanuto's Liber
secrelorum fidelium ctucis, which was to have roused Chris-
tendom to engage in another crusade (figs. 19 and 21) Battista
Beccario (1426, 1435) and Bartolomeo Pareto (1455). Venice
ranks next to Genoa as a centre of cartographic activity. Asso-
ciated with it are Francesco Pizigano (1367-1373), Francesco de
Cesanis (1421), Giacomo Giroldi (1422-1446), Andrea Bianco
(1436-1448) Giovanni Leardo (1442-1452), Alvise Cadamosto,
who was associated with the Portuguese explorers on the west
coast of Africa (1454-1456) and whose Portolano was printed at
Venice in 1490, and Fra Mauro (1457).
Associated with Ancona are Grazioso Benincasa and his son
Andreas, whose numerous charts were produced between 1461
and 1508, and Count Ortomano Freducci (1497-1538).
The earliest among Majorcan and Catalonian cartographers
is Angelino Dulcert (1325-1339) whom A. Managhi claims as a
Genoese, whose true name according to him was Angelino Dalorto.
FIG. 22. Fra Mauro (1457).
HISTORY]
Other Catalans are Jahuda Cresques, a Jew of Barcelona, the
supposed author of the famous Catalan map of the world (1375),
Gugliclmo Solerio (1384), Mecia de Viladestes (1413-1433)
'riel de Valleseche (1439-1447) and Pietro
Rosclli, a pupil of Beccario of Genoa (1462).
These maps were originally intended for the
use of seamen navigating the Mediterranean and
the coasts of the Atlantic, but in the course of
time they were extended to the mainland and
ultimately developed into maps of the whole
world as then known. Thus Pizigano's map of
1367 extends as far east as the Gulf of Persia,
whilst the Medicean map of 1356 (at Florence)
is remarkable on account of a fairly correct
delineation of the Caspian, the Shari river in
Africa, and the correct direction given to the
west coast of India, which had already been
pointed out in a letter of the friar Giovanni da
Montecorvino of 1252. Most of the expansions
of 1'ortolano maps into maps of the world are
circular in shape, and resemble the wheel maps
of an earlier period. This is the character of the
map of Petrus Vesconte of 1320 (fig. 21), of
Giovanni Leardo (1448) and of a Catalan map of
1450. Jerusalem occupies the centre of these
maps, Arab sources of information are largely
drawn upon, while Ptolemy is neglected and con-
temporary travellers are ignored. Far superior
to these maps is Fra Mauro's map (1457), for the
author has availed himself not only of the information collected
by Marco Polo and earlier travellers, but "was able, by personal
intercourse, to gather additional information from Nicolo de'
Conti, who had returned from the east in 1440, and more espe-
cially from Abyssinians who lived in Italy at that time. His
delineation of Abyssinia, though unduly spread over a wide area,
is indeed wonderfully correct.
Very different in character is the Catalan map of 1375, for its
author, discarding Ptolemy, shows India as a peninsula. On
MAP 643
Portolano miles, equivalent in 36 N. to 41, then the longitudinal
extent of the old world as measured on the Genoese map of 1457
would be 136 instead of 177 or more as given by Ptolemy.
En*TY Wtlfccr K.
FIG. 23. Catalan Map of the World (1375).
the other hand, an anonymous Genoese would-be reformer of
maps (1457; fig. 24), still adheres to the erroneous Ptolemaic
MMC jt eri Cot mognphonim cum
Minno KcordAt* dcscr Iptio
<uo<idk IrtvolU
altut inkali
1417
Fro. 24. Genoese Map (1457).
delineation of southern Asia, and the same error is perpetuated
by Henricus Marvellus Germanus on a rough map showing the
Portuguese discoveries up to 1489. None of these maps is
graduated, but if we give the Mediterranean a length of 3000
FIG. 25. Claudius Claws Swartha (1427).
The Revival of Ptolemy. Ptolemy's great work became known
in western Europe after Jacobus Angelus de Scarparia had
translated it into Latin in 1410. This version was first printed
in 1475 at Vicenza, but its contents had become known through
MS. copies before this, and their study influenced the construction
of maps in two respects. They led firstly to the addition of
degree lines to maps, and secondly to the compilation of new maps
of those countries which had been inadequately represented by
Ptolemy. Thus Claudius Clavus Swartha (Niger), who was at
Rome in 1424, compiled a map of the world, extending westward
as far as Greenland. The learned Cardinal Nicoteus Krebs, of
Cusa (Cues) on the Moselle, who died 1464, drew a map of Ger-
many which was first published in 1491 ;D. Nicolaus Germanus,
a monk of Reichenbach, in 1466 prepared a set of Ptolemy's
maps on a new projection with converging meridians; and Paolo
del Pozzo Toscanelli in 1474 compiled a new chart on a rect-
angular projection, which was to guide the explorer across the
western ocean to Cathay and India.
Of the seven editions of Ptolemy which were published up
to the close of the isth century, all except that of Vicenza (1475)
contained Ptolemy's 27 maps, while Francesco Berlinghk ri's
version (Florence 1478), and two editions published at Ulm
(1482 and 1486), contained four or five modern maps in addition,
those of Ulm being by Nicolaus Germanus.
The geographical ideas which prevailed at the time Columbus
started in search of Cathay may be most readily gathered from
two contemporary globes, the one known as the Laon globe
because it was picked up in 1860 at a curiosity shop in that town,
the other produced at Nuremberg in 1492 by Martin Behaim. 1
The Laon globe is of copper gilt, and has a diameter of 170 mm.
The information which it furnishes, in spite of a legend <ntended
to lead us to believe that it presents us with the results of Portu-
guese explorations up to the year 1493, is of more ancient date.
The Nuremberg globe is a work of a more ambitious order. It was
undertaken at the suggestion of George Holzschuher, a travelled
member of the town council. The work was entrusted to Martin
Behaim, who had resided for six years in Portugal and the Azores,
and was believed to be a thoroughly qualified cosmographer.
1 E. G. Ravenstein, Martin Behaim, his Life and his Globe (London,
1908). On the original only equator, ecliptics, tropics, polar circles
and one meridian 80 to the west of Lisbon are laid down.
644
MAP
[HISTOR
The globe is of pasteboard covered with whiting and parch-
ment, and has a diameter of 507 mm. The author followed
Ptolemy not only in Asia, but also in the Mediterranean. He
did not avail himself of the materials available in his day.
Not even the coasts of western Africa are laid down correctly,
although the author claimed to have taken part in one of the
Portuguese expeditions. The ocean separating Europe frcm
he was dependent upon dead reckoning, for although varioi
methods for determining a longitude were known, the available
astronomical ephemerides were not trustworthy, and errors of
30 in longitude were by no means rare. It was only after the
publication of Kepler's Rudolphine Table (1626) that more exact
results could be obtained. A further difficulty arose in connexion
with the variation of the compass, which induced Pedro Reinel
FIG. 26.
Asia is assumed as being only 126 wide, in accordance with
Toscanelli's ideas of 1474. Very inadequate use has been made
of the travels of Marco Polo, Nicolo de' Conti, and of others
in the east. 1 On the' other hand, the globe is made gay with
flags and other decorations, the work of George Glockendon,
a well-known illuminator of the time.
The maritime discoveries and surveys of that age of great
discoveries were laid down upon so-called " plane-charts,"
that is, charts having merely equidistant parallels indicated
upon them, together with the equator, the tropics and polar
FIG. 27.
circles, or, in a more advanced stage, meridians also. The astro-
labe quadrant or cross-staff enabled the mariner to determine his
latitude with a certain amount of accuracy, but for his longitude
1 See fig. 23, Catalan Map of the World (1375).
;:
to introduce two scales of latitude on his map of the norther
Atlantic (1504; fig. 27).
The chart of the world by Juan de la Cosa, the companion .
Columbus, is the earliest extant which depicts the discoveries in
the new world (1500), Nicolaus de Canerio, a Genoese, and the
map which Alberto Cantino caused to be drawn at Lisbon for
Hercules d'Este of Ferrara (1502), illustrating in addition the
recent discoveries of the Portuguese in the East. Other cosmo-
graphers of distinction were Pedro Reinel (1504-1542), Nuno
Garcia de Toreno (1520), to whom we are indebted for 21 charts,
illustrating Magellan's voyage, Diogo Ribero (maps of the world
1527, 1529),* Alonzo de Santa Cruz, of Seville, whose Isolario
general includes charts of all parts of the world (1541), John
Rotz or Rut (1542), Sebastian Cabof (1544), as also Nicolas
Desliens, Pierre Desceliers, G. Breton and V. Vallard, all of
Arques, near Dieppe, whose charts were compiled between 1541
and 1554.
Of the many general maps of the world or of particula
countries, a large number illustrate such works as G. Reisch's
Margarita philosophica (1163), the cosmographies of Peter
Apianus or Bienewitz (1520, 1522, 1530), Seb. Minister (1544)*
J. Honter (1546) and Gulklmus Postel (1561) or the Geographiaoi
Livio Sanuto (1588); others, and these the more numerous and
important, supplement the original maps of several editions of
Ptolemy. Thus the Roman edition of 1507, edited by Marcus
Benaventura and Joa Cota, contains 6 modern maps, and to
these was added in 1508 Job. Ruysch's famous map of the world
on a modified conical projection. The next edition published at
Venice in 1511 contained a heart-shaped world by Bernhard
Sylvanus. The Strassburg Ptolemy of 1513 has a supplement
of as many as 20 modern maps by Martin Waldseemiiller or
Ilacomilus, several among which are copied from Portuguese
originals. Waldseemuller was one of the most distinguished
cartographers of his day. He was born at Radolfzell in Baden
in 1470, was associated with Ringmann at the gymnasium of
1 J. G. Kohl published facsimiles of the American section of the
maps (Weimar, 1860).
HISTORY]
MAP
645
St Die, and died in 1 5 2 1 . He published in 1 507 a huge map of the
world, in 12 sheets, together with a small globe of a diameter of
no mm., the segments for which were printed from wood-blocks.
On these documents the new world is called America, after
Amerigo Vespucci, its supposed discoverer. In 1511 Waldsee-
miiller published a large map of Europe, in 1513 he prepared his
maps for the Strassburg edition of Ptolemy, and in 1516 he
engraved a copy of Canerio's map of the world. The Strassburg
Ptolemy of 1522 contains Waldseemtiller's maps, 1 edited on a
reduced scale by Laurentius Frisius, together with three addi-
tional ones. The same set of maps is reprinted in the Strassburg
edition of 1524, newly translated by W. Pirckheimer with notes
by Job. Miiller Regiomontanus, and in the Lyon edition of 1535,
edited by Michael Servetus. The new maps of the Basel edition
of 1540, twenty-one in number, are by Sebastian Munster;
Jacob Gastaldo supplied the Venice edition of 1548 with
34 modern maps, and these with a few additions are repeated in
Girolamo Ruscelli's Italian translation of Ptolemy published at
Venice in 1561.
Equally interesting with these Ptolemaic supplements are
collections like that of Anton Lafreri, which contains reprints of
142 maps of all parts of the world originally published between
1556 and 1572 (Geografica tavole moderne, Rome, n.d.), or that
of J. F. Camocio, published at Venice in 1576, which contains
88 reprints.
The number of cartographers throughout Europe was consider-
able, and we confine ourselves to mentioning a few leading men.
Among them Germany is then represented by G. Glockedon,
the author of an interesting road-map of central Europe (1501),
Sebastian Munster (1480-1552), Elias Camerarius, whose map
of the mark of Brandenburg won the praise of Mercator; Wolf-
gang Latz von Lazius, to whom we are indebted for maps of
Austria and Hungary (1561), and Philip Apianus, who made
a survey of Bavaria (1553-1563), which was published 1568 on
the reduced scale of i : 144,000, and is fairly described as the
topographical masterpiece of the i6th century. For maps of
Switzerland we are indebted to Konrad Tiirst (1495-1497),
Johann Stumpf (1548) and Aegidius Tschudi (1538). A map of
the Netherlands from actual survey was produced by Jacob of
Deventer (1536-1539). Leonardo da Vinci, the famous artist,
while in the service of Cesare Borgia as military engineer, made
surveys of several districts in central Italy. Other Italian car-
tographers of merit were Giovanni Battiste Agnese of Venice,
whose atlases (1517-1564) enjoyed a wide popularity; Benedetto
Bordone (1528); Giacomo Gastaldo, cosmographer of the Venetian
Republic (1534-1568), and his successor, Paolo Forlani. New
maps of Spain and Portugal appeared in 1 560, the former being
due to Pedro de Medina, the latter to Fernando Alvarez Secco
and Hernando Alvaro. Among the French map-makers of this
period may be mentioned Oronce Finee (Finaeus), who in 1525
published a map of France, and Jean Jolivet (c. 1560). Gregorio
Lilly (1546) and Humphrey Lhuyd of Denbigh (d. 1510)
furnished maps of the British Isles, Olaus Magnus (1539) of
Scandinavia, Anton Wied (1542), Sigismund von Herberstein
(1549) and Anthony Jenkinson (1562) of Muscovy.
The cylindrical and modified conical projections of Marinus
and Ptolemy were still widely used, the stereographical projection
of Hipparchus, was for the first time employed for terrestrial maps
in the i6th century, but new projections were introduced in addi-
tion to these. The earliest of these, a trapeziform projection with
equidistant parallels, by D. Nicolaus Germanus (1466), naturally
led to what is generally known as Flamsteed's projection. Joh.
Stabius (1502) and his pupil J. Werner (1514) devised three
heart-shaped projections, one of which was equivalent. Petrus
Apianus (1324) gave his map an elliptical shape. H. Glareanus
(1510) was the first to employ an equidistant zenithal polar
projection.
No reasonable fault can be found with the marine surveyors
of this period, but the scientific cartographers allowed themselves
too frequently to be influenced by Ptolemaic traditions. Thus
'Facsimiles of the maps of 1507 and 1517 were published by
J. Fischer and F. M. von Wieser (Innsbruck, 1903).
Gastaldo (1548) presents us with a map of Italy, which, except
aS to nomenclature, differs but little from that of Ptolemy,
although on the Portolano charts the peninsula had long since
assumed its correct shape. Many of the local maps, too, were
excellent specimens of cartography, but when we follow any
cartographer of the period into regions the successful delinea-
tion of which depended upon an intelligent interpretation of
itineraries, and of information collected by recent travellers, they
are generally found to fail utterly. This is illustrated by the
four sketch maps shown in fig. 28.
WALDSEEMULLER
, \^f^ NTT
FRANCIA />
ivira .. ^^-^ W$iF 1
-4: " , ~\ *t.:.s
FIG. 28.
Columbus, trusting to Toscanelli's misleading chart, looked
upon the countries discovered by him as belonging to eastern
Asia, a view still shared about 1507 by his brother Bartolomeo.
Waldseemuller (1507) was the first to separate America and Asia
by an ocean of, considerable width, but J. Ruysch (1508)
returns to the old idea, and even joins Greenland (Gruenlant)
to eastern Asia. Bologninus Zalterius on a map of 1566,
and Mercator on his famous chart of 1569, separates the two
continents by a narrow strait which they call Streto de Anian,
thus anticipating the discovery of Bering Strait by more than
a hundred and fifty years. Anian, however, which they place
upon the American coast, is no other than Marco Polo's Anica
or Anin, our modern Annam. Such an error could never have
arisen had the old compilers of maps taken the trouble to plan
Marco Polo's routes.
Globes, both celestial and terrestrial, became popular after
the discovery of America. They were included among the
scientific apparatus of ships and of educational establishments.
Columbus and Magellan had such globes, those of the latter
produced by P. Reinel (1519), and Conrad Celtes tells us that
he illustrated his lectures at the university of Vienna with
the help of globes (1501). Globes were still engraved on
copper, or painted by hand, but since 1507, in which year
Waldseemuller published a small globe of a diameter of 1 10 mm.,
covered with printed segments or gores, this cheap and expe-
ditious method has come into general use. Waldseemuller
constructed his gores graphically, A. Diirer (1525) and Hen.
Loriti Glareanus (1527) were the first who dealt scientifically
with the principles underlying their construction. Globes
MAP
[HISTORY
covered with printed gores were produced by L. Boulenger
(1514), Job. Schoner (1515), P. Apianus, Gemma Frisius (1530')
and G. Mercator (1541). Leonardo da Vinci's rough map of the
world in 8 segments (c. 1513) seems likewise to have been in-
tended for a globe. Of J. Schoner we know that he produced
four globes, three printed from segments (1515, 1523, 1533), and
FIG. 29.
one of larger size (diam. 822 mm.), which is drawn by hand, and is
preserved in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg. Among
engraved globes, one of the most interesting is that which was
discovered by R. M. Hunt in Paris, and is preserved in the Lenox
Library, New York. Its diameter is only 4! in. (127 mm.). The
so-called " Nancy globe " is of chased silver, richly ornamented,
the earliest works are a map of Palestine (1537), a map of the
world on a double heart-shaped projection (1525), and a topo-
graphical map of Flanders based upon his own surveys (1540),
a pair of globes (1541, diam. 120 mm.), and a large map of
Europe which has been praised deservedly for its accuracy (1554).
He is best known by his marine chart (1569) and his atlas. The
projection of the former may have been suggested by a note
by W. Pirkheimer in his edition of Ptolemy (1525). Mercator
constructed it graphically, the mathematical principles under-
lying it being first explained by E. Wright (1594). The "Atlas"
was only published after Mercator's death, in 1595. It only con-
tained nine maps, but after the plates had been sold to Jodocus
(Jesse) Hondius the number of maps was rapidly increased,
although Mercator's name was retained. Mercator's maps are
carefully engraved on copper. Latin letters are used through-
out; the miniatures of older maps are superseded by symbols,
and in the better-known countries the maps are fairly correct,
but they fail lamentably when we follow their author into
regions the successful delineation of which depends upon a
critical combination of imperfect information.
Even before Mercator's death, Antwerp and Amsterdam had
become great centres of cartographic activity, and they main-
tained their pre-eminence until the beginning of the i8th
century. Abraham Ortelius (1527-1592), of Antwerp, a man o
culture and enterprise, but not a scientific cartographer, pub-
lished the first edition of his Theatrum orbis terrarum in 1570.
It then contained 53 maps, by various authors. By 1595 the
number of maps had increased to 119, including a Parergon or
supplement of 12 maps illustrating ancient history. In 1578
'was published the Speculum orbis terrarum of Gerard de Jude
or de Judaeis. Lucas Janszon Waghenaer (Aurigarius) of
Enkhuizen published the first edition of his Spiegel der Zeevaart
(Mariners' Mirror) at Leiden in 1585. It was the first collection
of marine maps, lived through many editions, was issued
in several languages and became known as Charettier and
Waggoner. In the same year Adrian Gerritsz published a
valuable Paskaarte of the European Sea. Ten years afterwards,
in 1595, W. Barentszoon published a marine atlas of the Mediter-
ranean, the major axis of which he reduced to 42 degrees. Jodocus
M^HlMTn
w^ ; % F^f^^sf^mS^m^S^
I ^f^^l /L^t^t^^^
FIG. 30. Lenox Globes (1510).
and formerly served the purpose of a pyx. Its diameter is
160 mm., its date about 1530. About the same date is assigned
to a globe by Robert de Bailly, engraved on copper and gilt
(diam. 440 mm.). Celestial globes were manufactured by
Regiomontanus (d. 1476) at Nuremberg, by Joh. Stoffler (1499),
and by G. Hartmann (1535).
Mercator and his Successors. Of Gerhard Kremer (1512-1594)
Hondius has already been referred to as the purchaser of
cator's plates. The business founded by him about 1602 was
continued by his sons and his son-in-law, Jan Janszon (Jansonius)
and others. By 1653 this firm had already produced atlases
including 451 charts. Willem Janszon, the father of Hondius's
partner, published a collection of charts (1608), to which he
gave the title of Het Licht der Zeevaart (the seaman's light).
HISTORY]
MAP
647
Another cartographic publishing firm was established at Amster-
dam in 1612 by Willem Janszon Blacu (1571-1638), a friend of
Tycho Brahe, from 1633 " mapmaker " of the states-general,
and a man of scientific culture. He was succeeded by his son
Jan (d. 1673) and grandson Cornelius, and before the end of
the century turned out a Zee-Spiegel of 108 charts (1623), an
Atlas novus (Nieuwe Alias), 1642, enlarged in the course of time
until it consisted of 12 folio volumes containing hundreds of
maps. J. A. Colom in 1633 published a collection of maps under
the quaint title of Vurig Colom der Zeevaert (Fiery Column of
and his heirs, are stated to have published as many as 600
maps after 1700.
In no other country of Europe was there at the close of the
i6th century a geographical establishment capable of compet-
ing with the Dutch towns or with Sanson, but the number
of those who produced maps, in many instances based upon
original surveys, was large. Germany is thus represented,
among others, by C. Henneberger (map of Prussia, 1576), by
M. Oeder, (survey of Saxony, 1586-1607), A. Rauh (fine hill
features on a map of the environs of Wangen and Lindau, 1617),
DESCRIPTIO AD USUM NA
DePresbiteroJounnc Asialico et pruna
dominil Tartarorum engine. Eo tempore
Oc. Scftti
H Mare 6m
Inspector! S.
In hac orbis description* trla
nobis curae fuerunt. Primum
' ' Poll* migrxtx
IO revpectu Insuloru
Brcvis usus
organidircctorij
De vero Gangis et Aureae chersonesi situ.
FIG. 31. Mercator's Chart of the World (1569).
Navigation). Among more recent Dutch map publishers are
Nicolaus Vischer (Piscator), R. Goos, H. Doncker, F. de Wit, and
J. and G. van Keulen, whose atlases were published between
1 68 1 and 1722. These Dutch maps and charts are generally
accompanied by descriptive notes or sailing directions printed
on the back of them. A similar work is the Arcano del mare of
Sir Robert Dudley, duke of Northumberland, the numerous
sheets of which are on Mercator's projection (1631).
In France, in the meantime, an arc of the meridian had been
measured (1660-1670) by Jean Picard, numerous longitudes had
been observed between 1672 and 1680 by the same, and by Phil,
de Lahire (d. 1719), and these were utilized in a Carte de France
" as corrected from the observations of the members of the
Academy of Sciences " (1666-1699), in a map of the world (1694)
by D. Cassini, as also in Le Neptune Francois (1693) with
contributions by Pene, D. Cassini and others. These corrected
longitudes were not yet available for the maps produced by
Nicolas Sanson of Abbeville, since 1627. The cartographical
establishment founded by him in that year was carried on after
his death in 1667 by his sons, his son-in-law, P. Duval (d. 1683)
and his grandson Robert du Vaugondy (d. 1766). Among the
cartographers whom he employed were M. Tavernier and
Mariette, and in many instances he mentioned the authors
whose maps he copied. By 1710 the maps published by the
firm numbered 466. Nicolas de Fer, the great rival of Sanson,
W. Schickhardt (survey of Wiirttemberg, 1624-1635), and G. M.
Vischer (map of Austria and Styrai, 1669-1786); Switzerland
by H. C. Gyger (Canton of Zurich, a masterpiece, 1667); Italy
by G. A. Magini (1558-1610), and V. Coronelli, appointed
cosmographer of the Venetian Republic, 1685, and founder of
the Ac. Cosmogr. dei Argonaut!, the earliest geographical society,
and Diogo Homem, a Portuguese settled at Venice (1558-1574);
Denmark by J. Mejer of Husum (1650); Sweden by A. Buraeus,
the " father of Swedish cartographers " (1650-1660),- the British
Islands by Ch. Saxton (County Atlas of England and Wales
rsys); J- Speed (Theatrum of Great Britain, 1610), Timothy
Pont and Robert Gordon of Strathloch (map of Scotland, 1608),
and A. Moll. A Novus atlas sinensis, based upon Chinese sur-
veys, was published in 1655 by Martin Martini, S.J., a missionary
recently returned from China. Isaac Voss, in his work De
Nili (1659), published a map of central Africa, in which he
anticipated D'Anville by rejecting all the fanciful details
which found a place upon Filippo Pigafetta's map of that
continent.
The first maps illustrating the variation of the compass were
published by Chris. Burrus (d. 1632) and Athanasius Kircher
(Magnes, Rome, 1643), and maps of the ocean and tidal currents
by tHe latter in his Mundus subterraneus (1665). Edmund
Halley, the astronomer, compiled the first variation chart of
scientific value (1683), as also a chart of the winds (1686).
MAP
[HISTORY
Globes manufactured for commercial purposes by Blaeu and
others have already been mentioned, but several large globes,
for show rather than for use, were produced in addition to these.
Thus A. Busch, of Limburg (1656-1664), manufactured a globe
for Duke Frederick of Holstein, formerly at Gottorp, but since
1713 at Tsarskoye Zelo. It has a diameter of n ft. (3-57 metres)
and is hollow, the inner surface of the shell being covered with
a star map, and the outer surface with a map of the world.
Professor Erh. Weigel (1696) produced a hollow celestial globe
in copper, having a small terrestrial globe in its centre. Its
diameter is 3-25 metres. Lastly there is a pair of giant globes of
artistic design, turned out by V. Coronelli (1623), and intended
as presents to Louis XIV. Their diameter is nearly 5 metres.
A pair of globes of 1592 by Emeric Molineux (diam. 610 mm.) is
now in the Temple Library, and is referred to in Blundeville's
Exercises (1594).
The Eighteenth Century. It was no mere accident which
enabled France to enjoy a pre-eminence in cartographic work
during the greater part of the i8th century. Not only had
French men of science and scientific travellers done excellent
work as explorers in different parts of the world, but France
could also boast of two men, Guillaume Delisle and J. B.
Bourguignon d'Anville, able to utilize in the compilation of
their maps the information they acquired.
Delisle (1675-1726) published 98 maps, and although as works
of art they were inferior to the maps of certain contemporaries,
they were far superior to them in scientific value. On one of
his earliest maps compiled under advice of his father Claude
(1700), he gave the Mediterranean its true longitudinal extension
of 41. It was Delisle who assumed the meridian of Ferro,
which had been imposed upon French navigators by royal order
(1634), to lie exactly 20 to the west of Paris. The work of
reform was carried further by B. D'Anville (1697-1782).
Altogether he published 211 maps, of which 66 are included in
FIG. 32.
his Atlas general (1737-1780); he swept away the fanciful lakes
from off the face of Africa, thus forcibly bringing home to us
the poverty of our knowledge (fig. 32), delineated the Chinese
Empire in accordance with the map based on the surveys con-
ducted during the reign of the emperor Kanghi, with the aid
of Jesuit missionaries, and published in 1718; boldly refused to
believe in the existence of an Antarctic continent covering half
the southern hemisphere, and always brought a sound judgment
to bear upon the materials which the ever-increasing number
of travellers placed at his disposal. Among other French works
of importance deserving notice are Le Neptune oriental of
Mannevillette (1745) and more especially the Carte geometrique
de la France, which is based upon surveys carried on (1744-1783)
by Cesar Francois Cassini de Thury and his son Dominique de
Cassini. It is on a transversal cylindrical (rectangular) pro-
jection devised by Jacques Cassini (d. 1746). The hills are
shown in rough hachures.
England, which had entered upon a career of naval con-
quest and scientific exploration, had reason to be proud of
J. F. W. Desbarres, Atlantic Neptune (1774), a North- American
Pilot (1779), which first made known the naval surveys of
J. Cook and of others; and Tho. Jefferys's West Indian and
American Atlases (1775, 1778). James Rennell (1742-1830), who
was surveyor-general of India, published the Bengal Atlas (1781),
and sagaciously arranged the vast mass of information collected
by British travellers and others in India and Africa, but it is
chiefly with the name of Aaron Arrowsmith, who came to London
in 1778, and his successors, with which the glory of the older
school of cartographers is most intimately connected. His
nephew John died in 1873. Among local cartographers may be
mentioned H. Moll (d. 1732), J. Senex, whose atlas was published
in 1725, and Dowet, whose atlas was brought out at the
expense of the duke of Argyll.
In Germany J. B. Homann (d. 1724) founded a geographical
establishment in 1702, which depended at first upon copies of
British and French maps, but in course of time published also
original maps such as J. M. Hase's Africa (1727) and Tobias
Meyer's Mappa crilica of Germany (1780), J. T. Giissfeld's map
of Brandenburg (1773), John Majer's Wiirttemburg (1710),
and J. C. Muller's Bavaria, both based on trigonometrical
surveys. Colonel Schmettau's excellent survey of the country
to the west of the Weser (1767-1787) was never published, as
Frederick the Great feared it might prove of use to his military
enemies. Switzerland is represented by J. J. Scheuchzer (1712),
J. Gessner (d. 1790), G. Walser (Atlas novus Hehetiae, 1769),
and W. R. Meyer, Atlas der Schweiz (1786-1802). Of the
Austrian Netherlands, Count Joseph de Ferrari published a
chorographic map on the same scale as Cassini's Carte de la
France (1777). Of Denmark a fine map was published under
the auspices of the Academy of Science of Copenhagen (1766-
1825) of Spain and Portugal an atlas in 102 sheets by Thomas
Lopez (1765-1802); of Russia a map by J. N. Delisle in 19
sheets (1739-1745); charts illustrating the variation of the
compass and of magnetic "dip" by E. Dunn (1776), J. C.
Wiffe (1768); a chart of the world by W. Dampier (1789).
Map projections were dealt with by two eminent mathe-
maticians, J. H. Lambert (1772) and Leonh. Euler (1777).
On the maps of Delisle and d'Anville the ground is still
represented by " molehills." Hachures of a rude nature first
made their appearance on David Vivier's map of the environs
of Paris (1674), and on Cassini's Carte de la France. Contour lines
(isobaths) were introduced for the first time on a chart of the
Merwede by M. S. Cruquius (1728), and on a chart of the
English Channel by Phil. Buache (1737). Dupain-Triel, acting
on a suggestion of Du Carla, compiled a contoured map of France
(1791), and it only needed the introduction of graduated tints
between these contours to secure a graphic picture of the features
of the ground. It was J. G. Lehmann (1783) who based his
method of hill-shading or hachuring upon these horizontal
contours. More than 80 methods of showing the hills have
found advocates since that time, but all methods must be
based upon contours to be scientifically satisfactory.
Two relief maps of Central Switzerland deserve to be mentioned,
the one by R. L. Pfyffer in wax, now in Lucerne, the other by
J. R. Meyer of Aarau and Miiller of Engelberg in papier mache,
now in Zurich. Globes of the usual commercial type were
manufactured in France by Delisle (1700), Forbin (1710-1731),
R. and J. de Vaugondy (1752), Lalande (1771); in England by
E. and G. Adams (1710-1766); Germany by Homann and Seutter
(1750). A hollow celestial globe 18 ft. in diameter was set up
by Dr Roger Long at Cambridge; the terrestrial globe which
Count Ch. Gravie of Vergennes presented to Louis XVI. in
1787 had a diameter of 26 metres, or 85 ft.
Modern Cartography. The compiler of maps of the present
day enjoys many advantages not enjoyed by men similarly
occupied a hundred years ago. Topographical surveys are
gradually extending, and explorers of recent years are better
trained for their work than they were a generation ago, whilst
technical processes of recent invention such as lithography,
photography and heliogravure facilitate or expedite the
completion of his task. This task, however, has grown more
difficult and exacting. Mere outline maps, such as formerly
satisfied the public, suffice no longer. He is called upon more
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS]
MAP
649
especially to give a satisfactory delineation of the ground, he
must meet the requirements of various classes of the public,
and be prepared to record cartographically all the facts of
physical or political geography which are capable of being
recorded on his maps. The ingenuity of the compiler is
frequently taxed when called upon to illustrate graphically
the results of statistical information of every description.
Germany since the middle of the ipth century has become the
headquarters of scientific cartography. This is due as much
to the inspiriting teachings of Ritter and Humboldt as to the
general culture and scientific training combined with technical
skill commanded by the men who more especially devote them-
selves to this branch of geography, which elsewhere is too
frequently allowed to fall into the hands of mere mechanics.
Men like H. Berghaus (1797-1884), H. Kiepert (1818-1899), and
A. Petermann (1822-1878) must always occupy a foremost place
in the history of cartography. Among the geographical establish-
ments of Germany, that founded by Justus Perthes (1785), at
Gotha, occupies the highest rank. Among its publications are
A. Stieler's Hand-Atlas (1817-1832), K. von Spruner's Historical
Atlas (1438-1488), H. Berghaus' Physical Atlas (1838-1842), E.
von Sydow's Wall Maps for Schools (1838-1840) and School Atlas
(1847). The titles of these atlases survive, though the authors of
the original editions are long dead, and the maps have been
repeatedly superseded by others bringing the information up to
the date of publication. To the same firm we are indebted for
Petermann's Mitteilungen, started in 1855 by A. Petermann,
after whose death in 1902 they were successively edited by
E. Behm, A. Supan and P. Langhans, as also the Geographisches
Jahrbuch (since 1866), at first edited by E. Behm, afterwards by
Professor H. Wagner. Among other geographical institutes in
Germany which deserve mention are the Weimar Institut,
founded in 1791 by F. J. Bertuch, and directed in 1845-1852
by H. Kiepert; Paul Fleming at Glogau (K. Sohr's Handatlas,
1845), A. Ravenstein at Frankfort, D. Reimer at Berlin (H.
Kiepert, Handatlas, 1860); R. Andree (Hand- Atlas, 1880), andE.
Debes (Hand-Atlas, 1894) in Leipzig, and E. Holzer in Vienna
(Vincenz von Haardt's maps). France is represented by the
publishing firms of Ch. Delagrave (Levaseur's maps), Hachette
(Vivien de St Martin's Atlas universel, in progress since 1875,
F. Schrader's Atlas de geographic moderne, 1880), and Armand
Colin (Vidal de la Blache's Atlas general, 1894). In Great
Britain A. Arrowsmith established himself in London in 1770
(General Atlas, 1817), but the cartographical business ceased on
the death of John Arrowsmith in 1873. John Walker, to whose
initiative the charts published by the admiralty are indebted
for the perspicuous, firm and yet artistic execution, which
facilitate their use by the mariner, was also the author of the
maps published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know-
ledge (1829-1840). Among more recent firms are W. and A. K.
Johnston (founded 1825; Royal Atlas, 1855); J. Bartholomew &
Co., now carried on by J. G. Bartholomew (Reduced Survey
maps, Atlas of the World's Commerce, 1906); Philip & Sons
(Imperial Atlas, 1890; Systematic Atlas by E. G. Ravenstein,
1894; Mercantile Marine Atlas, 1904, globes), and E. Stanford
(London Atlas).
In 1890 Professor A. Penck proposed to prepare a map of the
world, including the oceans, on a scale of i : 1,000,000, and his
scheme was promised the support of a committee which met in
London in 1909, and upon which were represented the leading
powers of the world. Maps on that scale of a great part of
Africa, Asia and America have been pubb'shed by British,
French, German and United States authorities. A bathy-
metrical chart of the oceans, by Professor J. Thoulet was
published in 1904 at the expense of Prince Albert of Monaco.
Reliefs from printed maps were first produced by Bauerkeller
of Darmstadt and Dondorf at Frankfort, from originals furnished
by A. Ravenstein (1838-1844). The exaggeration in altitude,
on these maps and on those of a later date and on a larger scale,
was very considerable. No such exaggeration exists in the case
of reliefs of parts of the Alps, on a large scale, by P. Keil and
Pelikan (1890), X. Imfeld (1891), P. Oberlerchner (1891-1895),
C. Perron (1893-1900), F. Becker (1900), A. Heim (1904) and
others. A relief globe was first suggested in a letter of
M. Maestlin to J. Kepler (1596). The first globe of this descrip-
tion for the use of the blind, was made by A. Zeune in 1810.
H. Erben is the author of a rough relief on a convex surface
(1842), but the finest example of this description is a relief of
Italy, by Cesar Pomba and H. Fritsche, on a scale of i : 1,000,000
and without exaggeration of heights (1880- 1884). A map of Italy
in the baptistery of St Peter at Rome has occasionally been
described as a relief, though it is merely a rude outline map of
Italy, by Carlo Fontana (1698), carved into a convex surface.
Several globes of unusual dimensions were produced in the
course of last century. That which Colonel Langlois erected
inJthe,'Champs Elys6es(i824) had a diameter of 39metres. James
Wyld's hollow globe, or " Georama," diam. 18 metres, occupied
Leicester Square until swept away as a nuisance. The giant
globe proposed by Elis6e Reclus in 1895 has never been erected;
he has, however, produced maps on a concave surface, as
suggested by J. D. Hauber in 1742.
AUTHORITIES. The history of maps is dealt with ably in Vivien
de Saint Martin's Histoire de la geographie (Paris, 1875), and in
Peschel's Geschichte der Erdkunde (2nd ed. by Sophus Ruge, Ber-
lin, 1877), as also by W. Wollkenhauer (Leitfaden zur Geschichte der
Kartographie, Breslau, 1895), and H. Zondervan (Allgemeine Karten-
kunde, Leipzig, iqoi). J. Lelewel's Geographie du moyen dge, with
an atlas (Brussels, 1850-1857), has in part been superseded by
more recent researches. There are, however, a number of works,
beautifully illustrated, which deal fully with particular periods of
the subject. Among these may be mentioned Konrad Miller's
Die dltesten Weltkarten (Stuttgart, 1895-1897), which only deals
with maps not influenced by the ideas of Ptolemy. The contents of
the following collections are more varied in their nature, viz. E. F.
Jomard's Monuments de la g&ographie (Paris, 1862), Santarem's
Atlas compost de mappemondes et de partitions, &c. (Paris, 1842-1853,
78 plates). A. E. Nordenskiold's Facsimile Atlas (Stockholm, 1889),
Gabriel Marcell, Choix de cartes et de mappemondes XIV' et XV*
siecles (Paris, 1896) C. H. Coote's Remarkable Maps of the XVlh,
X VI th and X Vllth Centuries reproduced in their Original Size (Amster-
dam, 1894-1897), and Bibliotheca lindesiana (London, 1898) with
facsimiles of the Harleian and other Dieppese maps of the l6th
century. Nautical charts are dealt with in A. E. Nordenskiold's
Periplus (Stockholm, 1869), and Th. Fischer's Sammlung mittel-
alterlicher Welt- und Seekarten (Vienna, 1886). The discovery and
mapping of America are illustrated by F. Kunstmann's Entdeckung
Amerikas (Munich, 1859), K. Kretschmer's Atlas zur Entdeckung
Amerikas (Berlin, 1892), G. Marcel's Reproductions de cartes et de
globes relatives d la decouverte de I'Amerique du XVI' au XVIII'
siecle (Paris, 1893) and E. L. Stevenson's Maps Illustrating the
early Discovery and Exploration of America, 1502-1530 (New Bruns-
wick, N.J., 1906). In addition to these collections, numerous
single maps have been published in geographical periodicals or
separately. See also V. Hantzsch and L. Schmidt, Kartog. Denk-
maler zur Entdeckungsgeschichte von Amerika, Asien, Australien und
Afrika aus der k. Bibliothek zu Dresden (Leipzig, 1903), and the
Crown Collection of photographs of American maps (1600-1800),
selected and edited by A. B. Hulbert (Cleveland, 1904-1909).
For reports on the progress of cartography, see Geographisches
Jahrbuch (Gotha, since 1866); for announcements of new publi-
cations, Bibliotheca geographica, published annually by the Berlin
Geographical Society, and to the geographical Journal (London).
Topographical Surveys.
The year 1784 marks the beginning of the ordnance survey,
for in that year Major-General Roy measured a base line of
27,404 ft. on Hounslow Heath. Six additional base
lines were measured up to 1849, including the Lough
Foyle, in 1827-1828, and that on Salisbury Plain, in
1849. The primary triangulation was only completed in 1858,
but in the meantime, in 1791, the detail survey had begun. At
first it was merely intended to produce a map sufficiently accurate
on a scale of i in. to a mile (i : 63,360). Ireland having been
surveyed (1824-1842) on a scale of 6 in. to a mile (i : 10,560),
it was determined in 1840, after the whole of England and Wales,
with the exception of Lancashire and Yorkshire, had been
completed on one-inch scales, to adopt that scale for the whole
of the United Kingdom. Finally, in 1854, a cadastral survey of
the whole of the United Kingdom, only excepting uncultivated
districts, was resolved upon, on a scale of i : 2500, still larger
scales (i : 500 or i : 1000) being adopted for town plans. Parish
boundaries are laid down with the help of local meresmen
appointed by justices at quarter sessions. The horizontal
650
MAP
[TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS
contours are based upon instrumental measurement, and as a
whole these ordnance maps were undoubtedly superior in accu-
racy, with rare exceptions, to similar maps published by foreign
governments. Even though the hill hachures on the older
one-inch maps are not quite satisfactory, this deficiency is in a
large measure compensated for by the presence of absolutely
trustworthy contours. Originally the maps were engraved on
copper, and the progress of publication was slow; but since the
introduction of modern processes, such as electrotyping (in
1840), photography (in 1855) and zincography (in 1859), it has
been rapid. A plan, the engraving of which formerly took two
years, can now be produced in two days.
The one-inch map for the whole of the United Kingdom was
completed in 1890. It covers 697 sheets (or 488 of a "-new
series " in large sheets), and is published in three editions, viz.
(a) in outline, with contours in black, (b) with hills hachured in
brown or black, and (c) printed in five colours. Carefully revised
editions of these and of the other maps are brought out at
intervals of 15 years at most. Since 1898 the department has
also published maps on a smaller scale, viz. a map of England
and Wales, on a scale of 2 m. to i in., in two editions, both
printed in colour, the one with hills stippled in brown, the
other coloured on the " layer system " as a strata-relief map; a
map of the United Kingdom on a scale of 4 m. to i in., also
in two editions, the one in outline, showing five classes of
roads and parish boundaries, the other in colours, with stippled
hills; a map on a scale of 10 m. to i in., also in two editions,
and finally a map of the United Kingdom on a scale of
i : 1,000,000.
The geological surveys of Great Britain and Ireland were con-
nected from 1832 to 1853 with the ordnance survey, but are
now carried on independently. The ordnance survey, too, no
longer depends on the war office but upon the board of
agriculture and fisheries. A Bathymetrical Survey of the Fresh-
water Lochs of Scotland, under the direction of Sir John Murray
and L. Pullar, was completed in 1908, and the results published
by the Royal Geographical Society.
Proposals for a new map of France, to replace the famous
Cassini map of 1744-1793 were made in 1802 and again by
R. Bonne in 1808, but owing to the wars then devas-
tating Europe no steps were taken until 1817,- and
the Carte de France de I'etat major on a scale of i : 80,000 was
only completed in 1880. It is engraved on copper. The hachured
hills are based upon contours, and are of admirable commen-
surability. It has served as a basis for a Carte de la France,
published by the Service Vicinal on a scale of i : 100,000, in
596 sheets, and of a general map prepared by the ministere des
travaux publics on a scale of i : 200,000 in 80 sheets. On both
these maps the hills are printed in grey chalk. A third topo-
graphical map of France is being published in accordance with
the recommendation of a committee presided over by General
de la Noix in 1897. The surveys for this map were begun in
1905. The maps are based upon the cadastral plans (i : 1000),
thoroughly revised and connected with the triangulation of
France and furnished with contours at intervals of 5 m. by
precise measurement. These minutes are published on a scale
of i : 10,000 or i : 20,000 for mountain districts, while the scale
of the general map is i : 50,000. Each sheet is bounded by
parallels and meridians. The hills are shown in brown contours
at intervals of 10 m. and grey shading in chalk (Berthaut, La
Carte de France, 1730-1898; Paris, 1899). A geological map of
France on a scale of i : 80,000 is nearly completed, there are also
a map (i: 500,000) by Carez and Vasseur, and an official Carte
geologique (i: 1,000,000; 1906).
By the middle of the igth century topographical maps of the
various German states had been completed, and in several
dcrmaay. i nstan ces surveys of a more exact nature had been
completed or begun, when in 1878 the governments of
Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Wurttemberg agreed to supersede
local maps by publishing a map of the empire (Reichskarte) in
674 sheets on a scale of 1:100,000. The earlier sheets of this
excellent map were lithographed, but these are gradually being
France.
superseded by maps engraved on copper. Colour-printing is
employed since 1901. The hills are hachured and in some
instances contours at intervals of 50 metres are introduced. The
map was completed in 1909, but is continually undergoing
renewal. The Messtischbliitter, called Positionsbliitter in Bavaria,
are on a scale of 1:25,000. The older among them leave
much to be desired, but those of a later date are satisfactory.
This applies more especially to the maps of Saxony (since 1879)
and Wurttemberg (since 1893). The features of the ground on
most of these maps are shown by contours at intervals of
10 metres. The map produced on this large scale numbers over
5000 sheets, and is used as a basis for the geological surveys
carried on in several of the states of Germany. A general
map of the German Empire (Uebersichtskarte) on a scale of
i : 200,000, in 196 sheets, is in progress since 1893. It is
printed in three colours, and gives contours at intervals of 10
metres. In addition to these maps there are D. G. Reymann's
well-known Specialkarte von Mittd Europa ( i : 200,000 ),
acquired by the Prussian government in 1874 (it will ulti-
mately consist of 796 sheets), a government and Liebenow's
map of central Europe (1:300,000) and C. Vogel's beautiful
map of Germany (i : 500,000).
The Specialkarte of Austria- Hungary on a scale of 1:75,000
(765 sheets), based upon a triangulation and cadastral surveys
(1816-1867), was completed in 1889, and published in
heliogravure. This map was repeatedly revised,
but as it no longer met modern requirements as to
accuracy the director of the military geographical establishment
at Vienna, Field Marshal Chr. von Steeb, in 1896, organized
what practically amounts to a re-survey of the entire monarchy,
to be completed in 75 years. At the same time the cadastral
plans, reduced to a scale of 1:25,000, are being published in
photo-lithography. A general map of central Europe in 283
sheets published by the Austrian government (1:200,000)
includes nearly the whole of the Balkan Peninsula.
The famous map of Switzerland, with which is associated the
name of General H. Dufour (d. 1875), is based upon a triangula-
tion (1809-1833) and surveys on a scale of 1:25,000
for the lowlands, 1:50,000 for the alpine districts, and
was published (1842-1865) on a scale of 1:100,000.
The hills are hachured, the light, in the case of the loftier regions,
being supposed to fall obliquely. The original surveys, carefully
revised, have been published since 1870 as a Topographical
Atlas of Switzerland the so-called Siegfried Atlas, in 552 sheets.
They are printed in three colours, contours at intervals of 10 and
20 metres being in brown, incidental features (ravines, cliffs,
glaciers) in black or blue. To mountain-climbers these contour
maps are invaluable, but for ordinary purposes " strata maps,"
such as J. M. Ziegler's hypsometric maps (1856) or so-called
" relief maps," which attempt to delineate the ground so as to
give the impression of a relief, are generally preferred.
The new survey of Belgium was completed in 1872 and there
have been published 527 plane-table sections or plancheltcs on
a scale of 1:20,000 (1866-1880), a "Carte topo- a Islam
graphique de la Belgique," in 72 sheets, on a scale of
.1:40,000 (1861-1883), and a more recent map in 26 sheets
on a scale of 1:100,000 (1903-1912). The last is printed in live
colours, the ground is shown in contours of 10 metres interval
and grey stippling.
The new survey of the Netherlands, based upon General
Krayenhoff's primary triangulation (1802-1811) was completed
in 1855. The results have been published on a Ho n aa a.
scale of 1:25,000 (776 sheets, since 1866), 1:50,000
(Topographic and Military Map, 62 sheets, 1850-1864, and a
Waterstaatskaart, 1864-1892), and 1:200,000 (Topographic
Atlas, 21 sheets, 1868-1871).
In Denmark, on the proposal of the Academy of Science,
a survey was carried out in 1766-1825, but the maps issued
by the Danish general staff depend upon more Denmar t
recent surveys. These include plane-table sections
(Maalebordsblade), 1209 sheets on a scale of 1:20,000, with con-
tours at intervals of 5 to 10 ft., published since 1830; Atlasblade
cal
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS]
MAP
651
of Jutland and of De Danske Ger, on a scale of 1:40,000, the
former in 131 sheets, since 1870, the latter, on the same scale,
in 94 sheets, since 1890, and still in progress, and a general
staff map on a scale of 1:100,000, in 68 sheets, since 1890.
Maps of the Farcer and of Iceland have likewise been issued.
Modern surveys in Sweden date from the organization of a
corps of " Landematare," known since 1874 as a topographical
Scaadi- department of the general staff. The maps issued
aavia. by this authority include one of southern Sweden,
1:100,000, another of northern Sweden, 1:200,000, and a general
map on a scale of 1:1,000,000. In Norway a geographical
survey (Opmaaling) has been in progress since 1783, but the
topographical map of the kingdom on a scale of 1:100,000 in
340 sheets, has not yet been completed.
Of Russia in Europe only the more densely peopled govern-
ments have been surveyed, since 1816, in the manner of other
Russia European countries, while for most regions there
are only so-called "military surveys." The most
readily available map of the whole country is the lo-verst
map (1:420,000), known as General J. A. Strelbitzki's,
and published 1865-1880. A topographic map (1:126,000)
embracing the whole of western Russia, with Poland and the
country of the Don Cossacks, is designed to be extended
over the whole empire. Certain governments Moscow, Kief,
Volhynia, Bessarabia, the Crimea, &c. have been published
on a scale of 1:24,000, while Finland, as far as 61 N., was
re-surveyed in 1870-1895, and a map on a scale of 1:42,000
is approaching completion.
Surveys in Asiatic Russia are conducted by the topographical
departments organized at Orenburg, Tashkent, Omsk, Irkutsk
and Tiflis. To the latter we are indebted for a valuable map
of Caucasia, 1:210,000, which since the first publication (1863-
1885) has undergone careful revision. The Siberian departments
have published a number of maps on a scale of 1:420,000. In
addition to these the survey for the Trans-Siberian railway has
been published on a scale of 1:630,000, as also maps of the
Russo-Chinese frontier districts, 1:210,000 and 1:1,168,000.
A map of Asiatic Russia, 1:420,000, by Bolshef, in 192 sheets,
is in course of publication.
Passing to southern Europe we find that Portugal has com-
pleted a Charta chorographlca (1:100,000) since 1856. In
Spain a plane- table survey on a scale of 1 120,000
aaa"spaia. nas been ' n progress since 1870, but of the map of
Spain in 1078 sheets on a scale of 1:50,000 only
150 had been issued by the deposito de la guerra up to 1910.
Meanwhile reference may be made to B. F. Coello's Atlas de la
Espafia (1848-1890), the maps of which are on a scale of
i: 200,000.
In Italy Tavulette rilevata on a scale of 1:25,000 or 1:50,000,
with contours, based on surveys made 1862-1890, are being
Italy published, and a Carlo, del regno d'ltalia, 1:100,000,
is practically complete. There are a Carlo, idrologica
and a Carta geologica on the same scale, and a Carlo orografica
on a scale of i : 500,000.
Greece is still dependent upon foreigners for its maps, among
which the Carte de Grece (1:200,000) from rapid surveys made
Greece. by General Palet in 1828, was published in a new
edition in 1880. A similar map, mainly based upon
surveys made by Austrian officers and revised by H. Kiepert
(1:300,000), was published by the Military Geographical
Institute of Vienna in 1885. Far superior to these maps is
the Karte von Attika (1:100,000 and 1:25,000) based upon
careful surveys made by Prussian officers and published by
"-. Curtius and J. H. Kaupert on behalf of the German Archaeo-
logical Institute in Athens (1878), or A. Philippson's map of
the Peloponnese (1:300,000; 1901).
For maps of the Balkan Peninsula we are still largely indebted
to the rapid surveys carried on by Austrian and Russian
Balkan ' ncers - The Austrian map of central Europe
suits. embraces the whole of the Balkan Peninsula on a scale
of 1:200,000; the Russian surveys (1877-1879) are
embodied in a map of the eastern part of the Balkan on a scale
1:126,000, and a map of Bulgaria and southern Rumelia, on a
scale 1:200,000, both published in 1883. A map of Turkey in
Europe, scale 1:210,000, was published by the Turkish general
staff (1899), and another map, scale 1:250,000, by the intelli-
gence division of the British war office is in progress since
1906. Bosnia and Herzegovina are now included with the
surveys of the Austrian Empire, the kingdom of Servia has
been surveyed (1880-1891) and the results published on a
scale of 1:75,000; in eastern Rumania surveys have been in
progress since 1874 and the results have been published on a
scale of 1:50,000; a general map of the entire kingdom, scale
1:200,000, was published in 1906-1907; a map of Monte-
negro (1:75,000), based on surveys by Austrian and Russian
officers, was published at Vienna in 1894.
In Asiatic Turkey several districts of historical interest
have been surveyed, and surveys have likewise been made in
the interest of railways, or by boundary commis- Afla
sions, but there is no such thing as a general survey
carried on under the direction of government. We are thus,
to a large extent, still dependent upon compilations, such as
R. Kiepert's Asia Minor (1:400,000; 1904-1908), a map of
eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria and western Persia (1:2,000,000;
1910), published by the Royal Geographical Society, or a
Russian general map (1:630,000, published 1880-1885).
Among maps based upon actual surveys those of Palestine,
by Lieutenant G. R. Conder and H. H. (afterwards Lord)
Kitchener (1:63,360, 1880), of the Sinai Peninsula by Sir
C. W. Wilson and H. S. Palmer (1:126,730, 1870), of Arabia
Petraea byDr A. Musil (1:300,000, 1907) or of the Aden territory
(1905) are among the more interesting. Of Cyprus an excellent
map from surveys by Major (Lord) H. H. Kitchener was
published in 1884 (1:63,360).
In the case of Persia and Afghanistan we are still dependent
upon compilations such as a Russian staff map (1:840,000,
published in 1886), Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich's map of
Persia (1:1,014,000, Simla, 1897-1899), or a smaller map
(1:2,028,000 and 1:4,056,000), published by the geographical
division of the general staff. The settlement of boundaries
in northern Afghanistan (1883) and in Seistan (1870) has
necessitated surveys of some interest.
A trigonometrical survey of British India was begun in 1800
and the country can now boast of a survey which in most respects
is equal fo those of most European states. The surveys are
made on scales varying according to the necessities of the
case or the nature of the country, and they have been extended
since 1862 beyond the boundaries of India proper. Revenue
surveys for land settlement are published on a scale of i : 4000,
but the usual scale for topographical maps is 1:63,360. An
Indian Atlas, on a scale of i : 255,660, includes also Ceylon and the
Malay Peninsula, but although begun so long ago as 1827 many
of its sheets are unpublished. There are in addition an official
map of India (1:1,000,000), the first edition of which was
published in 1903, as also maps of the great provinces of India,
including Burma, all on a scale of 1:2,827,520, and a variety
of physical and statistical maps. Ceylon and the Straits
Settlements, with the Federal Malay States, have their own
surveyors-general. The British North Borneo Company pub-
lished a Map of British North Borneo, on a scale of 1:633,600
(1905).
In Siam a regular survey was organized by Mr J. McCarthy
(1881-1883), a former official of the Indian survey, which did
good work in connexion with the determination of the Franco-
Siamese frontier (1906). The surveys are made on the scales
of i : 4000, 1:31 ,680 and i : 63 ,360.
In French Indo-China surveys have been in progress since
1881. The Bureau of the Indo-Chinese general staff, has
published a map of Indo-China, including Cambodia, in 45
sheets (1:200,000, 1895), while to the service geographique de
PIndo-Chine, organized in 1899, we owe a Carle de I'Indo-Chine
(1:500,000).
For China we are still largely dependent upon careful compila-
tions like Baron F. von Richthofen's Atlas von China (i :75O,ooo,
6 5 2
MAP
[TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS
Berlin, 1885-1890) or Bretschneider's Map of China (i =4,600,000)
a new edition of which appeared at St Petersburg in 1900.
There are good survey maps of the British colony of Hong-Kong,
of Wei-hai-Wei and of the country around Kiao-chou, and the
establishment of topographical offices at Peking and Ngan-king
holds out some promise of native surveys. In the meantime
large scale maps prepared by European authorities are to be
welcomed, such as maps of Chih-li and Shan-tung (1:200,000),
from surveys by Prussian officers, 1901-1905, maps on East
China (1:1,000,000) and of Yun-nan by British, German
and Indian officers, of the Indo-Chinese frontier (1:200,000,
Paris 1908), and of the upper Yangtsze-kiang by S. Chevalier
(Shanghai, 1900).
Japan has a regular survey department originated by
Europeans and successfully carried on by natives. The primary
triangulation was completed in 1880, a topographical map
coloured geologically (1:200,000) was published 1880-1897, and
in addition to this there are being published an agronomical
map on a scale of 1:100,000 (since 1887) and others. The
Japanese government has likewise published a map of Korea
(1:1,000,000; 1898).
The Philippine Islands are represented in a carefully compiled
map by C. W. Hodgson (1:1,115,000, New York, 1908). Of
Java we possess an excellent topographical map based upon
surveys made 1850-1887 (1:100,000). A similar map Has been
in progress for Sumatra since 1883, while the maps for the
remaining Dutch Indies are still based, almost exclusively, upon
flying surveys. For general purposes the A tlas der Ned erland sche
Bezittingen in Oost-Indie by J. N. Stemfoort and J. J. Ten
Siethoff, of which a new edition has been published since 1900,
may be consulted with confidence.
In Africa nearly all the international boundaries have been
carefully surveyed and marked on the ground, since 1880, and
Africa. yield a good basis as a guide for the map compiler.
A general map of Africa, by Colonel Lannoy de
Bissy, on a scale of i : 2,000,000 was first published in 1882-
1888, but is carefully revised from time to time. The geo-
graphical section of the British general staff is publishing maps
of all Africa on scales of i : 250,000 and i : 1,000,000. In
Egypt excellent work has been done by a survey department
organized and directed by Captain H. G. Lyons up to 1909.
It has published a topographical map of the Nile valley
(1:50,000), an irrigation map (1:100,000), a general map
(1:250,000), numerous cadastral plans, &c. Work on similar
lines is carried on in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Algeria has
been in course of survey since 1868, Tunis since 1878, and the
results have been published on scales of i =50,000 and 1:250,000.
Of Morocco there are many maps, among which several compiled
by the French service geographique de 1'armee, including a
Carle du Maroc (1:200,000), in progress since 1909. In the
British colonies of tropical and of South Africa 1 surveys for
the most part are carried on actively. Of the Gambia Colony
there is a map by Major E. L. Cowie (1:250,000, 1904-1905);
the survey of the Gold Coast Colony is being published by
Major F. G. Guggisberg since 1907 (1:125,000 and 1:200,000);
southern and northern Nigeria are adequately represented
on the maps of the general staff (1:250,000). The states of
British South Africa have each their surveyor-general, and a
reconnaissance survey has been in progress since 1903. It is
based upon a careful triangulation, superintended by Sir D.
Gill, and carried in 1907 within 70 m. of Lake Tanganyika.
This survey is rapidly superseding other maps, such as the
surveyor-general's map of Cape Colony (i 1127,000) ; A. Duncan's
map of the Orange River State (1:148,705; 1902-1904) and
Jeppe's map of the Transvaal (1:476,000; 1899). The results
of a survey of southern Rhodesia are given on the map of the
British general staff (1:500,000; 1909), while of north-eastern
Rhodesia we have an excellent map compiled by C. L. Beringer
in 1907 (1:1,000,000). Surveys in British Central Africa were
taken up in 1894; a survey of Lake Nyasa, by Lieut. E. L.
1 See " The Survey in British Africa " : the Annual Report of the
Colonial Survey Commission.
Rhoades and W. B. Phillips, was published in 1902. As regards
British East Africa and Uganda, the surveys in the latter (on
scales of 1:10,000 and 1:125,000) have made considerable
progress. The Victoria Nyanza was surveyed by Captain B.
Whitehouse (1898-1900), and the results have been published
on a scale of 1:292,000. These British possessions, together
with the whole of Somaliland and southern Abyssinia, are
satisfactorily represented on the maps of the British general
staff.
Maps of the French Africa Colonies have been published by
the service geographique de 1'Afrique occidental and the
service geographique des colonies. A map of Senegal
(1:100,000) is in progress since 1905. The official maps of
the other colonies have been compiled by A. Meunier between
1902 and 1909. They include French West Africa, (i :2,ooo,ooo;
2nd ed., 1908), French Guinea (1:500,000; 1902) and the Ivory
Coast and Dahomey (1:1,500,000; 1907-1908). A map of the
French Congo by J. Hansen (1:1,500,000), was published in
1907. In Madagascar a topographical bureau was established
by General J. S. Gallieni in 1896, and the surveys are being
published since 1000 on a scale of i :ioo,ooo.
As regards the German colonies we are dependent upon
compilations by R. Kiepert, P. Sprigade and M. Moisel. Good
maps of the Portuguese colonies are to be found in an Atlas
colonial Portugues, a second edition of which was published by
the Commissao de Cartographia in 1909. Of the Congo State
we have an official map on a scale of 1:1,000,000, published
in 1907. Of Italian Eritrea we have excellent maps on various
scales of 1:100,000, 1:200,000 and 1:500,000, based upon
surveys made between 1888 and 1900.
In the states of Australia cadastral surveys conducted by
surveyors-general have been in progress for many years, as also
trigonometrical surveys (Western Australia excepted),
and the publication of parish and township or county
maps keeps pace with the settlement of the country; but with
the exception of Victoria none of these states is in possession
of a topographical map equal in accuracy to similar maps
published in Europe. In Victoria the so-called geodetic survey
was begun in 1858; the maps are published on a scale of
1:126,730. There exists also a general map, on a scale of
1:506,930. Maps on the same scale are available of New
South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania, on a scale of
1:560,000 for Western Australia, on a scale of 1:253,460 for
Queensland. There are likewise maps on smaller scales, which
undergo frequent revision. The map of British New Guinea
is on a scale of 1:330,200 (1898). New Zealand has a good
general map on a scale of 1:633,700. A trigonometrical
survey was given up and only details of immediate practical
use are required. The " Lands Department " of the Fiji Islands
has published a map on a scale of i :38o,ooo (1908).
The cadastral surveys in Canada are carried on by a com-
mission of Crown-lands in the old provinces and by a Dominion
land office, which lays out townships as in the United
States, but with greater accuracy. A surveyor-
general is attached to the department of the interior,
at Ottawa. He publishes the topographical maps (1:63,366)
since 1906. They are based upon theodolite traverses 15 m.
apart, and connected with the United States lake and coast
surveys, the details being filled in by plane-table surveys on a
scale of 1:31,680. The contours, 25 ft. apart, depend upon
spirit-levelling. In the Rocky Mountains surveys photographic
apparatus is successfully employed. The surveyor-general
issues also "sectional maps" (1:190,000 and 1:40,000) and
so-called " Standard " topographical maps for the thinly peopled
west, on scales of 1:250,000 and 1:500,000. He is responsible
likewise for maps of Yukon and of Labrador, supplied by the
geological survey, the former on a scale of 1:380,200, the
latter of 1:1,584,000. The 'intelligence branch of the Canadian
department of military defence is publishing since 1904 topo-
graphical maps on scales of 1:63,366 and 1:126,730, with
contours. A geodetic survey department, under Dr. W. F. King,
chief astronomer of the Dominion, was established in 1909.
MAP PROJECTIONS]
MAP
653
Maps of Newfoundland, orographical as well as geological,
scale i: 1,584,200, have been published.
In the United States a " geological survey " was organized
in 1879, under Clarence King as director, whose successor,
Major J. W. Powell, rightly conceived that it was necessary to
produce good topographical maps before a geological survey
could be pursued with advantage. It is under his wise guidance
that the survey has attained its present efficiency. It is based
upon a triangulation by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The maps of the more densely peopled parts of the Union are
published on a scale of i : 62,500, and those of the remainder
of the country on half or a quarter of that scale. The hills
are shown by contours at intervals of 10 or 100 ft. The details
given are considered sufficient to admit of the selection of
general routes for railways or other public works. The survey
progresses at the rate of about 40,000 sq. m. annually, and in
course of time it will supersede the map of the separate states,
based on older surveys. A " reconnaissance " map of Alaska
(on a scale of i : 250,000) was published in 1908.
In Mexico the surveys are in charge of a comision geografica-
exploradora attached to the secretaria de Fomento, but only
tr about 140 sheets of a Carla general on a scale of
America. 1 ' 100,000 have been published. There are also a
map of the state of S. Luis Potosi (i : 250,000), of
the environs of Puebla (i : 50,000) and a Carlo, general de la
republica mexicana (i : 250,000).
A useful map of Central America has been published by the
topographical section of the British general staff on a scale
of i : 170,300. Of great value for cartographical work is a
careful survey, carried out by American engineers (1897-1898),
for a continental railway running along the west coast from
Mexico to Chile. In South America, in proportion to the area
of the country, only few surveys of a thoroughly scientific nature
have been made, and it is therefore satisfactory that the service
geographique of the French army should be publishing, since
1900, a map of the entire continent on a scale of i : 1,000,000.
Colombia is but inadequately represented by rough maps.
For Colombia we have F. L. Vergara y Velasco's Atlas de
geografia colombiana (1906-1908); Ecuador is fairly well repre-
sented by Th. Wolf (1892) and Hans Meier (1907); in the case
of Peru we still largely depend upon Paz Soldan's Atlas geografica
(1865-1867) and A. Raimondi's Mapa del Peru (i : 500,000)
based upon surveys made before 1869. Sir Martin Con way's
"Map of the Andes of La Paz" (i : 600,000; 1900) as well
as Major P. H. Fawcett's survey of the Brazilian boundary
(1906-1907) are welcome additions to our knowledge of Bolivia.
In Chile a comision topografico was appointed as long
ago as 1848, but the map produced under its auspices by
Professor F. Pissis (i : 250,000, 1870-1877), leaves much to be
desired. Since that time, however, valuable maps have been
published by an Oficina de mensura de tierras, by a section de
geografia y minas connected with the department of public
works, by the Oficina hidrografica, and more especially in con-
nexion with surveys necessitated by the boundary disputes with
Argentina, which were settled by arbitration in 1899 and 1902.
The surveys which led to the latter were conducted by Sir
Thomas Holdich.
In Venezuela a commission for producing a piano mililar or
military map of the country was appointed by General Castro
in 1904, but little progress seems to have been made, and mean-
time we are dependent upon a revised edition of A. Codazzi's map
of 1840 which was published in 1884. In Brazil little or nothing
is done by the central government, but the progressive states
of Sao Paulo and Mines Geraes have commissaos geographicos
e geologicos engaged in the production of topographical maps.
Valuable materials have likewise been acquired by several river
surveys including those of the Amazonas by Azevedo and Pinto
(1862-1864) and W. Chandless (1862-1869) and of the Rio
Madeira by Colonel G. Earl Church and Keller-Leuzinger
(1869-1875). The proposal of a committee presided over by
the Marshal H. de Beaurepaire-Rohan (1876) to prepare a map
of Brazil on a scale of i : 200,000 has never been acted upon,
and in the meantime we are dependent upon works like the
Atlas do imperio do Brazil by Mendes de Almeida (1868) or
the maps in our general atlases.
In Argentina an official geographical institute was established
in 1879, but neither A. Seelstrang's Atlas (1886-1892) nor
H. Hoskold's Mapa topografica (i : 2,000,000; London, 1895),
which were published by it, nor any of the numerous provincial
maps are based upon scientific surveys.
It need hardly be said that hydrographic surveys have been of
[*reat service to compilers of maps. There are few coast-lines,
frequented by shipping, which have not yet been surveyed in a
definite manner. In this work the British hydrographic office
may justly claim the credit of having contributed the chief share.
Great Britain has likewise taken the lead in those deep-sea explora-
tions which reveal to us the configuration of the sea-bottom, and
enable us to construct charts of the ocean bed corresponding to the
contoured maps of dry land yielded by topographical surveys.
(E. G. R.)
MAP PROJECTIONS
In the construction of maps, one has to consider how a portion
of spherical surface, or a configuration traced on a sphere, can
be represented on a plane. If the area to be represented bear
a very small ratio to the whole surface of the sphere, the matter
is easy: thus, for instance, there is no difficulty in making a
map of a parish, for in such cases the curvature of the surface
does not make itself evident. If the district is larger and reaches
the size of a county, as Yorkshire for instance, then the curvature
begins to be sensible, and one requires to consider how it is to
be dealt with. The sphere cannot be opened out into a plane
like the cone or cylinder; consequently in a plane representation
of configurations on a sphere it is impossible to retain the desired
proportions of lines or areas or equality of angles. But though
one cannot fulfil all the requirements of the case, we may fulfil
some by sacrificing others; we may, for instance, have in the
representation exact similarity to all very small portions of the
original, but at the expense of the areas, which will be quite
misrepresented. Or we may retain equality of areas if we give
up the idea of similarity. It is therefore usual, excepting in
special cases, to steer a middle course, and, by making com-
promises, endeavour to obtain a representation which shall not
involve large errors of scale.
A globe gives a perfect representation of the surface of the
earth; but, practically, the necessary limits to its size make it
impossible to represent in this manner the details of countries.
A globe of the ordinary dimensions serves scarcely any other
purpose than to convey a clear conception of the earth's surface
as a whole, exhibiting the figure, extent, position and general
features of the continents and islands, with the intervening
oceans and seas; and for this purpose it is indeed absolutely
essential and cannot be replaced by any kind of map.
The construction of a map virtually resolves itself into the
drawing of two sets of lines, one set to represent meridians, the
other to represent parallels. These being drawn, the filling in
of the outlines of countries presents no difficulty. The first and
most natural idea that occurs to one as to the manner of drawing
the circles of latitude and longitude is to draw them according
to the laws of perspective. Perhaps the next idea which would
occur would be to derive the meridians and parallels in some
other simple geometrical way.
Cylindrical Equal Area Projection. Let us suppose a model
of the earth to be enveloped by a cylinder in such a way that the
cylinder touches the equator, and let the plane of each parallel
such as PR be prolonged to intersect the
cylinder in the circle pr. Now unroll
the cylinder and the projection will
appear as in fig. 2. The whole world is
now represented as a rectangle, each
parallel is a straight line, and its total
length is the same as that of the
equator, the distance of each parallel
from the equator is sin / (where / is the
latitude and the radius of the model
earth is taken as unity). The meridians are parallel straight
lines spaced at equal distances.
654
MAP
[MAP PROJECTIO
This projection possesses an important property. From the
elementary geometry of sphere and cylinder it is clear that each
r
r'
Q'
Q
s
FIG. 2.
strip of the projection is equal in area to the zone on the model
which it represents, and that each portion of a strip is equal in
area to the corresponding portion of a zone. Thus, each
small four-sided figure (on the model) bounded by meridians
and parallels
a
is represented on the projection by a
rectangle [ J which is of exactly the same area, and this
applies to any such figure however small. It therefore follows
that any figure, of any shape on the model, is correctly
represented as regards area by its corresponding figure on
the projection. Projections having this property are said to
be equal-area projections or equivalent projections; the
name of the projection just described is " the cylindrical
equal-area projection." This projection will serve to ex-
emplify the remark made in the first paragraph that it is
possible to select certain qualities of the model which shall
be represented truthfully, but only at the expense of other
qualities. For instance, it is clear that in this case all meridian
lengths are too small and all lengths along the parallels, except
the equator, are too large. Thus although the areas are pre-
served the shapes are, especially away from the equator, much
distorted.
The property of preserving areas is, however, a valuable one
when the purpose of the map is to exhibit areas. If, for example,
it is desired to give an idea of the area and distribution of the
various states comprising the British Empire, this is a fairly
good projection. Mercator's, which is commonly used in atlases,
preserves local shape at the expense of area, and is valueless for
the purpose of showing areas.
Many other projections can be and have been devised, which
depend for their construction on a purely geometrical relation-
ship between the imaginary model and the plane. Thus pro-
jections may be drawn which are derived from cones which touch
or cut the sphere, the parallels being formed by the intersection
with the cones of planes parallel to the equator, or by lines drawn
radially from the centre. It is convenient to describe all pro-
jections which are derived from the model by a simple and direct
geometrical construction as " geometrical projections." All
other projections may be known as " non-geometrical projec-
tions." Geometrical projections, which include perspective
projections, are generally speaking of small practical value.
They have loomed much more largely on the map-maker's
horizon than their importance warrants. It is not going too far
to say that the expression " map projection " conveys to most
well-informed persons the notion of a geometrical projection;
and yet by far the greater number of useful projections are non-
geometrical. The notion referred to is no doubt due to the very
term " projection," which unfortunately appears to indicate an
arrangement of the terrestrial parallels and meridians which
can be arrived at by direct geometrical construction. Especially
has harm been caused by this idea when dealing with the group
of conical projections. The most useful conical projections have
nothing to do with the secant cones, but are simply projections
in which the meridians are straight lines which converge to a
point which is the centre of the circular parallels. The number
of really useful geometrical projections may be said to be four:
the equal-area cylindrical just described, and the following per-
spective projections the central, the stereographic and Clarke's
external.
Perspective Projections.
In perspective drawings of the sphere, the plane on which the
representation is actually made may generally be any plane
perpendicular to the line joining the centre of the sphere and the
point of vision. If V be the point of vision, P any point on the
spherical surface, then p, the point in which the straight line VP
intersects the plane of the representation, is the projection
of P.
Orthographic Projection. In this projection the point of vision
is at an infinite distance and the rays consequently parallel; in
this case the plane of the drawing, may be supposed to pass
through the centre of the sphere. Let the
circle (fig. 3) represent the plane of the
equator on which we propose to make an
orthographic representation of meridians
and parallels. The centre of this circle
is clearly the projection of the pole, and
the parallels are projected into circles
having the pole for a common centre.
The diameters aa' ', bb' being at right
angles, let the semicircle bab' be divided
into the required number of equal parts;
FIG. 3.
the diameters drawn through these points are the projections of
meridians. The distances of c, of d and of e from the diameter
aa' are the radii of the successive circles representing the parallels.
It is clear that, when the points of division are very close, the
parallels will be very much crowded towards the outside of the
map; so much so, that this projection is not much used.
For an orthographic projection of the globe on a meridian plane
let qnrs (fig. 4) be the meridian, ns the axis of rotation, then qr i&
the projection of the equator. The parallels will be represented
by straight lines passing through the points of equal division ; these
lines are, like the equator, perpendicular to ns. The meridians will
in this case be ellipses described on ns as a common major axis, the
distances of c, of d and of e from ns being the minor scmiaxes.
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
Let us next construct an orthographic projection of the sphere
on the horizon of any place.
Set off the angle aop (fig. 5) from the radius oa, equal to the latitude.
Drop the perpendicular pV on oa, then P is the projection of the pole.
On ao produced take ob = pP, then ob is the minor semiaxis of the
ellipse representing the equator, its major axis being qr at right angles
to ao. The points in which the meridians meet this elliptic equator
are determined by lines drawn parallel to aob through the points of
equal subdivision cdefgh. Take two points, as d and g, which are
0,0 apart, and let ik be their projections on the equator; then
is the pole of the meridian which passes through k. This meridian
is of course an ellipse, and is described with reference to i exactly
as the equator was described with reference to P. Produce to to /,
and make lo equal to half the shortest chord that can be drawn
through i; then lo is the
semi-axis of the elliptic
meridian, and the major
axis is the diameter per-
pendicular to iol.
For the parallels: let
it be required to describe
the parallel whose co-
latitude is u; take pm =
pn = u, and let m'n' be
the projections of m and
n on oPo; then m'n' is the
minor axis of the ellipse
representing the parallel.
Its centre is of course mid-
way between m' and n', and
the greater axis is equal to
mn. Thus the construction
is obvious. When pm is
less than pa, the whole of FlG - 6. Orthographic Projection.
MAP PROJECTIONS]
MAP
655
the ellipse is to be drawn. When pm is greater than pa the
ellipse touches the circle in two points; these points divide the
ellipse into two parts, one of which, being on the other side of
the meridian plane agr, is invisible. Fig. 6 shows the complete
orthographic projection.
Stereographic Projection. In this case the point of vision is
on the surface, and the projection is
made on the plane of the great circle
whose pole is V. Let kplV (fig. 7) be a
great circle through the point of vision,
and ors the trace of the plane of projec-
tion. Let c be the centre of a small
circle whose radius is cp = d; the straight
line pi represents this small circle in
orthographic projection.
We have first to show that the stereographic projection of the small
circle pi is itself a circle; that is to say, a straight line through V,
moving along the circumference of pi, traces a circle on the plane
of projection ors. This line generates an oblique cone standing on a
circular base, its axis being cV (since the angle pVc = angle cVl) ; this
cone is divided symmetrically by the plane of the great circle kpl, and
also by the plane which passes through the axis Vc, perpendicular to
the plane kpl. Now Vr-Vp, being =Vo sec kVp-Vk cos kVf = Vo-Vk,
is equal to Vs-Vl ; therefore the triangles Vrs, Vlp are similar, and it
follows that the section of the cone by the plane rs is similar to the
section by the plane pi. But the latter is a circle, hence also the
projection is a circle; and since the representation of every infinitely
small circle on the surface is itself a circle, it follows that in this
projection the representation of small parts is strictly similar.
Another inference is that the angle in which two lines on the sphere
intersect is represented by the same angle in the projection. This
may otherwise be proved by means of fig. 8, where Vok is the diameter
of the sphere passing through the
point of vision, }gh the plane of
projection, kt a great circle, passing
of course through V, and own the
line of intersection of these two
planes. A tangent plane to the
surface at t cuts the plane of pro-
jection in the line ms perpendicular
to ov ; to is a tangent to the circle kt
at t, tr and ts are any two tangents
to the surface at t. Now the angle
vtu (u being the projection of t) is
90 otV = 90 o\t = ouV = tuv,
therefore to is equal to t>; and
since tvs and vas are right angles,
it follows that the angles vts and vus are equal. Hence the angle rls
also is equal to its projection rus\ that is, any angle formed by two
intersecting lines on the surface is truly represented in the stereo-
graphic projection.
In this projection, therefore, angles are correctly represented
and every small triangle is represented by a similar triangle.
Projections having this property of similar representation of
small parts are called orthomorphic, conform or conformable.
The word orthomorphic, which was introduced by Germain 1 and
adopted by Craig, 2 is perhaps the best to use.
Since in orthomorphic projections very small figures are cor-
rectly represented, it follows that the scale is the same in all
directions round a point in its immediate neighbourhood, and
orthomorphic projections may be defined as possessing this
property. There are many other orthomorphic projections,
of which the best known is Mercator's. These are described
below.
We have seen that the stereographic projection of any circle
of the sphere is itself a circle. But in the case in which the circle
to be projected passes through V, the projection becomes, for a
great circle, a line through the centre of the sphere; otherwise,
a line anywhere. It follows that meridians and parallels are
represented in a projection on the horizon of any place by two
systems of orthogonally cutting circles, one system passing
through two fixed points, namely, the poles; and the projected
meridians as they pass through the poles show the proper differ-
ences of longitude.
To construct a stereographic projection of the sphere on the horizon
of a given place. Draw the circle vlkr (fig. 9) with the diameters
*A. Germain, Traite des Projections (Paris, 1865).
* T. Craig, A Treatise on Projections (U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Washington, 1882).
FlG.8.
kv, Ir at right angles; the latter is to represent the central
meridian. Take koP equal to the
co-latitude of the given place, say
; draw" the diameter PoPs and P,
P' cutting Ir in pp' : these are the
projections of the poles, through which
all the circles representing meridians
have to pass. All their centres then
will be in a line smn which crosses pp'
at right angles through its middle
point m. Now to describe the meridian
whose west longitude is u, draw pn
making the angle opn=go a, then
n is the centre of the required circle,
whose direction as it passes through p
will make an angle opg = a with pp.
The lengths of the several lines are
tt; op' =cotj; om = cotu; w=cosec cot a.
Again, for the parallels, take Pb = Pc equal to the co-latitude, say c,
of the parallel to be projected ; join vb, vc cutting Ir in e, d. Then ed
is the diameter of the circle which is the required projection; its
centre is of course the middle point of ed, and the lengths of the lines
tt c); oe = tanj(tt-|-c).
The line sn itself is the projection of a parallel, namely, that of which
the co-latitude c = l8o , a parallel which passes through the
point of vision.
Notwithstanding the facility of construction, the stereo-
graphic projection is not much used in map-making. It is
sometimes used for maps of the hemi-
spheres in atlases, and for star charts.
External Perspective Projection. We
now come to the general case in which
the point of vision has any position
outside the sphere. Let abed (fig. 10)
be the great circle section of the sphere
by a plane passing through c, the
central point of the portion of surface
to be represented, and V the point of
vision. Let pj perpendicular to Vc
be the plane of representation, join
mV cutting pj in/, then /is the projection of any point m in the
circle abc, and ef is the representation of cm.
Let the angle com = u, Ve = k, Vo = h, ef=p; then, since ef: eV =
rag: gV, we have p = k sin M/(A+cos), which gives the law connect-
ing a spherical distance u with its rectilinear representation p. The
relative scale at any point in this system of projection is given by
<rdp/du, ff'=p/sin ,
<r = k(l+h cos )/(A+cos ); a' = k/(h+cos u),
the former applying to measurements made in a direction which
passes through the centre of the map, the latter to the transverse
direction. The product an' gives the exaggeration of areas. With
respect to'the alteration of angles we haveS = (h+ cos u)/(i +tcos),
and the greatest alteration of angle is
fc-i
10.
= i, that is if the projection be stereographic;
the centre of the map. At a distance of 00
This vanishes when h =
or for u = o, that is at the i
from the centre, the greatest alteration is 90 2 cot- 1 Vfc- (See
Phil. Mag. 1862.)
Clarke's Projection. The constants h and k can be determined,
so that the total misrepresentation, viz. :
M=j"/|(a-i) 1 +(<r'-i) 1 ) sin udu,
shall be a minimum, ft being the greatest value of , or the spherical
radius of the map. On substituting the expressions, for a and a'
the integration is effected without difficulty. Put
H =(*+!) log.(X+i), H' =X(2-r+J,->)/(A-|-l).
Then the value of M is
M =4 sin' \ 0+2JfeH+*H'.
When this is a minimum,
dM/dh=o; dU/dk=o
..*H'+H=o; 2dH/dh+kdhH'/dh=o.
Therefore M =4 sin 1 J/S H*/H l , and h must be determined so as to
make H*:H' a maximum. In any particular case this maximum
can only be ascertained by trial, that is to say, log H 1 log H' must
be calculated for certain equidistant values of h, and then the
6 5 6
MAP
[MAP PROJECTIONS
particular value of ft which corresponds to the required maximum
can be obtained by interpolation. Thus we find that if it be required
to make the best possible perspective representation of a hemi-
sphere, the values of ft and k are ft = 1-47 and * = 2-034; so that in
this case
_2-O34 sin u
p ~i-47 +cos u
For a map of Africa or South America, the limiting radius /3 we
may take as 40; then in this case
_2-543 sin u
1-625 + cos u
For Asia, /3 = 54, and the distance ft of the point of sight in this case
is 1-61. Fig. ii is a map of Asia having the meridians and parallels
laid down on this system.
FIG. ii.
Fig. 12 is a perspective representation of more than a hemi-
sphere, the radius ft being 108 , and the distance ft of the point of
vision, 1-40.
The co-ordinates xy of any point in this perspective may be ex-
pressed in terms of latitude and longitude of the corresponding
FIG. 12. Twilight Projection. Clarke's Perspective Projection
for a Spherical Radius of 108.
point on the sphere in the following manner. The co-ordinates
originating at the centre take the central meridian for the axis of
y and a line perpendicular to it for the axis of x. Let the latitude
of the point G, which is to occupy the centre of the'map, be y ; if </>, <a
be the latitude and longitude of any point P (the longitude being
reckoned from the meridian of G), u the distance PG, and /i the
azimuth of P at G, then the spherical triangle whose sides are
90 7, 90 <t>, and u gives these relations
sin u sin /i = cos <f> sin <>,
sin u cos ft = cos 7 sin <t> sin y cos <t> cos ,
cos u = sin 7 sin #+cos 7 cos <j> cos u.
Now x = p sin it, y = p cos n, that is,
DNS
cos <t> sin &)
ft ( + sin 7 sin <f> + cos 7 cos <f cos u'
cos 7 sin <t> sin 7 cos <j> cos o>
ft + sin 7 sin <f> + cos 7 cos <f> cos u'
by which x and y can be computed for any point of the sphere.
If from these equations we eliminate o>, we get the equation to the
parallel whose latitude is <t>; it is an ellipse whose centre is in the
central meridian, and its greater axis perpendicular to the same.
The radius of curvature of this ellipse at its intersection with the
centre meridian is k cos <j>/(h sin 7+sin <).
The elimination of <t> between x and y gives the equation of the
meridian whose longitude is u, which also is an ellipse whose centre
and axes may be determined.
The following table contains the computed co-ordinates for a map
of Africa, which is included between latitudes 40 north and 40
south and 40 of longitude east and west of a central meridian.
<t>
Values of x and y.
a =
0)=IO
u=20
10 = 30
10 = 40
x= o-oo
y= o-oo
9-69
o-oo
19-43
O-OO
29-25
o-oo
39-17
0-00
10
x= o-oo
y= 9-69
9-60
975
19-24
9-92
28-95
IO-2I
38-76
10-63
20
x= o-oo
y = 19-43
9-32
19-54
18-67
19-87
28-07
20-43
37-53
21-25
30
x= o-oo
y =29-25
8-84
29-40
17-70
29-87
26-56
30-67
35-44
3I-83
40
x = o-oo
y=39-i7
8-15
39-36
16-28
39-94
24-39
40-93
32-44
42-34
Central or Gnomonic (Perspective) Projection. In this projec-
tion the eye is imagined to be at the centre of the sphere. It is
evident that, since the planes of all great circles of the sphere
pass through the centre, the representations of all great circles
on this projection will be straight lines, and this is the special
property of the central projection, that any great circle (i.e.
shortest line on the spherical surface) is represented by a straight
line. The plane of projection may be either parallel to the plane
of the equator, in which case the parallels are represented by
concentric circles and the meri-
dians by straight lines radiating
from the common centre; or
the plane of projection may be
parallel to the plane of some ,
meridian, in which case the
meridians are parallel straight
lines and the parallels are
FIG. 13.
hyperbolas; or the plane of
projection may be inclined to
the axis of the sphere at any angle X.
In'the latter case, which is the most general, if 6 is the angle any
meridian makes (on paper) with the central meridian, a the longitude
of any point P with reference to the central meridian, / the latitude
of P, then it is clear that the central meridian is a straight line at
right angles to the equator, which is also a straight line, also
tan = sin Xtan o, and the distance of p, the projection of P, from
the equator along its meridian is (on paper) m sec a sin / / sin (/+*),
where tan * = cot X cos o, and m is a constant which defines the scale.
The three varieties of the central projection are, as is the case
with other perspective projections, known as polar, meridian
or horizontal, according to the inclination of the plane of pro-
jection.
Fig. 14 is an example of a meridian central projection of part
of the Atlantic Ocean. The term " gnomonic " was applied
MAP PROJECTIONS]
MAP
657
to this projection because the projection of the meridians is a
similar problem to that of the graduation of a sun-dial. It is,
however, better to use the
term " central, " which
explains itself. The cen-
tral projection is useful
for the study of direct
routes by sea and land.
The United States Hydro-
graphic Department has
published some charts on
this projection. False
notions of the direction
of shortest lines, which
are engendered by a study
of maps on Mercator's
projection, may be cor-
rected by an inspection
of maps drawn on the
central projection.
There is no projection
which accurately possesses
the property of showing
shortest paths by straight
lines when applied to the
spheroid; one which very
(From Text Book of Topographical Surveying,
by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery
Office.)
FIG. 14. Part of the Atlantic
Ocean on a Meridian Central Pro-
jection. The shortest path between
any two points is shown on this
projection by a straight_line.
nearly does so is that which results from the intersection of
terrestrial normals with a plane.
We have briefly reviewed the most important projections
which are derived from the sphere by direct geometrical construc-
tion, and we pass to that more important branch of the subject
which deals with projections which are not subject to this
limitation.
Conical Projections.
Conical projections are those in which the parallels are repre-
sented by concentric circles and the meridians by equally spaced
radii. There is no necessary connexion between a conical pro-
jection and any touching or secant cone. Projections for instance
which are derived by geometrical construction from secant cones
are very poor projections, exhibiting large errors, and they will
not be discussed. The name conical is given to the group
embraced by the above definition, because, as is obvious, a
projection so drawn can be bent round to form a cone. The
simplest and, at the same time, one of the most useful forms of
conical projection is the following:
Conical Projection with Rectified Meridians and Two Standard
Parallels. In some books this has been, most unfortunately,
termed the " secant conical," on account of the fact that there
are two parallels of the correct length.
The use of this term in the past has
caused much confusion. Two selected
parallels are represented by concentric cir-
cular arcs of their true lengths; the
meridians are their radii. The degrees
along the meridians are represented by
their true lengths; and the other parallels
are circular arcs through points so deter-
mined and are concentric with the chosen
parallels.
n'co.mt.T
FIG. 15.
Thus in fig. 15 two parallels Gn and G'n' are represented by their
true lengths on the sphere; all the distances along the meridian
PGG , pnn' are the true spherical lengths rectified.
Let i be the co-latitude of Gn ; y' that of Gn' ; w be the true differ-
ence of longitude of PGG' and pnn'; hu be the angle at O; and OP
==2, where Pp is the representation of the pole. Then the true length
of parallel Gn on the sphere is sin y, and this is equal to the length
on the projection, i.e. u> sin y = hu(z+y) similarly u sin y' = hu(z+y').
The radius of the sphere is assumed to be unity, and z and y are
expressed in circular measure. Hence h = sin y/(z+y) =
sm y'(z+y') ; from this h and z are easily found.
In the above description it has been assumed that the two
errorless parallels have been selected. But it is usually desirable
to impose some condition which itself will fix the errorless
parallels. There are many conditions, any one of which may
be imposed. In fig. 15 let Cm and C'm' represent the extreme
parallels of the map, and let the co-latitudes of these parallels
be c and c', then any one of the following conditions may be
fulfilled:
(a) The errors of scale of the extreme parallels may be made
equal and may be equated to the error of scale of the parallel
of maximum error (which is near the mean parallel).
(6) Or the errors of scale of the extreme parallels may be
equated to that of the mean parallel. This is not so good a
projection as (o).
(c) Or the absolute errors of the extreme and mean parallels
may be equated.
(d) Or in the last the parallel of maximum error may be
considered instead of the mean parallel.
(e) Or the mean length of all the parallels may be made correct.
This is equivalent to making the total area between the extreme
parallels correct, and must be combined with another condition,
for example, that the errors of scale on the extreme parallels
shall be equal.
We wijl now discuss (a) above, viz. a conical projection with recti-
fied meridians and two standard parallels, the scale errors of the
extreme parallels and parallel of maximum error being equated.
Since the scale errors of the extreme parallels are to be equal.
h(z+c)
- i , whence z =
c' sin cc sin c'
sine' sine
(i.)
The error of scale along any parallel (near the centre), of which the
co-latitude is 6 is
l-{h(z+b)/sinb\. (ii.)
This is a maximum when
tan b b = z, whence b is found.
Also
h(z+b) h(z+c)
sin c
i , whence h is found.
(iii.)
For the errorless parallels of co-latitudes y and y' we have
h = (z+y)/sm y = (z+y')/sin y'.
If this is applied to the case of a map of South Africa between the
limits 15 S. and 35 S. (see fig. 16) it will be found that the parallel
of maximum error is 25 20'; the errorless parallels, to the nearest
degree, are those of 18 and 32. The greatest scale error in this
case is about 0-7%.
In the above account the earth has been treated as a sphere.
Of course its real shape is approximately a spheroid of 'revolution,
and the values of the axes most commonly employed are those of
Clarke or of Bessel. For the spheroid, formulae arrived at by the
same principles but more cumbrous in shape must be used. But it
will usually be sufficient for the selection of the errorless parallels
to use the simple spherical formulae given above; then, having made
the selection of these parallels, the true spheroidal lengths along the
meridians between them can be taken out of the ordinary tables
(such as those published by the Ordnance Survey or by the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey). Thus, if ai, o, are the lengths of l
of the errorless parallels (taken from the tables), d the true rectified
length of the meridian arc between them (taken from the tables),
and the radius on paper of parallel, Oi is a^d/fadi), and the radius
of any other parallel = radius of Oi the true meridian distance
between the parallels.
This class of projection was used for the 1/1,000,000 Ordnance
map of the British Isles. The three maximum scale errors in this
case work out to 0-23%, tho range of the projection being from
50" N. to6iN.,and the errorless parallels are 59 31' and 51*44'.
Where no great refinement is required it will be sufficient to take
the errorless parallels as those distant from the extreme parallels
about one-sixth of the total range in latitude. Thus suppose it is
required to plot a projection for India between latitudes 8 and 40 N.
By this rough rule the errorless parallels should be distant from the
extreme parallels about 32/6, i.e. 5 20'; they should therefore,
to the nearest degree, be 13 and 35 N. The maximum scale
errors will be about 2 %.
The scale errors vary approximately as the square of the range of
latitude; a rough rule is, largest scale error = L'/So.ooo, where L is
the range in the latitude in degrees. Thus a country with a range
of 7 in latitude (nearly 500 m.) can be plotted on this projection
with a maximum linear scale error (along a parallel) of about o-i %;'
there is no error along any meridian. It is immaterial with this
1 This error is much less than that which may be expected from
contraction and expansion of the paper upon which the projection
is drawn or printed.
6 5 8
MAP
[MAP PROJECTIO
projection (or with any conical projection) what the extent in longi-
tude is. It is clear that this class of projection is accurate, simple
and useful.
(From Text Book of Topographical Sunfying, by permission of the Controller
of H. M. Stationery Office.)
FIG. 16. South Africa on a conical projection with rectified
meridians and two standard parallels. Scale 800 m. to I in.
In the projections designated by (c) and (d) above, absolute errors
ot length are considered in the place of errors of scale, i.e. between
any two meridians (c) the absolute errors of length of the extreme
parallels are equated to the absolute error of length of the middle
parallel. Using the same notation
h (s+e)-sin [c = h (z+c')-sin c'=-h (z+ Jc+|e') -sin \ (c+c').
L. Euler, in the Ada Acad. Imp. Petrop. (1778), first discussed this
projection.
If a map of Asia between parallels 10 N. and 70 N. is constructed
on this system, we have c = 2O, c' = 8o, whence from the above
equations z = 66-7 and ^ = -6138. The absolute errors of length
along parallels 10, 40 and 70 between any two meridians are equal
but the scale errors are respectively 5, 6-7, and 15%.
The modification (d) of this projection was selected for the
1:1,000,000 map of India and Adjacent Countries under publica-
tion by the Survey of India. An account of this is given in a pam-
phlet produced by that department in 1903. The limiting parallels
are 8 and 40 N., and the parallel of greatest error is 23 40' 51*.
The errors of scale are 1-8, 2-3, and 1-9%.
It is not as a rule desirable to select this form of the projection.
If the surface of the map is everywhere equally valuable it is clear
that an arrangement by which errors of scale are larger towards
the pole than towards the equator is unsound, and it is to be noted
that in the case quoted the great bulk of the land is in the north of
the map. Projection (a) would for the same region have three equal
maximum scale errors of 2 %. It may be admitted that the prac-
tical difference between the two forms is in this case insignificant,
but linear scale errors should be reduced as much as possible in
maps intended for general use.
/._ In the fifth form of the projection, the total area of the pro-
jection between the extreme parallels and any two meridians is
equated to the area of the portion of the sphere which it represents,
and the errors of scale of the extreme parallels are equated. Then
it is easy to show that
z = (c' sin cc sin cO/(sin c' sin c);
h= (cose -cos c')/(c'-c){z+$ (e+c')|.
It can also be shown that any other zone of the same range in
latitude will have the same scale errors along its limiting parallels.
For instance, a series of projections may be constructed for zones,
each having a range of 10 of latitude, from the equator to the pole.
Treating the earth as a sphere and using the above formulae, the
series will possess the following properties: the meridians will all be
true to scale, the area of each zone will be correct, the scale errors
of the limiting parallels will all be the same, so that the length of
the upper parallel of any zone will be equal to that of the lower
parallel of the zone above it. But the curvatures of these parallels
will be different, and two adjacent .zones will not fit but will be
capable of exact rolling contact. Thus a very instructive flat model
of the globe may be constructed which will show by suitably arrang-
ing the points of contact of the zones the paths of great circles on the
sphere. The flat model was devised by Professor J. D. Everett,
F.R.S., whoalso pointed out that the projection had the property of
the equality of scale errors of the limiting parallels for zones of the
same width. The projection may be termed Everett's Projection.
Simple Conical Projection. If in the last group of projections
the two selected parallels which are to be errorless approach each
other indefinitely closely, we get a projection in which all the
meridians are, as before, of the true rectified lengths, in which
one parallel is errorless, the curvature of that parallel being
clearly that which would result from the unrolling of a cone
touching the sphere along the parallel represented. And it was
IONS
in fact originally by a consideration of the tangent cone that the
whole group of conical projections came into being. The quasi-
geometrical way of regarding conical projections is legitimate in
this instance.
The simple conical projection is therefore arrived at in this way:
imagine a cone to touch the sphere along any selected parallel, the
radius of this parallel on paper (Pp, fig. 17)
will be r cot </>, where r is the radius of the
sphere and <t> is the latitude; or if the spheroidal
shape is taken into account, the radius of the
parallel on paper will be v cot <f> where v is
the normal terminated by the minor axis (the
value v can be found from ordinary geodetic
tables). The meridians are generators of the
cone and every parallel such as HH' is a circle,
concentric with the selected parallel Pp and
distant from it the true rectified length of the
meridian arc between them.
This projection has no merits as compared
with the group just described. The errors of
FIG. 17.
scale along the parallels increase rapidly as the selected parallel is
departed from, the parallels on paper being always too large. As
an example we may take the case of a map of South Africa of the
same range as that of the example given in (a) above, viz. from
15 S. to 35 S. Let the selected parallel be 25 S.; the radius of
this parallel on paper (taking the radius of the sphere as unity) is
cot 25; the radius of parallel 35 S. =radius of 25 meridian
distance between 25 and 35 = cot 25- 10^/180 = 1-970. Also
h = sin of selected latitude = sin 25, and length on paper along
parallel 35 of u) = w/jXi'97o = a>Xi'97oXsin 25,
but length on sphere of <a = w cos 35,
1-970 sin 25 _ I = I . 6%>
hence scale error
cos 35
an error which is more than twice as great as that obtained by
method (a).
Bonne's Projection. This projection, which is also called the
" modified conical projection," is derived from the simple coni-
cal, just described, in the following way: a central meridian
is chosen and drawn as a straight line; degrees of latitude
spaced at the true rectified distances are marked along this line;
the parallels are concentric circular arcs drawn through the
proper points on the central meridian, the centre of the arcs
being fixed by describing one chosen parallel with a radius of
v cot <j> as before; the meridians on each side of the central
meridian are drawn as follows: along each parallel distances are
marked equal to the true lengths along the parallels on sphere
or spheroid, and the curve through corresponding points so fixed
are the meridians (fig. 18).
This system is that which was adopted in 1803 by the " Depot
de la Guerre " for the map of France, and is there known by
the title of Projection de Bonne. It is
that on which the ordnance survey map of
Scotland on the scale of i in. to a mile is
constructed, and it is frequently met with
in ordinary atlases. It is ill-adapted for
countries having great extent in longitude,
as the intersections of the meridians and
parallels become very oblique as will be
FIG. 18.
seen on examining the map of Asia in most atlases.
If <j> be taken as the latitude of the centre parallel, and co-ordinates
be measured from the intersection of this parallel with the central
meridian, then, if p be the radius of the parallel of latitude <#>, we
have p = cot<f> +0 <#>. Also, if S be a point on this parallel whose
co-ordinates are x, y, so that VS = p, and 6 be the angle VS makes
with the central meridian, then pO = o> cos <t>; and x = p sin 8, y =
cot <t> a p cos 8.
The projection has the property of equal areas, since each
small element bounded by two infinitely close parallels is equal
in length and width to the corresponding element on the sphere
or spheroid. Also all the meridians cross the chosen parallel
(but no other) at right angles, since in the immediate neighbour-
hood of that parallel the projection is identical with the simple
conical projection. Where an equal-area projection is required
for a country having no great extent in longitude, such as
France, Scotland or Madagascar, this projection is a good one to
select.
Sinusoidal Equal-area Projection. This projection, which is
MAP PROJECTIONS]
MAP
659
sometimes known as Sanson's, and is also sometimes incorrectly
called Flamsteed's, is a particular case of Bonne's in which the
selected parallel is the equator. The equator is a straight line
at right angles to the central meridian which is also a straight
line. Along the central
meridian the latitudes are
marked off at the true
rectified distances, and
from points so found the
parallels are drawn as
straight lines parallel to
the equator, and therefore
at right angles to the
central meridian. True
rectified lengths are
marked along the parallels
and through correspond-
ing points the meridians
are drawn. If the earth
is treated as a sphere the
meridians are clearly sine
curves, and for this reason
d'Avezac has given the
FIG. 19. Sinusoidal Equal-area
Projection.
projection the name sinusoidal. But it is equally easy to plot
the spheroidal lengths. It is a very suitable projection for an
equal-area map of Africa.
Werner's Projection. This is another limiting case of Bonne's
equal-area projection in which the selected parallel is the pole.
The parallels on paper then become incomplete circular arcs of
which the pole is the centre. The central meridian is still a
straight line which is cut by the parallels at true distances.
The projection (after Johann Werner, 1468-1528), though
interesting, is practically useless.
Polyconic Projections.
These pseudo-conical projections are valuable not so much
for their intrinsic merits as for the fact that they lend themselves
to tabulation. There are two forms, the simple or equidistant
polyconic, and the rectangular polyconic.
The Simple Polyconic. If a cone touches the sphere or
spheroid along a parallel of latitude <$> and is then unrolled, the
parallel will on paper have a radius of v cot <j>, where v is the
normal terminated by the minor axis. If we imagine a series
of cones, each of which touches one of a selected series of
parallels, the apex of each cone will lie on the prolonged axis
of the spheroid; the generators of each cone lie in meridian
planes, and if each cone is unrolled and the generators in any
one plane are superposed to form a straight central meridian,
we obtain a projection in which the central meridian is a
straight line and the parallels are circular arcs each of which
has a different centre which lies on the prolongation of the
central meridian, the radius of any parallel being v cot <f>.
So far the construction is the same for both forms of polyconic.
In the simple polyconic the meridians are obtained by measuring
outwards from the central meridian along each parallel the true
lengths of the degrees of longitude. Through corresponding
points so found the meridian curves are drawn. The resulting
projection is accurate near the central meridian, but as this is
departed from the parallels increasingly separate from each
other, and the parallels and meridians (except along the equator)
intersect at angles which increasingly differ from a right angle.
The real merit of the projection is that each particular parallel
has for every map the same absolute radius, and it is thus easy
to construct tables which shall be of universal use. This is
especially valuable for the projection of single sheets on compara-
tively large scales. A sheet of a degree square on a scale of
1:250,000 projected in this manner differs inappreciably from
the same sheet projected on a better system, e.g. an orthomorphic
conical projection or the conical with rectified meridians and two
standard parallels; there is thus the advantage that the simple
polyconic when used for single sheets and large scales is a
sufficiently close approximation to the better forms of conical
projection. The simple polyconic is used by the topographical
section of the general staff, by the United States coast and
geodetic survey and by the topographical division of the U.S.
geological survey. Useful tables, based on Clarke's spheroid
of 1866, have been published by the war office and by the
U.S. coast and geodetic survey.
Rectangular Polyconic. In this the central meridian and the
parallels are drawn as in the simple polyconic, but the meridians"
are curves which cut the parallels at right
angles.
In this case, let P (fig. 20) be the north
pole, CPU the central meridian, U, U' points
in that meridian whose co-latitudes are z and
z+dz, so that UU'=dz. Make PU = z.
UC=tan 2, U'C' = tan (z+dz); and with
CC' as centres describe the arcs UQ, U'Q',
which represent the parallels of co-latitude z
and z+dz. Let PQQ' be part of a meridian
curve cutting the parallels at right angles.
Join CQ, C'Q'; these being perpendicular to
the circles will be tangents to the curve.
Let UCQ = 2o, UC'Q' = 2( a -Na), then the
small angle CQC', or the angle between the
tangents at QQ', will = 2da. Now
CC' = C'U'-CU-UU'=tan
The tangents CQ, C'Q' will intersect at q, and in the triangle CC'g
the perpendicular from C on C'g is (omitting small quantities of the
second order) equal to either side of the equation
tan *zdz sin 2a= 2 tan zda.
tan zdz = 2da/sin 2a,
which is the differential equation of the meridian : the integral is
tan a=w cos z, where ta, a constant, determines a particular meridian
curve. The distance of Q from the central mendian, tan z sin 20,
is equal to
2 tan z tan a _ 2u sin z
l+tan 2 a ~~ I + u? cos "a
At the equator this becomes simply 2u>. Let any equatorial point
whose actual longitude is 2 be represented by a point on the
developed equator at the distance 2w
from the central meridian, then we have
the following very simple construc-
tion (due to O'Farrell of the ordnance
survey). Let P (fig. 21) be the pole,
U any point in the central meridian,
QUQ the represented parallel whose
radius CU=tan z. Draw SUS' per-
pendicular to the meridian through U ;
then to determine the point O, whose
longitude is, say, 3, lay off US equal
to half the true length of the arc of
parallel on the sphere, i.e. 1 30' to
radius sin z, and with the centre S and
S' U S
FIG. 21.
radius SU describe a circular arc, which will intersect the parallel in
the required point Q. For if we suppose 2u to be the longitude of
the required point Q, US is by construction = w sin r, and the
angle subtended by SU at C is
and therefore UCQ = 2a as it should be. The advantages of this
method are that with a remarkably simple and convenient mode
of construction we have a map in which the parallels and meridians
intersect at right angles.
Fig. 22 is a representation of this
system of the continents of Europe
and Africa, for which it is well
suited. For Asia this system
would not do, as in the northern
latitudes, say along the parallel of
70, the representation is much
cramped.
With regard to the distortion in
the map of Africa as thus con-
structed, consider a small square
in latitude 40 and in 40 longi-
tude east or west of the central
meridian, the square being so placed
as to be transformed into a
rectangle. The sides, originally
unity, became 0-95 and 1-13, and
the area 1-08, the diagonals inter-
secting at oo9 56'. In Clarke's perspective projection a
FIG. 22.
66o
MAP
[MAP PROJECTIONS
square of unit side occupying the same position, when trans-
formed to a rectangle, has its sides 1-02 and 1-15, its area 1-17,
and its diagonals intersect at 90 =*= 7 6'. The latter projection
is therefore the best in point of " similarity," but the former
represents areas best. This applies, however, only to a par-
ticular part of the map; along the equator towards 30 or 40
longitude, the polyconic is certainly inferior, while along the
meridian it is better than the perspective except, of course,
near the centre. Upon the whole the more even distribution
of distortion gives the advantage to the perspective system.
For single sheets on large scales there is nothing to choose
between this projection and the simple polyconic. Both are
sensibly perfect representations. The rectangular polyconic
is occasionally used by the topographical section of the general
staff.
Zenithal Projections.
Some point on the earth is selected as the central point of the
map; great circles radiating from this point are represented
by straight lines which are inclined at their true angles at the
point of intersection. Distances along the radiating lines vary
according to any law outwards from the centre. It follows (on
the spherical assumption), that circles of which the selected point
is the centre are also circles on the projection. It is obvious that
all perspective projections are zenithal.
Equidistant Zenithal Projection. In this projection, which is
commonly called the " equidistant projection," any point on
the sphere being taken as the centre of the map, great circles
through this point are represented by straight lines of the true
rectified lengths, and intersect each other at the true angles.
In the general case
if Zi is the co-latitude of the centre of the map, z the co-latitude of
any other point, o the difference of longitude of the two points,
A the azimuth of the line joining them, and c the spherical length
of the line joining them, then the position of the intersection of
any meridian with any parallel is given (on the spherical assumption)
by the solution of a simple spherical triangle.
Thus
let tan 9 = tan z cos a, then cos c = cos z sec cos (z 6), and
sin A = sin z sin a cosec c.
The most useful case is that in which the central point is the
pole; the meridians are straight lines inclined to each other at the
true angular differences of longitude, and the parallels are equi-
distant circles with the pole as centre. This is the best projection
to use for maps exhibiting the progress of polar discovery, and is
called the polar equidistant projection. The errors are smaller
than might be supposed. There are no scale errors along the
meridians, and along the parallels the scale error is (z/ sin x) i ,
where 2 is the co-latitude of the parallel. On a parallel 10
distant from the pole the error of scale is only 0-5%.
General Theory of Zenithal Projections. For the sake of simplicity
it will be at first assumed that the pole is the centre of the map,
and that the earth is a sphere. According to what has been said
above, the meridians are now straight lines diverging from the pole,
dividing the 360 into equal angles; and the parallels are represented
by circles having the pole as centre, the radius of the parallel whose
co-latitude is z being p, a certain function of z. The particular
function selected determines the nature of the projection.
Let Ppq, Prs (fig. 23) be two contiguous meridians crossed by
parallels rp, sg, and Op q', Or's' the straight lines representing these
meridians. If the angle at P is dp, this also is the value of the angle
at O. Let the co-latitude
P = z, Pq=z+dz; Op' = p, Oq'^p+dp,
the circular arcs p'r', g_'s' representing the
parallels pr, qs. If the radius of the sphere
be unity,
Put
pq
' = dp;p'r'=pd,t,
= dz; pr = sinzdp.
a = dp/dz; <r' = p/sin z,
then p'g.' = <rpq and p'r' = a'pr. That is to
say, <7, <r' may be regarded as the relative
FlG. 23. scales, at co-latitude z, of the representation,
a applying to meridional measurements,
<r to measurements perpendicular to the meridian. A small square
situated in co-latitude z, having one side in the direction of the
meridian the length of its side being is represented by a
rectangle whose sides are i<r and ia' ; its area consequently is tW.
If it were possible to make a perfect representation, then we
should have a = i , a' = i throughout. This, however, is im-
possible. We may make <r = i throughout by taking p = z.
This is the 'Equidistant Projection just described, a very simple
and effective method of representation.
Or we may make a' ' = i throughout. This gives p=sin z, a
perspective projection, namely, the Orthographic.
Or we may require that areas be strictly represented in the
development. This will be effected by making <ra' i, or
p<fp = sin zdz, the integral of which is p = 2 sin|z, which is the
Zenithal Equal-area Projection of Lambert, sometimes, though
wrongly referred to as Lorgna's Projection after Antonio
Lorgna (b. 1736). In this system there is misrepresentation
of form, but no misrepresentation of areas.
Or we may require a projection in which all small parts are to
be represented in their true forms i.e. an orthomorphic projection.
For instance, a small square on the spherical surface is to be
represented as a small square in the development. This condi-
tion will be attained by making a = a', or dp/p = dz/sin z, the
integral of which is, c being an arbitrary constant, p=c tan |z.
This, again, is a perspective projection, namely, the Stereographic.
In this, though all small parts of the surface are represented in
their correct shapes, yet, the scale varying from one part of the
map to another, the whole is not a similar representation of the
original. The scale, <r=2Csec 2 5Z, at any point, applies to all
directions round that point.
These two last projections are, as it were, at the extremes of the
scale; each, perfect in its own way, is in other respects objectionable.
We may avoid both extremes by the following considerations.
Although we cannot make a = i and a' = i , so as to have a perfect
picture of the spherical surface, yet considering a I and a I as
the local errors of the representation, we may make (a i) ! -|-
(<r' i) 2 a minimum over the whole surface to be represented.
To effect this we must multiply this expression by the element of
surface to which it applies, viz. sin zdzdp, and then integrate from
the centre to the (circular) limits of the map. Let /3 be the spherical
radius of the segment to be represented, then the total misrepre-
sentation is to be taken as
IONS
which is to be made a minimum. Putting p = z+y, and giving to
y only a variation subject to the condition Sy=o when z = o, the
equations of solution using the ordinary notation of the calculus
of variations are
N-
= o; P/3 =0,
PjS being the value of 2p sin z when z = /3. This gives
dy /dy
cos z-;y = z-
This method of development is due to Sir George Airy, whose
original paper the investigation is different in form from the
above, which is due to Colonel Clarke will be found in the Philo-
sophical Magazine for 1861. The solution of the differential equation
leads to this result
p 2 cot Jz log, sec \z + C tan \z,
C=2 cot 2 i/3 log, sec J|8.
The limiting radius of the map is R=aC tan J/3. In this system,
called by Sir George Airy Projection by balance of errors, the
total misrepresentation is an absolute minimum. For short it may
be called Airy's Projection.
Returning to the general case where p is any function of z, let
us consider the local misrepresentation of direction. Take any
indefinitely small line, length =t, making an angle a with the meri-
dian in co-latitude z. Its projections on a meridian and parallel
are cos o, i sin o, which in the map are represented by iv cos o,
ia' sin a. If then a' he the angle in the map corresponding to o
tan a' = (a 1 ja) tan a.
Put
a' la = pdz/sin zdp = 2,
and the error a' o of representation = , then
(2 i) tan a
I +2 tan 2 o '
Put 2 =cot*f, then is a maximum when o = f, and the correspond-
ing value of is
tan
For simplicity of explanation we have supposed this method
of development so applied as to have the pole in the centre.
There is, however, no necessity for this, and any point on the
MAP PROJECTIONS]
MAP
661
surface of the sphere may be taken as the centre. All that is
necessary is to calculate by spherical trigonometry the azimuth
and distance, with reference to the assumed centre, of all the
points of intersection of meridians and parallels within the space
which is to be represented in a plane. Then the azimuth is
represented unaltered, and any spherical distance z is represented
by p. Thus we get all the points of intersection transferred to
the representation, and it remains merely to draw continuous
lines through these points, which lines will be the meridians and
parallels in the representation.
Thus treating the earth as a sphere and applying the Zenithal
Equal-area Projection to the case of Africa, the central point
selected being on the equator, we have, if be the spherical
distance of any point from the centre, <, a the latitude and
longitude (with reference to the centre), of this point, cos 6 =
cos (f> cos a. If A is the azimuth of this point at the centre, tan
A = sin a cot </>. On paper a line from the centre is drawn at an
azimuth A, and the distance 6 is represented by 2 sin \6. This
makes a very good projection for a single-sheet equal-area map
of Africa. The exaggeration in such systems, it is important to
remember, whether of linear scale, area, or angle, is the same
for a given distance from the centre, whatever be the azimuth;
that is, the exaggeration is a function of the distance from the
centre only.
General Theory of Conical Projections.
Meridians are represented by straight lines drawn through
a point, and a difference of longitude w is represented by an angle
/KI). The parallels of latitude are circular arcs, all having
as centre the point of divergence of the
meridian lines. It is clear that perspective
and zenithal projections are particular
groups of conical projections.
Let z be the co-latitude of a parallel, and
P, a function of z, the radius of the circle
representing this parallel. Consider the in-
finitely small space on the sphere contained
by two consecutive meridians, the difference
of whose longitude is dp, and two con-
secutive parallels whose co-latitudes are z
and z-\-dz. The sides of this rectangle are pq = dz, pr = sin zdn;
in the projection p'q'r's' these become p'q' = dp, and p'r' = phdn.
The scales of the projection as compared with the sphere are
p'q'/pq = dp/dz= the scale of meridian measurements = <r, say, and
p'r'lpr = phdn/sm zdn = ph/sin 2 = scale of measurements perpen-
dicular to the meridian =a', say.
Now we may make <r = i throughout, then p = z+const. This
gives either the group of conical projections with rectified meridians,
or as a particular case the equidistant zenithal.
We may make a = a' throughout, which is the same as requiring
that at any point the scale shall be the same in all directions. This
gives a group of orthomorphic projections.
In this case dp/dz = phlsin z, or dp/p = hdz/sin z.
Integrating, p = ft(tan Jz)\ (i.)
where ft is a constant.
Now h is at our disposal and we may give it such a value that
two selected parallels are of the correct lengths. Let zi, : 2 be the
co-latitudes of these parallels, then it is easy to show that
ft _ log sin zi log sin z ,.. ,
log tan izi log tan Jzj
This projection, given by equations (i.) and (ii.), is Lambert's
orthomorphic projection commonly called Gauss's projection;
its descriptive name is the orthomorphic conical projection with two
standard parallels.
The constant ft in (i.) defines the scale and may be used to render
the scale errors along the selected parallels not nil but the same;
and some other parallel, e.g. the central parallel may then be made
errorless.
The value h = J, as suggested by Sir John Herschel, is admirably
suited for a map of the world. The representation is fan-shaped,
with remarkably little distortion (fig. 24).
If any parallel of co-latitude z is true to scale Aft(tan }zi)* = sin z,
this parallel is the equator, so that 21=90, kh = i, then equation
(i.) becomes p = (tan }z)*/A, and the radius of the equator = i/h. The
distance r of anv parallel from the equator is i/h (tan Jz)*/fc =
PIG. 24.
If, instead of taking the radius of the earth as unity we call it a,
= (a/h)\i (tan Jz)*|. When h is very small, the angles between
the meridian lines in the representation are very small; and pro-
ceeding to the limit, when h is zero the meridians are parallel that
is, the vertex of the cone has removed to infinity. And at the
limit when h is zero we have r=a log, cot \z, which is the cha-
racteristic equation of Mercator's projection.
FIG. 25. Elliptical equal-area Projection, showing the whole
surface of the globe.
Mercalor's Projection. From the manner in which we have
arrived at this projection it is clear that it retains the character-
istic property of orthomorphic projections namely, similarity
of representation of small parts of the surface. In Mercator's
chart the equator is represented by a straight line, which is
crossed at right angles by a system of parallel and equidistant
straight lines representing the meridians. The parallels are
straight lines parallel to the equator, and the distance of the
parallel of latitude <t> from the equator is, as we have seen above,
r = a log, tan (45+ <j>) . In the vicinity of the equator, or indeed
within 30 of latitude of the equator, the representation is very
accurate, but as we proceed northwards or southwards the
exaggeration of area becomes larger, and eventually excessive
the poles being at infinity. This distance of the parallels may be
expressed in the form r = a (sin <j>+$ sin V+i sin 6 <t>+ . . .),
showing that near the equator r is nearly proportional to the
latitude. As a consequence of the similar representation of
small parts, a curve drawn on the sphere cutting all meridians
at the same angle the loxodromic curve is projected into a
straight line, and it is this property which renders Mercator's
chart so valuable to seamen. For instance: join by a straight
line on the chart Land's End and Bermuda, and measure the
angle of intersection of this line with the meridian. We get thus
the bearing which a ship has to retain during its course between
these ports. This is not great-circle sailing, and the ship so
navigated does not take the shortest path. The projection of a
great circle (being neither a meridian nor the equator) is a curve
which cannot be represented by a simple algebraic equation.
If the true spheroidal shape of the earth is considered, the semi-
axes being a and b, putting e= V(a*-b s )/a, and using common
logarithms, the distance of any parallel from the equator can be
shown to be
(a/M)(Iog tan (45+J*)- I sin 4,-^ sin '..)
where M, the modulus of common logarithms, =0-434294. Of
course Mercator's projection was not originally arrived at in the
manner above described; the description has been given to show
that Mercatpr's projection is a particular case of the conical ortho-
morphic group. The introduction of the projection is due to the
fact that for navigation it is very desirable to possess charts which
shall give correct local outlines (i.e. in modern phraseology shall be
orthomorphic) and shall at the same time show as a straight line
any line which cuts the meridians at a constant angle. The latter
condition clearly necessitates parallel meridians, and the former
a continuous increase of scale as the equator is departed from,
i.e. the scale at any point must be equal to the scale at the equator
Xsec. latitude. In early days the calculations were made by
assuming that for a small increase of latitude, say i', the scale was
constant, then summing up the small lengths so obtained. Nowadays
(for simplicity the earth will be taken as a sphere) we should say
that a small length of meridian ad& is represented in this projec-
tion by a sec <t>d<t>, and the length of the meridian in the projection
between the equator and latitude <t>,
a sec 0<^=o log. tan (45 8 +l4>),
which is the direct way of arriving at the law of the construction
of this very important projection.
662
MAP
[MAP PROJECTIONS
Mercator's projection, although indispensable at sea, is of little
value for land maps. For topographical sheets it is obviously
unsuitable; and in cases in which it is required to show large areas
on small scales on an orthomorphic projection, that form should
be chosen which gives two standard parallels (Lambert's conical
orthomorphic). Mercator's projection is often used in atlases for
maps of the world. It is not a good projection to select for this
purpose on account of the great exaggeration of scale near the
poles. The misconceptions arising from this exaggeration of scale
may, however, be corrected by the juxtaposition of a map of the
world on an equal-area projection.
It is now necessary to revert to the general consideration of
conical projections.
It has been shown that the scales of the projection (fig. 23) as
compared with the sphere are p'q'/pq = dp/dz = <r along a meridian,
and p'r'fpr' =ph/sin z = a' at right angles to a meridian.
Now if aa' = I the areas are correctly represented, then
hpdp = sin zdz, and integrating %hp l = C cos z; (i.)
this gives the whole group of equal-area conical projections.
As a special case let the pole be the centre of the projected paral-
lels, then when
z = o, p = o, and const = I , we have p = 2 sin lz/Sh (ii.)
Let Zi be the co-latitude of some parallel which is to be correctly
represented, then 2h sin izi/5/i = sin z\, and & = cos 2 jZi; putting
this value of h in equation (ii.) the radius of any parallel
=p = 2 sin \z sec jZi (iii.)
This is Lambert's conical equal-area projection with one standard
parallel, the pole being the centre of the parallels.
If we put Zi=0, then h = i, and the meridians are inclined at
their true angles, also the scale at the pole becomes correct, and
equation (iii.) becomes
p = 2sinz; (iv.)
this is the zenithal equal-area projection.
Reverting to the general expression for equal-area conical pro-
jections
p = V{2(C-cosz)/A| (i.)
we can dispose of C and h so that any two selected parallels shall
be their true lengths ; let their co-latitudes be Zi and zj, then
2h(C coszi)=sin 2 Zi (v.)
2&(C coszj) = sin 2 z 2 (vi.)
from which C and h are easily found, and the radii are obtained
from (i.) above. This is H. C. Alters' conical equal-area pro-
jection with two standard parallels. The pole is not the centre of
the parallels.
Projection by Rectangular Spheroidal Co-ordinates.
If in the simple conical projection the selected parallel is the
equator, this and the other parallels become parallel straight
lines and the meridians are straight lines spaced at equatorial
distances, cutting the parallels at right angles; the parallels are
their true distances apart. This projection is the simple cylin-
drical. If now we imagine the touching cylinder turned through
a right-angle in such a way as to touch the sphere along any
meridian, a projection is obtained exactly similar to the last,
except that in this case we represent, not parallels and meridians,
but small circles parallel to the given meridian and great circles
at right angles to it. It is clear that the projection is a special
case of conical projection. The position of any point on the
earth's surface is thus referred, on this projection, to a selected
meridian as one axis, and any great circle at right angles to it as
the other. Or, in other words, any point is fixed by the length
of the perpendicular from it on to the fixed meridian and the
distance of the foot of the perpendicular from some fixed point
on the meridian, these spherical or spheroidal co-ordinates
being plotted as plane rectangular co-ordinates.
The perpendicular is really a plane section of the surface through
the given point at right angles to the chosen meridian, and may be
briefly called a great circle. Such a great circle clearly diverges
from the parallel; the exact difference in latitude and longitude
between the point and the foot of the perpendicular can be at once
obtained by ordinary geodetic formulae, putting the azimuth =90.
Approximately the difference of latitude in seconds is x 2 tan <j>
cosec i"/2pv where x is the length of the perpendicular, p that of
the radius of curvature to the meridian, v that of the normal termin-
ated by the minor axis, < the latitude of the foot of the perpendicular.
The difference of longitude in seconds is approximately x sec p
cosec i "jv. The resulting error consists principally of an exagger-
ation of scale north and south and is approximately equal to sec x
(expressing x in arc) ; it is practically independent of the extent in
latitude.
It is on this projection that the 1/2,500 Ordnance maps and
the 6-in. Ordnance maps of the United Kingdom are plotted, a
meridian being chosen for a group of counties. It is also used
for the i-in., 5 in. and j in. Ordnance maps of England, the cen-
tral meridian chosen being that which passes through a point
in Delamere Forest in Cheshire. This projection should not as a
rule be used for topographical maps, but is suitable for cadastral
plans on account of the convenience of plotting the rectangular
co-ordinates of the very numerous trigonometrical or traverse
points required in the construction of such plans. As regards
the errors involved, a range of about 150 miles each side of the
central meridian will give a maximum error in scale in a north
and south direction of about o-i %.
Elliptical Equal-area Projection.
In this projection, which is also called Mollweide's projection
the parallels are parallel straight lines and the meridians are
ellipses, the central meridian being a straight line at right angles
to the equator, which is equally divided. If the whole world is
represented on the spherical assumption, the equator is twice the
length of the central meridian. Each elliptical meridian, has for
one axis the central meridian, and for the other the intercepted
portion of the equally divided equator. It follows that the
meridians 90 east and west of the central meridian form a circle.
It is easy to show that to preserve the property of equal areas
the distance of any parallel from the equator must be Vz sin 5
where TT sin <=25+sin 25, <j> being the latitude of the parallel.
The length of the central meridian from pole to pole=2 >/2,
where the radius of the sphere is unity. The length of the equator
= 4V2.
The following equal-area projections may be used to exhibit
the entire surface of the globe: Cylindrical equal area, Sinusoidal
equal area and Elliptical equal area.
Conventional or Arbitrary Projections.
These projections are devised for simplicity of drawing and
not for any special properties. The most useful projection of
this class is the globular projection. This is a conventional
N
FIG. 26. Globular Projection.
representation of a hemisphere in which the equator and central
meridian are two equal straight lines at right angles, their inter-
section being the centre of the circular boundary. The meridians
divide the equator into equal parts and are arcs of circles passing
through points so determined and the poles. The parallels are
arcs of circles which divide the central and extreme meridians
into equal parts. Thus in fig. 26 NS = EW and each is divided
into equal parts (in this case each division is 10); the circumfer-
ence NESW is also divided into 10 spaces and circular arcs are
drawn through the corresponding points. This is a simple and
effective projection and one well suited for conveying ideas of the
MAPLE, SIR J. B.
663
general shape and position of the chief land masses; it is better
for this purpose than the stereographic, which is commonly
employed in atlases.
K
8<fS
s'E 7-90 53 e 3o" 7.90 arf*E
K
303
f >
X
* t
/
/
*
/
\
V
\
i
*''
^ !
/
\
t
\
t
\
\
t
\
JD*3O
/ 7 ar,
\
B - T-ft *
H
I
/
/ '
/ ;
1
\
\ !
\
/
\
f
\
f
t
\
3i'S
* 7-45
7-42 x
ttO
(From Text Book of Topographical Suneying, by permission of the Controller of H.M.
Stationery Office.)
FIG. 27. Plane Table Graticule, dimensions in inches, for a scale of
4 in. to I m.
Projections for Field Sheets.
Field sheets for topographical surveys should be on conical
projections with rectified meridians; these projections for small
areas and ordinary topographical scales not less than 1/500,000
are sensibly errorless. But to save labour it is customary to
employ for this purpose either form of polyconic projection, in
which the errors for such scales are also negligible. In some
surveys, to avoid the difficulty of plotting the flat arcs required
for the parallels, the arcs are replaced by polygons, each side
being the length of the portion of the arc it replaces. This
method is especially suitable for scales of 1:125,000 and larger,
but it is also sometimes used for smaller scales.
Fig. 27 shows the method of plotting the projection for a field
sheet. Such a projection is usually called a graticule. In this
case ABC is the central meridian; the true meridian lengths of 30'
spaces are marked on this meridian, and to each of these, such as
AB, the figure (in this case representing a square half degree), such
as ABED, is applied. Thus the point D is the intersection of a
circle of radius AD with a circle of radius BD, these lengths being
taken from geodetic tables. The method has no merit except that
of convenience.
Summary.
The following projections have been briefly described:
1. Cylindrical equal -area.
2. Orthographic.
3. Stereographic (which is orthomorphic).
4. General external perspective.
5. Minimum error ,, (Clarke's).
6. Central.
7. Conical, with rectified meridians and two
standard parallels (5 forms).
8. Simple conical.
9. Simple cylindrical (a special case of 8).
10. Modified conical equal-area (Bonne's).
11. Sinusoidal (Sanson's).
12. Werner's conical ,,
13. Simple polyconic.
14. Rectangular polyconic.
15. Conical orthomorphic with 2 standard parallels
(Lambert's, commonly called Gauss's).
1 6. Cylindrical orthomorphic (Mercator's).
17. Conical equal-area with one standard parallel.
18. ,, ., ,, ,, two ,, parallels.
.19. Projection by rectangular spheroidal co-ordinates.
!2O. Equidistant zenithal.
21. Zenithal equal-area.
22. Zenithal projection by balance of errors (Airy's).
23. Elliptical equal-area (Mollweide's).
i 24. Globular (conventional).
1.25. Field sheet graticule.
Of the above 25 projections, 23 are conical or quasi-conical,
if zenithal and perspective projections be included. The projections
mav, if it is preferred, be grouped according to their properties.
Perspective
Conical
Zenithal
Thus in the above list 8 are equal-area, 3 are orthomorphic, i balances
errors, i represents all great circles by straight lines, and in 5 one
system of great circles is represented correctly.
Among projections which have not been described may be men-
tioned the circular orthomorphic (Lagrange's) and the rectilinear
equal-area (Collignon's) and a considerable number of conventional
projections, which latter are for the most part of little value.
The choice of a projection depends on the function which the
map is intended to fulfil. If the map is intended for statistical
purposes to show areas, density of population, incidence of rainfall,
of disease, distribution of wealth, &c., an equal-area projection
should be chosen. In such a case an area scale should be given.
At sea, Mercator's is practically the only projection used except
when it is desired to determine graphically great circle courses in
great oceans, when the central projection must be employed. For
conveying good general ideas of the shape and distribution of the
surface features of continents or of a hemisphere Clarke's perspective
projection is the best. For exhibiting the progress of polar explora-
tion the polar equidistant projection should be selected. For special
maps for general use on scales of 1/1,000,000 and smaller, and for a
series of which the sheets are to fit together, the conical, with rectified
meridians and two standard parallels, is a good projection. For
topographical maps, in which each sheet is plotted independently
and the scale is not smaller than 1/500,000, either form of polycontc
is very convenient.
The following are the projections adopted for some of the principal
official maps of the British Empire :
Conical, with Rectified Meridians and Two Standard Parallels. The
i : 1,000,000 Ordnance map of the United Kingdom, special maps
of the topographical section, General Staff, e.g. the 64-mile map of
Afghanistan and Persia. The i : 1,000,000 Survey of India series
of India and adjacent countries.
Modified Conical, Equal-area (Bonne's). The i in., J in., J in. and
^ in. Ordnance maps of Scotland and Ireland. The i : 800,000
map of the Cape Colony, published by the Surveyor-General.
Simple Polyconic and Rectangular Polyconic maps on scales of
I : 1,000,000, I : 500,000, I : 250,000 and i : 125,000 of the topo-
graphical section of the General Staff, including all maps on these
scales of British Africa. A rectilinear approximation to the simple
polyconic is also used for the topographical sheets of the Survey
of India. The simple polyconic is used for the I in. maps of the
Militia Department of Canada.
Zenithal Projection by Balance of Errors (Airy's). The lo-mile to
i in. Ordnance map of England.
Projection by Rectangular Spheroidal Co-ordinates. The I : 2500
and the 6 in. Ordnance sheets of the United Kingdom, and the i in.,
i in. and } in. Ordnance maps of England. The cadastral plans of
the Survey of India, and cadastral plans throughout the empire.
AUTHORITIES. See TraM des projections des cartes gtographiques,
by A. Germain (Paris, 1865) and A Treatise on Projections, by
T. Craig, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (Washington,
1882). Both Germain and Craig (following Germain) make use of
the term projections by development, a term which is apt to convey
the impression that the spherical surface is developable. As this a
not the case, and since such projections are conical, it is best to avoid
the use of the term. For the history of the subject see d'Avezac,
" Coup d'ceil historique sur la projection des cartes geographiques,"
Soctitt de geographie de Paris (1863).
J. H. Lambert (Beitrdge zum Gebrauch der Mathematik, u.s.w.
Berlin, 1772) devised the following projections of the above list: I,
15, 17, and 21 ; his transverse cylindrical orthomorphic and the trans-
verse cylindrical equal-area have not been described, as they are
seldom used. Among other contributors we mention Mercator, Euler,
Gauss, C. B. Mollweide (1774-1825), Lagrange, Cassini, R. Bonne
(1727-1795), Airy and Colonel A. R.Clarke. (C. F. CL.; A. R. C.)
MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART. (1845-1903), English
business magnate, was born on the ist of March 1845. His
father, John Maple (d. 1900), had a small furniture shop in
Tottenham Court Road, London, and his business began to
develop about the time that his son entered it. The practical
management soon devolved on the younger Maple, under whom
it attained colossal dimensions. The firm became a limited
liability company, with a capital of two millions, in 1890, with
Mr Maple as chairman. He entered parliament as Conservative
member for Dulwich in 1887, was knighted in 1892, and was
made a baronet in 1897. He was the owner of a large stud of
race-horses, and from 1885 onwards won many important races,
appearing at first under the name of " Mr Childwick." His
public benefactions included a hospital and a recreation ground
to the city of St Albans, near which his residence, Childwickbury,
was situated, and the rebuilding, at a cost of more than 150,000,
of University College Hospital, London. He died on the 24th of
November 1903. His only surviving daughter married in 1896
Baron von Eckhardstein, of the German Embassy.
MAPLE MAQQARI
MAPLE, in botany. The maple (O. E. mapel-treow, mapulder)
and sycamore trees are species of Acer, of the order Acerineae.
The genus includes about sixty species, natives of Europe,
North America and Asia, especially the Himalayas, China and
Japan. Maples are for the most part trees with opposite, long-
stalked, palmately lobed leaves. The flowers are in fascicles,
appearing before the leaves as in the Norway maple, or in racemes
or panicles appearing with, or later than, the leaves as in syca-
more. Some of the flowers are often imperfect, the stamens or
pistil being more or less aborted. The fruit is a two-winged
" samara." The genus was represented in the Tertiary flora of
Europe, when it extended into the polar regions; nineteen
species have been recorded from the Miocene strata of Oeningen
in Switzerland. The common maple, A. campestre, is the only
species indigenous to Great Britain. This and the sycamore
were described by Gerard in 1597 (Herball, p. 1299), the latter
being " a stranger to England." Many species have been intro-
duced, especially from Japan, for ornamental purposes. The
following are more especially worthy of notice.
Acer campestre, the common maple, is common in hedgerows,
but less often seen as a tree, when it is seldom more than 20 ft.
high, though in sheltered situations 30 ft. or more is attained. The
leaves are generally less than 2 in. across, and the five main lobes
are blunter than in the sycamore. The clusters of green flowers
terminate the young shoots and are erect; the two wings of the
fruit spread almost horizontally, and are smaller than in the syca-
more. It occurs in northern Europe, the Caucasus, and northern
Asia. The wood is excellent fuel, and makes the best charcoal.
It is compact, of a fine grain, sometimes beautifully veined, and
takes a high polish. Hence it has been celebrated from antiquity
for tables, &c. The wood of the roots is frequently knotted, and
valuable for small objects of cabinet work. The young shoots,
being flexible and tough, are employed in France as whips.
A. pseudo-platanus, the sycamore or great maple, is a handsome
tree of quick growth, with a smooth bark. The leaves are large,
with finely acute and serrated lobes, affording abundant shade.
The flowers are borne in long pendulous racemes, and the two wings
of the fruit are ascending. It lives from 140 to 200 years. It is
found wild chiefly in wooded mountainous situations in central
Europe. The wood when young is white, but old heartwood is
yellow or brownish. Like the common maple it is hard and takes
a high polish. It is much prized by wheelwrights, cabinet-makers,
sculptors, &c., on the Continent; while knotted roots are used for
inlaying. Sugar has been obtained from the sap of this as from
other species, the most being one ounce from a quart of sap. The
latter has also been made into wine in the Highlands of Scotland.
It withstands the sea and mountain breezes better than most other
timber trees, and is often planted near farm-houses and cottages in
exposed localities for the sake of its dense foliage. Its wood is
valued in turnery for cups, bowls and pattern blocks. It produces
abundance of seeds, and is easily raised, but it requires good and
tolerably dry soil ; it will not thrive on stiff clays nor on dry sands
or chalks. There are many varieties, the variegated and cut-
leaved being the most noticeable. The lobed shape of its leaf
and its dense foliage caused it to be confused with the true sycamore
Ficus sycamorus of scripture.
A. platanoides, the Norway maple, is met with from Norway to
Italy, Greece, and central and south Russia. It was introduced
into Britain in 1683. It is a lofty tree (from 40 to 70 ft.), resembling
the sycamore, but with yellow flowers, appearing before the leaves,
and more spreading wings to the fruit. There are several varieties.
The wood is used for the same purposes as that of the sycamore.
Sugar has been made from the sap in Norway and Sweden.
Many varieties of A. palmatum, generally known as polymorphum,
with variously laciniated and more or less coloured foliage, have
been introduced from Japan as ornamental shrubs. The branches
and corolla are purple, the fruit woolly. The foliage of the typical
form is bright green with very pointed lobes. It occurs in the
central mountains of Nippon and near Nagasaki. Beautiful
varieties have been introduced under the varietal names, ampelopst-
foliunt, atropurpureum, dissectum, &c. They are remarkable for
the coppery purple tint that pervades the leaves and young growths
of sortie of the varieties. Other Japanese species are A. japonicum,
the varieties of which are among the most handsome of small
deciduous shrubs; A. rufinerve, with the habit of the sycamore;
A. distylum, bearing leaves without lobes; A. diabolicum, with
large plane-like leaves; and A. carpinifolium, with foliage resembling
that of the hornbeam.
A. saccharinum, a North American species, the sugar, rock, or
bird's-eye maple, was introduced in 1735. It sometimes attains
to 70 or even over 100 ft., more commonly 50 to 60 ft. It is remark-
able for the whiteness of the bark. The wood is white, but acquires
a rosy tinge after exposure to light. The grain is fine and close,
and when polished has a silky lustre. The timber is used instead
-
of oak where the latter is scarce, and is employed for axle-trees
and spokes, as well as for Windsor chairs, &c. It exhibits two
accidental forms in the arrangement of the fibres, an undulated
one like those of the curled maple (A. rubrum), and one of spots,
which gives the name bird's-eye to the wood of this species. Like
the curled maple, it is used for inlaying mahogany. It is much
prized for bedsteads, writing-desks, shoe-lasts, &c. The wood
forms excellent fuel and charcoal, while the ashes are rich in alkaline
principles, furnishing a large proportion of the potash exported
from Boston and New York. Sugar is principally extracted from
this species, the sap being boiled and the syrup when reduced to
a proper consistence runs into moulds to form cakes. Trees growing
in low and moist situations afford the most sap but least sugar.
A cold north-west wind, with frosty nights and sunny days in
alternation, tends to incite the flow, which is more abundant during
the day than the night. A thawing night is said to promote the
flow, and it ceases during a south-west wind and at the approach of
a storm ; and so sensitive are the trees to aspect and climatic varia-
tions that the flow of sap on the south and east side has been noticed
to be earlier than on the north and west side of the same tree.
The average quantity of sap per tree is from 12 to 24 gallons in a
season.
A. rubrum, the red-flowering or scarlet maple, is a middle-sized
tree, and was introduced in 1656. The bright scarlet or dull red
flowers appear before the leaves in March and April. The wood,
like that of other species, is applicable to many purposes as for
the seats of Windsor chairs, turnery, &c. The grain in very old
trees is sometimes undulated, which suggested the name of curled
maple, and gives beautiful effects of light and shade on polished
surfaces. The most constant use of curled maple is for the stocks
of fowling-pieces and rifles, as it affords toughness and strength
combined with lightness and elegance. The inner bark is dusky
red. On boiling, it yields a purple colour which with sulphate of
iron affords a black dye. The wood is inferior to that of the pre-
ceding species in strength and as fuel. Sugar was made from the
sap by the French Canadians, but the production is only half as
great as that from the sugar maple. In Britain it is cultivated as
an ornamental tree, as being conspicuous for its flowers in spring,
and for its red fruit and foliage in autumn.
A . macrophyllum, a north-western American species, is a valuable
timber tree.
For a good account of the North American species see C. S.
Sargent's Silva of North America, vol. ii. See also under SUGAR.
MAPU, ABRAHAM (1808-1867), Hebrew novelist. His
works are chiefly historical romances in Hebrew. His most
famous books were The Love of Zion and the Transgression of
Samaria. Besides their intrinsic merits, these novels stand high
among the works which produced the romantic movement in
modern Hebrew literature. Mapu's plots were somewhat sen-
sational, incident being more prominent than characterization.
But underlying all was a criticism of contemporary life. His
novels made a deep impression and became instantly popular.
Mapu's Hebrew style is simple and classical. An English trans-
lation of the Love of Zion bears the title Amnon, Prince and
Peasant, by F. Jaffe (1887). Mapu's stories have been often
translated into other languages.
See N. Slouschz, The Renascence of Hebrew Literature (1909),
ch. v. (LA.)
MAQQARI, or MAKKARI [Abu-1-' Abbas Ahmad ibn Mahommed
ul-Maqqari] (c. 1591-1632), Arabian historian, was born at
Tlemcen in Algeria and studied at Fez and Marrakesh, where he
remained engaged in literary work until he made the pilgrimage
to Mecca in 1618. In the following year he settled in Cairo.
In 1620 he visited Jerusalem and Damascus, and during the
next six years made the pilgrimage five times. In 1628 he
was again in Damascus, where he gave a course of lectures on
Bukhari's collection of Traditions, spoke much of the glories of
Moslem Spain, and received the impulse to write his work on this
subject later. In the same year he returned to Cairo, where
he spent a year in writing his history. He was just making
preparations to settle definitely in Damascus when he died in
1632.
His great work, The Breath of Perfume from the Branch of Green
Andalusia and Memorials of its Vizier Lisan ud-Din ibn ul-Khalib,
consists of two parts. The first is a compilation from many authors
on the description and history of Moslem Spain; it was published
by Wright, Krehl, Dozy and Dugat as Anatectes sur I'histoire et la
literature des Arabes d'Espagne (Leiden, 1855-1861), and in an
abridged English translation by P. de Gayangos (London, 1840-
1843). The whole work has been published at Bulaq (1863) and
Cairo (1885).
MAQRIZI MAR, EARLDOM OF
665
For other works of Maqqari see C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der
arabischen Litteratur (Berlin, 1902), ii. 297. (G. W. T.)
MAQRlZl, or MAKRIZI [TaqI ud-Dln Alimad ibn 'All] (1364-
1442), Arabian historian, known as al-Maqrlzi because of his
ancestral connexion with Maqrlz, a suburb of Baalbek, was born
at Cairo and spent most of his life in Egypt, where he was trained
in the Hanifite school of law, though later he became a Shafi'ite
with an inclination to Zahirite views. In 1385 he made the
pilgrimage. For some time he was secretary in a government
office, and in 1399 became inspector of markets for Cairo and
northern Egypt. This post he soon gave up to become preacher
at the mosque of ' Amr, president of the mosque ul-Hakim, and a
lecturer on tradition. In 1408 he went to Damascus to become
inspector of the Qalanislyya and lecturer. Later he retired
into private life at Cairo. In 1430 he made the pilgrimage
with his family and travelled for some five years. His learning
was great, his observation accurate and his judgment good, but
his books are largely compilations, and he does not always
acknowledge the sources to which he is indebted. Most of his
works are concerned with Egypt. The most important 'is the
Maica'iz wal-I'tibar fi dhikr ul-ffitat wal-Athdr (2 vols., Bulaq,
1854), translated into French by U. Bouriant as Description
topographigue et historigue de l'gypte (Paris, 1895-1900; cf.
A. R. Guest, " A List of Writers, Books and other Authorities
mentioned by El Maqrizi in his Khitat," in Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, 1902, pp. 103-125). Of his History of the
Falimites an extract was published by J. G. L. Kosegarten in
his Chrestomathia (Leipzig, 1828), pp. 115-123; the History of th e
Ayyubit and Mameluke Rulers has been translated into French
by E. Quatremere (2 vols., Paris, 1837-1845). Maqrizi began
a large work called the Mugaffd, a cyclopaedia of Egyptian
biography in alphabetic order. It was intended to be in 80
volumes, but only 16 were written. Three autograph volumes
exist in MS. in Leiden, and one in Paris.
Among smaller works published are the Mahommedan Coinage
(ed. O. G. Tychsen, Rostock, 1797; French translation by S. de Sacy,
Paris, 1797); Arab Weights and Measures (ed. Tychsen, Rostock,
1800) ; the Arabian Tribes that migrated to Egypt (ed. F Wiistenfeld,
Gottingen, 1847); the Account of Hadhramaut (ed. P. B. Noskowyj,
Bonn, 1866) ; the Strife between the Banl Umayya and the Bant
Hashim (ed G. Vos, Leiden, 1888), and the Moslems in Abyssinia
(ed. F. T. Rink, Leiden, 1790). For Maqrizi's life see the quotations
from contemporary biographies in S. de Sacy's Chrestomathie arabe
(2nd ed., Paris, 1826), ii. 1 12 seq., and for other works still in MS.
C. Brockelmann, Gesch. der arabischen Litteratur (Berlin, 1902),
51.38-41. (G. W. T.)
MAR, EARLDOM OF. Mar, one of the ancient divisions or
provinces of Scotland, comprised the larger portion of Aberdeen-
shire, extending from north of the Don southward to the Mounth.
Like other such districts, it was in Celtic times under the rule of a
mormaer. In the i2th century his place was taken by an earl,
but no definite succession of earls appears till the I3th century,
nor is any connexion established between them and the mormaer s.
From the middle of the I3th century the earls were recognized
as among " the seven earls of Scotland " and held a great posi-
tion. Earl Gratney (ft. c. 1300) married a sister of (King)
Robert Bruce, who brought him the lordship of Garioch and
castle of Kildrummy, which she held against the earl of Athole,
an ally of the English (1335). Their son Donald was made
regent in July 1332, but was disastrously defeated and slain
at Dupplin next month. His daughter and eventual heir,
Margaret, brought the earldom to her husband, William, earl of
Douglas, and on the accession of her daughter Isabel a troublous
time followed.
While she was living as a widow at her castle of Kildrummy,
it was stormed by Alexander Stewart, a bastard, who forced her
to execute a charter (August 12, 1404) settling the reversion
to the earldom on himself and his heirs. This act she revoked
by a charter of the igth of September 1404, which cannot now
be found; but on marrying him, on the 9th of December 1404,
she granted him the earldom for life, the king confirming this
on the 2ist of June 1405. After her death in 1408 the earl
played a great part, commanding the royal forces at the battle
of Harlaw, when the Lord of the Isles was defeated in 1411,
and afterwards acting as warden of the Marches. In 1426 he
resigned the earldom to the Crown, the king granting it by a
fresh creation to him and certain heirs, with reversion to the
Crown. On the earl's death in 1435 the earldom was claimed by
Robert, Lord Erskine, as heir of Gratney, earl of Mar, through a
daughter; but the Crown claimed as reversionary under the
creation of 1426. A long struggle followed, till in 1457 James II.
obtained from a justiciary court at Aberdeen a recognition
of the Crown's right to the earldom and its lands, and shortly
after bestowed them on his son John as earl of Mar and Garioch.
He died unmarried in 1479, and in 1483 his elder brother
Alexander duke of Albany received the earldom, but was soon
forfeited. James III. created his son John earl of Mar and
Garioch in 1486, and after his death unmarried in 1503, James IV.
alienated to Lord Elphinstone (1507-1510) many of the Mar
lands, including Kildrummy. The title was not revived till 1562,
when James Stewart, earl of Murray, held it for a few months.
In 1565 John, Lord Erskine, succeeded in getting returned
heir to the earldom, and shortly after (June 23, 1565) Queen
Margaret restored the charter to him and his heirs " all and
hail the said earldom of Mar." As earl he took part against the
queen in 1567, and in 1571 was made regent of Scotland, which
post he retained till his death (1572). His son, earl John (c. 1558-
1634), played a great part in the history of the family. His
great achievement was the recovery of the Mar estates, alien-
ated by the Crown during the long period that his family had
been out of possession, including Kildrummy, the " head " of the
earldom. It was in his time that the precedence of the earldom
(see below) was settled. John, the next earl (c. 1585-1654) was
a Royalist, as was his son John (d. 1668), much to the injury of
the family fortune, which was further impaired by the attach-
ment of the family, after the Revolution, to the Stuarts. His son
Charles (1650-1689) was arrested by the government just before
his death (1689), and the next earl, John (1675-1732), a promi-
nent Jacobite (see below), was attainted, the earldom remaining
under forfeiture for 108 years; by the Old Pretender he was
created duke of Mar.
Alloa and other Erskine estates of the attainted earl were re-
purchased for the family, and descended to John Francis Erskine
(1741-1825), his heir-male, who was also his heir of line through
his daughter. To him, in his eighty-third year, as grandson and
lineal representative of the attainted earl, the earldom was
restored by act of parliament in 1824. His grandson, who
succeeded him in 1828, inherited the earldom of Kellie (1619) and
other Erskine dignities by decision of 1835. At his death in 1866,
his earldom of Mar was the subject of rival claims, and the right
to the succession was not determined till 1875. His estates
passed to his cousin and heir-male, who succeeded to his earldom
of Kellie and claimed " the honour and dignity of earl of Mar."
But the latter was also claimed by a Mr Goodeve, whose father
had married the late earl's eldest sister, and who assumed the
title. It was not suggested that the late earl had more than one
earldom of Mar, but Lord Kellie claimed it as descendible to
heirs-male under a creation by Queen Mary, and Mr Goodeve as
descendible to heirs of line under an earlier creation. The House
of Lords decided (Feb. 25, 1875) that Lord Kellie was entitled
to the earldom as having been created by Queen Mary in 1565,
with a limitation which must be presumed to be to heirs-male of
the body. This decision gave great dissatisfaction, but was
described as " final, right or wrong, and not to be questioned " by
Lord Selborne and the lord chancellor in 1877, and Lord Kellie
was thenceforth recognized as holding the earldom on the Union
Roll, the only one known, though Mr Goodeve continued to
assume the title. The Lords' decision could not be reversed,
but in 1885, after much agitation, a means was found of evading
it in practice by the " Earldom of Mar Restitution Act." By
" an equivocation on the facts of the case," it was recited that
" doubts may exist whether the said ancient honour, dignity,
and title of peerage of earl of Mar . . . was or was not ... by
any lawful means surrendered or merged in the Crown" before
1565, and that the House of Lords had decided that Queen Mary's
known charter of 1565 applied only to lands and " did not operate
666
MAR, EARLS OF
or extend to restore " the peerage dignity, and enacted that
" John Francis Erskine Goodeve Erskine " (which last name the
claimant had added) should be " restored to " the ancient earldom.
His previous assumption of the title was thus rejected as invalid,
but from the passing of the act two earldoms of Mar were in
existence, that of Lord Kellie being confirmed and allowed the
precedence of 1565, while the restored earldom was allowed that
of the dignity on the Union Roll, the only one known till then.
This precedence had been assigned to it by the Decreet of
Ranking (1606), and assigns to it an origin in 1404 (or, as some
say, 1395). It is frequently, but absurdly, stated to have been
" created before 1014," and wrongly spoken of as the Premier
Scottish Earldom (see EARL). A barony of Garioch is also
wrongly said to be annexed to it, but the title is used by the
earl's eldest son in default of any other.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Minutes of Evidence, 1875 and 1885; Riddell's
Peerage and Consistorial Law, Skene, Celtic Scotland; Lord
Crawford's Earldom of Mar in Sunshine and Shade; articles by
G. Burnett (Lyon), Sir H. Barkly, Cornelius Hallen, W. A. Lindsay
and J. H. Round in Genealogist (N.S.), vols. 3, 4, 9; Lord
Redesdale's The Earldom of Mar, a Letter to the Lord Clerk Register
(reply to Lord Crawford) (1883); J. H. Round's "Are there two
Earls of Mar?" in Foster's Collectanea genealogica, and " The later
Earldom of Mar " in Walford's Antiquarian Magazine, vol. ii.; also
his Studies in Peerage and Family History. (J. H. R.)
MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, IST OR 6iH EARL OF (d. 1572), regent
of Scotland, was a son of John, 5th Lord Erskine (d. 1552), who
was guardian of King James V., and afterwards of Mary Queen
of Scots. The younger John, who succeeded his father as 6th
Lord Erskine in 1552, joined the religious reformers, but he was
never very ardent in the cause, although he subscribed the letter
asking Knox to return to Scotland in 1557. The custody of
Edinburgh Castle was in his hands, and during the struggle
between the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the lords of the
Congregation he appears to have acted consistently in the
interests of peace. When Mary Stuart returned to Scotland
in 1561 Lord Erskine was a member of her council, he favoured
her marriage with Lord Darnley, and his wife, Annabella Murray,
called by Knox a " verray Jesabell," was a frequent companion
of the queen. In 1565 Erskine was granted the earldom of Mar
(see above). As guardian of James, afterwards King James VI.,
he prevented the young prince from falling into the hands of
Bothwell, and when the Scottish nobles rose against Mary and
Bothwell, Mar was one of their leaders; he took part in the govern-
ment of Scotland during Mary's imprisonment at Lochleven, and
also after her subsequent abdication. In September 1571 he was
chosen regent of Scotland, but he was overshadowed and perhaps
slighted by the earl of Morton, and he died at Stirling on the 2gth
of October 1572.
MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 2ND OR ?TH EARL OF (c. 1558-1634),
Scottish politician, was the only son of the preceding. Together
with King James VI. he was educated by George Buchanan.
After attaining his majority he was nominally the guardian of
the young king, who was about seven years his junior, and who
lived with him at Stirling; but he was in reality a puppet in the
hands of the regent, the earl of Morton; and he lost power and
position when Morton was imprisoned. He was concerned in the
seizure of James VI. in 1582 (a plot known as the raid of Ruth-
ven) ; but when James escaped from his new custodians the earl
fled into the west of Scotland. Then leaving his hiding-place Mar
seized Stirling Castle, whereupon James marched against him,
and he took refuge in England. Queen Elizabeth interceded for
him, but in vain, and after some futile communications between
the governments of England and Scotland Mar and his friends
gathered an army, entered the presence of the king at Stirling,
and were soon in supreme authority (1585). Mar was restored to
his lands and titles. Henceforward he stood high in the royal
favour; he became governor of Edinburgh Castle and was made
tutor to James's son, Prince Henry, and for his second wife he
married Mary, daughter of Esme Stewart, duke of Lennox. In
1 60 1 the earl was sent as envoy to London; here Elizabeth
assured him that James should be her successor, and his mission
was conducted with tact and prudence. Having joined the
!
English privy council Mar was created Lord Cardross in 1610;
he was a member of the Court of High Commission and was lord
high treasurer of Scotland from 1615 to 1630. He died at Stirling
on the I4th of December 1634. John (c. 1585-1654), his only
son by his first wife, succeeded to his earldom; by his second wife
he had five sons, among them being James (d. 1640), earl of
Buchan; Henry (d. 1628), whose son David (d. 1671) succeeded
to the barony of Cardross; and Charles, the ancestor of the earls
of Rosslyn.
MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 6xn OR IITH EARL OF (1675-1732),
Scottish Jacobite, was the eldest son of Charles, the 5th earl
(1650-1689), from whom he inherited estates which were heavily
loaded with debt. He was associated with the party favourable
to the English government; he was one of the commissioners for
the Union, and was made a Scottish secretary of state, becoming
after the Union of 1707 a representative peer for Scotland,
keeper of the signet and a privy councillor. In 1713 Mar was
made an English secretary of state by the Tories, but he seems
to have been equally ready to side with the Whigs, and in 1714 he
assured the new king, George I., of his loyalty-. -However, like
the other Tories, he was deprived of his office, and in August 1715
he went in disguise to Scotland and placed himself at the head
of the adherents of James Edward, the Old Pretender. Meeting
many Highland chieftains at Aboyne he avowed an earnest
desire for the independence of Scotland, and at Braemar on the
6th of September 1715 he proclaimed James VIII. king of Scot-
land, England, France and Ireland. Gradually the forces under
his command were augmented, but as a general he was a complete
failure. Precious time was wasted at Perth, a feigned attack on
Stirling was resultless, and he could give little assistance to the
English Jacobites. At Sheriffmuir, where a battle was fought
in November 1715, Mar's forces largely outnumbered those of his
opponent, Archibald Campbell, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll;
but no bravery could atone for the signal incompetence displayed
by the earl, and the fight was virtually a decisive defeat for the
Jacobites. Mar then met James Edward at Fetteresso; the
cause however was lost, and the prince and the earl fled to France.
Mar sought to interest foreign powers in the cause of the Stuarts;
but in the course of time he became thoroughly distrusted
by the Jacobites. In 1721 he accepted a pension of 3500 a year
from George I., and in the following year his name was freely
mentioned in connexion with the trial of Bishop Atterbury,
whom it was asserted that Mar had betrayed. This charge may
perhaps be summarized as not proven. At the best his conduct
was highly imprudent, and in 1724 he left the Pretender's
service. His later years were spent in Paris and at Aix-la-
Chapelle, where he died in May 1732.
Mar, who was known as " bobbing John," married for his
second wife, Frances (d. 1761), daughter of the ist duke of
Kingston, and was thus a brother-in-law of Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu. He had been attainted in 1716, and his only son,
Thomas, Lord Erskine, died childless in March 1766.
Mar's brother, JAMES ERSKINE (1679-1754), was educated as a
lawyer and became lord justice clerk of the Court of Session and
Lord Grange in 1710. He took no part in the rising of 1715,
although there is little doubt that at times he was in communi-
cation with the Jacobites; but was rather known for his piety and
for his sympathy with the Presbyterians. He is more famous,
however, owing to the story of his wife's disappearance. This
lady, Rachel Chicely, was a woman of disordered intellect;
probably with reason she suspected her husband of infidelity,
and after some years of unhappiness Grange arranged a plan
for her seizure. In January 1732 she was conveyed with
great secrecy from Edinburgh to the island of Hesker, thence
to St Kilda, where she remained for about ten years, thence
she was taken to Assynt in Sutherland, and finally to Skye.
To complete the idea that she was dead her funeral was
publicly celebrated, but she survived until May 1745. Mean-
while in 1734 Grange had resigned his judgeship and had become
an English member of parliament; here he was a bitter opponent
of Sir Robert Walpole. He died in London on the 2Oth of
January 1754.
MARA MARAGHA
667
Sec the Journal of the Earl of Mar (1716); R. Patten, History of
the late Rebellion (1717); and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. iv.
(1907).
MARA, GERTRUD ELISABETH (1749-1833), German
sinner, was born at Cassel, the daughter of a poor musician
named Schmeling. From him she learnt the violin, and while
a child her playing at the fair at Frankfort was so remarkable
that money was collected to provide for her. She was helped by
inilucntial friends, and studied under Hillel at Leipzig for five
years, proving to be endowed with a wonderful soprano voice.
She began to sing in public in 1771, and was soon recognized as
the greatest singer that Germany had produced. She was
permanently engaged for the Prussian Court, but her marriage
to a debauched violinist named Mara created difficulties, and
in 1 780 she was released. After singing at Vienna, Munich and
elsewhere, she appeared in Paris in 1782, where her rivalry with
the singer Todi developed into a regular faction. In 1784 she
to London, and continued to appear there with great
success, with visits at intervals to Italy and to Paris till 1802,
when for some years she retired to Russia. She visited England
again in 1819, but then abandoned the stage. She went to
uia, and died on the 2oth of January 1833 at Revel.
MARABOUT (the French form of the Arab, murdbit, " otoe
who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier ";cf. Portug.marabute;
Span, morabito), in Mahommedan religion a hermit or devotee.
The word is derived from ribat, a fortified frontier station. To
such stations pious men betook them to win religious merit in
war against the infidel; their leisure was spent in devotion, and
the habits of the convent superseded those of the camp (see
M'G. De Slane in Jour. As., 1842, i. 168; Dozy, Suppl. i. 502).
Thus ribat came to mean a religious house or hospice (zawiya).
The great sphere of the marabouts is North Africa. There it
was that the community formed by Yahya b. Ibrahim and the
doctor Abdullah developed into the conquering empire of the
Murabits, or, as Christian writers call them, the ALMORAVIDES
(?..), and there still, among the Berbers, the marabouts enjoy
extraordinary influence, being esteemed as living saints and
mediators. They are liberally supported by alms, direct all
popular assemblies, and have a decisive voice in intertribal
quarrels and all matters of consequence. On their death their
sanctity is transferred to their tombs (also called marabouts),
where chapels are erected and gifts and prayers offered. The
marabouts took a prominent part in the resistance offered to the
French by the Algerian Moslems; and they have been similarly
active in politico-religious movements in Tunisia and Tripoli.
See L. Rinn, Marabouts et Khoitan (Algiers, 1884) ; and the article
DERVISH.
MARACAIBO, a large lake of western Venezuela, extending
southward from the Gulf of Venezuela, into which it opens
through a long neck, or strait, obstructed at its mouth by islands
and bars, and having a large drainage basin bounded on the
W. by the Eastern Cordillera, on the S.E. by the Cordillera de
Mcrida, and on the E. by a low range of mountains extending
N. by W. from Trujillo to the coast. The lake is roughly quad-
rangular in shape, and extends from the gth to the nth parallel
of S. lat. and from the 7ist to the 72nd meridian. It opens into
the Gulf through 13 channels, the depth on the bar in the main
channel ranging from 7 ft. at low water to 12 ft. at high water.
Inside the bar the depth is about 30 ft., and the lake is navigable
for vessels of large size. It receives the waters of many rivers,
principally on its west and south sides, the largest of which are
the Catatumbo and Zulia, Escalante, Chanudo, Ceniza, Sant'Ana,
Negro, Apan and Palmar. The first three have navigable chan-
nels for river steamers. There are a number of small lakes near
Lake Maracaibo's southern and western margins, the largest of
which is the Laguna de Zulia. The heavy rainfall on the eastern
slopes of the Eastern Cordillera, which is said to exceed 86 in.
per annum, is responsible for the great volume of water dis-
charged into the lake. The average annual precipitation over
the whole basin is said to be 70 in. In the upper half of the lake
the water is sweet, but below that, where 'the tidal influence is
stronger, it becomes brackish. The only port of consequence
on the lake is Maracaibo, but there are small ports at its upper
end which are in direct communication with the inland cities of
Trujillo, Merida and San Cristobal. The Catatumbo River,
which enters from the west near the north end of the lake, and
its principal tributary, the Zulia, are navigable as far as Villa-
mizar, in Colombia, and afford an excellent transportation
route for the coffee and other products of Santander.
MARACAIBO (sometimes MARACAYBO), a city and seaport of
Venezuela and capital of the state of Zulia (formerly Maracaibo),
on the west shore of the broad channel or neck which connects
Lake Maracaibo with the Gulf of Venezuela, or Maracaibo,
about 25 m. from the mouth of the channel opening into the latter.
Pop. (1889), 34,284; (1905), 49,817; there is a considerable
German element in the vicinity. The best residential suburb,
Haticos, extends along the lake shore toward the south. The
city is provided with tramways, telephone service and electric
lighting, but the water supply and drainage are inferior. The
most important buildings are the executive's residence, the
legislative chambers, the municipal hall, the Baralt theatre, the
prison, the market, a hospital and six churches. The city also
has a school of arts, a public library, and a public garden. In
colonial times Maracaibo had a famous Jesuits' college (now
gone) and was one of the educational centres of Spanish America;
the city now has a national college and a nautical school.
The industries include shipbuilding, and the manufacture of
saddlery and other leather products, bricks and tile, rum, beer,
chocolate and coco-nut oil. Maracaibo is chiefly known,
however, as one of the principal commercial centres and shipping
ports on the northern coast of South America. The bar at the
entrance to Maracaibo channel does not admit vessels drawing
more than 12 ft., but there is a depth of 30 ft. inside and near the
city. Steam communication is maintained on the Catatumbo
and Zulia rivers to Villamizar, and on the Escalante to Santa
Cruz. The principal exports from Maracaibo are coffee, hides
and skins, cabinet and dye-woods, cocoa, and mangrove bark,
to which may be added dividivi, sugar, copaiba, gamela and hemp
straw for paper-making, and fruits. In 1906, 26% of the coffee
exports was of Colombian origin.
Maracaibo was foundednn 1571 by Alonso Pacheco, who gave
it the name Nueva Zamora. Up to 1668 the entrep6t for the
inland settlements was a station named Gibraltar at the head of
the lake, but the destruction of that station by pirates in that
year transferred this valuable trade to Maracaibo. The city did
not figure actively in the War of Independence until 1821 (Jan.
28), when the province declared its independence and sought an
alliance with Colombia. This brought to an end the armistice
between Bolivar and Morillo, and thenceforward the city ex-
perienced all the changing fortunes of war until its final capture
by the revolutionists in 1823.
MARAGHA, a town of Persia in the province of Azerbaijan,
on the Safi River, in 37 23' N., 46 16' E., 80 m. from Tabriz.
Pop. about 16,000. It is pleasantly situated in a narrow valley
running nearly north and south at the eastern extremity of a
well-cultivated plain opening towards Lake Urmia, which lies
18 m. to the west. The town is encompassed by a high wall
ruined in many places, and has four gates. Two stone bridges in
good condition, said to have been constructed during the reign
of Hulaku Khan (1256-1265), and since then several times
repaired, lead over the Safi River on the western side of the town.
The place is surrounded by extensive vineyards and orchards,
all well watered by canals led from the river, and producing
great quantities of fruit for exportation to Russia. On a hill
west of the town are the remains of a famous observatory (rasad)
constructed under the direction of the great astronomer Nasr-ud-
din of Tus. The hills west of the town consist of horizontal
strata of sandstone covered with irregular pieces of basalt and
the top of the hill on which the observatory stood was made level
by taking away the basalt. The building, which no doubt served
as a citadel as well, enclosed a space of 380 yds. by 150, and the
foundations of the walls were 4$ to 5 ft. in thickness. The
marble, which is known throughout Persia as Maragha marble,
is a travertine obtained at the village of Dashkesen (Turkish for
668
MARANHAO MARASH
" stone-breakers " (about 30 m. north-west from Maragha. It
is deposited from water, which bubbles up from a number of
springs in the form of horizontal layers, which at first are thin
crusts and can easily be broken, but gradually solidify and
harden into blocks with a thickness of 7 to 8 in. It is a singu-
larly beautiful substance, being of pink, greenish, or milk-white
colour, streaked with reddish, copper-coloured veins. An
analysis of the marble gave the following result: calcium
carbonate, 90-93; magnesium, -75; iron, 1-37; manganese, 4-34;
calcium sulphate, 2-30; calcium phosphate, -24 (R. T. Giinther,
Geog. Journ. xiv. 517).
MARANHAO, or MARANHAM (Span. Maranon, the name given
to the upper Amazon), a northern state of Brazil, bounded
N. by the Atlantic, E. and S.E. by Piauhy, S.W. and W. by
Goyaz and Para. Area, 177,569 sq. m.; pop. (1890), 430,854;
(1900), 499,308. The coastal zone and the north-west corner of
the state belong to the Amazon valley region, being a heavily
forested plain traversed by numerous rivers. The eastern and
southern parts, however, belong to the lower terraces of the great
Brazilian plateau, broken by eroded river-courses between which
are high open plains. There are no true mountain ranges in
Maranhao, those indicated on the maps being only plateau
escarpments marking either its northern margin or the outlines
of river valleys. The climate is hot, and the year is divided into
a wet and dry season, extreme humidity being characteristic
of the former. The heat, however, is greatly modified on the
coast by the south-east trade winds, and the climate is generally
considered healthy, though beri-beri and eruptive diseases are
common on the coast. The coast itself is broken and dangerous,
there being many small indentations, which are usually masked
by islands or shoals. The largest of these are the Bay of Tury-
assu, facing which is the island of Sao Joao, and several others of
small size, and the contiguous bays of Sao Marcos and Sao Jose,
between which is the large island of Maranhao. The rivers of
the state all flow northward to the Atlantic and a majority
of them have navigable channels. The Parnahyba forms the
eastern boundary of Maranhao, but it has one large tributary,
the Balsas, entirely within the state. A part of the western
boundary is formed by the TocantinS, and another part by the
Gurupy, which separates the state from Para. The principal
rivers of the state are the Maracassume and Tury-assu, the
Mearim and its larger tributaries (the Pindare, Grajahu, Flores
and Corda) which discharge into the Bay of Sao Marcos, and the
Itapicuru and Monim which discharge into the Bay of Sao Jose.
Like the Amazon, the Mearim has a pororoca or bore in its lower
channel, which greatly interferes with navigation. There are a
number of small lakes in the state, some of which are, apparently,
merely reservoirs for the annual floods of the rainy season.
The principal industries of Maranhao are agricultural, the
river valleys and coastal zone being highly fertile and being
devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane, cotton, rice, coffee,
tobacco, mandioca and a great variety of fruits. The southern
highlands, however, are devoted to stock-raising, which was once
an important industry. Troublesome insects, vampire bats,
and the failure to introduce new blood into the degenerated
herds, are responsible for its decline. Agriculture has also
greatly declined, the state producing for export only a compara-
tively small quantity of cotton, rice, sugar and aguardiente.
Besides Sao Luiz, the capital of the state, the principal towns,
with the population of their municipal districts in 1890, are :
Caxias (19,443), Alcantara (4730), Carolina (7266), Grajahu
(11,704), Tury-assti (8983) and Viana (9965).
The coast of Maranhao was first discovered by Pinzon in 1 500,
but it was included in the Portuguese grant of captaincies in
1534- The first European settlement, however, was made by a
French trading expedition under Jacques Riffault, of Dieppe, in
1594, who lost two of his three vessels in the vicinity of the
island of Maranhao, and left a part of his men on that island
when he returned home. Subsequently Daniel de la Rivardiere
was sent to report on the place, and was then commissioned by
the French crown to found a colony on the island; this was done
in 1612. The French were expelled by the Portuguese in 1615,
;
:
and the Dutch held the island from 1641 to 1644. In 1621
Ceara, Maranhao and Para were united and called the " Estado
do Maranhao," which was made independent of the southern
captaincies. Ceara was subsequently detached, but the " state "
of Maranhao remained independent until 1774, when it again
became subject to the colonial administration of Brazil. Maran-
hao did not join in the declaration of independence of 1822, but
in the following year the Portuguese were driven out by Admiral
Lord Cochrane and the province became a part of the new empire
of Brazil.
MARANO (accursed or banned), a term applied to Jewish
Christians in Spain. Converted to Roman Catholicism under
compulsion, these " New Christians " often continued to ob-
serve Jewish rites in their homes, as the Inquisition records
attest. It was in fact largely due to the Maranos that the Spanish
Inquisition was founded. The Maranos made rapid strides in
prosperity, and " accumulated honours, wealth and popular
hatred " (Lea, History of the Spanish Inquisition, i. 125). This
was one of the causes that led to the expulsion of the Jews from
Spain in 1492. Maranos emigrated to various countries, but
many remained in the Peninsula. Subsequently distinguished
individuals left home for more tolerant lands. The Jewish
community in London was refounded by Maranos in the first
half of the I7th century. Hamburg commerce, too, owed
much to the enterprise of Portuguese Maranos. In Amsterdam
many Maranos found asylum; Spinoza was descended from
such a family. There are still remnants of Marano families in
Portugal.
See Lea, loc. cit. and elsewhere; see index s.v. " New Christian ";
Graetz, History of the Jews, Eng. trans, see index s.v. " Marranos ";
M. Kayserling, in Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 318 seq. ; and for the
present day Jewish Quarterly Review, xv. 251 seq. (I. A.)
MARASH (anc. Germanicia-Marasion), the chief town of a
sanjak of the same name in the Aleppo vilayet, altitude 2600 ft.
situated E. of the Jihan river, at the foot of Mt Taurus. The
sanjak lies almost wholly in Mt Taurus, and includes the Arme-
nian town of Zeitun. Marash is prosperous, and has a large trade
in Kurd carpets and embroideries. The climate is good, except
in summer. Of the population (50,000) about half are Turkish-
speaking Armenians. There are a college, church and schools
belonging to the American mission, a native Protestant church
and a Jesuit establishment. The site, which lies near the
mouths of the three main passes over the eastern Taurus viz.
those descending from Geuksun (Cocysus), Albistan-Yarpuz
(Arabissus), and Malatia (Melitene) is shown to have had early
importance, not only by the occurrence of Marasi in Assyrian
inscriptions, but by the discovery of several " Hittite " monu-
ments on the spot. These, said to have been unearthed, for the
most part, near the Kirk Geuz spring above the modern town,
are now in Constantinople and America, and include an inscribed
lion, once built into the wall of the citadel known in the middle
ages as al-Marwani, and several stelae. No more is known of the
place until it appears as Germanicia-Caesarea, striking imperial
coins with the head of L. Verus (middle of 2nd cent. A.D.). The
identification of Marash with Germanicia has been disputed, but
successfully defended by Sir W. M. Ramsay; and it is borne out
by the Armenian name Kermanig, which has been given to the
place since at least the i2th century. Before the Roman period
Marash doubtless shared the fortunes of the Seleucid kingdom of
Commagene. Germanicia-Marasion played a great part in
Byzantine border warfare: Heraclius was there in A.D. 640; but
before 700 it had passed into Saracen hands and been rebuilt by
the caliph Moawiya. During the 8th and 9th centuries, when
the direct pass from Cocysus came into military use, Marasion
(the older name had returned into general use) was often the
Byzantine objective and was more than once retaken; but after
770, when Mansur incorporated it in " Palestine " it remained
definitely in Moslem power and was refortified by Harun-al-
Rashid. It was seized by the crusaders after their march across
Mt Taurus, A.D. 1097, became an important town of Lesser
Armenia and was taken by the Seljuks in 1147. In the i6th
century it was added to the Osmanli Empire by Selim I. Marash
MARAT
669
passed with the rest of Syria into Egyptian hands in 1832, and in
1839 received fugitives from the defeat of Nizib, among whom
was Moltke. Ibrahim Pasha was encamped near it when directed
by his father, at the bidding of the powers, to stay his further
advance. Since its reversion to Ottoman power ( 1 840) the history
of Marash has been varied only by Armenian troubles, largely
connected with the fortunes of Zeitun, for the reduction of which
place it has more than once been used as a base. There was
less disturbance there in 1895-1896 than in other north Syrian
towns. (D. G. H.)
MARAT, JEAN PAUL (1743-1793), French revolutionary
leader, eldest child of Jean Paul Marat, a native of Cagliari
in Sardinia, and Louise Cabrol of Geneva, was born at Boudry,
in the principality of Neuchatel, on the 24th of May 1743. His
father was a designer, who had abandoned his country and his
religion, and married a Swiss Protestant. On his mother's death
in 1759 Marat set out on his travels, and spent two years at
Bordeaux in the study of medicine, whence he moved to Paris,
where he made use of his knowledge of his two favourite sciences,
optics and electricity, to subdue an obstinate disease of the eyes.
After some years in Paris he went to Holland, and then on to
London, where he practised his profession. In 1773 he made
his first appearance as an author with a Philosophical Essay
on Man. The book shows a wonderful knowledge of English,
French, German, Italian and Spanish philosophers, and directly
attacks Helvetius, who had in his De I'esprit declared a know-
ledge of science unnecessary for a philosopher. Marat declares
that physiology alone can solve the problems of the connexion
between soul and body, and proposes the existence of a nervous
fluid as the true solution. In 1774 he published The Chains of
Slavery, which was intended to influence constituencies to return
popular members, and reject the king's friends. Its author
declared later that it procured him an honorary membership of
the patriotic societies of Carlisle, Berwick and Newcastle. He
remained devoted to his profession, and in 1775 published in
London a little Essay on Gleets, and in Amsterdam a French
translation of the first two volumes of his Essay on Man. In
this year he visited Edinburgh, and on the recommendation of
certain Edinburgh physicians was made an M.D. of St Andrews.
On his return to London he published an Enquiry into the Nature,
Cause, and Cure of a Singular Disease of the Eyes, with a dedica-
tion to the Royal Society. In the same year there appeared the
third volume of the French edition of the Essay on Man, which
reached Ferney, and exasperated Voltaire, by its onslaught on
Helvetius, into a sharp attack which only made the young author
more conspicuous. His fame as a clever doctor was now great,
and on the 24th of June 1777, the comte d'Artois, afterwards
Charles X. of France, made him by brevet physician to his guards
with 2000 livres a year and allowances.
Marat was soon in great request as a court doctor among the
aristocracy; and even Brissot, in his Mfmoires, admits his influ-
ence in the scientific world of Paris. The next years were much
occupied with scientific work, especially the study of heat, light
and electricity, on which he presented memoirs to the Acad6mie
des Sciences, but the academicians were horrified at his temerity
in differing from Newton, and, though acknowledging his in-
dustry, would not receive him among them. His experiments
greatly interested Benjamin Franklin, who used to visit him
and Goethe always regarded his rejection by the academy as
a glaring instance of scientific despotism. In 1780 he had
published at Neuchatel a Plan de legislation criminelle, founded
on the principles of Beccaria. In April 1786 he resigned his
court appointment. The results of his leisure were in 1787 a
new translation of Newton's Optics, and in 1788 his Me moires
acadimiques, ou nouvelles decouvertes sur la lumiere.
His scientific life was now over, his political life was to begin ;
in the notoriety of that political life his great scientific and
philosophical knowledge was to be forgotten, the high position
he had given up denied, and he himself scoffed at as an
ignorant charlatan, who had sold quack medicines about the
streets'of Paris, and been glad to earn a few sous in the stables of
the comte d'Artois. In 1788 the notables had met, and advised
the assembling of the states-general. The elections were the
cause of a flood of pamphlets, of which one, Ojfrande a la patrie,
was by Marat, and, though now forgotten, dwelt on much the
same points as the famous brochure of the Abb6 Sieyes: Qu'est-
ce que le tiers (tat? When the states-general met, Marat's
interest was as great as ever, and in June 1789 he published a
supplement to his 0/rande, followed in July by La constitution, in
which he embodies his idea of a constitution for France, and in
September by his Tableau des vices de la constitution d'Angleterre,
which he presented to the Assembly. The latter alone deserves
remark. The Assembly was at this time full of anglomaniacs,
who desired to establish in France a constitution similar to that
of England. Marat had seen that England was at this time
being ruled by an oligarchy using the forms of liberty, which,
while pretending to represent the country, was really being
gradually mastered by the royal power. His heart was now all
in politics; and he decided to start a paper. At first appeared
a single number of the Moniteur patriote, followed on the 1 2th
of September by the first number of the Publicists parisien,
which on the i6th of September took the title of L'Ami du
peuple and which he edited, with some interruptions, until the
2ist of September 1792.
The life of Marat now becomes part of the history of the French
Revolution. From the beginning to the end he stood alone.
He was never attached to any party; the tone of his mind was
to suspect whoever was in_power. About his paper, the incarna-
tion of himself, the first thing to be said is that the man always
meant what he said; no poverty, no misery or persecution, could
keep him quiet; he was perpetually crying, " Nous sommes
trahis." Whoever suspected any one had only to denounce
him to the Ami du peuple, and the denounced was never let
alone till he was proved innocent or guilty. Marat began by
attacking the most powerful bodies in Paris the Constituent
Assembly, the ministers, the corps municipal, and the court of
the Chatelet. Denounced and arrested, he was imprisoned
from the 8th of October to the 5th of November 1789. A second
time, owing to his violent campaign against Lafayette, he
narrowly escaped arrest and had to flee to London (Jan. 1790).
There he wrote his Dfnonciation centre Necker, and in May dared
to return to Paris and continue the Ami du peuple. He was
embittered by persecution, and continued his vehement attacks
against all in power, and at last, after the day of the Champs
du Mars (July 17, 1790), against the king himself. All this time
he was in hiding in cellars and sewers, where he was attacked by
a horrible skin disease, tended only by the woman Simonne
Evrard, who remained true to him. The end of the Constituent
Assembly he heard of with joy and with bright hopes for the
future, soon dashed by the behaviour of the Legislative Assembly.
When almost despairing, in December 1791, he fled once more
to London, where he wrote his Ecole du citoyen. In April 1792,
summoned again by the Cordeliers' Club, he returned to Paris,
and published No. 6s^ of the Ami. The war was now the
question, and Marat saw clearly that it was to serve the purposes
of the Royalists and the Girondins, who thought of themselves
alone. Again denounced, Marat had to remain in hiding until
the loth of August. The early days of the war being unsuccess-
ful, the proclamation of the duke of Brunswick excited all
hearts; who could go to save France on the frontiers and leave
Paris in the hands of his enemies? Marat, like Danton, foresaw
the massacres of September. After the events of the icth of
August he took his seat at the commune, and demanded a
tribunal to try the Royalists in prison. No tribunal was formed,
and the massacres in the prisons were' the inevitable result. In
the elections to the Convention, Marat was elected seventh out
of the twenty-four deputies for Paris, and for the first time took
his seat in an assembly of the nation. At the declaration of the
republic, he closed his Ami du peuple, and commenced, on the
25th, a new paper, the Journal de la rfpublique franc.aise, which
was to contain his sentiments as its predecessor had done, and
to be always on the watch. In the Assembly Marat had no party ;
he would always suspect and oppose the powerful, refuse power
for himself. After the battle of Valmy, Dumouriez was the
MARATHI
greatest man in France; he could almost have restored the
monarchy; yet Marat did not fear to denounce him in placards
as a traitor.
His unpopularity in the Assembly was extreme, yet he insisted
on speaking on the question of the king's trial, declared it unfair
to accuse Louis for anything anterior to his acceptance of the
constitution, and though implacable towards the king, as the
one man who must die for the people's good, he would not allow
Malesherbes, the king's counsel, to be attacked in his paper, and
speaks of him as a " sage et respectable vieillard." The king
dead, the months from January to May 1793 were spent in an
unrelenting struggle between Marat and the Girondins. Marat
despised the ruling party because they had suffered nothing for
the republic, because they talked too much of their feelings and
their antique virtue, because they had for their own virtues
plunged the country into war; while the Girondins hated Marat
as representative of that rough red republicanism which would
not yield itself to a Roman republic, with themselves for tribunes,
orators and generals. The Girondins conquered at first in the
Convention, and ordered that Marat should be tried before the
Revolutionary Tribunal. But their victory ruined them, for on
the 24th of April Marat was acquitted, and returned to the Con-
vention with the people at his back. The fall of the Girondins on
the 3ist of May was a triumph for Marat. But it was his last.
The skin disease he had contracted in the subterranean haunts
was rapidly closing his life; he could only ease his pain by sitting
in a warm bath, where he wrote his' journal, and accused the
Girondins, who were trying to raise France against Paris. Sitting
thus on the i3th of July he heard in the evening a young woman
begging to be admitted to see him, saying that she brought news
from Caen, where the escaped Girondins were trying to rouse
Normandy. He ordered her to be admitted, asked her the names
of the deputies then at Caen, and, after writing their names,
said, " They shall be soon guillotined," when the young girl,
whose name was Charlotte Corday (q.v.), stabbed him to the
heart.
His death caused a great commotion at Paris. The Convention
attended his funeral, and placed his bust in the hall where it
held its sessions. Louis David painted " Marat Assassinated,"
and a veritable cult was rendered to the Friend of the People,
whose ashes were transferred to the Pantheon with great pomp
on the 2ist of September 1794 to be cast out again in virtue
of the decree of the 8th of February 1795.
Marat's name was long an object of execration on account
of his insistence on the death penalty. He stands in history as
a bloodthirsty monster, yet in judging him one must remember
the persecutions he endured and the terrible disease from which
he suffered.
Besides the works mentioned above, Marat wrote: Recherches
physiques sur Vclectricite, &c. (1782); Recherches sur Velectricite
mkd.ica.le (1783); Notions elementaires d'optique (1764); Lettres de
I'observateur Bon Sens a M. de M. . . . sur la fatale catastrophe
des infortunes Pilatre de Rosier et Romain, les aeronautes et I' aerostation
(1785) ; Observations de M. I'amateur Avec a M. I'abbe Sans . . . &c.,
(1785) ; loge de Montesquieu (1785), published 1883 by M. de Bresetz ;
Les Charlatans modernes, ou lellres sur le charlatanisme academique
(1791); Les Aventures du comte Potowski (published in 1847 by Paul
Lacroix, the " bibliophile Jacob ") ; Lettres polonaises (unpublished).
Marat's works were published by A. Vermorel, (Euvres de J. P.
Marat, I'ami du peuple, recueillies et annotees (1869). Two of his
tracts, (i) On Gleets, (2) A Disease of the Eyes, were reprinted, ed.
J. B. Bailey, in 1891.
See A. Vermorel, Jean Paul Marat (1880); Francois Chevremont,
Marat: esprit politique, accomp. de sa vie (2 vols., 1880) ; Auguste
Cabanas, Marat inconnu (1891); A. Bougeart, Marat, I'ami du
peuple (2 vols., 1865); M. Tourneux, Bibliographic de Vhistoire de
Paris pendant la revolution fran^aise (vol. ii., 1894; vol. iv., 1906),
and E. B. Bax, J. P. Marat (1900). The Correspondence de Marat
has been edited with notes by C. Villay (1908). (R. A.*)
MARATHI (properly Marathi), 1 the name of an important
Indo-Aryan language spoken in western and central India. In
1 The name is sometimes spelt Mahrathi, with an h before the r,
but, according to a phonetic law of the Aryan languages of western
India, this is incorrect. The original h in " Maharastri," from which
the word is derived, is liable to elision on coming between two
vowels.
1901 the number of speakers was 18,237,899, or about the same
as the population of Spain. Marathi occupies an irregular trian-
gular area of approximately 100,000 sq.m., having its apex about
the district of Balaghat in the Central Provinces, and for its base
the western coast of the penmsula from Daman on the Gulf of
Cambay in the north to Karwar on the open Arabian Sea in the
south. It covers parts of two provinces of British India Bom-
bay and the Central Provinces (including Berar) with numerous
settlers in Central India and Madras, and is also the principal
language of Portuguese India and of the north-western portion
of His Highness the Nizam's dominions. The standard form
of speech is that of Poona in Bombay, and, in its various dialects
it covers the larger part of that province, in which it is the
vernacular of more than eight and a half millions of people.
As explained in the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, there were
in ancient times two main groups of these forms of speech one,
the language of the Midland, spoken in the country near the
Gangetic Doab, and the other, the languages of the so-called
" Outer Band," containing the Midland on three sides, west,
east and south. The country to the south of the Midland, in
which members of this Outer group of languages were formerly
spoken, included the modern Rajputana and Gujarat, and
extended to the basin of the river Nerbudda, being bounded
on the south by the Vindhya hills. In the course of time the
population of the Midland expanded, and gradually occupied
this tract, reaching the sea in Gujarat. The language of the
Outer Band was thus forced farther afield. Its speakers crossed
the Vindhyas and settled in the central plateau of the Deccan
and on the Konkan coast. Here they came into contact with
speakers of the Dravidian languages of southern India. As
happened elsewhere in India, they retained their own Aryan
tongue, and gradually through the influence of their superior
civilization imposed it upon the aborigines, so that all the
inhabitants of this tract became the ancestors of the speakers
of modern Marathi.
In Rajputana and Gujarat the language (see GUJARAT) is to
a certain extent mixed. Near the original Midland there are
few traces of the Outer language, but as we go farther and farther
away from that centre we find, as might be expected, the influ-
ence of the Midland language becoming weaker and weaker, and
traces of the Outer language becoming more and more evident,
until in Gujarati we recognize several important survivals of the
old language once spoken by the earlier Aryan inhabitants.
Dialects. Besides the standard form of speech, there is only
one real dialect of Marathi, viz. Konkani (Konkani), spoken in
the country near Goa. There are also several local varieties,
and we may conveniently distinguish between the Marathi of
the Deccan, that of the Central Provinces (including Berar), and
that of the northern and central Konkan. In the southern part
of the district of Ratnagiri this latter Konkani variety of Marathi
gradually merges into the true Konkani dialect through a number
of intermediate forms of speech. There are also several broken
jargones, based upon Marathi, employed by aboriginal tribes
surviving in the hill country.
Relations with other Indo-Aryan Languages. Marathi has
to its north, in order from west to east, Gujarati, Rajasthani,
Western Hindi and Eastern Hindi. To its east and south it
has the Dravidian languages, Gondi, Telugu and Kanarese.
Elsewhere in India Aryan languages gradually fade away into
each other, so that it is impossible to fix any definite boundary
line between them. But this is not the case with Marathi. It
does not merge into any of the cognate neighbouring forms of
speech, but possesses a distinct linguistic frontier. A native
writer 2 says: " The Gujarati language agrees very closely with
the languages of the countries lying to the north of it, because
the Gujarati people came from the north. If a native of Delhi,
Ajmere, Marwar, Mewar, Jaipur, &c., comes into Gujarat, the
Gujarati people find no difficulty in understanding his language.
But it is very wonderful that when people from countries border-
ing Gujarat on the south, as the Konkan, Maharashtra, &c.
2 Shastri Vrajlal Kalidas, quoted by Beames in Comparative
Grammar, i. 102.
MARATHI
671
(i.e. people speaking Marathi) come to Gujarat, the Gujarati
people do not in the least comprehend what they say." This
isolated character of Marathi is partly due to the barrier of the
Vindhya range which lies to its north, and partly to the fact that
none of the northern languages belongs now to the Outer Band,
but are in more or less close relationship to the language of the
Midland. There was no common ground either physical or
linguistic, upon which the colliding forms of speech could meet
on equal terms. Eastern Hindi is more closely related to Marathi
than the others, and in its case, in its bordering dialects, we
do find a few traces of the influence of Marathi traces which
are part of the essence of the language, and not mere borrowed
waifs floating on the top of a sea of alien speech and not
absorbed by it.
Written Character. Marathi books are generally printed in
the well-known Nagari character (see SANSKRIT) , and this is also
used to a great extent in private transactions and correspon-
dence. In the Maratha country it is known as the Balbodh
(" teachable to children," i.e. " easy ") character. A cursive
form of Nagari called Modi, or " twisted," is also employed as
a handwriting. It is said to have been invented in the
17th century by Balaji Avaji, the secretary of the celebrated
Sivaji. Its chief merit is that each word can be written as a
whole without lifting the pen from the paper, a feat which is
impossible in the case of Nagari. 1
Origin of the Language. The word " Marathi " signifies (the
language) of the Maratha country. It is the modern form of
the Sanskrit Maharatsri, just as " Maratha " represents the old
Ma.ha.-ra.slr a, or Great Kingdom. Mahard$tri was the name
given by Sanskrit writers to the particular form of Prakrit
spoken in Maharatra, the great Aryan kingdom extending south-
wards from the Vindhya range to the Kistna, broadly corre-
sponding to the southern part of the Bombay Presidency and to
the state of Hyderabad. As pointed out in the article PRAKRIT
this Maharajtrl early obtained literary pre-eminence in India,
and became the form of Prakrit employed as the language not
only of lyric poetry but also of the formal epic (kavya) . Dramatic
works were composed in it, and it was the vehicle of the
non-canonical scriptures of the Jaina religion. The oldest work
in the language of which we have any knowledge is the Saltasat,
or Seven Centuries of verses, compiled at Pratisthana, on the
Godavari, the capital of King Hala, at some time between the
3rd and 7th centuries A.D. Pratisthana is the modern Paithan
in the Aurangabad district of Hyderabad, and that city was for
long famous as a centre of literary composition. In later times
the political centre of gravity was changed to Poona, the language
of which district is now accepted as the standard of the best
Marathi.
General Character of the Language. In the following account
of the main features of Marathi, the reader is presumed to be
familiar with the leading facts stated in the articles INDO-ARYAN
LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT. In the Prakrit stage of the Indo-
Aryan languages we can divide the Prakrits into two well-
defined groups, an Inner, Sauraseni and its connected dialects
on the one hand, and an Outer, Maharatri, Ardhamagadhi,
and Magadhl with their connected dialects on the other. These
two groups differed in their phonetic laws, in their systems of
declension and conjugation, in vocabulary, and in general char-
acter. 2 In regard to the last point reference may be made
to the frequent use of meaningless suffixes, such as -alia, -tila,
-ulLi, &c., which can be added, almost ad libitum to any noun,
adjective or particle in Maharatri and Ardhamagadhi, but
which are hardly ever met in Sauraseni. These give rise to
numerous secondary forms of words, used, it might be said, in
a spirit of playfulness, which give a distinct flavour to the whole
language. Similarly the late Mr Beames (Comparative Grammar,
i. 103) well describes Marathi as possessing "a very' decided
individuality, a type quite its own, arising from its comparative
1 See B. A. Gupte in Indian Antiquary (1905), xxxiv. 27.
1 For details see Dr Sten Konow's article on Maharastri and
Marat,hi in Indian Antiquary (1903), xxxii. 180 seq.
isolation for so many centuries." Elsewhere (p. 38) he uses
language which would easily well apply to Maharatri Prakrit
when he says, " Marathi is one of those languages which we
may call playful it delights in all sorts of jingling formations,
and has struck out a larger quantity of secondary and tertiary
words, diminutives, and the like, than any of the cognate
tongues," and again (p. 52):
" In Marathi we see the results of the Pandit's file applied to a
form of speech originally possessed of much natural wildness and
licence. The hedgerows have been pruned and the wild briars
and roses trained into order. It is a copious and beautiful language,
second only to Hindi. It has three genders, and the same elaborate
preparation of the base as Sindhi, and, owing to the great corruption
which has taken place in its terminations, the difficulty of determin-
ing the gender of nouns is as great in Marathi as in German. In
fact, if we were to institute a parallel in this respect, we might
appropriately describe Hindi as the English, Marathi as the German
of the Indian group Hindi having cast aside whatever could
possibly be dispensed with, Marathi having retained whatever has
been spared by the action of time. To an Englishman Hindi
commends itself by its absence of form, and the positional structure
of its sentences resulting therefrom; to our High-German cousins
the Marathi, with its fuller array of genders, terminations, and
inflexions, would probably seem the completer and finer language."
In the article PRAKRIT it is explained that the literary Prakrits
were not the direct parents of the modern Indo-Aryan ver-
naculars. Each Prakrit had first to pass through an intermediate
stage that of the Apabhramsa before it took the form current
at the present day. While we know a good deal about Maha-
rastn and very little about Sauraseni Prakrit, the case is reversed
in regard to their respective Apabhramsas. The Saurasena
Apabhramsa is the only one concerning which we have definite
information. Although it would be quite possible to reason
from analogy, and thus to obtain what would be the corre-
sponding forms of Maharatra Apabhramsa, we should often be
travelling upon insecure ground, and it is therefore advisable
to compare Marathi, not with the Apabhramsa from which it
is immediately derived, but with its grandmother, Maharatri
Prakrit. We shall adopt this course, so far as possible, in the
following pages.
Vocabulary. In the article INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES it is ex-
plained that, allowing for phonetic development, the vocabulary
of Sauraseni Prakrit was the same as that of Sanskrit, but that the
farther we go from the Midland, the more examples we meet of a new
class of words, the so-called desyas, descendants of the old Primary
Prakrits spoken outside the Midland, and strange to Sanskrit.
Maharas^ri Prakrit, the most independent of the Outer languages,
was distinguished by the large proportion of these desyas found in
its vocabulary, and the same is consequently the case in Marathi.
The Brahmins of the Maratha country have always had a great
reputation for learning, and their efforts to create a literary language
out of their vernacular took, as in other parts of India, the direction
of borrowing tatsamas from Sanskrit, to lend what they considered
to be dignity to their sentences. But the richness of the language in
desya words has often rendered such borrowing unnecessary, anal has
saved Marathi, although the proportion of tatsamas to tadbhavas* in
the language is more than sufficiently high, from the fate of the
Pandit-ridden literary Bengali, in which 80 to 90 % of the vocabulary
is pure Sanskrit. There is indeed a tradition of stylistic chastity
in the Maratha country from the earliest times, and even Sanskrit
writeip contrasted the simple elegance of the Deccan (or Vaidarbhi)
style with the flowery complexity of eastern India.
The proportion of Persian and, through Persian, of Arabic words
in the Marathi vocabulary is comparatively low, when compared
with, say, Hindostani. The reason is, firstly, the predominance
in the literary world of these learned Brahmins, and, secondly, the
fact that the Maratha country was not conquered by the Mussulmans
till a fairly late period, nor was it so thoroughly occupied by them
as were Sind, the Punjab, and the Gangetic valley.
Phonetics. 4 In the standard dialect the vowels are the same as
in Sanskrit, but r and / only appear in words borrowed directly from
that language (tatsamas). Final short vowels (a, i and ) have all
disappeared in prose pronunciation, except in a few local dialects,
and final t and u are not even written. On the other hand, in the
Nagari character, the non-pronunciation of a final a is not indicated.
After an accented syllable a medial a is pronounced very lightly, even
when the accent is not the main accent of the word. Thus, if we
indicate the main accent by ', and subsidiary accents (equivalent
' For the explanation of these terms see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES.
4 Abbreviations : Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Maharastri Prakrit.
M. = Marathi.
672
MARATHI
to the Hebrew methegh) by \ then the word kdrawat, a saw, is pro-
nounced kdr a wat; and k&lakdfanl, to be agitated, is pronounced
kal a kd(''ne. In Konkani the vowel a assumes the sound of o in " hot,"
a sound which is also heard in the language of Bengal. In dialectic
speech e is often interchangeable with short or long a, so that the
standard sdngifle, it was said, may appear as sangifld or sangifla.
The vowels e and o are apparently; always long in the standard dia-
lect, thus following Sanskrit ; but in Konkani there is a short and a
long form of each vowel. Very probably, although the distinction is
not observed in writing, and has not been noticed by native scholars,
these vowels are also pronounced short in the standard dialect under
the circumstances to be now described. When a long a, i or u
precedes an accented syllable it is usually shortened. In the case
of a the shortening is not indicated by the spelling, but the written
long 6 is pronounced short like the & in the Italian batto. Thus, the
dative of pik, a ripe crop, is pikds, and that of hat, a hand, is hdtds,
pronounced hdtds. Almost the only compound consonants which
survived in the Prakrit stage were double letters, and in M. these are
usually simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened in compen-
sation. Thus, the Prakrit kanno becomes kan, an ear; Pr. bhikkha
becomes bhik, alms; and Pr. putto becomes put, a son. In the
Pisaca (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES) and other languages of north-
western India it is not usual to lengthen the vowel in compensation,
and the same tendency is observable in Konkani, which, it may
be remarked, appears to contain many relics of the old Prakrit
(Saurastri) spoken in the Gujarat country before the invasion from
the Midland. Thus, in Konkani, we have put as well as put,
while the word corresponding to the Pr. ekko, one, is ek as well as
the standard ek.
On the whole, the consonantal system is much the same as in other
Indian languages. Nasalization of long vowels is very common,
especially in Konkani. In this article it is indicated by the sign -
placed over the affected vowel. The palatals are pronounced as in
Skr. in words borrowed from that language or from Hindostani, and
also in Marathi tadbhavas before ', i, e or y. Thus, cand (tatsama),
fierce; jama (Hindostani), collected; cikhal (M. tadbhava), mud.
In other cases they are pronounced ts, tsh, dz, dzh respectively.
Thus tsakar (for cdkar), a servant; dzane (for jane), to go. There are
two s-sounds in the standard dialect which are very similarly dis-
tinguished. 5, pronounced like an English sh, is used before i, i, e
or y; and s, as in English " sin," elsewhere. Thus, simphi, a caste-
name; fil, a stone; Set. a field; Syam, dark blue; but sap, a snake;
sumar (Persian shumdr), an estimate; stri, a woman. In the dialects
5 is practically the only sibilant used, and that is changed by the
vulgar speakers of Konkani to h (again as in north-western India).
Aspirated letters show a tendency to lose their aspiration, especially
in Konkani. Thus, bhik (for bMkh), alms, quoted above; hat (Pr.
hattho), a hand. In Konkani we have words such as boin, a sister,
against standard bhain; ger, standard ghart, in a house; ami,
standard amhi, we. Here again we have agreement with nojth-
western India. Generally speaking Marathi closely follows Maha-
raja when that differs from the Prakrits of other parts of India.
Thus we have Skr. vrajati, Maharas^ri vaccai (instead of vajjai), he
goes; Konkani votsu, to go; Sauraseni genhiduim, Mah&ra^ri ghettum,
to take ; Marathi ghefl?, taken. There is similarly both in Marathi
and Maharastri a laxness in distinguishing between cerebral and
dental letters (which again reminds us of north-western I ndia) . Thus,
Skr. do.ia.li, M_aharast.ii dasai, he bites; M. das"ni to bite; Skr.
dahali, Maharastri fahai, he burns; M. dadz"ne, to be hot; Skr.
gardabhas; Sauraseni gaddaho; Hindostani gadha; but Maharas^ri
gaddaho; M. g&dhav, an ass; and so many others. In Maharastrl
every n becomes n, but in Jaina MSS. when the n was initial or
doubled it remained unchanged. A similar rule is followed regarding
/ and the cerebral I common in Vedic Sanskrit, in MSS. coming from
southern India, and, according to the grammarians, also in the
Pisaca dialects of the north-west. In M. a Pr. double tin or II is
simplified, according to the usual rule, to n or / respectively, with
lengthening of the preceding vowel in compensation. Both n and
/ are of frequent occurrence in M., but only as medial letters, and
then only when they represent n or fin the Pr. stage. When
the letter is initial |or represents a double nn or // of Pr. it is
always n or I respectively, thus offering a striking testimony to
the accuracy of the Jaina and southern MSS. Thus, ordinary
Maharastri na, but Jaina Maharastri na, M. na, not; Maharastri
(both kinds) ghano, M. ghan, dense; Maharastri sonnaam, Jaina
sonnaam, M. sone", gold; Maharastri kalo, time, southern MSS. of
the same kalo, M. ka(, time; Maharastrl callai, M. tsale, he goes or
used to go. In some of the local dialects, following the Vedic practice,
we find I where d is employed elsewhere, as in (Berar) ghola for
ghoda, a horse; and there are instances of this change occurring
even in Maharast.ri; e.g. Skr. tadagam, Maharastri ta}aam, M. to/?,
a pond.
The Skr. compound consonant jH is pronounced dny in the
standard dialect, but gy in the Konkan. Thus, Skr. jnanam be-
comes dnyan or gyan according to locality.
Declension. Marathi and Gujarati are the only Indo-Aryan
languages which have retained the three genders, masculine,
feminine and neuter, of Sanskrit and Prakrit. In rural dialects of
Western Hindi and of Rajasthani sporadic instances of the neuter
n;
S
id
gender have survived, but elsewhere the only example occurs in the
interrogative pronoun. In Marathi the neuter denotes not only
inanimate things but also animate beings when both sexes are
included, or when the sex is left undecided. Thus, ghode, neut., a
horse, without regard to sex. In the Konkan the neuter gender is
further employed to denote females below the age of puberty, as in
cedu, a girl. Numerous masculine and feminine words, however,
denote inanimate objects. The rules for distinguishing the gender
of such nouns are as complicated as in German, and must be
learned from the grammars. For the most part, but not always,
words follow the genders of their Skr. originals, and the abrasion
of terminations in the modern language renders it impossible to lay
down any complete set of rules on the subject. We may, however,
say that strong bases (see below) in a and these do not include
tatsamas are masculine, and that the corresponding feminine and
neuter words end in I and 2 respectively. Thus, mul"ga, a son;
mul"gi, a daughter; mul"ge, a child of so and so. As a further
guide we may say x that sex is usually distinguished by the u:
of the masculine and feminine genders, and that large and
powerful inanimate objects are generally masculine, while small,
delicate things are generally feminine. In the case of some
animals (as in our " horse " and " mare ") sex is distinguished by thi
use of different words; e.g. bokad, he-goat, and sell, a nanny-goat.
The nominative form of a tadbhava word is derived from the
nominative form in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but tatsama words are
generally borrowed in the form of the Sanskrit crude base. Thus,
Skr. crude base malin, nom. sing, malt; Pr. npm. malio (malio);
M. mall (tadbhava), a gardener; Skr. base mati-; nom. matis; M.
mati (tatsama). Some tatsamas are, however, borrowed in the nomi-
native form, as in Skr. dhanin, nom. dhani; M. dhani, a rich ma:
In Prakrit the nominative singular of many masculine tatsa:
ended in 6. In the Apabhramsa stage this o was weakened to , an
in modern Marathi, under the general rule, this final short u w;
dropped, the noun thus reverting as stated above to the form of tl
Sanskrit crude base. But in old Marathi, the short u was sti
retained. Thus, the Sanskrit isvaras, lord, became, as a Pra
tatsama, iSvaro, which in Apabhramsa took the form isvaru. The ol<
Marathi form was also isvaru, but in modern Marathi we have iivar.
Tadbhavas derived from Sanskrit bases in a are treated very similarly
the termination being dropped in the modern language. Thus
Skr. nom. masc. karnas, Pr. kanno, M. kan; Skr. nom. sing, fei
khafva, Pr. kha((a, M. khdf, a bed; Skr. nom. sing. neut. grjiam, Pr,
gharam, M. ghar, a house. Sometimes the Skr. nom. sing. fern, e'
these nouns ends in i, but this makes no difference, as in Skr. an
Pr. cutti, M. cul, a fireplace. There is one important set of exceptioi
to this rule. In the article PRAKRIT attention is drawn to the ir
quent use of pleonastic suffixes, especially of -(a)ka- (masc. and neut.)
-(i)ka (fern.). This could in Sanskrit be added to any noun, whatevi
the termination of the base might be. In Prakrit the k of this suffi:
being medial, was elided, so that we get forms like Skr. nom. sing,
masc. ghofa-kas, Pr. ghoda-o, M. ghoda, a horse; Skr. nom. sing, fei
gho(i-kd, Pr. ghodi-a, M. ghodi, a mare; Skr. gho(a-kam, Pr. ghdi
(y)am, M. ghdtfe, a horse (without distinction of sex). Such mod
form's made with this pleonastic suffix, and ending in a, I or e
called " strong forms,' while all those made without it are call
" weak forms. ' As a rule the fact that a noun is in a weak or
strong form does not affect its meaning, but sometimes the u:
of a masculine strong form indicates clumsiness or hugeness.
Thus bhakar (weak form) means " bread," while bhak'ra (strong
form) means " a huge loaf of bread." The other pleonastic
suffixes mentioned under PRAKRIT are also employed in Marathi
but usually with specific senses. Thus the suffix -ilia- generajl
forms adjectives, while -da-ka- (in M. -da, fern, -dt, neut. -de) impli
contempt.
The synthetic declension of Sanskrit and Prakrit has been pre-
served in Marathi more completely than in any other Indo-Aryan
language. While Maharastrl Prakrit, like all others, passed through
the Apabhramsa stage in the course of its development, the con-
servative character of the language retained even in that stage some
of the old pure Maharastrl forms. In the article PRAKRIT we have
seen how there gradually arose a laxity in distinguishing the cases.
In Maharastri the Sanskrit dative fell into almost entire disuse, the
genitive being used in its place, while in Apabhramsa the case
terminations become worn down to -hu, -ho, -hi, -hi and -ha, of which
-hi and -hi were employed for several cases, both singular and plural.
There was also a marked tendency for these terminations to become
confused, so that in the earliest stages of most of the modern Indo-
Aryan vernaculars we find -hi freely employed for any oblique case
of the singular, and -hi for any oblique case of the plural. Another
feature of Prakrit was the simplification of the complicated declen-
sional system of Sanskrit by assimilating it in all cases to the declen-
sion of a-bases, corresponding to the first and second declensions in
Latin.
In the formation of the plural the Prakrit declensions are very
closely followed by Marathi. We shall confine our remarks to
a-bases, which may be either weak or strong forms, and of which the
feminine ends sometimes in a, and sometimes in I. In Prakrit the
nom. plur. of these nouns ends masc. a, fern, ad, id, neut. Sim. We
thus get the following:
MARATHI
673
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom. Sing.
Nom. Plur.
Nom. Sing.
Nom. Plur.
Nom. Sing.
Nom. Plur.
Nom. Sing.
Nom. Plur.
Weak form.
Prakrit ....
Marathi.
Strong form.
Prakrit ....
Marathi ....
kanno,
an ear.
kdn
ghotfad,
a horse.
ghoifd
kannd
kdn
gho^ayd
ghd(fe
khattd,
a bed.
khdf
ghotfid,
a mare.
ghoifi
khaftdd
khdtd
ghoifidd
ghoifyd
cuffi,
a fireplace.
em
cullio
cuti
ghararh,
a house.
ghar
*gho4ayaih,
a horse.
ghotfi
gkardiiti
ghare
*gho4aydirh
gho<fi
Several of the old synthetic cases have survived in Marathi,
especially in the antique form of the language preserved in poetry.
Most of them have fallen into disuse in the modern prose language.
\\V may note the following, some of which have preserved the
Muharastri forms, while others are directly derived from the Apa-
bhramsa stage of the language. We content ourselves with giving
some of the synthetic cases of one noun, a weak neuter o-base, ghar,
a house.
Sing.
Nominative .
Dative .
Locative
General oblique
Plur.
Nominative
Locative
General oblique
Maharastri Prakrit.
Apabhramsa.
Marathi.
gharaih
gharassa (genitive)
ghare
gharassa (genitive)
ghardirh
gharesu
ghardna (genitive)
gharu
gharaho (genitive)
gharahi (-hi)
gharaho (genitive)
gharai
gharahi (-hi)
gharahd (genitive)
ghar
ghards (dative)
ghart, ghard
ghards, ghard
ghare
ghart^
ghara
As already stated, in Prakrit the genitive is employed instead of
the dative, and thus forms the basis of the Marathi dative singular.
The genitive plural is not used as a dative plural in Marathi, but it
is the basis of the plural general oblique case. The Marathi singular
general oblique case is really the same as the Marathi dative singular,
but in the standard form of speech when so used the final s is dropped,
ghards, as a general oblique case, being only found in dialects.
This general oblique case is the result of the confusion of the
various oblique cases originally distinguished in Sanskrit and in
literary Prakrit. In Apabhramsa the genitive began to usurp the
function of all the other cases. It is obvious that if it were regularly
employed in so indeterminate a sense, it would give rise to great
confusion. Hence when it was intended to show clearly what parti-
cular case was meant, it became usual to add, to this indeterminate
genitive, defining particles corresponding to the English " of,"
to," "from," by," &c., which, as in all Indo-Aryan languages
thi-y follow the main word, are called " postpositions." Before
dealing with these, it will be convenient to give the modern Marathi
synthetic declension of the commoner forms of nouns. The only
synthetic case which is now employed in prose is the dative, and this
can always be formed from the general oblique case by adding an s to
the end of the word. It is therefore not given in the following table.
The accusative is usually the same as the nominative, but when
definiteness is required the dative is employed instead. The termina-
tion ne, with its plural ni, is, as explained in the article GUJARATI,
really the oblique form, by origin a locative, of the nd or no,
employed in Gujarati to form the genitive. The suffix nd of the
dative plural is derived from the same word. Here it is probably
a corruption of the Apabhramsa ndu or naho. The postposition Id
is probably a corruption of the Sanskrit labhe, Apabhramsa lahi, for
the benefit (of). As regards the ablative, we have
in old Marathi poetry a form corresponding to
ghardhu-niya, which explains the derivation.
Gharahu is a by-form of the Prakrit synthetic ablative
ghardu, to which niyd, another oblique form of nd,
is added to define the meaning. The locative
termination*^ is a contraction of the Pr. onto, Skr.
antar, within.
The genitive ghardtsa is really an adjective mean-
ing " belonging to the house," and agrees in
gender, number and case with the noun which is
possessed. Thus:
mdlydtsd ghotfd, the gardener's horse, mdfydci
ghoife, the gardener's horses.
m&lydci ghofi, the gardener's mare, mdlydcyd gho4yd, the
gardener's mares.
mdlydce gho<$, the gardener's horse (neut.). mdlydci ghoifi, the
gardener's horses (neut.).
The suffix tsa, ci, ce, is derived from the Sanskrit suffix tyakas,
Pr. cad, which is used in much the same sense. In Sanskrit it may
be added either to the locative or to the unmodified base of the word
to which it is attached, thus, ghofake-tyakas or ghd(aka-tyakas.
Similarly in Marathi, while it is usually added to the general oblique
base, it may also be added to the unmodified noun, in which case it
has a more distinctly adjectival force. The use of tsd has been
influenced by the fact that the Sanskrit word krtyas, Pr. kiccao, also
takes the same form in Marathi. As explained in the article
HINDOSTANI, synonyms of this word are used in other Indo-Aryan
languages to form suffixes of the genitive. 1
Strong adjectives, including genitives, can be declined like sub-
stantives, and agree with the qualified noun in gender, number and
case. When the substantive U in an oblique case, the adjective is
put into the general oblique form without any defining postposition,
which is added to the substantive alone. Weak adjectives are not
inflected in modern prose, but are inflected in poetry. As in other
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Meaning.
Ear.
Horse.
Gardener.
Bed.
Fireplace.
Mare.
House.
Horse.
Pearl.
Sing.
Nom
kdn
gho4d
mall
khdt
cut
ghofi
ghar
gho4e
molt
Gen. obi
kdnd
ghotfyd
mdfyd
khdfe
cuti
ghofi
ghard
gho4yd
motyd
Plur.
Nom
Gen. obi
kdn
kdna
gho<fe f
gho4ya
mdfi __
mdlya
khdla
khdfd
cult
cuti
gho4yd
ghoifyd
ghar\
ghara
gho4t
gho4ya
motye_
motyd
The usual postpositions arej
Instrumental: ne, plural ni, by. Dative: Id, plural also nd, to
or for. Ablative: hun, tin, from. Genitive: tsd, of. Locative;"*!,
in. We thus get the following complete modern declension of ghar, a
house (neut.) :
Sing.
Nom. ghar
Ace. ghar
Instr. ghardne
Dat. ghards, ghardld
Abl. ghardhun, gharun
Gen. ghardtsa
Loc. gharat
XVII. 22
Plur.
ghare
ghare^
gharani
ghards, ghardld, ghardna
gharahun
gharatsa
gharat
Indo-Aryan languages, comparison is effected by putting the noun
with which comparison is made in the ablative case.
The pronouns closely follow the Prakrit originals. The origin
of all these is discussed in the article HINDOSTANI, and the account
need not be repeated here. As usual in these languages, there
is no pronoun of the third person, its place being supplied by the
demonstratives. The following are the principal pronominal
forms :
1 Fuller information regarding all the above postpositions will
be found in G. A. Grierson's article " On Certain Suffixes in the
Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars," on pp. 473 seq. of the Zeitschrift
fiir vergleifhende Sprachforschung for 1903.
674
MARATHI
ml, I, instr. ml, myd, dat. mala, obi. made; dmhl, we, instr. amhl,
obi. dmha; mddzhd, my, of me; dmtsd, our, of us.
tu, thou, instr. tu, twd, dat. tula, obi. tedz; tumhl, you, instr.
</&!, obi. titmha; tudzhd, thy, of thee; tumtsd, your, of you.
dpaw, self, obi. dp a na, gen. ap"la. This is also employed as an
honorific pronoun of the second person, and, in addition, to mean
" we including you."
ha, this, fern, hi, neut. he; to, he, that, fern. K, neut. ll; dzo, who,
fern, jt, neut. it.
kon, who? Ray, what? obi. kdsa; konl, any one; kahi, anything.
In all these the plural is employed honorifically instead of the
singular.
Conjugation. In Prakrit (q.v.) the complicated system of Sanskrit
conjugation had already disappeared, and all verbs fell into two
classes, the first, or a-, conjugation, and the second, or e-, conjugation,
in which the e represents the aya of the Sanskrit tenth conjugation
and of causal and denominative verbs. Marathi follows Prakrit
in this respect and has two conjugations. The first, corresponding
to the Prakrit a-class, as a rule consists of intransitive verbs, and the
second, corresponding to the e- or causal class, of transitive verbs,
but there are numerous exceptions. Verbs whose roots end in vowels
or in h belong partly to one and partly to the other conjugation.
These conjugations differ only in the present and past participles and
in the tenses formed from them. Here, in the first conjugation
an a, and in the second conjugation an i, is inserted between the base
and the termination.
The only original Prakrit tenses which have survived in Marathi
are the present and the imperative. The present has lost its original
meaning and is now a habitual past. It is also the base of the
Marathi future. These three tenses, the habitual past, the im-
perative and the future, are conjugated as follows. They should
be compared with the corresponding forms in the article PRAKRIT.
The verb selected is the root u(h, rise, of the first conjugation.
Person.
Habitual past
(old present),
I used to rise.
Imperative.
Let me rise.
Future.
I shall rise.
Sing.
Plural.
Sing.
Plural.
Sing.
Plural.
I
2
3
ufhe
ufhes
ufhe
uthu
ut,ha
lit/Kit
uthu
u(h
u(hd
u ih a
iiilni
ulhot
ulhen
uth"sil
uthel
u(hu
ufhdl
u(h a tll
As in Rajasthani, Bihari and the Indo-Aryan language of Nepal
(see PAHARI), the future is formed by adding /, or in the first person
singular n, to the old present. In the second person singular the I
has been added to a form derived from the Pr. utfhasi, which is also
the origin of the ojd present itfhes. Some scholars, however, see
in u(hasl a derivation of the Prakrit future u((hihisi, thou shall
arise, and a confusion of the Prakrit present and future is quite
possible.
The remaining tenses are modern forms derived from the par-
ticiples. The verbal nouns, participles and infinitives are as
follows :
Verbal Noun . .
Infinitive .
Present Participle
Past Participle .
Future Participle
Active
Future Participle
Passive
Conjunctive Par-
ticiple
Prakrit
(First
Conjugation).
Marathi
First
Conjugation.
Marathi
Second
Conjugation.
uHhanw.ni
utfhium
u((hanto,
utfhantao
u((hiallao
utfhanaado
ufthiawad
utthiu
ulh a ye, the act
of rising.
ufhu, to rise.
u(hat, u(h"td,
rising.
u(h"ld, risen.
u(h"ndr, about
to rise.
ufhdwd, about
to be risen.
ufliun, having
risen.
mdr"ne, the act
of killing.
mdru, to kill.
mdrit, mdritd,
killing.
mdrild, killed.
mdr"ndr, about
to kill.
mdrdwd, about
to be killed.
mdrun, having
killed.
The only form that requires notice is that of the conjunctive
participle. It is derived from the Apabhrarhsa form u((hiu, to which
the dative suffix n (old Marathi ni, niya) has been added.
Various tenses are formed by adding personal suffixes to the
present, past or future passive participle. When the subject of the
verb is in the nominative the tense so formed agrees with it in gender,
number and person. We may note four such tenses: a present,
uth'to, I rise; a past, ulh"lS, 1 rose; past conditional, u(h a to, had I
risen; and a subjunctive, ufhdwd, I should rise. In the present, the
terminations are relics of the verb substantive, and in the other tenses
of the personal pronouns. In these latter, as there is no pronoun
of the third person, the third persons have no termination, but are
simply the unmodified participle. We thus get the present and the
past conjugated as follows, with a masculine subject:
I
2
3
Present, I rise.
Past, I rose.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
u(h a to
uth'tos
u(h"td
u(hlo
u(h a ta
uth"tdt
uth'15
u(h a lds
u(h a ld
u(h"ld
ulh"lU
u(h"le
The feminine and neuter forms differ from the above: thus,
uth a tes, thou (fern.) risest; ufh'lls, thou (fern.) didst rise; and so on
for the other persons and for the neuter.
It will be observed that, in the case of transitive verbs, while the
present participle is active, the past and future passive participles
are passive in meaning. The same is the case with the future passive
participle of the intransitive verb. In tenses, therefore, formed from
these participles the sentence must be construed passively. The
subject must be put into the instrumental case, and the participle
inflected to agree with the object. If the object is not expressed,
or, as is sometimes the case, is expressed in the guise of a kind of ethic
dative, the participle is construed impersonally, and is employed in
the neuter form. Thus (present tense) mul"gd (nom. masc.) pothi
vdcito, the boy reads a book, but (past tense) mul"gydne (instrumental
pothi (nom. fern.) vdcili (fem.) the boy read a book, literally, by-the-
boy a-book was-read; or mul'gydne pothila (dative) vacili (neuter),
the boy read the book, literally, by-the-boy, with-reference-to-
the-book, it-(impersonal)-was-read. Similarly in the subjunctive
formed from the future passive participle, mul"gydne pothl vdcdwl,
the boy should read a book (by-the-boy a-book is-to-be-read) or
mul a gydne pothild vdcdwe, the boy should read the book [by-the-boy
with-reference-to-the-book, it (impersonal)-is-to-be-read]. As an
example of the subjunctive of an intransitive verb, we have twd
ulhdwe, by-thee it-is-to-be-risen, thou shouldst rise. As in intransi-
tive verbs the passive sense is not so strong, in their case the tense
may also be used actively, as in tu uthdwds, thou shouldst rise, lit.,
thou (art) to-be-risen. It will be noted that when a participle is
used passively it takes no personal suffix.
We have seen that the present tense is formed by compounding
the present participle with the verb substantive. Further tenses
are similarly made by suffixing, without compounding, various tenses
of the verb substantive to the various participles. Thus ml ntliat
dhe, I am rising; ml ulhat hold, I was rising; mya u[hdve hole (im-
personal construction), I should have risen. In the case of tenses
formed from the past participle, the auxiliary is appended, not to
the participle, but to the past tense, as in ml u(h"ld dhe, I have risen;
mya mdrild dhe (personal passive construction) or mya mdrile dhe
impersonal passive construction), I have killed. Similarly mi ulhlo
hold (active construction), I had risen. The usual forms of the
present and past of the verb substantive are :
I
2
3
Present, I am.
Past, I was (masc).
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
dhe
ahes
dhe
dhe
aha
dhet
hoto
holds
hold
hold
hotS
hole
The past changes for gender, but the present is immutable
in this respect. A hi is usually considered to be a descendant of
the Sanskrit asmi, I am, 1 while hold is derived from the Pr. horiitao,
the present participle of what corresponds to the Skr. root bhu,
become.
A potential passive and a causal are formed by adding av to the
root of a simple verb. The former follows the first, or intransitive,
and the latter the second or transitive conjugation. The potential
passive of a neuter verb is necessarily construed impersonally. The
causal verb denotes indirect agency ; thus, kar"ne, to do, karav"ne,
to cause a person to do; tydcyd-kadun mya te karavile, I caused him
to do that, literally, by-means-of-him by-me that was-caused-to-be-
done. The potential, being passive, has the subject in the dative
(cf. Latin mihi est ludendum) or in the instrumental of the genitive,
as in mala (dative), or mdjhydne (instr. of mddzhd, of me), utlfvalf, I
can rise, literally, for-me, or by-my-(action), rising-can-be-done. So,
Rdmdld, or Rdmdcydne, pothi vdc a vali, Ram could read a book (by
R. a book could be read).
Several verbs are irregular. These must be learnt from the
grammars. Here we may mention honi, to become, past participle
dzhdld; yene, to come, past participle did; and dzdne, to go, past
participle geld. There are also numerous compound verbs. One
of these, making a passive, is formed by conjugating the verb dzdne,
to go, with the past participle of the principal verb. Thus, mdrM
dzato, he is being killed, literally, he goes killed.
1 See, however, Hoernle, Comparative Grammar, p. 364.
MARATHON MARAZION
675
Literature. As elsewhere in India, the modern vernacular litera-
ture of the Maratha country arose under the influence of the religious
reformation inaugurated by Ramanuja early in the I2th century.
He and his followers taught devotion to a personal deity instead of
the pantheism hitherto prevalent. The earliest writer of whom we
have any record is Namdev (l3th century), whose hymns in honour
of Vithoba, a personal form of Vishnu, have travelled far beyond
the home of their writer, and are even found in the Sikh Adi Granth.
Dnyanpba, a younger contemporary, wrote a paraphrase of the
Sanskrit Bha.ga.vad Gita, which is still much admired. Passing over
several intermediate writers we come to the period of the warrior
Sivaji, the opponent of Aurangzeb. He was a disciple of Ramdas
(1608-1681), who exercised great influence over him, and whose
Dasbodh, a work on religious duty, is a classic. Contemporary with
Ramdas and Sivaji was Tukaram (1608-1649), a Sudra by caste,
and yet the greatest writer in the language. He began life as a petty
shopkeeper, and being unsuccessful both in his business and in his
family relations, he abandoned the world and became a wandering
ascetic. His Abhangs or " unbroken " hymns, probably so called
from their indefinite length and loose, flowing metre, are famous in
the country of his birth. They are fervent, out though abounding
in excellent morality, do not rise to any great height as poetry.
Other Marathi poets who may be mentioned are Sridhar (1678-1728),
the most copious of all, who translated the Bhagavata Purana, and
the learned Mayura or Moropant (1729-1794), whose works smell
too much of the lamp to satisfy European standards of criticism.
Mahipati (17151790) was an imitator of Tukaram, but his chief
importance rests on the fact that he collected the popular traditions
about national saints, and was thus the author of the Acta sanctorum
of the Marathas. Lavanis, or erotic lyrics, by various writers, are
popular, but are often more passionate than decent. Another
branch of Marathi literature is composed of Pawadas or war-ballads,
mostly by nameless poets, which are sung everywhere throughout
the country. There is a small prose literature, consisting of nar-
ratives of historical events (the so-called Bakhars), moral maxims
and popular tales.
In the igth century the facilities of the printing press are respon-
sible for a great mass of published matter. Most of the best works
have been written in English by learned natives, upon whom the
methods of European scholarship have exercised more influence than
elsewhere in India, and have given rise to a happy combination
of western science with Oriental lore. No vernacular authors of
outstanding merit have appeared during the last century.
Konkani once had a literature of its own, which is said to have been
destroyed by the Inquisition at Goa. Temples and manuscripts
were burnt wholesale. Under Roman Catholic auspices a new
literature arose, the earliest writer being an Englishman, Thomas
Stephens (Thomaz Estevao), who came to Goa in 1579, wrote the
first Konkani grammar, and died there in 1619. Amongst other
works, he was the author of a Konkani paraphrase of the New
Testament in metrical form, which has been several times reprinted
and is still a favourite work with the native Christians. Since his
time there has grown up a considerable body of Christian literature
from the pens of Portuguese missionaries and native converts.
AUTHORITIES. Marathi is fortunate in possessing the best
dictionary of any modern Indian language, J. T. Molesworth's
(2nd ed., Bombay, 1857). Nayalkar's (3rd ed., Bombay, 1894) is
the best grammar. The earliest students of Marathi were the
Portuguese, who were familiar only with the language as spoken
on the coast, i.e. with the standard dialect of the northern Konkan
and with Konkani. They have since devoted themselves to these
two forms of speech. For the former, reference may be made to
the Grammatica da lingua Concani no dialecto do norte, by J. F. da
Cunha Rivara (Goa, 1858). For Konkani proper, see A. F. X.
Maffei's Grammar (Mangalore, 1882) and Dictionaries (ibid., 1883).
These are in English. Monsenhor S. R. Dalgado is the author of
a Konkan-Portugitese Dictionary (Bombay, 1893).
For further information regarding Marathi in general, see the list
of authorities under INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. For accounts of
Marathi literature, see the preface to Molesworth's Dictionary; also
J. Murray Mitchell's " The Chief Marathi Poets " in Transactions
of the Congress of Orientalists, London, 1892, i. 282 sqq., and ch. viii.
of M. G. Ranade's Rise of the Maratha Power (Bombay, 1900).
For Konkani literature, see J. Gerson da Cunha's " Materials for the
History of Oriental Studies among the Portuguese," in the Pro-
ceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Orientalists, ii. 179 sqq.
Florence, 1881). A full account of Marathi, given in great detail,
will be found in vol. vii. of the Linguistic Survey of India (Calcutta,
1905). (G. A. GR.)
MARATHON, a plain on the N.E. coast of Attica, divided
from the plain of Athens by the range of Pentelicus; it contained
four villages Marathon, Probalinthos, Tricorythos and Oenoc
which originally formed an independent letrapolis and in historical
times still upheld peculiar rites and legendary associations,
chiefly connected with Heracles and Theseus. In the 6th century
B.C. it served as a base for Peisistratus (q.v.), who owned much
property in that district, for securing the rest of Attica. The
plain derives its fame mainly from the battle in which the
Athenians and Plataeans defeated the Persians (490 B.C.). The
Persian force had been sent by King Darius to punish the
Athenians for previous interferences in Asia and to restore their
tyrant Hippias. It was probably by advice of the latter that
the generals Datis and Artaphernes landed their troops, number-
ing perhaps 50,000, at Marathon. The Athenians, on the
recommendation of their strategus Miltiades, resolved to meet
this force in the open field, and sent out their full levy of 9000
heavy infantry under the polemarch Callimachus. They were
joined on the way by 1000 Plataeans, but were disappointed
of the assistance which they expected from Sparta. From their
station at the head of the Vrana valley, which slopes down to
Marathon plain, the Athenians for some days observed the
Persian army, which gave no sign of proceeding to attack. After
some waiting, Miltiades, who seems throughout to have played
a more prominent part than his superior Callimachus, drew up
the Athenian army for battle and charged down upon the enemy,
whose line was formed on the level about a mile distant. The
Athenian wings, whose formation had been made specially deep,
broke the opposing divisions by their impact; the centre was at
first overborne by the superior weight of the native Persians, but
ultimately was relieved by the victorious wings, which closed
in upon the Persian centre. The Persians were thereupon driven
back into the sea all along the line, and, although the majority
regained their ships, no less than 6400 were left dead, as against
192 Athenians. The Persian fleet, of which perhaps a detach-
ment had been sent on before the battle, now sailed round Cape
Sunium in order to effect a landing at Phalerum, close by Athens,
and with the help of traitors within the walls to take the city by
surprise. But Miltiades, who had suspected some plot all along,
and had lately been warned by a signal on Mt Pentelicus which
he interpreted as a message to the Persians, marched back the
victorious army in time to defend Athens. The enemy, upon
noticing his presence, did not venture a second disembarcation
and retired straightway out of Greek waters. The details of
the battle, and the Persian plan of campaign, are not made clear
by our ancient sources, but reconstructions have been attempted
by numerous modern authorities. (M. O. B. C.)
The tumulus or " Soros " was excavated by M. Stais in 1891
and 1892. A slight previous excavation had brought to light
some prehistoric implements, and it was supposed that the
mound had no connexion with the battle; but it has now been
discovered that the presence of those prehistoric objects was
accidental. Underlying the mound was found a stratum about
85 ft. long by 20 broad, consisting of a layer of sand, above which
lay the ashes and bones of many corpses; together with these
were the remains of many lecythi and other vases, some of them
contemporary with the Persian wars, some of them of much
earlier style, and probably taken in the emergency from neigh-
bouring cemeteries. It is conjectured with some probability
that a large vase containing ashes may have been used as the
burial urn of one of the Athenian generals who fell. There was
also, in the middle of the stratum, a trench for funeral offerings
about 30 ft. by 3; it contained bones of beasts, with ashes and
fragments of vases. There can therefore be no doubt that the
tumulus was piled up to commemorate the Athenians who fell
in the battle, and that it marks the place where the carnage was
thickest. A selection from the contents of the tumulus has been
placed in the National Museum at Athens. (E.GR.)
See Herodotus vi. 102-117; W. M. Leake, The Topography of
Athens (London, 1841), ii. 203-227; R. W. Macan, Herodotus,
iv.-vi. (London, 1805), ii. 149-248; G. B. Grundy, The Great Persian
War (London, 1901), pp. 145-194; J. A. Munro in Journal of Hellenic
Studies, 1899, pp. 186-197. For the tumulus, 'ApxaioXoyucdf AeXrtor
1891, pp. 67 sqq. See also MILTIADES.
MARAZION, a small seaport in the St Ives parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, on the shore of Mount's Bay,
2 m. E. of Penzance, served by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 1251. A causeway of boulders and pebbles, thrown up
by the sea and passable at low tide, unites Marazion with the
insular St Michael's Mount (q.v.). The church of St Hilary,
destroyed by fire in 1853, had a very fine spire, which has been
676
MARBLE
faithfully reproduced in the restored building. Unusual archaeo-
logical interest attaches to the churchyard. Its inscribed stones
date from the 4th century, one being in honour of Con stan tine
the Great. Another has Cornish lettering, which can no longer
be deciphered ; and there are British and Roman crosses. Market
gardening and fishing are the main industries.
The charter attributed to Robert count of Mortain, granting
lands and liberties to St Michael's Mount, opposite Marazion,
included a market on Thursdays. This appears to have been
held from the first on the mainland. From it is probably derived
the Marghasbigan (Parvum Forum) of the earlier and the
Marghasyewe or Marketjew (Forum Jovis) of the later charters.
It may be added that a Jewish origin has been ascribed to the
place from the name Marketjew. It is certain that Richard king
of the Romans provided that the three fairs, on the two feasts
of St Michael and at Mid-Lent, and the three markets which had
hitherto been held by the priors of St Michael's Mount on land
not their own at Marghasbighan, should in future be held on
their own land at Marchadyou. He transferred in fact the fairs
and markets from the demesne lands of the Bloyous in Marazion
to those of the prior. To remedy the loss incurred by this
measure Ralph Bloyou in 1331 procured for himself and his heirs
a market on Mondays and a fair on the vigil, feast and morrow
of St Andrew at Marghasyon. In Leland's time the market
was held at Marhasdeythyow (Forum Jovis), and both Norden
(1582) and Carew (1602) tell us that Marcajewe signifies the
Thursday's market, which, whether etymologically sound or
not, shows that the prior's market had prevailed over its rival.
In 1595 Queen Elizabeth granted to Marazion a charter of in-
corporation. This ratified the grant of St Andrew's fair, pro-
vided for another on the Feast of St Barnabas and established
a market on Saturdays. The corporation was to consist of a
mayor, 8 aldermen and 12 capital burgesses. This corpo-
ration continued to administer the affairs of the borough until
it was dissolved under the Municipal Corporations Act in 1835,
when the property belonging to it was vested in charity com-
missioners. The chairman of the commissioners retains pos-
session of the regalia. Of the fairs only the Michaelmas fair
has survived and all the markets have gone. It is frequently
stated that Marazion had formerly the right of returning two
members to parliament, but that owing to its inability to pay
the members' expenses the right was lost. Under the Common-
wealth an attempt was made to secure or recover the right, and
two members are said to have been returned, but they were not
allowed to take their seats. Remains of an ancient bronze
furnace, discovered near the town, tend to prove that tin-
smelting was practised here at an early period. Marazion was
once a flourishing town, and owed its prosperity to the throng
of pilgrims who came to visit St Michael's Mount. During the
first half of the i6th century it was twice plundered; first by the
French, and later by the Cornish rebels. The rise and progress
of the neighbouring borough of Penzance in the I7th century
was the undoing of Marazion.
MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. /nap^apos, shining stone),
a term applied to any limestone or dolomite which is sufficiently
close in texture to admit of being polished. Many other orna-
mental stones such as serpentine, alabaster and even granite
are sometimes loosely designated marble, but by accurate writers
the term is invariably restricted to those crystalline and compact
varieties of carbonate of lime (occasionally with carbonate of
magnesia) which, when polished, are applicable to purposes of
decoration. The crystalline structure is typically shown in
statuary marble. A fractured surface of this stone displays a
multitude of sparkling facets, which are the rhombohedral
cleavage-planes of the component grains. The beautiful lustre
of polished statuary marble is due to the light penetrating for a
short distance into the rock and then suffering reflection at the
surfaces of the deeper-lying crystals.- The durability of marble
in a dry atmosphere or when protected from rain renders it a
valuable building stone (q.v.); on the other hand, when exposed
to the weather or the acid atmosphere of large cities, its surface
readily crumbles.
Statuary and Economic Marbles. Among statuary marbles the
first place may be assigned to the famous Pentelic marble, the
material in which Pheidias, Praxiteles, and other Greek sculptors
executed their principal works. The characteristics of this
stone are well seen in the Elgin marbles, which were removed
from the Parthenon at Athens, and are now at the British
Museum. The marble was derived from the quarries of Mount
Pentelicus in Attica. Several large buildings have recently
been constructed with this marble in London. The neighbour-
ing mountain of Hymettus likewise yielded marbles, but these
were neither so pure in colour nor so fine in texture as those of
Pentelicus. Parian marble, another stone much used by Greek
sculptors and architects, was quarried in the isle of Pares,
chiefly at Mount Marpessa. It is called by ancient writers
lychnites (from the Gr. \VXVQS, a lamp) in allusion to the fact
that the quarries were worked by the light of lamps. The Venus
de' Medici is a notable example of work in this material. Carrara
marble is better known than any of the Greek marbles', inasmuch
as it constitutes the stone invariably employed by the best
sculptors of the present day. This marble occurs abundantly
in the Apuan Alps, an offshoot of the Apennines, and is largely
worked in the neighbourhood of Carrara, Massa and Serravezza.
Stone from this district was employed in Rome for architectural
purposes in the time of Augustus, but the finer varieties, adapted
to the needs of the sculptor, were not discovered until some
time later. It is in Carrara marble that the finest works of
Michelangelo and of Canova are executed. The purest varieties
of this stone are of snow-white colour and of fine saccharoidal
texture. Silica is disseminated through some of the marble,
becoming a source of annoyance to the workman; while occa-
sionally it separates as beautifully pellucid crystals of quartz
known as " Carrara diamonds." The geological age of the
marbles of the Apuan Alps has been a subject of much dispute,
some geologists regarding them as metamorphosed Triassic,
Liassic or Rhaetic rocks. Much of the common marble is of a
bluish colour, and therefore unfit for statuary purposes; when
streaked with blue and grey veins the stone is known as bardiglio.
Curiously enough, the common white marble of Tuscany comes
to England as Sicilian marble a name probably due to its
having been formerly re-shipped from some port in Sicily.
Although crystalline marbles fit for statuary work are not
found to any extent in Great Britain, the limestones of the
Palaeozoic formations yield a great variety of marbles well
suited for architectural purposes. The Devonian rocks of south
Devon are rich in handsome marbles, presenting great diversity
of tint and pattern. Plymouth, Torquay, Ipplepen, Babba-
combe and Chudleigh may be named as the principal localities.
Many of these limestones owe their beauty to the fossil corals which
they contain, and are hence known as " madrepore marbles."
Of far greater importance than the marbles of the Devonian
system are those of Carboniferous age. It is from the Carboni-
ferous or Mountain Limestone that British marbles are mainly
derived. Marbles of this age are worked in Derbyshire and
Yorkshire, in the neighbourhood of Bristol, hi North Wales,
in the Isle of Man, and in various parts of Ireland. One of
the most beautiful of these stones is the " encrinital marble," a
material which owes its peculiarities to the presence of numerous
encrinites, or stone-lilies. These fossils, when cut in various
directions, give a characteristic pattern to the stone. The
joints of the stems and arms are known from their shape as
" wheel-stones," and the rock itself has been called " entrochal
marble." The most beautiful varieties are those in which the
calcareous fossils appear as white markings on a ground of grey
limestone. In Belgium a black marble with small sections of
crinoid stems is known as petit granit, while in Derbyshire a
similar rock, crowded with fragments of minute encrinites, is
termed " bird's-eye marble."
Perhaps the most generally useful marbles yielded by the
Carboniferous system are the black varieties, which are largely
employed for chimney-pieces, Vases, and other ornamental
objects. The colour of most black limestone is due to the
presence of bituminous matter. Such limestone commonly
MARBLE
677
emits a fetid odour when struck; and the colour, being of organic
origin, is discharged on calcination. Black marbles, more or
less dense in colour, are quarried in various parts of Ireland,
especially at Kilkenny and near Galway, but the finest kind is
obtained from near Ashford in Derbyshire. From Ashford is also
derived a very beautiful stone known as " rosewood marble."
This is a dense brown laminated limestone, displaying when
polished a handsome pattern somewhat resembling the grain
of rosewood; it occurs in very limited quantity, and is used
chiefly for inlaid work. The black marble of Frosterley, York-
shire, is another Carboniferous example which owes its " figure "
or pattern to the presence of large corals.
With the rosewood marble may be compared the well-known
" landscape marble " or Gotham stone, an argillaceous limestone
with peculiar dendritic markings, due probably to the infiltration
of water containing oxide of manganese. This limestone occurs
in irregular masses near the base of the White Lias, or upper-
most division of the Rhaetic series. It is found principally in
the neighbourhood of Bristol. The arborescent forms depicted
in bluish-grey upon this landscape marble form a marked con-
trast to the angular markings of warm brown colour which are
seen on slabs of " ruin marble " from Florence a stone occa-
sionally known also as landscape stone, or pietra paesina.
British limestones of Secondary and Tertiary age are not
generally compact enough to be used as marbles, but some of
the shelly beds are employed to a limited extent for decorative
purposes. " Ammonite marble " is a dark brown limestone
from the Lower Lias of Somersetshire, crowded with ammonites,
principally A. planicostata. Under the name of Forest marble,
geologists recognize a local division of the Lower Oolitic series,
so named by W. Smith from Wychwood Forest in Oxfordshire,
where shelly limestones occur; and these, though of little
economic value, are capable of being used as rough marbles.
But the most important marbles of the Secondary series are
the shelly limestones of the Purbeck formation. Purbeck
marble was a favourite material with medieval architects, who
used it freely for slender clustered columns and for sepulchral
monuments. It consists of a mass of the shells of a fresh-water
snail, Paludina carinifera, embedded in a blue, grey or greenish
limestone, and is found in the Upper Purbeck beds of Swanage
in Dorsetshire. Excellent examples of its use may be seen in
Westminster Abbey and in the Temple Church, as well as in
the cathedrals of Salisbury, Winchester, Worcester and Lincoln.
Sussex marble is a very similar stone, occurring in thin beds in
the Weald clay, and consisting largely of the shells of Paludina,
principally P. sussexiensis and P.fluiiiorum. The altar stones and
the episcopal chair in Canterbury Cathedral are of this material.
Certain calcareous metamorphic rocks frequently form stones
which are sufficiently beautiful to be used for ornamental
purposes, and are generally classed as marbles. Such ser-
pentinous limestones are included by petrologists under the
term " ophicalcite." The famous verde antico is a rock of this
character. Mona marble is an ophicalcite from the metamorphic
series of the Isle of Anglesey, while the " Irish green "of archi-
tects is a similar rock from Connemara in western Galway. It
is notable that some of the " white marble " of Connemara has
been found by W. King and T. H. Rowney to consist almost
wholly of malacolite, a silicate of calcium and magnesium.
A beautiful marble has been worked to a limited extent in
the island of Tiree, one of the Hebrides, but the quarry appears
to be now exhausted. This Tiree marble is a limestone having
a delicate carnelian colour diffused through it in irregular
patches, and containing rounded crystals of sahlite, a green
augitic mineral resembling malacolite in composition.
Many marbles which are prized for the variegated patterns
they display owe these patterns to their formation in concentric
zones such marbles being in fact stalagmitic deposits of
carbonate of lime, sometimes consisting of aragonite. One
of the most beautiful stalagmitic rocks is the so-called onyx
marble of Algeria. This stone was largely used in the buildings
of Carthage and Rome, but the quarries which yielded it were
not known to modern sculptors until 1849, when it was redis-
covered near Oued-Abdallah. The stone is a beautifully trans-
lucent material, delicately clouded with yellow and brown, and
is greatly prized by French workmen. Large deposits of a very
fine onyx-like marble, similar to the Algerian stone, have been
worked at Tecali, about 35 miles from the city of Mexico. Among
other stalagmitic marbles, mention may be made of the well-
known Gibraltar stone, which is often worked into models of
cannon and other ornamental objects. This stalagmite is much
deeper in colour and less translucent than the onyx marbles
of Algeria and Mexico. A richly tinted stalagmitic stone worked
in California is known as Californian marble. It is worth noting
that the " alabaster " of the ancients was stalagmitic carbonate
of lime, and that this stone is therefore called by mineralogists
" Oriental alabaster " in order to distinguish it from our modern
" alabaster," which is a sulphate, and not a carbonate, of lime.
Gypsum capable of taking a polish is found at Fauld in Stafford-
shire and in Italy and Spain.
The brown and yellow colours which stalagmitic marbles
usually present are due to the presence of oxide of iron. This
colouring matter gives special characters to certain stones, such
as the giallo antico, or antique yellow marble of the Italian
antiquaries. Siena marble is a reddish mottled stone obtained
from the neighbourhood of Siena in Tuscany; and a somewhat
similar stone is found in King's County, Ireland. True red
marble is by no means common, but it does occur, of bright
and uniform colour, though in very small quantity, in the
Carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire and north-east Stafford-
shire. The red marble called rosso antico is often confounded
with the porfiro rosso antico, which is really a mica-hornblende
porphyrite owing its red colour to the mineral withamite.
Fire marble is the name given to a brown shelly limestone
containing ammonites and other fossil shells, which present a
brilliant display of iridescent colours, like those of precious
opal. It occurs in rocks of Liassic age at the lead-mines of
Bleiberg in Carinthia, and is worked into snuff-boxes and other
small objects. By mineralogists it is often termed lumachclla,
an Italian name which may, however, be appropriately applied
to any marble which contains small shells.
The quarries of France, Belgium, Italy and Spain, not to
mention less important localities, yield a great diversity of
marbles, and almost each stone bears a distinctive name, often
of trivial meaning; but in this article it is impossible to enumerate
the local names used by marble-workers in different countries
to distinguish the various stones which pass under their hands.
America possesses some valuable deposits of marble, which
in the eastern States have been extensively worked. The
crystalline limestones of western New England furnish an abun-
dance of white and grey marble, while a beautiful material fit
for statuary work has been quarried near Rutland in Vermont.
A grey bird's-eye marble is obtained from central New York,
and the greyish clouded limestones of Thomaston in Maine have
been extensively quarried. Of the variegated and coloured
marbles, perhaps the most beautiful are those from the northern
part of Vermont, in the neighbourhood of Lake Champlain.
A fine brecciated marble is found on the Maryland side of the
Potomac, below Point of Rocks. Among the principal localities
for black marble may be mentioned Shoreham in Vermont
and Glen Falls in New York. In 1908 the American States
producing marble were, in order of value, Vermont, Georgia,
Tennessee, New York, Massachusetts, Alabama, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, California, Colorado, Alaska, N. Carolina, Kentucky,
New Mexico, Utah, Missouri and Idaho. In Canada the
crystalline limestones of the pre-Cambrian series yield beautiful
marbles.
In India we find important quarries at Makrana in Rajputana,
a locality which is said to have yielded the marble for the
famous Taj Mahal at Agra. In the valley of the Nerbudda, near
Jabalpur, there is a large development of marble. The white
marble which is used for the delicately pierced screens called
jalee work is obtained from near Raialo, in Ulwar. (F. W. R.*)
Petrography. Marbles are uniformly crystalline, and hence have
no bedding or schistosity which would tend to make 'them fissile,
6 7 8
MARBLEHEAD
but are entirely massive and free from grain. The microstructure
of pure marble is comparatively simple. In thin sections they
are seen to Ve built up of somewhat rounded grains of calcite, fitting
closely together in a mosaic ; very rarely do any grains show traces
of crystalline form. They are colourless and transparent, and
are usually traversed by a lattice-work of sharply defined cleavage
cracks, which correspond to the rhpmbohedral faces. In polarized
light the colours are pinkish or greenish white, or in very thin sections
iridescent because the mineral has a very strong double refraction.
They may also be crossed by bars or stripes, each of which indicates
a twin plate, for the crystals are usually polysynthetic. This twinning
may be produced by pressure acting either during the crystallization
of the rock or at a later period.
The purest marbles generally contain some accessory minerals,
and in many of these rocks they form a considerable proportion of
the whole mass. The commonest are quartz in small rounded
grains, scales of colourless or pale yellow mica (muscovite and
phlogopite), dark shining flakes of graphite and small crystals of
pyrites or iron oxides. Even fine Carrara marble leaves a residue
of this sort when dissolved in acid. Many marbles contain other
minerals which are usually silicates of lime or magnesia. The list
of these accessories is a very large one. Augite is very frequent and
may be white (malacolite) or pale green (coccolite, sahlite, diopside) ;
hornblende occurs as white bladed tremolite or pale green actinolite ;
feldspars may be present also, such as orthoclase, or more frequently
some plagioclase such as albite, labradorite and anorthite ; scapolite
(or wernerite) ; various kinds of garnet; vesuvianite, spinel, forsterite,
periclase, brucite, talc, zoisite and epidpte, chondrodite, biotite,
datolite, sphene and apatite may be mentioned as typical accessory
minerals. The presence of metalliferous minerals such as galena,
grey or red silver ores, zinc blende, antimonite, chalcopyrite,
molybdenite, cassiterite, usually indicates impregnation by ore-
bearing solutions, especially if these substances occur in workable
quantities. The rubies of Burma are found in crystalline lime-
stones and are constantly accompanied by precious spinel (or balas-
ruby).
These minerals represent impurities in the original limestone which
crystallized at the time that the marble became crystalline. The
silicates derive their silica mainly from sand or infiltrated siliceous
deposits; the alumina represents an admixture of clay; the iron came
from limonite or hematite in the original state of the rock. Where
the silicates bulk largely because the original limestone was highly
impure, all the carbonic acid may be driven out and replaced by
silica during the process of recrystallization. The rock is then a
calc-silicate rock, hard, tough, flinty and no longer readily soluble
in acids. They are sometimes fine-grained hornstones (known as
calc-silicate hornfelses). Where white minerals predominate (wollas-
tonite, tremolite, feldspar) these rocks may have a close resemblance
to marbles, but often they are green from the abundance of green
augites and amphiboles, or brown (when garnet and vesuvianite
are present in quantity) or yellow (with epidote, chondrodite or
sphene). Decomposition induces further changes in colour owing to
the formation of green or yellow serpentine, pale green talc, red hema-
tite, and brown limonite. Most of the coloured or variegated crystal-
line marbles have originated in this manner. Often bands of calc-
silicate rock alternate with bands of marble, and they may be folded
or bent ; in other cases, nodules and patches of silicates occur in a
matrix of pure marble. Earth movements may shatter the rocks,
producing fissures afterwards filled with veins of calcite; in this way
the beautiful brecciated or veined marbles are produced. Sometimes
the broken fragments are rolled and rounded by the flow of the
marble under pressure and pseudo-conglomerates or " crush con-
glomerates " result. In other cases the banding of the marble
indicates the original bedding of the calcareous sediments. Crystal-
line limestones which contain much mica may be called cipollins;
in them quartz, garnet and hornblende often also occur. The
ophicalcites are marbles containing much serpentine, which has been
formed by the decomposition of forsterite, olivine or augite. The
much-discussed Eozoon, at one time supposed to be the earliest known
fossil and found in Archaean limestones in Canada, is now known
to be inorganic and to belong to the ophicalcites.
Many marbles, probably all of them, are metamorphosed lime-
stones. The passage of limestones rich in fossils into true marbles
as they approach great crystalline intrusions of granite is a phe-
nomenon seen in many parts of the world ; occasionally the recrystal-
lization of the rock has not completely obliterated the organic
structures (e.g. at Carrara and at Bergen m Norway). The agencies
which have induced the metamorphism are heat and pressure, the
heat arising from the granite and the pressure from overlying masses
of rock, for these changes took place before the granite cooled and
while it was still deeply buried beneath the surface. In 1806
Sir James Hall described a series of experiments proving this.
He enclosed chalk in a gun-barrel securely plugged and heated it
to a high temperature in a furnace. Carbonic acid was given off
by the chalk and produced a great pressure in the interior of the
tube. After slow cooling the mass was found to have become
converted into granular crystalline marble. As rocks which have
undergone changes of this kind are commonest in the oldest and
deepest layers of the earth's crust, most marbles are Palaeozoic or
pre-Cambrian. They occur very often with mica schists, phyl-
lites, &c., which were beds of clay alternating with the original
limestone. Formerly it was supposed that some of these marbles
were crystalline sediments or even igneous rocks, but the tendency
of modern geology is to assume that they were ordinary limestones,
many of which may have been fossiliferous. In regions where the
sedimentary rocks have been converted into schists, gneisses and
granulites, the limestones are represented by calc schists, cipollins
and marbles. Often no granite or other intrusive rock is present
which may be regarded as the cause of the metamorphism. The
marbles are often banded or schistose, and under the microscope
show crushing and deformation of the component crystals, such
as would have been produced by the earth pressures which accom-
pany rock-folding. These crush structures have been obtained
experimentally in marbles subjected to great pressures in steel
cylinders. In the recrystallization of these limestones the direct
heating action of igneous intrusions may have played no part, but
the rise of temperature and increase of pressure due to the folding
of great rock masses have probably been the operating causes.
This type of metamorphism has been distinguished by the name
marmarosis (Sir A. Geikie, Text Book of Geology, 1882).
For descriptions of ancient marbles see F. Corsi, Delle pietre
antiche (Rome, 1845); M. W. Porter, What Rome was built with
(Oxford, 1907), and for marbles in general consult E. Hull, Building
and Ornamental Stones (1872); G. P. Merrill, Stones for Building ana
Decoration (yd ed., 1905, New York). (J. S. F.)
MARBLEHEAD, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., occupying a rocky promontory on Massachusetts Bay,
about 16 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 8202; (1900), 7582;
(1905), 7209; (1910), 7338. Area, about 4 sq. m. Marblehead
is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, and by electric
railways connecting with Salem, Lynn and Boston. It is a
quaint old town, with a number of houses dating back to the
I7th and i8th centuries. Among the older buildings are the Lee
mansion (1768), St Michael's church (P. E., 1714), and the old
town-hall (1727), sometimes called Marblehead's " Cradle of
Liberty." Abbot Hall (1877), the municipal building, also
contains the public library and several noteworthy paintings,
including " The Spirit of '76 " or " Yankee Doodle " by
Archibald M. Willard. The post office and custom-house was
completed in 1904. There are several parks (Crocker, Fort
Sewall, Seaside, and Fountain), and an old burying-ground, in
which many of the early settlers and a number of soldiers of
the War of Independence (including General John Glover) are
buried; and a granite monument near the railway station
commemorates the taking of the British supply and powder
ship "Hope" off Marblehead in 1776 by Captain James Mugford,
who was killed during the fight. The commodious harbour,
nearly landlocked, is formed by a rocky peninsula known as
Marblehead Neck. On this are the club-houses of the Eastern
and Corinthian Yacht clubs; and Marblehead is a popular
yachting centre. The manufacture of children's shoes is the
principal industry. Shipbuilding, once important, has been
superseded by yacht and launch construction.
Marblehead, originally a part of Salem, known as Marble
Harbor, was settled about 1629 by English emigrants (probably
mostly from Lincolnshire and Devonshire) ; later (after about
1700) many emigrants from the Channel Islands settled here,
and to them the dialectical peculiarities of Marblehead have
often (perhaps mistakenly) been attributed. Marblehead was
separately incorporated as a town in 1649. In the colonial
period Marblehead was an important commercial port, and at
one time was one of the most populous places in Massachusetts.
After the passage of the Boston Port Bill (1774) it was made
the port of entry instead of Boston, but its merchants refused
to take advantage of this opportunity and patriotically invited
the Boston merchants to use their wharves and warehouses.
During the War of Independence many " state cruisers "
(chartered at the Continental expense) set out from this port,
the most famous being the " Lee," commanded by John Manley *
(1733-93); in November 1775 this cruiser captured. the " Nancy
with military stores valued at 20,341, which were taken to the
American army at Cambridge. The " Lee " was manned by
fifty men of the " amphibious regiment," which under General
John Glover (1732-1797) rendered invaluable services to
1 See Robert E. Peabody, " Naval Career of Captain John Manley
of Marblehead," in Essex Institute Historical Collections (Salem,
Mass.) for January 1909.
MARBLES
679
Washington in conveying his troops across the East River after
the battle of Long Island, and later in ferrying them across the
Delaware before the battle of Trenton. Marblehead furnished
more than 1000 men to the Continental army. During the
war of 1812 the sea fight between the " Chesapeake " and the
" Shannon " took place (June i, 1813) off the adjacent coast.
Marblehead was the scene of Benjamin (nicknamed " Flood ")
Ireson's ride, immortalized by J. G. Whittier.
See Samuel Roads, jun., The History and Traditions of Marblehead
(Boston, 1880; 3rd ed., Marblehead, 1897).
MARBLES, a children's game of great antiquity, wide dis-
tribution, and uncertain origin, played with small spheres of
stone, glass, baked clay or other material, from one-third of an
inch to two inches in diameter. The game was once popular with
all classes. Tradition, both at Oxford and Cambridge, attests
that the game was formerly prohibited among undergraduates
on the steps of the Bodleian or the Senate House. There is
a similar tradition at Westminster School that the boys were
forbidden to play marbles in Westminster Hall on account of
the complaints made by members of parliament and lawyers.
An anonymous poem of the iyth century speaks of a boy about
to leave Eton as
" A dunce at syntax, but a dab at taw."
Rogers, in The Pleasures of Memory, recalls how
" On yon grey stone that fronts the chancel-door,
Worn smooth by busy feet, now seen no more,
Each eve we shot the marble through the ring."
Defoe (1720) writes of the seer Duncan Campbell: " Marbles,
which he used to call children's playing at bowls, yielded him
mighty diversion; and he was so dexterous an artist at shooting
that little alabaster globe from between the end of his forefinger
and the knuckle of his thumb, that he seldom missed hitting plumb,
as the boys call it, the marble he aimed at, though at the distance
of two or three yards." The locus dassicus on marbles in the
ipth century is in the trial in Pickwick, where Serjeant Buzfuz
pathetically says of Master Bardell that " his 'alley tors ' and
his ' commoneys ' are alike neglected; he forgets the long familiar
cry of ' knuckle down,' and at tip-cheese, or odd and even, his
hand is out." Many similar passages might be adduced to
prove the former popularity of marbles with the young of all
classes. In some rural parts of Sussex Good Friday was known
as " marble-day " till late in the ipth century, since on that
day both old and young, including many who would never have
thought of playing marbles at other times, took part in the
game. There was some traditional reason for regarding marbles
as a Lenten sport perhaps, as the Rev. W. D. Parish sug-
gests, " to keep people from more boisterous and mischievous
enjoyments."
The origin of the game is concealed in the mists of antiquity.
Marbles used by Egyptian and Roman children before the
Christian era are to be seen in the British Museum. Probably
some of the small stone spheres found among neolithic remains,
which Evans (Ancient Stone Implements, 2nd ed., p. 420) admits
to be too small for projectiles, are prehistoric marbles. It is
commonly assumed that the game which the youthful August us,
like other Roman children, played with nuts was a form of
marbles, and that the Latin phrase of relinquere nuces, in the
sense of putting away childish things, referred to this game.
Strutt believed that nuts of the roundest sort were the original
" marbles." The earliest unmistakable reference to marbles
in literature seems to be in a French poem of the I2th century,
quoted by Littre s.v. Bille.
The marbles with which various games are nowadays played
are small spheres of stone, glass or baked clay. In the i8th
century they were mostly made from chips of marble (whence
the name) or other stone, which were ground into a roughly
spherical shape by attrition in a special iron mill. Nuremberg
was then the centre of the trade in marbles, though some were
made in Derbyshire, and indeed wherever there was a stone-
mason's yard to afford raw material. The " alley taw," as its
name indicates, was made of alabaster. In the first decade
of the 2oth century English marbles were all imported from
central Germany, and the alleys, or most valuable marbles,
used for shooting, were mostly made of coloured glass, sold
retail from ten a penny to a penny each. Coloured stone marbles
and so-called china marbles really of baked clay were sold
at prices varying from forty to a hundred a penny, though even
the cheapest of these were painted by hand with concentric
rings. The well-made and highly valued alleys of earlier times
were no longer procurable, owing to the decline in popularity
of the sport. In the United States, however, much more
expensive and accurately rounded marbles were still manu-
factured, the latest being of hollow steel.
There has never been any recognized authority on the game of
marbles, and it is probable that, in the past as in the present, every
parish and school and set of boys made its own rules. There are,
however, three or four distinct games which are traditional, and
may be found, with trifling variations, wherever the game is played.
Strutt, writing at the end of the i8th century, describes these as
follows: (i) " Taw, wherein a number of boys put each of them
one or two marbles in a ring and shoot at them alternately with
other marbles, and he who obtains the most of them by beating
them out of the ring is the conqueror." The marbles placed in
the ring whence the game is often known as " ring-taw " are
usually of the cheaper kind known as "commoneys,' " stoneys "
or " potteys," and the marble with which the player shoots is a
more valuable one, known as an" alley, "or " alley taw," sometimes
spelt " tor," as by Dickens. Usually it is necessary that the alley
should emerge from the ring as well as drive out another marble;
under other rules the ring is smaller, not more than a foot in diameter,
and the player must be skilful enough to leave his alley inside it,
whilst driving the object marble outside. (2) " Nine holes: which
consists in bowling of marbles at a wooden bridge with nine arches."
Each arch bears a number, and the owner of the bridge pays that
number of marbles to the player who shoots through it, making
his profit from the missing marbles, which he confiscates; or the
game may simply be played so many up usually 100. (3) " There
is also another game of marbles where four, five or six holes, and
sometimes more, are made in the ground at a distance from each
other; and the business of every one of the players is to bowl a
marble by a regular succession into all the holes, which he who
completes in the fewest bowls obtains the victory." This primitive
form of golf is played by Zulu adults with great enthusiasm, and is
still popular among the car-drivers of Belfast. (4) " Boss out,
or boss and span, also called hit and span, wherein one bowls a
marble to any distance that he pleases, which serves as a mark
for his antagonist to bowl at, whose business it is to hit the marble
first bowled, or lay his own near enough to it for him to span the
space between them and touch both marbles; in either case he wins,
if not, his marble remains where it lay and becomes a mark for the
first player, and so alternately until the game be won." In rural
parts of England this was known as a " going-to-school game,"
because it helped the players along the road.
Mr F. W. Hackwood states that, in the middle of the igth century,
taverns in the Black Country had regular marble alleys, consisting
of a cement bed 20 ft. long by 12 ft. wide and 18 in. from the ground,
with a raised wooden rim to prevent the marbles from running off.
Players knelt down to shoot, and had to " knuckle down " fairly
i.e. to place the knuckle of the shooting hand on the ground, so
that the flip of the thumb was not aided by a jerk of the wrist.
The game was usually ring-taw. But marbles is now obsolete in
England as a game for adults (Old English Sports, London, 1907).
A writer in Notes and Queries (IX. ii. 314) thus describes the
marbles used by English boys in the middle of the igth century:
" In ring-taw the player put only commoneys in the ring, and
shot with the taws, which included stoneys, alleys and blood-
alleys. Commoneys were unglazed; potteys glazed in the kiln.
Stoneys were made from common pebbles such as were used for
road-mending; alleys and blood-alleys out of marble. The blood-
alleys were highly prized, and were called by this name because of
the spots or streaks of red in them. In Derbyshire, where large
numbers were made, they had relative values. The stoney was
worth three commoneys or two potteys. An alley was worth six
commoneys or four potteys. Blood-alleys were worth more, accord-
ing to the depth and arrangement of colour from twelve to fifty
commoneys and stoneys in proportion." " A taw with a history
was prized above rubies," another correspondent observes (IX. ii. 76).
" All the best-made marbles were taws, and no commoneys or
potteys were used for shooting with, either in ring-taw or the various
hole-games." In Belfast, 1854-1858, the marble season extended
from Easter to June, when the ground was usually dry and hard.
The marbles were stoneys, of composition painted; crockeries, of
slightly glazed stone- ware, dark brown and yellow; clayeys, of
red brick clay baked in the fire; marbles, of white marble; china
alleys, with white glaze and painted rings; and glass marbles.
The two chief games were ring-taw and hole and taw ; in the latter
three holes were made in a line, 6 ft. to 12 ft. apart, and the player
68o
MARBOT MARBURG
had to go three times up and down according to somewhat elaborate
rules (Notes and Queries, IX. iii. 65). The stoneys and crockeries
were sold at twenty a penny; the clayeys were cheaper and were
not used as stakes; the marbles proper and china alleys, used as
taws for shooting, cost a halfpenny and a farthing respectively.
In other parts of the country the phraseology of marbles affords
some interesting problems for the philologist. We hear of " alleys,
barios, poppos and stoneys"; of " marididdles," home-made
marbles of rolled and baked clay; in Scotland of " bools, whinnies,
glassies, jauries "; of " Dutch alleys," and so forth. " Dubs, trebs
and fobs," stand for twos, threes and fours. To be " mucked "
is to lose all one's " mivvies " or marbles. When the taw stayed
in the ring it was a " chuck." " Phobbo slips " was a phrase used
to forbid the correction of an error.
The fullest account of the various games of marbles played by
English children is to be found in Mrs Gomme's Traditional Games
of England, Scotland and Ireland (London, 1898), under the headings
Boss-out, Bridgeboard, Bun-hole, Cob, Ho-go, Holy Bang, Hundreds,
Lag, Long-Tawl, Marbles, Nine-Holes, Ring-taw, Three-Holes.
Other games are known as Plum-pudding, or Picking the Plums,
in which one shoots at marbles in a row; Pyramids, in which the
marbles are arranged in a pyramid; Bounce About, Bounce Eye,
Conqueror, Die Shot, Fortifications, Handers, Increase Pound,
Knock Out, Rising Taw, Spanners, Tip-shears; Strutt's Sports
and Pastimes, ed. J. C. Cox (London, 1902). Much information
will also be found in Notes and Queries, passim especially the gth
series. For marbles in France see Larousse, s.v. Billes. See also
SOLITAIRE. (W. E. G. F.)
MARBOT, JEAN BAPTISTE ANTOINE MARCELIN, BARON
DE (1782-1854), French soldier, son of General Jean Antoine de
Marbot (1754-1800), who died in the defence of Genoa under
Massena, was born at La Riviere (Correze), on the i8th of
August 1782. He joined the republican army as a volunteer in
1799, rose rapidly to commissioned rank, and was aide-de-camp
to Marshal Augereau, commanding the VII. corps, in the war
against. Prussia and Russia in 1806-7. After this he served
with great distinction in the Peninsular War under Lannes
and Massena, and showed himself to be a dashing leader of
light cavalry in the Russian War of 1812 and the German cam-
paign of the following year. After a slow recovery from the
wounds he had received at Leipzig and Hanau, he was promoted
general of brigade by Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and
took part in, and was wounded at, the battle of Waterloo. He
was exiled at the second restoration and only returned to France
in 1819, after which, however, his intimacy with the duke of
Orleans secured him important military positions. After the
July restoration he was made marechal-de-camp, and in this
rank he was present at the siege of Antwerp in 1832. He was
promoted lieutenant-general in 1836. From 1835 to 1840 he
served in various Algerian expeditions, and in 1845 he was
made a member of the Chamber of Peers. Three years later,
at the fall of Louis Philippe, he retired into private life. He
died at Paris on the i6th of November 1854. Marbot wrote
two pamphlets, Remarques critiques sur I'oumage de M. le
general Roguet, intitule Considerations sur I'art de la guerre (1820),
and La Ntcessite d'augmenter les forces militaires de la France
(1825), but his fame rests chiefly, if not indeed wholly, on
the fascinating Memoirs of his Life and Campaigns which were
published in Paris in 1891 (Eng. trans., 1902). To ordinary
readers and to students of history alike these give a picture
of the Napoleonic age of warfare which for vividness and
romantic interest has never been surpassed.
His elder brother, ANTOINE ADOLPHE MARCELIN DE MARBOT
(1781-1844), was born at La Riviere, on the 22nd of March 1781,
entered the army at an early age, obtained commissioned rank
in the revolutionary wars and became aide-de-camp to Berna-
dotte. In 1802 he was arrested on the ground of being concerned
in a plot of the Republicans against the Consulate, but he was
released, though Napoleon continued to regard him as an
opponent of the established regime. After a term of duty with
the army in Santo Domingo he participated in the campaigns of
1806-7, and from 1808 to 1811 he was employed in the Penin-
sular War. In the Russian War of 1812 he was wounded and
made prisoner. At the end of two years of captivity he returned
to France at the general peace, was aide-de-camp to Marshal
Davout during the Hundred Days, and thereafter passed into
retirement, from which he did not emerge till 1830. He attained
the rank of marechal-de-camp under Louis Philippe, and died at
Bra, near Tulle, on the 2nd of June 1844.
MARBURG, a town of Austria, in Styria, 41 m. S. of Graz
by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,501. It is very picturesquely situated
on the left bank of the river Drave, on a plain called the Pettauer-
Feld, at the base of the well-wooded Bachergebirge. To the
north of the town the train passes through the Leitersberg
tunnel (725 yds. long), opened in 1846, while the Drave, which
has here a width of 200 yds., is spanned by a magnificent iron
bridge, built in 1845. The principal buildings are the cathedral,
dating from the i6th century, the tower of which, erected in
1623, is 136 ft. high, and the old castle. Its situation in the
midst of a fertile vine and fruit-growing district, connected by
the navigable Drave with Hungary, and by railway with Vienna,
Trieste, Tirol and Carinthia, makes it the centre of a considerable
traffic in wine and grain. Its industrial products are leather,
boots and shoes, iron and tin wares, liqueurs and sparkling wine,
and it also contains the extensive workshops of the South
Austrian railway. Marburg is the seat of the bishop of Lavant,
and is the native town of the famous Austrian admiral, Baron
Wilhelm of Tegetthoff (1827-1871). Near Marburg is the
village of Mariarast, the church of which is a popular place of
pilgrimage.
MARBURG, an ancient university town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, situated on the slope of a hill
on the right bank of the Lahn, 60 m. by rail N. of Frankfort-on-
Main, on the main line to Cassel. Pop. (1905), 20,137. On the
opposite bank of the river, here spanned by two bridges, lie
the suburb of Weidenhausen and the railway station of the
Prussian state railway. The hill on which the town lies is
crowned by the extensive old Schloss, a fine Gothic building,
the most noteworthy parts of which are the Rittersaal, dating
from 1277-1312, and the beautiful little chapel. This Schloss
was formerly the residence of the landgraves of Hesse, served
afterwards as a prison, and is now the repository of the histori-
cally interesting and valuable archives of Hesse. The chief
architectural ornament of Marburg is, however, the Elisabethen-
kirche, a veritable gem of the purest Early Gothic style, erected
by the grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1235-1283, to
contain the tomb of St Elizabeth of Hungary. The remains
of the saint were deposited in a rich silver-gilt sarcophagus,
which may still be seen, and were afterwards visited by myriads
of pilgrims, until the Protestant zeal of Landgrave Philip the
Generous caused him to remove the body to some unknown spot
in the church. The church also contains the tombs of numerous
Hessian landgraves and knights of the Teutonic Order. The
Lutheran church is another good Gothic edifice, dating mainly
from the isth century. The town-hall, built in 1512, and
several fine houses in the Renaissance style, also deserve mention.
The university of Marburg, founded by Philip the Magnanimous
in 1527, was the first university established without papal
privileges, and speedily acquired a great reputation throughout
Protestant Europe. It has a library of 140,000 volumes, is
admirably equipped with medical and other institutes, which
form some of the finest modern buildings in the town, and was
attended, in 1905, by 1576 students. Marburg also possesses
a gymnasium, a " Realschule," an agricultural school, a society
of naturalists, a hospital, and an extensive lunatic asylum. It
is the seat of a district court, and of superintendents of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches. Marburg pottery is re-
nowned; and leather, iron wares and surgical instruments are
also manufactured there. The environs are very picturesque.
Marburg is first historically mentioned in a document of the
beginning of the i3th century, and received its municipal charter
from the landgrave Louis of Thuringia in 1227. On his death
it became the residence of his wife, Elizabeth of Hungary, who
built a hospital there, and died in 1231, at the age of twenty-four,
worn out with works of religion and charity. She was canonized
in 1235 at the instance of the Teutonic Knights, who had settled
in Marburg in 1233 and were zealous in promoting her cult. By
1247 Marburg had already become the second town of Hesse,
and in the isth and i6th centuries it alternated with Cassel as
MARBURG MARCA
681
the seat of the landgraves. In 1529 the famous conference
between Luther and Zwingli on the subject of Transubstantiation
took place there in the Rittersaal of the Schloss (see MARBURG,
COLLOQUY OF). During the Thirty Years' and Seven Years'
Wars Marburg suffered considerably from sieges and famine.
In 1806, and again in 1810, it was the centre of an abortive
rising against the French, in consequence of which the fortifi-
cations of the castle were destroyed.
Sec Kolbe, Marburg im Mittelalter (Marb., 1879) ; Bucking, Mit-
theilungen aus Marburts Vorzeit (Marb., 1886); Schoof, Marburg
die Perle des Hessenlandes (2nd ed., 1903).
MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF (Marburger ReligionsgespracK),
the name given to a conference of divines held in 1529 in the
interests of the unity of Protestant Germany. The circumstances
in which it was held, the influence of the men who conducted its
deliberations, and the result of its proceedings, combine to render
it of no small importance for the history of the Reformation in
Germany.
After the Imperial Diet of Spires in 1526 had decreed that all
states of the empire should observe the Edict of Worms (1521),
banning Luther and his adherents, in such a manner that they
should not be afraid to answer it before God and the emperor,
the reform movement had received such an access of strength
that the Catholic party felt itself menaced in earnest, and in
1529 again passed a resolution at Spires, deigned not merely
to preclude any further expansion of the Reformation, but
even to prevent it from maintaining the ground already won.
This decision was at once challenged, on the igth of April, by
the protest of the Evangelical states (whence the name Protes-
tants); and the effect of this disclaimer was not small. Still,
it was devoid of political significance, unless backed by the
united force of all the princes and states subscribing to the
Evangelical teaching; and this unity was wanting. The feud
which raged round the doctrine of the Lord's Supper had already
broken out before the first diet of Spires, and had aroused great
and immediate 'excitement. At a very early period, however,
efforts were made to allay the dissension. Strassburg pro-
nounced for conciliation: but the most powerful and zealous
champion of peace was to be found in the landgrave Philip
of Hesse, who recognized the absolute necessity from a political
standpoint of the union of all German Protestants. It is
probable that he had invited Luther to a religious conference
as early as the year 1527; but on that occasion he met with a
refusal. True, the impression conveyed by the attitude of the
Catholic party at the second Diet of Spires had served to awaken
the feeling for solidarity among the Evangelicals there assembled;
and on the 22nd of April they had even secured the basis for a
provisional alliance in the shape of a formula drawn up by
Bucer and dealing with the Lord's Supper. But it was obvious
that a permanent coalition could not be expected unless some
definite understanding on the debated point could be attained;
and on the very same day the landgrave despatched to Zwingli
an invitation to a colloquy, and received his prompt acquiescence.
Melanchthon, who in the tension which prevailed at the synod
had shown himself inclined to negotiation, became suspicious
on his return, and endeavoured to influence the elector of Saxony
and Luther in accordance with his views. The landgrave,
however, was so far successful that the beginning of October
(1529) saw the colloquy opened in the castle at Marburg. With
Zwingli, who had arrived on the 27th of September, he had
several interviews of considerable political importance before
the Wittenberg divines made their appearance. These inter-
views settled the preliminaries of an alliance; but they rested
on the assumption that the theological feud between Wittenberg
and Zurich could be removed, or its violence at least abated.
The proceedings opened on the ist of October with conferences
between Luther and Oecolampadius, and Melanchthon and
Zwingli: then on the two following days the discussion proper
confined almost entirely to Luther and Zwingli was held before
the landgrave and his guest Duke Ulrich of Wiirttemberg, in
the presence of more than fifty persons. As regards the main
point of contention, i.e. the doctrine of the Lord's Supper,
no agreement was found practicable; and the private conversa-
tions on the 4th of October, which formed the sequel of the
debate, carried matters no farther. " You have another spirit,"
said Luther. Since the landgrave, however, was reluctant to
see the colloquy brought to an absolutely fruitless close, he
requested Luther to draw up a list of the most important points
of doctrine on which it might yet be possible to arrive at some
degree of unanimity. This was done on the 4th of October;
and a few alterations were introduced to meet the wishes of
the Swiss deputies. The Articles of Marburg, which thus came
into being, contain the doctrine of the Trinity, of the personality
of Christ, of faith and justification, of the Scriptures, of baptism,
of good works, of confession, of government, of tradition, and
of infant baptism. The fifteenth article, treating of the Lord's
Supper, defines the ground common to both parties even in this
debateable region, recognizing the necessity of participation in
both kinds, and rejecting the sacrifice of the Mass. It then
proceeds to fix the point of difference in the fact that no agree-
ment had been reached on the question " whether the true body
and blood of Christ are corporeally present in the bread and
wine " (" Nit vergleicht haben wir uns, ob der war leib und
plut Christi leiblich im brot und wein sey "). Nevertheless, the
adherents of each doctrine are recommended to display Christian
charity to those of the other. These articles were signed by
the ten official members of the colloquy: Luther, Jonas,
Melanchthon, Osiander, Agricola, Brenz, Oecolampadius, Bucer,
Hedio and Zwingli. The personal contact between Luther and
Zwingli led to no mental rapprochement between the two; but in
the following year the Articles of Marburg did good service as
one of the preliminaries to the Augsburg Confession, and remain
a valuable document for the fundamental principles common
to the Lutheran and Reformed Churches.
See T. Kolde, s.v. " Marburger Religionsgesprach," in Realencyklo-
padief. protestant. Theologie, 3rd ed. xii. 248 seq. (C. M.)
MARCA, PIERRE DE (1594-1662), French prelate and
historian, was born at Can, near Pau, on the 24th of January
1594. His family was known among judicial circles in the
1 6th century, and maintained the Roman Catholic faith after
the official introduction of the Reformed religion into Navarre.
After having studied law at the university of Toulouse he
practised successfully at Pau. But he was ambitious, and
turned to a larger sphere. He ardently called for the armed
intervention of King Louis XIII. in Beam, and on this occasion
published his first writing, Discours d'un Biarnais, Ires fidele
sujet du roi, sur Vedit du relablissement de I'exercice de la religion
catholique dans toitl le Beam (1618). After the easy campaign
of 1620, the possessions which had been taken by the Protestants
were given back to the Roman Catholic church; this task was
performed, under his supervision, with judgment and modera-
tion. During the siege of La Rochelle he performed a mission
which brought him in touch with Richelieu, who shortly after-
wards nominated him intendanl de justice in Beam (1631),
and in 1639 summoned him to Paris with the title of counsellor
of state. The following year, the question of the intervention
of kings in the election of bishops having been raised in a pam-
phlet by Charles Hersent (Optatus Callus ds cavendo schismate,
1640), Marca defended what were then called the liberties
of the Gallican Church, in his celebrated treatise De concordia
sacerdolii el imperil, seu de liberlalibus ecclesiae gallicanae (1641).
He was soon rewarded for this service. Although he had not
yet taken even the minor holy orders, he was nominated bishop
of Couserans by the king on the 28th of December 1641, but
the pope refused to give his sanction. It was only after Marca
had formally denied those propositions contained in De con-
cordia which were displeasing to Rome that he was proclaimed
in the consistory (Jan. 13, 1648). During this time, and
until 1651, he was governor of the province of Catalonia, then
occupied by the French. After the Treaty of the Pyrenees,
he was sent to direct the conference which had been formed
to fix the limits of Roussillon, which had just been ceded to
France (1660). Marca now interested himself in the fortunes
of Mazarin, and remained faithful to him even during the
682
MARCANTONIO
Fronde. As a recompense, he was nominated archbishop
of Toulouse (May 28, 1652), but had to wait for the bulls of
investiture till the 2$rd of March 1654. It was difficult for
him to please both pope and king. In the struggle against
the Jansenists he used all the influence he had with the clergy
to secure the passage of the apostolic constitution of the 3ist
of March 1653 (Relation de ce qui s'est fait depuis 1653 dans
Its assemblies des iveques au sujei des cinq propositions, 1657);
but in the rebellion raised by Retz, archbishop of Paris, against
the king, he took the part of the king against the pope. Michel
Le Tellier having ordered him to refute a thesis of the college
of Clermont on the infallibility of the pope, Marca wrote a
treatise which was most Gallican in its ideas, but refused to
publish it for fear of drawing down " the indignation of Rome."
These tactics were successful, and when Retz, weary of a struggle
without definite results, resigned the archbishopric, Marca
became his successor (Feb. 26, 1662). He did not derive
much profit from this new favour, as he died on the 29th of
June following, without his nomination having been sanctioned
by the pope.
Marca, clever and covetous, was also an historian of note.
When very young he showed his interest in the past history
of his native land, and in 1617, at the age of twenty-three, he
had set to work looking through archives, copying charters,
and corresponding with the principal men of learning of his
time, the brothers Dupuy, Andre Duchesne and Jean Besly,
whom he visited in Poitou. His Histoire de Beam was pub-
lished at Paris in 1640. It was not so well received as his
De concordia, but is more appreciated by posterity. If Marca's
criticism is too often undecided, both in the ancient epochs,
where he supports the text by a certain amount of guesswork
and in certain points where he touches on religion, yet he always
gives the text correctly. A number of chapters end with an
interesting collection of charters. It is to be regretted that
this incomplete work does not go beyond 130x2. During his
long stay in Catalonia he made preparations for a geographical
and historical description of this province, which was bound to
France by so many political and literary associations. Baluze,
who became his secretary in 1656, helped him with the work
and finished it, adding clever appendices and publishing the
whole in 1688 under the title Marca hispanica.
Marca married Marguerite de Forgues on the 4th of June
1618, and had one son and three daughters. His son,
Galactoire, who was president of the parlement of Navarre,
died on the xoth of February 1689.
Marca's biography was written in Latin by two of his intimate
friends, Etienne Baluze, his secretary (Epistola ad Samuelem
Sorbierium, de vita, gestis et scriptis Petri de Marca, Paris, 1663),
and his cousin, Paul de Faget (at the beginning of a collection of
Marca's theological pamphlets, first published by Paul de Faget in
1668). This contained four treatises on the Eucharist, the sacrifice
of the Mass, the erection of the patriarchate of Constantinople
(in Latin), and the sacrament of the Eucharist (in French). It was
supposed to contain heretical propositions and caused a good deal
of scandal, inciting Baluze against Faget, both of whom abused
the other, to defend the memory of the prelate.
See Bayle's article in the Dictionnaire historiqite et critique (s.v.
" Marca "), and the Vie de Marca in the Histoire de Beam (vol. i.,
1894) of V. Dubarat.
MARCANTONIO [MARCANTONIO RAIMONDI], the chief Italian
master of the art of engraving in the age of the Renais-
sance, and the first who practised it in order to reproduce, not
designs of his own invention, as earlier craftsmen had commonly
done, but those of other artists almost exclusively. The date
of his birth is uncertain, nor is there any good authority for
assigning it, as is commonly done, approximately to the year
1488. He was probably born some years at least earlier than
this, inasmuch as he is mentioned by a contemporary writer,
Achillini, as being an artist of repute in 1504. His earliest
dated plate, illustrating the story of Pyramus and Thisbe,
belongs to the following year, 1505. Marcantonio received
his training in the workshop of the famous goldsmith and
painter of Bologna, Francesco Raibolini, usually called Francia.
" Having more aptitude in design," says Vasari, " than his
master, and managing the graver with facility and grace, he
made waist-buckles and many other things in niello, such being
then greatly in fashion, and made them most beautifully,
as being in truth most excellent in that craft." The real fame,
however, of Marcantonio was destined to be founded on his
attainments, not in the goldsmith's art generally, but in that
particular development of it which consists of engraving designs
on metal plates for the purpose of reproduction by the printing
press. This art was not new in Italy in the days of Marcan-
tonio's apprenticeship. It had been practised, in a more or
less elementary form, for not less than forty or fifty years in
the workshops alike of Venetia, the Emilia, Tuscany and Lom-
bardy. But the technical aim of the Italian engravers had
not hitherto been directed, like that of Schongauer or Diirer
north of the Alps, towards securing such freedom and precision
in the use of the burin as should impart to the impressions
taken from their engraved plates both a striking decorative
effect and a power of suggesting to the eye a complex variety
of natural objects and surfaces in light and shade. The Italian
masters had been satisfied with much more rudimentary effects.
The Florentine primitives had been content either with very
simple cloudy patches of cross-hatching in fine straight lines,
or with broad open shadings in the manner of a bold pen-drawing.
Mantegna and Pollaiuolo, the two chief original masters who
practised the art, had used the latter method with great power
but at the same time great simplicity.
By the beginning of the i6th century a desire for a more
complicated kind of effects was already arising among the
followers of the art in Italy. Both backgrounds and passages
of foreground detail were often imitated, inartificially enough,
from the works of the northern masters. Marcantonio himself
was among the foremost in this movement. About eighty
engravings can be referred to the first five or six years of his
career (1505-1511). Their subjects are very various, including
many of pagan mythology, and some of obscure allegory,
along with those of Christian devotion. The types of figures
and drapery, and the general character of the compositions,
bespeak for the most part the inspiration, and sometimes the
direct authorship, of Francia. But the influence of German
example is very perceptible also, particularly in the landscape
backgrounds, and in the endeavour to express form by means
of light and shadow with greater freedom than had been hitherto
the practice of the southern schools. In a few subjects also
the figures themselves correspond to a coarse Teutonic, instead
of to the refined Italian, ideal. But so far we find Marc-
antonio only indirectly leaning on the north for the sake of self-
improvement. It must have been for the sake of commercial
profit that he by-and-by produced a series of direct counterfeits
on copper from Albert Diirer's woodcuts. These facsimiles
are sixty-nine in number, including seventeen of Diirer's " Life
of the Virgin," thirty-seven of his " Little Passion," on wood, and
a number of single pieces. According to Vasari, Diirer's indig-
nation over those counterfeits was the cause of his journey
to Venice, where he is said to have lodged a complaint against
Marcantonio, and induced the Senate to prohibit the counter-
feiting of his monogram, at any rate, upon any future imitations
of the kind. Vasari's account must certainly be mistaken,
inasmuch as Diirer's journey to Venice took place in 1506,
and neither of the two series of woodcuts imitated by Marc-
antonio was published until 1 5 1 1 . The greater part of the designs
for the " Life of the Virgin " had, it is true, been made and engraved
seven years earlier than the date of their publication; and
it is to be remarked that, whereas Marcantonio's copies of the
" Little Passion " leave out the monogram of Diirer, it is inserted
in his copies of the "Life of the Virgin"; whence it would, after
all, seem possible that he had seen and counterfeited a set of
impressions of this series at the time when they were originally
executed, and before their publication. But the real nature
of the transaction, if transaction there was, which took place
between Diirer and Marcantonio we cannot now hope to
recover. Enough that the Bolognese engraver evidently
profited, both in money and in education of the hand, by his
MARCASITE MARCEAU-DESGRAVIERS
683
work in imitating in a finer material the energetic characters
of these northern woodcuts. He was soon to come under
a totally different influence, and to turn the experience he
had gained to account in interpreting the work of a master
of a quite other stamp. Up till the year 1510 Marcantonio
had lived entirely at Bologna, with the exception, it would
appear, of a visit or visits to Venice. (A few of his early en-
gravings are from drawings of the school of Giorgione.) Very
soon afterwards he was attracted, for good and all, into the
circle which surrounded Raphael at Rome. Where or when
he had first made Raphael's acquaintance is uncertain. His
passage to Rome by way of Florence has been supposed to
be marked by an engraving, dated 1510, and known as " The
Climbers," Les Grimpcurs (Bartsch, 487), in which he has re-
produced a portion of the design of Michelangelo's cartoon
of the Soldiers surprised bathing, and has added behind the
figures a landscape imitated from the then young Dutch
engraver Lucas of Leiden. Contemporary or somewhat earlier
than this is a large engraving done by him from a design by
Baldassare Peruzzi, a Sienese artist drawn about the same
time into the Raphael circle. The piece in which he is recorded
to have first tried his hand after Raphael himself is the Lucretia
(Bartsch 192). From that time until he disappears in the
catastrophe of 1527, Marcantonio was almost exclusively
engaged in reproducing by means of engraving the designs of
Raphael or of his immediate pupils. Raphael, the story goes,
was so delighted with the print of the Lucretia that he per-
sonally trained and helped Marcantonio afterwards. A printing
establishment was set up under the charge of Raphael's colour-
grinder, II Baviera, and the profits, in the early stage of the
business, were shared between the engraver and the printer.
The sale soon became very great; pupils gathered round about
Marcantonio, of whom the two most distinguished were Marco
Dcnte, known as Marco da Ravenna, and Agostino de' Musi,
known as Agostino Veneziano; and he and they, during the
last ten years of Raphael's life, and for several years following
his death, gave forth a great profusion of engravings after the
master's work not copying, in most instances, his finished
paintings, but working up, with the addition of simple back-
grounds and accessories, his first sketches and trials, which
often give the composition in a different form from the finished
work, and are all the more interesting on that account.
The best of these engravings produced in the workshop
of Marcantonio those, namely, done by his own hand, and
especially those done during the first few years after he had
attached himself to Raphael count among the most prized
and coveted examples of the art. In them he enters into the
genius of his master, and loses little of the chastened science
and rhythmical purity of Raphael's contours, or of the inspired
and winning sentiment of his faces; while in the parts where
he is left to himself the rounding and shading, the back-
ground and landscape he manages his burin with all the
skill and freedom which he had gained by the imitation of
northern models, but puts away the northern emphasis and
redundance of detail. His work, however, does not long remain
at the height marked by pieces like the Lucretia, the Dido,
the Judgment of Paris, the Poetry, the Philosophy, or the
first Massacre of the Innocents. Marcantonio's engravings
after the works of Raphael's later years are cold, ostentatious,
and soulless by comparison. Still more so, as is natural, were
those which he and his pupils produced after the designs of
the degenerate scholars of Raphael and Michelangelo, of a
Giulio Romano, a Polidoro, or a Bandinelli. Marcantonio's
association with Giulio Romano was the cause of his first great
disaster in life. He engraved a series of obscene designs
by that painter in illustration of the Sonnetti lussuriosi
of Pietro Aretino, and thereby incurred the anger of pope
Clement VII., at whose order he was thrown into prison.
Marcantonio's ruin was completed by the calamities attendant
on the sack of Rome in 1527. He had to pay a heavy ransom
in order to escape from the hands of the Spaniards, and fled
from Rome, in the words of Vasari, " all but a beggar." It
is said that he took refuge in his native city, Bologna; but he
never again emerges from obscurity, and all we know with
certainty is that in 1534 he was dead. (S. C.)
MARCASITE, a mineral with the same chemical composition
as pyrites, being iron disulphide FeSj, but crystallizing in the
orthorhombic instead of in the cubic system. The name is of
Arabic origin and was long applied to crystallized pyrites (<?..) ;
it was restricted to the present species by W. Haidinger in
1845. The mineral was known to G. Agricola in 1546 under
the names Wasserkies or Weisserkies and Leberkies, and it
has been variously known as white pyrites, hepatic pyrites,
lamellar pyrites, radiated pyrites (German Slrahlkies) and
prismatic pyrites. The orthorhombic form of the crystals,
as distinct from the cubic form of pyrites, was recognized by
Rome de 1'Isle in 1772, though later R. J. Haiiy considered
the crystals to be only distorted cubic forms.
The crystals are isomorphous with mispickel (</..), but only
rarely are they distinctly developed and simple (fig.). Usually,
they are twinned on a prism plane, M, pro-
ducing pentagonal stellate groups of five
crystals; twinning on the plain g, in which
the crystals intercross at angles of nearly
60, is less common. This frequent twinning
gives rise to characteristic forms, with many
re-entrant angles, to which the names " spear
pyrites " and " cockscomb pyrites " are applied.
The commonest state of aggregation is that of radially arranged
fibres, the external surface of the mass being globular, nodular
or stalactitic in form.
Apart from crystalline form, the external characters of
marcasite are very similar to those of pyrites, and when distinct
crystals are not available the two species cannot always be
easily distinguished. The colour is usually pale bronze-yellow,
often rather lighter than that of pyrites; on freshly fractured
surfaces of pure marcasite the colour is tin-white, but this
rapidly tarnishes on exposure to air. The lustre is metallic
and brilliant. The streak is greyish or brownish-black. The
hardness (6-6|) is the same as that of pyrites, and the specific
gravity (4-8-4-g) as a rule rather less. Arsenical varieties
of marcasite, containing up to 5% of arsenic, are known as
lonchidite and kyrosite.
Marcasite readily oxidizes on exposure to moist air, with the
production of sulphuric acid and a white fibrous efflorescence of
ferrous sulphate, and in course of time specimens in collections
often became completely disintegrated. In nature it is frequently
altered to limonite with the separation of native sulphur. Marcasite
is thus the less stable of the two modifications of iron disulphide.
Many experiments have been made with a view to determining the
difference in chemical constitution of marcasite and pyrites, but
with no very definite results. It is a noteworthy fact that whilst
pyrites has been prepared artificially, marcasite has not.
Marcasite occurs under the same conditions as pyrites, but is
much less common. Whilst pyrites is found abundantly in the
older crystalline rocks and slates, marcasite is more abundant in
clays, and has often been formed as a concretion around organic
remains. It is abundant, .for example, in the plastic clay of the
Brown Coal formation at Littmitz, near Carlsbad, in Bohemia, at
which place it has been extensively mined for the manufacture of
sulphur and ferrous sulphate. In the Chalk of the south-east of
England nodules of marcasite with a fibrous radiated structure
are abundant, and in the Chalk Marl between Dover and Folkestone
fine twinned groups of " spear pyrites " are common. The mineral
is also met with in metalliferous veins, though much less frequently
than pyrites; for example the "cockscomb pyrites" of the lead
mines of Derbyshire ana Cumberland. (L. J. S.)
MARCEAU-DESGRAVIERS, FRANCOIS SEVERIN (1760-
1796), French general, was born at Chartres on the ist of March
1769. His father was a law officer, and he was educated for
a legal career, but at the age of sixteen he enlisted in the regiment
of Savoy-Carignan. Whilst on furlough in Paris Marceau
joined in the attack on the Bastille (July 14, 1789); after
that event he took his discharge from the regular army and
returned to Chartres, but the embarrassments of his family
soon compelled him to seek fresh military enployment. He
became drill instructor, and afterwards captain in the depart-
mental (Eure-et-Loire) regiment of the National Guard. Early
MARCEL MARCELLO
in March 1792 he was elected lieutenant-colonel of one of the
battalions of the Eure-et-Loire; he took part in the defence of
Verdun in 1792, and it fell to his lot to bear the proposals of
capitulation to the Prussian camp. The spiritless conduct
of the defenders excited the wrath of the revolutionary author-
ities, and Marceau was fortunate in escaping arrest and finding
re-employment as a captain in the regular service. Early
in 1793 he became with other officers " suspect, " and was
for some time imprisoned. On his release he hurried to take
part in the defence of Saumur against the Vendean royalists,
and distinguished himself at the combat of Saumur (June 10,
1793) by gallantly rescuing the representative Bourbotte from
the hands of the insurgents. The Convention voted him the
thanks of the country, and thenceforward his rise was rapid.
His conduct at Chantonnay (Sept. 5) won him the provisional
rank of general of brigade. On the i?th of October he bore
a great part in the victory of Cholet, and on the field of
this battle began his friendship with Kleber. For the victory
of Cholet Kleber was made general of division and Marceau
confirmed as general of brigade. Their advice was of the
greatest value to the generals in command, and the military
talents of each were the complement of the other's. Marceau,
who became general of division (Nov. 10), succeeded to the
chief command ad interim, and with his friend won important
victories near Le Mans (Dec. 12-13) an d Savenay (Dec. 23).
After the battle of Le Mans, Marceau rescued and protected
a young Royalist lady, Angelique des Mesliers. It is often
supposed that he was in love with his prisoner; but the
help even of the Commander-in-chief did not avail to save
her from the guillotine (Jan. 22, 1794). Marceau had
already retired from the war, exhausted by the fatigues of
the campaign, and he and Kleber were saved from arrest and
execution only by the intervention of Bourbotte. Marceau
became affianced about this time to Agathe Lepre'tre de
Chateaugiron, but his constant military employment, his
broken health, and the opposition of the comte de Chateau-
giron on the one hand and of Marceau's devoted half-sister
" Emira," wife of the Republican politician Sergent, on the
other, prevented the realization of his hopes. After spending
the winter of 1793-1794 in Paris he took a command in the
army under Jourdan, in which Kleber also served. He took part
in the various battles about Charleroi, and at the final victory
of Fleurus (June 26, 1794) he had a horse shot under him.
He distinguished himself again at Julich and at Aldenhoven,
and stormed the lines of Coblenz on the 23rd of October. With
the Army of the Sambre and Meuse he took his share in the
campaign of 1795 on the Rhine and the Lahn, distinguishing
himself particularly with Kleber in the fighting about Neuwied
on the i8th and igth of October, and at Sulzbach on the i7th
of December. In the campaign of 1796 the famous invasion
of Germany by the armies of Jourdan and Moreau ended in
disaster, and Marceau's men covered Jourdan's retreat over
the Rhine. He fought the desperate actions on the Lahn
(Sept. 16 and 18), and at Altenkirchen on the igth received
a mortal wound, of which he died on the 2ist, at the early
age of twenty-seven. The Austrians vied with his own
countrymen in doing honour to the dead general. His body
was burned, and his ashes, which at the time were placed
under a pyramid designed by Kleber, were transferred in 1889
to the Pantheon at Paris.
See Maze, Le General Marceau (1889) ; Parfait, Le General Marceau
(1892); and T. C. Johnson, Marceau (London, 1896).
MARCEL, ETTENNE (d. 1358), provost of the merchants
of Paris under King John II., belonged by birth to the wealthy
Parisian bourgeoisie, being the son of a clothier named Simon
Marcel and of Isabelle Barbou. He is mentioned as provost
of the Grande-Confrerie of Notre Dame in 1350, and in 1354
he succeeded Jean de Pacy as provost of the Parisian merchants.
His political career began in 1356, when John was made prisoner
after the battle of Poitiers. In conjunction with Robert le
Coq, bishop of Laon, he played a leading part in the states-
general called together by the dauphin Charles on the I7th
of October. A committee of eighty members, constituted
on their initiative, pressed their demands with such insistence
that the dauphin prorogued the states-general; but financial
straits obliged him to summon them once more on the 3rd
of February 1357, and the promulgation of a great edict of
reform was the consequence. John the Good forbade its
being put into effect, whereupon a conflict began between
Marcel and the dauphin, Marcel endeavouring to set up Charles
the Bad, king of Navarre, in opposition to him. The states-
general assembled again on the i3th of January 1358, and on
the 22nd of February the populace of Paris, led by Marcel,
invaded the palace and murdered the marshals of Champagne
and Normandy before the prince's eyes. Thenceforward
Marcel was in open hostility to the throne. After vainly
hoping that the insurrection of the Jacquerie might turn to
his advantage, he next supported the king of Navarre, whose
armed bands infested the neighbourhood of Paris. On the
night of the 3ist of July Marcel was about to open the gates
of the capital to them, but Jean Maillart prevented the execu-
tion of this design, and killed him before the Porte Saint-Antoine.
During the following days his adherents were likewise put to
death, and the dauphin was enabled to re-enter Paris. Etienne
Marcel married first Jeanne de Dammartin, and secondly
Marguerite des Essars, who survived him.
See F. T. Perrens, Jttienne Marcel et le gowernement de la bour-
geoisie au xiv siecle (Paris, 1860); P. Fr6raaux, La Famille d' Etienne
Marcel, in the Memoires of the Societe de I'histoire de Paris et de
I' lie de France (1903), vol. xxx.; and Hon. R. D. Denman, .tienne
Marcel (1898). (J- V.*)
HARCELLINUS, ST, according to the Liberian catalogue,
became bishop of Rome on the 3Oth of June, 296; his pre-
decessor was Caius or Gaius. He is not mentioned in the
Martyrologium hieronymianum, or in the Depositio episcoporum,
or in the Depositio martyrum. The Liber pontificalis, basing
itself on the Acts of St Marcellinus, the text of which is lost,
relates that during Diocletian's persecution Marcellinus was
called upon to sacrifice, and offered incense to idols, but that,
repenting shortly afterwards, he confessed the faith of Christ
and suffered martyrdom with several companions. Other
documents speak of his defection, and it is probably this lapse
that explains the silence of the ancient liturgical calendars. In
the beginning of the 5th century Petilianus, the Donatist
bishop of Constantine, affirmed that Marcellinus and his priests
had given up the holy books to the pagans during the perse-
cution and offered incense to false gods. St Augustine contents
himself with denying the affair (Contra lilt. Petiliani, ii. 202;
De unico baplismo, 27). The records of the pseudo-council
of Sinuessa, which were fabricated at the beginning of the
6th century, state that Marcellinus after his fall presented
himself before a council, which refused to try him on the ground
that prima sedes a nemine iudicatur. According to the Liber
pontificalis, Marcellinus was buried, on the 26th of April 304,
in the cemetery of Priscilla, on the Via Salaria, 25 days after his
martyrdom; the Liberian catalogue gives as the date the 25th
of October. The fact of the martyrdom, too, is not established
with certainty. After a considerable interregnum he was
succeeded by Marcellus, with whom he has sometimes been
confounded.
See L. Duchesne, Liber pontificalis, I. Ixxiii.-lxxiv. 162-163,
and II. 563. (H. DE.)
MARCELLO, BENEDETTO (1686-1739), Italian musical
composer, was born in 1686, either on the 3ist of July or on
the ist of August. He was of noble family (in his compositions
he is frequently described as "Patrizio Veneto "), and although
a pupil of Lotti and Gasparini, was intended by his father to
devote himself to the law. In 1711 he was a member of the
Council of Forty, and in 1730 went to Pola as Proweditore.
His health having been impaired by the climate of Istria,
he retired after eight years to Brescia in the capacity of Camer-
lengo, and died there on the 24th of July 1739.
Marcello is best remembered by his Estro poetico-armonico
(Venice, 1724-1727), a musical setting for voices and strings
MARCELLUS MARCH, EARLS OF
685
of the first fifty Psalms, as paraphrased in Italian by G. Gius-
tiniani. They were much admired by Charles Avison, who
with John Garth brought out an edition with English words
(London, 1757). Some extracts are to be found in Hawkins's
History of Music. His other works are chiefly cantatas, either
for one voice or several; the library of the Brussels conser-
vatoire possesses some interesting volumes of chamber-cantatas
composed for his mistress. Although he produced an opera,
La Fede riconosciuta, at Vicenza in 1702, he had little sympathy
with this form of composition, and vented his opinions on the
state of musical drama at the time in the satirical pamphlet
// Teatro alia moda, published anonymously in Venice in 1720.
This little work, which was frequently reprinted, is not only
extremely amusing, but is also most valuable as a contribution
to the history of opera.
A catalogue of his works is given in Monatshefte fur Musik-
geschichte, vol. xxiii. (1891).
MARCELLUS, the name of two popes.
MARCELLUS I. succeeded Marcellinus, after a considerable
interval, most probably in May 308, under Maxentius. He was
banished from Rome in 309 on account of the tumult caused by
the severity of the penances he had imposed on Christians
who had lapsed under the recent persecution. He died the
same year, being succeeded by Eusebius. He is commemorated
on the 1 6th of January.
MARCELLUS II. (Marcello Cervini), the successor of Julius III.,
was born on the 6th of May 1501, and was elected pope on
the gth of April 1555. He had long been identified with the
rigorist party in the church, and as president of the Council
of Trent had incurred the anger of the emperor by his jealous
defence of papal prerogative. His motives were lofty, his
life blameless, his plans for reform nobly conceived. But
death removed him (April 30, 1555) before he could do more
than give an earnest of his intentions. He was followed by
Paul IV.
Contemporary lives are to be found in Panvinio, continuator of
Platina, De iritis pontiff. rom.\ and Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae
summorum pontiff, rom. (Rome, 1601-1602). P. Polidoro, De gestis,
vita et moribus Marcelli II. (Rome, 1744), makes use of an unpub-
lished biography of the pope by his brother, Alessandro Cervini.
See also Brilh, Intorno alia vita e alle azioni di Marcello II. (Monte-
pulciano, 1846) ; Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 284 seq. ; A. von
Keumont, Gesch. der Stoat Rom), hi. 2, 512, seq. (T. F. C.)
MARCELLUS, a Roman plebeian family belonging to the
Claudian gens. Its most distinguished members were the
following:
i. MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS (c. 268-208 B.C.), one of the
Roman generals during the Second Punic War and conqueror of
Syracuse. He first served against Hamilcar in Sicily. In his
first consulship (222) he was engaged, with Cn. Cornelius Scipio
as colleague, in war against the Insubrian Gauls, and won the
spolia opima for the third and last time in Roman history by
slaying their chief Viridomarus or Virdumarus (Polybius ii. 34;
Propertius v. 10, 39). In 216, after the defeat at Cannae, he
took command of the remnant of the army at Canusium, and
although he was unable to prevent Capua going over to Hannibal,
he saved Nola and southern Campania. In 214 he was in Sicily
as consul at the time of the revolt of Syracuse; he stormed
Leontini and besieged Syracuse, but the skill of Archimedes
repelled his attacks. After a two years' siege he gradually forced
his way into the city and took it in the face of strong Punic
reinforcements. He spared the lives of the inhabitants, but
carried off their art treasures to Rome, the first instance of a
practice afterwards common. Consul again in 210, he took
Salapia in Apulia, which had revolted to Hannibal, by help of
the Roman party there, and put to death the Numidian garrison.
Proconsul in 209, he attacked Hannibal near Venusia, and after
a desperate battle retired to that town; he was accused of bad
generalship, and had to leave the army to defend himself in
Rome. In his last consulship (208), he and his colleague, while
reconnoitring near Venusia, were unexpectedly attacked, and
Marcellus was killed. His successes have been exaggerated
by Livy, but the name often given to him, the " sword of Rome,"
was well deserved.
Livy xxiii. 14-17, 41-46; xxiv. 27-32, 35-39; xxy. 5-7, 23-31;
xxvi. 26, 29-32; xxvii. 1-5, 21-28; Polybius viii. 5-9, x. 32;
Appian, Hannib. 50; Florus h. 6.
2. M. CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS, an inveterate opponent of
Julius Caesar. During his consulship (51 B.C. ) he proposed to
remove Caesar from his army in March 49, but this decision
was delayed by Pompey's irresolution and the skilful opposition
of the tribune C. Curio (see CAESAR, JULIUS). In January 49
he tried to put off declaring war against Caesar till an army
could be got ready, but his advice was not taken. When Pom-
pey left Italy, Marcus and his brother Gaius followed, while his
cousin withdrew to Liternum. After Pharsalus M. Marcellus
retired to Mytilene, where he practised rhetoric and studied
philosophy. In 46 his cousin and the senate successfully appealed
to Caesar to pardon him, and Marcellus reluctantly consented
to return. On this occasion Cicero's 1 speech Pro Marcello was
delivered. Marcellus left for Italy, but was murdered in May
by one of his own attendants, P. Magius Chilo, in the Peiraeus.
Marcellus was a thorough aristocrat. He was an eloquent
speaker (Cicero, Brutus, 71), and a man of firm character,
although not free from avarice.
See Cicero, Ad fam. iv. 4, 7, 10, and Ad AU. v. II (ed. Tyrrell
and Purser); Caesar, B. C. i. 2; Suetonius, Caesar, 29; G. Boissier,
Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897).
3. M. CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS (c. 43-23 B.C.), son of C. Marcellus
and Octavia, sister of Augustus. In 25 he was adopted by the
emperor and married to his daughter Julia. This seemed to
mark him out as the heir to the throne, but Augustus, when
attacked by a serious illness, gave his signet to M. Vipsanius
Agrippa. In 23 Marcellus, then curule aedile, died at Baiae.
Livia was suspected of having poisoned him to get the empire
for her son Tiberius. Great hopes had been built on the youth,
and he was celebrated by many writers, especially by Virgil
in a famous passage (Aeneid, vi. 860). He was buried in the
Campus Martius, and Augustus himself pronounced the funeral
oration. The Theatrum Marcelli (remains of which can still be
seen) was afterwards dedicated in his honour.
Horace, Odes, i. 12; Propertius iii. 18; Dio Cassius liii. 28, 30;
Tacitus, Annals, ii. 41; Suetonius, Augustus, 63; Veil. Pat. ii. 93.
MARCESCENT (Lat. marcescens, withering), a botanical term
for withering without falling off.
MARCH, EARLS OF, title derived from the " marches " or
boundaries (i) between England and Wales, and (2) England
and Scotland, and held severally by great feudal families pos-
sessed of lands in those border districts. The earls of March on
the Welsh borders were descended from Roger de Mortemer (so
called from his castle of Mortemer in Normandy), who was
connected by marriage with the dukes of Normandy. His son
Ralph (d. c. 1104) figures in Domesday as the holder of vast
estates in Shropshire, Herefordshire and other parts of England,
especially in the west; and his grandson Hugh de Mortimer,
founder of the priory of Wigmore in Herefordshire, was one
of the most powerful of the barons reduced to submission by
Henry II., who compelled him to surrender his castles of Cleobury
and Wigmore. The Mortimers, however, continued to exercise
almost undisputed sway, as lords of Wigmore, over the western
counties and the Welsh marches.
I. Welsh Marches. ROGER DE MORTIMER (c. 1286-1330), 8th
baron of Wigmore and ist earl of March, being an infant at the
death of his father, Edmund, was placed by Edward I. under the
guardianship of Piers Gaveston, and was knighted by Edward in
1306; Mortimer's mother being a relative of Edward's consort,
Eleanor of Castile. Through his marriage with Joan de Join-
ville, or Genevill, Roger not only acquired increased possessions
on the Welsh marches, including the important castle of Ludlow,
which became the chief stronghold of the Mortimers, but also
extensive estates and influence in Ireland, whither he went in
1308 to enforce his authority. This brought him into conflict
with the De Lacys, who turned for support to Edward Bruce,
brother of Robert Bruce, king of Scotland. Mortimer was
appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland by Edward II. in 1316,
1 The authorship of this speech has been disputed.
686
MARCH, EARLS OF
and at the head of a large army drove Bruce to Carrickfergus,
and the De Lacys into Connaught, wreaking vengeance on their
adherents whenever they were to be found. He was then occu-
pied for some years with baronial disputes on the Welsh border
until about 1318, when he began to interest himself in the growing
opposition to Edward II. and his favourites, the Despensers;
and he supported Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, in
refusing to obey the king's summons to appear before him in
1321. Forced to surrender to the king at Shrewsbury in January
1322, Mortimer was consigned to the Tower of London, whence
he escaped to France in August 1324. In the following year
Isabella, wife of Edward II., anxious to escape from her husband,
obtained his consent to her going to France to use her influence
with her brother, Charles IV., in favour of peace. At the French
court the queen found Roger Mortimer; she became his mistress
soon afterwards, and at his instigation refused to return to Eng-
land so long as the Despensers retained power as the king's
favourites. The scandal of Isabella's relations with Mortimer
compelled them both to withdraw from the French court to
Flanders, where they obtained assistance for an invasion of
England. Landing in England in September 1326, they were
joined by Henry, earl of Lancaster; London rose in support of
the queen; and Edward took flight to the west, whither he was
pursued by Mortimer and Isabella. After wandering helplessly
for some weeks in Wales, the king was taken on the i6th of
November, and was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son.
But though the latter was crowned as Edward III. in January
1327, the country was ruled by Mortimer and Isabella, who pro-
cured the murder of Edward II. in the following September.
Rich estates and offices of profit and power were now heaped on
Mortimer, and in September 1328 he was created earl of March.
Greedy and grasping, he was no more competent than the De-
spensers to conduct the government of the country. The jealousy
and anger of Lancaster having been excited by March's arrogance,
Lancaster prevailed upon the young king, Edward III., to throw
off the yoke of his mother's paramour. At a parliament held
at Nottingham in October 1330 a plot was successfully carried
out by which March was arrested in the castle, and, in spite
of Isabella's entreaty to her son to " have pity on the gentle
Mortimer," was conveyed to the Tower. Accused of assuming
royal power and of various other high misdemeanours, he was
condemned without trial and hanged at Tyburn on the 2gth of
November 1330, his vast estates being forfeited to the crown.
March's wife, by whom he had four sons and eleven daughters,
survived till 1356. The daughters all married into powerful
families, chiefly of Marcher houses. His eldest son, Edmund,
was father of Roger Mortimer (c. 1328-1360), who was knighted
by Edward III. in 1346, and restored to his grandfather's title
as 2nd earl of March.
EDMUND DE MORTIMER (1351-1381), 3rd earl of March, was
son of Roger, 2nd earl of March, by his wife Philippa, daughter
of William Montacute, ist earl of Salisbury. Being an infant
at the death of his father, Edmund, as a ward of the crown, was
placed by Edward III. under the care of William of Wykeham
and Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel. The position of the
young earl, powerful on account of his possessions and hereditary
influence in the Welsh marches, was rendered still more impor-
tant by his marriage in 1368 to Philippa, only daughter of
Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III. Lionel's
wife was Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of William de Burgh,
6th Lord of Connaught and 3rd earl of Ulster, and Lionel had
himself been created earl of Ulster before his marriage. The
earl of March, therefore, not only became the representative
of one of the chief Anglo-Norman lordships in Ireland in right
of his wife Philippa, but the latter, on the death of her father
shortly after her marriage, stood next in succession to the
crown after the Black Prince and his sickly son Richard, after-
wards king Richard II. This marriage had, therefore, far-reach-
ing consequences in the history of England, giving rise to the
claim of the house of York to the crown of England, contested
in the War of the Roses; Edward IV. being descended from the
third son of Edward III. as great-great-grandson of Philippa,
countess of March, and in the male line from Edmund, duke
York, fifth son of Edward III.
Mortimer, now styled earl of March and Ulster, became
marshal of England in 1369, and was employed in various
diplomatic missions during the next following years. He was a
member of the committee appointed by the Peers to confer with
the Commons in 1373 the first instance of such a joint con-
ference since the institution of representative parliaments on
the question of granting supplies for John of Gaunt's war in
France; and in the opposition to Edward III. and the court
party, which grew in strength towards the end of the reign,
March took the popular side, being prominent in the Good Parlia-
ment of 1376 among the lords who, encouraged by the Prince of
Wales, concerted an attack upon the court party led by John of
Gaunt. The Speaker of the Commons in this parliament was
March's steward, Peter de la Mare; he firmly withstood John
of Gaunt in stating the grievances of the Commons, in supporting
the impeachment of several high court officials, and in procuring
the banishment of the king's mistress, Alice Ferrers. March
was a member of the administrative council appointed by the
same parliament after the death of the Black Prince to attend
the king and advise him in all public affairs. On the accession
of Richard II., a minor, in 1377, the earl became a member of
the standing council of government; though as father of the
heir-presumptive to the crown he wisely abstained from claiming
any actually administrative office. The most powerful person
in the realm was, however, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster,
whose jealousy of March led to the acceptance by the latter of
the lieutenancy of Ireland in 1379. March succeeded in asserting
his authority in eastern Ulster, but failed to subdue the O'Neills
farther west. Proceeding to Munster to put down the turbu-
lency of the chieftains of the south, March died at Cork on the
27th of December 1381. He was buried in Wigmore Abbey, of
which he had been a benefactor, and where his wife Philippa
who died about the same time was also interred. The earl had
two sons and two daughters, the elder of whom, Elizabeth,
married Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumber-
land. His eldest son Roger succeeded him as 4th earl of March
and Ulster. His second son Edmund (1376-1409) played an
important part in conjunction with his brother-in-law Hotspur
against Owen Glendower; but afterwards joined the latter, whose
daughter he married about 1402.
ROGER DE MORTIMER, 4th earl of March and Ulster (1374-
1398), son of the 3rd earl, succeeded to the titles and estates of
his family when a child of seven, and a month afterwards he was
appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, his "uncle Sir Thomas
Mortimer acting as his deputy. Being a ward of the Crown,
his guardian was the earl of Kent, half-biother to Richard II. ; and
in 1388 he married Kent's daughter, Eleanor. The importance
which he owed to his hereditary influence and possessions, and
especially to his descent from Edward III., was immensely
increased when Richard II. publicly acknowledged him as heir-
presumptive to the crown in 1385. In 1394 he accompanied
Richard to Ireland, but notwithstanding a commission from the
king as lieutenant of the districts over which he exercised nominal
authority by hereditary right, he made little headway against
the native Irish chieftains. March enjoyed great popularity
in England though he took no active part in opposing the des-
potic measures of the king; in Ireland he illegally assumed the
native Irish costume. In August 1398 he was killed in fight
with an Irish clan, and was buried in Wigmore Abbey.
March's daughter Anne married Richard earl of Cambridge,
son of Edmund duke of York, fifth son of Edward III.; their
son Richard, duke of York, was father of King Edward IV., who
thus derived his title to the crown and acquired the estates of the
house of Mortimer.
EDMUND DE MORTIMER (1391-1425), sth earl of March and
Ulster, son of the 4th earl, succeeded to his father's claim to the
crown as well as to his title and estates on the death of the latter
in Ireland in 1398. In the following year Richard II. was de-
posed and the crown seized by Henry of Lancaster. The young
earl of March and his brother Roger were then kept in custody
MARCH, EARLS OF
687
by Henry IV., who, however, treated them honourably, until
March 1405, when they were carried off from Windsor Castle by
the opponents of the Lancastrian dynasty, of whom their uncle
Sir Edmund Mortimer (see above) and his brother-in-law Henry
Percy (Hotspur) were leaders in league with Owen Glendower.
The boys were recaptured, and in 1409 were committed to the
care of the prince of Wales. On the accession of the latter as
Henry V., in 1413, the earl of March was set at liberty and
restored to his estates, his brother Roger having died some years
previously; and he continued to enjoy the favour of the king
in spite of a conspiracy in 1415 to place him on the throne, in
which his brother-in-law, the earl of Cambridge, played the
leading part. March accompanied Henry V. throughout his
wars in France, and on the king's death in 1422 became a member
of the council of regency. He died in Ireland in 1425, and as he
left no issue the earldom of March in the house of Mortimer
became extinct, the estates passing to the last earl's nephew
Richard, who in 1435 was officially styled duke of York, earl of
March and Ulster, and baron of Wigmore. Richard's son Edward
having ascended the throne in 1461 as Edward IV., the earldom
of March became merged in the crown.
See Thomas Rymer, Foedera, &c. (London, 1704-1732); T. F.
Tout, The Political History of England, vol. iii., ed. by William Hunt
and R. L. Poole (London, 1905) ; Sir William Dugdale, Monasticon
anglicanum (3 vols., London, 1655-1673) ; William Stubbs, Con-
stitutional History of England, vol. ii.
II. Scottish Marches. The Scottish earls of March were
descended from Crinan, whose son Maldred married Algitha,
daughter of Ughtred, earl of Northumberland, by Elgiva,
daughter of the Saxon king ^Ethelred. Maldred's son Cospatrick,
or Gospatrick, was made earl of Northumberland by William
the Conqueror; but being soon afterwards deprived of this
position he fled to Scotland, where Malcolm Canmore, king of
Scotland, welcomed him and granted him Dunbar and the ad-
joining lands. Two generations of Cospatricks followed in lineal
succession, bearing the title of earl, but without territorial desig-
nation. Cospatrick II. witnessed the charter of Alexander I.
founding the abbey of Scone in 1115. The 3rd earl, also named
Cospatrick, a liberal benefactor of Melrose Abbey, died in 1166,
leaving two sons, the younger of whom was the ancestor of the
earls of Home. The elder son, Waltheof, was the first of
the family to be styled " Comes de Dunbar," about the year
1174. His importance is proved by the fact that he was one
of the hostages for the performance of the Treaty of Falaise
for the liberation of William the Lion in 1175. Waltheof 's son
Patrick Dunbar (the name Dunbar, derived from the family
estates, now becoming an hereditary surname), styled sth earl of
Dunbar, although his father had been the first to adopt the
territorial designation, was keeper of Berwick Castle, and married
Ada, natural daughter of William the Lion. His grandson Patrick,
7th earl, headed the party that liberated King Alexander III.
in 1255 from the Comyns, and in the same year was nominated
guardian of the king and queen by the Treaty of Roxburgh.
He signed the Treaty of Perth (July 6, 1 266) by which Magnus VI.
of Norway ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scot-
land. His wife was Christian, daughter of Robert Bruce, the
competitor for the crown of Scotland.
PATRICK DUNBAR, Sth earl of Dunbar and ist earl of March,
claimed the crown of Scotland in 1291 as descendant of Ada,
daughter of William the Lion. He was one of the " seven earls
of Scotland," a distinct body separate from the other estates of
the realm, who claimed the right to elect a king in cases of dis-
puted succession, and whose authority was, perhaps, to be traced
to the seven provinces of the Pictish kingdom. He was the first
of the earls of Dunbar to appear in the records as " comes de
Marchia," or earl of March. Like most of his family in later
times, he was favourable to the English interest in Scottish
affairs, and he did homage to Edward I. of England. His wife
Marjory, -daughter of Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan, took
the other side and held the castle of Dunbar for Baliol, but was
forced to surrender it to Edward in 1296. In 1298 he was
appointed the English king's lieutenant in Scotland.
PATRICK DUNBAR (1285-1360), 9th earl of Dunbar and 2nd
earl of March, son of the preceding, gave refuge to Edward II.
of England after Bannockburn, and contrived his escape by
sea to England. Later, he made peace with Robert Bruce,
and by him was appointed governor of Berwick Castle, which he
held against Edward III. until the defeat of the Scots at Halidon
Hill (July 19, 1333) made it no longer tenable. His countess,
known in Scottish history and romance as " Black Agnes,"
daughter of Thomas Randolph, earl of Moray (Murray), and
grandniece of Robert Bruce, is famous for her defence of Dunbar
Castle against the English under the earl of Salisbury in 1338,
Salisbury being forced to abandon the attempt after a fierce
siege lasting nineteen weeks. This lady succeeded to the estates
and titles of her brother, John Randolph, 3rd earl of Moray.
The earldom of Moray passed after her death to her second son,
John Dunbar, who married Marjory, daughter of King Robert II.
Black Agnes also bore to the earl of March two daughters,
the elder of whom, Agnes, after being the mistress of King
David II., married Sir James Douglas, lord of Dalkeith, from
whom were descended the first three earls of Morton; the
younger, Elizabeth, married John Maitland of Lethington,
ancestor of the duke of Lauderdale, whose second title was
marquess of March.
GEORGE DUNBAR (d. 1420), icth earl of Dunbar and 3rd earl
of March, great-nephew of the Sth earl and warden of the
marches, accompanied Douglas in his foray into England in
1388, and commanded the Scots after Otterburn. He after-
wards quarrelled with the Douglases, because his daughter was
passed over in favour of a daughter of Archibald, " the Grim
Earl of Douglas," as wife for David, duke of Rothesay, son of
Robert III. When Douglas seized March's lands the latter fled
to England, where he was welcomed by Henry IV., to whom he
was related. He fought on the English side at Homildon Hill;
and, having revealed to Henry the defection of the Percies, who
were in league with Douglas and Owen Glendower, he fought
against those allies at the battle of Shrewsbury (July 23, 1403).
Becoming reconciled with Douglas, he returned to Scotland in
1409, and was restored to his earldom by the regent Albany.
He died in 1420.
GEORGE DUNBAR, nth earl of Dunbar and 4th earl of March,
was one of the negotiators for the release of James I. of Scotland
in 1423 from his captivity in England, and was knighted at that
king's coronation. In 1434, however, on the ground that the
regent had had no power to reverse his father's forfeiture for
treason, March was imprisoned and his castle of Dunbar seized
by the king; and the parliament at Perth declared his lands and
titles forfeited to the crown. The earl, being released, retired to
England with his son Patrick, whose daughter and heiress
Margaret was ancestress of Patrick, sth earl of Dumfries, now
represented by the marquess of Bute.
The earldom of March in the house of Dunbar having thus
been forfeited to the crown, James II. in 1455 conferred the title,
together with that of warden of the marches, on his second
son Alexander, duke of Albany; but this prince entered into
treasonable correspondence with Edward IV. of England, and in
1487 the earldom of March and the barony and castle of Dunbar
were again declared forfeited and annexed to the crown of
Scotland.
The title of earl of March was next held by the house of
Lennox. In 1576 the earldom of Lennox became extinct on the
death without male issue of Charles (father of Lady Arabella
Stuart), sth earl of Lennox; and it was then revived in favour of
Robert Stuart, a grand-uncle of King James VI., second son of
John, 3rd earl of Lennox. But in 1579 Esme Stuart, a member
of a collateral branch which in 1508 had inherited the lordship
of Aubigny in France, came to Scotland and obtained much
favour with James VI. The earldom of Lennox (soon afterwards
raised to a dukedom) was taken from Robert and conferred upon
Esm6; and Robert was compensated by being created earl of
March and baron of Dunbar (1582). Robert died without legiti-
mate issue in 1586, when the earldom of March again reverted
to the crown. In 1619 Esme, 3rd duke of Lennox, was created
'688
MARCH, A. MARCH
earl of March ; and his son James was created duke of Richmond
in 1641. On the death without issue of Charles, 6th duke of
Lennox and 3rd duke of Richmond, in 1672, his titles devolved
upon King Charles II. as nearest collateral heir-male. In 1675
Charles conferred the titles of duke of Richmond and Lennox
and earl of March on Charles. Lennox, his natural son by Louise
de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, from whom the earldom
of March has descended to its present holder the duke of
Richmond and Gordon. (See RICHMOND, EARLS AND DUKES
or; and LENNOX.)
The title of earl of March in the peerage of Scotland, by
another creation, was conferred in 1697 on William Douglas,
second son of William, ist duke of Queensberry. His grandson
William, 3rd earl of March, became 4th duke of Queensberry on
the death without surviving male issue of his cousin Charles, 3rd
duke of Queensberry, in 1778. Dying unmarried in 1810, the
several titles of the duke passed to different branches of the house
of Douglas. The earldom of March is stated by Sir Bernard
Burke and other authorities to have devolved upon Francis,
8th earl of Wemyss, great-great-grandson of David, 3rd earl of
Wemyss, whose wife was Anne, daughter of the ist duke of
Queensberry and sister of the ist earl of March; and the title
is now assumed by the earl of Wemyss. On the other hand,
Francis, 8th earl of Wemyss, not having been an heir of the
body of the ist earl of March, Sir Robert Douglas says in The
Peerage of Scotland that on the death of the 4th duke of
Queensberry in 1810 " the earldom of March, it is supposed,
became extinct."
See Andrew Lang, History of Scotland (4 vols., London, 1900-
1907); Sir Bernard Burke, A Genealogical History of Dormant
and Extinct Peerages (London, 1866); Sir Robert Douglas, The
Peerage of Scotland (2 vols., Edinburgh 1813); Lady Elizabeth
Cust, Some Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny in France (London,
1891). (R. J- M.)
MARCH, AUZIAS (c. 1395-1458), Catalan poet, was born at
Valencia towards the end of the I4th century. Little is known
of his career except that he was twice married first to Na
Ysabel Martorell, and second to Na Johanna Scorna that he
died on the 4th of November 1458, and that he left several
natural children. Inheriting an easy fortune from his father,
the treasurer to the duke of Gandia, and enjoying the powerful
patronage of Prince Carlos de Viana of Aragon, March was
enabled to devote himself to poetical composition. He is an
undisguised follower of Petrarch, carrying the imitation to such
a point that he addresses his Cants d'amor to a lady whom he
professes to have seen first in church on Good Friday; so far as
the difference of language allows, he reproduces the rhythmical
cadences of his model, and in the Cants de mart touches a note
of brooding sentiment peculiar to himself. Though his poems
are disfigured by obscurity and a monotonous morbidity, he
was fully entitled to the supremacy which he enjgyed among
his contemporaries, and the success of his innovation no
doubt encouraged Boscan to introduce the Italian metres into
Castilian.
His verses were first printed in Catalan in 1543, but they had
already become known through the Castilian translation published
by Baltasar de Rotnani in 1539.
MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825- ), American philo-
logist and educationalist, was born on the 25th of October 1825
in Millbury, Massachusetts. He graduated in 1845 at Amherst,
where his attention was turned to the study of Anglo-Saxon by
Noah Webster. He was a teacher at Swanzey, New Hampshire,
and at the Leicester Academy, Massachusetts, in 1845-1847,
and attempted the philological method of teaching English " like.
Latin and Greek," later described in his Method of Philological
Study of the English Language (1865); at Amherst in 1847-1849;
at Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1852-1855; and in 1855 became a
tutor at Lafayette College, where he became adjunct professor
of belles-lettres and English literature in 1856, and professor of
English language and comparative philology the first chair of
the kind established in 1857. He lectured on constitutional
and public law and Roman law in 1875-1877, and also taught
subjects as diverse as botany and political economy. In 1907
he became professor emeritus. At Lafayette he introduced the
first carefully scientific study of English in any American college,
and in 1870 published A Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-
Saxon Language, in which its Forms are Illustrated by Those of
the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old Saxon, Old Friesic, Old
Norse and Old High German, and An Anglo-Saxon Reader; he
was editor of the " Douglass Series of Christian Greek and Latin
Classics," to which he contributed Latin Hymns (1874); he was
chairman of the Commission of the State of Pennsylvania on
Amended Orthography; and was consulting editor of the Stan-
dard Dictionary, and in 1879-1882 was director of the American
readers for the Philological Society's (New Oxford) Dictionary.
He was president of the American Philological Association in
1873-1874 and in 1895-1896, of the Spelling Reform Associa-
tion after 1876, and of the Modern Language Association in
1891-1893. Among American linguistic scholars March ranks
with Whitney, Child and Gildersleeve ; and his studies in English,
though practically pioneer work in America, are of undoubted
value. His article " On Recent Discussions of Grimm's Law "
in the Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
Association for 1873 in large part anticipated Verner's law.
With his son, Francis Andrew March, jun. (b. 1863), adjunct-
professor of modern languages in 1884-1891 and subsequently
professor of English literature at Lafayette, he edited A
Thesaurus Dictionary of the English Language (1903).
See Addresses in Honor of Professor Francis A. March, LL.D.,
L.H.D., delivered at Easton, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of October
i895-
MARCH, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 30 m. N. by W. of Cam-
bridge. Pop. of urban district (1901), 7565. It lies in the
midst of the flat fen country, on the old course of the river Nene.
It is an important junction on the Great Eastern railway and
the starting-point of a line worked by that company jointly with
the Great Northern to Lincoln and Doncaster. The church of
St Wendreda, in Early English and later styles, is remarkable
for a magnificent Perpendicular timber roof, beautifully carved.
There are agricultural implement and engineering works, and
corn mills.
MARCH, the third month of the modern calendar, containing
thirty-one days. It was the Romans' first month until the
adoption of the Julian calendar, 46 B.C., and it continued to be
the beginning of the legal year in England until the i8th century.
In France it was reckoned the first month of the year until 1564,
when, by an edict of Charles IX., January was decreed to be
thenceforth the first month. Scotland followed the example
of France in 1599; but in England the change did not take place
before 1752. The Romans called the month Martins, a name
supposed to have been conferred on it by Romulus in honour
of his putative father, Mars, the god of war; but Ovid declares
the month to have existed before the time of Romulus, though
in a different position in the calendar. The Anglo-Saxons called
March Hlyd-monalh, " loud or stormy month," or Lencten-monath,
" lengthening month," in allusion to the fact that the days then
rapidly become longer. There is an old saying, common to both
England and Scotland which has its equivalent among the
Basques and many European peoples representing March as
borrowing three days from April; the last three days of March
being called the " borrowing " or the " borrowed days." As
late as the end of the i8th century the first three days of March
were known in Devonshire as " Blind Days," and were deemed
so unlucky that no farmer would sow seed then.
The chief festival days of March are the ist, St David; the
I2th, St Gregory; the I7th, St Patrick; and the 25th, Lady Day,
one of the quarter days in England.
MARCH (i) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in
French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually
been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to
hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a
soldier: cf. " beat," of a policeman's round), the movement of
military troops with regular rhythmical steps, often with the
MARCHE
689
time marked by the beat of drum, the sound of pipes or bugles
or the music of a military band; hence the advance or movement
of a body of troops from one point to another, and the distance
covered in so doing. The word is also naturally applied to the
music composed for marching to, and to the steady regular
advance or progress of non-military bodies or persons, or of
events, &c. In the military sense, " marching " is walking in
formed bodies of troops, either during drill evolutions on parade
or on the " line of march " from one place to another. In both
senses the word is used with mounted troops as well as with
dismounted men. Formerly all evolutions were carried out at
the so-called " parade-march " pace of about 75-80 paces to the
minute, and in one or two armies of the i8th century the parade
step cadence was as slow as 60. These cadences are now, how-
ever, reserved in all armies for ceremonial occasions, and the
usual manoeuvre and marching pace (" quick march ") is about
120, the "double" march pace (pas gymnastique) about 180.
The " quick " march, translated into miles and hours, is about
3$ or 3! miles an hour in all armies, though a few special bodies
of light troops such as the Italian Bersaglieri are trained to move
at a much faster rate for hours together, either by alternate
" quick " and " double " marching or by an unvarying " jog-
trot." The paces recognized for cavalry are the walk, the trot,
the canter and the gallop; the usual practice on the line of march
being to alternate the walk and the trot, which combination
gives a speed of about 5 miles an hour for many hours together.
A " day's march," or more simply a " march," is usually reckoned
to be 15-16 miles for a large body of troops, a " forced " march
being one of 20 miles or over, or one in which, from whatever
cause, the troops are on foot for more than about seven hours.
For large bodies of troops the rate of movement on the line of
march rarely exceeds 3 miles an hour. The immense assistance
afforded by music to marching troops has been recognized from
the earliest times of organized armies, and a great deal of special
march-music has been written for military bands, formerly
often in J or time (one bar representing one pace with the foot),
but now almost invariably in common or \ time, which is more
suitable for the " quick march." The music itself is usually a
combination of simple, lively melody and well-marked accents
for the drums, with little attempt at contrapuntal writing. The
fife or piccolo, the natural bugle (in Italy and elsewhere the chro-
matic key-bugle is used), and the drum are the principal instru-
ments, the " band," as distinct from the "drums " and " bugles,"
having in addition to drum and fifes clarinets (saxophones in
France and Belgium) and saxhorns of all types. In Scottish
regiments, and in a few isolated cases elsewhere, bagpipes provide
the marching music. The importance of music on the march
is attested further by the almost universal practice of singing or
whistling marching songs, and even playing them on concertinas,
&c., in the absence of the band and drums.
2. From marche, the French form of a common Teutonic word
represented in English by " mark " (?..), a boundary or frontier
region between two countries or districts. The word appears to
have been first used in this sense in the 8th century, and the
earliest " mark " or " march " districts were tracts of land on
the borders of the Carolingian Empire. Wherever Charlemagne
pushed forward the frontiers of the Prankish realm he provided
for the security of his lands, new and old alike, by establishing
mark districts on the borders. The defence and oversight of these
were entrusted to special officers, afterwards called margraves,
or counts of the mark, who usually enjoyed more extensive
powers than fell to the lot of an ordinary count. It is at this
time that we hear first of the Spanish mark (marca hispanica)
and the Bavarian mark (marca bajoariae). These mark districts
were practically obliterated during the reigns of the feeble
sovereigns who succeeded Charlemagne, but the system was
revived with the accession of Henry the Fowler to the German
throne early in the loth century and with a renewal of the work
of conquering and colonizing the regions east of the Elbe, and
in eastern Germany generally. Under Henry and his son, Otto
the Great, marks were again set upon the borders of Germany,
and this time the organization was more lasting. The mark
districts increased in size and strength, especially those which
fell under the dominion of an able and energetic ruler, and some
of them became powerful states, retaining the name mark long
after the original significance of the word had been forgotten. It
is interesting to note that the two most important of the modern
German states, Austria and Prussia, both had their origin in
mark districts, the mark of Brandenburg, the nucleus of the
kingdom of Prussia, being at first a border district to the east
of the duchy of Saxony, and the east mark, or mark of Austria,
being a border district of the duchy of Bavaria. In Italy march
districts made their appearance about the same time as in other
parts of the Prankish Empire. The best known of these is the
march of Ancona, which with other marches and adjoining
districts, was known later as the Marches, a province lying about
the centre of Italy between the Apennines and the Adriatic Sea.
After forming part of the states of the Church the Marches
were united with the kingdom of Italy in 1860 (see MARCHES,
THE).
In England in the same connexion the plural word " marches "
was the form commonly adopted, and soon after the Norman
Conquest the disturbed districts on the borders of Wales began
to be known as the Welsh marches. Lands therein were granted
to powerful nobles on condition that they undertook the defence
of the neighbouring counties of England. These lords of the
marches, or lords marcher, as they were often called, had special
privileges, but they were generally so fully occupied in fighting
against each other and in seeking to increase their own wealth
and power that the original object of their appointment was
entirely forgotten. The condition of the marches grew worse and
worse, and during disturbed reigns, like those of Henry III. and
Edward II., lawlessness was rampant and rebellion was centred
therein. A more satisfactory condition of affairs, however,
prevailed after the conclusion of the Wars of the Roses; and the
establishment by Henry VIII. in 1542 of a council of Wales and
the marches was followed by a notable diminution of disorder in
this region. About the time of Elizabeth the Welsh marches
ceased to have any but an historical importance. In 1328
Roger Mortimer, a member of one of the most powerful of the
marcher families, was created earl of March (comes de marchia
Waliae), and in the reign of Edward III. (1354) the marches were
declared to be no part of the principality, but directly subject
to the English crown. It is difficult to define the boundaries
of the Welsh marches, as their extent varied considerably from
time to time, but under Edward I. and again under the Lancastrian
kings the marcher lordships included more than half of the area
of Wales; they embraced practically the whole of the principality
except the counties of Anglesea, Carnarvon and Merioneth in the
north and Carmarthen and Cardigan in the south, together with
parts of the English border counties, Monmouth, Hereford and
Shropshire.
The debateable ground between England and Scotland was
also known as the marches, although its condition began to
attract the attention of the southern kingdom somewhat later
than was the case with Wales. Arrangements were made for
garrisoning them and at one time they were divided into three
sections: the east, the west, and the middle marches, the over-
sight of each being entrusted to a warden. Roughly speaking,
they embraced the modern counties of Northumberland and
Cumberland, together with a tract on the Scottish side of the
border. The need for protecting them ceased soon after the
accession of James VI. of Scotland to the English throne, and
they have now only an historical and legendary significance.
About 1200 Patrick de Dunbar, earl of Dunbar, called himself
earl of March, taking the name from the merse, or march, a
tract of land in Berwickshire.
In France under the ancien rigime there was a county of La
Marche, and in north-east Germany there was the county of
La Marck, now part of the kingdom of Prussia.
MARCHE, or LA MARCHE, one of the former provinces of
France. It owes its name to its position, it having been in the
loth century a march or border district between the duchy of
Aquitaine and the domains of the Prankish kings in central
6go
MARCHE MARCHES
France. Sometimes it was called the Marche Limousine, and
originally it was a small district cut partly from Limousin and
partly from Poitou. Its area was increased during the I3th
century, after which, however, it remained unaltered until the
time of the Revolution. It was bounded on the N. by Berry; on
the E. by Bourbonnais and Auvergne; on the S. by Limousin;
and on the W. by Poitou. It embraced the greater part of the
modern department of Creuse, a considerable part of Haute
Vienne, and a fragment of Indre. Its area was about 1900
sq. m.; its capital was Charroux and later Gueret, and among
its other principal towns were Dorat, Bellac and Confolens.
Marche first appears as a separate fief about the middle of the
loth century when William III., duke of Aquitaine, gave it to
one of his vassals named Boso, who took the title of count. In
the 1 2th century it passed to the counts of Limousin, and this
house retained it until the death of the childless Count Hugh in
1303, when it was seized by the French king, Philip IV. In 1316
it was made a duchy for Prince Charles, afterwards King Charles
IV., and a few years later (1327) it passed into the hands of the
family of Bourbon. The family of Armagnac held it from 1435
to 1477, when it reverted to the Bourbons, and in 1527 it was
seized by Francis I. and became part of the domains of the
French crown. It was divided into Haute Marche and Basse
Marche, the estates of the former being in existence until the I7th
century. From 1470 until the Revolution the province was
under the jurisdiction of the parlement of Paris.
See A. Thomas, Les fctats pravinciaux de la France centrale
(1879)-
MARCHE, a town of Belgium in the province of Luxemburg,
33 m. S.W. of Liege and about 28 m. S.E. of Namur. Pop.
(1904), 3540. It dates from the 7th century, when it was the
chief town of the pagus falmiensis, as it still is of the same
district now called Famene. Formerly it was fortified, and a
treaty was signed there in 1577 between Philip II. and the
United Provinces. In 1792 Lafayette was taken prisoner by
the Austrians in a skirmish near it.
MARCHENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of
Seville, on the Cordova-Utrera and Marchena-La Roda railways.
Pop. (1900), 12,468. Marchena occupies a sandy valley near
the river Corbones, a left-hand territory of the Guadalquivir.
Formerly it was surrounded with walls and towers, a large
portion of which still remains. Among the principal buildings
is the palace of the dukes of Arcos, within the enclosure of which
is an ancient Moorish building, now the church of Santa Maria
de la Mota. At the eastern end of the town is a sulphur spring.
There is some trade in wheat, barley, olives, oil and wine.
Marchena (perhaps the Castra Gemina of Pliny) was taken from
the Moors by St Ferdinand in 1 240.
MARCHENA RUIZ DE CASTRO, JOS (1768-1821?), Spanish
author, was born at Utrera on the i8th of November 1768 and
studied with distinction at the university of Seville. He took
minor orders and was for some time professor at the seminary
of Vergara, but he became a convert to the doctrines of the
French philosophes, scandalizing his acquaintances by his pro-
fessions of materialism and his denunciations of celibacy. His
writings being brought before the Inquisition in 1792, Marchena
escaped to Paris, where he is said to have collaborated with
Marat in L'Ami du peuple; at a later date he organized a revolu-
tionary movement at Bayonne, returned to Paris, avowed his
sympathies with the Girondists, and refused the advances of
Robespierre. He acted as editor of L'Ami des lots and other
French journals till 1799, when he was expelled from France;
he succeeded, however, in obtaining employment under Moreau,
upon whose fall in 1804 he declared himself a Bonapartist. In
1808 he accompanied Murat to Spain as private secretary; in
this same year he was imprisoned by the Inquisition, but was
released by Joseph Bonaparte, who appointed him editor of the
official Gaceta. In 1813 Marchena retired to Valencia, and thence
to France, where he supported himself by translating into Spanish
the works of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire and Volney. The
Liberal triumph of 1820 opened Spain to him once more, but he
was coldly received by the revolutionary party. He died at
Madrid shortly before the 26th of February 1821. The interest
of his voluminous writings is almost wholly ephemeral, but they
are excellent specimens of trenchant journalism. His Frag-
mentum Petronii (Basel, 1802), which purports to reconstruct
missing passages in the current text of Petronius, is a testimony
to Marchena's fine scholarship; but, by the irony of fate,
Marchena is best known by his ode to Christ Crucified, which
breathes a spirit of profound and tender piety.
MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche), a territorial division of
Italy, embracing the provinces of Pesaro and Urbino, Ancona,
Macerata, and Ascoli Piceno, with an area of 3763 sq. m., and a
population of 1,088,763 in 1901. It is bounded by the Emilia on
the N., the Adriatic on the E., the Abruzzi on the S., and Umbria
and Tuscany on the W. The four provinces follow one another in
the order given from north to south and have a certain amount of
coast-line. The chief rivers, all of which run into the Adriatic east-
wards and north-eastwards, are the Metauro (anc. Metaurus, q.v.)
and the Tronto (anc. Truentus), the latter forming the southern
boundary of the compartimento for some distance. Except for
the river valleys and the often very narrow coast strip, the general
level is more than 500 ft. above the sea. The lower hills are very
largely composed of loose, clayey, unstable earth, while the
Apennines are of limestone. The province of Pesaro and Urbino
falls within the boundaries of the ancient Umbria (q.v.), while
the territory of the other three belonged to Picenum (q.v.).
The railway from Bologna to Brindisi runs along the coast-line
of the entire territory. At Ancona it is joined by the main line
from Foligno and Rome; at Porto Civitanova is a branch to
Macerata, San Severino and Fabriano (a station on the line from
Ancona to Rome and the junction for Urbino) ; at Porto S.
Giorgio is a branch to Fermo and, at Porto d'Ascoli, a branch to
Ascoli Piceno. But, with the exception of the railway along the
coast, there is no communication north and south, owing to the
mountainous nature of the country, except by somewhat devious
roads.
Owing largely to the mezzadria or metayer system, under which
products are equally divided between the owners and the culti-
vators of the land, the soil is fairly highly cultivated, though
naturally poor in quality. The silk industries, making of straw-
plait and straw hats, rearing of silkworms and cocoons, with
some sugar-refining, tobacco, terra-cotta manufacture, brick-
works and ironworks, furnish the chief occupations of the people
next after agriculture and pastoral pursuits. Another important
branch of activity is the paper industry, especially at Fabriano.
Chiaravalle possesses one of the largest tobacco factories of the
Italian regie. Limestone quarries and sulphur mines supply
building stone and sulphur to the regions of central Italy; chalk
and petroleum are also found. As regards maritime trade the pro-
vince possesses facilities in the port of Ancona (the only really
good harbour, where are also important shipbuilding works),
the canal ports of Senegallia (Sinigaglia), Pesaro, Fano and other
smaller harbours chiefly used by fishing boats. Fishing is
carried on by the entire coast population, which furnishes a
large contingent of sailors to the Italian navy.
For the early history of the territory of the Marches see
PICENUM. From the Carolingian period onwards the name Marca
begins to appear first the Marca Fermana for the mountainous
part of Picenum, the Marca Camerinese for the district farther
north, including a part of Umbria, and the Marca Anconitana
for the former Pentapolis. In 1080 the Marca Anconitana was
given in investiture to Robert Guiscard by Gregory VII., to
whom the countess Matilda ceded the Marches of Camerino
and of Fermo. In 1105 we find the emperor Henry IV. investing
Werner with the whole territory of the three marches under
the name of March of Ancona. It was afterwards once more
recovered by the Church and governed by papal legates. It
became part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860.
The pictorial art of the Marches from the i3th century onwards
has become the object of considerable interest since the important
exhibition held at Macerata in 1905, when many interesting
works, scattered all over the district in small towns and villages,
were brought together. The result was something of a revelation,
MARCHMONT, EARLS OF MARCION
691
for, though the influence of Umbria was always considerable,
there were many independent elements (see F. M. Perkins in
Rassegna d' Arle, 1906, 49 sqq.). (T. As.)
MARCHMONT, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Marchmont was
Sir Patrick Hume or Home (1641-1724), son of Sir Patrick Hume,
bart. (d. 1648), of Polwarth, Berwickshire, and a descendant of
another Sir Patrick Hume, a supporter of the Reformation in
Scotland. A member of the same family was Alexander Hume
(c. 1560-1609), the Scottish poet, whose Hymns and Sacred Songs
were published in 1599 (new ed. 1832). Polwarth, as Patrick
Hume was usually called, became a member of the Scottish
parliament in 1665. Here he was active in opposing the harsh
policy of the earl of Lauderdale towards the Covenanters, and
for his contumacy he was imprisoned. After his release he went
to London, where he associated himself with the duke of
Monmouth. Suspected of complicity in the Rye House plot, he
remained for a time in hiding and then crossed over to the Nether-
lands, where he took part in the deliberations of Monmouth,
the earl of Argyll and other exiles about the projected invasion
of Great Britain. Although he appeared to distrust Argyll,
Polwarth sailed to Scotland with him in 1685, and after the
failure of the rising he escaped to Utrecht, where he lived in great
poverty until 1688. He accompanied William of Orange to
England, and in 1689 he was again a member of the Scottish
parliament. In 1690 he was made a peer as Lord Polwarth; in
1696 he became lord high chancellor of Scotland, and in 1697
was created earl of Marchmont. When Anne became queen in
1702 he was deprived of the chancellorship. He died on the 2nd
of August 1724. His son Alexander, the 2nd earl (1676-1740),
took the name of Campbell instead of Hume after his marriage
in 1697 with Margaret, daughter and heiress of Sir George
Campbell of Cessnock, Ayrshire. He was a lord of session from
1704 to 1714; ambassador to Denmark from 1715 to 1721, and
lord clerk register from 1716 to 1733. His son Hugh Hume, 3rd
earl (1708-1794), who entered parliament in 1734 at the same
time as his twin brother Alexander (d. 1756), afterwards lord
clerk register of Scotland, was keeper of the great seal of Scotland,
one of Bolingbroke's most intimate friends and one of Pope's
executors. His two sons having predeceased their father, the
earldom became dormant, Marchmont House, Berwickshire, and
the estates passing to Sir Hugh Purves, bart., a descendant of
the 2nd earl, who took the name of Hume-Campbell. The 3rd
earl had, however, three daughters, one -of whom, Diana
(d. 1827), married Walter Scott of Harden, Berwickshire; and in
1833 her son Hugh Hepburne-Scott (1758-1841) successfully
claimed the Scottish barony of Polwarth. In 1867 his grandson,
Walter Hugh (b. 1838), became 6th Lord Polwarth.
See The Marchmont Papers, ed. Sir G. H. Rose (1831).
MARCHPANE, or MARZIPAN, a sweetmeat made of sweet
almonds and sugar pounded and worked into a paste, and moulded
into various shapes, or used in the icing of cakes, &c. The best
marchpane comes from Germany, that from Konigsberg being
celebrated. The origin of the word has been much discussed.
It is common in various forms in most European languages,
Romanic or Teutonic; Italian has marzapane, French massepain,
and German marzipan, which has in English to some extent
superseded the true English form " marchpane." Italian seems
to have been the source from which the word passed into other
languages. In Johann Burchard's Diarium curiae romanae
(1483-1492) the Latin form appears as martiapanis (Du Cange,
Glossarium s.v.), and Minshseu explains the word as Martius
Panis, bread of Mars, from the " towers, castles and such like "
that appeared on elaborate works of the confectioner's art made
of this sweatmeat. Another derivation is that from Gr. pAfa,
barley cake, and Lat. panis. A connexion has been sought
with the name of a Venetian coin, matapanus (Du Cange, s.v.),
on which was a figure of Christ enthroned, struck by Enrico
Dandolo, doge of Venice (1192-1205). From the coin the word
was applied to a small box, and hence apparently to the sweet-
meat contained in it.
MARCIAN (c. 390-457), emperor of the East (450-457), was
born in Thrace or Illyria, and spent his early life as an obscure
soldier. He subsequently served for nineteen years under
Ardaburius and Aspar, and took part in the wars against the
Persians and Vandals. Through the influence of these generals
he became a captain of the guards, and was later raised to the
rank of tribune and senator. On the death of Theodosius II.
he was chosen as consort by the latter's sister and successor,
Pulcheria, and called upon to govern an empire greatly humbled
and impoverished by the ravages of the Huns. Marcian repudi-
ated the payment of tribute to Attila; he reformed the finances,
checked extravagance, and repeopled the devastated districts.
He repelled attacks upon Syria and Egypt (452), and quelled
disturbances on the Armenian frontier (456). The other notable
event of his reign is the Council of Chalcedon (451), in which
Marcian endeavoured to mediate between the rival schools of
theology.
See Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
Bury, London, 1896), iii. 384, iv. 444-445; J. Bury, The Later Roman
Empire (London, 1889), i. 135-136.
MARCIANUS (c. A.D. 400), Greek geographer, was born at
Heraclea in Pontus. Two of his works have been preserved in a
more or less mutilated condition. In the first, the Periplus of the
Outer Sea, in two books, in which he proposed to give a complete
description of the coasts of the eastern and western oceans, his
chief authority is Ptolemy; the distances from one point to
anothei'are given in stades, with the object of rendering the work
easier for the ordinary student. In this he follows Protagoras,
who, according to Photius (cod. 188), wrote a sketch of geography
in six books. The work contains nothing that cannot be learned
from Ptolemy, whom he follows in calling the promontory of the
Novantae (Mull of Galloway) the most northern point of Britain.
Improving on Ptolemy, he makes the island of Taprobane
(Ceylon) twenty times as large as it is in reality. The second, the
Periplus of the Inner Sea (the Mediterranean) , is a meagre epitome
of a similar work by Menippus of Pergamum, who lived during
the times of Augustus and Tiberius. It contains a description
of the southern coast of the Euxine from the Thracian Bosporus
to the river Iris in Pontus. A few fragments remain of an epi-
tome by Marcianus of the eleven books of the Geographumena of
Artemidorus of Ephesus.
See J. Hudson, Geographiae veteris scriptores traeci minores,
vol. i. (1698), with Dodwell's dissertation; C. W. Muller, Geographici
graeci minores, vol. i. pp. cxxix., 515-573; E. Miller, Periple de
Marcien d'Heraclee (1839); S. F. G. Hoffmann, Marciani Periplus
(1841); E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography (1879), ii. 660;
A. Forbiger, Handbuch der alien Geographie, vol. i. (1842).
MARCION and THE MARCIONITE CHURCHES. In the
period between 130 and 180 A.D. the varied and complicated Chris-
tian fellowships in the Roman Empire crystallized into close and
mutually exclusive societies churches with fixed constitutions
and creeds, schools with distinctive esoteric doctrines, associa-
tions for worship with peculiar mysteries, and ascetic sects with
special rules of conduct. Of ecclesiastical organizations the most
important, next to Catholicism, was the Marcionite community.
Like the Catholic Church, this body professed to comprehend
everything belonging to Christianity. It admitted all believers
without distinction of age, sex, rank or culture. It was no mere
school for the learned, disclosed no mysteries for the privileged,
but sought to lay the foundation of the Christian community
on the pure gospel, the authentic institutes of Christ. The pure
gospel, however, Marcion found to be everywhere more or less
corrupted and mutilated in the Christian circles of his time. His
undertaking thus resolved itself into a reformation of Christen-
dom. This reformation was to deliver Christendom from false
Jewish doctrines by restoring the Pauline conception of the gospel,
Paul being, according to Marcion, the only apostle who had
rightly understood the new message of salvation as delivered
by Christ. In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of
his church to which he was first driven by opposition amounts
to a reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel
of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that.
This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among
the Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a
Gnostic. For he ascribed salvation, not to " knowledge " but to
692
MARCION
" faith "; he appealed openly to the whole Christian world; and
he nowhere consciously added foreign elements to the revelation
given through Christ. It is true that in many features his
Christian system if we may use the expression resembles the
so-called Gnostic systems; but the first duty of the historian
is to point out what Marcion plainly aimed at; only in the second
place have we to inquire how far the result corresponded with
those purposes.
The doctrines of Marcion and the history of his churches from
the 2nd to the 7th century are known to us from the controversial
works of the Catholic fathers. From Justin onwards, almost every
eminent Church teacher takes some notice of Marcion, while very
many write extensive treatises against him. The most important
of those which have come down to us are the controversial pieces
of Irenaeus (in his great work against heretics), Tertullian (Adv.
Marc, i.-v.), Hippolytus, Pseudo-Origen Adamantius, Epiphanius,
and the Armenian Esnik. 1 From these works the contents of the
Marcionite Gospel, and also the text of Paul's epistles in Marcion's
recension, can be settled with tolerable accuracy. His opponents,
moreover, have preserved some expressions of his, with extracts
from his principal work; so that our knowledge of Marcion's views
is in part derived from the best sources.
Marcion was a wealthy shipowner, belonging to Sinope in
Pontus. He appears to have been a convert from Paganism to
Christianity, although it was asserted in later times that his
father had been a bishop. That report is probably as untrust-
worthy as another, that he was excommunicated from the
Church for seducing a virgin. What we know for certain is that
after the death of Hyginus, bishop of Rome (or c. 139 A.D.), he
arrived, in the course of his travels, at Rome, and made a hand-
some donation of money to the local church. Even then, how-
ever, the leading features of his peculiar system must have been
already thought out. At Rome he tried to gain acceptance for
them in the college of presbyters and in the church; indeed he
had previously made similar attempts in Asia Minor. But he
now encountered such determined opposition from the majority
of the congregation that he found it necessary to withdraw from
the great church and establish in Rome a community of his own.
This was about the year 144. The new society increased in the
two following decades; and very soon numerous sister-churches
were flourishing in the east and west of the empire. Marcion
took up his residence permanently in Rome, but still undertook
journeys for the propagation of his opinions. In Rome he
became acquainted with the Syrian Gnostic Cerdo, whose specu-
lations influenced the development of the Marcionite theology.
Still Marcion seems never to have abandoned his design of gain-
ing over the whole Church to his gospel. The proof of this is
found, partly in the fact that he tried to establish relations
with Polycarp of Smyrna, from whom he got a sharp rebuff,
partly in a legend to the effect that towards the end of his life
he sought readmission to the Church. Such, presumably, was
the construction put in after times on his earnest endeavour to
unite Christians on the footing of the " pure gospel." When he
died is not known, but his death can scarcely have been much
later than the year 165.
The distinctive teaching of Marcion originated in a comparison
of the Old Testament with the gospel of Christ and the theology
of the apostle Paul. Its motive was not cosmological or meta-
physical, but religious and historical. In the gospel he found
a God revealed who is goodness and love, and who desires faith
and love from men. This God he could not discover in the Old
Testament; on the contrary, he saw there the revelation of a
just, stern, jealous, wrathful and variable God, who requires
from his servants blind obedience, fear and outward righteous-
ness. Overpowered by the majesty and novelty of the Christian
message of salvation, too conscientious to rest satisfied with the
ordinary attempts at the solution of difficulties, while prevented
by the limitations of his time from reaching an historical insight
into the relation of Christianity to the Old Testament and to
Judaism, he believed that he expressed Paul's view by the
1 Esnik's presentation of the Marcionite system is a late pro-
duction, and contains many speculations that cannot be charged
upon Marcion himself.
hypothesis of two Gods: the just God of the law (the God of the
Jews, who is also the Creator of the world), and the good God,
the Father of Jesus Christ. Paradoxes in the history of religion
and revelation which Paul draws out, and which Marcion's
contemporaries passed by as utterly incomprehensible, are here
made the foundation of an ethico-dualistic conception of history
and of religion. It may be said that in the 2nd century only one
Christian Marcion took the trouble to understand Paul; but
it must be added that he misunderstood him. The profound
reflections of the apostle on the radical antithesis of law and
gospel, works and faith, were not appreciated in the 2nd century.
Marcion alone perceived their decisive religious importance, and
with them confronted the legalizing, and in this sense judaizing,
tendencies of his Christian contemporaries. But the Pauline
ideas lost their truth under his treatment; for, when it is
denied that the God of redemption is at the same time the
almighty Lord of heaven and earth, the gospel is turned upside
down.
The assumption of two Gods necessarily led to cosmological
speculations. Under the influence of Cerdo, Marcion carried
out his ethical dualism in the sphere of cosmology; but the fact
that his system is not free from contradictions is the best proof
that all along religious knowledge, and not philosophical, had
the chief values in his eyes. The main outlines of his teaching
are as follows. Man is, in spirit, soul and body, a creature of the
just and wrathful god. This god created man from v\rj (matter), 1
and imposed on him a strict law. Since no one could keep this
law, the whole human race fell under the curse, temporal and
eternal, of the Demiurge. Then a higher God, hitherto unknown,
and concealed even from the Demiurge, took pity on the wretched,
condemned race of men. He sent his Son (whom Marcion
probably regarded as a manifestation of the supreme God Him-
self) 3 down to this earth in order to- redeem men. Clothed in
a visionary body, in the likeness of a man of thirty years old,
the Son made his appearance in the fifteenth year of Tiberius,
and preached in the synagogue at Capernaum. But none of
the Jewish people understood him. Even the disciples whom
he chose did not recognize his true nature, but mistook him for
the Messiah promised by the Demiurge through the prophets,
who as warrior and king was to come and set up the Jewish
empire. The Demiurge himself did not suspect who the stranger
was; nevertheless he became angry with him, and, although
Jesus had punctually fulfilled his law, caused him to be nailed
to the cross. By that act, however, he pronounced his own
doom. For the risen Christ appeared before him in his glory,
and charged him with having acted contrary to his own law.
To make amends for this crime, the Demiurge had now to deliver
up to the good God the souls of those who were to be redeemed;
they are, as it were, purchased from him by the death of Christ.
Christ then proceeded to the underworld to deliver the spirits
of the departed. It was not the Old Testament saints, however,
but only sinners and malefactors like Cain, Esau and Saul, who
obeyed his summons. The prophets and patriarchs, having been
often deceived by the Demiurge, suspected a trick and would not
avail themselves of the promised salvation, remaining content
with the bliss of being in Abraham's bosom. Then, to gain the
living, Christ raised up Paul as his apostle. He alone under-
stood the gospel, and recognized the difference between the just
God and the good. Accordingly, he opposed the original apostles
with their Judaistic doctrines, and founded small congregations
of true Christians. But the preaching of the false Jewish
Christians gained the upper hand; nay, they even falsified the
evangelical oracles and the letters of Paul. Marcion himself
was the next raised up by the good God, to proclaim once more
the true gospel. This he did by setting aside the spurious
gospels, purging the real gospel (the Gospel of Luke) from sup-
posed judaizing interpolations, and restoring the true text of
1 On the relation of matter to the Creator, Marcion himself seems
not to have speculated, though his followers may have done so.
8 Marcion's teaching at this point forestalls the patripassian
christology of Noetus and Praxeas (see Neander, Church Hist.
ii. 143). [ED.]
MARCOMANNI MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS
693
the Pauline epistles. 1 He likewise composed a book, called the
Antitheses,'' in which he proved the disparity of the two Gods,
from a comparison of the Old Testament with the evangelical
writings.
On the basis of these writings Marcion proclaimed the true
Christianity, and founded churches. He taught that all who
put their trust in the good God, and his crucified Son, renounce
their allegiance to the Demiurge, and approve themselves by
good works of love, shall be saved. But he taught further and
here we trace the influence of the current gnosticism on Marcion
that only the spirit of man is saved by the good God; the body,
because material, perishes. Accordingly his ethics also were
thoroughly dualistic. By the " works of the Demiurge," which
the Christian is to flee, he meant the whole " service of the
perishable." The Christian must shun everything sensual, and
especially marriage, and free himself from the body by strict
asceticism. The original ethical contrast of " good " and " just "
is thus transformed into the cosmological contrast of " spirit "
and " matter." The good God appears as the god of spirit, the
Old Testament God as the god of matter. That is Gnosticism;
but it is at the same time illogical. For, since, according to
Marcion, the spirit of man is derived, not from the good, but
from the just God, it is impossible to see why the spiritual should
yet be more closely related to the good God than the material.
There is yet another direction in which the system ends with a
contradiction. According to Marcion, the good God never
judges, but everywhere manifests His goodness is, therefore,
not to be feared, but simply to be loved, as a father. But here
the question occurs, What becomes of the men who do not believe
the gospel ? Marcion answers, The good God does not judge
them, but merely removes them from His presence. Then they
fall under the power of the Demiurge, who rewards them for
their fidelity? No, says Marcion, but on the contrary
punishes them in his hell ! The contradiction here is palpable;
and at the same time the antithesis of " just " and " good "
ultimately vanishes. For the Demiurge now appears as an
inferior being, who in reality executes the purposes of the good
God. It is plain that dualism here terminates in the idea
of the sole supremacy of the good God.
It is not surprising, therefore, that even in the 2nd century the
disciples of Marcion diverged in several directions. Rigorous
asceticism, the rejection of the Old Testament, and the recogni-
tion of the " new God " remained common to all Marcionites,
who, moreover, like the Catholics, lived together in close com-
munities ruled by bishops and presbyters (although their con-
stitution was originally very loose, and sought to avoid every
appearance of " legality "). Some, however, accepted three
first principles (the evil, the just, the good) ; others held by two,
but regarded the Demiurge as the god of evil, i.e. the devil; while
a third party, like Apelles, the most distinguished of Marcion's
pupils, saw in the Demiurge only an apostate angel of the good
God thus returning to monotheism. The golden age of the
Marcionite churches falls between the years 1 50 and 250. During
that time they were really dangerous to the great Church; for
in fact they maintained certain genuine Christian ideas, which
the Catholic Church had forgotten. The earliest inscription
(A.D. 318)- on a Christian place of worship is Marcionite, and was
found on a stone which had stood over the doorway of a house
in a Syrian village. From the beginning of the 4th century they
began to die out in the West, or rather they fell a prey to Mani-
chaeism. In the East also many Marcionites went over to the
Manichaeans; but there they survived much longer. They can
be traced down to the 7th century, and then they seem to vanish.
But it was unquestionably from Marcionite impulses that the
new sects of the Paulicians and Bogomils arose; and in so far as
the western Cathari, and the antinomian and anticlerical sects
1 Marcion was the earliest critical student of the New Testament
canon and text. It is noteworthy that he refused to admit the
genuineness of the Pastoral Epistles and said that the letter to the
Ephesians was really addressed to the Laodiceans (Tertullian,
Adv. Marc. v. II, 21). (En.)
* Some have seen a reference to this work in I Tim. vi. 20. (Eo.)
of the 1 3th century are connected with these, they also may be
included in the history of Marcionitism.
See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, i. 266, 286; F. Loofs, Dogmen-
geschichte pp. 111-114; G. Kriiger, Early Christian Literature, and
art. in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur prot. Theol. und
Kirche, xii. ; F. J. Foakes Jackson's Christian Difficulties of the
Second and Twentieth Centuries, is a study of Marcion and his
relation to modern thought. (A. HA.)
MARCOMANNI (i.e. men of the mark, or border), the name
of a Suevic tribe. With kindred peoples they were often in
conflict with the Roman Empire, and gave their name to the
Marcomannic War, a struggle waged by the emperor Marcus
Aurelius against them and the Quadi. The Marcomanni dis-
appeared from history during the 4th century, being probably
merged in the Baiouarii, the later Bavarians.
See SUEBI; also F. M. Wittmann, Die dlteste Geschichte der Marko-
mannen (Munich, 1855), and E. Devrient, " Hermunduren und
Markomannen " in Neues Jahrb.f. das klassische Altertum (1901), 51.
MARCOS DE NIZA (c. 1495-1558), a Franciscan friar born
in Nice about 1495. He went to America in 1531, and after
serving his order zealously in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico, was
chosen to explore the country north of Sonora, whose wealth was
pictured in the hearsay stories of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca.
Preceded by Estevanico, the negro companion of Cabeza de Vaca
in his wanderings and the " Black Mexican " of Zuni traditions,
Fray Marcos left Culiacan in March 1539, crossed south-eastern
Arizona, penetrated to Zuni or the " Seven Cities of Cibola," and
in September returned to Culiacan. He saw Zuni only from a
distance, and his description of it as equal in size to the city of
Mexico was probably exact; but he embodied much mere hearsay
in his report, the Descubrimiento de las siete ciudades, which
led F. V. de Coronado to make his famous expedition next year
to Zuni, of which Fray Marcos was the guide; and the realities
proved a great disappointment. Fray Marcos was made
Provincial of his order for Mexico before the second trip to
Zuni, and returned in 1541 to the capital, where he died on
the 25th of March 1558.
The Descubrimiento is one of the world's famous narratives of
travel. It may be found in J. F. Pacheco's Documentos (vol. iii.)
and Hakluyt's Voyages (vol. iii.); also in G. Ramusio, Navigazione
(vol. iii.) and H. Ternaux-Compans, Voyages (vol. iii.). See A. F. A.
Bandelier, The Gilded Man (El Dorado), (New York, 1893); H. H.
Bancroft, Arizona and New Mexico (San Francisco, 1888), and, for
critical opinions, G. P. Winship, " The Coronado Expedition," in
U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, Fourteenth Annual Report (for 1892-
1893), (Washington, 1896).
MARCOU, JULES (1824-1898), Swiss-American geologist,
was born at Salins, in the department of Jura, in France, on
the 2oth of April 1824. He was educated at Besancon and
at the college of St Louis, Paris. He worked in early years with
J. Thurmann (1804-1855) on the geology of the Jura mountains.
In 1847 he went to North America as travelling geologist for the
Jardin des Plantes, and in the following year in Boston he joined
Agassiz, whom he had met in Switzerland, and accompanied
him to the Lake Superior region. Marcou spent two years in
studying the geology of various parts of the United States and
Canada, and returned to Europe for a short time in 1850. In
1853 he published a Geological Map of the United Stales, and the
British Provinces of North America. In 1855 he became pro-
fessor of geology and palaeontology at the polytechnic school
of Zurich, but relinquished this office in 1859, and in 1861 again
returned to the United States, when he assisted Agassiz in
founding the Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1861 he
published his Geological Map of the World (2nd ed. 1875). Of
his published papers the more noteworthy are those on the Jura-
Cretaceous formations of the Jura, on the " Dyas " (Permian)
of Nebraska, and on the Taconic rocks of Vermont and Canada.
His other works include Lettres sur ks roches du Jura el leur
distribution gfographique dans les deux hemispheres (1857-1860)
and Geology of North America (1858). Marcou died at Cambridge,
Mass., on the i7th of April 1898.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (121-180), Roman emperor
and Stoic philosopher, was born in Rome A.D. 121, the date of his
birth being variously stated as the 6th, 2ist and 26th of April.
6 94
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS
His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. 1 His mother
Domitia Calvilla (or Lucilla) was a lady of consular rank, and
the family of his father Annius Verus (prefect of the city and
thrice consul), originally Spanish, had received patrician rank
from Vespasian. Marcus was three months old when his father
died, and was thereupon adopted by his grandfather. The
moral training which he received from his grandfather and his
mother must have been all but perfect. The noble qualities of
the child attracted the attention of Hadrian, who, playing upon
the name " Verus," said that it should be changed to " Verissi-
mus " (BHPICCIMOC on medals). Hadrian adopted, as his
successor, Titus Antoninus Pius (uncle of Marcus), on condition
that he in turn adopted both Marcus (then seventeen) and Lucius
Ceionius Commodus, the son of Aelius Caesar, who had originally
been intended by Hadrian as his successor, but had died before
him. Marcus had been, at the age of fifteen, betrothed to Fabia,
the sister of Commodus; the engagement was broken off by
Antoninus Pius, and he was betrothed to Faustina, the daughter
of the latter. In 139 the title of Caesar was conferred upon him
and he dropped the name of Verus. The full name he then bore
was Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus, Aelius coming from
Hadrian's family, and Aurelius being the original name of
Antoninus Pius. In 140 he was made consul.
The education of Aurelius in his youth was minute (see Medit.
i. 1-16). A better guardian than Antoninus Pius could not be
conceived. Marcus himself says, " To the gods I am indebted
for having good grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good
teachers, good associates, good kinsmen and friends, nearly
everything good." He was educated, not at school, but by
tutors, Herodes Atticus and M. Cornelius Fronto (q.v.) in the usual
curriculum of rhetoric and poetry; but at the age of eleven
he became acquainted with Diognetus the painter and Stoic
philosopher (Hist, script, aug. i. 305, notes), was fascinated by
the philosophy he taught, assumed the dress of his sect, and
ultimately abandoned rhetoric and poetry for philosophy and
law, having among his teachers of the one Sextus of Chaeronea,
grandson of Plutarch, and later Q. Junius Rusticus, and of the
other L. Volusius Maecianus (or Metianus), a distinguished jurist.
He went thoroughly into the practice as well as the theory of
Stoicism, and lived so abstemious and laborious a life that he
injured his health. From his Stoic teachers he learned to work
hard, to deny himself, to avoid listening to slander, to endure
misfortunes, never to deviate from his purpose, to be grave with-
out affectation, delicate in correcting others, " not frequently
to say to any one, nor to write in a letter, that I have no leisure,"
nor to excuse the neglect of duties by alleging urgent occupa-
tions. Through all his Stoical training Aurelius preserved the
natural sweetness of his nature.
During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 to 161), the concord
between him and Aurelius was complete; Capitolinus (c. 7) says
" nee praeter duas noctes per tot annos mansit diversis vicibus."
The two were associated in the administration and in the simple
country occupations of the seaside villa of Lorium, the birth-
place of Pius, to which he loved to retire. It has been assumed
on the strength of a passage in Capitolinus that Aurelius married
Faustina in 146, but the passage is not clear, and other evidence
points strongly to 140; at all events it seems certain that a
daughter was born to him in 140. Antoninus Pius died in 161,
having recommended as his successor Aurelius, then forty years
of age, without mentioning Commodus, his other adopted son,
commonly called Lucius Verus. It is believed that the senate
urged Aurelius to take the sole administration. But he showed
the magnanimity of his nature by at once admitting Verus as
his partner, giving him the tribunician and proconsular powers,
and the titles Caesar and Augustus. This was the first time that
Rome had two emperors as colleagues. Verus, a weak, self-
indulgent man, had a high respect for his adoptive brother, and
deferred uniformly to his judgment. In the first year of his
reign Faustina gave birth to twins, one of whom became the
emperor Commodus.
1 Capitolinus states that he was originally called Catilius Severus
after his mother's grandfather; if so the name was early discarded.
The early part of the reign of Aurelius was clouded by national
misfortunes. An inundation of the Tiber swept away a large
part of Rome, destroying fields, drowning cattle, and causing a
famine (162); then came earthquakes, fires and plagues of insects;
the soldiers in Britain tried to induce their general Statius
Priscus to proclaim himself emperor; finally, the Parthians
under Vologaeses III. resumed hostilities, annihilated the Roman
forces under Severianus at Elegia in Cappadocia, and devastated
Syria. Verus, originally a man of considerable courage and
ability, was sent to oppose the Parthians, but gave himself up
to sensual excesses, and the Roman cause in Armenia would
have been lost, and the empire itself, perhaps, imperilled, had
not Verus had under him able generals, 2 the chief of whom was
Avidius Cassius (see CASSIUS, Avrorcrs). By them the Parthian
War was brought to a conclusion in 165, but Verus and his army
brought back with them a terrible pestilence, which spread
through the whole empire. The people seem to have thought
that the last days of the empire had come. The Parthians had
at the best been beaten, not subdued; the Britons threatened
revolt; there were signs that various tribes beyond the Alps
intended to break into Italy. Indeed, the bulk of the reign of
Aurelius was spent in efforts to ward off the attacks of the
barbarians. He went himself to the wars with Verus in 167,
first to Aquileia and then on into Pannonia and Noricum,
wintering at Sirmium in Pannonia. Ultimately the Marco-
manni, the fiercest of the tribes that inhabited the country
between Illyria and the sources of the Danube, sued for peace
in 168. In January or February 169 Verus died at Altinum,
apparently of apoplexy, though some ventured to say that he
was poisoned by Aurelius.
Aurelius was thenceforth indisputed master of the empire,
during one of the most troubled periods of its history. His reign
is well described by F. W. Farrar (Seekers after God) : " He
regarded himself as being, in fact, the servant of all. The registry
of the citizens, the suppression of litigation, the elevation of
public morals, the care of minors, the retrenchment of public
expenses, the limitation of gladiatorial games and shows, the
care of roads, the restoration of senatorial privileges, the ap-
pointment of none but worthy magistrates, even the regulation
of street traffic, these and numberless other duties so completely
absorbed his attention that, in spite of indifferent health, they
often kept him at severe labour from early morning till long after
midnight. His position, indeed, often necessitated his presence
at games and shows, but on these occasions he occupied himself
either in reading, in being read to, or in writing notes. He was
one of those who held that nothing should be done hastily, and
that few crimes were worse than the waste of time." The com-
prehensiveness of his legal and judicial reforms is very striking.
Slaves, heirs, women and children, were benefited, and he made
serious attempts to deal with the steady fall in the birth-rate of
legitimate children.
In the autumn of 169 two of the German tribes, the Quadi and
the Marcomanni, with their allies the Vandals, lazyges and
Sarmatians, renewed hostilities and, for three years, Aurelius
resided almost constantly at Carnuntum. In the end the
Marcomanni were driven out of Pannonia, and were almost
destroyed in their retreat across the Danube. In 174 Aurelius
gained over the Quadi a decisive victory, which is commemorated
by one of the sculptures on the column of Antonine. The story
is that the Romans, entangled in a defile, were suffering from
thirst. A sudden storm gave abundance of rain, while hail and
thunder confounded their enemies, and enabled the Romans
to gain an easy and complete victory. This triumph was
universally considered at the time, and for long afterwards, to
have been a miracle, and bore the title of " The Miracle of the
Thundering Legion." The pagan writers (e.g. Dio Cassius,
Ixx. 8-10) ascribed the victory to the magic arts of an Egyptian
named Arnuphis who prevailed on Mercury and other gods to
! Aurelius has been severely criticized for sending Verus. Among
various reasons, the most convincing is that the presence of Aurelius
was required in Rome; moreover, the real leader was evidently
Cassius.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS
6 95
give relief, while the Christians attributed it to the prayers of
their brethren in a legion to which, they affirmed, the emperor
then gave the name of " The Thundering." Dacier, however,
and others who adhere to the Christian view of the miracle,
admit that the appellation of " Thundering " or " Lightning "
(Kpawoj36Xo5, or KfpavvottMpos) was given to the legion because
there was a figure of lightning on their shields. It has also
been virtually proved that it had the title even in the reign of
Augustus.
Aurelius next marched to Germany. There news reached
him that Avidius Cassius, the commander of the Roman troops
in Asia, had revolted and proclaimed himself emperor (175).
But after three months Cassius was assassinated, and his head
was brought to Aurelius, who with characteristic magnanimity,
persuaded the senate to pardon all the family of Cassius. It is
a proof of the wisdom of Aurelius's clemency that he had little
or no trouble in pacifying the provinces which had been the scene
of rebellion. He treated them all with forbearance, and it is
said that when the correspondence of Cassius was brought him
he burnt it without reading it. During his journey of pacifi-
cation, Faustina, who had borne him eleven children, died.
Dio Cassius and Capitolinus charge Faustina with the most
shameless infidelity to her husband, who is even blamed for
not paying heed to her crimes. But none of these stories
rests on trustworthy evidence; on the other hand, there can be
no doubt that Aurelius trusted her while she lived, and
mourned her loss.
After the death of Faustina and the pacification of Syria,
Aurelius proceeded, on his return to Italy, through Athens, and
was initiated in the Eleusinian mysteries, the reason assigned
for his doing so being that it was his custom to conform to the
established rites of the countries he visited. He gave large sums
of money for the endowment of chairs in philosophy and rhetoric,
with a view to making the schools the resort of students from
all parts of the empire. Along with his son Commodus he
entered Rome in 176, and obtained a triumph for victories in
Germany. In 177 occurred that persecution of Christians, the
share of Aurelius in which has been the subject of so much con-
troversy. Meanwhile the German War continued, and the two
Quintihi, who had been left in command, begged Aurelius once
more to take the field. In this campaign Aurelius, after a series
of successes, was attacked, according to some authorities, by an
infectious disease, of which he died after a seven days' illness,
either in his camp at Sirmium (Mitrovitz), on the Save, in Lower
Pannonia, or at Vindobona (Vienna), on the I7th of March 180,
in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Other accounts are: (i) that
he was poisoned in the interests of Commodus (Dio. Cass. Ixxi.
33> 4)> ( 2 ) that he died of a chronic stomachic disease; the latter
is perhaps the most likely. His ashes (according to some
authorities, his body) were taken to Rome. By common consent
he was deified and all those who could afford the cost obtained
his statue or bust ; for a long time his statues held a place among
the penates of the Romans. Commodus, who was with his father
when he died, erected to his memory the Antonine column (now
in the Piazza Colonna at Rome), round the shaft of which are
sculptures in relief commemorating the miracle of the Thunder-
ing Legion and the various victories of Aurelius over the Quadi
and the Marcomanni. A bronze equestrian statue was set up
in the Forum, now on the Capitol.
Aurelius throughout his reign was hostile to Christianity. The
Christians suffered from systematic persecution, and many
historians, with a strange lack of historical insight, have poured
denunciation upon him for an attitude which was the natural
outcome of his convictions. During his reign the atmosphere
of Roman society was heavily charged with the popular Greek
philosophy to which, ethics apart, Christianity was diametrically
opposed. Under Antoninus the " pursuit " of Christians was
unknown; under Trajan and Hadrian it was forbidden (cf.
Keim, Aus dem Urchrist, p. 99). But Aurelius was an eager
patriot and a man of logical mind. From his earliest youth he
had learned to identify the ritual of the Roman religion with the
very essence of the imperial idea. He became a Salian priest
at the age of eight, and soon knew by heart all the forms and
liturgical order of the official worship, and even the sacred music.
In the earliest statue we have he is a youth offering incense; he
is a priest at the sacrificial altar in the latest triumphal reliefs.
Naturally he felt that the prevalence of Christianity was in-
compatible with his ideal of Roman prosperity, and therefore
that the policy of the Flavian emperors was the only logical
solution of an important problem. Neumann argued that the
recrudescence of active persecution was initiated by a deliberate
ad hoc rescript issued probably in A.D. 176. Sir W. M. Ramsay,
however, doubts this ( The Church in the Roman Empire, London,
1893), and argues that it was due to a long series of instructions
to provincial governors (mandate, not decreta) who interpreted
their duty largely in conformity with the attitude of the reigning
emperor. In other words the governors were ordered merely
to punish sacrilege, and, under Aurelius, Christianity was re-
garded as such. In the second place, though it is true that the
persecutions indicated by Celsus (Origen, Celsus, viii. 69), Justin,
Melito (in Eusebius, H.E., iv. 26), Athenagoras (Libellus pro
Christianis) and the Acts of Martyrs, were greatly in excess of
those recorded in previous reigns, it must not be forgotten that
it was only in this period that the Christians began to keep
records. Thirdly, there can be no doubt that the Christians
had recently assumed a much bolder attitude, and thus segre-
gated themselves from the mass of those unorthodox sects which
the Roman could afford to despise. Like the Druids in Gaul
(cf. T. Mommsen, Prov. Rom. Emp., Eng. trans, i. 105, and
V. Duruy, Rev. archol., Apr. 1880), the Christians were particularly
dangerous, inasmuch as they taught a unity which transcended
that of the Roman Empire, and must, therefore, have been
regarded as antagonistic to the existing political and social
organism.
When, therefore, we remember that Aurelius knew little of
the Christians, that the only mention of them in the Meditations
is a contemptuous reference to certain fanatics of their number
whom even Clement of Alexandria compares for their thirst for
martyrdom to the Indian gymnosophists, and finally that the
least worthy of them were doubtless the most prominent, we
cannot doubt that Aurelius was acting unquestionably in the
best interests of a perfectly intelligible ideal. He was " Roman
in resolution and repression, Roman in civic nobility and pride,
Roman in tenacity of imperial aim, Roman in respect for law,
Roman in self-effacement for the service of the State " (G. H.
Rendall).
Philosophy. The book which contains the philosophy of Aurelius
is known by the title of his Reflections, or Meditations, although
that is not the name which he gave to it himself (Td s tavr6v).
Of the genuineness of the work no doubts are now entertained.
It is believed that he wrote also an autobiography, which has per-
ished. The Meditations were written, it is evident, as occasion
offered in the midst of public business, and on the eve of battles
on which the fate of the empire depended hence their fragmentary
appearance, but hence also much of their practical value and even
of their charm. It is believed by many critics that they were
intended for the guidance of Aurelius's son, Commodus (q.v.);
at all events they are generally considered as one of the most precious
of the legacies of antiquity. Renan even called them " the most
human of all books," and they are described by J. S. Mill in his
Utility of Religion as almost equal in ethical elevation to the Sermon
on the Mount.
Aurelius throughout his life adhered to the Stoical philosophy.
But, as Tenneman says, he imparted to it " a character of gentleness
and benevolence, by making it subordinate to a love of mankind,
allied to religion." His thoughts represent a transitional move-
ment, and it is difficult to discover in them anything like a system-
atic philosophy. From the manner, however, in which he seeks
to distinguish between matter and cause or reason, and from the
earnestness with which he advises men to examine all the impres-
sions on their minds, it may be inferred that he held the view of
Anaxagoras that God and matter exist independently, but that
God governs matter. There can be no doubt that Aurelius believed
in a deity, although Schultz is probably right in maintaining that
all his theology amounts to this the soul of man is most intimately
united to his body, and together they make one animal which we
call man; and so the deity is most intimately united to the world
or the material universe, and together they form one whole. We
find in the Meditations no speculations on the absolute nature of
the deity, and no clear expressions of opinion as to a future state.
6 9 6
MARCY, W. L.
We may also observe here that, like Epictetus, he is by no means
so decided on the subject of suicide as the older Stoics. Aurelius
is, above all things, a practical moralist. The goal in life to be
aimed at, according to him, is not happiness, but tranquillity, or
equanimity. This condition of mind can be obtained only by
" living conformably to nature," that is to say, one's whole nature,
and as a means to that man must cultivate the four chief virtues,
each of which has its distinct sphere-^-wisdom, or the knowledge
of good and evil; justice, or the giving to every man his due;
fortitude, or the enduring of labour and pain ; and temperance, or
moderation in all things. It is no " fugitive and cloistered virtue "
that Aurelius seeks to encourage; on the contrary, man must lead the
" life of the social animal," must " live as on a mountain "; and
" he is an abscess on the universe who withdraws and separates
himself from the reason of our common nature through being
displeased with the things which happen." While the prime
principle in man is the social, " the next in order is not to yield to
the persuasions of the body, when they are not conformable to the
rational principle which must govern." This divinity " within
a man," this " legislating faculty," which, looked at from one
point of view, is conscience, and from another is reason, must be
implicitly obeyed. He who thus obeys it will attain tranquillity
of mind; nothing can irritate him, for everything is according to
nature, and death itself " is such as generation is, a mystery of
nature, a composition out of the same elements, and a decom-
position into the same, and altogether not a thing of which any
man should be ashamed, for it is not contrary to the nature of
a reasonable animal, and not contrary to the reason of our
constitution."
The morality of Marcus Aurelius cannot be said to have been
new when it was given to the world. Its charm lies in its exquisite
accent and its infinite tenderness. But above all, what gives the
sentences of Marcus Aurelius their enduring value and fascination,
and renders them superior to the utterances of Epictetus and Seneca,
is that they are the gospel of his life. His precepts are simply
the records of his practice. To the saintliness of the cloister he
added the wisdom of the man of the world; he was constant
in misfortune, not elated by prosperity, never " carrying things
to the sweating-point," but preserving, in a time of universal
corruption, unreality and self-indulgence, a nature sweet, pure,
self-denying, unaffected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. B. Watson's M. Aurelius Antoninus (1884)
contains a general account life, character, philosophy, relations
with Christianity -as well as a bibliography ; see also art. in Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, s.v. " Annius " (No. 94), col. 2279.
For special points see: (i) Historical: Authorities under ROME:
Ancient History; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to M. Aurelius
(London, 1904). (2) Relations to Christianity: Sir W. M. Ramsay,
op. cit.; W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, A.D. 1-600
(Eng. trans., A. Rutherford, 1892); W. E. Addis, Christianity and
the Roman Empire (1893) ; E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman
Government (1894), pp. 145 sqq., which criticizes both Neumann and
Ramsay; Leonard Alston, Stoic and Christian of the 2nd century
(1906); j. Dartigue-Peyrou, Marc-Aurele dans ses rapports avec le
christianisme (Paris, 1897). (3) Philosophical: Besides article
STOICS, E. Renan, Marc. Antoninus et la fin du monde antique
(Paris, 1882; Eng. trans., W. Hutchinson, 1904); W. Pater, Marius
the Epicurean (London, 1888); Matthew Arnold's Essays; C. H. W.
Davis, Greek and Roman Stoicism (1903) ; editions of the Meditations
(5, below). (4) Military: E. Napp, De rebus imperat. M. Aurel.
Anton, in oriente gestis (Bonn, 1879); Conrad, Mark Aurels Marko-
mannenkrieg (1889); Th. Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire
(Eng. trans., W. P. Dickson, London, 1886) ; for the Aurelius
column, E. Petersen, A. von Domaszewski, and G. Calderini, Die
Marcussdule (Munich, 1896), with historical introduction by Th.
Mommsen. (5) The Meditations were published by Xylander in
1558; the best critical edition is that of J. Stich in the Teubner
series (Leipzig, 1882; 2nd ed., 1903); textual emendations also in
Journal of Philology, xxiii. 116-160 (G. H. Rendall); Classical
Review, xix. (1905), pp. 18 sqq. (Herbert Richards), ibid., pp. 301 sqq.
(A. J. Kronenberg). Translations exist in almost every language;
that of George Long (London, 1862, re-edited 1900) has been
superseded by those of G. H. Rendall (London, 1898, with valuable
introduction) and J. Jackson (Oxford, 1906, with introduction by
Charles Bigg). (6) For a full account of the correspondence of
Aurelius and Fronto, see Robinson Ellis, Correspondence of Pronto
and M. Aurelius (Oxford, 1904). (J. M. M.)
MARCY, WILLIAM LEARNED (1786-1857), American states-
man, was born in Southbridge (then part of Sturbridge), Massa-
chusetts, on the 1 2th of December 1786. He graduated at
Brown University in 1808, studied law, was admitted to the
bar in Troy, New York, and began practice there in 1810.
During the War of 1812 he served first as a lieutenant and after-
wards as a captain of volunteers, and on the 22nd of October
1812 took part in the storming of the British post at St Regis,
Canada. In 1816 he became recorder of Troy, but as he sided
with the Anti-Clinton faction of the Democratic-Republican
Party, known as the " Bucktails," he was removed from office
in 1818 by his political opponents. As editor of the Troy Budget
(daily) he was a vigorous supporter of Martin Van Buren, and
when Van Buren's followers acquired control of the legislature
in 1821 Marcy was made adjutant-general of the New York
militia. From 1823 to 1829 Marcy was comptroller of the state,
an office then especially important on account of the large ex-
penditures for internal improvements, and during this period he
became the leading member of the famous " Albany Regency,"
a group of able Democratic politicians who exerted a powerful
influence throughout the state by their control of the party
patronage and machinery. He was one of the associate justices
of the New York Supreme Court from 1829101831, presiding over
the trial of the alleged murderers of William Morgan and in other
important cases; and was a member of the United States Senate
from December 1831 to July 1832, when he resigned to become
governor of New York. In a speech in the Senate defending
Van Buren against an attack by Henry Clay, Marcy made the
unfortunate remark that " to the victors belong the spoils of the
enemy," and thereby became widely known as a champion of
the proscription of political opponents. He served as governor
of New York for six years (Jan. i, 1833 to Dec. 31, 1838), but
was defeated in 1838 by the Whig candidate, William H.
Seward. As governor he checked the issue of bank charters by
the legislature and secured the enactment, in 1838, of a general
banking law, which abolished the monopoly features incident
to the old banking system. In 1830-1842 Marcy was a member
of a commission appointed by President Van Buren, in accordance
with the treaty of 1839 between the United States and Mexico
to " examine and decide upon " certain claims of citizens of the
United States against Mexico. In 1843 he presided over the
Democratic state convention at Syracuse, and in 1844-1845 he
was recognized as one of the leaders of the " Hunkers," or regular
Democrats in New York, and an active opponent of the " Barn-
burners." He was secretary of war under President Polk from
1845 to 1849, and as such, discharged with ability the especially
onerous duties incident to the conduct of the Mexican War;
he became involved, however, in controversies with Generals
Scott and Taylor, who accused him, it seems very unjustly, of
seeking to embarrass their operations in the field because they
were political opponents of the administration. In the Demo-
cratic convention at Baltimore, in 1852, Marcy was a prominent
candidate for the presidential nomination, and from 1853 to
1857 he was secretary of state in the cabinet of President Pierce.
Few cabinet officers in time of peace have had more engrossing
duties. His circular of the ist of June 1853 to American diplo-
matic agents abroad, recommending that, whenever practicable,
they should " appear in the simple dress of an American citizen,"
created much discussion in Europe; in 1867 his recommendation
was enacted into a law of Congress. One of the most important
matters with which he was called upon to deal was the " Koszta
Affair "; l his " Hiilsemann letter " (1853), is an important
1 The " Koszta Affair " involved an interesting question of inter-
national law -i.e. the right of an alien domiciled in any country
to the protection of that country and has served as a precedent
for the American government in somewhat similar cases that have
arisen. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian revolutionist of 1848, had
emigrated to the United States and had there taken the preliminary
step for naturalization by formally declaring his intention to become
a citizen of the United States. In 1853 he went on personal business
to Smyrna, where he secured a passport from the American consul ;
the Austrian consul, however, caused him to be seized and detained
on an Austrian brig-of-war. Soon afterward Captain Duncan N.
Ingraham (1802-1891), in command of a United States sloop-of-war,
arrived at Smyrna, and threatened to attack the Austrian vessel
unless Koszta were released; and as a compromise Koszta was
placed in the custody of the French consul. To Chevalier Hulse-
mann, then representing Austria at Washington, who had demanded
from the United States the disavowal of the acts of its agents, the
complete surrender of Koszta, and " satisfaction proportionate to
the magnitude of the outrage," Marcy wrote on the 26th of Septem-
ber 1853, that Koszta " when seized and imprisoned was invested
with the nationality of the United States " and had a right to the
Erotection of the United States government, and added: " Whenever
y the law of nations an individual becomes clothed with our national
MARDIN MARDUK
697
state paper, and the principles it enunciates have been approved
by leading authorities on international law. In the same year
he secured the negotiation of the Gadsden Treaty (see GADSDEN,
JAMES), by which the boundary dispute between Mexico and
the United States was adjusted and a large area was added to
the Federal domain; and in June 1854 he concluded with Lord
Elgin, governor-general of Canada, acting for the British Govern-
ment, a treaty designed to settle the fisheries question and
providing for tariff reciprocity (as regards certain enumerated
commodities) between Canada and the United States. In 1854
Marcy had to deal with the complications growing out of the
bombardment of San Juan del Norte (Greytown), Nicaragua,
by the United States sloop-of-war " Cyane " for insults offered
the American minister by its inhabitants and for their refusal
to make restitution for damages to American property. The*
expedition of William Walker (q.v.) to Nicaragua in 1855 further
complicated the Central American question. The Crimean War,
on account of the extensive recruiting therefor by British consuls
in several American cities, in violation of American neutrality,
led to a diplomatic controversy with Great Britain, and in May
1856 the British minister, John F. T. Crampton (1805-1886),
received his passports, and the exequaturs of the British consuls
at New York, Philadelphia and Cincinnati were revoked. The
incident created great excitement in England, but in 1857 the
British government sent Sir Francis Napier to Washington to
take Crampton's place. To the Declaration of Paris of 1856,
prescribing certain rules of naval warfare, Marcy on behalf of
his government refused to subscribe, because Great Britain had
rejected his proposed amendment exempting from seizure in time
of war all private property not contraband. The diplomatic
relations of the United States and Spain furnished, perhaps, the
most perplexing of Marcy's problems. Upon the seizure (on
Feb. 28, 1854) of the American vessel " Black Warrior," the
confiscation of her cargo, and the fining of her captain by the
Cuban authorities, on the ground that this vessel had violated
the customs regulations of the port of Havana, slavery propa-
gandists sought to force the administration into an attitude that
would lead to war with Spain and make possible the seizure of
Cuba; and it was largely due to Marcy's influence that war was
averted, Spain restoring the confiscated cargo and remitting the
captain's fine. 1 The secretary, however, was not averse to
increasing his popularity and his chances for the presidency by
obtaining Cuba in an honourable manner, and it was at his
suggestion that James Buchanan, J. Y. Mason and Pierre
Soule, the ministers respectively to Great Britain, France and
Spain, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle in October 1854 to
discuss the Cuban question. But the remarkable " Ostend
Manifesto " (see BUCHANAN, JAMES), the outcome of their con-
ference, was quite unexpected, and Marcy promptly disavowed
the document. Marcy died at Ballston Spa, New York, on the
4th of July 1857, a short time after the close of Pierce's adminis-
tration. In domestic affairs Marcy was a shrewd, but honest
partisan; in diplomacy he exhibited the qualities of a broad-
minded, patriotic statesman, endowed, however, with vigour,
rather than brilliancy, of intellect.
For his early career, consult J. S. Jenkins, Lives of the Governors
of New York (Auburn, New York, 1851), and for his work as secretary
of state, see James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States (vols. i.
and ii., New York, 1892), and an article by Sidney Webster, " Mr
Marcy, the Cuban Question, and the Ostend Manifesto," in vol. viii.
of the Political Science Quarterly (New York, 1893).
MARDIN, the chief town of a sanjak of the Diarbekr vilayet
of Asiatic Turkey. It is a military station on the Diarbekr-
Mosul road. It occupies a remarkable site on the south side of a
conical hill of soft limestone, and the houses rise tier above tier,
character he can claim the protection of this government, and it
may respond to that claim without being obliged to explain its
conduct to any foreign power; for it is its duty to make its nationality
respected by other nations and respectable in every quarter of the
globe." Eventually Koszta was released and returned to the United
States. The Hulsemann letter was published and greatly increased
Marcy's popularity.
1 See Henry L. James, " The Black Warrior Affair " in the
American Historical Review, vol. xii. (1907).
The streets are narrow and paved in steps, while often the road-
way runs along the roof of the house in the tier below. The
hill is almost surrounded by old walls, while on the summit are
the remains of the famous castle of the Kaleh Shubha (Lat.
Maride or Marde,) which from Roman times has played an
important part in history. The Arab geographers considered it
impregnable, and from its steep approaches and well-arranged
defences it was able to offer a protracted resistance to the Mon-
golian conqueror Hulagu and to the armies of Timur. It was
also for several centuries the residence of more or less indepen-
dent princes of the Ortokid Turkoman dynasty. The climate is
healthy and dry, and fruit grows well, but water is sometimes
scanty in the summer. Mardin is the centre of a good corn-
growing district, and is important chiefly as a border town for
the Kurds on the north and the Arab tribes to the south. It is
the chief centre of the Jacobite Christians, who have many
villages in the Tor Abdin hills to the north-east, and whose
patriarch lives at Deir Zaferan, a Syrian monastery of the gth
century not far off in the same direction. The population is
estimated at 27,000, of whom about one-half are Christians of
the Armenian, Chaldean, Jacobite, Protestant and Roman
Catholic communities. Besides many mosques and churches
there are three monasteries (Syrian, Franciscan and Capuchin),
and -an important American Mission station, with church,
schools and a medical officer.
MARDUK (Bibl. MERC-DACE"), the name of the patron deity
of the city of Babylon, who, when Babylon permanently became
the political centre of the united states of the Euphrates valley
under Khammurabi (c. 2250 B.C.), rose to the position of the
head of the Babylonian pantheon. His original character
was that of a solar deity, and he personifies more specifically the
sun of the spring-time who conquers the storms of the winter
season. He was thus fitted to become the god who triumphs
over chaos that reigned in the beginning of time. This earlier
Marduk, however, was effaced by the reflex of the political
development through which the Euphrates valley passed and
which led to imbuing him with traits belonging to gods who at
an earlier period were recognized as the heads of the pantheon.
There are more particularly two gods Ea and Bel whose
powers and attributes pass over to Marduk. In the case of Ea
the transfer proceeds pacifically and without involving the efface-
ment of the older god. Marduk is viewed as the son of Ea.
The father voluntarily recognizes the superiority of the son and
hands over to him the control of humanity. This association
of Marduk and Ea, while indicating primarily the passing of the
supremacy once enjoyed by Eridu to Babylon as a religious and
political centre, may also reflect an early dependence of Babylon
upon Eridu, not necessarily of a political character but, in view
of the spread of culture in the Euphrates valley from the south
to the north, the recognition of Eridu as the older centre on the
part of the younger one. At all events, traces of a cult of Marduk
at Eridu are to be noted in the religious literature, and the most
reasonable explanation for the existence of a god Marduk in
Eridu is to assume that Babylon in this way paid its homage to
the old settlement at the head of the Persian Gulf.
While the relationship between Ea (q.v.) and Marduk is thus
marked by harmony and an amicable abdication on the part of the
father in favour of his son, Marduk's absorption of the power and
prerogatives of Bel of Nippur was at the expense of the latter's
prestige. After the days of Khammurabi, the cult of Marduk
eclipses that of Bel (q.v.), and although during the five centuries
of Cassite control in Babylonia (c. 1750-1200 B.C.), Nippur and
the cult of the older Bel enjoy a period of renaissance, when
the reaction ensued it marked the definite and permanent
triumph of Marduk over Bel until the end of the Babylonian
empire. The only serious 'rival to Marduk after 1200 B.C. is
Assur (q.v.) in Assyria. In the south Marduk reigns supreme,
and his supremacy is indicated most significantly by making
him the Bel, " the lord," par excellence.
The bid myths in which Bel of Nippur was celebrated as the
hero were transformed by the priests of Babylon in the interest
The name Mordecai denotes "belonging to Maduk."
6 9 8
MARE MAREMMA
of the Marduk cult with the chief r61e assigned to their favourite.
The hymns once sung in the temple of Bel were re-edited and
adapted to the cult of Babylon. In this process the older Bel
was deliberately set aside, and the climax was reached when the
conquest of the monster Tiamat, symbolizing the chaos prevailing
in primeval days, was ascribed to Marduk instead of, as in the
older form of the epic, to Bel. With this stroke Marduk became
the creator of the world, including mankind again setting aside
the far older claims of Bel to this distinction.
Besides absorbing the prerogatives of Ea and Bel, Marduk
was also imbued with the attributes of other of the great gods,
such as Adad, Shamash, Nergal and Ninib, so that, more
particularly as we approach the days of the Neo-Babylonian
Empire, the impression is created that Marduk was the only real
deity recognized, and that the other gods were merely the various
forms under which he manifested himself. So far as one can
speak of a monotheistic tendency in Babylonia it connects
itself with this conception that was gradually crystallized in
regard to the old solar deity of Babylon.
The history of the city of Babylon can now be traced back to
the days of Sargon of Agade (before 3000 B.C.) who appears to
have given the city its name. There is every reason to assume,
therefore, that the cult of Marduk existed already at this early
period, though it must always be borne in mind that, until the
days of Khammurabi, his jurisdiction was limited to the city
of which he was the patron and that he was viewed solely as a
solar deity.
On monuments and cylinders he is represented as armed with
the weapon with which he despatched the monster Tiamat.
At times this monster is also depicted lying vanquished at his
feet, and occasionally the monster with the lance or the lance
alone is reproduced instead of the god himself.
In the astral-theological system, Marduk is identified with the
planet Jupiter. As the creator of the world, the New Year's
festival, known as Zagmuk and celebrated at the time of the
vernal equinox, was sacred to him. The festival, which lasted
for eleven days, symbolized the new birth of nature a repro-
duction therefore of the creation of the world. The arbiter of
all fates, Marduk, was pictured as holding an assembly of the
gods during the New Year's festival for the purpose of deciding
the lot of each individual for the year to come. The epic reciting
his wonderful deed in despatching the monster Tiamat and in
establishing law and order in the world in the place of chaos
was recited in his temple at Babylon known as E-Saggila,
" the lofty house," and there are some reasons for believing
that the recital was accompanied by a dramatical representa-
tion of the epic.
The meaning of the name Marduk is unknown. By a species
of word-play the name was interpreted as " the son of the
chamber," with reference perhaps to the sacred chamber of fate
in which he sat in judgment on the New Year's festival. Ideo-
graphically he is represented by two signs signifying " child of
the day " (or " of the sun ") which is a distinct allusion to his
original solar character. Other ideographic signs describe him
as the " strong and universal ruler." The name of his consort
was Sarpanit, i.e. the shining or brilliant one again an allusion
to Marduk's solar traits and this name was playfully twisted
by the Babylonian priests to mean " the seed-producing " (as
though compounded of zer, seed, and banit, producing,
which was regarded as an approprkte appellation for the female
counterpart of the creator of mankind and of life in general.
The punning etymology betrays the evident desire of the priests
to see in Marduk's consort a form or manifestation of the great
mother-goddess Ishtar (<?..), just as in Assyria Ishtar frequently
appears as the consort of the chief god of Assyria, known as
Assur (q.v.). (M. JA.)
MARE, the English term for the female of any animal of the
family Equidae, of the ass, or zebra, but particularly of the
horse. It is also used of the camel. To find a " mare's nest " is
an old proverbial saying for a purely imaginary discovery. In
" night-mare," an oppressive or terrifying dream, the termination
is a word appearing as mar, maer and mara in various Teutonic
languages for a goblin, supposed to sit on a sleeper's chest
and cause these dreams: cf. elf. This Teutonic word also
appears in the French cauchemar, the first part being from
caucher, to tread or trample upon, Lat. calcare.
MARE CLAUSUM and MARE LIBERUM (Lat. for " closed sea "
and " free sea "), in international law, terms associated with th
historic controversy which arose out of demands on the part <
different states to assert exclusive dominion over areas of th
open or high sea. Thus Spain laid claim to exclusive dominion
over whole oceans, Great Britain to all her environing narrov
seas and so on. These claims gave rise to vigorous opposition
by other powers and led to the publication of Grotius's wor
(1609) called Mare liberum. In Mare clausum (1635) Joh
Selden endeavoured to prove that the sea was practically as
capable of appropriation as territory. Owing to the conflict of
claims which grew out of the controversy, maritime states had
to moderate their demands and base their pretensions to mari-
time dominion on the principle that it extended seawards
from land.
A formula was found by Bynkershoek in his De dominio
maris (1702) for the restriction of dominion over the sea to the
actual distance to which cannon range could protect it. This
became universally adopted and developed into the three-mile
belt (see TERRITORIAL WATERS). In recent times controversies
have arisen in connexion with the Baltic, the Black Sea and
more especially the Bering Sea. In the latter case the United
States, after the purchase of Alaska, vainly attempted to assert
dominion beyond the three-mile limit. Still more recently the
hardship of treating the greater part of Moray Firth as open sea
to the exclusion of British and to the advantage of foreign fisher-
men has been raised (see NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION;
TERRITORIAL WATERS).
Conventions for the suppression of the slave trade, including
the Brussels General Act of 1885, and the North Sea Fisheries
Convention, have placed restrictions on the freedom of the high
sea, .and possibly, in the general interest, other agreements will
bring it further under control, on the principle that what is the
property of all nations must be used without detriment to its
use by others (see HIGH SEAS). (T. BA.)
MAREE, LOCH, a fresh-water lake in the county of Ross and
Cromarty, Scotland. Its name of which Maroy and Mourie
are older variants does not, as is often supposed, commemorate
the Virgin, but St Maelrubha, who came from Bangor in Ireland
in 671 and founded a monastery at Applecross and a chapel (now
in ruins) on Isle Maree. Trending in a south-easterly to north-
westerly direction, the lake has a length of 135 m. from Kinloch-
ewe at the head of the dam erected in the i6th century (or earlier)
by the iron-smelters of the Cheardach Ruardh, or Red Smiddy,
on the short but impetuous river Ewe by which it drains to the
sea. It lies at a height of 32 ft. above sea-level; the greatest
breadth is just over 2 m. at Slattadale, the mean breadth being
ifty of a mile; and the greatest depth, 367 ft., occurs in the upper
basin, the mean depth being 125 ft. Its waters cover an area
of fully ii sq. m., and its islands nearly i sq. m., while the
drainage area is 171 sq. m. A remarkable feature is the large
number (more than 30) and considerable area of the islands.
Excepting Loch Crocach, a small lake in the Assynt district of
Sutherlandshire, its insularity (i.e. the ratio of the total area of
the islands to that of the water surface) is higher than that of
any other lake in Great Britain, Loch Lomond coming next.
Nearly all the islands lie north and east of Slattadale, the largest
being Eilean Subhainn, or St Swithin's Isle, which contains a
small lake 750 ft. long, 300 ft. broad and 64 ft. deep. For two-
thirds of its length the loch is flanked by magnificent mountains.
On the north-east the principal heights are Ben Slioch (3217 ft.),
whose sugar-loaf form dominates the landscape, Ben Lair (2817)
and Ben Airidh-a-Char (2593), and, on the south-west, the peaks
of Ben Eay, four of which exceed 3000 ft.
MAREMMA (a corruption of Marittima, " situated on the
sea "), a marshy region of Tuscany, Italy, extending from the
mouth of the Cecina to Orbetello and varying in breadth from
1 5 to 20 m. In Etruscan and Roman times the Maremma was a
MARENGO
699
populous and fertile coast plain, with considerable towns situated
on the hills Populonia, Russellae, Cosa, &c., and was drained
by a complete system of subterranean canals which were brought
to light by the excavations made in connexion with the railways
passing through the district. But the decline of agriculture at
the end of the Republic led to a conversion of the land to pasture,
and later the unsettled state of affairs consequent on the fall
of the Roman Empire resulted in neglect of the watercourses.
Leopold II. of Tuscany (1822-1844) made the first successful
efforts to counteract the malaria which has affected the district,
by drainage, the filling up of swamps, and the establishment of
new farms, and since his time continuous efforts have been
made with considerable success.
MARENGO, a village of north Italy, on the road between
Alessandria and Tortona, and 4! m. E.S.E. of the gates of the
former. It is situated on the Fontanone brook, a small affluent
of the Tanaro which marks the western edge of the plain of
Marengo, the scene of the great victory won by Napoleon over
the Austrians under Baron Melas (1729-1806) on the i4th of
June 1800. The antecedents of the battle are described under
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS).
The French army, in ignorance of its opponent's position, had
advanced westward from the Scrivia towards Alessandria on the
1 2th, and its outposts had reached the Bormida on the evening
of the i3th. But contact with the main Austrian army was
not obtained, and on the assumption that it was moving towards
either Valenza or Genoa Napoleon weakened his army by con-
siderable detachments sent out right and left to find the enemy
and to delay his progress. Unknown, however, to Napoleon
Melas's army was still at Alessandria, and on the morning of
the 1 4th of June it filed out of the fortress and began its
advance into the great plain of Marengo, one of the few
favourable cavalry battle-grounds in north Italy.
The dispersion of the French army allowed only a fragmentary,
though most energetic, resistance to be offered to the Austrian
onset. The latter, considerably delayed at first by the crossing
of the river Bormida, broke up into two columns, 1 which ad-
vanced, the right by the main road on Marengo, the left on Castel
Ceriolo. The former, personally commanded by Melas, was
20,000 strong, and General Victor, its immediate opponent,
about 10,000, or including some 5000 of Lannes' corps who
fought on his right, about 15,000 strong; the Austrians were,
moreover, greatly superior in guns and cavalry. The French
disputed every yard of ground, holding their first line until they
had by fire and counter-attack forced practically the whole of
the Austrian right to deploy, and two hours passed before the
Austrians managed to reach the Fontanone brook. But Victor's
troops, being disorganized and short of ammunition, had then
to retire more rapidly across the plain. The retreat was orderly,
according to Victor's report, and made in 6chelon from the centre,
^ A third column was sent out to the extreme right (3000 under
I'Reilly). This destroyed a small French detachment on the
extreme left, but took little or no part in the main battle.
and it is certain that at any rate the regiments held together,
for the 6000 Austrian sabres found no opportunity to charge
home. Many guns and wagons were, however, abandoned.
On the French right, opposed to the column of Lieut. -Field-
Marshal Ott, was Lannes, with some 4000 men (excluding
Watrin's division which was with Victor) against 7500. He
too was after a time forced to retire, with heavy losses. Thus,
about ii a.m. the First Consul, who was at some distance from
the field, was at last convinced that he had to deal with Melas's
army. At once he sent out his staff officers to bring back his
detachments, and pushed forward his only reserve, Monnier's
division, to support Lannes and Victor. But before this help
arrived Lannes had been driven out of Castel Ceriolo, and Victor
and Watrin forced back almost to San Giuliano. A little after
2 p.m. Monnier's division (3500) came into action, and its
impetuous advance drove the Austrians out of Castel Ceriolo.
But after an hour it was forced back in its turn, and by 3 p.m.
therefore, the 20,000 French troops, disordered and exhausted,
and in one line without reserves, 2 held a ragged line of battle
to the right and left of San Giuliano. The best that could be
expected was a prolongation of the struggle till nightfall and
a fairly orderly retreat. The Austrian general, believing that
the battle was won, returned to Alessandria, leaving a younger
man, his chief of staff Zach, to organize the pursuit.
Then followed one of the most dramatic events in military
history. Of the two detachments sent away by Napoleon in
search of the enemy, one only received its orders of recall.
This was Boudet's division of Desaix's corps, away to the south
at Rivalta and at noon heading for Pozzolo-Formigaro on the
Alessandria-Genoa road. At i p.m. a brief message, " Revenez,
au nom de Dieu!" altered the direction of the column, and
between 4 and 5, after a forced march, the division, headed by
Desaix, came on to the battle-field. It was deployed as a unit and
moved forward at the word of command along the main road
Alessandria-Tortona, the sight of their closed line giving fresh
courage to the men of Lannes and Victor. Then, while on the
other side Zach was arraying a deep column of troops to pursue
along the main road, Napoleon and Desaix, themselves under
fire, hastily framed a plan of attack. All. arms were combined.
First, Marmont with eight of Boudet's guns and ten others (the
rest had been abandoned in the retirement) came into action
on the right of the road, replying to the fire of the Austrian
guns and checking their advanced infantry; close in rear of
the artillery was Desaix's infantry with the remnants of Lannes'
and Victor's troops rallying on its right and left; on Lannes'
right, still facing Ott's column, was Monnier, supported by
the Consular Guard of horse and foot; lastly 400 sabres of
Kellermann's cavalry brigade, which had already been engaged
several times and had lost heavily, formed up on the right of
Desaix. About 5 p.m. Desaix advanced against the head of the
Austrian main column formed by Zach. He himself fell in the
attack, but the onset of his intact troops drove back the leading
Austrians upon their supports, and at the critical moment when
the attack of Boudet's single weak division had almost spent its
force, Kellermann with his 400 sabres sallied out of the French
line. Marmont had brought up two guns to assist the infantry,
and as he fired his last round of case-shot the cavalry raced past
him to the front, wheeled inwards against the flank of the great
column, and rode through and through it. Zach was taken
prisoner with more than 2000 men, and Kellermann, rallying
some of his troopers, flung himself upon the astonished Austrian
cavalry and with the assistance of the Consular Guard cavalry
defeated it. The " will to conquer " spread along the whole
French line, while the surprise of the Austrians suddenly and
strangely became mere panic. Lannes, Victor and Monnier
advanced afresh, pushing the Austrians back on Marengo. A
few Austrian battalions made a gallant stand at that place,
while Melas himself, as night came on, rallied the fugitives
beyond. Next day the completely exhausted, but victorious,
1 The Austrians, too, fighting in " linear " formation had few
reserves. About one-third only of the imperial forces in Italy
was actually engaged in the battle.
yoo
MAREOTIS MARGARET, ST
French army extorted from the dazed Austrians a convention
by which all Italy up to the Mincio was evacuated by them.
The respective losses were: French about 4000, Austrians 9500.
See the French official Campagne de I'armee de reserve, vol. ii.,
by C. de Cugnac.
MAREOTIS (Arabic Mariut), the most westerly of the lakes
in the Delta of Egypt. On the narrow strip of land separating
the lake from the Mediterranean the city of Alexandria is built.
(See EGYPT; and ALEXANDRIA.)
MARE'S-TAIL, in botany, the popular name for an aquatic
herb known botanically as Hippuris vulgaris (natural order
Haloragaceae). It grows on margins of lakes, ponds and
similar localities, and has a submerged stout creeping rootstock
from which spring many-jointed cylindrical stems bearing
numerous narrow leaves close-set in whorls. The minute
greenish flowers are borne in the leaf-axils. Like many fresh-
water plants it has a wide distribution, occurring in arctic and
temperate regions in the northern hemisphere and reappear-
ing in antarctic South America.
MARET, HUGUES-BERNARD, Due DE BASSANO (1763-1839),
French statesman and publicist, was born at Dijon. After
receiving a sound education, he entered the legal profession
and became advocate at the King's Council at Paris. The
ideas of the French Revolution profoundly influenced him,
and wholly altered his career. The interest aroused by the
debates of the first National Assembly suggested to him the
idea of publishing them, conjointly with Mejean, in the Bulletin
de I'Assemblee. The publicist Charles Joseph Panckoucke
(1736-1798), owner of the Mercure de France and publisher
of the famous Encyclopedic (1781), persuaded him to merge
this in a larger paper, the Moniteur universel, which gained a
wide repute for correctness and impartiality. He was a member
of the moderate club, the Feuillants; but after the overthrow
of the monarchy on the zoth of August 1792 he accepted an
office in the ministry of foreign affairs, where he sometimes
exercised a steadying influence. On the withdrawal of the
British legation from Paris Maret went on a mission to London,
where he had a favourable interview with Pitt on the 2nd of
December 1792. All hope of an accommodation was, however,
in vain. After the execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21, 1793),
the chief French diplomatic agent, Chauvelin, was ordered
to leave England, while the French Convention declared war
(Feb. i, 1793). These events precluded the possibility of success
attending a second mission of Maret to London in January.
After a space, in which he held no diplomatic post, he became
ambassador of the French Republic at Naples; but, while
repairing thither with De Semonville he was captured by
the Austrians and was kept in durance by them for sqme thirty
months, until, at the close of 1795, the two were set free in return
for the liberation of the daughter of Louis XVI. For a time
Maret betook himself to journalism; but he played a useful
part in the negotiations for a peace with Great Britain which
went on at Lille during the summer of 1797, until the victory
of the Jacobins at Paris in the coup d'etat of Fructidor (Sept.
1797) frustrated the hopes of Pitt for peace and inflicted on
Maret another reverse of fortune. On the return of Bonaparte
from Egypt in 1799 Maret joined the general's party which came
to power with the coup d'etat of Brumaire (Nov. 9-10, 1799).
Maret now became one of the First Consul's secretaries and
shortly afterwards secretary of state. In this position his
moderation, industry, good sense, knowledge of men and of
affairs, made his services of great value. The Moniteur, which
became the official journal of the state in 1800, was placed
under his control. He sometimes succeeded in toning down
the hard, abrupt language of Napoleon's communications,
and in every way proved a useful intermediary. It is known
that he had a share in the drawing up of the new constitutions
for the Batavian and Italian Republics. In 1804 he became
Minister; in 1807 he was named count, and in 1809 he received
the title of due de Bassano, an honour which marked the sense
entertained, by Napoleon of his strenuous toil, especially in
connexion with the diplomatic negotiations and treaties of
this period. His personal devotion to the emperor was
that absolute unwavering kind which Napoleon highly valu<
it is seen in the attempt to defend the unworthy artifices adopt
by the great man in April-May 1808 in order to make hims
master of the destinies of Spain. Maret also assisted in drawing
up the constitution destined for Spain, which the Spaniards
at once rejected.
Maret accompanied Napoleon through most of his campai^
including that of 1809; and at its close he expressed himself
favour of the marriage alliance with the archduchess Marie Lo
of Austria, which took place in 1810. In the spring of 1811, t
due de Bassano replaced Champagny, due de Cadore, as ministei
of Foreign Affairs. In this capacity he showed his usual industry
and devotion, concluding the treaties between France and
Austria and France and Prussia, which preceded the French
invasion of Russia in 1812. He was with Napoleon through t!
greater part of that campaign; and after its disastrous concl
sion helped to prepare the new forces with which Napoleon waged
the equally disastrous campaign of 1813. But in November
1813 Napoleon replaced him by Caulaincourt, due de Vicence,
who was thought to be more devoted to the cause of peace
and personally grateful to the emperor Alexander I. of Russia.
Maret, however, as private secretary of the emperor, remained
with his master through the campaign of 1814, as also during
that of 1815. After the second restoration of the Bourbons
he was exiled, and retired to Gratz where he occupied himself
with literary work. In 1820 he was allowed to return to France,
and after the Revolution of 1830, Louis Philippe, king of the
French, made him a peer of France; he also held two high offices
for a few days. He died at Paris in 1839. He shares with
Daru the honour of being the hardest worker and most devoted
supporter in Napoleon's service; but it has generally been
considered that he carried devotion to the length of servility,
and thus often compromised the real interests of France. This
view has been contested by Baron Ernouf in his work Maret,
due de Bassano, which is the best biography.
For Maret's mission to England in 1792 and his work at Lille in
1797, see Augustus W. Miles, Letters on the French Revolution;
J. H. Rose, The Life and Times of William Pitt, and for other in-
cidents of Maret's career, the memoirs of Bourricnne, Pasquier,
Mdneval and Savary (due de Rovigo), may be consulted. Thiers's
account of Maret is in general hostile to him. (J. ML. R.)
MARGARET (Fr. Marguerite, It. Margherita, Ger. Margarets,
and Margarete, with dim. Crete, Gretchen, Meta, fr. Lat. margarila,
Gr. fiapyaplrris, a pearl), a female proper name, which
became very popular in all Christian countries as that of the
saint noticed below. Biographies of some who have borne
it are arranged below in the following order: saints, queens of
Scotland, queens of other countries, princesses and duchesses.
MARGARET, ST (SANCTA MARGARITA), virgin and martyr,
is celebrated by the Church of Rome on the 2oth of July.
According to the legend, she was a native of Antioch, daughter
of a pagan priest named Aedesius. She was scorned by her father
for her Christian faith, and lived in the country with a foster
mother keeping sheep. Olybrius, the " praeses orientis," offered
her marriage as the price of her renunciation of Christianity.
Her refusal led to her being cruelly tortured, and after
various miraculous incidents, she was put to death. . Among the
Greeks she is known as Marina, and her festival is on the i7th
of July. She has been identified with St Pelagia (q.v.) Marina
being the Latin equivalent of Pelagia who, according to a
legend, was also called Margarito. We possess no historical
documents on St Margaret as distinct from St Pelagia. An
attempt has been made, but without success, to prove that the
group of legends with which that of St Margaret is connected
is derived from a transformation of the pagan divinity Aphrodite
into a Christian saint. The problem of her identity is a purely
literary question. The cult of St Margaret was very wide-
spread in England, where more than 250 churches are dedicated
to her.
See Acta sanctorum, July, v. 24-45; Bibliotheca hagiographica.
Latino, (Brussels, 1899), n. 5303-5313; Frances Arnold-Forster,
Studies in Church Dedications (London, 1899), i. 131-133 and
iii. 19. (H. DE.)
MARGARET, ST MARGARET OF NORWAY
701
MARGARET, ST (c. 1045-1093), the queen of Malcolm III.
Canmore king of Scotland, was the daughter of the English
prince Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, and sister of Edgar
jEtheling, and was probably born in Hungary. In 1067 the
widow and children of Edward fled from Northumberland
with a large number of followers and sought the protection of
the Scottish king. The marriage of Malcolm and Margaret soon
took place and was followed by several invasions of Northum-
berland by the Scottish king, probably in support of the
claims of his brother-in-law Edgar. These, however, had little
result beyond the devastation of the province. Far more
important were the effects of this alliance upon the history of
Scotland. A considerable portion of the old Northumbrian
kingdom had been reduced by the Scottish kings in the previous
century, but up to this time the English population had little
influence upon the ruling element of the kingdom. Malcolm's
marriage undoubtedly improved the condition of the English
to a great extent, and under Margaret's sons, Edgar, Alexander I.
and David I., the Scottish court practically became anglicized.
Margaret died on the iyth of November 1093, four days after
her husband and her eldest son Edward, who were slain in
an invasion of Northumberland. She rebuilt the monastery
of lona, and was canonized in 1251 on account of her great
benefactions to the Church.
See Chronicles of the Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867), edited
1876, by W. F. Skene; and W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh).
MARGARET (1480-1541), queen of Scotland, eldest daughter
of Henry VII., king of England, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter
of Edward IV., was born at Westminster on the 29th of November
1489. Before she was six years old negotiations were opened,
which dragged on for several years, for marrying the princess
to James IV. of Scotland, whose support of the pretender
Perkin Warbeck it was hoped to avert by such an alliance.
Eventually the marriage was celebrated in Edinburgh on the
8th of August 1503. The avaricious Henry VII. gave his
daughter a scanty dowry and quarrels on this head embittered
he relations between the two kingdoms, which the marriage,
although accompanied by a treaty of perpetual peace, did
nothing to heal. The whole of Margaret's life after her marriage
with James IV. was an unending series of intrigues, first with
one political faction then with another; at one time in favour
of her native country, at another in hostility to it, her conduct
being mainly influenced at all times by considerations affecting
her pocket.
Margaret was crowned at Edinburgh in March 1504. Until
1507 she had no children; between that date and 1510 two
ons and a daughter were born, all of whom died in infancy ;
in 1512 she gave birth to a son who succeeded his father as
James V.; in 1514 she bore a posthumous son, Alexander,
eated duke of Ross, who died in the following year. A dispute
with her brother Henry VIII. over a legacy claimed by Margaret
vas a contributory cause of the war which ended at Flodden,
where James IV. was killed on the gth of September 1513, having
by his will appointed Margaret sole guardian of her infant son,
sow King James V. Scotland was divided mainly into two
arties, one in favour of alliance with England, and the other
vith France. The leader of the latter was John Stewart, duke
of Albany, next heir to the crown of Scotland after Margaret's
sons; Margaret herself for the most part inclined to the English
faction; and when Albany returned to Scotland from France
on the invitation of the Scottish parliament in the spring of
1514, the conflict grew almost to civil war. Various projects
for Margaret's remarriage had already been started, Louis XII.
of France and the emperor Maximilian being proposed as
suitable husbands for the young widow, when the queen privately
married Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus, on the 6th of August
1514. The consequences of this marriage were to alienate
many of the most powerful of the nobility, especially the earls
of Arran and Home, and to make Margaret entirely dependent on
the house of Douglas; while it furnished the council with a pretext
for removing her from the regency and guardianship of the
king in favour of Albany in July 1515. Albany had to blockade
Margaret in Stirling Castle before she would surrender her sons.
After being obliged to capitulate. Margaret returned to Edin-
burgh, and being no longer responsible for the custody of the
king she fled to England in September, where a month later
she bore to Angus a daughter, Margaret, who afterwards became
countess of Lennox, mother of Lord Darnley and grandmother
of James I. of England.
In the summer of 1516 Margaret went to her brother's court
in London, while Angus, much to bis wife's displeasure, returned
to Scotland, where he made his peace with Albany and was
restored to his estates. The rivalry between the French and
English factions in Scotland was complicated by private feuds
of the Hamiltons and Douglases, the respective heads of which
houses, Arran and Angus, were contending for the supreme
power in the absence of Albany in France, where at the instance
of Henry VIII. he was detained by Francis I. Margaret, quarrel-
ling with her husband over money matters, sided at first with
Arran and began to agitate for a divorce from Angus. In this
she was probably aided by Albany, who had been in Rome,
and who found an unexpected ally in the queen-mother, Margaret
being temporarily alienated from the English party by her
brother Henry's opposition to her divorce. When Albany
returned to Scotland in 1521 his association with Margaret gave
rise to the accusation that it was with the intention of marrying
her himself that he favoured her divorce from Angus, and it
was even suggested that she was Albany's mistress. As Albany
was strongly supported by the Scottish parliament, Angus
found it necessary to withdraw to France till 1524. During
these years there was constant warfare between the English
and the Scots on the border, but in May 1524 Albany was
obliged to retire to France. Henry VIII. continually aimed
at securing the person of his nephew, the king of Scots; while
Margaret veered from faction to faction without any settled
policy, unless it were the " erection " of her son, i.e. his
proclamation as a reigning sovereign, which she successfully
brought about in July 1524. The queen-mother had at this
time fallen in love with Henry Stewart, second son of Lord
Avondale, whom she married immediately after obtaining
her divorce from Angus in 1527. Margaret and her new
husband, who was created Lord Methven, now became for a
time the ruling influence in the counsels of James V. But
when her desire to arrange a meeting between James and Henry
VIII. in 1534 was frustrated by the opposition of the clergy
and the council, Margaret in her disappointment revealed certain
secrets to Henry which led to her being accused by her son
of betraying him for money and of acting as an English spy.
In 1537 she was anxious to obtain a divorce from Methven,
and her desire was on the point of being realized when it .was
defeated by the intervention of James. Two years later she
was reconciled to her husband, by whom she had no children;
and, continuing to the end to intrigue both in Scotland and
England, she died at Methven Castle on the i8th of October
I54I-
See Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (London, 1900) ;
Mary A. E. Green, Lives of the Princesses of England (6 vols., London,
1849-1855); The Hamilton Papers, ed. by J. Bam (2 vols., Edinburgh,
1890) ; John Leslie, History of Scotland, ed. by T. Thompson (4 voTs.,
Edinburgh, 1830) ; Sir H. Ellis, Original Letters Illustrative of English
History (London, 1825-1846). (R. J. M.)
MARGARET (1283-1200), titular queen of Scotland, and
generally known as the " maid of Norway," was the daughter
of Eric II. king of Norway, and Margaret, daughter of Alexander
III. king of Scotland. Her mother died soon after Margaret's
birth, and in 1284 the estates of Scotland decided that if Alex-
ander died childless the crown should pass to his granddaughter.
In March 1 286 Alexander was killed and Margaret became queen.
The English king Edward I. was closely watching affairs in
Scotland, and in 1289 a marriage was arranged between the
infant queen and Edward's son, afterwards Edward II. Margaret
sailed from Norway and reached the Orkneys, where she died
about the end of September 1290. The news of this occurrence
702 MARGARET OF DENMARK MARGARET OF ANJOU
was first made known in a letter dated the 7th of October 1 290.
Some mystery, however, surrounded her death, and about
1300 a woman from Leipzig declared she was Queen Margaret.
The impostor, if she were such, was burned as a witch at
Bergen.
See A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1904).
MARGARET (1353-1412), queen of Denmark, Norway and
Sweden, the daughter of Valdemar IV. of Denmark, was born
in r 353 an< i married ten years later to King Haakon VI. of
Norway. Her first act, after her father's death (1375), was to
procure the election of her infant son Olaf as king of Denmark.
Olaf died in 1387, having in 1380 also succeeded his father; and
in the following year Margaret, who had ruled both kingdoms
in his name, was chosen regent of Norway and Denmark. She
had already given proofs of her superior statesmanship by
recovering possession of Schleswig from the Holstein counts,
who had held it absolutely for a generation, and who now received
it back indeed as a fief (by the compact of Nyborg 1386), but
under such stringent conditions that the Danish crown got all
the advantage of the arrangement. By this compact, moreover,
the chronically rebellious Jutish nobility lost the support they
had hitherto always found in Schleswig-Holstein, and Margaret,
free from all fear of domestic sedition, could now give her
undivided attention to Sweden, where the mutinous nobles
were already in arms against their unpopular king, Albert of
Mecklenburg. At a conference held at Dalaborg Castle, in
March 1388, the Swedes were compelled to accept all Margaret's
conditions, elected her " Sovereign Lady and Ruler," and engaged
to accept from her any king she chose to appoint. On the 24th
of February 1389, Albert, who had returned from Mecklenburg
with an army of mercenaries, was routed and taken prisoner
at Aasle near Falkoping, and Margaret was now the omnipotent
mistress of three kingdoms. Stockholm then almost entirely
a German city, still held out; fear of Margaret induced both
the Mecklenburg princes and the Wendish towns to hasten
to its assistance; and the Baltic and the North Sea speedily
swarmed with the privateers of the Viktualien brodre or Vitalia-
ner, so called because their professed object was to revictual
Stockholm. Finally the Hansa intervened, and by the compact
of Lindholm (1395) Albert was released by Margaret on promising
to pay 60,000 marks within three years, the Hansa in the mean-
time to hold Stockholm in pawn. Albert failing to pay his ransom
within the stipulated time, the Hansa surrendered Stockholm
to Margaret in September 1398, in exchange for very considerable
commercial privileges.
It had been understood that Margaret should, at the first
convenient opportunity, provide the three kingdoms with
a king who was to be her nearest kinsman, and in 1389 she
proclaimed her infant cousin, Eric of Pomerania, king of Norway.
In 1396 homage was rendered to him in Denmark and Sweden
likewise, Margaret reserving to herself the office of regent during
his minority. To weld the united kingdoms still more closely
together, Margaret summoned a congress of the three councils
of state to Kalmar in June 1397; and on Trinity Sunday, the i7th
of June, Eric was solemnly crowned king of Denmark, Norway
and Sweden. The proposed act of union divided the three
Rigsraads, but the actual deed embodying the terms of the
union never got beyond the stage of an unratified draft.
Margaret revolted at the clauses which insisted that each country
should retain exclusive possession of its own laws and customs,
and be administered by its own dignitaries, as tending in her
opinion to prevent the complete amalgamation of Scandinavia.
But with her usual prudence she avoided every appearance
of an open rupture.
A few years after the union of Kalmar, Eric, now in his
eighteenth year, was declared of age and homage was rendered
to him in all his three kingdoms, but during her lifetime Margaret
was the real ruler of Scandinavia. So long as the union was
insecure, Margaret had tolerated the presence near the throne
of " good men " from all three realms (the Rigsraad, or council of
state, as these councillors now began to be called); but their
influence was always insignificant. In every direction
royal authority remained supreme. The offices of high constable
and earl marshal were left vacant ; the Dtmehojfer or national as-
semblies fell into desuetude, and the great queen, an ideal despot,
ruled through her court officials acting as superior clerks. But
law and order were well maintained; the licence of the nobility
was sternly repressed; the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
were treated as integral parts of the Danish state, and national
aspirations were frowned upon or checked, though Norway,
as being more loyal, was treated more indulgently than Sweden.
Margaret also recovered for the Crown all the landed property
which had been alienated during the troublous days of
Valdemar IV. This so-called " reduktion," or land-recovery,
was carried out with the utmost rigour, and hundreds of estates
fell into the Crown. Margaret also reformed the Danish currency,
substituting good silver coins for the old and worthless copper
tokens, to the great advantage both of herself and the state.
She had always large sums of money to dispose of, and a consider
able proportion of this treasure was dispensed in works of charity.
Margaret's foreign policy was sagaciously circumspect, in sharp
contrast with the venturesomeness of her father's. The most
tempting offer of alliance, the most favourable conjunctures,
could never move her from her system of neutrality. On the
other hand she spared no pains to recover lost Danish territory.
Gotland she purchased from its actual possessors, Albert of
Mecklenburg and the Livonian Order, and the greater part
of Schleswig was regained in the same way.
Margaret died suddenly on board her ship in Flensborg
harbour on the 28th of October 1412. We know very little
of her private character. Contemporary records are both
scanty and hostile to a sovereign who squeezed the utmost
out of the people. Craft and wiliness are the qualities most
generally attributed to her, coupled with the cynical praise
that " in temporal matters she was very lucky."
See Danmarks riges historic, den senere Middelalder, pp. 358-
412 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905) ; Erslev, Danmarks historic under
dronning Margrethe (Copenhagen, 1882-1901); Hill, Margaret of
:
Denmark (London, 1898). "
(R. N. B.)
MARGARET OF ANJOU (1430-1482), queen of England,
daughter of Rene of Anjou, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem,
was born on the 23rd of March 1430. When just fourteen
she was betrothed to Henry VI. king of England, and in the
following year was brought to England and married at Titchfield
Abbey, near Southampton, on the 23rd of April 1445. On the
28th of May she was welcomed at London with a great pageant,
and two days later crowned at Westminster. Margaret's
marriage had been negotiated by William de la Pole, duke of
Suffolk, and when she came to England, Suffolk and his wife
were her only friends. Naturally she fell under Suffolk's
influence, and supported his policy. This, added to her French
origin and sympathies, made her from the start unpopular.
Though clever and good-looking, she was self- willed and imperious,
and without the conciliatory manners which her difficult position
required. In almost everything she was the opposite of her
gentle husband, but entered into his educational schemes,
and gave her patronage to the foundation of Queen's College,
Cambridge. Margaret's really active share in politics began
after Suffolk's fall in 1450. She not only supported Edmond
Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in his opposition to Richard of
York, but concerned herself also in the details of government,
seeking not over-wisely pecuniary benefits for herself and her
friends. But as a childless queen her influence was limited;
and when at last her only son, Edward, was born on the I3th
of October 1453, her husband was stricken with insanity. From
this time she was the ardent champion of her husband's and
son's rights; to her energy the cause of Lancaster owed its
endurance, but her implacable spirit contributed to its failure.
When York's protectorate was ended by Henry's recovery
in January 1455, Margaret, not content with the restoration
of Somerset and her other friends to liberty and office, pushed
her politics to extremes. The result was the defeat of the
Lancastrians at St Albans, and for a year Margaret had to
MARGARET OF AUSTRIA
703
acquiesce in York's power. Yet at this time one wrote of her:
" The queen is a great and strong laboured woman, for she
spareth no pain to sue her things to an intent and conclusion
to her power " (Paston Letters, i. 378). All the while she was
organizing her party; and ultimately, in October 1456 at Coven-
try, procured some change in the government. Though
formally reconciled to York in March 1458, she continued to
intrigue with her partisans in England, and even with friends
in France, like Pierre de Breze, the seneschal of Normandy.
After the Yorkist failure at Ludlow in 1459, it was Margaret's
vindictiveness that embittered the struggle by a wholesale
proscription of her opponents in the parliament at Coventry.
She was not present with her husband at Northampton on the
loth of July 1460. After romantic adventures, in which she
owed her safety to the loyalty of a boy of fourteen, her only
companion, she escaped with her little son to Harlech. Thence
after a while she made her way to Scotland. From Mary of
Gelderland, the queen regent, she purchased the promise of
help at the price of surrendering Berwick. Margaret was still
in Scotland at the date of Wakefield, so was not, as alleged by
hostile writers, responsible for the barbarous treatment of York's
body. But she at once joined her friends, and was with the
northern army which defeated Warwick at St Albans on the
1 7th of February 1461; for the executions which followed she
must bear the blame. After Towton Margaret with her husband
and son once more took refuge in Scotland.
A year later she went to France, and with help from her father
and Louis XI. equipped an expedition under Pierre de Breze.
She landed in Northumberland in October, and achieved some
slight success; but when on the way to seek further help from
Scotland the fleet was overwhelmed in a storm, and Margaret
herself barely escaped in an open boat to Berwick. In the
spring she was again trying to raid Northumberland, meeting
with many hardships and adventures. Once she owed her
escape from capture to the generosity of a Yorkist squire,
who carried her off on his own horse; finally she and her son
were brought to Bamburgh through the 'compassionate help
of a robber, whom they had encountered in the forest. Thence
in August 1463 she crossed to Sluys in Flanders. She was
almost destitute, but was courteously treated by Charles the
Bold, then count of Charolais, and so made her way to her
father in France. For seven years she lived at Saint-Michel-en-
Barrois, educating her son with the help of Sir John Fortescue,
who wrote at this time: " We be all in great poverty, but yet
the queen sustaineth us in meat and drink. Her highness
may do no more than she doth " (Works, ii. 72, ed. Clermont).
Margaret never lost her hopes of her son's restoration. But
when at last the quarrel between Warwick and Edward IV.
brought her the opportunity, it was with difficulty that she
could consent to be reconciled to so old and bitter an enemy.
After Warwick's success and Henry's restoration Margaret
still remained in France. When at last she was ready to sail
she was delayed by contrary winds. So it was only on the
very day of Warwick's defeat at Barnet (i4th of April) that
Margaret and Edward landed at Weymouth. Three weeks
later the Lancastrians were defeated at Tewkesbury, and
Edward was killed. Margaret was not at the battle; she was
captured a few days after, and brought to London on the 2ist
of May. For five years she remained a prisoner, but was treated
honourably and for part at least of the time was in charge
of her old friend the duchess of Suffolk. Finally Louis XI.
ransomed her under the Treaty of Pecquigny, and she re-
turned to France on the zpth of January 1476. Margaret
lived for six years at different places in Bar and Anjou, in
poverty and dependent for a pension on Louis, who made her
surrender in return her claims to her father's inheritance.
She died on the 25th of April 1482 and was buried at Angers
Cathedral. Ren6, whom she probably never saw after 1470,
had died in the previous year. During her last years Chastellain
wrote for her consolation his Temple de Bocace dealing with
the misfortunes of contemporary princes.
As the courageous champion of the rights of her son and
her husband, Margaret must command a certain sympathy.
But she was politically unwise, and injured their cause by her
readiness to purchase foreign help at the price of English
interests. Comines wrote well of her that she would have done
more prudently if she had endeavoured to adjust the disputes of
the rival factions instead of saying " I am of this party, and will
maintain it " (Memoires vi. ch. 13). Her fierce partisanship
embittered her enemies, and the Yorkists did not hesitate to
allege that her son was a bastard. This, like the scandal
concerning Margaret and Suffolk, is baseless; the tradition,
however, continued and found expression in the Mirror for
Magistrates and in Drayton's Heroical Epistles, as well as in
Shakespeare's Henry VI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For contemporary English authorities see under
HENRY VI. French authorities and especially the Chroniques of
George de Chastellain, and the Memoires of Philippes de Comines
contain much that is of value. The Letters of Margaret of Anjou
(Camden Soc., 1863) have small historical importance. There have
been numerous biographies, the chief is Mrs Hookham's Life of
Margaret of Anjou (1872). But the best modern accounts are to
be found in G. du Fresne de Beaucourt's Histoire de Charles VII.,
Dr Gairdner's Introductions to the Paston Letters, Sir James
Ramsay's Lancaster and York (1892), and The Political History of
England, vol. iv. (1906), by Professor C. Oman. Dr Karl Schmidt s
Margareta von Anjou, vor und bei Shakespeare (Palaestra, liv.,
Berlin, 1906) is a useful digest of authorities. (C. L. K.)
MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (1480-1330), duchess of Savoy
and regent of the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530, daughter
of the archduke Maximilian of Austria, afterwards the emperor
Maximilian I., was born at Brussels on the loth of January
1480. At two years of age she was betrothed to the dauphin
Charles, son of Louis XI. of France, and was brought up at
the French court. In 1489, however, Charles, now king as
Charles VIII., to prevent Maximilian taking as his second wife
the duchess Anne of Brittany, threw over Margaret and married
the Breton heiress himself. Her ambitious father now sought
for Margaret another throne, and in April 1497 she was married
at Burgos to the Infant John, heir to the throne of Castile
and Aragon. She was left a widow, however, a few months later.
In 1501 Margaret became the wife of Philibert II., duke of
Savoy, who only survived until 1504. The sudden death of
her brother the archduke, Philip the Handsome (Sept 25,
1506), opened out to her a new career. In 1507 she was
appointed by her father regent of the Netherlands and guardian
of her nephew Charles, afterwards the emperor - Charles V.
Charles came of age in 1515, but he entrusted Margaret with
the regency, as the vast extent of his dominions permitted
him but seldom to visit the Netherlands, and she continued
to hold the post until her death in 1530. She was a wise and
prudent ruler, of masculine temper and intrepidity, and very
capable in affairs.
See E. Munch, Margaretha von Osterreich (Leipzig, 1883); Th.
Juste, Charles-Quint et Marguerite d'Autriche (Brussels, 1858); A. Le
Glay, Maximilien I. et Marguerite d'Autriche (with correspond-
ence, Paris, 1839); De Quinsonas, Materiaux Pour serrir a I'htstoire
de Marguerite d'Aulriche (Paris, 1855), an d E. E. Tremayne, The
First Governors of the Netherlands: Margaret of Austria (1908).
MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (1522-1586), duchess of Parma
and regent of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567, was a natural
daughter of Charles V. Her mother, Margaret van Ghent, was
a Fleming. She was brought up by her aunts Margaret of
Austria and Maria of Hungary, who were successively regents
of the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530 and from 1530 to 1555.
In 1533 she was married to Alexander de' Medici, duke of
Florence, who was assassinated in 1537, after which she became
the wife of Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma, in 1542. The
union proved an unhappy one. Like her aunts, who had trained
her, she was a woman of masculine abilities, and Philip II.,
when he left the Netherlands in 1559 for Spain, acted wisely in
appointing her regent. In ordinary times she would probably
have proved as successful a ruler as her two predecessors in that
post, but her task was very different from theirs. She had to
face the rising storm of discontent against the Inquisition and
Spanish despotism, and Philip left her but nominal authority.
He was determined to pursue his own arbitrary course, and the
74
MARGARET OF PROVENCE MARGATE
issue was the revolt of the Netherlands. In 1567 Margaret
resigned her post into the hands of the duke of Alva and
retired to Italy. She had the satisfaction of seeing her
son Alexander Farnese appointed to the office she had laid
down, and to watch his successful career as governor-general
of the Netherlands. She died at Ortona in 1586.
See L. P. Gachard, Correspondence de Marguerite d'Autriche avec
Phillippe II. 1554-1568 (Brussels, 1867-1887); R. Fruin, Het
voorspel van den tachtig jarigen vorlog (Amsterdam, 1856); E. Rach-
fahl, Margaretha von Parma, Statthalterin der Niederlande, 1559-
1567 (Munich, 1895); also bibliography in Cambridge Modern
History, iii. 795-89 (i94)-
MARGARET OF PROVENCE (1221-1295), .queen of France,
was the daughter of Raymond Berenger V., count of Provence.
She was married to Saint Louis at Sens on the 27th of May
1234, and was crowned the next day. Blanche of Castile,
the queen-mother, arranged the marriage to win over to the
cause of France the powerful count of Provence, but treated
her daughter-in-law most unkindly, and her jealousy of the
energetic young queen was naturally shared by Louis, whose
coldness towards and suspicion of his wife are well known.
Margaret did not lack courage, she followed the king on his
crusade, and bore herself heroically at Damietta. But her
ambition and strong personal prejudices often led her to actions
injurious to the realm. This is most noticeable in her hostility
to her brother-in-law Charles of Anjou, who had married her
sister Beatrice, and her devotion to Henry III. of England,
who had married her other sister Eleanor. Aspiring during
the reign of her son to the same role which she had seen Blanche
of Castile play, she induced, in 1263, the young Philip, heir to
the throne, to promise to obey her in everything up to the age
of thirty; and Saint Louis was obliged to ask for a bull from
Urban IV. which would release the prince from his oath. After
Saint Louis' death, Margaret continued obstinately to claim
her rights on the county of Provence against Charles of Anjou.
She sought to employ force of arms, calling upon her son,
her nephew Edward II. of England, and the German king
Rudolph of Habsburg. She did not give up her claim until
after the death of Charles of Anjou (1285), when Philip the
Bold succeeded in getting her to accept an income from the
county of Anjou in exchange for her rights in Provence. She
died on the 3ist of December 1295.
See E. Boutaric, Marguerite de Provence, in Revue des questions
historiques (1867), pp. 417-458.
MARGARET MAULTASCH (1318-1369), countess of Tirol,
who received the name of Maultasch (pocket-mouth) on
account of the shape of her mouth, was the daughter and heiress
of Henry, duke of Carinthia and count of Tirol. When Henry
died in 1335 Carinthia passed to Albert II., duke of Austria
but Tirol was inherited by Margaret and her young husband, John
Henry, son of John, king of Bohemia, whom she had married in
1330. This union was not a happy one, and the Tirolese disliked
the government of Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles IV.
who ruled the county for his brother. The result was that
John Henry was driven from Tirol, and Margaret's cause was
espoused by the emperor Louis IV., who was anxious to adc
the county to his possessions. Declaring her marriage dis-
solved on the ground that it had not been consummated, Louis
married Margaret in 1342 to his own son Louis, margrave ol
Brandenburg. But as this action on the emperor's part en-
trenched on the privileges of the Church, Pope Clement VI
placed father and son under the ban, from which they were
not released until 1359. In 1361 Margaret's husband died
followed two years later by her only son, Meinhard, when she
handed over Tirol to Rudolph IV., duke of Austria, and retiree
to Vienna, where she died on the 3rd of October 1369. She
lived long in the memory of the people of Carinthia, who re-
garded her as an amazon, and called her the Wicked Gretl.
See A. Huber, Gescnichte der Vereinigung Tirols mil 'Oeslerreich
(Innsbruck, 1864).
MARGARINE, the name, first given by Chevreul, to an
artificial substitute for butter, made from beef and other anima
ats, and sometimes mixed with real butter. The name
' butterine " has also been used. Artificial butter, or " mar-
garine-mouries," was for some years manufactured in Paris
according to a method made public by the eminent chemist
Vlege-Mouries. Having surmised that the formation of butter
contained in milk was due to the absorption of fat contained
n the animal tissues, he was led to experiment on the splitting
up of animal fat. The process he ultimately adopted consisted
n heating finely minced beef suet with water, carbonate of
jotash, and fresh sheep's stomach cut up into small fragments.
The mixture he raised to a temperature of 45 C. (113 F.).
The influence of the pepsine of the sheep's stomach with the
icat separated the fat from the cellular tissue; he removed
;he fatty matter, and submitted it when cool to powerful
lydraulic pressure, separating it into stearin and oleomargarin,
which last alone he used for butter-making. Of this fat about
the proportions of 10 Ib with 4 pints of milk, and 3 pints
of water were placed in a churn, to which a small quantity
of anatto was added for colouring, and the whole churned
together. The compound so obtained when well washed was
in general appearance, taste and consistency like ordinary
butter, and when well freed from water it was found to keep
a longer time. Margarine is a perfectly wholesome butter-
substitute, and is now largely used, but the ease with which
it may be passed off as real butter has led to much discussion
and legislative action. (See ADULTERATION.)
MARGARITA, an island in the Caribbean Sea belonging
to Venezuela, about 12 m. N. of the peninsula of Araya, and
constituting, under the constitution of 1904, with Tortuga,
Cubagua and Coche a political division called the Eastern
Federal District. The island is about 40 m. long from east
to west, has an area of 400 sq. m., and consists of two moun-
tainous extremities, nearly separated by the Laguna Grande
on the south, but connected by a low, narrow isthmus. The
highest elevation on the island is the peak of Macanao, 4484 ft.,
in the western part, the highest point in the eastern part
being the peak of Copei, 4170 ft. The higher valleys of the
interior are highly fertile and are well adapted to grazing and
stock-raising. The principal industries are fishing and the making
of salt. The pearl fisheries, which were so productive in the
i6th and I7th centuries, are no longer important. A domestic
industry of the women is that of making coarse straw hats,
which are sold on the mainland. The products of Margarita,
however, are insufficient to support its population, and large
numbers periodically emigrate to the mainland, preventing
the increase in population which its healthful climate favours.
The population was estimated in 1904 at 40,000, composed
in great part of half-caste Guayqueri Indians. The capital
is Asuncion (pop. about 3000), on the east side of the island,
and its principal port is Pompatar on the south coast. The
two small ports of Puebla de la Mar (Porlamar) and Puebla
del Norte are merely open roadsteads.
The island of Margarita (from Span. Margarita, pearl) was
discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was bestowed in 1524 upon
Marceto VUlalobos by Charles V. In 1561 the freebooter
Lope de Aguirre ravaged the island, and in 1662 the town of
Pompatar was destroyed by the Dutch. For a long time
Margarita was attached to Cumana, but in the eighteenth
century it was made administratively independent. Its traders
and sailors rendered invaluable assistance to the revolutionists
in the war of independence, and the Spanish general, Morillo,
was driven from its shores in 1817; in recognition of this it was
made a separate state and was renamed Nueva Esparta (New
Sparta). In 1904-1909 it was a part of the Federal District
with Asunci6n as its capital. The first Spanish settlement
in South America was Nueva Cadiz, founded in 1515 on the
barren island of Cubagua; but the place was abandoned when
pearl-fishing and slave-trading ceased to be profitable.
MARGATE, a municipal borough and seaside resort in the
Isle of Thanet parliamentary division of Kent, England, 74 m,
E. by S. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1891), 18,662; (1901), 23,118. It lies on the north coast
MARGGRAF MARGUERITE DE VALOIS
705
of Thanet, and is practically contiguous with Westgate on
the west and with Broadstairs on the south-east, owing to the
modern extension of these popular watering-places. An elec-
tric tramway connects Margate with Broadstairs and Rams-
gate, and during the season it is served by numerous pleasure
steamers from London. An esplanade faces the sea along
nearly the entire front of the town, and is lined with hotels,
shops and dwelling-houses. A jetty exceeding a quarter of
a mile in length permits the approach of vessels at all tides.
It was built in 1854 and subsequently enlarged, but a pier
was constructed by John Rennie in 1815, and is now chiefly
used by fishermen and colliers. The church of St John the
Baptist, founded in 1050, contains some portions of Norman
architecture, the remainder being Decorated and Perpendicular.
It is rich in ancient brasses and monuments, including a brass
to Sir John Daundelyon (1443), whose family occupied a manor
in the neighbourhood as early as the I3th century. The manor
house of Daundelyon, or Dent de Lion, with its gateway of
the early part of the 15th century, remains between Margate
and Westgate. Charitable institutions include a deaf and dumb
asylum (1875-1886), the Metropolitan infirmary for children
(1841), and the royal sea-bathing infirmary, established in 1791
and enlarged through the munificence of Sir Erasmus Wilson
in 1882. Dane Park (33 acres) was opened in 1898.
Margate (Meregate, Mergate), formerly a small fishing village,
was an ancient and senior non-corporate member of Dover.
In 1347 it contributed 15 ships of small tonnage at the time
of the siege of Calais. Throughout the I4th century references
are made to Margate in crown regulations regarding fisheries
and shipping. A pier existed before 1500, but by the reign
of Henry VIII. it was in a decayed condition. The amount of
corn shipped was evidently small, the droits being insufficient
to keep the pier in repair. Under Elizabeth Margate was
still an obscure fishing village employing about 20 small vessels
(" hoys ") in the coasting and river trades, chiefly in the con-
veyance of grain, on which in 1791 it chiefly subsisted. The
droits increased, but were not properly collected until 1724.
In 1777 the pier was rebuilt. It was about this time that
Margate first began to be known as a bathing-place owing to
its fine stretch of firm sand. In 1835 Margate was still a liberty
of Dover and no right of citizenship could be acquired. In
1857 it was incorporated. In 1777 a weekly market was granted
on Wednesday and Saturday. It is now held daily, but prin-
cipally on those two days.
MARGGRAF, ANDREAS SIGISMUND (1700-1782), German
chemist, was born at Berlin on the 3rd of March 1709. After
studying chemistry at Berlin and Strassburg, medicine at
Halle, and mineralogy and metallurgy at Freiberg, he returned
to his native city in 1735 as assistant to his father, Hehning
Christian Marggraf, chief apothecary at the court. Three
years later he was elected to the Berlin Academy of Sciences,
which in 1754 put him in charge of its chemical laboratory
and in 1760 appointed him director of its physics class. He
died in Berlin on the 7th of August 1782. His name is especially
associated with the discovery of sugar in beetroot. In 1747
he published an account of experiments undertaken with the
definite view of obtaining true sugar from indigenous plants,
and found that for this purpose the first place is taken by
beetroot and carrot, that in those plants sugar like that of
cane exists ready formed, and that it may be extracted by
boiling the dried roots in alcohol, from which it is deposited
on cooling. This investigation is also memorable because he
detected the minute sugar-crystals in the roots by the help
of the microscope, which was thus introduced as an adjunct
to chemical inquiry. In another research dealing with the
nature of alum he showed that one of the constituents of that
substance, alumina, is contained in common clay, and further
that the salt cannot be prepared by the action of sulphuric
acid on alumina alone, the addition of an alkali being necessary.
He explained and simplified the process of obtaining phos-
phorus from urine, and made some admirable observations
on phosphoric acid; but though he noted the increase in weight
xvii. 23
that attends the conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric
acid he was content to remain an adherent of the phlogistic
doctrine. For his time he was a skilful chemical analyst;
he knew how to distinguish potash and soda by the different
colorations they produce in flame, and how to test for iron
with prussiate of potash: he was aware that sulphate of potash,
gypsum and heavy spar, in spite of their different appearances,
all contain sulphuric acid; and he recognized that there are
different varieties of urinary calculi. In metallurgy he devised
improved methods for the manufacture of zinc and the purifi-
cation of silver, tin and other metals.
His papers, mostly written in French, were presented to the
Berlin Academy, and with the exception of a few of the latest were
collected in two volumes of Chymische Schriften in 1761-1767.
MARGHELAN, or MARGHILAN, a town of Asiatic Russia,
situated in 40 28' N. and 71 45' E., the administrative centre
of the province of Ferghana. Pop. (1900), 42,855, mostly
Sarts, with Tajiks and Jews. It is a very old town, with high
earthen walls and twelve gates, commanded by a fort. It
lies in a beautiful, extraordinary fertile and well irrigated
district. The heat in summer is excessive. The principal
industry is the manufacture of silk; camels' hair and woollen
fabrics are also made. The new Russian town, founded in
1877, is 10 m. distant to the south-east, and has a population
(1897) of 8977.
MARGRAVE (Ger. Markgraf), a German title meaning
literally " count of the March " (Lat. marchio, comes marchae,
marchisus). The margraves had their origin in the counts
established by Charlemagne and his successors to guard the
frontier districts of the empire, and for centuries the title
was always associated with this function. The margraves
had within their own jurisdiction the authority of dukes, but
at the outset they were subordinate to the dukes in the feudal
army of the empire. In the i2th century, however, the mar-
graves of Brandenburg and Austria (the north and east marks)
asserted their position as tenants-in-chief of the empire; with
the break-up of the great duchies the others did the same;
and the margraves henceforward took rank with the great
German princes. The title of margrave very early lost its
original significance, and was borne by princes whose terri-
tories were in no sense frontier districts, e.g. by Hermann, a
son of Hermann, margrave of Verona, who assumed in 1112
the title of margrave of Baden. Thus, too, when the elector
Albert Achilles of Brandenburg in 1473 gave Bayreuth and
Ansbach as apanages to his sons and their descendants these
styled themselves margraves. The title, however, retained
in Germany its sovereign significance, and has not, like " mar-
quis " in France and " marchese " in Italy, sunk into a mere
title of nobility; it is not, therefore, in its present sense the
equivalent of the English title " marquess." The German mar-
graviates have now all been absorbed into other sovereignties,
and the title margrave is borne only as a subsidiary title in
the full style of their sovereigns.
MARGUERITE, the popular name for the plant known
botanically as Pyrethrum (or Chrysanthemum) frutescens (natural
order Compositae), a shrubby perennial with smooth leaves
cut pinnately into narrow segments and flower-heads two to
three inches across produced singly in summer and autumn
on slender erect stalks. The white ray-florets surround a
yellow disk. It is a native of the Canary Isles, and a favourite
for decoration and for greenhouse cultivation, window-boxes
and open ground in the summer. The yellow marguerite
(ttoile d'or) has somewhat larger pale yellow flowers and
glaucous leaves. The plant is propagated from cuttings taken
in autumn from old plants and placed in sandy loamy soil in
cold frames. By pruning the shoots in autumn the plants may
be grown into very large specimens in the course of a few
seasons.
MARGUERITE DE VALOIS. The name Marguerite was
common in the Valois dynasty, and during the i6th century
there were three princesses, all of whom figure in the political
as well as in the literary history of the time, and who have
yo6
MARGUERITTE
been not unfrequently confounded. The first and last are
the most important, but all deserve some account.
I. MARGUERITE D'ANGOULME (1492-1549). This, the most
celebrated of the Marguerites, bore no less than four surnames.
By family she was entitled to the name of Marguerite de Valois;
as the daughter of Charles d'Orleans, count d'Angouleme,' she is
more properly, and by careful writers almost invariably, called
Marguerite d'Angouleme. From her first husband she took,
during no small part of her life, the appellation Marguerite
d'Alencon, and from her second, Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre,
that of Marguerite de Navarre. She was born at Angouleme
on the nth of April 1492, and was two years older than her
brother Francis I. She was betrothed early to Charles, duke
d'Alencon, and married him in 1509. She was not very fortu-
nate in this first marriage, but her brother's accession to the
throne made her, next to their mother Louise of Savoy, the
most powerful woman of the kingdom. She became a widow
in 1525, and was sought in marriage by many persons of dis-
tinction, including, it is said, Charles V. and Henry VIII. In
1527 she married Henri d'Albret, titular king of Navarre,
who was considerably younger than herself, and whose character
was not faultless, but who seems on the whole, despite slander,
to have both loved and valued his wife. Navarre was not
reconquered for the couple as Francis had promised, but ample
apanages ^were assigned to Marguerite, and at Nerac and Pau
miniature courts were kept up, which yielded to none in Europe
in the intellectual brilliancy of their frequenters. Marguerite
was at once one of the chief patronesses of letters that France
possessed, and the chief refuge and defender of advocates
of the Reformed doctrines. Round her gathered C. Marot,
Bonaventure Des Periers, N. Denisot, J. Peletier, V. Brodeau,
and many other men of letters, while she protected Rabelais,
E. Dolet, &c. For a time her influence with her brother, to whom
she was entirely devoted, and whom she visited when he was
imprisoned in Spain, was effectual, but latterly political rather
than religious considerations made him discourage Luther-
anism, and a fierce persecution was begun against both Protes-
tants and freethinkers, a persecution which drove Des Periers
to suicide and brought Dolet to the stake. Marguerite herself,
however, was protected by her brother, and her personal inclina-
tions seem to have been rather towards a mystical pietism than
towards dogmatic Protestant sentiments. Nevertheless bigotry
and the desire to tarnish the reputation of women of letters
have led to the bringing of odious accusations against her
character, for which there is not the smallest foundation.
Marguerite died at Odot-en-Bigorre on the 2ist of September
1549. By her first husband she had no children, by her second
a son who died in infancy, and a daughter, Jeanne d'Albret,
who became the mother of Henry IV. Although the poets
of the time are unwearied in celebrating her charms, she does
not, from the portraits which exist, appear to have been regu-
larly beautiful, but as to her sweetness of disposition and
strength of mind there is universal consent.
Her literary work consists of the Heptameron, of poems entitled
Les Marguerites de la marguerite des princesses, and of Letters. The
Heptameron, constructed, as its name indicates, on the lines of the
Decameron of Boccaccio, consists of seventy-two short stories told
to each other by a company of ladies and gentlemen who are stopped
in the journey homewards from Cauterets by the swelling of a river.
It was not printed till 1558, ten years after the author's death, and
then under the title of Les Amarits fortunes. Internal evidence is
strongly in favour of its having been a joint work, in which more
than one of the men of letters who composed Marguerite's household
took part. It is a delightful book, and strongly characteristic of
the French Renaissance. The sensuality which characterized the
period appears in it, but in a less coarse form than in the great work
of Rabelais; and there is a poetical spirit which, except in rare
instances, is absent from Pantagruel. The Letters are interesting
and good. The Marguerites consist of a very miscellaneous collec-
tion of poems, mysteries, farces, devotional poems of considerable
length, spiritual and miscellaneous songs, &c. The Dernieres
poesies, not printed till 1896 (by M. A. Lefranc), are interesting and
characteristic, consisting of verse-epistles, comedies (pieces in
dramatic form on the death of Francis I., &c.), Les Prisons, a long
allegorical poem of amorous-religious-historical tenor; some mis-
cellaneous verse chiefly in dizains, and a later and remarkable
i
Diece, Le Navire, expressing her despair at her brother's death,
the other works, never yet completely edited, the best editions
are, for the Heptameron, Leroux de Lincy (1855); for the Lettres,
enin (1841-18^2); and for the Marguerites, &c., Frank (1873),
English translations of the Heptameron are rather numerous: one
appeared in 1887 by A. Machen, with an introduction by Miss
A. M. F. Robinson (Mme Darmesteter) and another (anonymous)
in 1894, with an essay by G. Saintsbury. The religious poem,
Le Miroir de I'dme pecheresse was translated by Queen Elizabeth.
Books on Marguerite and her court are also many. There may be
noted Durand's Marguerite de Valois et la cour de Francois I"
(1848); La Ferriere's Marguerite d'Angouleme (1891); Lotheissen's
Konigin Margareta von Navarra (1885); Miss Edith Sichel's Women
and Men of the French Renaissance (1901), and P. Courtault's
Marguerite de Navarre (1904).
II. The second MARGUERITE (1523-1574), daughter of Fran-
cis I., was born on the 5th of June, 1523, at St Germain-en-Laye,
and, at an age the lateness of which caused lampoons, married
Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1559. Like her aunt
and her niece she was a good scholar and strongly interested in
men of letters. She is noteworthy as having given the chief
impulse at the court of her brother Henry II. to the first efforts
of the Pleiade (see RONSARD), and as having continued her
patronage of literature at Turin. The poet Marc Antonio
Flaminio, for instance, congratulates himself in pretty Latin
verses on her singing his poems.
Her Letters have been published by A. G. Spinelli.
III. The third MARGUERITE (1553-1615), called more par-
ticularly Marguerite de Valois, was great-niece of the first and
niece of the second, being daughter of Henry II. by Catherine de'
Medici. She was born on the i4th of May 1553. When very
young she became famous for her beauty, her learning, and the
looseness of her conduct. She was married, after a liaison with
the duke of Guise, to Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV.,
on the eve of St Bartholomew's Day. Both husband and wife
were extreme examples of the licentious manners of the time,
but they not unf rcquently lived together for considerable periods,
and nearly always on good terms. Later, however, Marguerite
was established in the castle of Usson in Auvergne, and after the
accession of Henry the marriage was dissolved by the pope. But
Henry and Marguerite still continued friends; she still bore the
title of queen; she visited Marie de' Medici on equal terms; and
the king frequently consulted her on important affairs, though
his somewhat parsimonious spirit was grieved by her extrava-
gance. Marguerite exhibited during the rest of her life, which
was not a short one, the strange Valois mixture of licentiousness,
pious exercises, and the cultivation of art and letters, and died
in Paris on the 27th of March 1615. She left letters and memoirs
the latter of which are admirably written, and rank among the
best of the i6th century. She was the idol of Pierre de Bourdeille
Brant6me, and is the " Reine Margot " of anecdotic history and
romance.
The Memoires are contained in the collection of Michaud and
Poujoulat, and have been published separately by Guessard (the
best, 1842), Lalanne, Caboche, &c. An English translation with
introduction by Violet Fane appeared in 1892. Her character,
and still more her circumstances, made the pen very unamiablj
busy with her in her lifetime, the chief of many lampoons being
the famous Divorce satirique, variously attributed to Agrippa
d'Aubign6, Palma Cayet, and others. The chief recent book on
her is SaintPoucy'sHistoiredeMargueritede Valois (1887) .
(G. SA.)
MARGUERITTE, PAUL (1860- ) and VICTOR (1866-
French novelists, both born in Algeria, were the sons of General
Jean Auguste Margueritte (1823-1870), who after an honourable
career in Algeria was mortally wounded in the great cavalry
charge at Sedan, and died in Belgium, on the 6th of September
1870. An account of his life was published by Paul Margueritte
as Man pere (1884; enlarged ed., 1897). The names of I
two brothers are generally associated, on account of their col-
laboration. Paul Margueritte, who has given a picture of h
home in Algiers in Le Jardin du passe (1895), was sent to the
military school of La Fleche for the sons of officers, and became
in 1880 clerk to the minister of public instruction. He designed
two pantomimes, Pierrot assassin de sa femme (Th6atre Libre,
1882), and Cotbmbine pardonnee (Cercle funambulesque, 1888),
te
ic
I
MARHEINEKE MARIANAS
707
in which the traditional Pierrot, played by Margueritte himself,
became a nervous, tragic creature/ He resigned his clerkship
in 1889 to devote himself entirely to literature, producing in
rapid succession a series of novels, among which were Tous
qualre (1885), La Confession posthume (1886), Maison ouverte
(1887), Pascal Gtfosse (1887), Jours d'epreuve (1889), Amants
(1890), La Force des chases (1891), Sur Ic retour (1892), La Tour-
mente (1893), Ma grande (1892), Ame d'enfanl (1894) and L'Eau
qui dort (1896). Paul Margueritte had begun as a realistic
novelist, but he was one of the five writers who signed a manifesto
against Zola's La Terre, and he made his reputation by delicate,
sober studies of the by-ways of sentiment. His brother Victor
entered his father's regiment, the ist chasseurs d'Afrique, in 1888,
and served in the army until 1896, when he resigned his com-
mission. He was already known by some volumes of poetry,
and by a translation from Calderon (La Double meprise, played at
the Odeon, 1898) when he began to collaborate with his brother.
From the time of this collaboration Paul Margueritte's work
gained in colour and force.
Among the books written in common by the brothers, the most
famous is the series known under the collective title, Une ,poque,
dealing with the events of 1870-1871, and including the novels
Le Dtsastre (1898), Les Tron$ons du glaive (1900), Les Braves gens
(1901), La Commune (1904). They also collaborated in an Histoire
de la guerre de 7570-1^71(1903). These books were founded on a
mass of documentary and verbal information, amassed with great
care and arranged with admirable art; the authors are historians
rather than novelists. The disasters and humiliations of the
campaigns are faithfully described, but are traced to defects of
organization and leadership; while the courage and patriotism
of the army itself is made the basis of an assured confidence
in the destinies of France. La Commune is a bold indictment
of the methods adopted by the victorious party. The novelists
also attacked the laws governing marriage and divorce and
the abuses entailed by the dowry demanded from the bride,
in pamphlets and in the novels, Femmes nouvelles (1899), Les
Deux vies (1902), and Le Prisme (1905). Their literary partner-
ship was dissolved in 1907. Paul Margueritte was one of the
original members of the Academic de Goncourt.
See P. et V. Margueritte (1905) by E. Pilon, in the series of Cele-
britcs d'aujourd'hui, and A. France, La Vie litteraire (4th series,
1892).
MARHEINEKE, PHILIP KONRAD (1780-1846), German
Protestant divine, was born at Hildesheim, Hanover, on the ist
of May 1780. He studied at Gottingen,andin 1805 was appointed
professor extraordinarius of philosophy at Erlangen; in 1807 he
moved to Heidelberg. In 1811 he became professor ordinarius
at Berlin, where from 1820 he was also preacher at Trinity
Church and worked with Schleiermacher. When he died, on the
3ist of May 1846, he was a member of the supreme consistorial
council. At first influenced by Schelling, Marheineke found a
new master in Hegel, and came to be regarded as the leader of the
Hegelian Right. He sought to defend and explain all the ortho-
dox doctrines of the Church in an orthodox way in the terms of
Hegel's philosophy. The dogmatic system that resulted from
this procedure was inevitably more Hegelian than Christian;
it was in fact an essentially new form of Christianity. Mar-
heineke's developed views on dogmatics are given in the third
edition (1847) of his Die Grundlehrcn dcr christlichen Dogmatik
ds Wissenschafl. When he published the first edition (1819) he
was still under the influence of Schelling; the second edition (1827)
marked his change of view. His works on symbolics show
profound scholarship, keen critical insight, and rare impartiality.
The Christliche Symbolik (1810-1814) has been pronounced his
masterpiece.
His other works include Institutiones symbolicae (1812; 3rd ed.,
1830), Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (1816; 2nd ed., 1831-
1834); Die Reformation, ihre Entstehung and Verbreitung in Deutsch-
land (1846; 2nd ed., 1858), and the posthumous Theol. Vorlesuneen
(1847-1849).
See F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology (1889) ; A. Weber,
Le Systhne dogmatique de Marheineke (1857); and cf. O. Pfleiderer,
Development of Theology in Germany (1890).
MARIANA, JUAN DE (1536-1624), Spanish historian, was
born at Talavera. He studied at the university of Alcala, and
was admitted at the age of seventeen into the Society of Jesus.
In 1561 he went to teach theology in Rome, reckoning among his
pupils Robert Bellarmine, afterwards cardinal; then passed into
Sicily; and in 1569 he was sent to Paris, where his expositions of
the writings of Thomas Aquinas attracted large audiences. In
1574, owing to ill health, he obtained permission to return to
Spain; the rest of his life being passed at the Jesuits' house in
Toledo in vigorous literary activity. He died at Madrid, on the
1 7th of February 1624.
Mariana's great work, Ilistoriae de rebus Hispaniae, first appeared
in twenty books at Toledo in 1592; ten books were subsequently
added (1605), bringing the work down to the accession of Charles V.
in 1519, and in a still later abstract of events the author completed
it to the accession of Philip IV. in 1621. It was so well received
that Mariana was induced to translate it into Spanish (the first
part in 1601 ; completed, 1609; Eng. trans., by J. Stevens, 1699).
Mariana's Historiae, though in many parts uncritical, is justly
esteemed for its research, accuracy, sagacity and style. Of his
other works the most interesting is the treatise De rege et regis
institution^ (Toledo, 1598). In its sixth chapter the question
whether it is lawful to overthrow a tyrant is freely discussed and
answered in the affirmative, a circumstance which brought much
odium upon the Jesuits, especially after the assassination of
Henry IV. of France, in 1610. A volume entitled Tractatus VII.
theologici et historici (published by Mariana at Cologne, in 1609,
containing in particular a tract, " De morte et immortalitate," and
another, " De mutatione monetae ") was put upon the index ex-
purgatorius, and led to the confinement of its author by the In-
quisition. During his confinement there was found among his
papers a criticism upon the Jesuits, which was printed after his
death as Discursus de erroribus qui in forma gubernalionis societatis
Jesu occurrunt (Bordeaux, 1625), and was reprinted by order of.
Charles III. when he banished the Jesuits from Spain.
See L. von Ranke, Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber (Leipzig,
1874), and Cirot, Etudes sur les historiographes espagnols; Mariana,
historien (Bordeaux, 1905).
MARIANAO, a city of the province of Havana, Cuba, 6 m. W.
by S. of the city of Havana, with which it is connected by the
Marianao railway. Pop. (1899), 5416; (1907), 9332. Marianao
is on a range of hills about 1500 ft. above the sea, is noted for its
salubrious climate, and is mainly a place of residence for the
families of prosperous business men of Havana. On the neigh-
bouring coast is Marianao Beach, a popular bathing resort. The
city dates from about 1830.
MARIANAS, MARIANNES, or LADRONES (Ger. Marianen), an
archipelago in the north-western Pacific Ocean, in about 12
to 21 N. and 145 E. With the exception of the island of Guam
(United States) it belongs to Germany, and administratively
forms part of the New Guinea protectorate. It consists of two
groups a northern of ten volcanic main islands, of which only
four (Agrigan, Anatahan, Alamagan and Pagan) are inhabited;
and a southern of five coralline limestone islands (Rota, Guam,
Aguijan, Tinian and Saypan), all inhabited save Aguijan. In
the volcanic group an extreme elevation of about 2700 ft. is
reached, and there are craters showing signs of activity, while
earthquakes are not uncommon. Coral reefs fringe the coasts
of the southern isles, which are of slight elevation. The total
area, excluding Guam, is about 245 sq. m. and the population
2500, mostly descendants of the Tagal immigrants from the
Philippines. All the islands except Farallon de Medinilla and
Urracas or Mangs (in the northern group) are more or less densely
wooded, and the vegetation is luxuriant, much resembling that
of the Carolines, and also of the Philippines, whence many species
of plants have been introduced. Owing to the humidity of the
soil cryptogams are numerous, as also most kinds of grasses.
Coco-nut and areca palms, yams, sweet potatoes, manioc, coffee,
cocoa, sugar, cotton, tobacco and mother-of-pearl are the chief
products, and copra is the principal export. Agriculture is
neglected, in spite of the exceptional advantages offered by the
climate and soil. On most of the islands there is a plentiful
supply of water. The native population known to the early
Spanish colonists as Chamorros has died out as a distinct people,
though their descendants have intermarried with the immigrant
Tagals and natives of the Carolines. At the Spanish occupation
in 1668 the Chamorros were estimated at 40,000 to 60,000, but
yo8
MARIANAS MARIA THERESA
less than a century later only 1800 remained. They were typical
Micronesians, with a considerable civilization. In the island
of Tinian are some remarkable remains attributed to them,
consisting of two rows of massive square stone columns, about
5 ft. 4 in. broad and 14 ft. high, with heavy round capitals.
According to early Spanish accounts cinerary urns were found
imbedded in the capitals.
The fauna of the Marianas, though inferior in number and
variety, is similar in character to that of the Carolines, and
certain species are indigenous to both colonies. Swine and oxen
run wild, and are hunted when required: the former were known
to the earlier inhabitants; the latter with most other domestic
animals were introduced by the Spaniards. The climate though
damp is healthy, while the heat, being tempered by the trade
winds, is milder than that of the Philippines; the variations of
temperature are not great.
The discovery of this archipelago is due to Magellan, who on the
6th of March 1521 observed the two southernmost islands, and sailed
between them (O. Peschel, Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen,
Stuttgart, 1877). The name Idas de los Ladrones (or " Islands of the
Thieves ") was given them by the ship's crew of Magellan on account
of the thieving propensity of the inhabitants; and the islands are
still commonly called the Ladrones. Magellan himself styled them
Islas de las Velas Latinas (" Islands of the Lateen Sails "). San
Lazarus archipelago, Jardines and Prazeres are among the names
applied to them by later navigators. They received the name Las
Marianas in 1668 in honour of Maria Anna of Austria, widow of
Philip IV. of Spain. Research in the archipelago was carried out by
Commodore Anson, who in August 1742 landed upon the island of
Tinian (George, Lord Anson, Voyage round the World, bk. iii., 1748).
The Ladrones were visited by Byron in 1765, Wallis in 1767 and
Crozet in 1772. The entire archipelago (except Guam) together with
the Caroline and Pelew Islands was sold by Spain to Germany for
837,500 in 1899.
See Anson, op. at.: L. de Freycinet, Voyage autour du monde
(Paris, 1826-1844) : " The Marianas Islands " in Nautical Magazine,
xxxiv., xxxv. (London, 1865-1866); O. Finsch, Karolinen und
Marianen (Hamburg, 1900) ; Costenoble, " Die Marianen " in Globus,
Ixxxviii. (1905).
MARIANAS, or MARANHAS, a tribe of South American Indians
on the river Jutahy, north-western Brazil. They wear small
pieces of wood in their ears and lips, but are not tattooed.
Marianas are also found on the upper reaches of the Putumayo
across to the Yapura.
MARIAKUS SCOTUS (1028-1082 or 1083), chronicler (who
must be distinguished from his namesake Marianus Scotus, d.
1088, abbot of St Peter's, Regensburg), was an Irishman by
birth, and called Moelbrigte, or servant of Bridget. He was
educated by a certain Tigernach, and having become a monk he
crossed over to the continent of Europe in 1056, and his subse-
quent life was passed in the abbeys of St Martin at Cologne and
of Fulda, and at Mainz. He died at Mainz, on the 22nd of
December 1082 or 1083.
Marianus wrote a Chronicon, which purports to be a universal
history from the creation of the world to 1082. The Chronicon was
very popular during the middle ages, and in England was extensively
used by Florence of Worcester and other writers. It was first
printed at Basel in 1559, and hasbeen edited with an introduction by
G. Waitz for the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (Bd.
v.). See also W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen
(Bd. ii., 1894).
MARIA STELLA, the self-styled legitimate daughter of Philip,
duke of Orleans. According to her, Louis Philippe was not the
son of Philip duke of Orleans, but a suppositions child, his father
being one Lorenzo Chiappini, constable at the village of Modigliana
in Tuscany. The story is that the duke and duchess of Orleans,
travelling under the incognito of Comte and Comtesse de Join-
ville, were at this village in April 1773, when the duchess gave
birth to a daughter; and that the duke, desiring a son in order to
prevent the rich Penthievre inheritance from reverting to his
wife's relations in the event of her death, bribed the Chiappinis to
substitute their newly-born male child for his own.
Maria Stella, the supposed daughter of Chiappini, went on the
stage at Florence, where her putative parents had settled, and
there at the age of thirteen became the wife of the first Lord
Newborough, after whose death she married the Russian Count
Ungern-Sternberg. On the death of her putative father in 1821
she received a letter, written by him shortly before his death,
in which he confessed that %he was not his daughter, adding
" Heaven has repaired my fault, since you are in a better position
than your real father, though he was of almost similar rank "
(i.e. a French nobleman). Maria Stella henceforward devoted
her time and fortune to establishing her identity. Her first
success was the judgment of the episcopal court at Faenza, which
in 1824 declared that the Comte Louis de Joinville exchanged his
daughter for the son of Lorenzo Chiappini, and that the Demoiselle
de Joinville had been baptized as Maria Stella, " with the false
statement that she was the daughter of L. Chiappini and his
wife." The discovery that Joinville was a countship of the
Orleans family, and a real or fancied resemblance of Louis
Philippe to Chiappini, convinced her that the duke of Orleans was
the person for whose sake she had been cheated of her birthright,
a conviction strengthened by the striking resemblance which
many people discovered in her to the princesses of the Orleans
family. In 1830 she published her proofs under the title Maria
Stella ou un (change d'une demoiselle du plus haul rang centre un
garc,on de plus vile condition (reprinted 1839 and 1849). This
coincided with the advent of Louis Philippe to the throne, and
her claim became a weapon for those who wished to throw dis-
credit and ridicule on the " bourgeois monarch." He for his
part treated the whole thing with amused contempt, and Baroness
Newborough-Sternburg de Joinville, or Marie Etoile d'Orleans,
as she called herself, was suffered to live in Paris until on the 23rd
of December 1843 she died in poverty and obscurity.
In spite of much discussion and investigation, the case of Maria
Stella remains one of the unsolved problems of history. Sir Ralph
Payne Gallwey's Mystery of Maria Stella, Lady Newborough (London,
1907), is founded on her own accounts and argues in favour of her
point of view. More convincing, however, is Maurice Vitrac's
Philippe-Egalitt et M. Chiappini (Paris, 1907), which is based on un-
published material in the Archives nalionales. M. Vitrac seeks to
overthrow Maria Stella's case by an alibi. The duke and duchess
of Chartres could not have been at Modigliana in April 1773, for the
simple reason that they can be proved at that time to have been in
Pans. On the 8th of April the duke, according to the official
Gazette de France, took part in the Maundy Thursday ceremonies at
Versailles; from the 7th to the I4th he was in constant attendance
at the lodge of Freemasons of which he had just been elected grand
master. Moreover, it was impossible for the first prince of the blood
royal to leave France without the royal permission, and his absence
would certainly have been remarked. Lastly, the duchess's accouche-
ment, a semi-public function in the case of royal princesses, did not
take place till the 6th of October. M. Vitrac identifies the real father
of Maria Stella with Count Carlo Battaglini of Rimini, who died
in 1796 without issue: the case being not one of substitution, but of
ordinary " farming out " to avoid a scandal.
MARIA THERESA (1717-1780), archduchess of Austria, queen
of Hungary and Bohemia, and wife of the Holy Roman emperor
Francis L, was born at Vienna on the i3th of May 1717. She was
the eldest daughter of the Emperor Charles VI. (q.v.) and his wife
Elizabeth of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. On the izth of February
1736 she was married to her cousin Francis of Lorraine (q.v.),
then grand duke of Tuscany, and afterwards emperor. Five sons
and eleven daughters were born of this marriage. From the
date of her father's death on the 2oth of October 1740, till her
own death in 1780, Maria Theresa was one of the central figures
in the wars and politics of Europe. But unlike some sovereigns,
whose reigns have been agitated, but whose personal character
has left little trace, Maria Theresa had a strong and in the main
a noble individuality. Her great qualities were relieved by
human traits which make her more sympathetic. It must be
allowed that she was fairly open to the criticism implied in a
husbandly jest attributed to Francis I. While they were return-
ing from the opera house at Vienna she said to him that the singer
they had just heard was the greatest actress who had ever lived,
and he answered " Next to you, Madam." Maria Theresa had
undoubtedly an instinctive histrionic sense of the perspective of
the theatre, and could adopt the appropriate attitude and gesture,
passionate, dignified or pathetic, required to impress those she
wished to influence. But there was no affectation in her assump-
tion of a becoming bearing or in her picturesque words. The
common story, that she appeared before the Hungarian magnates
in the diet at Pressburg in 1741 with her infant son, afterwards
.erwaiua
MARIAZELL MARIE AMELIE THERESE
709
Joseph II., in her arms, and so worked on their feelings that they
shouted Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresia, is only
mythically true. But during the delicate negotiations which
were required to secure the support of the Hungarian nobles
she undoubtedly did appeal to them with passionate eloquence,
and, we may believe, with a very pardonable sense of the
advantage she obtained from her youth, her beauty and her sex.
Her beauty, inherited from her mother, was of an open and noble
German type. The official portrait by Muytens, engraved by
Petit, gives a less convincing impression that an excellent chalk
drawing of the head by Gabriel Mattei. In the conflict between
her sense of what was morally just and her sense of duty to the
state she laid herself open to the scoffing taunt of Frederick of
Prussia, who said that inivthe first partition of Poland die pleurait
et prenait toujours. But the king of Prussia's taunt is deprived
of its sting by the almost incredible candour of her own words
to Kaunitz, that if she was to lose her reputation before God and
man for respecting the rights of others it must not be for a small
advantage if, in fact, Austria was to share in the plunder of
Poland, she was to be consoled for the distress caused to her
feelings by the magnitude of her share of the booty. There was
no hypocrisy in the tears of the empress. Her intellectual
honesty was as perfect as Frederick's own, and she was as in-
capable as he was of endeavouring to blind herself to the quality
of her own acts. No ruler was ever more loyal to a conception of
duty. Maria Theresa considered herself first and foremost as the
heiress of the rights of the house of Austria. Therefore, when her
inheritance was assailed at the beginning of her reign, she fought
for it with every weapon an honest woman could employ, and
for years she cherished the hope of recovering the lost province
of Silesia, conquered by Frederick. Her practical sense showed
her the necessity of submitting to spoliation when she was over-
powered. She accepted the peace of Berlin in 1742 in order to
have a free hand against her Bavarian enemy, the emperor
Charles VII. (<?..). When Frederick renewed the war she accepted
the struggle cheerfully, because she hoped to recover her own.
Down to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1 748 she went on fighting
for Silesia or its equivalent. In the years following the peace
she applied herself to finding allies in France and Russia who
would help her to recover Silesia. Here, as later in the case of
Poland, she subordinated her feelings to her duty to the state.
Though she denied that she had ever written directly to Madame
de Pompadour, it is certain that she allowed her ministers to
make use of the favourite's influence over the French king.
When fate decided against her in the Seven Years' War she bowed
to the inevitable, and was thenceforward a resolute advocate of
peace.
In her internal government she showed herself anxious to
promote the prosperity of her people, and to give more unity to
an administration made up by the juxtaposition of many states
and races with different characters and constitutions. Her
instincts, like those of her enemy Frederick and her son Joseph
II., were emphatically absolutist. She suspended the meetings
of the estates in most parts of her dominions. She was able to
do so because the mass of her subjects found her hand much
lighter than that of the privileged classes who composed these
bodies. Education, trade, religious toleration, the emancipation
of the agricultural population from feudal burdens all had her
approval up to a certain point. She would favour them, but on
the distinct condition that nothing was to be done to weaken the
bonds of authority. She took part in the suppression of the
Jesuits, and she resisted the pope in the interest of the state.
Her methods were those of her cautious younger son, Leopold II.,
and not of her eldest son and immediate successor, Joseph II.
She did not give her consent even to the suppression of torture
in legal procedure without hesitation, lest the authority of the
law should be weakened. Her caution had its reward, for what-
ever she did was permanently gained, whereas her successor in
his boundless zeal for reform brought his empire to the verge of a
general rebellion.
In her private life Maria Theresa was equally the servant of
the state and the sovereign of all about her. She was an
affectionate wife to her husband Francis I. ; but she was always
the queen of Hungary and Bohemia and archduchess of Austria,
like her ancestress, Isabella the Catholic, who never forgot,
nor allowed her husband to forget, that she was " proprietary
queen " of Castile and Leon. She married her daughters in
the interest of Austria, and taught them not to forget their
people and their father's house. In the case of Marie Antoinette
(q.v.), who married the dauphin, .afterwards Louis XVI., she
gave an extraordinary proof of her readiness to subordinate
everything to the reason of state. She instructed her daughter
to show a proper respect to her husband's grandfather, Louis XV.,
by behaving with politeness to his mistresses, in order that the
alliance between the two courts might run no risk. The signing
of the peace of Teschen, which averted a great war with Prussia,
on the i3th of May 1779, was the last great act of her reign,
and so Maria Theresa judged it to be in a letter to Prince
Kaunitz; she said that she had now finished her life's journey
and could sing a Te Deum, for she had secured the repose of her
people at whatever cost to herself. The rest, she said, would
not last long. Her fatal illness developed in the autumn of
the following year, and she died on the 28th of November 1780.
When she lay painfully on her deathbed her son Joseph said to
her, " You are not at ease," and her last words were the answer,
" I am sufficiently at my ease to die."
See A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresas (Vienna, 1863-
1879) and J. F. Bright, Maria Theresa (London, 1897); also the
article AUSTRIA.
MARIAZELL, a village of Austria, in Styria, 89 m. N. of Graz.
Pop. (1900), 1499. It is picturesquely situated in the valley
of the Salza, amid the north Styrian Alps. Its entire claim to
notice lies in the fact that it is the most frequented sanctuary
in Austria, being visited annually by about 200,000 pilgrims.
The object of veneration is a miracle-working image of the Virgin,
carved in lime-tree wood, and about 18 in. high. This was
presented to the place in 1157, and is now enshrined in a chapel
lavishly adorned with objects of silver and other costly materials.
The large church of which the chapel forms part was erected in
1644 as an expansion of a smaller church built by Louis I., king
of Hungary, after a victory over the Turks in 1363. In the
vicinity of Mariazell is the pretty Alpine lake of Erlafsee.
See M. M. Rabenlehrer, Mariazell, Osterreichs Loreto (Vienna, 1891) ;
and O. Eigner, Geschichte des aufgeshobenen Benedictiner stifles
Mariazell (Vienna, 1900).
MARIE AMELIE THERESE (1782-1866), queen of Louis
Philippe, king of the French, was the daughter of Ferdinand IV.,
king of Naples, and the archduchess Maria Carolina, daughter of
the empress Maria Theresa, and belonged to the house of Bourbon.
She was born at Caserta, on the 26th of April 1782, and received
a careful education which developed the naturally pious and
honourable disposition that earned for her in the family circle
the nickname of La Santa. Driven from Naples in 1798, the
Neapolitan royal family fled to Palermo, and the years from 1800
to 1802 were spent by Marie Am61ie with her mother at the
Austrian court. In 1806 they were again in flight before the
armies of Masse'na, and it was during the second residence
of her father's court at Palermo that she met the exiled
Louis Philippe, then duke of Orleans, whom she married in
November 1809. Returning to France in 1814, the duke and
duchess of Orleans had barely established themselves in the
Palais Royal in Paris when the Hundred Days drove them into
exile. Marie Am61ie took refuge with her four children in Eng-
land, where she spent two years at Orleans House, Twickenham.
Again in France in 1817, her life at Neuilly until 1828 was the
happiest period of her existence. Neither then nor at any other
time did she take any active share in politics; but she was not
without indirect influence on affairs, because her strong royalist
and legitimist traditions prevented the court from including her
in the suspicion with which her husband's liberal views were
regarded. Her attention was absorbed by the care and educa-
tion of her numerous family, even after the revolution of 1830
had made her queen of the French, a position accepted by her
with forebodings of disaster justified by her early experience of
yip
MARIE ANTOINETTE
revolutions. During her second exile, from 1848 to the end of
her life, she lived at Claremont, where her charity and piety
endeared her to the many English friends of the Orleans family.
Marie Amelie died at Claremont, on the 24th of March 1866.
See A. Trognon, Vie de Marie Amelie (1872) ; A. L. Baron Imbert de
St Amand, La Jeunesse de Marie Amelie (1891), Marie Amelie an
"Palais Royal (1892), Marie Amelie et la cour de Palerme (1891),
Marie Amelie^t la cour des Tuileries (1892), Marie Amelie et I'apogee
de regne de Louis Philippe (1893), Marie Amelie et la societe franchise
en 1847 (1894), and Marie Amelie et la duchesse d'Orleans (1893).
MARIE ANTOINETTE (1755-1793), queen of France, ninth
child of Maria Theresa and the emperoj Francis I., was born at
Vienna, on the 2nd of November 1755. She was brought up
under a simple and austere regime and educated with a view to
the French marriage arranged by Maria Theresa, the abbe
Vermond being appointed as her tutor in 1769. Her marriage
with the dauphin, which took place at Versailles on the i6th of
May 1770, was intended to crown the policy of Choiseul and con-
firm the alliance between Austria and France. This fact, com-
bined with her youth and the extreme corruption of the French
court, made her position very difficult. Madame du Barry,
whose influence over Louis XV. was at that time supreme, formed
the centre of a powerful anti-Choiseul cabal, which succeeded in
less than a year after the dauphin's marriage in bringing about
the fall of Choiseul and seriously threatening the stability of the
Austrian alliance. Thus the young princess was surrounded by
enemies both at court and in the dauphin's household, and came
to rely almost entirely upon the Austrian ambassador, the comte
de Mercy-Argenteau, whom Maria Theresa had instructed to act
as her mentor, at the same time arranging that she herself should
be kept informed of all that concerned her daughter, so that she
might at once advise her and safeguard the alliance. Hence arose
the famous secret correspondence of Mercy-Argenteau, an in-
valuable record of all the details of Marie Antoinette's life from
her marriage in 1770 till the death of Maria Theresa in 1780.
Marie Antoinette soon won the affection and confidence of the
dauphin and endeared herself to the king, but her position was
precarious, and both Mercy and Maria Theresa had continually
to urge her to conquer her violent dislike for the favourite and
try to conciliate her.
The accession of the young king and queen on the death of
Louis XV. (May 10, 1774), was hailed with great popular enthu-
siasm. But her first steps brought Marie Antoinette into open
hostility with the anti-Austrian party. She was urgent in obtain-
ing the dismissal of d'Aiguillon, and did all in her power to secure
the recall of Choiseul, though without success. Thus from the
very first she appeared in the light of a partisan, having against
her all the enemies of Choiseul and of the Austrian alliance, and
was already given the nickname of " 1'autrichienne " by mesdames
the king's aunts. At the same time her undisguised impatience
of the cumbrous court etiquette shocked many people, and
her taste for pleasure led her to seek the society of the comte
d'Artois and his young and dissolute circle. But the greatest
weakness in her position lay in her unsatisfactory relations
with her husband. The king, though affectionate, was cold and
apathetic, and it was not till seven years after her marriage that
there was any possibility of her bearing him an heir. This fact
naturally decreased her popularity, and as early as September
1774, was made the subject of offensive pamphlets and the like,
as in the case of the affaire Beaumarchais. (See BEAUMARCHAIS.)
The end of the period of mourning for the late king was the
signal for a succession of gaieties, during which the queen dis-
played a passion for amusement and excitement which led to
unfortunate results. Being childless, and with a husband who
could not command her respect, her longing for affection led her
to form various intimate friendships, above all with the princesse
de Lamballe and the comtesse Jules de' Polignac, who soon
obtained such an empire over her affections that no favour was
too great for them to ask, and often to obtain. Thus for the
benefit of Madame de Lamballe the queen revived the super-
fluous and expensive office of superintendent of her household,
which led to constant disagreements and jealousies among her
ladies and offended many important families. In frequenting
the salons of her friends the queen not only came in contact with
a number of the younger and more dissipated courtiers, whose
high play and unseemly amusements she countenanced, but she
fell under the influence of various ambitious intriguers, such as
the baron de Besenval, the comte de Vaudreuil, the due de Lauzun
and the comte d'Adhemar, whose interested manoeuvres she was
induced to further by her affection for her favourites. Thus she
was often led to interfere for frivolous reasons in public affairs,
sometimes with serious results, as in the case of the trial of the
comte de Guines (1776), when her interference was responsible
for the fall of Turgot. At the same time her extravagance in
dress, jewelry and amusements (including the gardens and
theatricals at Trianon, of the cost of which such exaggerated
reports were spread about) and her presence at horse-races and
masked balls in Paris without the king, gave rise to great scandal,
which was seized upon by her enemies, among whom were Mes-
dames, the count of Provence, and the duke of Orleans and the
Palais Royal clique.
At this critical period her brother, the emperor Joseph II.,
decided to visit France. As the result of his visit he left
with the queen a memorandum in which he pointed out to her
in plain terms the dangers of her conduct. 1 He also took advant-
age of his visit to advise the king, with such success that at last,
in 1778, the queen had the hope of becoming a mother. For a
time the emperor's remonstrances had some effect, and after the
birth of her daughter, Marie Therese Charlotte (afterwards
duchesse d'Angouleme) in December 1778, the queen lived a
more quiet life. The death of Maria Theresa (Nov. 29, 1780)
deprived her of a wise and devoted friend, and by removing all
restraint on the rashness of Joseph II. was bound to increase
the dislike of the Austrian alliance and cause embarrassment to
Marie- Antoinette. Her position was very much strengthened
by the birth (Oct. 22, 1781) of a dauphin, Louis Joseph Xavier
Francois, and on the death of Maurepas, which left the king
without a chief minister, she might have exerted a considerable
influence in public affairs had she taken a consistent interest in
them; but her repugnance to serious matters triumphed, and
she preferred to occupy herself with the education of her children,
to whom she was a wise and devoted mother, 2 and with her
friends and amusements at Trianon. Personal motives alone
would lead her to interfere in public affairs, especially when
it was a question of obtaining places or favours for her favourites
and their friends. The influence of the Polignacs was now at
its height, and they obtained large sums of money, a dukedom,
and many nominations to places. It was Madame de Polignac
who obtained the appointment of Calonne as controller-general
of the finances, 3 and who succeeded Madame de Guemenee as
" governess of the children of France " after the bankruptcy
of the prince de Guemenee in I782. 4 Again, in response to
Mercy and Joseph II. 's urgent representations, Marie Antoinette
exerted herself on behalf of Austria in the affairs of the opening
of the Scheldt (1783-1784) and the exchange of Bavaria (1785), in
which, though she failed to provoke active interference on the
part of France, she succeeded in obtaining the payment of
considerable indemnities to Austria, a fact which led to the
popular legend of her having sent millions to Austria, and aroused
much indignation against her. Later, on the recommendation
of Mercy and Vermond, she supported the nomination of Lomenie
de Brienne in 1787, an appointment which, though widely
approved at the time, was laid to the queen's blame when it
ended in failure.
Two more children were born to her; Louis Charles, duke of
Normandy, afterwards dauphin, on the 27th of March 1785,
and Sophie Helene Beatrix (d. June 19, 1787), on the 9th of July
1786. In 1785-1786 the affair of the Diamond Necklace (q.ii.)
1 See Arneth, Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. and Leopold II., pp. 1-18.
1 v. the Instructions donnees a la marquise de Tourzel, governess of
the children of France, dated the 24th of July, 1 789, in la Rocheterie
and Beaucourt, Lettres de Marie Antoinette, ii. 131.
3 But see Arneth and Flammermont, i. 228, foot-note.
* This had reflected discredit on the queen, Madame de Gue'me'ne'e
having been one of her intimate friends.
MARIE ANTOINETTE
711
revealed the depth of the hatred which her own follies and the
calumnies of her enemies had aroused against her. The public
held her responsible for the bankrupt state of the country; and
though in 1788, following the popular outcry, she prevailed upon
the king to recall Necker, it was impossible for him to avert the
Revolution. The year 1789 was one of disaster for Marie Antoin-
ette; on the icth of March her brother Joseph II. died, and on
the 4th of June her eldest son. The same year saw the assem-
bling of the States-general, which she had dreaded; the taking of
the Bastille, and the events leading to the terrible days of the
5th and 6th of October at Versailles and the removal of the
royal family to the Tuileries. Then began the negotiations with
Mirabeau, whose high estimate of the queen is well-known (e.g.
his famous remark, " The king has only one man on his side,
and that is his wife "). But the queen was violently prejudiced
against him, believing him among other things to be responsible
for the events of the sth and 6th of October, and he never gained
her full confidence. She was naturally incapable of seeing the full
import of the Revolution, and merely temporised with Mirabeau.
She dreaded the thought of civil war; and even when she had
realized the necessity for decisive action the king's apathy and
indecision made it impossible for her to persuade him to carry
into effect Mirabeau's plan of leaving Paris and appealing to
the provinces. Her difficulties were increased by the departure
of Mercy for the Hague in September 1790, for Montmorin who
now took his place in the negotiations had not her confidence to
the same extent. Feeling herself helpless and almost isolated
in Paris, she now relied chiefly on her friends outside France
Mercy, Count Axel Fersen, and the baron de Breteuil; and it
was by their help and that of Bouille that after the death of
Mirabeau, on the Sth of April 1791, the plan was arranged of
escaping to Montmedy, which ended in the flight to Varennes
(June 21, 1791).
After the return from Varennes the royal family were closely
guarded, but in spite of this they still found channels of com-
munication with the outside world. The king being sunk in
apathy, the task of negotiation devolved upon the queen; but
in her inexperience and ignorance of affairs, and the uncertainty
of information from abroad, it was hard for her to follow any
clear policy. Her courageous bearing during the return from
Varennes had greatly impressed Barnave, and he now approached
her on behalf of the Feuillants and the constitutional party.
For about a year she continued to negotiate with them, forward-
ing to Mercy and the emperor Leopold II. letters and memoranda
dictated by them, while at the same time secretly warning her
friends not to accept these letters as her own opinions, but to
realize that she was dependent on the Constitutionals. 1 She
agreed with their plan of an armed congress, and on this idea
both she and Fersen insisted with all their might, Fersen leaving
Brussels and going on a mission to 'the emperor to try and gain
support and checkmate the Emigres, whose desertion the queen
bitterly resented, and whose rashness threatened to frustrate her
plans and endanger the lives of her family.
As to the acceptance of the constitution (Sept. 1791), " tissue
of absurdities " though the queen thought it, and much as she
would have preferred a bolder course, she considered that in the
circumstances the king was bound to accept it in order to inspire
confidence. 2 Mercy was also in correspondence with the Consti-
tutionals, and in letter after letter to him and the emperor, the
queen, strongly supported by Fersen, insisted that the congress
should be formed as soon as possible, her appeals increasing in
urgency as she saw that Barnave's party would soon be powerless
against the extremists. But owing to the lengthy negotiations
of the powers the congress was continually postponed. On
the ist of March 1792 Leopold II. died, and was succeeded by
the young Francis II. Marie Antoinette's actions were now
directed entirely by Fersen, for she suspected Mercy and the
emperor of sacrificing her to the interests of Austria (Fersen, i.
251; Arneth, pp. 254, 256, &c.). The declaration of war which
1 Letters of 3ist July 1791 to Mercy. Arneth, p. 193 and 194,
and letter of 1st August.
'Arneth, pp. 196, 203; Klinckowstrom, Fersen, i. 192.
the king was forced to make (April 20) threw her definitely into
opposition to the Revolution, and she betrayed to Mercy and
Fersen the plans of the French generals (Arneth, p. 2^9; Fersen, ii.
220, 289, 308, 325, 327). She was now certain that th6 life
of the king was threatened, and the events of the 2oth of June
added to her terrors. She considered their only hope to lie in
the intervention of the powers and in the appeal to force, and
endorsed the suggestion of a threatening manifesto 3 which
should hold the National Assembly and Paris responsible for, the
safety of the king and royal family. Immediately after Bruns-
wick's manifesto followed the storming of the Tuileries and the
removal of the royal family to the Temple (Aug. 10). During
all these events and the captivity in the Temple Marie Antoinette
showed an unvarying courage and dignity, in spite of her failing
health and the illness of her son. After the execution of the king
(Jan. 17, 1 793) several unsuccessful attempts were made by her
friends to rescue her and her children, among others by Jarjayes,
Toulan and Lepitre, and the " baron de Batz," and negoti-
ations for her release or exchange were even opened with Dan ton;
but as the allied armies approached her trial and condemnation
became a certainty. She had already been separated from her
son, the sight of whose ill-treatment added terribly to her suffer-
ings; she was now parted from her daughter and Madame
Elizabeth, and removed on the ist of August 1793 to the Concier-
gerie. Even here, where she was under the closest guard and
subjected to the most offensive espionnage, attempts were made
to rescue her, among others Michonis' " Conspiration del'oeillet."
On the i4th of October began her trial, her defence being
entrusted to Chauveau-Lagarde and Tronson-Ducourdray. Her
noble attitude, even in the face of the atrocious accusations
of Fouquier-Tinville, commanded the admiration even of her
enemies, and her answers during her long examination were clear
and skilful. The following were the questions finally put to the
jury:
(1) Is it established that manoeuvres and communications have
existed with foreign powers and other external enemies of the re-
public, the said manoeuvres, &c., tending to furnish them with
assistance in money, give them an entry into French territory, and
facilitate the progress of their armies ?
(2) Is Marie Antoinette of Austria, the widow Capet, convicted
of having co-operated in these manoeuvres and maintained these
communications ?
(3) Is it established that a plot and conspiracy has existed tending
to kindle civil war within the republic, by arming the citizens
against one another ?
(4) Is Marie Antoinette, the widow Capet, convicted of having
participated in this plot and conspiracy ?
The jury decided unanimously in the affirmative, and on the
1 6th of October 1793 Marie Antoinette was led to the guillotine,
leaving behind her a touching letter to Madame Elizabeth, known
as her "Testament."
As to the justice of these charges, we have seen how the queen
was actually guilty of betraying her country, though it was only
natural for her to identify the cause of the monarchy with that
of France. To civil war she was consistently opposed, and never
ceased to dissociate herself from the plans of the emigres, but
here again her very position made her an enemy of the republic.
In any case, all her actions had as their aim firstly, the safe-
guarding of the monarchy and the king's position, and later,
when she saw this to be impossible, that of securing the safety
of her husband and her son.
3 H. Be\\oc,Marie-AnloineUe, pp. 311-312, states that clause VIII.
of Brunswick's manifesto was drafted " by Marie Antoinette, i.e.
that the idea of holding Paris responsible for the safety of the royal
family was first suggested by her. He bases this statement entirely
upon the queen's letters of July 3rd to Fersen, of July 4th to Mercy,
the reception of which Fersen notes in his Journal on July Sth and
9th (Fersen ii. 21). But these letters were obviously the answer
to Fersen's letter of June 3Oth to the queen (Fersen ii. 315), in which
he tells her the terms of the manifesto. Moreover, the suggestion
of holding the Assembly responsible is to be found as early as in the
memo, of the Constitutionals of September the Sth, 1791, and is
included in the Instructions of Mallet du Pan (Mems. ed. Sayous,
i. 281, and appendix 445). Fersen (Fersen ii. 329, 337, iSth July
and 28th July to the queen, and p. 338, 29th July toTaube) states
that it was he who drew up the manifesto by means of the marquis
de Limon.
712
MARIE DE FRANCE
For a bibliographical study see: M. Tourneux, Marie Antoinette
devant I'histoire. Essai bibliographique (2nd ed., Paris, 1901); id.
BMiogr. de la ville de Paris . . .(vol. iv. 1906), nos. 20980-21338; also
Bibliogr. de femmes celkbres (Turin and Paris, 1892, &c.). The most
important material for her life is to be found in her letters and in the
correspondence of Mercy-Argenteau, but a large number of forgeries
have found their way into certain of the collections, such as those of
Paul Vogt d'Hunolstein (Corresppndance inedite de Marie Antoinette,
(3rded., Paris, 1864), and F. Feuilletdes Conches LouisXVI., Marie
Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth, lettres et documents inedits (6 vols.,
Paris, 1864-1873), while most of the works on Marie Antoinette
published before the appearance of Arneth's publications (1865, &c.)
are based partly on these forgeries. For a detailed examination of
the question of the authenticity of the letters see the introduction
to Lettres de Marie Antoinette. Recueil des lettres authentiques de la
reine, puttie pour la societe d'hisloire contemporaine, par M. de la
Rocheterie et le marquis de Beaucourt (2 vols., Paris, 1895-1896);
also A. Geffroy, Gustave III. et la cour de France (2 vols., Paris, 1869),
vol. ii., appendix. Of the highest importance are the letters from
the archives of Vienna published by Alfred von Arneth and others :
A. von Arneth, Maria Theresia und Marie Antoinette, ihr Briefwechsel
1770-1780 (Paris and Vienna, 1865) ; id., Marie Antoinette, Joseph II.
und Leopold II. ihr Briefwechsel (Leipzig, Paris and Vienna, 1866);
id. and A. Geffroy, Correspondance secrete de Marie-Therese et du
comte de Mercy-Argenteau (3 vols., Paris, 1874) ; id. and J. Flammer-
mont, Correspondance secrete du comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec
Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz (2 vols., Paris, 1889-1891); for
further letters see Comte de Reiset, Lettres de la reine Marie Antoin-
ette a la landgrave Louise de Hesse-Darmstadt (1865); id. Lettres
inedites de Marie Antoinette et de Marie- Clotilde, reine de Sardaigne
(1877). See also Correspondance entre le comte de Mirabeau el le
comte de la March, 178(^-1791, recueillie . . . par F. de Bacourt (3 vols.,
Paris, 1857), and Baron R. M. de Klinckowstrom, Le Comte de Fersen
et la cour de France (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1878). Memoirs: See most
contemporary memoirs, e.g. those of the prince de Ligne, Choiseul,
Segur, Bouill<5, Dumouriez, &c. Some, such as those of Madame
Campan, Weber, CleYy, Mme deTourzel, are prejudiced in her favour;
others, such as those of Besenval, Lauzun, Soulavie, are equally
prejudiced against her. M. Tourneux (op. cit.) discusses the authen-
ticity of the memoirs of Tilly, Clery, Lauzun, &c. The chief of these
memoirs are: Mme Campan, Memoires sur la vie privee de Marie
Antoinette (sth ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1823, Eng. trans. 1887), the in-
accuracy of which is clearly demonstrated by J. Flammermont in
Etudes critiques sur les sources de I'histoire du xviii' siecle: Les
Memoires de Mme Campan, in the Bulletin de la Faculti des lettres
de Poitiers (4th year, 1886, pp. 56, 109) ; J. Weber, Memoires concern-
ant Marie Antoinette (3 vols., London, 1804-1809; Eng. trans.,
3 vols., London, 1805-1806); Memoires de M. le baron de Besenval
(3 vols., Paris, 1805); Memoires de M. le due de Lauzun (2nd ed.,
2 vols., Paris, 1822); E. Bavoux, Mems. secrets de J. M. Augeard,
secretaire des commandements de la reine M. Antoinette (Paris, 1866) ;
Mme Vigee-Le-Brun, Mes souvenirs (2 vols., Paris, 1867); Memoires
de Mme la duchesse de Tourzel, ed. by the due de Cars (2 vols., Paris,
1883) ; Memoires de la baronne d'Oberkirch (2 vols., Paris, 1853).
GENERAL WORKS: See the general works on the period and on
Louis XVI., and bibliographies to articles Louis XVI. and FRENCH
REVOLUTION. A. SoreT, L'Europe et la Rev. jr. (ii. passim) contains
a good estimate of Marie Antoinette. See also E. and J. de Gon-
court, Histoire de Marie Antoinette (Paris, 1859); P. de Nolhac,
Marie Antoinette, dauphine (Paris, 1897) ; id. La Reine Marie Antoin-
ette (Sth ed., 1898), which gives good descriptions of Versailles,
Trianon, &c. ; M. de la Rocheterie, Histoire de Marie Antoinette (2
vols., Paris, 1890); A. L. Bicknell, The Story of Marie Antoinette;
R. Prolss, Konigin Marie Antoinette, Bilder aus inrem Leben (Leipzig,
1894); G. Desjardins, Le Petit-Trianon (Versailles, 1885). For
her trial and death, see E. Campardon, Marie Antoinette d, la Con-
ciergerie (1863). H. Belloc's Marie Antoinette (London, 1909) is
very biassed and sometimes misleading. (C. B. P.)
MARIE DE FRANCE (fl. c. 1175-1190), French poet and
fabulist. In the introduction (c. 1240) to his Vie Seint Edmund
le Rey l Denis Pyramus says she was one of the most popular of
authors with counts, barons and knights, but especially with
ladies. She is also mentioned by the anonymous author of
the Couronnement Renart. Her lays were translated into Nor-
wegian 2 by order of Haakon IV.; and Thomas Chestre, who is
generally supposed to have lived in the reign of Henry VI., gave
a version of Lanval? Very little is known about her history,
and until comparatively recently the very century in which she
lived remained a matter of dispute. In spite of her own state-
ment in the epilogue to her fables: " Marie ai num, si suis de
1 Cotton MS. Domit. A xi. (British Museum), edited for the Rolls
Series by Thomas Arnold in 1892.
1 Edited by R. Keyser and C. R. linger as Strengleikar eSa LioVabok
(Christiania, 1850).
3 Chestre's Sir Launfal was printed by J. Ritson in Ancient English
Metrical Romances (1802); and by L. Erlmg (Kempten, 1883).
France," generally interpreted to mean that Marie was a native
of the lie de France, she seems to have been of Norman origin,
and certainly spent most of her life in England. Her language,
however, shows little trace of Anglo-Norman provincialism.
Like Wace, she used a literary dialect which probably differed
very widely from common Norman speech. The manuscripts
in which Marie's poems are preserved date from the late I3th or
even the I4th century, but the language fixes the date of the
poems in the' second half of the i2th century. The Lais are
dedicated to an unknown king, who is identified as Henry II. of
England; and the fables, her Ysopet, were written according to
the Epilogus for a Count William, generally recognized to be
William Longsword, earl of Salisbury. The author of Couronne-
ment Renart, says that Marie had dedicated her poem to the
count William to whom the unknown poet addresses himself.
This is William of Dampierre (d. 1251), the husband of the
countess Margaret of Flanders, and his identification with Marie's
count William is almost certainly an error. Marie lived and
wrote at the court of Henry II., which was very literary and purely
French. Queen Eleanor was a Provencal, and belonged to a
family in which the patronage of poetry was a tradition. There
is no evidence to show whether Marie was of noble origin or
simply pursued the profession of a Irouvere for her living.
The origin of the lais has been the subject of much discussion.
Marie herself says that she had heard them sung by Breton min-
strels. It seems probable that it is the lesser or French Brittany
from which the stories were derived, though something may be due
to Welsh and Cornish sources. Gaston Paris (Romania, vol. xv.)
maintained that Marie had heard the stories from English
minstrels, who had assimilated the Celtic legends. In any case
the Breton lays offer abundant evidence of traditions from
Scandinavian and Oriental sources. The Guigemar of Marie
de France presents marked analogies with the ordinary Oriental
romance of escape from a harem, for instance, with details
superadded from classical mythology. Marie seems to have
contented herself with giving new literary form to the stories
she heard by turning them into Norman octosyllabic verse, and
apparently made few radical changes from her originals. Joseph
Bedier thinks that the lays of the Breton minstrels were prose
recitals interspersed with short lyrics something after the manner
of the cante-fable of Aucassin et Nicoletle. Marie's task was to
give these cante-fables a narrative form destined to be read
rather than sung or recited.
The Lais which may be definitely attributed to Marie are:
Guigemar, Equitan, Le Frene, Le Bisclavret (the werewolf), Les Deux
amants, Laustic, Chaitivel, Lanval, Le Chevrefeuille, Milan, Yonec
and Eliduc. The other similar lays are anonymous except the Lai
d'Ignaure by Renant and the Lai du cor of Robert Biket, two authors
otherwise unknown. They vary in length from some twelve
thousand lines to about a hundred. Le Chevrefeuille, a short episode
of the Tristan story, telling how Tristan makes known his presence
in the wood to Iseult, is the best known of them all. Laustic 4
(Le Rossignol) is almost as short and simple. In Yonec a mysterious
bird visits the lady kept in durance by an old husband, and is
turned into a valiant knight. The lover is killed by the husband,
but in due time is avenged by his son. The scene of the story is
partly laid in Chester, but the fable in slightly different forms occurs
in the folk-lore of many countries. 6 Lanval 6 is a fairy story, and the
hero vanishes eventually with his fairy princess to the island of
Avallon or Avilion. Eliduc is more elaborately planned than any
of these, and the action is divided between Exeter and Brittany.
Here again the story of the man with two brides is not new, but the
three characters of the story are so dealt with that each wins the
reader's sympathy. The resignation of the wife of Eliduc and her
reception of the new bride find a parallel in another of the lays,
4 The soi-disant Breton folk-song "Ann Eostik " on the same
subject translated by La Villemarque in his Barzaz-Breiz (1840) is
rejected by competent authorities. Similar stories in which the
nightingale is slain by an angry husband occur in Renard contrefait
and in the Gesta Romanorum.
6 Cf. the Oiseau bleu of Mme d'Aulnoy.
* Sir Lambewell in Bishop Percy's Folio MS. (ed. Hales and Furni-
vall, vol. ii., 1867), is another version of Lanval, and differs from
Chestre's. For the relations between Lanval and the Lai de Graelent,
wrongly ascribed to Marie by Roquefort, see W. H. Schofield, " The
Lays of Graelent and Lanval, and the story of Wayland," in the
Publications of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. of America, vol. xv. (Baltimore,
1900).
MARIE DE' MEDICI MARIE LESZCZYNSKA
Le Frene. The story is in both cases more human and less repugnant
than the, in some respects, similar story of Griselda.
Marie's Ysopet is translated from an English original which she
erroneously attributed to Alfred the Great, who had, she said,
translated it from the Latin. The collection includes many fables
that have come down from Phaedrus, some Oriental stories derived
from Jewish sources, with many popular apologues that belong to
the Renard cycle, and differ from those of older origin in that they
are intended to amuse rather than to instruct. Marie describes the
misery of the poor under the feudal regime, but she preaches resigna-
tiop rather than revolt. The popularity of this collection is attested
by the twenty-three MSS. of it that have been preserved.
Another poem attributed to Marie de France is L 'Espurgatoire
Seint Patriz, a translation from the Tractatus de purgatorio S.
Patricii (c. 1 185) of Henri de Salterey, which brings her activity down
almost to the close of the century.
See Die Fabeln der Marie de France (1898), edited by Karl Warnke
with the help of materials left by Milliard Mall; and Die Lais der
Marie de France (and ed., 1900), edited by Karl Warnke, with
comparative notes by Reinhold Kohler; the two works being vols.
vi. and iii. of the Bibliotheca Normannica of Hermann Suchier;
also an extremely interesting article by Joseph Be'dier in the Revue
des deux mondes (Oct. 1891); another by Alice Kemp- Welch in the
Nineteenth Century (Dec. 1907). For an analysis of the Lais
see Revue de philologie franfaise, viii. 161 seq. ; Karl Warnke, Die
Quellen der Esope der Marie de France (1900). The Lais were first
published in 1819 by B. de Roquefort. L' Espurgatoire Seint Patriz
was edited by T. A. Jenkins (Philadelphia, 1894). Some of the Lays
were paraphrased by Arthur O'Shaughnessy in his Lays of France
(1872).
MARIE DE' MEDICI (1573-1642), queen consort and queen
regent of France, daughter of Francis de' Medici, grand duke of
Tuscany, and Joanna, an Austrian archduchess, was born in
Florence on the 26th of April 1573. After Joanna's death in
1578 duke Francis married the notorious Bianca Capello, and
thegrand-ducal children were brought up away from their father
at the Pitti Palace in Florence, where after the death of her
brother and sister and the marriage of her elder sister Eleonora,
duchess of Mantua, a companion was chosen for Marie, this being
Leonora Dori, afterwards known as Leonora Galigai. She
received a good education in company with her half-brother
Antonio. After many projects of marriage for Marie had failed
Henry IV. of France, who was under great monetary obligations
to the house of Medici, offered himself as a suitor although his
marriage with Marguerite de Valois was not yet dissolved; but
the marriage was not celebrated until October 1600. Her eldest
son, the future Louis XIII., was born at Fontainebleau in Sep-
tember of the next year; the other children who survived were
Gaston duke of Orleans; Elizabeth queen of Spain; Christine
duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta Maria queen of England.
During her husband's lifetime Marie de' Medici showed little sign
of political taste or ability; but after his murder in 1610 when
she became regent, she devoted herself to affairs with unfailing
regularity and developed an inherited passion for power. She
gave her confidence chiefly to Concini, the husband of Leonora
Galigai, who squandered the public money and secured a series
of important charges with the title of Marechal d'Ancre. Under
the regent's lax and capricious rule the princes- of the blood and
the great nobles of the kingdom revolted; and the queen, too
weak to assert her authority, consented at Sainte Menehould
(May 15, 1614) to buy off the discontented princes. In 1616 her
policy was strengthened by the accession to her councils of
Richelieu, who had come to the front at the meeting of the states
general in 1614; but Louis XIII., who was now sixteen years old,
was determined to throw off the tutelage of his mother and Con-
cini. By his orders Concini was murdered, Leonora Galigai was
tried for sorcery and beheaded, Richelieu was banished to his
bishopric, and the queen was exiled to Blois. After two years
of virtual imprisonment she escaped in 1619 and became the
centre of a new revolt. Louis XIII. easily dispersed the rebels,
but through the mediation of Richelieu was reconciled with his
mother, who was allowed to hold a small court at Angers, and
resumed her place in the royal council in 1621. But differences
between her and the cardinal rapidly arose, and the queen mother
intrigued to drive Richelieu again from court. For a single day
the journee des dupes, the izth of November 1630, she seemed
to have succeeded; but the triumph of Richelieu was followed
by her exile to Compiegne, whence she escaped in 1631 to
Brussels. From that time till her death at Cologne on the 3rd of
July 1642 she intrigued in vain against the cardinal.
Among contemporary authorities for the history of Marie de'
Medici, see Mathieu de Morgues, Deux faces de la vie et de la mart de
Marie de Medicis (Antwerp, 1643) ; J. B. Matthieu, Eloge historial de
Marie de Medicis (Paris, 1626) ; Florentin du Ruau, Le Tableau de la
regence de Marie de Medicis (Poitiers, 1615) ; F. E. Me'zeray, Histoire
de la mere et dufils, ou de Marie de Medicis et de Louis XIII. (Amster-
dam, 1730); and A. P. Lord, The Regency of Marie de Midicis
(London, 1904). For the political history see the bibliographies to
HENRY IV. and Louis XIII.
There are lives by Thiroux d'Arconville (3 vols., Paris, 1774)
by Miss J. S. H. Pardoe (London, 1852, and again 1890); and by
B. Zeller, Henri IV. et Marie de Medicis (Paris, 1877). There is a
technical discussion of the causes of her death in A. Masson's La
Sorcellerie et la science des poisons au xvii' sikcle (Paris, 1904), and the
minutest details of her private life are in L. Batiffol's La Vie intime .
d'une reine de France (Paris, 1906; Eng. trans., 1908).
MARIE GALANTE, an island in the French West Indies. It
lies in 15 55' N. and 61 17' W., 16 m. S.E. of Guadeloupe, of
which it is a dependency. It is nearly circular in shape and 55
sq. m. in area. A rocky limestone plateau, rising in the east to
a height of 675 ft., occupies the centre of the island, and from it
the land descends in a series of well-wooded terraces to the sea.
The shores are rocky, there are no harbours, and the roadstead
off Grand Bourg is difficult of access, owing to the surrounding
reefs. The climate is healthy and the soil rich ; sugar, coffee and
cotton being the chief products. The largest town is Grand
Bourg (pop. 6901) on the south-west coast. The island was dis-
covered by Columbus in 1493, and received its name from the
vessel on which he was sailing. The French who settled here
in 1648 suffered numerous attacks both from the Dutch and
the British, but since 1766, except for a short period of British
rule in the early part of the igth century, they have held
undisturbed possession.
MARIE LESZCZYNSKA (1703-1768), queen consort of
France, was born at Breslau on the 23rd of June 1703, being
the daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski (who in 1704 became
king of Poland) and of Catherine Opalinska. During a
temporary flight from Warsaw the child was lost, and eventu-
ally discovered in a stable; on another occasion she was
for safety's sake hidden in an oven. In his exile Stanislas
found his chief consolation in superintending the education
of his daughter. Madame de Prie first suggested the Polish
princess as a bride for Louis duke of Bourbon, but she
was soon betrothed not to him but to Louis XV., a step
which was the outcome of the jealousies of the houses of Cond6
and Orleans, and was everywhere regarded as a mesalliance for
the French king. The marriage took place at Fontainebleau on
the 5th of September 1725. Marie's one attempt to interfere
in politics, an effort to prevent the disgrace of the duke of
Bourbon, was the beginning of her husband's alienation from her;
and after the birth of her seventh child Louise, Marie was
practically deserted by Louis, who openly avowed his liaison
with Louise de Nesle, comtesse de Mailly, who was replaced in
turn by her sisters Pauline marquise de Vintimille, and Marie
Anne, duchess de Chateauroux, and these by Madame de
Pompadour. In the meantime the queen saw her father
Stanislas established in Lorraine, and the affectionate intimacy
which she maintained with him was the chief consolation
of her harassed life. After a momentary reconciliation with
Louis during his illness at Metz in 1744, Marie shut herself
up more closely with her own circle of friends untD her death at
Versailles on the 24th of June 1768.
See V. des Diguieres, Lettres intdites de la reine Marie Leczinska et
de la duchesse de Luynes au President Renault (1886); Marquise des
Rdaux, Le Rot Stanislas et Marie Leczinska (1895); P. de Raynal,
Le Mariage d'un roi (Paris, 1887) ; H. Gauthier Villars, Le Mortage
de Louis XV. d'apres des documents nouveaux (1900); P. de Nolhac,
La Reine Marie Leczinska (1900) and Louis XV. et Marie Leczynska,
(1900) ; P. Boy6, Lettres du roi Stanislas d Marie Leszctynska 1754-
1766 (Paris and Nancy, 1901); and C. Stryienski's book on Marie
Josephs de Saxe (La Mere des trois derniers Bourbons, Paris, 1902).
See also the memoirs of President H<5nault and of the due de Luynes
(ed. Dussieux and Souli6, 1860, &c.).
714
MARIE LOUISE MARIENBERG
MARIE LOUISE (1791-1847), second wife of Napoleon I.,
was the daughter of Francis L, emperor of Austria, and of the
princess Theresa of Naples, and was born on the I2th of Decem-
ber 1791. Her disposition, fresh and natural but lacking the
qualities that make for distinction, gave no promise of eminence
until reasons of state brought Napoleon shortly after his divorce
of Josephine to sue for her hand (see NAPOLEON and JOSEPHINE).
It is probable, though not quite certain, that the first suggestions
as to this marriage alliance emanated secretly from the Austrian
chancellor, Metternich. The prince de Ligne claimed to have
been instrumental in arranging it. In any case the proposal was
well received at Paris both by Napoleon and by his ministers;
and though there were difficulties respecting the divorce, of
Josephine, yet these were surmounted in a way satisfactory to
the emperor and the prelates of Austria. The marriage took
place by proxy in the church of St Augustine, Vienna, on the nth
of March 1810. The new empress was escorted into France by
Queen Caroline Murat, for whom she soon conceived a feeling
of distrust. The civil and religious contracts took place at
Paris early in April, and during the honeymoon, spent at the
palace of Compiegne, the emperor showed the greatest regard
for his wife. " He is so evidently in love with her," wrote
Metternich " that he cannot conceal his feelings, and all his
customary ways of life are subordinate to her wishes." His joy
was complete when on the 2oth of March 1811 she bore him a
son who was destined to bear the empty titles of " king of Rome "
and " Napoleon II." The regard of Napoleon for his consort
was evidenced shortly before the birth of this prince, when he
bade the physicians, if the lives of the mother and of the child
could not both be saved, to spare her life. Under Marie Louise
the etiquette of the court of France became more stately and
the ritual of religious ceremonies more elaborate. Before the
campaign of 1812 she accompanied the emperor to Dresden;
but after that scene of splendour misfortunes crowded upon
Napoleon. In January 1814 he appointed her to act as regent
of France (with Joseph Bonaparte as lieutenant-general) during
his absence in the field.
At the time of Napoleon's first abdication (April n, 1814),
Joseph and Jerome Bonaparte tried to keep the empress under
some measure of restraint at Blois; but she succeeded in reaching
her father the emperor Francis while Napoleon was on his way
to Elba. She, along with her son, was escorted into Austria by
Count von Neipperg, and refused to comply with the entreaties
and commands of Napoleon to proceed to Elba; and her aliena-
tion from him was completed when he ventured to threaten her
with a forcible abduction if she did not obey. During the
Hundred Days she remained in Austria and manifested no desire
for the success of Napoleon in France. At the Congress of Vienna
the Powers awarded to her and her son the duchies of Parma,
Piacenza and Guastalla, in conformity with the terms of the
treaty of Fontainebleau (March, 1814) ; in spite of the determined
opposition of Louis XVIII. she gained this right for herself owing
largely to the support of the emperor Alexander, but she failed
to make good the claims of her son to the inheritance (see
NAPOLEON II.). She proceeded alone to Parma, where she fell
more and more under the influence of the count von Neipperg,
and had to acquiesce in the title " duke of Reichstadt " accorded
to her son. Long before the tidings of the death of Napoleon
at St Helena reached her she was living in intimate relations
with Neipperg at Parma, and bore a son to him not long after
that event. Napoleon on the other hand spoke of her in his
will with marked tenderness, and both excused and forgave her
infidelity to him. Thereafter Neipperg became her morganatic
husband; and they had other children. In 1832, at the time
of the last illness of the duke of Reichstadt, she visited him at
Vienna and was there at the time of his death; but in other
respects she shook off all association with Napoleon. Her rule
in Parma, conjointly with Neipperg, was characterized by a
clemency and moderation which were lacking in the other Italian
states in that time of reaction. She preserved some of the
Napoleonic laws and institutions; in 1817 she established the
equality of women in heritage, and ordered the compilation of
a civil code which was promulgated in January 1820. The
penal code of November 1821 abolished many odious customs
and punishments of the old code, and allowed publicity in
criminal trials. On the death of Neipperg in 1829 his place was
taken by Baron Werklein, whose influence was hostile to popular
liberty. During the popular movements of 1831 Marie Louise
had to take refuge with the Austrian garrison at Piacenza;
on the restoration of her rule by the Austrians its character
deteriorated, Parma becoming an outwork of the Austrian
empire. She died at Vienna on the i8th of December 1847.
See Correspondence de Marie Louise ijQQ-iSq? (Vienna, 1887) ;
J. A. Baron von Helfert, Marie Louise (Vienna, 1873) ; E. Wertheimer,
Die Heirath der Erzherzogin Marie Louise mil Napoleon I. (Vienna,
1882); and The Duke of Reichstadt (Eng. ed., London, 1905). See
also the Memoirs of Bausset, Mme Durand M6neval and Metternich ;
and Max Billard, The Marriage Ventures of Marie Louise, English
version by Evelyn duchess of Wellington (1910).
MARIENBAD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. W. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 4588. It is one of the most fre-
quented watering-places of Europe, lying on the outskirts of
the Kaiserwald at an altitude of 2093 ft., and is 40 m. S.W.
of Carlsbad by rail. Marienbad is enclosed on all sides except
the south by gently sloping hills clad with fragrant pine forests,
which are intersected by lovely walks. The principal buildings
are: the Roman Catholic church, which was completed in 1851;
the English church, the theatre, the Kurhaus, built in 1901,
and several bathing establishments and hospitals. The mineral
springs, which belong to the adjoining abbey of Tepl, are eight
in number, and are used both for bathing and drinking, except
the Marienquelle, which is used only for bathing. Some of them,
like the Kreuzbrunnen and the Ferdinandsbrunnen, contain
alkaline-saline waters which resemble those of Carlsbad, except
that they are cold and contain nearly twice the quantity of
purgative salts. Others, like the Ambrosiusbrunnen and the
Karolinenbrunnen, are among the strongest iron waters in the
world, while the Rudolfsbrunnen is an earthy-alkaline spring.
The waters are used in cases of liver affections, gout, diabetes
and obesity; and the patients must conform during the cure to
a strictly regulated diet. Besides the mineral water baths there
are also moor or mud-baths, and the peat used for these baths
is the richest in iron in the world. About 1,000,000 bottles of
mineral water are exported annually.
Amongst the places of interest round Marienbad is the basaltic
rock of Podhorn (2776 ft.), situated about 3 m. to the east, from
which an extensive view of the Bohmerwald, Fichtelgebirge and
Erzgebirge is obtained. About 7 m. in the same direction lies
the old and wealthy abbey of Tepl, founded in 1 193. The actual
building dates from the end of the i7th and the beginning of the
i8th century, and contains a fine library with a collection of
rare manuscripts and incunabula; near it is the small and old
town of Tepl (pop. 2789). To the north-east of Marienbad
lies the small watering-place of Konigswart; near it is a castle
belonging since 1618 to the princes of Metternich, which contains
an interesting museum, created by the famous Austrian states-
man in the first part of the ipth century. It contains, besides
a fine library, a collection of the presents he received during his
long career; numerous autographs, and other historical relics,
a collection of rare coins, armour, portraits and various minerals.
Marienbad is among the youngest of the Bohemian watering-
places, although its springs were known from of old. They
appear in a document dating from 1341, where they are called
" the Auschowitzer springs belonging to the abbey of Tepl;"
but it was only through the efforts of Dr Josef Nehr, the doctor
of the abbey, who from 1779 until his death in 1820 worked hard
to demonstrate the curative properties of the springs, that the
waters began to be used for medicinal purposes. The place
obtained its actual name of Marienbad in 1808; became a water-
ing-place in 1818, and received its charter as a town in 1868.
See Lang, Fuhrer durch Marienbad und Umgebung (Marienbad,
1902); and Kisch, Marienbad, seine Umgebung und Heilmittel
(Marienbad, 1895).
MARIENBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony
16 m. S.E. of Chemnitz on the Floha-Reitzenhain railway.
MARIENBURG MARIETTA
Pop. (1905), 7603. It has an Evangelical church, a Roman
Catholic church, a non-commissioned officers' school and a pre-
paratory school; and the industries comprise wool-spinning, flax-
dressing, the making of lace, toys and cigars, and silver-mining.
MARIENBURG (Polish, Malborg), a town of Germany, in
the Prussian province of West Prussia, 30 m. by rail to the S.E.
of Danzig in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Nogat, a
channel of the Vistula, here spanned by a handsome railway
bridge and by a bridge of boats. Pop. (1905), 13,095. Marien-
burg contains large chemical wool-cleaning works and several
other factories, carries on a considerable trade in grain, wood,
linen, feathers and brushes, and is the seat of important cattle,
horse and wool markets. Its educational institutions include
a gymnasium and a Protestant normal school. In the old
market-place, many of the houses in which are built with
arcades, stands a Gothic town-hall, dating from the end of the
i4th century. The town is also embellished with a fine statue
of Frederick the Great, who added this district to Prussia, and a
monument commemorating the war of 1870-71. Marienburg
is chiefly interesting from its having been for a century and a
half the residence of the grand masters of the Teutonic order.
The large castle of the order here was originally founded in 1274
as the seat of a simple commandery against the pagan Prussians,
but in 1309 the headquarters of the grand master were trans-
ferred hither from Venice, and the " Marienburger Schloss"
soon became one of the largest and most strongly fortified
buildings in Germany. On the decline of the order in the middle
of the 1 5th century, the castle passed into the hands of the Poles,
by whom it was allowed to fall into neglect and decay. It came
into the possession of Prussia in 1772, and was carefully restored
at the beginning of the igth century. This interesting and
curious building consists of three parts, the Alt- or Hochschloss,
the Mittelschloss, and the Vorburg. It is built of brick, in a
style of architecture peculiar to the Baltic provinces, and is
undoubtedly one of the most important secular buildings of the
middle ages in Germany.
Of the numerous monographs published in Germany on the castle
of Marienburg, it will suffice to mention here Biisching's Schloss
der deutschen Ritter zu Marienburg (Berlin, 1828); Voigt's Geschichte
von Marienburg (Konigsberg, 1824); Bergau's Ordenshaupthaus
Marienburg (Berlin, 1871); and Steinbrecht, Schloss Marienburg in
Preussen (8th ed., Berlin, 1905).
MARIENWERDER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of West Prussia, 3 m. E. of the Vistula, 23 m. S. of
Marienburg by rail. Pop. (1905), 10,258. The town was founded
in the year 1233 by the Teutonic order. It has a cathedral of
the same century, a triple Gothic edifice, restored in 1874 and
containing the tombs of several grand masters of the Teutonic
order; a (Gothic) town-hall (1880); a Roman Catholic basilica
(1858); a non-commissioned officers' school; a monument of the
war of 1870-71 (1897); an archaeological collection; and a
seminary for female teachers. The industries include iron-
foundries, saw-mills, sugar-refineries, breweries and printing-
works.
MARIE THERESE (1638-1683), queen consort of France, was
born on the loth of September 1638 at the Escurial, being the
daughter of Philip IV. of Spain and Elizabeth of France. By
pretending to seek a bride for his master in Margaret of Savoy,
Mazarin had induced the king of Spain to make proposals for the
marriage of his daughter with Louis XIV., and the treaty of the
Pyrenees in 1659 stipulated for her marriage with the French
king, Marie renouncing any claim to the Spanish succession.
As the treaty, however, hinged on the payment of her dowry,
which was practically impossible for Spain, Mazarin could evade
the other terms of the contract. Marie Therese was married
in June 1660, when Philip IV. with his whole court accompanied
the bride to the Isle of Pheasants in the Bidassoa, where she
was met by Louis. The new queen's amiability and her un-
doubted virtues failed to secure her husband's regard and affec-
tion. She saw herself neglected in turn for Louise de la Valliere,
Mme. de Montespan and others; but Marie Th6rese was too
pious and too humble openly to resent the position in which she
was placed by the king's avowed infidelities. With the growing
influence of Madame de Maintenon over his mind and affections
he bestowed more attention on his wife, which she repaid by
lavishing kindness on the mistress. She had no part in political
affairs except in 1672, when she acted as regent during Louis
XlV.'s campaign in Holland. She died on the 30th of July 1683
at Versailles, not without suspicion of foul play on the part of
her doctors. Of her six children only one survived her, the
dauphin Louis, who died in 1711.
See the funeral oration of Bossuet (Paris, 1684), E. Duce're', Le
Manage de Louis XIV. d'apres les conlemporains et des documents
inedits (Bayonne, 1905); Dr Cabanes, Les Marts mysterieuses de
I'histoire (1900), and the literature dealing with her rivals Louise de
la Valliere, Madame de Montespan and Madame de Maintenon.
MARIETTA, a city and the county-seat of Cobb county,
Georgia, U.S.A., in the N.W. of the state, about 17 m. N.W.
of Atlanta. Pop. (1890), 3384; (1900), 4446, of whom 1928
were negroes; (1910), 5949. The city is served by the Louisville
& Nashville, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, and the
Western & Atlantic railways, and is connected with Atlanta by
an electric line. Marietta is situated about 1118 ft. above the
sea, has a good climate, and is both a summer and a winter resort.
The principal industries are the manufacture of chairs and paper,
and the preparation of marble for the markets; there are also
locomotive works, planing mills, a canning factory, a knitting
mill, &c. At Marietta there is a national cemetery, in which
more than 10,000 Federal soldiers are buried, and at Kenesaw
Mountain (1809 ft.), about 2^ m. west of the city, one of the
fiercest battles of the Civil War was fought. After the Confed-
erate retreat from Dal ton in May 1864, General William T.
Sherman, the Federal commander, made Marietta his next
intermediate point in his Atlanta campaign, and the Confederate
commander, General Joseph E. Johnston, established a line of
defence west of the town. After several preliminary engage-
ments Sherman on the 26th and 27th of June made repeated
unsuccessful attempts to drive the Confederates from their
defences at Kenesaw Mountain; he then resorted to a flanking
movement which forced the Confederate general to retire
(July 2) toward Atlanta. Marietta was settled about 1840,
and was chartered as a city in 1852.
MARIETTA, a city and the county-seat of Washington county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Muskingum,
about 115 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890), 8273; (1900),
I3,348,including679foreign-bornand36i negroes; (1910), 12,923.
It is served by the Pennsylvania (Marietta Division), the Balti-
more & Ohio (Marietta & Parkersburg, Marietta & Zanesville,
and Ohio River divisions) and the Marietta,Columbus & Cleveland
railways, and by steamboat lines to several river ports; a bridge
across the Ohio connects it with Williamstown, West Virginia.
The city is in a hilly country of much natural beauty, and is of
considerable historic interest. On the banks of the Muskingum
is a public park, facing which stood the oldest church in the state;
this was burned in 1905, but was subsequently rebuilt in the old
style. Near by are some i8th century buildings, some interest-
ing earthworks of the " mound-builders," and a cenfetery in
which are buried many soldiers who fo.ught in the War of
Independence. Marietta is the seat of Marietta College, dating
from 1830, which in 1908 had more than 500 students. It
possesses a library of 60,000 volumes, including some rare
collections, especially the Stimson collection of books bearing
on the history of the North- West Territory. Petroleum, coal, and
iron-ore abound in the neighbouring region, and the city has
a considerable trade in these and in its manufactures of chairs,
leather, flour, carriages, wagons, boats, boilers, bricks and glass.
In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,599,287.
Marietta, named in honour of Marie Antoinette, is the oldest
settlement in the state and in the North-west Territory. It was
founded in 1788 by a company of Revolutionary officers from
New England under the leadership of General Rufus Putnam,
and in the same year the North-West Territory was formally
organized here. The pseudo-classicism of the period of Marietta's
foundation is indicated by the names Capitolium for one of
MARIETTE MARIGNAN, BATTLE OF
the public squares, Sacra Via for one of the principal streets, and
Campus Martius for the fortification. The settlement was
incorporated as a town in 1800 and chartered as a city in 1852.
In 1800 the village of Harmar, including the site on which Fort
Harmar was built in 1785, was annexed. .
See Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio (Columbus, 1891).
MARIETTE, AUGUSTE FERDINAND FRANCOIS (1821-1881),
French Egyptologist, was born on the nth of February 1821 at
Boulogne, where his father was town clerk. Educated at the
Boulogne municipal college, where he distinguished himself and
showed much artistic talent, he went to England in 1839 when
eighteen as professor of French and drawing at a boys' school
at Stratford-on-Avon. In 1840 he became pattern-designer to
a ribbon manufacturer at Coventry; but weary of ill-paid exile
he returned the same year to Boulogne, and in 1841 took his
degree at Douai. He now became a professor at his old college,
and for some years supplemented his salary by giving private
lessons and writing on historical and archaeological subjects for
local periodicals. Meanwhile his cousin Nestor L'Hote, the
friend and fellow-traveller of Champollion, died, and upon
Mariette devolved the task of sorting the papers of the deceased
savant. He thenceforth became passionately interested in
Egyptology, devoted himself to the study of hieroglyphs and
Coptic, and in 1847 published a Catalogue analytique of the
Egyptian Gallery of the Boulogne Museum; in 1849, being
appointed to a subordinate position in the Louvre, he left
Boulogne for Paris. Entrusted with a government mission for
the purpose of seeking and purchasing Coptic, Syriac, Arabic
and Ethiopic MSS. for the national collection, he started for
Egypt in 1850; and soon after his arrival he made his celebrated
discovery of the ruins of the Serapeum and the subterraneous
catacombs of the Apisbulls. His original mission being aban-
doned, funds were now advanced for the prosecution of his
researches, and he remained in Egypt for four years, excavating,
discovering and despatching archaeological treasures to the
Louvre, of which museum he was on his return appointed an
assistant conservator. In 1858 he accepted the position of
conservator of Egyptian monuments to the ex-khedive, Ismail
Pasha, and removed with his family to Cairo. His history
thenceforth becomes a chronicle of unwearied exploration and
brilliant success. The museum at Bula was founded immedi-
ately. The pyramid-fields of Memphis and Sakkara, and the
necropolis of Meydum, and those of Abydos and Thebes were
examined; the great temples of Dendera and Edfu were dis-
interred; important excavations were carried out at Karnak,
Medinet-Habu and Deir el-Bahri; Tanis (the Zoan of the Bible)
was partially explored in the Delta; and even Gebel Barkal in
the Sudan. The Sphinx was bared to the rock-level, and the
famous granite and alabaster monument miscalled the " Temple
of the Sphinx " was discovered. Mariette was raised successively
to the rank of bey and pasha in his own service. Honours and
orders were showered on him: the Legion of Honour and the
Medjidie in 1852; the Red Eagle (first class) of Prussia in 1855;
the ItaMan order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus in 1857; and
the Austrian order of Francis-Joseph in 1858. In 1873 the
Academy of Inscriptions decreed to him the biennial prize
of 20,000 francs, and in 1878 he was elected a member of the
Institute. He was also an honorary member of most of the
learned societies of Europe. In 1877 his health broke down
through overwork. He lingered for a few years, working to the
last, and died at Cairo on the igth of January 1881.
His chief published works are: Le Serapeum de Memphis (1857
and following years) ; Dend&rab, five folios and one 4to (1873-1875) ;
Abydos, two folios and one 4to (1870-1880); Karnak, folio and 410
(1875); Deir el-Bahari, folio and 410 (1877); Listes geographiques des
pyldnes de Karnak, folio (1875); Catalogue du Musee de Boulaq
(six editions 1864-1876) ; Aperc,u de Vhistoire d'Egypte (four editions,
. 1 864- 1 874, &c. ) ; Les Mastabas de I'ancien empire (edited by Maspero)
(1883). See" Notice biographique," by Maspero in Auguste Mariette.
(Euvres diverses (tome I, Paris, 1904), and art. EGYPT: Exploration
and Research.
MARIGNAC, JEAN CHARLES GALISSARD DE (1817-1894),
Swiss chemist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of April 1817.
When sixteen years old he began to attend the Ecole Poly-
technique in Paris, and from 1837 to 1839 studied at the Ecole
des Mines. Then, after a short time in Liebig's laboratory at
Giessen, and in the Sevres porcelain factory, he became in 1841
professor of chemistry in the academy of Geneva. In 1845 he
was appointed professor of mineralogy also, and held both chairs
till 1878, when ill-health obliged him to resign. He died at
Geneva on the isth of April 1894. Marignac's name is well
known for the careful and exact determinations of atomic
weights which he carried out for twenty-eight of the elements.
In undertaking this work he had, like J. S. Stas, the purpose of
testing Prout's hypothesis, but he remained more disposed than
the Belgian chemist to consider the possibility that it may have
some degree of validity. Throughout his life he paid great
attention to the " rare earths " and the problem of separating
and distinguishing them; in 1878 he extracted ytterbia from
what was supposed to be pure erbia, and two years later found
gadolinia and samaria in the samarskite earths. In 1858 he
pointed out the isomorphism of the fluostannates and the
fluosilicates, thus settling the then vexed question of the
composition of silicic acid; and subsequently he studied the
fluosalts of zirconium, boron, tungsten, &c., and prepared
silicotungstic acid, one of the first examples of the complex
inorganic acids. In physical chemistry he carried out many
researches on the nature and process of solution, investigating
in particular the thermal effects produced by the dilution of
saline solutions, the variation of the specific heat of 'saline
solutions with temperature and concentration, and the pheno-
mena of liquid diffusion.
A memorial lecture by P. T. Cleve, printed in the Journal of the
London Chemical Society (or 1895, contains a list of Marignac'spapers.
MARIGNAN, BATTLE OF, fought on the i3th and I4th of
September 1515 between the French army under Francis I. and
the Swiss. The scene of the battle which was also that of a
hard fought engagement in 1859 (see ITALIAN WARS) was the
northern outskirts of the village of Melegnano, on the river
Lambro, 10 m. S.E. of Milan. The circumstances out of which
the battle of Marignan arose, almost inconceivable to the modern
mind, were not abnormal in the conditions of Italian warfare
and politics then prevailing. The young king of France had
gathered an army about Lyons, wherewith to overrun the
Milanese; his allies were the republics of Venice and Genoa. The
duke of Milan, Maximilian Sforza, had secured the support of
the emperor, the king of Spain, and the pope, and also that of
the Swiss cantons, which then supplied the best and most
numerous mercenary soldiers in Europe. The practicable passes
of the Alps and the Apennines were held by Swiss and papal
troops. Francis however boldly crossed the Col de 1'Argentiere
(Aug. 1515) by paths that no army had hitherto used, and
Marshal de La Palisse surprised and captured a papal corps at
Villafranca near Pinerolo, whereupon the whole of the enemy's
troops fell back on Milan. The king then marching by Vercelli,
Novara and Pavia, joined hands with Alviano, the Venetian
commander, and secured a foothold in the Milanese. But in
order to avoid the necessity of besieging Milan itself, he offered
the Swiss a large sum to retire into their own country. They
were about to accept his offer, not having received their sub-
sidies from the pope and the king of Spain, when a fresh corps
of mercenaries descended into Italy, desirous both of gaining
booty and of showing their prowess against their new rivals the
French and Lower Rhine " lansquenets " (Landsknechts) and
against the French gendarmerie, whom (alluding to the " Battle
of the Spurs" at Guinegatte in 1513) they called "hares in
armour." The French took position at Melegnano to face the
Swiss, the Venetians at Lodi to hold in check the Spanish army
at Piacenza. Alviano, who was visiting the king when the Swiss
appeared before Melegnano, hurried off to bring thither his own
army. Meantime the French and the Swiss engaged in an
incredibly fierce struggle.
The king's army was grouped in front of the village, facing
in the direction of Milan, with a small stream separating it from
the oncoming Swiss. On either side of the Milan road was a
MARIGNOLLI
717
large body of landsknechts, a third being in reserve. The French
and Gascon infantry (largely armed with arquebuses) was on the
extreme right, the various bodies of gendarmerie in the centre.
In front of all was the French artillery. The battle opened in
the afternoon of the ijth of September. As the Swiss advanced
in three huge columns, the French guns fired into them with
terrible effect, but the assailants reached the intersected ground
bordering the stream, and thus protected from the rush of the
French gendarmerie, they debouched on the other side, and fell
upon the landsknechts. The crowd of combatants, the gathering
darkness, and the dust, prevented any general direction being
given to the battle by the leaders of either side. Francis
himself at the head of two hundred gendarmes charged and
drove back two large bodies of Swiss which were pressing the
landsknechts hard. The battle went on by moonlight till close
on midnight, when the Swiss retired a short distance. Both
sides spent the rest of the night on the battlefield, reorganizing
their broken corps. Francis and his gendarmes were the outpost
line of the French army, and remained all night mounted, lance
in hand and helmet on head. Next morning at sunrise, the battle
was renewed. The Swiss now left their centre inactive opposite
the king and with two strong corps attempted to work round
his flanks. That on the left made for the French baggage, but
found it strongly guarded by landsknechts, who drove them
back. The nearest French gendarmerie joined in the pursuit,
but a detachment from the Swiss centre fell upon these and
destroyed them. This detachment in turn followed up its
advantage until as Francis himself expressed it, " the whole camp
turned out " to aid the landsknechts and " hunted out " the
Swiss. Meantime the Swiss left attack had closed with the
French infantry bands and the " aventuriers" (afterwards the
famous corps of Picardie and Piedmont), who were commanded
on this day be the famous engineer Pedro Navarro. It was in
the main struggle of arquebus against pike, but it was not the
arquebus alone, or even principally, that gave the victory to the
French. When the Swiss ranks had been disordered, the short
pike and the sword came into play, and aided by the constable
de Bourbon with a handful of the gendarmerie, the French right
more than held its own until Alviano with the cavalry from Lodi
rode on to the field and completed the rout of the Swiss. In the
centre meanwhile the two infantries stood fast for eight hours,
separated by the brook, while the artillery on both sides fired
into it at short range. But the landsknechts, animated by the
king, endured it as well as the Swiss; and at the last, Francis
leading a final advance of his exhausted troops, the Swiss gave
way and fled. Only 3000 Swiss escaped out of some 25,000 who
fought. On the French side probably 8000 were killed or died
of wounds. The battle lasted twenty-eight hours. Its tactical
lesson was the efficacy of combining two arms against one. The
French gendarmerie, burning to avenge the insult of " hares in
armour," made more than thirty charges by squadrons, and
they were admirably supported by their light artillery. The
landsknechts retrieved their first day's defeat by their conduct
on the second day. Nevertheless Marignan was in the main
the work of the gendarmerie, the last and greatest triumph of
the armoured lancer; and as a fitting close to the battle the
young king was knighted by Bayard on the field.
MARIGNOLLI, GIOVANNI DE', a notable traveller to the Far
East in the I4th century, born probably before 1290, and sprung
from a noble family in Florence. The family is long extinct,
but a street near the cathedral (Via de' Cerretani) formerly bore
the name of the Marignolli. In 1338 there arrived at Avignon,
where Benedict XII. held his court, an embassy from the great
khan of Cathay (the Mongol-Chinese emperor), bearing letters
to the pontiff from the khan himself, and from certain Christian
nobles of the Alan race in his service. These latter represented
that they had been eight years (since Monte Corvino's death)
without a spiritual guide, and earnestly desired one. The pope
replied to the letters, and appointed four ecclesiastics as his
legates to the khan's court. The name of John of Florence,
i.e. Marignolli, appears third on the letters of commission. A
large party was associated with the four chief envoys; when in
Peking the embassy still numbered thirty-two, out of an original
fifty.
The mission left Avignon in December 1338; picked up the
Tatar envoys at Naples; stayed nearly two months in Constanti-
nople (Pera, May i June 24, 1339); and sailed across the
Black Sea to Kaffa, whence they travelled to the court of Mahom-
med Uzbeg, khan of the Golden Horde, at Sarai on the Volga.
The khan entertained them hospitably during the winter of
1330-1340 and then sent them across the steppes to Armalec,
Almalig or Almaligh (Kulja), the northern seat of the house
of Chaghatai, in what is now the province of Ili. " There,"
says Marignolli, " we built a church, bought a piece of ground
. . . sung masses, and baptized several persons, notwithstanding
that only the year before the bishop and six other minor friars
had there undergone glorious martyrdom for Christ's salvation."
Quitting Almaligh in 1341, they seem to have reached Peking
(by way of Kamul or Hami) in May or June 1342. They were
well received by the reigning khan, the last of the Mongol
dynasty in China. An entry in the Chinese annals fixes the
year of Marignolli's presentation by its mention of the arrival
of the great horses from the kingdom of Fulang (Farang or
Europe), one of which was n ft. 6 in. in length, and 6 ft. 8 in.
high, and black all over.
Marignolli stayed at Peking or Cambalec three or four years,
after which he travelled through eastern China to Zayton or
Amoy Harbour, quitting China apparently in December 1347,
and reaching Columbum (Kaulam or Quilon in Malabar) in
Easter week of 1348. At this place he found a church of the
Latin communion, probably founded by Jordanus of Severac,
who had been appointed bishop of Columbum by Pope John
XXII. in 1330. Here Marignolli remained sixteen months,
after which he proceeded on what seems a most devious voyage.
First he visited the shrine of St Thomas near the modern Madras,
and then proceeded to what he calls the kingdom of Saba, and
identifies with the Sheba of Scripture, but which seems from
various particulars to have been Java. Taking ship again for
Malabar on his way to Europe, he encountered great storms.
They found shelter in the little port of Penily or Pereilis
(Beruwala or Berberyn) in the south-west of Ceylon; but here
the legate fell into the hands of " a certain tyrant Coya Jaan
(Khoja Jahan), a eunuch and an accursed Saracen," who pro-
fessed to treat him with all deference, but detained him four
months, and plundered all the gifts and Eastern rarities that he
was carrying home. This detention in Seyllan enables Marig-
nolli to give a variety of curious particulars regarding Adam's
Peak, Buddhist monasticism, the aboriginal races of Ceylon, and
other marvels. After this we have only fragmentary notices,
showing that his route to Europe lay by Ormuz, the ruins of
Babel, Bagdad, Mosul, Aleppo and thence to Damascus and
Jerusalem. In 1353 he arrived at Avignon, and delivered a letter
from the great khan to Pope Innocent VI. In the following year
the emperor Charles IV., on a visit to Italy, made Marignolli
one of his chaplains. Soon after, the pope made him bishop of
Bisignano; but he seems to have been in no hurry to reside there.
He appears to have accompanied the emperor to Prague in
1354-1355; in 1356 he is found acting as envoy to the Pope from
Florence; and in 1357 he is at Bologna. We know not when he
died. The last trace of Marignolli is a letter addressed to him,
which was found in the i8th century among the records in the
Chapter Library at Prague. The writer is an unnamed bishop
of Armagh, easily identified with Richard Fitz Ralph, a strenuous
foe of the Franciscans, who had broken lances in controversy
with Ockham anjd Burley. The letter implies that some inten-
tion had been intimated from Avignon of sending Marignolli
to Ireland in connexion with matters then in debate a project
which stirs Fitz Ralph's wrath.
The fragmentary notes of Marignolli's Eastern travels often con-
tain vivid remembrance and graphic description, but combined with
an incontinent vanity, and an incoherent lapse from one thing to
another. They have no claim to be called a narrative, and it is
with no small pains that anything like a narrative can be pieced out
of them. Indeed the mode in which they were elicited curiously
illustrates how little medieval travellers thought of publication
7 i8
MARIGNY MARIGOLD
The emperor Charles, instead of urging his chaplain to write a history
of his vast journeys, set him to the repugnant task of recasting the
annals of Bohemia; and he consoled himself by salting the insipid
stuff by interpolations, a propos de bottes, of his recollections of
Asiatic travel.
Nobody seems to have noticed the work till 1768, when the
chronicle was published in vol. ii. of the Monumenta hist. Bohemiae
nusquam antehac edita by Father Gelasius Dobner. But, though
Marignolli was thus at last in type, no one seems to have read
him till 1820, when an interesting paper on his travels was published
by J. G. Meinert. Professor Friedrich Kunstmann of Munich also
devoted to the subject one of his admirable series of papers on the
ecclesiastical travellers of the middle ages.
See Fontes rerum bohemicarum, hi. 492-604 (1882, best text); G.
Dobner's Monumenta hist, boh., vol. ii. (Prague, 1768) ; J. G. Meinert,
in Abhandl. der k. bohm. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, vol. vii. ;
F. Kunstmann, in Historisch-politische Blatter von Phillips und Gorres,
xxxviii. 701-719, 793-813 (Munich, 1859); Luke Wadding, Annales
minorum, A.D. 1338, vii. 210-219 (ed. of 1733, &c.); Sbaralea,
Supplementum el castigatio ad scriptores trium ordinum S. Francisci
a Waddingo, p. 436 (Rome, 1806); John of Winterthur, in Eccard,
Corpus historicum medii aevi, vol. i., 1852; Mosheim, Historia
Tartarorum ecclesiastica, part i., p. 115; Henry Yule, Cathay and
the Way Thither, ii. 309-394 (Hak. Soc., 1866) ; C. Raymond Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 142, 180-181, 184-185, 215, 231,
236, 288-309 (1906). (H. Y.; C. R. B.)
MARIGNY, ENGUERRAND DE (1260-1315), French cham-
berlain, and minister of Philip IV. the Fair, was born at Lyons-
la-Foret in Normandy, of an old Norman family of the smaller
baronage called Le Portier, which took the name of Marigny
about 1200. Enguerrand entered the service of Hugues de
Bonville, chamberlain and secretary of Philip IV., as a squire,
and then was attached to the household of Queen Jeanne, who
made him one of the executors of her will. He married her god-
daughter, Jeanne de St Martin. In 1298 he received the custody
of the castle of Issoudun. After the death of Pierre Flotte and
Hugues de Bonville at the battle of Mons-en-Pevele in 1304, he
became Philip's grand chamberlain and chief minister. In 1306
he was sent to preside over the exchequer of Normandy. He
received numerous gifts of land and money from Philip as
well as a pension from Edward II. of England. Possessed
of an ingratiating manner, politic, learned and astute, he acted
as an able instrument in carrying out Philip's plans, and
received corresponding confidence. He shared the popular
odium which Philip incurred by debasing the coinage. He acted
as the agent of Philip in his contest with Louis de Nevers, the
son of Robert count of Flanders, imprisoning Louis and forcing
Robert to surrender Lille, Douay and Bethune. He obtained
for his half-brother Philip de Marigny in 1301 the bishopric of
Cambray, and in 1309 the archbishopric of Sens, and for his
brother Jean in 1312 the bishopric of Beauvais. Still another
relative, Nicolas de Freauville, became the king's confessor and
a cardinal. He addressed the estates general in 1314 and suc-
ceeded in getting further taxes for the Flemish war, incurring
at the same time much ill will. This soon came to a head when
the princes of the blood, eager to fight the Flemings, were disap-
pointed by his negotiating a peace in September. He was accused
of receiving bribes, and Charles of Valois denounced him to the
king himself; but Philip stood by him and the attack was of no
avail. The death of Philip IV. on the 2gth of November 1314
was a signal for a reaction against his policy. The feudal party,
whose power the king had tried to limit, turned on his ministers
and chiefly on his chamberlain. Enguerrand was arrested by
Louis X. at the instigation of Charles of Valois, and twenty-eight
articles of accusation including charges of receiving bribes were
brought against him. He was refused a hearing; but his accounts
were correct, and Louis was inclined to spare him anything
more than banishment to the island of Cyprus. Charles then
brought forward a charge of sorcery which was more effectual.
He was condemned at once and hanged on the public gallows at
Montfaucon, protesting that in all his acts he had only been
carrying out Philip's commands (April 30, 1315). Louis X.
seems to have repented of his treatment of Marigny, and left
legacies to his children. When his chief enemy, Charles of
Valois, lay dying in 1325, he was stricken with remorse and
ordered alms to be distributed among the poor of Paris with
a request to "pray for the souls of Enguerrand and Charles."
Marigny founded the collegiate church of Notre Dame d'Escoes
near Rouen in 1313. He was twice married, first to Jeanne de
St Martin, by whom he had three children, Louis, Marie and
Isabelle (who married Robert, son of Robert de Tancarville) ;
and the second time to Alips de Mons.
See contemporary chroniclers in vols. xx. to xxiii. of D. Bouquet,
Historiens de la France; P. Clement, Trois drames historiques (Paris,
1857); Ch. Dufayard, La Reaction feodale sous les fils de Philippe le
Bel, in the Revue historique (1894, liv. 241-272) and Iv. 241-290.
MARIGNY, JEAN DE (d. 1350), French bishop, was a younger
brother of the preceding. Entering the church at an early age,
he was rapidly advanced until in 1313 he was made bishop of
Beauvais. During the next twenty years he was one of the most
notable of the members of the French episcopate, and was par-
ticularly in favour with King Philip VI. He devoted himself in
1335 to the completion of the choir of Beauvais Cathedral, the
enormous windows of which were filled with the richest glass.
But this building activity, which has left one of the most notable
Gothic monuments in Europe, was broken into by the Hundred
Years' War. Jean de Marigny, a successful administrator and
man of affairs rather than a saintly churchman, was made one of
the king's lieutenants in southern France in 1341 against the
English invasion. His most important military operation, how-
ever, was when in 1346 he successfully held out in Beauvais
against a siege by the English, who had overrun the country up
to the walls of the city. Created archbishop of Rouen in 1347 as
a reward for this defence, he enjoyed his new honours only three
years; he died on the 26th of December 1350.
MARIGOLD. This name has been given to several plants,
of which the following are the best known: Calendula officinalis,
the pot-marigold; Tagetes erecta, the African marigold; T. patula,
the French marigold; and Chrysanthemum segetum, the corn
marigold. All these belong to the order Compositae; but
Caltha palustris, the marsh marigold, belongs to the order
Ranunculaceae.
The first-mentioned is the familiar garden plant with large
orange-coloured blossoms, and is probably not known in a wild
state. There are now many fine garden varieties of it. The
florets are unisexual, the " ray " florets being female, the " disk "
florets male. This and the double variety have been in cultiva-
tion for at least three hundred years, as well as a proliferous form,
C. prolifera, or the " fruitful marigolde " of Gerard (Herball,
p. 602), in which small flower-heads proceed from beneath the
circumference of the flower. The figure of " the greatest double
marigold," C. multiftora maxima, given by Gerard (loc. cit. p. 600)
is larger than most specimens now seen, being 3 in. in diameter.
He remarks of " the marigolde " that it is called Calendula " as
it is to be scene to flower in the calends of almost euerie moneth."
It was supposed to have several specific virtues, but they are
non-existent. " The marigold, that goes to bed wi' the sun," is
mentioned by Shakespeare, Winter's Tale, iv. 3.
Tagetes palula, and T. erecta, the French and African mari-
golds, are natives of Mexico, and are equally familiar garden
plants, having been long in cultivation. Gerard figures five
varieties of Flos africanus, of the single and double kind
(loc. cit., p. 609). Besides the above species the following have
been introduced later, T. lucida, T. signata, also from Mexico,
and T. tenuifolia from Peru.
Chrysanthemum segetum, the yellow corn marigold, is indi-
genous to Great Britain, and is frequent in corn-fields in most
parts of England. When dried it has been employed as hay.
It is also used in Germany for dyeing yellow. Gerard observes
that in his day " the stalke and leaues of Corne Marigolde, as
Dioscorides saith, are eaten as other potherbes are."
Caltha palustris, the marsh marigold, or king-cups, the
" winking Mary-buds " of Shakespeare (Cymb., ii. 3), is a
common British plant in marshy meadows and beside water.
It bears smooth heart-shaped leaves, and flowers with a golden
yellow calyx but no corolla, blossoming in March and April.
The flower-buds preserved in salted vinegar are a good substi-
tute for capers. A double-flowered variety is often cultivated,
and is occasionally found wild.
MARIINSK MARINES
719
MARIINSK, a town of Russia, in West Siberia and the govern-
ment of Tomsk, on the bank of the Kiya river and on the
Siberian railway, 147 m. E.S.E. of Tomsk. Pop. (1897), 8300.
It is built of timber, but has a stately cathedral. There are
tanneries and soap works; and Mariinsk is an entrepdt for the
goldmines.
MARILLAC, CHARLES DE (c. 1510-1560), French prelate
and diplomatist, came of a good family of Auvergne, and at the
age of twenty-two was advocate at the parlement of Paris.
Suspected, however, of sympathizing with the reformers, he
deemed it prudent to leave Paris, and in 1535 went to the East
with his cousin Jean de la Fore 1 !, the first French ambassador
at Constantinople. Cunning and ambitious, he soon made his
mark, and his cousin having died during his embassy, Marillac
was appointed his successor. He did not return from the East
until 1538, when he was sent almost immediately to England,
where he remained ambassador until 1543. He retained his
influence during the reign of Henry II., fulfilling important
missions in Switzerland and at the imperial court (1547-1551),
and at the courts of the German princes (1553-1554). In
1555 he was one of the French deputies at the conferences held
at Mark near Ardres to discuss peace with England. His two
last missions were at Rome (1557) and at the Diet of Augsburg
(1559). In 1550 he was given the bishopric of Vannes, and in
1557 the archbishopric of Vienne; he also became a member of
the privy council. He distinguished himself as a statesman at
the Assembly of Notables at Fontaineblcau in 1560, when he
delivered an exceedingly brilliant discourse, in which he opposed
the policy of violence and demanded a national council and the
assembly of the states general. Irritated by his opposition,
the Guises compelled him to leave the court, and he died on the
2nd of December of the same year.
His works include: Discours sur la roupture de la Trefve en I' an
1556 (Paris, 1556), and " Sommaire de 1'ambassade en Allemagne de
feu M r . I'arch6yesque de Vienne en 1'an 1550," published in Ranke's
Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, vol. vi. (Leipzig,
1882). See J. Kaulek, Correspondence politique de Castillon et Marillac
(/5J7-/542) (Paris, 1885); P. de Vassiere, Charles de Marillac
(Paris, 1896).
MARINES (from Lat. mare, sea), the technical term for sea-
soldiers, i.e. troops appropriated and specially adapted to the
requirements of maritime war. This force formerly (1694)
styled " mariners " is in origin, use and application peculiarly
British. The only other nation possessing a special force dis-
charging exactly similar functions is the United States (see
below). In the armed forces of the great European Powers
marines and marine artillery are mentioned, but these troops
have little in common with British and American marines. In
France their duties are to garrison military forts and colonies
and take part in marine and other wars. In Germany they are
used for coast defence. In Holland, Austria and Italy they have a
military organization, but not as complements of sea-going ships.
The origin of the British marine force was an order in council
1664, directing " 1200 Land souldgers to be forthwith rayzed
to be in readiness to be distributed in His Majesty's fleete pre-
pared for sea service." This body was named the " Admiral's
regiment." At this period land warfare had developed a system
and was waged by men organized, disciplined and trained.
Sea warfare was left " to every man's own conceit." War-ships
were built to be manned in a hurry, by " the press," when needed.
Men were thus obtained by force and grouped without organiza-
tion or previous training in ships. When no longer required
they were turned adrift. The administration of England's
fleet was " a prodigy of wastefulness, corruption and indolence;
no estimate could be trusted, no contract was performed, no
check was enforced." Such officers as had been " bred to the
sea seemed a strange and savage race." They robbed the king
and cheated the seamen. As regards land force, it was a viola-
tion of the law to keep at home in the king's pay " any other
body of armed men, save as a guard for the royal person." On
the other hand it was " illegal to land press men " in a foreign
country, but soldiers " only required a little persuasion to land. "
Thus by thrusting into naval chaos and confusion a nucleus of
disciplined, trained and organized land troops, an expedient was
found which offered a solution of the many political and adminis-
trative difficulties of the time. This " Admiral's regiment."
was the germ which by a constant process of evolution during a
period of over 235 years has produced not merely the marine
forces, but the royal navy, organized, disciplined and trained as
it is to-day. In 1668 the experiment of the Admiral's regiment
was extended. At a council held " to discourse about the
fitness for entering men presently for manning the fleete," King
Charles II. " cried very civilly, ' If ever you intend to man the
fleet without being cheated by the captains and pursers, you may
go to bed and resolve never to have it manned.' " This seems
to throw some light on the council's order a few days later "to
draw out and furnish such numbers of His Majesty's Foot
Guards for His Majesty's service at sea this summer, as H.R.H.
the duke of York, lord high admiral of England, shall from time
to time desire." The men were to be paid and accounted for by
their own officers. This maritime force subsequently disap-
peared, but two new regiments of " marines " were raised in 1694,
the House of Commons directing they " were to be employed in
the service of the navy only." One regiment only was to be on
shore at a time, and to be employed in the dockyards with
extra pay. None of the officers were to be sea commanders,
save two colonels. The intention was to make these regiments
feeders for the navy, captains being ordered to report periodi-
cally " the names of such soldiers as shall in any measure be
made seamen, and how far each of them is qualified toward being
an able seaman." In 1697 these regiments were disbanded, but
early in the reign of Queen Anne a number of regiments of marines
were raised, and independent companies of marines were also
enlisted in the West Indies. At the peace of Utrecht (1713)
the marines were disbanded, but reappeared in 1739 as part of
the army; and in 1740 three regiments of marines were raised
in America, the colonels being appointed by the crown, the
captains by the provinces. In 1747 the marine regiments were
transferred from the control of the secretary at war to that of the
admiralty, and the next year once more wholly disappeared on
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).
During the preceding period of fifty-four years the marine
force appeared and disappeared with war. It was a military
body, applied to naval purposes. Its main functions were three-
fold (i) for fighting in ships; (2) for seizing and holding land
positions necessary or advantageous to the naval operations of
war; (3) for maintaining discipline of the ships, and by " expert-
ness in handling arms to incite our seamen to the imitation of
them." Incidentally the force came to be regarded as so good
a feeder for the navy that Admiral Vernon (1739) urged " the
necessity of converting most of our marching regiments into
marines, and if; as they became seamen they were admitted to
be discharged as such, that would make a good nursery for the
breeding of them."
The organization of the force was purely military. Regiments
were embarked in fleets, and distributed in the ships. The
officers were interchangeable with those of the guards and line.
John Churchill (afterwards duke of Marlborough) and George
Rooke (afterwards Admiral Sir George Rooke) were together at
one time ensigns of marines. During this period the marines
were never regarded as a reserve for the fleet. The navy in
peace did without them. The necessities of maritime war
demanded a mobile military force adapted to naval conditions
and at naval disposal, and so in all naval operations during these
eighty-four years the marines played a conspicuous part. The
navy had been slowly groping towards a system. For example,
sea officers had been granted a uniform, and a naval academy
(1729) had been established for the education of young gentlemen
for the sea service. But in its main features the navy remained
in 1748 as it was in 1664. The sailor was kidnapped and forced
into ships, to become an outcast when no longer wanted. The
marine when not in a ship was comfortably housed and looked
after by his officers in barracks on shore.
In 1755 the marine force once more reappeared under the
Admiralty, and from that date its history has been continuous.
720
MARINES
But the regimental system was abandoned, and an entirely new
principle of organization was applied. Companies were raised,
and these companies were grouped into great depots, called
divisions, at Portsmouth, Plymouth and Chatham. At these
divisions this force could be increased and reduced at pleasure,
without disturbing the basis of organization, and from them could
be supplied as many or as few sea-soldiers as fleets or ships
needed, while preserving in the varying units so provided all
the essentials of uniformity of system, drill, training, ties of
comradeship and esprit de corps. This force then and for ninety-
eight years afterwards was the only continuously trained,
disciplined and organized fighting force placed by the country at
the disposal of naval officers. On the establishment of this new
marine force the purchase of commissions was abolished, but
interchange with the army was for a time permitted. When
embarked, marines were under the naval code of discipline;
when on shore, under the marine Mutiny Act, identical with that
of the army. When the seamen of the fleet mutinied at the Nore,
at the close of the i8th century, and turned their officers out of
the ships, the marines, undaunted, stood firm by theirs.
Mutiny lurked beneath the deck of many a ship before and
long years after that event. The control of admirals and
captains over their own men was precarious in the extreme.
This was the natural result of the country's neglect of its sea-
men. The discipline of the fleet in those days rested on the
firm bayonets of the marines. What England owes to them
may be gathered from Lord St Vincent's recorded testimony:
" There never was an appeal made to them for honour, courage
or loyalty, that they did not more than realize my highest
expectation. If ever real danger should come to England, the
marines will be found the country's sheet-anchor." At his
earnest solicitation the marines were made a royal corps in 1802.
It is worthy of note that in those days of masts, yards, sails
and pure seamanship, this greatest of naval statesmen, this
matchless naval strategist, whose practical experience of mari-
time war was unrivalled, strenuously advocated as the true
policy for England what in these days of steam and mastless
ships would be scouted and ridiculed. It was to make service
afloat as marines a part of the duty of every regiment of the
line in rotation.
Down to 1804 the marines were an infantry force; the improve-
ment in artillery towards the close of the century had necessitated
the occasional putting into the fleet of detachments of Royal
Artillery. This, as regards gunnery duties in the fleet, was
repeating on a smaller scale the expedient adopted in the time
of Charles II. So much friction arose between the naval and the
artillery officers that a special corps of Royal Marine Artillery
was raised in 1804, on the recommendation of Nelson. This
special corps fulfilled the expectations of its founders. It was
charged with the care, equipment and working of the larger
ordnance afloat and field-guns ashore, and was employed also as
a body of gunnery instructors to the fleet. In
1831, a certain number of naval officers being
thought to be sufficiently trained in gunnery,
this corps, of which Napier wrote, " Never in
my life have I seen soldiers like the Royal
Marine Artillery," was, without warning,
abolished. Then the marine force ceased to
be composed of two corps, artillery and
infantry, and it reverted to a single one of
infantry. Very soon afterwards, however, the
Admiralty began to. build up what they had
the official designation of the whole being Royal Marine Forces.
In 1855 the marine infantry corps became light infantry, and in
1869 the Woolwich division (added in 1805) was abolished; and
more recently a marine depot, as a feeder of the other divisions,
was established at Walmer. The headquarters of the R.M.A.
are at Eastney, Southsea. The divisions R.M.L.I. are at
Gosport, Chatham and Devonport. The uniform of the R.M.A.
is blue with red facings, that of R.M.L.I. red with blue facings.
The badge of both corps is the globe surrounded with the laurel
wreath, with the motto " Per mare per terrain." The Royal
Marine Forces share with the 3rd Battalion Grenadier Guards,
the East Kent Regiment (formerly the Buffs), and the Royal
London Militia the privilege of marching through the city of
London with colours flying, bands playing and bayonets fixed.
This is due to a common original association with the London
train bands.
War Services. To describe these would be to review the wars
waged by England by sea and by land for over 200 years. In every
sea fight, great or small, marines have taken part, and on every
continent they have served in big and little wars, sometimes as part
of the army, sometimes with naval contingents, sometimes alone.
Throughout the Napoleonic war the marines took part in every
sort of operation afloat and ashore. During the Crimean War,
mortar-boat flotillas in the Baltic and Black Sea were commanded
and manned by R.M.A., while comrades in the same corps served
with the Royal Artillery in the trenches before Sebastopol a marine
infantry brigade occupying the heights of Balaclava. During the
Indian Mutiny, marines (artillery and infantry) served with the
Naval Brigade under Peel. In the China wars batteries and brigades
of the marine force played a prominent part, and likewise were
represented in all the Egyptian and Sudan campaigns, 1881 to 1898.
In one action the R.M.A. gunners came to the relief of the Royal
Horse Artillery when exhausted, and fought their guns; in another
the R.M.A., out of the debris of the enemy's Krupp guns captured,
built up one complete gun and fought it with effect; in the final
campaign gunboats were brought up in pieces, put together and
fought by a detachment of the R.M.A.
In 1899 in the Boer War the marine artillery and infantry took
part with the Naval Brigade, maintaining their historic reputation,
and at the battle of Enslin their losses were exceptionally severe.
Characteristics of Marine System. The recruit first goes to the
depot at Walmer, and is trained as a soldier before joining his division
to complete instruction as a marine. His division is his permanent
military home, from which he goes on service and to which he returns
at its conclusion. Restrictions on marriage, necessary under the
army system, are not necessary in the marine forces. The permanent
home of the wife and family is not broken up by the marine going
abroad ; the wife thus can continue any local goodwill in any business
her industry may secure. This fixed home enables a marine to learn
a trade in the workshops of his division which supply the clothing,
&c., to the corps. Marines are enlisted for 12 years, and if of good
character they can re-engage to complete 21 years, entitling to pen-
sion. The periods of service abroad for marines are shorter (generally
3 years), but more constantly recurrent than for the army. The
administrative, as distinct from the instructional, staff necessary for
a marine division is more simple and less expensive than that of a
numerical army equivalent expressed in regiments. The system of
pay and accounts is also less complex. The following table shows the
relative proportions of marine forces to the whole navy at different
periods up to the South African War of 1899:
.
Year.
Navy
proper.
Officers
Marines.
Officers
Grand
Total.
Maritime.
Peace or
Percent.
Marines
to Total
Nature of Ships.
and Men.
and Men.
War.
Forces.
1805
90,000
30,000
120,000
War
25
Sailing.
(Trafalgar)
1838
23.165
9,000
32,165
|
28
Sailing.
1858
1878
40,219
42,046
14-919
13,727
55-138
55,773
> Peace
27
24
Sailing with auxiliary steam.
Steam with auxiliary sail.
1898
78,441'
17,099
95-540
J
17
Steam and mastless ships.
so suddenly and ruthlessly destroyed, by ordering the conver-
sion of one company of each infantry marine division into
artillery. The number of these artillery companies gradually
increased, and were grouped in a separate depot. Just as the
wars from Charles II. to George III. had demanded marines,
so the Crimean War led to their increase. Thus in 1859 the
artillery companies of marines were formed into a separate
division, and in 1862 the old name of Royal Marine Artillery
was restored.
The marines thus became once more and still remain two corps,
The above table indicates a gradual change in naval policy and
practice as regards marines. It will be observed that, concurrently
with the gradual disappearance of masts, sails and yards, the propor-
tion of marines has steadily declined. Down to very recent times
the marine spent more time ashore than afloat. Now the reverse
is the case.
By the introduction of the Continuous Service Act 1853, the blue-
jacket was placed on exactly the same footing as the marine in respect
1 Including 22,289 of the engineer branch providing the locomotion
of modern ships just as seamen from 1805-1858 provided it for
ships of the past.
MARINETTE MARINUS (POPES)
of conditions of service and pension, and now the blue-jacket when
not afloat is quartered in barracks. The main difference between the
blue-jacket and marine is the dress and the pay. The blue-jacket
is better paid than the marine. As regards opportunity of discipline,
there is now no difference; and in short, all the reasons for the exist-
ence of a marine force have disappeared except as regards duties
on shore incidental to naval operations of war, e.g. the holding of
ports and the seizing of minor positions necessary to prosecution
of maritime war. The facts that modern ships cannot now as
formerly carry a supernumerary force sufficient for such purposes,
and are more dependent on fixed bases of supply and repair than in
old days, point to a different method of using and applying the
marine force to the sole purpose for which they are now necessary
as a distinct branch Tof the naval service. If employed at the
headquarters of a naval station, their efficiency as marines could be
preserved by occasional embarcation of the officers and men in
rotation. The substitution of marine for army garrisons at coaling
stations would also relieve the army of a class of duties incidental
to naval warfare which the marine force formerly performed, and
which prejudicially affects the organization and arrangement of the
army as a mobile field force.
Marine Corps, United Stales. This dates from the establish-
ment of the American navy. It is a wholly separate military
body, though under the control of the Navy Department. It
was formed in 1775, and it has a history of brilliant services
rendered by land and sea in all the wars of America since that
date. The headquarters of the corps are at Washington, and the
strength of the corps was fixed by Act of Congress (March 3, 1899)
at 21 1 officers and 5920 non-commissioned officers and men. Its
organization and system are based on the British model, and the
dress corresponds to that of the United States army. The corps
is commanded by a brigadier-general who bears to the secretary
a relation similar to that of a chief of bureau. Although
the organization closely follows the army system, regimental
or even permanent battalion organizations are impracticable,
owing to their numerous and widely-separated stations.
Practically all shore stations have barracks where marines
are enlisted and drilled. At these places they also do sentry,
police and orderly duties. From such stations they are sent to
ships for sea duty. Nearly all ships carry a body of marines
known as the guard, varying in size from a few men commanded
by a sergeant, on small .ships, to eighty or more, with one or more
commissioned officers, on large vessels. It is customary to cause
all marines to serve at sea three of the four years of each enlist-
ment. On board ship they perform sentry and orderly duty,
and assist in police duties. They are also instructed in many
exercises pertaining to the navy, as rowing, naval signalling,
gun drill, &c. In action they act as riflemen, and on many
ships serve a portion of the guns. When circumstances require
a force to be landed from ships present to guard American
interests in foreign countries, legations, &c., the marine guard is
usually sent, though, if numerically insufficient, sailors are
landed also. Marines also garrison places beyond the terri-
torial limits of the United States which are under navy
control. Candidates for first enlistment must be between
the ages of 21 and 35 and unmarried, must be citizens of the
United States, be able to read, write and speak English,
and pass a physical examination. Second lieutenants are
appointed from civil life after examination or from the graduates
of the Naval Academy. Promotion is by seniority as in the
navy.
Admiral Farragut's opinion that " the marine guard is one of the
great essentials of a man-of-war " is corroborated by that of Admiral
Wilkes, who considered that " marines constituted the great differ-
ence between a man-of-war and a privateer." In the famous battles
between the " Bonhomme Richard " and " Serapis " in 1777, and
in that between the " Chesapeake " and " Shannon," the American
marines displayed brilliant gallantry; and while on the one hand
they at Derne in 1803 first planted the American flag on a fortress of
the Old World, for which exploit " Tripoli " is inscribed on their
colours, they on the other shared in the hard fighting of the Mexican
War as well as all the important coast actions of the Civil War of
1861-65. A proposal to incorporate them with the army after the
struggle met with universal condemnation from the authorities
best qualified to judge of their value. A brigade of three battalions
served in the Philippines in 1899. Their device is a globe resting on
an anchor and surmounted by an eagle. " Ever faithful " is the
title which Captain Luce, the historian of the force, appropriately
applies to them. (J. C. R. C.)
721
MARINETTE, a city and the county-seat of Marinette county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., 162 m. N. of Milwaukee, on the W. shore of
Green Bay, at the mouth of the Menominee River. Pop. (1890),
IT >5 2 3; ( 1 9Oo), 16,105, of whom 5542 were foreign-born; (1005),
I 5<354', (191), 14,610. It is served directly by the Wisconsin
& Michigan, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago
& North-Western railways, and by several steamboat lines
connecting with lake ports; and is connected by ferry with
Frankfort, Michigan (served by the Ann Arbor railroad). The
city has a fine harbour and a considerable commerce in iron and
lumber products. Five bridges connect Marinette with Menomi-
nee, Michigan, on the other side of the river. Marinette has a
Federal building; the Stephenson public library, founded by
Senator Isaac Stephenson (b. 1829), a local " lumber king "; a
county agricultural school and training school for rural teachers,
and three public parks. The Northern Chautauqua Assembly
holds its annual summer session in Chautauqua Park, on the shore
of Green Bay. The growth of Marinette began with the develop-
ment of the neighbouring pine forests; and the manufacture of
lumber and lumber products has always been its principal
industry. The water-power of the Menominee River is largely
utilized for the manufacture of paper and flour. Other manufac-
tures are boxes, furniture and woodware, boats, boilers and agri-
cultural machinery. In 1905 the factory products were valued
at $3,633,399. The first white settlement was made here on the
site of a Menominee Indian village in 1830, and the city was
named in honour of the daughter of an Indian chief, Marinette
(Jacobs), whose name was a composite of Marie and Antoinette.
A city charter was granted in 1887.
MARINI (or MARINO), GIAMBATTISTA (1569-1625), Italian
poet, was born at Naples on the i8th of October 1569. After
a somewhat disreputable youth, during which he became known
for his Canzone de' bad, he secured the powerful patronage of
Cardinal Aldobrandini, whom he accompanied from Rome to
Ravenna and Turin. An edition of his poems, La Lira, was
published at Venice in 1602-1614. His ungoverned pen and dis-
ordered life compelled him to leave Turin and take refuge from
1615 to 1622 in Paris, where he was favourably recognized by
Marie de' Medici. There his long poem Adone was published in
1623. He died at Naples on the zsth of March 1625. The
licence, extravagance and conceits of Marini, the chief of the
school of " Secentisti " (see ITALY: Literature), were character-
istic of a period of literary decadence.
See M. Menghini, G. B. Marini (Rome, 1888).
MARINO, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 m.
S.E. of it by rail, and also accessible by electric tramway.
Pop. (1901), 7307. It is picturesquely situated on a spur of the
Alban Hills, 1165 ft. above sea level, and occupies the site of
the ancient Castrimoenium, a municipium of no great importance,
though the surrounding district, which now produces much
wine, is full of remains of ancient villas. The origin of the
name is uncertain; perhaps it is derived from the medieval
Moreno, (itself derived from the Latin M arena, from one of the
Roman owners of the district), a name originally given to the
lower ground between the 9th and nth mile of the Via Latina.
In the early i3th century it belonged to the Frangipani family,
but passed into the hands of the Orsini in 1266. In 1378 a
battle took place here between the partisans of Urban VI. and
those of the anti-pope Clement VII. of Geneva (the Orsini
having taken the side of the latter), who were, however, defeated;
and in 1399 Marino was apparently under the Papacy. In 1408
it passed to the Colonna family, to whom it still belongs. There
are some remains of the medieval fortifications.
See G. Tomassetti, La Via latino nel media evo (Rome, 1886), p. 96
seq.; T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iv.
(1907)- (T. As.)
MARINUS, the name of two popes. MARINUS I., sometimes
called Martin II., pope from 882 to 884, was the son of a Tuscan
priest, and entered the church at an early age, becoming a
deacon about 862. Three successive popes sent him as legate
to Constantinople, his mission in each case having reference to
722
the controversy excited by Photius (q.ii.) ; and having become an
archdeacon and a bishop, he also negotiated on behalf of pope
John VIII. with the emperor Charles the Fat. About the end
of December 882 he succeeded John VIII. as pope, but his elec-
tion did not pass unchallenged either in eastern or in western
Europe. However, having secured his position, Marinus
restored Formosus, cardinal-bishop of Porto, and anathematized
Photius. This pope was on friendly terms with the English
king, Alfred the Great. He died in May 884, and was succeeded
by Adrian III.
MARINUS II., sometimes called Martin III., pope from 942
to 946, was merely the puppet of Alberic (d. 954), prince and
senator of the Romans. He died in May 946, and was succeeded
by Agapetus II.
MARINUS, neo-Platonist philosopher, was born in Palestine
and was early converted to the old Greek religion. He came to
Athens at a time when, with the exception of Proclus, there was
a great dearth of eminent men in the neo-Platonic school. It
was for this reason rather than for any striking ability of his
own that he succeeded to the headship of the school on the
death of Proclus. During this period the professors of the old
Greek religion suffered severe persecution at the hands of the
Christians and Marinus was compelled to seek refuge at
Epidaurus. His chief work was a biography of Proclus, which
is extant. It was first published with the works of Marcus
Antoninus in 1559; it was republished separately by Fabricius
at Hamburg in 1700, and re-edited in 1814 by Boissonade with
emendations and notes. Other philosophical works are attri-
buted to him, including commentaries on Aristotle and on the
Philebus. It is said that he destroyed the latter because Isidore,
his successor, expressed disapproval of it.
MARINUS OF TYRE, geographer and mathematician, the
founder of mathematical geography, flourished in the 2nd cen-
tury A.D. He lived before Ptolemy, who acknowledges his great
obligations to him. His chief merits were that he assigned to
each place its proper latitude and longtitude, and introduced
improvements in the construction of his maps. He also care-
fully studied the works of his predecessors and the diaries of
travellers. His geographical treatise is lost.
See A. Forbiger, Handbuch der alien Geographic, vol. i. (1842) ; E. H.
Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography (1879), ii. p. 519; and especially
E. H. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen
(1903)-
MARIO, GIUSEPPE, COUNT or CANDIA (1810-1883), Italian
singer, the most famous tenor of the igth century, son of General
di Candia, was born at Cagliari in 1810. His career as a singer
was the result of accidental circumstances. While serving as an
officer in the Sardinian army he was imprisoned at Cagliari for
some trifling offence. When his period of confinement was over,
he resigned his commission. His resignation was refused, and
he fled to Paris. There his success as an amateur vocalist
produced an offer of an engagement at the Opera. He studied
singing for two years under M. Ponchard and Signor Bordogni,
and made his debut in 1838 as the hero of Meyerbeer's Robert le
Diable. His success was immediate and complete, but he did
not stay long at the Opera. In 1839 he joined the company of
the Theatre Italien, which then included Malibran, Sontag,
Persiani and Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache. His
first appearance here was made in the character of Nemorino
in Donizetti's Elisir d'Amore. He sang in London for the first
time in the same year. His success in Italian opera far surpassed
that which he had won in French, and in a short time he acquired
a European reputation. He had a handsome face and a graceful
figure, and his voice, though less powerful than that of Rubini
or that of Tamberlik, had a velvety softness and richness which
have never been equalled. Experience gave him ease as an
actor, but he never excelled in tragic parts. He was an ideal
stage lover, and he retained the grace and charm of youth long
after his voice had begun to show signs of decay. He created
very few new parts, that of Ernesto in Don Pasquale (1843) being
perhaps the only one deserving of mention. Among the most
successful of his other parts were Otello in Rossini's opera of that
MARINUS MARION, H. F.
name, Gennaro in Lucrezia Borgia, Alamviva in // Barbiere di
Siviglia, Fernando in La Fawrita, and Manrico in // Trovatore.
Mario made occasional appearances in oratorio singing at the
Birmingham Festival of 1849 and at the Hereford Festival of
1855, and undertook various concert tours in the United King-
dom, but his name is principally associated with triumphs in
the theatre. In 1856 he married Giulia Grisi, the famous
soprano, by whom he had five daughters. Mario bade farewell
to the stage in 1871. He died at Rome in reduced circumstances
on the nth of December 1883.
MARION, FRANCIS (1732-1795), American soldier, was
born in 1732, probably at Winyah, near Georgetown, South
Carolina, of Huguenot ancestry. In 1759 he settled on Pond
Bluff plantation near Eutaw Springs, in St John's parish,
Berkeley county. In 1761 he served as a lieutenant under
William Moultrie in a campaign against the Cherokees. In 1775
he was a member of the South Carolina Provincial Congress ; and
on the 2ist of June was commissioned captain in the 2nd South
Carolina regiment under W. Moultrie, with whom he served in
June 1776 in the defence of Fort Sullivan (Fort Moultrie), in
Charleston Harbor. In September 1776 the Continental Congress
commissioned him a lieutenant-colonel. In the autumn of 1 7 79 he
took part in the siege of Savannah, and early in 1780, under
General Benjamin Lincoln, was engaged in drilling militia.
After the capture of Charleston (May 12, 1780) and the defeats of
General Isaac Huger at Monk's Corner (Berkeley county, South
Carolina) and Lieut. -Colonel Abraham Buford at the Waxhaws
(near the North Carolina line, in what is now Lancaster county),
Marion organized a small troop which usually consisted of
between 20 and 70 men the only force then opposing the
British in the state. Governor John Rutledge made him a
brigadier-general of state troops, and in August 1780 Marion
took command of the scanty militia, ill equipped and ill fed.
With this force he was identified for almost all the remainder of
the war in a partisan warfare in which he showed himself a
singularly able leader of irregular troops. On the 2oth of August
he captured 150 Maryland prisoners, and about a score of their
British guard; and in September and October repeatedly sur-
prised larger bodies of Loyalists or British regulars. Colonel
Banastre Tarleton, sent out to capture him, despaired of finding
the " old swamp fox," who eluded him by following swamp paths.
When General Nathanael Greene took command in the south,
Marion and Colonel Henry Lee were ordered in January 1781 to
attack Georgetown, but they were unsuccessful. In April,
however, they took Fort Watson and in May Fort Motte, and
they succeeded in breaking communications between the British
posts in the Carolinas. On the 3ist of August Marion rescued
a small American force hemmed in by Major C. Fraser with 500
British; and for this he received the thanks of Congress. He
commanded the right wing under General Greene at Eutaw
Springs. In 1782, during his absence as state senator at Jack-
sonborough, his brigade deteriorated and there was a conspiracy
to turn him over to the British. In June of the same year he
put down a Loyalist uprising on the banks of the Pedee river;
and in August he left his brigade and returned to his plantation.
He served several terms in the state Senate, and in 1784, in recog-
nition of his services, was made commander of Fort Johnson,
practically a courtesy title with a salary of 500 per annum.
He died on his estate on the 27th of February 1795. Marion
was small, slight and sickly-looking. As a soldier he was quick,
watchful, resourceful and calm, the greatest of partisan leaders
in the bitter struggle in the Carolinas.
See the Life (New York, 1844) by W. G. Simms ; Edward McCrady,
South Carolina in the Revolution (New York, 1901-1902) ; and a
careful study of Marion's ancestry and early life by " R. Y." in
vols. i. and ii. of the Southern and Western Monthly Magazine and
Review (Charleston, 1845).
MARION, HENRI FRANCOIS (1846-1896), French philosopher
and educationalist, was born at Saint-Parize-en-Viry (Nievre)
on the gth of September 1846. He studied at Nevers, and at the
Ecole Normale, where he graduated in 1868. After occupying
several minor positions, he returned to Paris in 1875 as professor
MARION MARIONETTES
723
of the Lycee Henri IV., and in 1880 he became docleur-es-lettres.
In the same year he was elected a member of the Council of
Public Instruction, and devoted himself to improving the scheme
of French education, especially in girls' schools. He was largely
instrumental in the foundation of ecoles normales in provincial
towns, and himself gave courses of lectures on psychology and
practical ethics in their early days. He died in Paris on the 5th
of April 1896.
His chief philosophical works were an edition of the Theodicee of
Leibnitz (1874), a monograph on Locke (1878), Devoirs et droits de
I'homme (1880), Glissonius utrum Leibnitio de natura substantiae
cogitanti quidquam tribuerit (1880) ; De La solidarM morale (4th ed.,
1893). His lectures at Fontenoy have been published in two volumes
entitled Lemons de psychologic appliquee a I'education, and Lemons
de morale ; those delivered at the Sorbonne are collected in L 'Educa-
tion dans I'universile (1892).
MARION, a city and the county-seat of Grant county, Indiana,
U.S.A., about 60 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, on the Mississinewa
River. Pop. (1910), 19,359. It is served by the Chicago, Cincin-
nati & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo,
St Louis & Western railways, and by interurban electric lines
connecting with Indianapolis, Muncie, Fort Wayne, Kokomo
and many other towns and cities. The city is the seat of the
Marion Normal College and Business University, and has a
Carnegie library. Marion lies in a good farming country and
in the centre of the state's natural gas region. Among the
manufactures are glass, stoves, iron bedsteads, foundry and
machine-shop products, steel, planing-mill products, paper and
pulp, and leather. The total value of the factory products in
1905 was $4,290,166, the value of the glass product alone being
$1,042,057, or 24.3% of the total. Marion was settled in 1832,
and was named in honour of General Francis Marion.
MARION, a city and the county-seat of Marion county,
Ohio, U.S.A., 44m.N. by W. of Columbus. Pop. (1900), 11,862,
including 782 foreign-born and 112 negroes; (1910), 18,232.
Marion is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, and the Hocking Valley railways,
and by interurban electric railway to Columbus. It is the trade
centre of a rich farming district. Limestone is abundant, and
the city has various manufactures, including lime, foundry and
machine-shop products, agricultural implements, planing-mill
products, engines, steam shovels, dredges, pianos and silks.
In 1905 the value of factory products was $3,227,712, being
33.1 % greater than in 1900. Marion was laid out in 1821, and
was chartered as a city in 1890.
MARIONETTES (probably from Ital. morio, a fool or buffoon,
but also said to be derived from the mariolettes, or little figures of
the Virgin Mary), FANTOCCINI (fromfantino, a child) or PUPPETS
(Fr. poupee Lat. pupa, a baby or doll), the names given to
figures, generally below life-size, suspended by threads or wires
and imitating with their limbs and heads the movements of
living persons.
The high antiquity of puppets appears from the fact that
figures with movable limbs have been discovered in the tombs
of Egypt and among the remains of Etruria; they were also
common among the Greeks, from whom [they were imported to
Rome. Plays in which the characters are represented by puppets
or by the shadows of moving figures, worked by concealed
performers who deliver the dialogue, are not only popular in
India and China, but during several centuries past maintained
an important position among the- amusements of the people
in most European countries. Goethe and Lessing deemed them
worthy of attention; and in 1721 Le Sage wrote plays for puppets
to perform.
The earliest performances in English were drawn or founded
upon Bible narratives and the lives of the saints, in the same
vein as the " morality " plays which they succeeded. Popular
subjects in the i6th century were The Prodigal Son and Nineveh,
with Jonah and the Whale. And in a pamphlet of 1641, de-
scribing Bartholomew Fair, we read, " Here a knave in a fool's
coat, with a trumpet sounding or a drum beating, invites you
to see his puppets. Here a rogue like a wild woodman, or in an
antic shape like an incubus, desires your company to view his
motion." In 1667 Pepys recorded how at Bartholomew Fair
he found " my Lady Castlemaine at a puppet play, Patient
Grizill." Besides The Sorrows of Griselda, other puppet plays
of the period were Dick Whittinglon, The Vagaries of Merry
Andrew, and The Humours of Bartholomew Fair. Powell's
noted marionette show was the subject of an article in The
Taller, 1709, and again in The Spectator, 1711. The latter refers
also to Pinkethman, a " motion-maker," in whose scenes the
divinities of Olympus ascended and descended to the strains
of music. An idea of the class of representation may be gathered
from an advertisement of Crawley, a rival of Pinkethman, which
sets forth" The Old Creation of the World, with the addition
of Noah's Flood," also several fountains playing water during
the time of the play. The best scene represented " Noah and
his family coming out of the ark, with all the animals two by
two, and all the fowls of the air seen in a prospect sitting upon
trees; likewise over the ark is the sun rising in a gorgeous manner;
moreover a multitude of angels in a double rank," the angels
ringing bells. " Likewise machines descending from above,
double, with Dives rising out of hell and Lazarus seen in
Abraham's bosom; besides several figures dancing jiggs, sara-
bands, and country dances, with the merry conceits of Squire
Punch and Sir John Spendall." Yates showed a moving picture
of a city, with an artificial cascade, and a temple with mechani-
cal birds in which attention was called to the exact imitation
of living birds, the quick motion of the bills, just swelling of
the throat, and fluttering of the wings. The puppets were
wax figures 5 ft. in stature. Toward the end of the i8th century,
Flockton's show presented five hundred figures at work at
various trades. Brown's Theatre of Arts showed at country
fairs, from 1830 to 1840, the battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon's
army crossing the Alps, and the marble palace of St Petersburg;
and at a still later date Clapton's similar exhibition presented
Grace Darling rescuing the crew of the " Forfarshire " steamer
wrecked on the Fern Islands, with many ingenious moving
figures of quadrupeds, and, in particular, a swan which dipped
its head into imitation water, opened its wings, and with flexible
neck preened and trimmed its plumage. In these mechanical
scenes the figures, painted upon a flat surface and cut out,
commonly of pasteboard, are slid along grooves arranged trans-
versely in front of the set scenery, the actions of legs and arms
being worked by wires from the hands of persons below the
stage, though sometimes use is made of clockwork. In recent
days the literature for the marionette stage has had an important
literary recruit in the person of the Belgian author Maurice
Maeterlinck.
Marionettes proper, and the dolls exhibited in puppet shows (not
including Punch and his companion actors), are constructed of wood
or of pasteboard, with faces of composition, sometimes of wax; and
each figure is suspended by a number of threads to a short bar of
wood which is commonly held in one hand of the hidden performer
while the finger of his other hand poses the figure or gives action
to it by means of the threads. In the mode of constructing the
joints, and the greater elaboration with which the several parts of
the limbs are supported and moved, and especially in the fine degrees
of movement given to the heads, marionettes have been so improved
as to present very exact imitations of the gestures of actors and
actresses, and the postures and evolutions of acrobats; and, in
addition, ingenious exhibitors such as Theodon, who introduced
many novelties in the "sixties of the igth century, have employed
mechanical arrangements for accomplishing the tncks of pantomime
harlequinade. Among the puppet personages presented in the small
street shows are generally included a sailor who dances a hornpipe,
a hoop-dancer, a dancer of the Highland fling, a wooden-legged
pensioner, a vaulter on a pole also balancing two chairs, a clown
playing with a butterfly, a dancing figure without head until the
head rises out of the body, gradually displaying an enormously long
neck, and a skeleton, seen at first in scattered parts lying about the
stage, but piece successively flying to piece, the body first sitting
up, then standing, and finally capped by the skull, when the com-
pleted figure begins to dance.
Ombres Chinoises are performances by means of the shadows of
figures projected upon a stretched sheet of thin calico or a gauze
scene painted as a transparency. The cardboard flat figures are
held behind this screen, illuminated from behind the performer
supporting each figure by a long wire held in one hand while wires
724
MARIOTTE MARITIME PROVINCE
from all the movable parts terminate in rings in which are inserted
the fingers of his other hand.
See also C. Magnin, Histoire des marionettes (1852 ; 2nd ed., 1862)
L. de Neuville, Histoire des marionettes (1892).
MARIOTTE, EDME (c. 1620-1684), French physicist, spent
most of his life at Dijon, where he was prior of St Martin sous
Beaune. He was one of the first members of the Academy of
Sciences founded at Paris in 1666. He died at Paris on the
1 2th of May 1684. The first volume of the Histoire el mtmoires
de I'Academie (1733) contains many original papers by him upon
a great variety of physical subjects, such as the motion of fluids,
the nature of colour, the notes of the trumpet, the barometer,
the fall of bodies, the recoil of guns, the freezing of water, &c.
His Essais de physique, four in number, of which the first three
were published at Paris between 1676 and 1679, are his most im-
portant works, and form, together with a Traite de la percussion
des corps, the first volume of the (Euvres de Mariotte (2 vols., Leiden,
1717). The second of these essays (De La nature de Vair) contains
the statement of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely
as the pressure, which, though very generally called by the name
of Mariotte, had been discovered in 1660 by Robert Boyle. The
fourth essay is a systematic treatment of the nature of colour, with
a description of many curious experiments and a discussion of the
rainbow, halos, parhelia, diffraction, and the more purely physio-
logical_ phenomena of colour. The discovery of the blind spot is
noted in a short paper in the second volume of his collected works.
MARIPOSAN, or YOKUTS, a linguistic stock of North Ameri-
can Indians, including some 40 small tribes. Its former territory
was in southern California, around Tulare lake. The Mari-
posans were fishers and hunters. Their villages consisted of a
single row of wedge-shaped huts, with an awning of brush along
the front. In 1850 they numbered some 3000; in 1905 there
were 1 54 on the Tule river reservation.
MARIS, JACOB (1837-1899), Dutch painter, first studied at
the Antwerp Academy, and subsequently in Hebert's studio
during a stay in Paris from 1865 till 1871. He returned to
Holland when the Franco- Prussian War broke out, and died
there in August 1899. Though he painted, especially in early
life, domestic scenes and interiors invested with deeply sym-
pathetic feeling, it is as a landscape painter that Maris will be
famous. He was the painter of bridges and windmills, of old
quays, massive towers, and level banks; even more was he the
painter of water, and misty skies, and chasing clouds. In all
his works, whether in water or oil colour, and in his etchings, the
subject is always subordinate to the effect. His art is suggestive
rather than decorative, and his force does not seem to depend
on any preconceived method, such as a synthetical treatment
of form or gradations of tone. And yet, though his means
appear so simple, the artist's mind seems to communicate with
the spectator's by directness of, pictorial instinct, and we have
only to observe the admirable balance of composition and
truthful perspective to understand the sure knowledge of his
business that underlies such purely impressionist handling.
Maris has shown all that is gravest or brightest hi the landscape
of Holland, all that is heaviest or clearest in its atmosphere
for instance, in the " Grey Tower, Old Amsterdam," in the
" Landscape near Dordrecht," in.the " Sea-weed Carts, Scheven-
ingen," in " A Village Scene," and in the numerous other
pictures which have been exhibited in the Royal Academy,
London, in Edinburgh (1885), Paris, Brussels and Holland,
and in various private collections. " No painter," says M.
Philippe Zilcken, " has so well expressed the ethereal effects,
bathed in air and light through floating silvery mist, in which
painters delight, and the characteristic remote horizons blurred
by haze; or again, the grey yet luminous weather of Holland,
unlike the dead grey rain of England or the heavy sky of Paris."
See Max Rooses, Dutch Painters of the Nineteenth Century (London,
1899) ; R. A. M. Stevenson, " Jacob Maris," Magazine of Art (1900) ;
Ph. Zilcken, Peintres Hollandais modernes (Amsterdam, 1893) ; Jan
Veth, Een Studie over Jacob Maris," Onze Kunst (Antwerp, 1902).
MARITIME PROVINCE (Russ., Primorskaya Oblast), a
province of Russia, in East Siberia. It consists of a strip of
territory along the coast of the Pacific from Korea to the Arctic
Ocean, including also the peninsula of Kamchatka, part of the
island of Sakhalin, and several small islands along the coast.
Its western boundary stretches northwards from a point S.W.
of Peter the Great Bay (42 40' N.) by Lake Hanka or Khanka
and along the Usuri, then goes due north from the mouth of
the Usuri as far as 52 N., runs along the Stanovoi watershed,
crosses the spurs of this plateau through barren tundras, and
finally reaches the Arctic Ocean at Chaun Bay (70 N.). Area,
715,735 sq. m.
The northern part lies between the Arctic Ocean and the Seas
of Bering and Okhotsk, and has the character of a barren plateau
1000 to 2000 ft. high, deeply indented by the rivers of the Anadyr
basin and by long fiords, such as Kolyuchm Bay (the wintering-place
of Nordenskjold s " Vega "), the Gulf of Anadyr, and the Bays of
Penzhina and Ghizhiga. To the north this plateau is bordered by
a chain of mountains, several summits of which reach 8000 ft.
(Makachinga peak), while the promontories by which the Asiatic
continent terminates towards Bering Strait run up to 1000 to 2000
ft. Only lichens and mosses, with a few dwarf species of Siberian
trees, grow in this district. The fauna, however, is far richer than
might be expected. A few American birds and mammals cross the
strait when it is frozen. This country, and the seas which surround
it, have for the last two centuries supplied Siberian trade with its
best furs. The blue fox and black sable have been nearly extermi-
nated, and the whale has become very rare. The sea-otter is rapidly
becoming extinct, as well as the sea-lion (Otaria stelleri) while the
sea-cow (Rhytina stelleri) was completely extirpated in the course
of forty years. The sea-bear (Otaria ursina), which at one time
seemed likely to meet with the same fate, is now nearly domesticated,
and multiplies rapidly. The middle part of the province is a narrow
strip (40 to 60 m. wide) along the Sea of Okhotsk, including the basm
of the Uda in the south. This area is occupied by rugged mountains,
4000107000 ft. high, forming the eastern border of the high plateau
of East Siberia. Thick forests of larch clothe the mountains half
way up, as well as the deep valleys. The undulating hills of the
basin of the Uda, which is a continuation to the south-west, between
the Stanovoi and Bureya mountains, of the deep indentation of the
Sea of Okhotsk, are covered with forests and marshes.
The southern part of the province includes two distinct regions.
From the north-eastern extremity of the Bureya, or Little Khingan
range, of which the group of the Shantar Islands is a continuation,
a wide, deep depression runs south-west to the confluence of the
Amur and the Usuri, and thence to the lowlands of the lower Sungari.
This is for the most part less than 500 ft. above sea-level. The
region on the right banks of the Amur and the Usuri, between these
rivers and the coast, is occupied by several systems of mountains,
usually represented as a single range, the Sikhota-alin. The summits
reach 5150 ft. (Golaya Gora), and the average elevation of the few
passes is about 2500 ft. There is, however, one depression occupied
by Lake Kidzi, which may have been at one time an outflow of the
Amur to the sea. The Sikhota-alin mountains are covered with
impenetrable forests. The flora and! fauna of this region (especially
in the Usuri district) exhibit a striking combination of species of
warm climates with those of subarctic regions; the wild vine clings
to the larch and the cedar-pine, and the tiger meets the bear and
the sable. The quantity of fish in the rivers is immense, and in
August the Amur and the Usuri swarm with salmon.
The best part of the Maritime Province is at its southern extremity
in the valley of the Suifeng river, which enters the Pacific in the
Gulf of Peter the Great, and on the shores of the bays of the southern
coast. But even there the climate is very harsh. The warm sea-
current of the Kurp-Siwo does not reach the coasts of Siberia, while
a cold current originating in the Sea of Okhotsk brings its icy water
and chilling fogs to the coasts of Sakhalin, and flows along the Pacific
shore to the eastern coast of Korea. The high mountains of the
sea-coast and the monsoons of the Chinese Sea produce in the southern
parts of the Maritime Province cold winters and wet summers.
Accordingly, at Vladivostok (on the Gulf of Peter the Great), although
t has the same latitude as Marseilles, the average yearly temperature
Is only 39-5 F., and the harbour is frozen for nearly three months
!n the year; the Amur and the Usuri are frozen in November. To-
wards the end of summer the moist monsoons bring heavy rains,
which destroy the harvests and give rise to serious inundations of
the Amur. The sea-coast farther north has a continental and arctic
climate. At Nikolayevsk, temperatures as low as 41-5 F. are
observed in winter, and as high as 94-6 in summer, the average
yearly temperature being below zero (0-9). At Ayan (56 27' N.)
:he average temperature of the year is 25-5 (0-4 in winter and
50-5 in summer), and at Okhotsk. (59 21' N.) it is 23 (6 in winter
and 52-5 in summer).
Russian settlements occur throughout the whole of the province,
DUt, with the exception of those on the banks of the Amur and the
Usuri, and the southern ports of the sea-coast, they are mere centres
of administration.
Okhotsk is one of the oldest towns of East Siberia, having been
bunded in 1649. Nikolayevsk, on the left bank of the Amur, was
'ormcrly the capital of the Maritime Province; but the difficulties
of navigation and of communication with the interior, and the
complete failure of the governmental colonization of the Amur,
MARITIME TERRITORY MARIUS
725
caused the seat of government to be transferred to Khabarovsk.
Since the loss (1905) of Port Arthur to the Japanese, Vladivostok
on Peter the Great Bay has again become the chief naval station
of Russia on the Pacific. The trade is in the hands of the Chinese,
who export stags' horns, seaweed and mushrooms, and of the
Germans, who import groceries and spirits.
The total population was 209,516 in 1897, of whom 57*7% were
Russians, the others being Tunguses, Golds, Orochons, Lamuts,
Chuvantses, Chukchis, Koryaks, Ghilyaks and Kamchadales.
Their chief occupations are hunting and fishing; the Russians carry
on agriculture and trade in furs. Active measures were taken in
1883-1897 for increasing the Russian population in the South Usuri
district, the result being that over 29,000 immigrants, chiefly Little
Russian peasants, settled there; while Cossacks from the Don and
Orenburg came to settle among the Usuri Cossacks. Agriculture is
gradually developing in the South Usuri region. Gold-mining has
been started on the Amgufi, a tributary of the Amur. Coal is found
near Vladivostok, as well as in Kamchatka. Roads exist only in
the South Usuri district. A railway runs from Vladivostok to
Nikolsk (69 m.), and thence to Khabarovsk along the right bank
of the Usuri (412 m.). At Nikolsk the Manchurian railway begins.
(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
MARITIME TERRITORY, a term used in international law
to denote coastal waters which are not Territorial Waters though
in immediate contact with the sea. In the case of Territorial
Waters (q.v.) the dominion of the adjacent state is subject to
a limitation. Dominion over maritime territory is not subject
to any limitation. Thus any strait through which the right of
passage of foreign vessels can be forbidden (as the Solent or
the Inland Sea of Japan), or bays so land-locked that they cannot
be held to form part of any ocean-highway, are maritime territory.
MARIUPOL, a seaport of Russia, on the north shore of the
Sea of Azov, at the mouth of the Kalmius, in the government
of Ekaterinoslav, 67 m. W. of Taganrog. Pop. (1900), 52,770,
including the inhabitants of two suburbs, Mariinsk and Kara-su.
The place is said to have been inhabited in remote times under
the name of Adamakha; the present town was built only in
1779, by Greek emigrants from the Crimea. Its inhabitants
are engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, fishing, and the
manufacture of leather, agricultural implements, iron goods
and bricks. In export trade Mariupol ranks next to Taganrog
among the ports of the Sea of Azov; but its harbour is open
to the south-east and shallow, though it is being gradually
deepened by systematic dredging. The principal articles of
export are cereals, with some oilcake, phosphate and coal; but
the total value is only about 2,000,000 annually. The imports
do not reach a quarter of a million sterling.
MARIUS OF AVENCHES (or AVENTICUM) (d. 593 or 594),
chronicler and ecclesiastic, was born in the neighbourhood of
Autun probably in 530, and became bishop of Avenches about
573. In addition to being a good bishop, Marius was a clever
goldsmith; he was present at the council of Macon in 585, and
transferred the seat of his bishopric from Avenches to Lausanne.
He died on the 3ist of December 593 or 594. As a continuation
of the Chronicon of Prosper of Aquitaine, Marius wrote a short
Chronicon dealing with the period from 455 to 581; and although
he borrowed from various sources his work has some importance
for the history of Burgundy. Regarding himself and his land
as still under the authority of the Roman empire, he dates his
Chronicon according to the years of the Roman consuls and of
the East Roman emperors.
The only extant manuscript of the Chronicon is in the British
Museum. Among several editions may be mentioned the one in
the Monumenta Germaniae historica, chronica minora, Band II.
(1893), with introduction by T. Mommsen. See also W. Arndt,
Bischof Marius von Aventicum (Leipzig, 1875); and W. Wattenbach,
DeutsMands Geschichtsquellen, Bd. I. (1904).
MARIUS, GAIUS (155-86 B.C.), Roman general, of plebeian
descent, the son of a small farmer of Cereatae (mod. Casamare,
" home of Marius ") near Arpinum. He served first in Spain
under the great Scipio Africanus, and rose from the ranks to
be an officer. In 119 as tribune he proposed a law intended
to limit the influence of the nobles at elections. This brought
him into conflict with the aristocratic party, who prevented
him from obtaining the aedileship. When about forty years
of age he married a lady of patrician rank, Julia, the aunt of
Julius Caesar. This gave him a new social status, and being
at the same time a popular favourite and a brave, energetic
soldier, he was in 115 elected praetor, in which capacity he
effected the subjugation of the troublesome province of Further
Spain. In the war with Jugurtha (109-106) he came to the
front as lieutenant of the consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus
Numidicus. When he had already achieved some important
successes over Jugurtha (q.v.), in 107 he was elected consul for
the first time (an almost unheard-of honour for a " new man "),
his popularity with the army and people being sufficient to
bear down all opposition. In the following year, in conjunction
with Sulla, he brought the war to a triumphant issue, and passed
two years in his province of Numidia, which he thoroughly
subdued and annexed. The surrender of the person of Jugurtha
to Sulla gave rise to the view that he, not Marius, had really
ended the war, and so laid the foundation of the subsequent
enmity between the two leaders.
By this time Marius was generally recognized as the ablest
general of the day, and was appointed to the chief command
against the Cimbri and Teutones. Two Roman armies had
been destroyed near the Lake of Geneva, and it seemed as if a
repetition of the disaster of the Allia and the capture of Rome
itself might not be impossible. Marius, out of unpromising
materials and a demoralized soldiery, organized a well-disciplined
army, with which he inflicted on the invaders two decisive
defeats, the first in 102 at Aquae Sextiae (Aix), 18 m. north of
Marseilles, and the second in the following year on the Raudian
plain near Vercellae (Vercelli), about midway between Turin
and Milan. For some centuries afterwards Rome remained
unmolested by northern barbarians. In 101 Marius was elected
consul a fifth time (previously in 107, 104, 103, 102), hailed as
the " saviour of his country," and honoured with a triumph of
unprecedented splendour.
The glorious part of his career was now over. Though a
very able soldier, he was without the intellectual culture which
the Gracchi, his political ancestors, possessed. As a politician
he on the whole failed, though he retained the confidence of
the popular party almost to the last. But he unfortunately
associated himself with the demagogues Saturninus (q.v.) and
Glaucia, in order to secure the consulship for the sixth time
(100). The manner in which he turned against his former
associates (although he probably had no choice in the matter)
alienated the sympathies of the plebs; and Marius, feeling that
his only chance of rehabilitation lay in war, left Rome for Asia,
where he endeavoured to provoke Mithradates to hostilities.
On his return he served as legate in the Social War (90), and
defeated the Marsi on two occasions. In 88 war broke out with
Mithradates, and Sulla was appointed by the senate to the
chief command, which was eagerly desired by Marius. This
led to a rupture. With the assistance of the tribune Sulpicius
Rufus, Marius succeeded in getting the command transferred
to himself. Sulla marched upon Rome and defeated Marius,
who fled to the marshes of Minturnae in Latium. He was
discovered and taken prisoner; and the local magistrates, in
accordance with Sulla's proclamation, resolved to put him to
death. The Gallic trooper sent to strike off the old man's head
quailed, it is said, before the fire of his eyes, and fled exclaiming,
" I cannot kill Gaius Marius." The inhabitants out of com-
passion then allowed Marius to depart, and put him on board
a ship which conveyed him to Carthage. When forbidden to
land, he told the messenger to inform the governor that he had
seen Marius sitting as a fugitive among the ruins of Carthage.
Having been joined by his son, he took refuge in the island
of Cercina. Meantime, Sulla having left Italy for the
Mithradatic war, Cinna's sudden and violent revolution put the
senate at the mercy of the popular leaders, and Marius greedily
caught at the opportunity of a bloody vengeance, which became
in fact a reign of terror in which senators and nobles were
slaughtered wholesale. He had himself elected consul for the
seventh time, in fulfilment of a prophecy given to him in early
manhood. Less than three weeks afterwards he died of fever,
on the i3th of January 86./
726
MARIVAUX
Marius was not only a great general, but also a great military
reformer. From his time a citizen militia was replaced by a
professional soldiery, which had hitherto been little liked by the
Roman people. He further made the cohort the military unit
instead of the maniple, and his cavalry and light-armed troops
were drawn from foreign countries, so that it may be said that
Marius was the originator of the mercenary army. The Roman
soldier was henceforth a man who had no trade but war. A great
general could hardly fail to become the foremost man in the
state. Marius, however, unlike Caesar, did not .attempt to
overturn the oligarchy by means of the army; he used rather
such expedients as the constitution seemed to allow, though
they had to be backed up by riot and violence. He failed as
a political reformer because the merchants and the moneyed
classes, whom the Gracchi had tried to conciliate, feared that
they would themselves be swept away by a revolution of which
the mob and its leaders would be the ultimate controllers.
Marius had a decided tinge of fanaticism and superstition. In
canvassing for the consulship he was guided by the counsels of an
Etruscan soothsayer, and was accompanied in his campaigns
by a Syrian prophetess. The fashionable accomplishments of
the day, and the new Greek culture, were wholly alien to his
taste.
For the life of Marius the original sources are numerous passages
in Cicero's works, Sallust's Jugurtha, the epitomes of the lost books
of Livy, Plutarch's Lines of Sulla and Marius, Velleius Paterculus,
Florus and Appian's Bellum civile. See F. D. Gerlach, Marius und
Sulla (Basel, 1856); I. Gilles, Campagne de Marius dans la Gatde
(1870); W. Votsch, Marius als Reformator des romischen Heerwesens
(with notes and references to ancient authorities, 1886); A. H. J.
Greenidge, History of Rome, vol. i. (1904); also ROME: History,
II. " The Republic."
MARIVAUX, PIERRE CARLET DE CHAMBLAIN DE (1688-
1763), French novelist and dramatist, was born at Paris on the
4th of February 1688. His father was a financier of Norman
extraction whose real name was Carlet, but who assumed the
surname of Chamblain, and then superadded that of Marivaux.
M. Carlet de Marivaux was a man of good reputation, and he
received the appointment of director of the mint at Riom in
Auvergne, where and at Limoges the young Pierre was brought
up. It is said that he developed literary tastes early, and
wrote his first play, the Pere prudent et equitable, when he
was only eighteen; it was not, however, published till 1712,
when he was twenty-four. His chief attention in those early
days was paid to novel writing, not the drama. In the three
years from 1713 to 1715 he produced three novels Effets
surprenants de la sympathie; La Voiture embourbSe, and a book
which had three titles Pharsamon, Les Folies romanesques, and
Le Don Quichotte modertie. All these books were in a curious
strain, not in the least resembling the pieces which long after-
wards were to make his reputation, but following partly the
Spanish romances and partly the heroic novels of the preceding
century, with a certain intermixture of the marvellous. Then
Marivaux's literary ardour took a new phase. He fell under
the influence of Antoine Hondar[d] de La Motte, and thought
to serve the cause of that ingenious paradoxer by travestying
Homer, an ignoble task, which he followed up (perhaps, for it
is not certain) by performing the same office in regard to Fenelon.
His friendship for La Motte, however, introduced him to the
Mercure, the chief newspaper of France, where in 1717 he
produced various articles of the " Spectator " kind, which were
distinguished by much keenness of observation and not a little
literary skill. It was at this time that the peculiar style called
Marivaudage first made its appearance in him. The year 1720
and those immediately following were very important ones for
Marivaux; not only did he produce a comedy, now lost except
in small part, entitled L' Amour et la verite, and another and far
better one entitled Arlequin poll par I'amour, but he wrote a
tragedy, Annibal (printed 1737), which was and deserved to be
unsuccessful. Meanwhile his wordly affairs underwent a sudden
revolution. His father had left him a comfortable subsistence,
but he was persuaded by friends to risk it in the Mississippi
scheme, and after vastly increasing it for a time lost all that
he had. His prosperity had enabled him to marry (perhaps
in 1721) a certain Mile Martin, of whom much good is said,
and to whom he was deeply attached, but who died very shortly.
His pen now became almost his sole resource. He had a con-
nexion with both the fashionable theatres, for his Annibal had
been played at the Comedie Francaise and his Arlequin poli at
the Comedie Italienne, where at the time a company who were
extremely popular, despite their imperfect command of French,
were established. He endeavoured too to turn his newspaper
practice in the Mercure to more account by starting a weekly
Spectateur FranQais (1722-1723), to which he was the sole
contributor. But his habits were the reverse of methodical;
the paper appeared at the most irregular intervals; and, though
it contained some excellent work, its irregularity killed it. For
nearly twenty years the theatre, and especially the Italian
theatre, was Marivaux's chief support, for his pieces, though
they were not ill received by the actors at the Francais, were
rarely successful there. The best of a very large number of
plays (Marivaux's theatre numbers between thirty and forty
items) were the Surprise de I'amour (1722), the Triomphe de
P 'lulus (i 728), the Jeu de I'amour et du hasard (17 30) , Les Fausses
confidences (1737), all produced at the Italian theatre, and Le
Legs (1736), produced at the French. Meanwhile he had at
intervals returned to both his other lines of composition. A
periodical -publication called L' Indigent philosophe appeared in
1727, and another called Le Cabinet du philosophe in 1734, but
the same causes which had proved fatal to the Spectateur pre-
vented these later efforts from succeeding. In 1731 Marivaux
published the first two parts of his best and greatest work,
Marianne, a novel of a new and remarkable kind. The eleven
parts appeared in batches at intervals during a period of exactly
the same number of years, and after all it was left unfinished.
In 1735 another novel, Le Paysan parvenu, was begun, but this
also was left unfinished. He was elected a member of the Academy
in 1742. He survived for more than twenty years, and was
not idle, again contributing occasionally to the Mercure, writing
plays, " reflections " (which were seldom of much worth), and
so forth. He died on the I2th February 1763, aged seventy-five
years.
The personal character of Marivaux was curious and somewhat
contradictory, though not without analogies, one of the closest of
which is to be found in Goldsmith. He was, however, unlike Gold-
smith, at least as brilliant in conversation as with the pen. He
was extremely good-natured, but fond of saying very severe things,
unhesitating in his acceptance of favours (he drew a regular annuity
from Helvetius), but exceedingly touchy if he thought himself in any
way slighted. He was, though a great cultivator ofsensibilite, on the
whole decent and moral in his writings, and was unsparing in his
criticism of the rising Philosophes. This last circumstance, and
perhaps jealousy as well, made him a dangerous enemy in Voltaire,
who lost but few opportunities of speaking disparagingly of him.
He had good friends, not merely in the rich, generous and amiable
Helvetius, but in Mme de Tencin, in Fontenelle and even in Mme
de Pompadour, who gave him, it is said, a considerable pension, of
the source of which he was ignorant. His extreme sensitiveness is
shown by many stories. He had one daughter, who took the veil,
the duke of Orleans, the regent's successor, furnishing her with her
dowry.
The so-called Marivaudage is the main point of importance about
Marivaux's literary work, though the best of the comedies have great
merits, and Marianne is an extremely important step in the legiti-
mate development of the French novel legitimate, that is, in
opposition to the brilliant but episodic productions of Le Sage.
Its connexion, and that of Le Paysan parvenu, with the work not
only of Richardson but of Fielding is also an interesting though a
difficult subject. The subject matter of Marivaux's peculiar style
has been generally and with tolerable exactness described as the
metaphysic of love-making. His characters, in a happy phrase of
Claude Prosper Jolyot Cribillon's, not only tell each other and the
reader everything they have thought, but everything that they
would like to persuade themselves that they have thought. The
style chosen for this is justly regarded as derived mainly from
Fontenelle, and through him from the Precieuses, though there are
traces of it even in La Bruydre. It abuses metaphor somewhat, and
delights to turn off a metaphor itself in some unexpected and bizarre
fashion. Now it is a familiar phrase which is used where dignified
language would be expected; now the reverse. In the criticism of
Crdbillon's already quoted occurs another happy description of
Marivaux's style as being " an introduction to each other of words
which have never made acquaintance, arid .which think that they
MARJORAM MARK, ST
will not get on together," a phrase as happy in its imitation as in its
satire of the style itself. This kind of writing, of course, recurs at
several periods of literature, and did so remarkably at the end of
the 1 9th century in more countries than one. Yet this fantastic
embroidery of language has a certain charm, and suits perhaps better
than any other style the somewhat unreal gallantry and sensibilM
which it describes and exhibits. The author possessed, moreover,
both thought and observation, besides considerable command of
pathos.
The best and most complete edition of Marivaux is that of 1781
in 12 vols. reprinted with additions 1825-1830. The plays had been
published during the author's lifetime in 1740 and 1748. There are
modern editions by Paul de Saint Heylli Victor (1863), by G. d'Heylli
(1876) and by E. Fournier (1878), while issues of selections and
separate plays and novels are numerous. Of works concerning him
J. Fleury s Marivaux et le Marivaudage (Paris, 1881), G. Larroumet's
Marivaux, sa vie et ses csuvres (1882; new ed., 1894), the standard
work on the subject, and G. Deschamps's Marivaux (1897), in the
Grands ecrivains franc,ais, are the most important. Separate articles
on him will be found in the collected essays of the chief modern
French critics from Sainte-Beuve onwards. (G. SA.)
MARJORAM, (O. Fr. majorane, Med. Lat. majorana; not
connected with major, greater, nor with amaracus), in botany,
the common name for some aromatic herbs or undershrubs,
belonging to the genus Origanum (natural order Labiatae).
Wild marjoram is O. vulgare, a perennial common in England
in dry copses and on hedge-banks, with many stout stems i to
3 ft. high, bearing short-stalked somewhat ovate leaves and
clusters of purple flowers. Sweet or knotted marjoram, 0.
Marjorana, and pot marjoram, O. Onites, are cultivated for the
use of their aromatic leaves, either green or dry, for culinary
purposes; the tops are cut as the plants begin to flower and are
dried slowly in the shade.
MARK, ST, the traditional author of the second 'Gospel.
His name occurs in several books of the New Testament, and
doubtless refers in all cases to the same person, though this
has been questioned. In the Acts of the Apostles (xii. 12)
we read of " John, whose surname was Mark," and gather
that Peter was a familiar visitor at the house of his mother
Mary, which was a centre of Christian life in Jerusalem. That
he was, as his Roman surname would suggest, a Hellenist,
follows from the fact that he was also cousin (" nephew " is
a later sense of dittos, see J. B. Lightfoot on Col. iv. 10)
of Barnabas, who belonged to Cyprus. When Barnabas and
Paul returned from their relief visit to Judaea (c. A.D. 46),
Mark accompanied them (xii. 25). Possibly he had shown
in connexion with their relief work that practical capacity
which seems to have been his distinctive excellence (cf. 2 Tim.
iv. ii). When, not long after, they started on a joint mission
beyond Syria, Mark went as their assistant, undertaking the
minor personal duties connected with travel, as well as with
their work proper (xiii. 5). As soon, however, as their plans
developed, after leaving Cyprus and on arrival at Perga in
Pamphylia (see PAUL), Mark withdrew, probably on some
matter of principle, and returned to Jerusalem (xiii. 13). When,
then, Paul proposed, after the Jerusalem council of Acts xv.,
to revisit with Barnabas the scenes of their joint labours, he
naturally demurred to taking Mark with them again, feeling
that he could not be relied on should fresh openings demand
a new policy. But Barnabas stood by his younger kinsman
and" took Mark and sailed away to Cyprus"(xv. 38 seq.). Barna-
bas does not reappear, unless we trust the tradition which makes
him an evangelist in Alexandria (Clem. Horn. i. 9 seq., cf. the
attribution to him of the Alexandrine Epistle of Barnabas).
When Mark appears once more, it is in Paul's company at
Rome, as a fellow-worker joining in salutations to Christians
at Colossae (Col. iv. 10; Philem. 24). We gather, too, that
his restoration to Paul's confidence took place some time earlier,
as the Colossians had already been bidden by oral message
or letter to welcome him if he should visit them. This points
to a reconciliation during Paul's last sojourn in Jerusalem
or Caesarea. Not long after Col. iv. 10 Mark seems to have
been sent by Paul to some place in the province of Asia, lying
on the route between Ephesus and Rome. For in 2 Tim. iv. n
Paul bids Timothy, " Pick up Mark and bring him with thee,
for he is useful to me for ministering."
727
Once more Mark's name occurs in the New Testament,
this time with yet another leader, Peter, the friend of his earliest
Christian years in Jerusalem, to whom he attached himself
after the deaths of Barnabas and Paul. Peter's words, " Mark,
my son," show how close was the spiritual tie between the
older and the younger man (i Pet. v. 13); and as he is writing
from Rome (" Babylon," since Paul's death and the change
of policy it implied), this forms a link between the New Testa-
ment and early tradition, which speaks of Mark as an Evangelist
writing his Gospel under the influence of Peter's preaching
(in Rome). This is the essence of the tradition preserved
from " the elders of former days " by Clement of Alexandria
(in Eus. ii. 15, vi. 14), a tradition probably based on Papias's
record (cf. Eus. iii. 39) of the explanation given by " the Elder "
(John) as to the contrast in form between Mark's memoirs
of Peter's discourses and the Gospel of Matthew (see GOSPELS;
PAPIAS), but defining the place where these memoirs were
written as Rome. That he acted to some degree as Peter's
interpreter or dragoman (tpnijvtvs) , owing to the apostle's
imperfect mastery of Greek, is held by some but denied by
others (e.g. by Zahn). His r61e throughout his career was
serous servorum dei; and the fact that he was this successively
to Barnabas, Paul and Peter, helps to show the essential
harmony of their message.
The identification of the author of the second Gospel with
Mark, which we owe to tradition, enables us to fill in our picture
of him a little further. Thus it is possible that Mark was
himself the youth (vtavlaKos) to whom his Gospel refers as
present at Jesus's arrest (xiv. 51 seq.; cf. his detailed knowledge
as to the place of the last supper, 13 seq.). It is probably as
evangelist, and not in his own person, that he became known
as " he of the stunted extremities " (KoXo/SoMwuXos, " curt-
fingered "), a title first found in Hippolytus (Haer. vii. 30),
in a context which makes its metaphorical reference to his
Gospel pretty evident. 1 It was too as evangelist that he
became personally a subject of later interest, and of speculative
legends due to this, e.g. he was one of the Seventy (first found
in Adamantius, Dial, de recta fide, 4th century), he was the
founder of the Alexandrine Church (recorded as a tradition
by Eusebius, ii. 16) and its first bishop (id. ii. 2), and was
author of the local type of liturgy (cf. the Acts of Mark, ch. vii.,
not earlier than the end of the 4th century).
As to his last days and death nothing is really known. It
is possible even probable, if we accept the theory that he
had already 2 been there with Barnabas that Alexandria
was his final sphere of work, as the earliest tradition on the
point implies (the Latin Prologue, and Eusebius as above,
probably after Julius Africanus in the early 3rd century),
and as was widely assumed in the 4th century. That he died
and was buried there is first stated by Jerome (De vir. ill. 8)',
to which his Acts adds the glory of martyrdom (cf. Ps.-Hippoly-
tus, De LXX Apostolis).
LITERATURE. H. B. Swete, The Gospel ace. to St Mark (1898),
Introduction, I., where the authorities are fully cited; also the
art. in Hastings's Diet. Bible. The Patristic and other legends are
discussed at length by R. A. Lipsius, Die apokr. Apostelgesch.
u.s.w. (1884), ii. 2, and T. Schermann, Propheten- und Apostelle-
genden (1907), 285 seq. (with sepcial reference to Ps.-Hippolytus and
Ps.-Dorotheus). (J. V. B.)
Medieval Legends.
The majority of medieval writers on the subject state that Mark
was a Levite; but this is probably no more than an inference from
his supposed relationship to Barnabas. The Alexandrian tradition
seems to have been that he was of Cyrenaean origin; and Severus,
a writer of the loth century, adds to this the statement that his
father's name was Aristobulus, who, with his wife Mary, was driven
from the Pentapolis to Jerusalem by an invasion of barbarians
1 The divergent lines of the later attempts at a literal interpreta-
tion e.g. he amputated his thumb in order to -escape the Levitical
priesthood (Latin Prologue), or it was a natural defect (Cod. Tolet.)
suggest that all they had to start from was the epithet itself.
* Nicephorus Callistus, Hist. Eccl. ii. 43, assumes this in his pictur-
esque account of Mark's preaching in a quarter of the city which
seems to have contained the tomb of the early bishops of Alexandria
(cf. his Acts).
728
MARK MARK, GOSPEL OF
(Severus Aschimon in Renaudot, Hist, patriarch, alex., p. 2). In
the apocryphal Acts of Barnabas, which profess to be written by
him, he speaks of himself as having been formerly a servant of
Cyrillus, the high priest of Zeus, and as having been baptized at
Iconium. The presbyter John, whom Papias quotes, says distinctly
that " he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him ' (Eusebius,
loc. cit.) ; and this positive statement is fatal to the tradition, which
does not appear until about two hundred and fifty years afterwards,
that he was one of the seventy disciples (Epiphanius, pseudo-Origen
De recta in Deum fide, and the author of the Paschal Chronicle).
Various other results of the tendency to fill up blank names in the
gospel history must be set aside on the same ground; it was, for
example, believed that Mark was one of the disciples who " went
back because of the " hard saying " (pseudo-Hippolyt., De LXX
Apostolis in Cod. Barocc. Migne, Patrol, grace, x. 955) ; there was
an Alexandrian tradition that he was one of the servants at the
miracle of Cana of Galilee, that he was the " man bearing a pitcher
of water " in whose house the last supper was prepared, and that
he was also the owner of the house in which the disciples met on
the evening of the resurrection (Renaudot, loc. cit.) ; and even in
modern times there has been the conjecture that he was the
" certain young man " who " fled naked " from Gethsemane,
Mark xiv. 51, 52 (Olshausen).
A tradition which was widely diffused, and which is not in itself
improbable, was that he afterwards preached the gospel and presided
over the church at Alexandria (the earliest extant testimony is that
of Eusebius, H. E. ii. 16, i; ii. 24; for the fully-developed legend
of later times see Symeon Metaphrastes, Vita S. Marci, and Eutychius
Origines ecclesiae Alexandrinae). There was another, though perhaps
not incompatible, tradition that he preached the gospel and presided
over the church at Aquileia in North Italy. The earliest testimony
in favour of this tradition is the vague statement of Gregory of
Nazianzus that Mark preached in Italy, but its existence in the 7th
century is shown by the fact that in A.D. 629 Heraclius sent the
patriarchal chair from Alexandria to Grado, to which city the
patriarchate of Aquileia had been then transferred (Chron. patriarch.
Cradens., in Ughelli, Italia sacra, torn. y. p. 1086; for other references
to the general tradition see De Rubeis, Monum. eccles. aquileien.,
c. i ; Acta sanctorum, ad April, xxv.). It was through this tradition
that Mark became connected with Venice, whither the patriarchate
was further transferred from Grado; an early Venetian legend, which
is represented in the Cappella Zen in the basilica of St Mark, antedates
this connexion by picturing the evangelist as having been stranded
on the Rialto, while it was still an uninhabited island, and as having
had the future greatness of the city revealed to him (Danduli, Chron.
iv. I, ap. Muratori, Rer. ital. script, xii. 14).
The earliest traditions appear to imply that he died a natural
death (Eusebius, Jerome, and even Isidore of Seville) ; but the Martyr-
ologies claim him as a martyr, though they do not agree as to the
manner of his martyrdom. According to the pseudo-Hippolytus
he was burned ; but Symeon Metaphrastes and the Paschal Chronicle
represent him to have been dragged over rough stones until he died.
But, however that may be, his tomb appears to have been venerated
at Alexandria, and there was a firm belief at Venice in the middle
ages that his remains had been translated thither in the gth century
(the fact of the translation is denied even by Tillemont ; the weakness
of the evidence in support of the tradition is apparent even in Molini's
vigorous defence of it, lib. ii. c. 2; the minute account which the
same writer gives, lib., ii. c. ii, of the discovery of the supposed
actual bones of the evangelist in A.D. 1811, is interesting). There
was another though less widely accepted tradition, that the remains
soon after their translation to Venice were retranslated to the abbey
of Reichenau on Lake Constance; a circumstantial account of this
retranslation is given in the treatise Ex miracidis S. Marci, in Pertz,
Man. hist, german. script., torn. iv. p. 449. It may be added that
the Venetians prided themselves on possessing, not only the body
of St Mark, but also the autograph of his Gospel; this autograph,
however, proved on examination to be only part of a 6th-century
book of the Gospels, the remainder of which was published by
Bianchini as the Evangeliarium forojuliense; the Venetian part
of this MS. was found some years ago to have been wholly destroyed
by damp.
It has been at various times supposed that Mark wrote other
works besides the Gospel. Several books of the New Testament
have been attributed to him: viz. the Epistle to the Hebrews
(Spanheim, Op. miscell. ii. 240), the Epistle of Jude (cf. Hojtzmann,
Die synoptischen Evangelien, p. 373), the Apocalypse (Hitzig, Ueber
Johannes Marcus, Zurich, 1843). The apocryphal Acta Barnabae
purport to have been written by him. There is a liturgy which bears
his name, and which exists in two forms; the one form was found in
a MS. of the I2th century in Calabria, and is, according to Renaudot,
the foundation of the three liturgies of St Basil, St Gregory Nazianzen
and St Cyril; the other is that which is used by the Maronite and
Jacobite Syrians. Both forms have been published by Renaudot,
Liturg. oriental, collect, i. 127, and ii. 176, and in Neale's History
of the Holy Eastern Church; but neither has any substantial claim to
belong to the ante-Nicene period of Christian literature.
The symbol by which Mark is designated in Christian art is usually
that of a lion. Each of the " four living creatures " of Ezekiel and
the Apocalypse has been attributed to each of the four evangelists
in turn; Augustine and Bede think that Mark is designated by the
"man"; Theophylact and others think that he is designated by
the eagle; Anastasius Sinaita makes his symbol the ox; but medieval
art acquiesced in the opinion of Jerome that he was indicated by
the lion. Most of the martyrologies and calendars assign April 25
as the day on which he should be commemorated ; but the Martyr.
Hieron. gives the 23rd of September, and some Greek martyrologies
give the nth of January. This unusual variation probably arises
from early differences of opinion as to whether there was one Mark
or more than one.
See Canon Molini of Venice, De vita el lipsanis S. Marci Evange-
listae, edited, after the author's death, by S. Pieralisi, the librarian
of the Barberini library (1864); R. A. Lipsius, Die apokryphen
Apostelgesch. und Apostellegenden (1883 foil), vol. ii. part 2, pp.
321-353-
MARK, a word of which the principal meanings are in their
probable order of development, boundary, an object set
up to indicate a boundary or position; hence a sign or token,
impression or trace. The word in O. Eng. is mearc, and appears
in all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. merk, Ger. Mark, boundary,
marke f sign, impression; Romanic languages have borrowed
the word, cf. Fr. marque, Ital. marca. Cognate forms outside
Teutonic have been found in Lat. margo, " margin," and Pers.
man, boundary. Others would refer to the Lith. margas,
striped, parti-coloured, and Sanskrit marga, trace, especially
of hunted game. In the sense of boundary, or a tract of country
on or near a boundary or frontier, " mark " in English usage
proper is obsolete, and " march " (q.v.) has established itself.
It still remains, however, to represent the German mark, a
tract of land held in common by a village community (see MARK
SYSTEM), and also historically the name of certain principalities,
such as the mark of Brandenburg. The Italian marca is also
sometimes rendered by " mark," as in the mark of Ancona.
Mark is also the name of a modern silver coin of the German
empire. This is apparently a distinct word and not of Teutonic
origin; it is found in all Teutonic and Romanic languages,
Latinized as marca or marcus. The mark was originally a
measure of weight only for gold and silver and was common
throughout western Europe and was equivalent to 8 oz. The
variations, however, throughout the middle ages were con-
siderable (see Du Cange, Gloss, med. el infim. Lat., s.v. Marca
for a full list). In England the " mark " was never a coin,
but a money of account only, and apparently came into use
in the loth century through the Danes. It first was taken
as equal to 100 pennies, but after the Norman Conquest was
equal to 160 pennies (20 pennies to the oz.) = f of the pound
sterling, or 135. 4d., and therefore in Scotland i35d. English;
the mark (merk) Scots was a silver coin of this value, issued
first in 1570 and afterwards in 1663. The modern German
mark was adopted in 1873 as the standard of value and the
money of account. It is of the value of 6-146 grains of gold,
900 fine, and is equal to English standard gold of the value of
11-747 pence. The modern silver coin, nearly equal in value to
the English shilling, was first issued in 1875. (See NUMISMATICS,
iv.)
MARK, GOSPEL OF ST, the second of the four canonical
Gospels of the Christian Church. Till quite recent times this
Gospel, though nominally equal to the others in authority,
has unquestionably not aroused the same interest or feelings
of attachment as they have, partly from its not bearing the
name of an apostle for its author, as the first and fourth do,
partly, also, owing to the fact that the first and third, while
they include most of what is found in it, contain much additional
matter, which is of the highest value. Of late, however, it
has acquired new importance through the critical inquiries
which have led to the conclusion that the two other synoptic
Gospels are based upon it, or upon a document which is upon
the whole most truly represented in it (see GOSPEL), so that
it possesses the advantage of being an earlier source of informa-
tion, or at least of bringing us more fully into contact with
such a source. The significance of all that we can learn as to
the history of the composition of Mark's Gospel is clearly
enhanced by this consideration.
(i) Early Account of a Writing by Mark. According to a
fragment of Papias (ap. Eus. Hist. Eccl. III. 39) taken from
MARK, GOSPEL OF
729
a work probably written c. A.D. 140, Mark, who was the follower
and interpreter of Peter, recorded after the latter's decease
the words of Christ and the narratives of His deeds which he
had heard the Apostle deliver, but he could not arrange the
matter " in order," because he had not himself been a personal
follower of Jesus. This account Papias had derived, he tells
us, from an informant who had heard it repeatedly given by
" the elder," a Christian of the first generation.
There can be little doubt that the work to which Papias
himself supposed this story to apply was the Gospel of Mark
virtually as we know it. The tradition in regard to this work
must have been continuous between his time and that of Irenaeus,
who (c. A.D. 1 80) gives a similar account of its composition.
It may be noted also that the same view of the origin of the
Gospel of Mark appears to have been held by a contemporary
of Papias, Justin Martyr. In his Dialogue with Trypho (c. 106)
he cites a fact about the name of Peter from " his Memoirs,"
and adds also another similar fact about the name given to
the sons of Zebedee, just as they are stated in Mark iii. 16, 17,
and nowhere else so far as we know. He may well have been
ready to call the work " Peter's," though he believed that
Mark actually composed it, on the ground that the latter
recorded what the Apostle said (cf. ibid. c. 103).
But is our Gospel of Mark also to be identified with the
writing by Mark spoken of by " the elder " whose account had
been reported to Papias ? Some confusion is here more con-
ceivable; while, if it is supposed that such a writing was worked
up in our second Gospel, this may seem sufficient to explain
the connexion of Mark's name with the latter.
In support of this view it is urged, though it is so much less
often now than it used to be, that the description " not in order "
does not fit our Gospel of Mark, the order in which is from an
historical point of view as good as, if not better than, in the
other Gospels. But from whomsoever the expression proceeds
whether from Papias, or his informant, or " the lder "
we may feel sure that considerations such as appeal to us from
our training in historical criticism are not those which suggested
it, but rather the want of agreement between this Gospel and
some standard which on altogether different grounds was
applied to it. This argument, then, for supposing that the
original writing by Mark differed widely in form and contents
from the Gospel which now bears his name appears to be without
force. The question whether the two differed to any, and if
so to what, extent can be decided only from an examination
of the Gospel itself.
(2) The Question of the Integrity of the Gospel of Mark. There
are in a good many parts of this Gospel indications that the
narrative has been derived from Simon Peter, or some one
else who was a personal follower of Jesus in the days of His
earthly ministry. It has been widely felt that the account
of the call of the first four disciples and of the events which
immediately followed (i. 15-39) at the opening of the Galilean
ministry, bears strong marks of proceeding from Simon Peter.
Other passages might be pointed out in which it is suitable
to suppose that this disciple in particular was the informant.
But we will content ourselves with noticing signs that the
reminiscences of some eyewitness are recorded, (a) Traits
appear which are wholly without importance, and upon which
no stress is laid in the context, but which it was natural for
a narrator who was actually present, and only for such a one
to introduce, because he remembered them as associated with
the principal events. The following are instances and others
might be cited: the mention of " other boats," iv. 36; the
half-foolish remark made by Peter when in a dazed condition
at the Transfiguration, ix. 5, 6; the young man who, when
Jesus was arrested, followed, " having a linen cloth cast about
him, " xiv. 51, 52; the fact that Simon of Cyrene was " coming
from the country," xv. 21. (J) There is great truth of local
colouring. The references to places and the descriptions of
natural features (the lake-shore, i. 16; ii. 13; iii. 7; the hills
near at hand, iii. 13; v. 5, 13; vi. 46; the desert places among
the hills or by the shore, i. 35, 45; vi. 31, 32) appear to be
accurate; the routes indicated in the journeys that are taken
are probable (vii. 24, 31; viii. 27; x. 17, 32, 46; xi. i). Again,
the term " village-towns " (i. 38) is a remarkably appropriate
one (cf. Josephus, B. I. III. iii. 2). There would, indeed,
be an exception to the general correctness of the topography
if we were compelled to suppose that " country of the Gera-
senes " (which is the best reading according to existing MS.
evidence at Mark v. i) must mean the territory of the city of
Gerasa. But it is easy to imagine that some confusion may
have arisen in the transliteration of the name into Greek, and
that the place really indicated is Khersa, near the middle of
the eastern shore of the lake. The pair of references (vi. 45, 53)
which might also be adduced as an exception, will be noticed
below. Further, the conditions of life and thought in Palestine
at the time in question are faithfully represented, Aramaic
words spoken on some important occasions are preserved
(iii. 17; v. 41; xv. 34). And, to mention a point of a different
kind, the parts played by different sections among the Jewish
people are such as might be expected. The point of view of
speakers and actors is throughout that belonging to the time
of the ministry of Jesus, not to that when the Christian Church
had come into existence, (c) The good order in this Gospel,
i.e. the natural development of the narrative, will be indicated
below. It has without good reason, as we have seen, been
supposed to show that it cannot be the record by Mark referred
to by Papias. And in reality it would be difficult to account
for this feature except on the supposition that one who had
lived through the events had been accustomed, when required
to give a comprehensive sketch of the history of the ministry
and sufferings of Jesus, to relate the facts in the main as they
happened; and that a hearer of his has to a considerable extent
reproduced them in the same order.
The last consideration seems to show that the general form
and structure of the Gospel, and not merely certain portions
of it, are original. In point of style, also, there is a large amount
of uniformity. The chief exceptions are that, whereas some
incidents are related in a very concise manner (e.g. i. 23-28,
and 40-45), there is in other cases considerable amplitude
of description (see esp. v. 1-20, 35-43 and ix. 14-27). But
Mark's own writing might exhibit this variety, according to
what he had been told or could remember. Moreover, a ten-
dency to amplitude of language may be noticed here and there
in some of the more concise narratives. Further, it would
be unreasonable to suppose that Mark, even if he relied chiefly
on what he had heard Peter teach, would refrain from using
any other sources of information which he possessed. Some
have supposed that the same Logian document in Greek which
was used by the first and third evangelists was also used by
Mark. This is highly improbable, but he may have derived
particular sayings from the Aramaic source itself of that docu-
ment by independent translation; and may also have learned
both sayings and narratives in other ways. It would seem
also that the Discourse on the Last Things in ch. xiii., differing
as it does both in its greater length and in its systematic struc-
ture from other discourses recorded by him, must have come
to his hands in a written form. In it some genume sayings
of Christ appear to have been worked up along with matter
taken from Jewish Apocalypses and in accordance with an
Apocalyptic model.
There does not, then, seem to be good reason for thinking
that the work which proceeded from the hands of Mark differed
widely in character and contents from the Gospel which now
bears his name. But there are indications that some passages
have been interpolated in it: e.g. in Mark iv. 10 there is some
want of fitness in the inquiry of the disciples as to the meaning
of " the parables " after only one has been given, and again a
want of agreement between that inquiry and the words of
Jesus at t>. 13, " Know ye not this parable, and how shall
ye know all the parables ? " We notice further that the two
parables in m. 26-32 are somewhat loosely appended. It
looks as if they were insertions in the passage as it originally
stood, and that the references to parables in the plural, together
73
MARKBY
with the statement at w. 33, 34, had been introduced in order
to adapt the context to these additions. This view is confirmed
by the fact that in Luke viii. 4 seq. only one parable, that of the
sower, is given or referred to. This evangelist has probably
here followed the original form of Mark. Similarly the collec-
tion of sayings after Mark ix. 40 (w. 41-50) has probably been
interpolated. They are thrown together in a way unusual
with Mark, who is accustomed to place each important saying
in a setting of its own. Here again we note that they do not
appear at the corresponding point in Luke, though some of
them are given by him in other contexts. The account of the
crossing of the lake (vi. 45-53) after the feeding of the five
thousand furnishes an instance of a different kind. The diffi-
culty as to the position of Bethsaida, or (if ds TO -jrepav,
" unto the other side," at v. 45 is taken to refer only to the
crossing of a bay at the north-eastern corner of the lake) the
discrepancy between " crossing " in this sense and in that of v. 53
would be explained if the narrative (which is not in Luke)
may be held to be an interpolation by one not familiar with
the localities. Once more, the account of the feeding of the
four thousand (viii. 1-9) resembles that of the feeding of the
five thousand (vi. 35-44) closely in all respects except that
of the numbers given, about which differences might easily
arise in tradition, and it looks therefore as if it might be a
" doublet," i.e. another form of the same narrative derived
through a different channel. And it is not so likely that Mark
should have mistaken it for a distinct incident as that an editor
of his Gospel should have done so. Some other instances, of
greater or less probability, might be mentioned.
In addition to such larger insertions, the text of the original
document seems to have undergone a certain amount of revision.
Some of the cases in which the first and third evangelist agree
against Mark in a word or clause may be best accounted for
by their both having reproduced the common source (an example
may be seen under 4 below).
As we have found it necessary to distinguish between the
original composition by Mark, to whom in the main the work
appears to be due, and some enlargement and alteration which
it subsequently underwent whereby it reached its present form,
these stages must be borne in mind in considering dates that
may be assigned in connexion with this Gospel. According to
Papias, Mark wrote after the death of Peter, i.e. after A.D. 64,
if we suppose, as it is usual to do, that Peter was martyred
in the massacre by Nero after the burning of Rqme. It would
be natural for Mark to set himself to make his record soon
after the Apostle's death; and in confirmation of the view that
he did so it may be pointed out that in the form of the prophecy
in ch. xiii. of the calamities that were to come upon Jerusalem,
no details occur of a kind to suggest that it had actually taken
place. Further, Mark's work may very probably have been
used by Luke in its original form. On the other hand, it was
known to our first evangelist very nearly in the form in which
we have it. The chief revision of Mark would seem, then, to
have taken place between the times of the composition of
the first and third Gospels, which cannot be far removed from
one another (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL or ST). The last twelve
verses were added later still, probably early in the 2nd century,
probably to take the place of the ending which had been lost,
or which was regarded as defective. (On the evidence that
the last 12 verses are not by the same hand as the rest of the
Gospels see Westcott and Hort's New Testament in Greek, append.,
p. 29 seq. and Swete's St Mark in loc. and p. xcvi. seq. of his
introduction.)
(3) The Gospel History as represented in Mark. After a (i) pre-
fatory passage, i. 1-13, the Gospel deals with (ii) Christ's ministry
in Galilee and other parts of northern Palestine, i. 14-ix. 50. This
portion of the history may suitably be divided into three periods:
(a) Early period. From the opening of the work of Jesus to the first
plot to destroy Him (i. 14-iii. 6). (b) Middle period. From the
gathering of crowds from all parts and appointment of the Twelve
to the sending forth of the Twelve to extend Christ's work and the
alarm of Herod (iii. 7-vi. 29). (c) Closing period. From Christ's
withdrawal with His disciples after their return from their mission
to His final departure from Galilee (vi. 3O-ix. 50). Throughout
we can trace a development as to (a) the stir created and the attitude
of men towards Jesus: i. 32-34, 37 (excitement at Capernaum);
38, 45 (fame spreads through a wide district) ; iii. 7, 8 (people from
distant parts appear in the crowds) ; iv. 2 seq. (the word of the King-
dom is received in very various ways) ; viii. 28 (great diversity of
opinions as to the claims of Jesus); (b) the opposition to Him,
ii. l-iii. 6-iii. 22 (scribes come from Jerusalem and a more heinous
charge is preferred); (c) the formation of a band of disciples and
the position accorded to them: i. 16-20 (four are called to follow
Him); ii. 14 (yet another); iii. 14 (He "makes twelve" including
those before called) ; vi. 7 seq (He sends them out to preach and work
cures); (d) the methods which he adopts: i. 21, 39-iii. I (preaches
in the synagogues, later more commonly -by the lake-shore or on
the mountain sides; or He teaches in a house where He happens
to be) ; at iv. I seq. he adopts a new mode of address because a
sitting-process was required ; from vi. 45 onwards He mainly devotes
Himself to the training of the Twelve, while seeking retirement from
the multitude; (e) in the districts which he visits: i. 38 (tour in the
neighbourhood of Capernaum) ; v. I (crosses to eastern shore of the
lake); vi. 6b (a tour which includes Nazareth); vi.' 45 (Bethsaida);
vii. 31 (journey to Tyre and Sidon and back through Decapolis);
viii. 22, 27 (is at Bethsaida and visits neighbourhood of Caesarea
Philippi); (/) His self-revelation; viii. 27 seq. (first unambiguous
declaration of His Messiahship).
(iii) The Journey from Galilee to Jerusalem, the Last Days, Passion
and Resurrection, x. I to end. He goes first to " the borders of
Judaea and beyond Jordan " (Peraea), and exercises His ministry
there, x. 1-16. In connexion with the journey from this region to
Jerusalem three striking incidents are recorded, x. 17-52. The
account of the time in Jerusalem includes a series of conflicts with
opponents xi. 27-xii. 40, and the discourse on the Last Things,
xiii. The only notes of time in the Gospel occur in connexion with
the conspiracy to kill Jesus (xiv. i) and the Last Supper (verse 12).
(4) The Leading Ideas of St Mark. Ch. i. i, which stands as a
title, was probably, even according to the short form of it
which is supported by MS. evidence, due to a reviser of the
original. Both Matthew and Luke show signs of having had
a somewhat different beginning before them. Nevertheless,
that title fitly describes the work. It is emphatically " the
Gospel," because it sets forth the person and work of the Christ.
The evangelist is conscious of this aim. It appears not only
at great moments of the history such as the Baptism (i. ii), the
confession of Peter (viii. 29), the Transfiguration (ix. 7); nor
again merely in the prominence given to the miracles of Jesus
and in particular to the casting out of devils, but also in many
of the sayings recorded in it, as in the great series contained
in the narratives in ch. ii. 5, 10, 17, 19; and again in the
reply of Jesus to those who charged Him with being in collusion
with Satan (iii. 27). The character of the genuine disciples
of the Christ and the demands that are made of them form,
as it were, the complement to the representation of what He
Himself is, and are set forth in other striking sayings, related
along with the memorable occasions on which they were spoken:
(iii- 34, 35; viii. 34-36; ix. 23, 29, 35-37; x. 14, 15, 42-45)-
See Swete, Commentary on St Mark (2nd ed., 1902) ; A. Menzies,
The Earliest Gospel (1901); D. W. Wrede, Das Messiasgeheimniss
in den Evangelien, zugleich ein Beitrag zum Verstandniss des Markus-
evangeliums (1001); E. J. Weiss, Das dlteste Evangelium (1903).
Also bibliography to the article GOSPEL. (V. H. S.)
MARKBY, SIR WILLIAM (1820- ), English jurist,
the fourth son of the Rev. William Henry Markby, rector
of Duxford St Peter's, was born at Duxford, Cambridge, in
1829. He was educated at Bury St Edmunds and Merton
College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1850. In 1856
he was called to the bar, and in 1865 he became recorder of
Buckingham. In 1866 he went to India as judge of the High
Court of Calcutta. This post he held for twelve years, and
on his retirement was appointed Reader in Indian Law at
Oxford. In 1892 he was a member of the Commission to
inquire into the administration of justice at Trinidad and
Tobago. Besides Lectures on Indian Law, he wrote Elements
of Law considered with reference to the General Principles of
Jurisprudence. The latter, being intended in the first place
for Indian students, calls attention to many difficulties in the
definition and application of legal conceptions which are usually
passed over in textbooks, and it ranks as one of the few books
on the philosophy of law which are both useful to beginners
and profitable to teachers and thinkers. In 1897 appeared
The Indian Evidence Act, with Notes. Sir William Markby
MARKET
also contributed to the law magazines, articles on Law and
Fact, German Jurists and Roman Law, Legal Fictions, &c.,
several of which are embodied in the later editions of the
l:!,ments. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford in 1879, and
K.C.I.E. in .1889.
MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade). This
term is used in two well-defined senses, (i) It means a definite
place where (a) traders who are retail sellers of a specific class
of commodity or commodities are in the habit of awaiting buyers
every day in shops or stalls; or whither (6) they are in the habit
of proceeding on specified days at more or less frequent regular
intervals. Covent Garden market for fruit and flowers, and
Leadenhall market for meat and poultry, are good examples
in London of the kind of institution included in class (a). They
are a very ancient economic phenomenon, dating from the
earliest period of the development of organized communities
of human beings, and in general characteristics have changed
little since they began to exist. Markets of the type of class
(b) are also of very ancient origin (see FAIRS), but inasmuch
as they are constituted essentially by the presence of persons,
many of whom assemble from various places outside the place
of meeting, they were capable of a little more development
than those belonging to class (a), owing to increased facilities
for locomotion. The nature of an ancient market of class
(a), whither a citizen, say of Athens, or his chief slave, pro-
ceeded daily to make household purchases, differs little from
the group of shops visited by the wives of the less wealthy
citizens of modern states. In many places abroad, and not
a few in England, actual markets still exist. It may be said
that the huge collections of shops, such as the various co-
operative stores, are only a revival of the old " market-place,"
with its shops or booths gathered round a central area, adapted
to the needs of modern big cities. (2) The term " market "
has come to be used in another and more general sense in modern
times. According to Jevons, a market is " any body of persons
who are in intimate business relations, and carry on extensive
transactions in any commodity." He adds that " these markets
may or may not be localized," and he instances the money
market as a case in which the term " market " denotes no
special locality. As a rule, however, most of the business
of a market is transacted at some particular place, such as
the London Stock Exchange, the Baltic, the Bourse of Paris,
the Chicago " Wheat-pit." Even in the case of the London
money market, merchants still meet twice a week at the Royal
Exchange to deal in foreign bills, although a considerable part
of the dealings in these securities is arranged daily at offices
and counting-houses by personal visits or by telegraphic or
telephonic communication. The markets in any important
article are all closely interconnected. The submarine cable
has long ago made Chicago as important an influence on the
London corn market as Liverpool, or rather both London and
Liverpool affect and are simultaneously affected by Chicago
and other foreign markets. In like manner the Liverpool
cotton market is influenced by the markets in New Orleans
and other American cities separated from it widely in space.
In a minor degree the dealers in all places where a cotton market
exists affect the bigger markets to some extent. What is
true of the cotton market is also true to some extent of all
markets, though few markets are so highly organized or show
such large transattions as that for cotton. Among other
markets of the first class may be mentioned those for pig-iron,
wheat, copper, coffee, and sugar. There are many articles
the markets for which are of considerable dimensions at times,
but are of an intermittent character, such as the London Wool
Sales, which take place now in five " series " during the year.
Formerly the number of " series " was four. (For " market
overt " see SALE OF GOODS and STOLEN GOODS.)
Characteristics of Markets. The conditions required in order
that the operations of a trading body may display the fully-
developed features of a modern market, whether for commod-
ities or securities, are:
(i) A large number of parties dealing.
Movements
of Prices.
(2) A large amount of the commodities or securities to be
dealt with.
(3) An organization by which all persons interested in the
commodity or security can rapidly communicate with one
another.
(4) Existence and frequent publication of statistical and other
information as to the present and probable future supply of the
commodity or security.
The movements which take place in prices in any market,
whether fully organized or not, depend largely on changes
of opinion among buyers and sellers. The changes
of opinion may be caused by erroneous as well
as by correct information. They may also be
the result of wrong inferences drawn from correct information.
In markets for commodities of the first importance, such as
wheat, cotton, iron, and other articles which are dealt in daily,
the state of opinion may vary much during a few hours. The
broad characteristics of markets of this class are similar. There
is a tendency in all of them to show phenomena of annual
periodicity, due partly to the seasons, the activity of certain
months being in normal years greater in the case of any given
market than that of other months. This tendency was always
liable to be interfered with by the special forces at work in
particular years; and the great increase in the facilities of
communication between dealers by telegraph, and of trans-
portation of commodities between widely distant points, which
was one of the marked features of the development of the
economic organism in all actively commercial countries during
the last thirty years of the igth century, has still further inter-
fered with it. Nevertheless, a tendency to annual periodicity
is still perceptible, especially in markets for produce of the
soil, the supply of which largely depends on the meteorological
conditions of the areas where they are grown on a scale suffi-
cient to furnish an appreciable proportion of the total produce.
Periodicity of another kind known as " cyclic," and due
to a different set of causes, is believed to exist by many persons
competent to form a judgment; but although the
evidence for this view is very strong, the theory
expounding it is not yet in a sufficiently advanced state to
admit of its being regarded as established.
Phenomena of Markets. Bagehot said of the money market
that it is " often very dull and sometimes extremely excited."
This classical description of the market for " money " applies
to a large extent to all markets.
Every market is at every moment tending to an equilibrium
between the quantity of commodities offered and that of com-
modities desired; supposing equilibrium to have
been attained in a given market, and that for some
appreciable period it is not disturbed, the price
for the commodity dealt in, in the market, will remain prac-
tically unchanged during that period. Not that there will be no
transactions going on, but that the amounts offered daily will
be approximately equal to the amounts demanded daily.
We have briefly described the statical condition of a market;
we must now briefly examine its dynamics. Dis-
turbance may take place through a change in
(1) Supply, or opinion as to future probable
supply.
(2) Demand, or opinion as to future probable demand.
(3) In both simultaneously, but such a change that demand
is increased or decreased more than the supply, or vice versa.
A moderate disturbance caused by one of the above changes,
or a combination of them, will produce an immediate effect
on the price of the commodity, which again will tend to react
on both the supply and the demand by altering the opinions
of sellers and buyers. If no further change tending to disturb
the market takes place, the market will gradually settle down
again to a state of equilibrium. But if the disturbance has
been considerable, a relatively long time may elapse before
the market becomes quiet; and very likely the level of price
at which the new equilibrium is established will be very different
from that ruling before the disturbance set in. Further scientific
Cycles.
732
MARKET
investigation of the dynamics of a market is in any case very
difficult, and is impossible without a complete analysis of the
statical condition, such as is found at length in the textbooks
of mathematical economics; but it is possible to describe
briefly certain dynamical phenomena of markets which are of
a comparatively simple character, and are also of practical
interest.
Every great market is organized with a view not merely
to the purchase and sale of a commodity at once, or " on the
spot," but also with a view to the future require-
ment s of buyers and sellers. This organization
arises naturally from the necessities of business,
since modern industry and commerce are carried on continu-
ously, and provision has to be made for the requirements, say,
of a spinning-mill, by arranging for the delivery of successive quan-
tities of cotton, wool or silk over a period of months " ahead."
In the case of cotton, " forward deliveries " can be purchased
six or seven months in advance, and the person who undertakes
to deliver the cotton at the times stated is said in the language
of the market to " sell forward." If the quantity of cotton
produced each year were always the same, no very remarkable
results would follow from this mode of doing business, except
the economy resulting to the spinner from not being compelled
to lock up part of his capital in raw material before he could
use it. But as the cotton and other crops vary considerably
from year to year, some curious consequences follow from the
practice of " selling forward." The seller, of course, makes his
bargain in the belief that he will be able to " cover " the sale
he has made at a profit that is, he hopes to be able to buy the
cotton he has to deliver at a lower price than he undertook to
deliver it at. If so, all is well for both parties, for the buyer
has had the advantage of having insured a supply of cotton.
But supposing something has happened to raise the price con-
siderably, such as a great " shortage " of the crop, the seller
may lose. If a great many other persons have taken the same
mistaken view of the probabilities of the market, a condition
of things may arise in which they may be " cornered." (See
COTTON.)
A " corner " in an exchangeable article is an abnormal
condition of the market for it, in which, owing to a serious
"Corners " miscalculation of probable supply, many traders
who have made contracts to deliver at a certain
date are unable to fulfil them. In most cases t"he fact that
the market is " oversold " becomes known some time before
the date for the completion of the contracts, and other traders
take advantage of the position to raise the price against those
who are " short " of the article. A corner is therefore usually
a result of the failure of a speculation for the fall. Theoretically
a trader who has undertaken to deliver 100 tons of an article,
but cannot, after every endeavour, obtain more than 90 tons,
could be made to pay his whole capital in order to be relieved
from the bargain. In practice he gets off more easily than this.
Frequently when many traders have sold largely " forward "
other traders deliberately try to use that position as a basis
for creating a " corner." Generally, however, they only succeed
in causing great inconvenience to all parties, themselves in-
cluded, for as a rule they are only able to make the ".corner "
effective by buying up so much of the article that when they
have compelled their opponents to pay largely to be relieved
of contracts to deliver, they are left with so big a stock of
the article that they cannot sell it except at a loss, which is
sometimes big enough to absorb the gain previously secured.
In the case of very small markets " corners " may be complete,
but in big markets they are never complete, something always
happening to prevent the full realization of the operators'
plans. The idea of a " corner " is, however, so fascinating
to the commercial mind, especially in the United States, that
probably no year passes without an attempt at some operation
of the kind, though the conditions may in most cases prevent
any serious result.
" Corners " have what is called a " moral " aspect. It is
curious to note that the indignation of the " market " at the
disturbance to prices which results from operations of this kind
is generally directed against the speculators for the fall, while
that of the public, including trade consumers, is directed against
the operator for the rise. The operator for the fall, or " bear,"
is denounced for " selling what he has not got," a very inaccurate
description of his action, while the " bull " or operator for the
rise is spoken of by a much wider circle as a heartless person who
endeavours to make a profit out of the necessities of others.
From a strict ethical standpoint there is really nothing to choose
between the two.
The Money Market. There is one market which presents
features of so peculiar a character that it is necessary to describe
it more particularly than other phenomena of the kind, and that
is the money market. The term money is here used to denote
" money-market money " or " bankers' money," a form of wealth
which has existed from early times, but not in great abundance
until within the last two or three hundred years. Immense
wealth has existed in certain countries at various epochs, owing
to the fertility of the soil, success in trade, or the plunder of
other communities, and all states which have been great have
at the time of their greatness possessed wealth; but the wealth
which the countries, or a few fortunate individuals belonging to
them, owned consisted largely of what is still called real property
that is, land and buildings and of the produce of the soil or of
mines. The balance consisted partly of merchandise of various
kinds and shipping, and to a large extent of the precious metals
in the form of coin or bullion, or of precious stones and jewelry.
Where no settled government was established no one could
become or remain very wealthy who was not in a position to
defend himself by the strong hand or allied with those who were;
and as a rule the only people who could so defend themselves
were possessors of large areas of rich land, who were able to
retain the services of those who dwelt on it either through their
personal military qualities or in virtue of habit and custom.
The inhabitants of wealthy cities were able to protect themselves
to some extent, but they nearly always found it necessary to ally
themselves with the neighbouring land-owners, whom they aided
with money in return for military support.
A money market in the modern sense of the word could only
exist in a rudimentary form under these conditions. There
was a sort of money market, for there was a changing rate of
interest and a whole code of law relating to it (Macleod, Banking,
3rd ed., p. 174) in republican Rome; but although large lending
and borrowing transactions were part of the daily life of the
Roman business world, as well as of those of the Greek cities
and of Carthage and its dependencies, none of these communities
presented the phenomena of a highly organised market. Money-
lending was also a regular practice in Egypt, Chaldea and other
ancient seats of civilization, as recent discoveries show. It was
only in comparatively recent times, however, when Europe had
formed itself into more or less organized states, with conditions
fairly favourable to the steady growth of trade and industry,
that organized money markets came into existence in places such
as Venice, Genoa, Augsburg, Basel, the Hanse towns, and various
cities in the Low Countries, Spain and Portugal, as well as in
London. The financial strength of these rudimentary money
markets was not very great, and as it depended a good deal on
the possession by individuals of actual cash, the existence of these
markets was precarious. " Hoarded ducats " were too often
an attraction to needy princes, whose unwelcome attentions a
rich merchant, even when an influential burgher of a powerful
city, was less able to resist than the violence of a housebreaker,
against whom strong vaults and well-secured chests situated in
defensible mansions were a good protection. The necessitous
potentate could often urge his desire for a " loan " by very
persuasive methods. Occasionally, if his predecessors had ac-
quired the confidence of the banking class sufficiently to induce
them to place their cash reserves in one of his strong places " for
safety " an unscrupulous ruler could help himself, as Charles II.
helped himself to the stores of the London goldsmiths which were
left in the Mint. The power of the banking class continued to
grow, however, and a real market for money had come into
MARKET
733
existence in many cities of Europe by the middle of the i7th
century. (See BANKS AND BANKING.)
In the i8th century the " money market " consisted of the
Bank of England and various banks and merchants, and dis-
tinction between the two being still not complete. Towards
the end of that century arose an important class of dealers in
credit, the bill brokers, and with their appearance the modern
money market of London may be said to have assumed its present
form, for though the process of development has
not cease d, ^e changes have been of the nature
Market. f growth and not of the acquisition of new organs.
The formation of joint-stock banks and discount
companies, however, and the reconstitution of the Bank of
England by the Act of 1844, exercised an important influence
on the way in which the money market of London has developed.
It must be explained that in the every-day talk of the City " the
market " has a special meaning, by which only the banks and
discount houses, or even only the latter in some cases, are denoted,
as in the phrases constantly seen in the daily reports published
in the newspapers towards the end of a quarter, " the market
has to-day borrowed largely from the Bank of England," or,
" the market was obliged to renew part of the loans which fell
due to the Bank to-day." But this use of the term in a special
sense, thoroughly understood by those to whom it is habitual,
The Modern anc ^ resulting in no ambiguity in practice, is not in
Money accord with the requirements of economic analysis.
Marketof The working organs of the money market of
""' London at the beginning of the 2Oth century were:
A. (i) The Bank ef England.
(2) Banks, joint-stock and private, including several great
foreign banks.
(3) Discount houses and bill-brokers.
B. (4) Certain members of the Stock Exchange.
(5) Certain great merchants and finance houses.
The institutions included in group A are the most constantly
active organs of the money market; those included in group B
are intermittently active, but in the case of section (4), though
their activity is greater at some times than others, they are
never wholly outside the market. Even in the case of (5) a
certain amount of qualification is needed, which is indicated by
the fact that most of the great merchant houses are " registered "
as bankers, though they do not perform the functions usually
associated with that term in the United Kingdom. Several of the
great houses were originally and still are nominally merchants,
but are largely concerned with finance business that is, with
the making of loans to foreign governments and the issue of
capital on behalf of companies. These powerful capitalists often
have large amounts of money temporarily in their hands, and
lend it in the money market oron the Stock Exchange; one or two
of them are large buyers of bills from time to time, and generally
the members of this group may be said to be in sufficiently close
touch with the active organs of the money market to form part
of it.
The actual working of the money market has been described
by Walter Bagehot in his Lombard Street, a work which has
me Work- attained the rank of a classic. Most of what he said
lag off he in 1873 is true now, but in certain minor respects
Sarte< developments have taken place, the most important
being the greater extent to which money is " used up "
every day, or rather every night. In Bagehot's time the discount
houses only quoted " allowance " rates for " loans at call and
short notice," based on the rate " allowed " by the banks for
loans at seven days' notice; but since then the bill-brokers have
.been obliged (i) occasionally to fix their terms independently
of the banks, and (2) to " allow " a rate for " money for the
night." This latter practice became usual about 1888 or 1889.
The change it introduced was not a vital one, but has some
importance from the point of view of the historian. A good
deal of the " money " thus dealt with is derived from the group
of traders included in class (5). It is (a) money which is tempor-
arily in the hands of houses or institutions which have just
received subscriptions to loans or other capital offered to the
public; (b) balances left temporarily with finance houses or
banks on behalf of foreign governments or other parties who have
payments to make in London. In the former case the " money "
is almost invariably only available for a short time, probably
only for a few days; in the latter case also it probably will be
only available for a few days, but may be available for months.
Money derived from either of these sources is usually to be had
cheap, but is not, in the slang of the City, " good," because it is
uncertain how long loans at call obtained from either of
them will remain undisturbed. Nevertheless, there has been at
times so much " money " of this fugitive character, and derived
from such varied sources since about 1888, that its cheapness
has been an attraction to the less wealthy bill-brokers, who have
occasionally been able to go on using it profitably for many
continuous weeks, or even months, in their business. The risk
run by employing it is, of course, the certainty that it will be
" called " from the borrower sooner or later, and probably at a
time when it is very inconvenient to repay it. The more wealthy
houses take money of this kind when it suits them, but never rely
on it as a basis for business.
Since Bagehot wrote the growth of the big joint-stock banks
has been enormous, not so much through the increased business
done by banks generally, though the expansion in
banking has been considerable, as by the absorption
of a great number of small banks by three or four
large institutions (see BANKS AND BANKING). The growth of
these large institutions tends to facilitate combination for
purposes of common concern among banks generally e.g. to
support the Bank of England in maintaining its reserve, which
is the sole reserve of all the banks, at a proper level, and thus
render the money market more stable. Two or three of the
banks have for a long time, owing to their large holding of bills,
had much more influence than the Bank of England over the
foreign exchanges, on which the foreign bullion movements
chiefly depend; and since 1890 persons of weight in the joint-
stock banking body have implicitly, though not explicitly,
admitted a certain degree of responsibility in the matter on behalf
of their institutions. It is, however, characteristic of British
business arrangements that the question of the responsibility
for the reserve of the Bank of England, the ultimate reserve of the
whole country, is still in as nebulous a condition, so far as explicit
acceptance of responsibility by any institution is concerned, as
it was in 1870. There has been no improvement in theory,
though in practice there has been real improvement, since
Bagehot's time. The tendency is, indeed, decidedly in the direc-
tion of closer combination between the Bank and the banks.
On more than .one occasion the Bank has, not merely by borrow-
ing " in the market," but by more or less private negotiations
with the big banks, obtained temporary control of large sums
belonging to the banks in order to take cash off the market.
This proceeding, and its concomitants, did not meet with univer-
sal approval; but the results were satisfactory on the whole,
and on the later occasions when the measure was carried out
there was little or no friction.
The enormous war loans raised by Japan in 1904, 1905, 1906
exemplified aptly the more modern methods of dealing with the
disturbance to the money market which such oper-
ations produce. The loans were issued by three
banks, one of which was a Japanese institution and L 0aas .
represented the Japanese government in the oper-
ations connected with the various loans. Of the other two, one
was a leading London bank and the other the principal British
bank doing business in China. These large loans were issued
with the minimum of disturbance to the London money market.
The very large amounts of cash which were suddenly withdrawn
from other banks, and deposited with the institutions issuing the
loan as " application money," were lent out again in the short
loan market as soon as possible, usually on the afternoon of the
day of issue. The work involved was very heavy, as a great
number of cheques had to be cleared in a brief space of time, but
by skilful organization this was done. Similar promptitude
was displayed when the successive instalments on the loans
734
MARKET BOSWORTH MARKHAM, SIR C. R.
became due and were paid, most of the cash being available
for borrowers a few hours after it was paid in by the holders of
the scrip which represented the loans until the definitive bonds
were ready. The task of dealing with cash forming instalments
of the loans was not, however, the only problem before the banks
which issued them. As the scrip of each loan gradually became
" fully paid " the proceeds of the loan in the hands of the banks
became a very large sum. The Japanese government held the
whole of it at its disposal, and might have seriously embar-
rassed the London money market if it had not dealt with its
huge balances considerately. The Japanese government had
promised not to withdraw any portion of the loans raised in
London in gold, but it was under no restrictions as to how it
should employ the money lying to its account. It might have
kept it locked up until it had a bill for ships or clothing to pay.
As might be expected, the government from the outset trans-
ferred a portion of what was deposited with the banks to the
Bank of England, finding it advantageous on various grounds
to do so. The remainder was lent for short periods by the banks,
but for some time no means were available for lending for any
considerable length of time, though the Japanese government
had no immediate use for the whole of it. It was suggested to
the government by its advisers that it would be a convenience
to the money market, and no inconvenience to Japanese policy,
if any balances which were not likely to be wanted for some
months were invested in British treasury bills, and the govern-
ment, after fully acquainting itself with the nature of the opera-
tion, agreed to it. The plan was found to work well; it released
for definite periods money that would otherwise have been of
little use to the money market, and it was of pecuniary benefit
to the Japanese exchequer to the extent of the interest earned
by the portion of the balances so employed. Incidentally it
suited the British treasury; the Japanese demand, which became
a constant feature in connexion with treasury bill issues, lowered
the discount rates at which " sixes " were placed. The Japanese
not only applied for treasury bills and bought them in the market,
but they also took up some of the exchequer bonds issued in
connexion with the South African war towards the end of their
currency, thus relieving the money market of a further part of
the weight of British government paper which it would otherwise
have had to take on itself. A further important development
of Japanese management of its London balances took place in
1906, when a portion of these balances was placed under the
control of agents of the Bank of England, to be lent, or not lent,
in the market as suited the Bank's policy, which was at that
time directed to raising the value of money in order to protect
and increase its reserve. The plan worked very well on the whole.
It was merely an adaptation of a practice initiated some years
before, whereby the Bank sometimes obtained temporary control
of moneys belonging to the India Council. The same idea, that
of " intercepting " market funds, which were beating down the
discount rate, depressing the foreign exchanges and depleting
the Bank's reserve, has been employed in regard to the clearing
banks themselves, the banks having on more than one occasion
agreed to lend the Bank of England a certain portion of their
balances.
The discount houses, though an important body of institutions,
are not of so much importance as they were before 1866, when
they suffered a serious blow through the failure of
The " Overend's," from which as a body they have never
//ouses. f^y recovered. The five large concerns which still
exist are, however, very powerful and exercise con-
siderable influence on the market. They hold considerable
quantities of bills at all times; occasionally their holdings are
very large, but they turn out the contents of their bill cases
readily if they think fit. Their business is different in practice
from that of the smaller " bill-brokers," who usually are what
their name suggests, namely, persons who do not hold many
bills, but find them for banks who need them, charging a small
commission. The small bill-brokers borrow from the Bank of
England much more freely than the big discount houses. The
latter only " go to the bank " in ordinary times perhaps once or
twice a year. During the South African War, which disturbed
the money market very much, they obtained accommodation
from the Bank more frequently than usual. The small brokers
almost always have to borrow from the Bank at the end of
every quarter, when money is scarce owing to the regular
quarterly requirements of business, and also, to some extent,
because certain of the banks make it a practice to call in loans
at the end of each month in order to show a satisfactory cash
reserve in their monthly balance-sheet. This practice is not
approved by the best authorities, for although it does no great
harm in quiet times, the banks who follow it might find it
difficult, or even impossible, to call in their loans in times of
severe stringency.
AUTHORITIES. Walter Bagehpt, Lombard Street (1873); Arthur
Ellis, Rationale of Market Fluctations ; Robert Giffen, Stock Exchange
Securities (1879); W. Stanley Jevons, Theory of Political Economy
(2nd ed. , 1 879) , pp. 9 1 seq. , and Investigations in Currency and Finance ;
Henry Sidgwick, Principles of Political Economy, book ii. ch. ii.;
Augustin Cournot, Theory of Wealth (1838), translated by Nathaniel
T. Bacon; George Clare, A Money Market Primer and Key to the
Exchanges ; John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, book
iii. ch. i.-vi. ; John Shield Nicholson, Bankers' Money; Hartley
Withers, The Meaning of Money (1909). (W. Ho.)
MARKET BOSWORTH, a market town in the Bosworth
parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England; 105 m.
N.N.W. from London on a branch from Nuneaton of the London
& North Western and Midland railways, near the Ashby-de-
la-Zouch canal. Pop. (1901), 659. The church of St Peter is
Perpendicular, with a lofty tower and spire. At the grammar
school, founded in 1528, Dr Samuel Johnson was a master about
1732, but found the work unbearable. The trade of Market
Bosworth is principally agricultural, and there are brickworks.
Two miles south is the scene of the battle of Bosworth, in 1485,
where Richard III. fell before Henry earl of Richmond, who
thereupon assumed the crown as Henry VII.
MARKET DRAYTON, a market town in the Newport division
of Shropshire, England, on the river Tern and the Shropshire
Union canal, 178 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (civil parish of
Drayton-in-Hales, 1901), 5167. The Wellington-Crewe line of
the Great Western railway is here joined by a branch into
Staffordshire of the North Staffordshire railway. The church of
St Mary has Norman remains but is modernised by restoration.
The town is a centre of agricultural trade, and there are large
iron foundries. It is in the parish of Drayton-in-Hales, a name
sometimes applied to it; and it is also known as Drayton Magna.
It is an ancient town, of which the manor was held successively
by the abbots of St Ebrulph in Normandy and Combermere in
Cheshire. On Blore Heath, 3 m. east in Staffordshire, Audley
Cross marks a great battle in the Wars of the Roses (1459), in
which the Yorkists were successful and Lord Audley fell.
MARKET HARBOROUGH, a market town in the Harborough
parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England; on the river
Welland and the Grand Union Canal. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 7735. It is 81 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland
railway, and is served by branches of the London & North
Western and Great Northern railways. The church of
St Dionysius is Decorated and Perpendicular, with a fine
tower and spire. The grammar school was founded in
1614; it occupies modern buildings, but the original house
remains, a picturesque half-timbered building, raised upon
pillars of wood. Both British and Roman remains have
been found in the vicinity. There are malt-houses and boot,
shoe and stay factories. The town is also an important
fox-hunting centre.
MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT (1830- ), English
traveller, geographer and author, son of the Rev. David F. Mark-
ham, canon of Windsor, and of Catherine, daughter of Sir W.
Milner, Bart., of Nunappleton, Yorkshire, was born on the zoth
of July 1830 at Stillingfleet, near York, and educated at West-
minster School. He entered the navy in 1844, became midship-
man in 1846, and passed for a lieutenant in 1851. In 1850-1851
he served on the Franklin search expedition in the Arctic regions,
under Captain Austin. He retired from the navy in 1852, and in
MARKHAM, G. MARKIRCH
735
1852-1854 travelled in Peru and the forests of the eastern Andes.
He visited South America again in 1860-1861, in order to arrange
for the introduction of the cinchona plant into India, a service
of the highest value to humanity. In 1865-1866 he visited
Ceylon and India, to inspect and report upon the Tinnevelly
pearl-fishery and the cinchona plantations. On the Abys-
sinian expedition of 1867-68 he served as geographer, and
was present at the storming of Magdala. In 1874 he
accompanied the Arctic expedition under Sir George Nares
as far as Greenland. In later years Sir Clements Markham
travelled extensively in western Asia and the United States.
In 1855 he became a clerk in the Board of Control. From
1867-1877 he was in charge of the geographical department
of the Indian Office. He was secretary to the Hakluyt
Society from 1858-1887, and became its president in 1890.
From 1863-1888 he acted as secretary to the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, and on his retirement received the society's
gold medal for his distinguished services to geography. He
was elected president of the same society in 1893, and retained
office for the unprecedented period of twelve years, taking an
active share in the work of the society and in increasing its useful-
ness in various directions. It was almost entirely due to his
exertions that funds were obtained for the National Antarctic
Expedition under Captain Robert Scott, which left England in
the summer of 1901. Sir Clements Markham was elected F.R.S.
in 1873; was created C.B. in 1871, and K.C.B. in 1896; became
an honorary member of the principal geographical societies;
and was president of the International Geographical Congress
which met in London in 1895.
Sir Clements Markham conducted the Geographical Magazine
from 1872-1878, when it became merged in the Proceedings of the
Royal Geographical Society. Among his other publications may be
mentioned the following: Franklin's Footsteps (1852); Cuzco and
Lima (1856) ; Travels in Peru and India (1862) ; A Quichua Grammar
and Dictionary (1863); Spanish Irrigation (1867); A History of the
Abyssinian Expedition (1869) ; A Life of the Great Lord Fairfax
(1870); Ollanta, a Quichua Drama (1871); Memoir on the Indian
Surveys (1871 ; 2nd ed., 1878); General Sketch of the History of Persia
(1873); The Threshold of the Unknown Region (1874, 4 editions);
A Memoir of the Countess of Chinchon, (1875); Missions to Thibet,
(1877; 2nd ed., 1879); Memoir of the Indian Surveys; Peruvian
Bark (1880); Peru (1880); The War between Chili and Peru (1879-
81; 3rd ed., 1883); The Sea Fathers (1885); The Fighting Veres
(1888); Paladins of King Edwin (1896); Life of John Davis the
Navigator (1889); a Life of Richard III. (1906), in which he main-
tained that the king was not guilty of the murder of the two princes
in the Tower; also lives of Admiral Fairfax, Admiral John Markham,
Columbus and Major Rennel; a History of Peru; editions with
introductions of twenty works for the Hakluyt Society, of which
fourteen were also translations; about seventy papers in the Royal
Geographical Society's Journal; the Reports on the Moral and
Material Progress of India for 1871-1872 and 1872-1873; Memoir
of Sir John Harington for the Roxburghe Club (1880) ; the Peruvian
chapters for I. Winspr's History of America, and the chapters on
discovery and surveying for Clowes's History of the Navy.
MARKHAM, GERVASE (or JERVIS) (is68?-i637), English
poet and miscellaneous writer, third son of Sir Robert Markham
of Gotham, Nottinghamshire, was born probably in 1568. He
was a soldier of fortune in the Low Countries, and later was a
captain under the earl of Essex's command in Ireland. He was
acquainted with Latin and several modern languages, and had
an exhaustive practical acquaintance with the arts of forestry
and agriculture. He was a noted horse-breeder, and is said
to have imported the first Arab. Very little is known of the
events of his life. The story of the murderous quarrel between
Gervase Markham and Sir John Holies related in the Biographla
Britannica (s.v. Holies) has been generally connected with him,
but in the Dictionary of National Biography, Sir Clements R.
Markham, a descendant from the same family, refers it to another
contemporary of the same name, whose monument is still to be
seen in Laneham church. Gervase Markham was buried at
St Giles's, Cripplegate, London, on the 3rd of February 1637.
He was a voluminous writer on many subjects, but he repeated
himself considerably in his works, sometimes reprinting the same
books under other titles. His booksellers procured a declaration
from him in 1617 that he would produce no more on certain topics.
Markham's writings include: The Teares of the Beloved (1600)
and Marie Magdalene's Teares (1601) Jong and rather commonplace
poems on the Passion and Resurrection of Christ, both reprinted
by Dr A. B. Grosart in the Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library
(1871); The most Honorable Tragedy of Sir Richard Grinvile (1595),
reprinted (1871) by Professor E. Arber, a prolix and euphuistic poem
in eight-lined stanzas which was no doubt in Tennyson's mind when
he wrote his stirring ballad; The Poem of Poems, or Syon's Muse
( I 595). dedicated to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Philip Sidney;
Devoreux, Vertues Teares (1597). Herod and Antipater, a Tragedy
(1622) was written in conjunction with William Sampson, and with
Henry Machin he wrote a comedy called The Dumbe Knight (1608).
A Discourse of Horsemanshippe (1593) was followed by other popular
treatises on horsemanship and farriery. Honour in his Perfection
(1624) is in praise of the earls of Oxford, Southampton and Essex,
and the Souldier's Accidence (1625) turns his military experiences
to account. He edited Juliana Bcrners's Boke of Saint Albans
under the title of The Gentleman's Academic (1595), and produced
numerous books on husbandry, many of which are catalogued in
Lowndes's Bibliographer's Manual (Bohn's ed., 1857-1864).
MARKHAM, MRS, the pseudonym of Elizabeth Penrose
(1780-1837), English writer, daughter of Edmund Cartwright
the inventor of the power-loom. She was born at her father's
rectory at Goadby Marwood, Leicestershire; on the 3rd of August
1780. In 1804 she married the Rev. John Penrose, a country
clergyman in Lincolnshire and a voluminous theological writer.
During her girlhood Mrs Penrose had frequently stayed with
relatives at Markham, a village in Nottinghamshire, and from
this place she took the nom de plume of " Mrs Markham," under
which she gained celebrity as a writer of history and other books
for the young. The best known of her books was A History of
England from the First Invasion by the Romans to the End of the
Reign of George III. (1823), which went through numerous
editions. In 1828 she published a History of France. Both
these works enjoyed a wide popularity in America as well as in
England. The distinctive characteristic of " Mrs Markham's "
histories was the elimination of all the " horrors " of history,
and of the complications of modern party politics, as being un-
suitable for the youthful mind; and the addition to each chapter
of " Conversations " between a fictitious group consisting of
teacher and pupils bearing upon the subject matter. Her less
well-known works were Amusements of Westernheath, or Moral
Stories for Children (2 vols., 1824); A Visit to the Zoological
Gardens (1829); two volumes of stories entitled The New Chil-
dren's Friend (1832); Historical Conversations for Young People
(1836); Sermons for Children (1837). Mrs Markham died at
Lincoln on the 24th of January 1837.
See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends (2 vols., London,
1891); G. C. Boase and W. P. Courtney, BMiolheca Cornubiensis
(3 vols., London, 1874-1882).
MARKHAM, WILLIAM (1719-1807), archbishop of York, was
educated at Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford. He
was one of the best scholars of his day, and attained to the head-
ship of his old school and college in 1753 and 1767 respectively.
He held from time to time a number of livings, and in 1771 was
made bishop of Chester and tutor to George prince of Wales.
In 1777 he became archbishop of York, and also lord high
almoner and privy councillor. He was for some time a close
friend of Edmund Burke, but his strong championship of Warren
Hastings caused a breach. He was accused by Lord Chatham of
preaching pernicious doctrines, and was a victim of the Gordon
riots in 1780. He died in 1807.
MARKHOR (" snake-eater "), the Pushtu name of a large
Himalayan wild goat (Capra falconer?) , characterized by its
spirally twisted horns, and long shaggy winter coat. From the
Pir-Panjal range of Kashmir the markhor extends westwards
into Baltistan, Astor, Hunza, Afghanistan and the trans-Indus
ranges of the Punjab. The twist of the horns varies to a great
extent locally, the spiral being most open and corkscrew-like
in the typical Astor animal, and closest and most screw-like
in the race (C. falconeri jerdoni) inhabiting the Suleiman and
adjacent ranges.
MARKIRCH (French, Sie-Marie-aux-Mines), a town of
Germany, in Upper Alsace, prettily situated in the valley of
the Leber, an affluent of the Rhine, near the French frontier.
Pop. (1900), 12,372. The once productive silver, copper and lead
736
MARKLAND MARL
mines of the neighbourhood were practicafly unworked during
the whole of the ipth century, but have recently been reopened.
The main industries of the place are, however, weaving and
dyeing, and it is estimated that there are about 40,000 work-
people in the industrial district of which Markirch is the centre.
The small river Leber, which intersects the town, was at one
time the boundary between the German and French languages,
and traces of this separation still exist. The German-speaking
inhabitants on the right bank were Protestants, and subject to
the counts of Rappoltstein, while the French inhabitants were
Roman Catholics, and under the rule of the dukes of Lorraine.
See Muhlenbeck, Documents historiques concernant Ste-Marie
aux Mines (Markirch, 1876-1877); Hauser, Das Bergbaugebiet von
Markirch (Strass., 1900).
MARKLAND, JEREMIAH (1693-1776), English classical
scholar, was born at Childwall in Lancashire on the zgth (or
i8th) of October 1693. He was educated at Christ's Hospital
and Peterhouse, Cambridge. He died at Milton, near Dorking,
on the 7th of July 1776.
His most important works are Epistola critica (1723), the Sylvae
of Statius (1728), notes to the editions of Ly sias by Taylor, of Maximus
of Tyre by Davies, of Euripides' Hippolytus by Musgrave, editions
of Euripides' Supplices, Iphigenia in Tauride and in Aulide (ed.
T. Gaisford, 1811); and Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus
(1745)-
See J. Nichols's Literary Anecdotes (1812), iv. 272; also biography
by F. A. Wolf, Literarische Analekten, ii. 370 (1818).
MARKO KRALYEVICH, Servian hero, was a son of the
Servian king or prince, Vukashin (d. 1371). Chagrined at not
himself becoming king after his father's death, he headed a revolt
against the new ruler of the Servians. Later he passed into the
service of the sultan of Turkey, and was killed in battle about
1394. Marko, however, is more celebrated in legend than in
history. He is regarded as the personification of the Servian
race, and stories of strength and wonder have gathered round his
name. He is supposed to have lived for 300 years, to have
ridden a horse 150 years old, and to have used his enormous
physical strength against oppressors, especially against the
Turks. He is a great figure in Servian poetry, and his deeds are
also told in the epic poems of the Rumanians and the Bulgarians.
One tradition relates how he retired from the world owing to the
advent of firearms, which, he held, made strength and valour
of no account in battle. Goethe regards Marko as the counter-
part of Hercules and of the Persian Rustem.
The Servian poems about him were published in 1878; a German
translation by Grober (Marko, der Konigssohn) appeared at Vienna
in 1883.
MARK SYSTEM, the name given to a social organization which
rests on the common tenure and common cultivation of the land
by small groups of freemen. Both politically and economically
the mark was an independent community, and its earliest
members were doubtless blood relatives. In its origin the word
is the same as mark or march (q.v.), a boundary. First used in
this sense, it was then applied to the land cleared by the settlers
in the forest areas of Germany, and later it was used for the system
which prevailed to what extent or for how long is uncertain
in that country. It is generally assumed that the lands of the
mark were divided into three portions, forest, meadow and arable,
and as in the manorial system which was later in vogue elsewhere,
a system of rotation of crops in two, three or even six fields was
adopted, each member of the community having rights of pasture
in the forest and the meadow, and a certain share of the arable.
The mark was a self-governing community. Its affairs were
ordered by the markmen who met together at stated times in
the markmoot. Soon, however, their freedom was encroached
upon, and in the course of a very short time it disappeared
altogether.
The extent and nature of the mark system has been, and still
is, a subject of controversy among historians. One school
holds that it was almost universal in Germany; that it was, in
fact, the typical Teutonic method of holding and cultivating
the land. From Germany, it is argued, it was introduced by
the Angle and Saxon invaders into England, where it was
extensively adopted, being the foundation upon which the pre-
vailing land system in early England was built. An opposing
school denies entirely the existence of the mark system, and a
French writer, Fustel de Coulanges, refers to it contemptuously
as " a figment of the Teutonic imagination." This view is based
largely upon the supposition that common ownership of the land
was practically unknown among the early Germans, and was
by no means general among the early English. The truth will
doubtless be found to lie somewhere between the two extremes.
The complete mark system was certainly not prevalent in
Anglo-Saxon England, nor did it exist very widely, or for any
very long period in Germany, but the system which did prevail
in these two countries contained elements which are also found
in the mark system.
The chief authority on the mark system is G. L. von Maurer, who
has written Einleitung zur Geschichte der Mark- Hof- Dorf- and
Stadtverfassung und der offentlichen Gewalt (Munich, 1854; new ed.,
Vienna, 1896), and Geschichte der Markenverfassung in Deutschland
(Erlangen, 1856). See also N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, Recherches sur
quelques problemes de I'histoire (1885); and a translation from
the same writer's works called The Origin of Property in Land, by
M. Ashley. This contains an introductory chapter by Professor
W. J. Ashley. Other authorities are K. Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirt-
schaftsleben im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1886); R. Schroder, Lehrbuch
der deulschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1902); and W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England, vol. i. (1891).
MARL (from O. Fr. marie, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga;
cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel), a calcareous clay, or a mixture of
carbonate of lime with argillaceous matter. It is impossible
to give a strict definition of a marl, for the term is applied to a
great variety of rocks and soils with a considerable range of
composition. On the one hand, the marls graduate into clays
by diminution in the amount of lime that they contain, and on
the other hand they pass into argillaceous limestones (see LIME-
STONE). From 25-75% f carbonate of lime may be regarded
as characteristic of the marls. But in popular usage many
substances are called marls which would not be included under
the definition given here. The practice formerly much in
vogue of top-dressing land with marls, and the use of many
different kinds of earth and clay for that purpose, has led to
a very general misapplication of the term; for all sorts of rotted
rock, some being of igneous origin while others are rain-wash,
loams, and various superficial deposits, have been called " marls "
in different parts of Britain, if only it was believed that an
application of them to the surface of the fields would result in
increased fertility.
The typical marls are soft, earthy, and of a white, grey or
brownish colour. Many of them disintegrate in water; and they
are readily attacked by dilute hydrochloric acid, which dissolves
the carbonate of lime rapidly, giving off bubbles of carbon
dioxide. The lime of some marls is present in the form of shells,
whole or broken; in others it is a fine impalpable powder mixed
with the clay. In many marls there is organic matter (plant
fragments or humus). Sand is usually not abundant but is
rarely absent. Gypsum occurs in some marls, occasionally
in large simple crystals with the form of lozenge-shaped plates
or in twinned groups resembling an arrow-head; fine examples of
these are obtained in the marls of Montmartre near Paris, where
celestine (strontium sulphate) occurs also in nodular or concre-
tionary masses. Large crystals of calcite or of dolomite, lumps
of iron pyrites or radiate nodules of marcasite, and small crystals
of quartz are found in certain marl deposits; and in Westphalia
the marls of the Senonian (part of the Cretaceous system) at
Hamm yield masses of strontianite up to two feet in length. A
very large variety of accessory minerals may be proved to exist in
marls by microscopic examination.
The rocks known as shell marls are found in many parts of Britain
and other northern countries, and are much valued by farmers as
a source of carbonate of lime, though rarely burned to produce
quicklime. They are generally obtained by digging pits in marshy
spots or meadows, and often occur below considerable thicknesses
of peat. Large numbers of shells of fresh-water mollusca are scattered
through a matrix of clay ; usually retaining their shapes though they
are in a friable and semi-decomposed state. The species represented
are very few, and from their unbroken state it is obvious that they
MARLBOROUGH, EARLS AND DUKES OF
737
have not been transported but lived in the place where their remains
are found. As mollusca of this kind thrive best in open stretches
of clear water, the sites of the marl deposits must have been shallow
lakes and open pools.
Among the older strata it is not uncommon to find beds which
have the same composition and in many cases the same origin as
shell marl. While some of them are fresh-water deposits, others
are of marine origin. The " crag beds " of the Pliocene formation
in Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex are essentially sand and gravel, which
are often rich in shells; with them occur clays such as the Chillesford
clay ; and many of these beds have actually been used as marls for
dressing the surface of agricultural land. Better examples occur
among the Oligocene beds of the Hampshire basin and the Isle of
Wight, where the Steadon, Bembridge and Hempstead marls are
clays, more or less sandy, containing fresh-water shells. In the
Cretaceous rocks of the south of England soft argillaceous limestones
of marine origin, which may be described as marls, occur on several
horizons. At its base the white chalk is often mixed with clay, and
the " chalk marl " is a rock of this kind; it is known in Cambridge-
shire, at Folkestone, in the Isle of Wight, &c. The chloritic marl,
which underlies the chalk and is well developed in the Isle of Wight,
is a greenish argillaceous limestone, the colour being due to the
presence of glauconite, not of chlorite; it is often very fossiliferous.
The Gault, an argillaceous type of the Upper Greensand, is a stiff
greyish calcareous clay, beneath the white chalk, well known for the
excellent preservation of its fossils. It outcrops along the base of
the escarpment of the North and South Downs; the original name
given to it by William Smith was " the blue marl." In the Jurassic
rocks of England there are marls or shelly fresh-water clays in the
Purbeck series and also in the estnarine beds of the Great Oolite,
but the name " marlstone " has long been reserved for the argilla-
ceous limestone of the Middle Lias. It ranges from the Dorset coast,
through Edge Hill in Warwickshire and Lincolnshire, and thence
to the sea in the north of Yorkshire, presenting many variations
in this long extent of country and often accompanied by, or con-
verted into, beds of clay ironstone. The marlstone is typically a
firm, greyish limestone weathering to a rusty brown colour, and is
always more or less argillaceous.
In the Triassic rocks of Britain there is a very important series
of red, green and mottled clays, over a thousand feet thick in some
places, which have been called the New Red marls. They belong
to the Keuper or uppermost division of the system, and in Cheshire
contain valuable deposits of rock salt, the principal sources of that
mineral in Great Britain. In the strict sense these rocks are not
marls, being ferruginous clays rather than calcareous clays. Most
of them appear to have been laid down in saline lakes in desert
regions. As a rule they contain very few fossils, a ad often they
have little or no carbonate of lime, but beds and veins of fibrous
gypsum occur in them in considerable profusion. These rocks cover
a wide area in the midland counties extending to the south coast
near Exmouth, and reappear in the north in the Vale of Eden and
a few places in southern Scotland. The clays are used for brick-
making, and yield a stiff soil, mostly devoted to pasture and dairy
farming. In the Rhaetic beds which immediately overlie the
Triassic rocks there are three seams of calcareous clay, often only
a few feet thick, which have been called the " grey marls " and the
" tea-green marls."
To rocks older than these the name marl has not often been given,
probably because, though argillaceous limestones are often common
in the Carboniferous and Silurian rocks, they are usually firm and
compact, while marls usually comprise rocks which are more or less
soft and friable. In other countries, and especially in Germany,
many different kinds of marl and of marl-slate are described. Two
of these are of especial importance the dark copper-bearing marl
slate of the Permian rocks near Mansfeld in Germany, which has
been long and extensively worked as sources of copper, and the white
or creamy Solenhofen limestone, much quarried in Bavaria, and
used as a lithographic stone. (J. S. F.)
MARLBOROUGH, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The earldom
of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from 1626 to 1679.
James Ley, the ist earl (c. 1550-1629), was lord chief justice of
the King's Bench in Ireland and then in England; he was an
English member of parliament and was lord high treasurer from
1624 to 1628. In 1624 he was created Baron Ley and in 1626
earl of Marlborough. The 3rd earl was his grandson James
(1618-1665), a naval officer who was killed in action with the
Dutch. James was succeeded by his uncle William, a younger
son of the ist earl, on whose death in 1679 the earldom became
extinct.
In 1689 John Churchill was created earl and in 1702 duke of
Marlborough (see below) . After the death of his only son Charles
in 1 703 an act of parliament was passed in 1 706 settling the duke's
titles upon his daughters and their issue. Consequently when he
died in June 1722 his eldest daughter Henrietta (1681-1733),
wife of Francis Godolphin, 2nd earl of Godolphin, became duchess
xvii. 24
of Marlborough. She died without sons and was succeeded by
her nephew Charles Spencer, 5th earl of Sunderland (1706-1758),
a son of the great duke's second daughter Anne (d. 1716). Al-
though at this time Charles handed over the Sunderland estates
to his younger brother John, the ancestor of the earls Spencer,
he did not obtain Blenheim until Sarah, the dowager duchess,
died in 1744. His eldest son George Spencer, the 4th duke (1739
1817), left three sons. The eldest, George Spencer, the sth
duke (1766-1840), was summoned to the House of Lords as Baron
Spencer of Wormleighton in 1806, and in 1817, after succeeding
to the dukedom, he took the name of Spencer-Churchill. The 4th
duke's second son was Lord Henry John Spencer (1770-1795),
envoy to Sweden and to Prussia; and his third son was Lord
Francis Almeric Spencer (1770-1845), who was created a peer
as Baron Churchill of Whichwood in 1815. His grandson
Victor Albert Francis Charles Spencer (b. 1864) succeeded his
father as 3rd Baron Churchill in 1886, and was raised to the
rank of a viscount in 1902.
The 7th duke of Marlborough, John Winston Spencer-Churchill
(1822-1883), a prominent Conservative politician, was lord-
lieutenant of Ireland 1876-1880, and when marquess of
Blandford (the courtesy title borne by the duke's eldest son in
his father's lifetime) was responsible for the act of 1856 called
the " Blandford Act," enabling populous parishes to be divided
for purposes of Church work. In 1892 his grandson Charles
Richard John Spencer-Churchill (b. 1871) became 9th duke of
Marlborough.
MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, IST DUKE OF (1650-
1722), English soldier, was born in the small manor house of Ash,
in Musbury, Devonshire, near Axminster, in May or June 1650.
Arabella Churchill, his eldest sister, and the mother of the
duke of Berwick, was born in the same house on the 28th of
February 1648. They were the children of Winston Churchill
of Glanville Wotton in Dorset and Elizabeth the fourth daughter
of Sir John Drake, who died in 1636; his widow, after the close
of the civil war, received her son-in-law into her own house.
From 1663 to 1665 John Churchill went to St Paul's school, and
there is a tradition that during this period he showed the bent
of his taste by reading and re-reading Vegetius De re militari.
When fifteen years old he became page of honour to the duke of
York, and about the same time his sister Arabella became maid
of honour to the duchess, two events which contributed greatly
to the advancement of the Churchills. On the i4th of September
1667 he received through the influence of his master a commission
in the Guards, and left England for service at Tangier but returned
home in the winter of 1670-1671. For a short interval Churchill
remained in attendance at the court, and it was during this
period that the natural carefulness of his disposition was shown
by his investing in an annuity a present of 5,000 given him by
the duchess of Cleveland.
In June 1672, when England to her shame sent six thousand
troops to aid Louis XIV. in his attempt to subdue the Dutch,
Churchill was made a captain in the company of which the duke
of York was colonel, and soon attracted the attention of Turenne,
by whose profound military genius the whole army was directed.
At the siege of Nimeguen Churchill acquitted himself with such
success that the French commander predicted his ultimate rise
to distinction. When Maestricht was besieged in June 1673 he
saved the life of the duke of Monmouth, and received the thanks
of Louis XIV. for his services. In 1678 he was married to
Sarah Jennings (b. June 5, 1660), the favourite attendant on
the Princess Anne, younger daughter of the duke of York. Her
father, Richard Jennings of Sandridge, near St Albans, had
twenty-two brothers and sisters; one of the latter married a
London tradesman named Francis Hill, and their daughter
Abigail Hill afterwards succeeded her cousin the duchess of
Marlborough as favourite to Queen Anne.
On the accession of James II. the Churchills received a great
increase in fortune. Colonel Churchill had been created a
Scotch peer as Lord Churchill of Eyemouth on the 2ist of
December 1682; and as a reward for his services in going on a
special mission from the new monarch to Louis XIV. he was
738
MARLBOROUGH, IST DUKE OF
advanced on the i4th of May 1685 to the English peerage under
the title of Baron Churchill of Sandridge in Hertfordshire.
When the duke of Monmouth attempted his ill-fated enterprise
in the western counties, the second position in command of the
king's army was bestowed on Lord Churchill, and on the 3rd of
July 1685 he was raised to the rank of major-general. Through
his vigilance and energy at the battle of Sedgemoor (July 6)
victory declared itself on the king's side. After the death of
Monmouth he withdrew as far as possible from the administra-
tion of public business, but both he and his wife remained the
favourite attendants of the princess Anne. Whilst on his
embassy to the French court he had declared with emphasis
that if the king of England should change the religion of the
state he should at once leave his service, and it was not long
before the design of James became apparent to the world.
Churchill was one of the first to send overtures of obedience to
the prince of Orange, to whom he had gone on a commission
in 1678. Although he continued in a high position under James
and drew the emoluments of his places, he promised William of
Orange to use every exertion to bring over the troops to his side.
James had been warned against putting any trust in the loyalty
of the man on whom he had showered so many favours, but the
warnings were in vain, and on the landing of the Dutch prince
at Brixham Churchill was promoted to be lieutenant-general
(Nov. 7, 1688) and was sent against him with five thousand
men. When the royal army had advanced to the downs of
Wiltshire and a battle seemed imminent, James was dismayed at
finding that in the dead of night his general had stolen away like
a thief into the opposite camp.
Churchill was sworn as a privy councillor on the I4th of
February 1688/9 and on the gth of April became earl of Marl-
borough. William felt, however, that he could not place implicit
reliance in his friend's integrity; and, with a clear sense of the
manner in which Marlborough's talents might be employed
without any detriment to the stability of his throne, he sent him
in June 1689 with the army into the Netherlands, and in the
autumn of 1690 into Ireland, where owing to his generalship
Cork and Kinsale fell into his hands after short sieges. For
some time there was no open avowal of any distrust in Marl-
borough's loyalty, but in May 1692 he was thrown into the
Tower on an accusation of treason. Though the evidence
which could be brought against him was slight, and he was
soon set at liberty, there is no doubt that Marlborough was in
close relations with the exiled king at St Germains, and that he
even went so far as to disclose, in May 1694, to his late master
the intention of the English to attack the town of Brest. The
talents of the statesmen of this reign were chiefly displayed in
their attempts to convince both the exiled and the reigning
king of England of their attachment to his fortunes. The sin of
Marlborough lay in the fact that he had been favoured above his
fellows by each in turn, and that he betrayed both alike
apparently without scruple or without shame. Once again
during the Fenwick plot of 1696 he was charged with treason, but
William, knowing that if he pushed Marlborough and his friends
to extremities there were no other statesmen on whom he could
rely, contented himself with ignoring the accusation of Sir John
Fenwick, and with executing that conspirator himself. In 1698
the forgiven traitor was made governor to the young duke of
Gloucester, the only one of Anne's numerous children who gave
promise of attaining to manhood.- During the last years of
William's reign Marlborough once more was placed in positions
of responsibility. His daughters were married into the most
prominent families of the land; Henrietta, the eldest, became the
wife of Francis, the eldest son of Lord Godolphin; the second,
the loveliest woman at the court, with her father's tact and tem-
per and her mother's beauty, married Charles, Lord Spencer,
the only surviving son of the earl of Sunderland. Higher
honours came on the accession of Queen Anne in March 1702.
He was at once appointed a Knight of the Garter, captain-general
of the English troops both at home and abroad, and master-
general of the ordnance. The new queen did not forget the life-
long service of his wife; three positions at the court by which she
was enabled to continue by the side of the sovereign were
united in her person. The queen showed her devotion to her
friend by another signal mark of favour. The rangership of
Windsor Park was granted her for life, with the especial object
of enabling Lady Marlborough to live in the Great Lodge. These
were the opening days of many years of fame and power. A week
or two after the death of William it was agreed by the three
great powers, England, Holland and Austria, which formed the
grand alliance, that war should be declared against France on
the same day, and on the 4th of May 1702 the War of the Spanish
Succession was declared by the three countries. Marlborough
was made commander-in-chief of the united armies of England
and Holland, but throughout the war his plans were impeded by
the jealousy of the commanders who were nominally his inferiors,
and by the opposite aims of the various countries that were
striving to break the power of France. He himself wished to
penetrate into the French lines; the anxiety of the Dutch was
for the maintenance of their frontier and for an augmentation
of their territory; the desire of the Austrian emperor was to
secure that his son the Archduke Charles should rule over Spain.
To secure concerted action by these different powers taxed all
the diplomacy of Marlborough, but he succeeded for the most
part in his desires. In the first year of the campaign it was shown
that the armies of the French were not invincible. Several
fortresses which Louis XIV. had seized upon surrendered to the
allies. Kaiserswerth on the Rhine surrendered on the isth of
June, and Venlo on the Meuse on the 23rd of September. The
prosperous commercial town of Liege with its commanding
citadel capitulated on the 29th of October. The successes of
Marlborough caused much rejoicing in his own country, and
for these brilliant exploits he was raised (Dec. 14, 1702)
to be duke of Marlborough, and received a grant of 5000 per
annum for the queen's life. In the spring of the following year a
crushing blow fell upon the duke and duchess. Their eldest and
only surviving son, the marquess of Blandford, was seized whilst
at King's College, Cambridge (under the care of Francis Hare,
afterwards bishop of Chichester), with the small-pox, and died
on the 2oth of February 1703, in his seventeenth year. His
talents had already justified the prediction that he would rise
to the highest position in the state.
The result of the campaign of 1 703 inspired the French king
with fresh hopes of ultimate victory. The dashing plans of
Marlborough were frustrated by the opposition of his Dutch
colleagues. When he wished to invade the French territory
they urged him to besiege Bonn, and he was compelled to accede
to their wishes. It surrendered on the i5th of May, whereupon
he returned to his original plan of attacking Antwerp; but, in
consequence of the incapacity of the Dutch leaders, the generals
(Villeroi and Boufflers) of the French army surprised the Dutch
division on the 3oth of June and inflicted on it a loss of many
thousands of men. Marlborough was forced to abandon his
enterprise, and all the compensation which he received was the
capture of the insignificant forts of Huy and Limburg. After
a year of comparative failure for the allies, Louis XIV. was em-
boldened to enter upon an offensive movement against Austria;
and Marlborough, smarting under the misadventures of 1703,
was eager to meet him. A magnificent army was sent by the
French king, under the command of Marshal Tallard, to join the
forces of the elector of Bavaria and to march by the Danube
so as to seize Vienna itself. Marlborough divined the intention
of the expedition, and while making a feint of marching into
Alsace led his troops into Bavaria. The two armies (that under
Marlborough and Prince Eugene numbering more than fifty
thousand men, whilst Tallard's forces were nearly four thousand
stronger) met in battle near the village of Blenheim on the left
bank of the Danube. The French commander made the mistake
of supposing that the enemy's attack would be directed against
his position in the village, and he concentrated an excessive
number of his troops at that point. The early part of the fight
was in favour of the French. Three times were the troops led by
Prince Eugene, which were attacking the Bavarians, the enemy's
left wing, driven back in confusion; Marlborough's cavalry
MARLBOROUGH, IST DUKE OF
739
failed on their first attack in breaking the line of the enemy's
centre. But in the end the victory of the allies was conclusive.
Nearly thirty thousand of the French and Bavarians were killed
and wounded, and eleven thousand of the French who had been
driven down to the Danube were forced to surrender. Bavaria
fell into the hands of the allies. Never was a victory more
eagerly welcomed than this, and never was a conquering leader
more rewarded than Marlborough. Poets and prose writers
were employed to do him honour, and the lines of Addison com-
paring the English commander to the angel who passed over
" pale Britannia " in the storm of 1703 have been famous for over
two centuries. The manor of Woodstock, which was transferred
by act of parliament from the crown to the duke, was a reward
more after his own heart. The gift even in that form was noble,
but the queen heightened it by instructing Sir John Vanbrugh
to build a palace in the park at the royal expense, and 240,000
of public money was spent on the buildings. He was also created
a prince of the empire and the principality of Mindelheim was
formed in his honour.
The following year was not marked by any stirring incident.
Marl borough was hampered by tedious formalities at the Hague
and by jealousies at the German courts. The armies of the
French were again brought up to their full standard, but the
generals of Louis were instructed to entrench themselves behind
earthworks and to act on the defensive. In the darkness of a
July night these lines were broken through near Tirlemont,
and the French were forced to take shelter under the walls of
Louvain. Marlborough in vain urged an attack upon them in
their new position, and when 1705 had passed away the forces
of the French king had suffered no diminution. This immunity
from disaster tempted Villeroi in the next spring into meeting
the allied forces in an open fight, but his assurance proved his
ruin. Through the superior tactics of Marlborough the battle of
Ramillies (May 23, 1706) ended in the total rout of the French,
and caused the transference of nearly the whole of Brabant
and Flanders to the allies. Five days afterwards the victor
entered Brussels in state, and the inhabitants acknowledged
the rule of the archduke. Antwerp and Ostend surrendered
themselves with slight loss. Menin held out until three thousand
of the soldiers of the allies were laid low around its walls, but
Dendermonde, which Louis had forty years previously besieged
in vain, quickly gave itself up to the resistless Marlborough.
Again a year of activity and triumph was succeeded by a period
of languor and depression. During the whole of 1707 fortune
inclined to the other side, with the result that in July 1708
Ghent and Bruges returned to the allegiance of the French, and
Marlborough, fearing that their example might be followed by
the other cities, advanced with his whole army towards Ouden-
arde. Had the counsels of Vend&me, one of the ablest of the
French generals, prevailed, the fight might have had a different
issue, but his suggestions were disregarded by the duke of
Burgundy, the grandson of Louis, and the battle, which raged
on the high ground above Oudenarde, ended in their defeat
(July 1 1 , 1 708) . After this victory Marlborough, ever anxious for
decisive measures, wished to advance on Paris, but he was over-
ruled. The allied army invested the town of Lille, on the forti-
fications of which Vauban had expended an immensity of thought;
and after a struggle of nearly four months, and the loss to the
combatants of thirty thousand men, the citadel was surrendered
by Marshal Boufflers on the gth of December. By the end of the
year Brabant was again subject to the rule of the allies. The
suffering in France at this time weighed so heavily upon the
people that its proud king humbled himself to sue for peace.
Each of the allies in turn did he supplicate, and Torcy his minister
endeavoured by promises of large sums of money to obtain the
support of Marlborough to his proposals. These attempts were
in vain, and when the winter passed away a French army of one
hundred and ten thousand, under the command of Villars, took
the field. On the 3rd of September 1709 Tournay capitulated,
and the two leaders, Marlborough and Eugene, led their forces
to Mons, in spite of the attempt of Villars to prevent them.
For the last time during the protracted war the two armies met
in fair fight at Malplaquet, on the south of Mons (Sept. n,
1709), where the French leader had strengthened his position
by extensive earthworks. The fight was long and doubtful,
and although the French ultimately retreated under the direction
of Boufflers, for Villars had been wounded on the knee, it was in
good order, and their losses were less than those of their oppo-
nents. The campaign lasted for a year or two after this indecisive
contest, but it was not signalized by any such " glorious victory "
as Blenheim. All that the English could plume themselves on
was the acquisition of a few such fortresses as Douai and Bethune,
and all that the French had to fear was the gradual tightening
of the enemy's chain until it reached the walls of Paris. The
energies of the French were concentrated in the construction of
fresh lines of defence, until their commander boasted that his
position was impregnable. In this way the war dragged on until
the conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht in June 1712.
These victorious campaigns had not prevented the position of
Marlborough from being undermined by party intrigues at home.
In the early part of Queen Anne's reign his political friends were
to be found among the Tories, and the ministry under Sidney
Godolphin was chiefly composed of members of that party.
After a year or two, however, the more ardent Tories withdrew,
and two younger adherents of the same cause, Harley and
St John, were introduced in May 1704 into the ministry. The
duchess, partly through the influence of her son-in-law, the earl
of Sunderland, who came into office against the queen's wish on
the 3rd of December 1706, and partly through the opposition
of the Tories to the French war, had gone over to the Whig
cause, and she pressed her views on the sovereign with more
vehemence than discretion. She had obtained for her indigent
cousin, Abigail Hill, a small position at court, and the poor
relation very soon began to injure the benefactor who had
befriended her. With Hill's assistance Harley and St John
widened the breach with the queen which was commenced by
the imperious manner of the duchess. The love of the two
friends changed into hate, and no opportunity for humiliating
the family of Marlborough was allowed to pass neglected.
Sunderland and Godolphin were the first to fall (July-Aug.
1710); a few months later the duchess was dismissed from her
offices; and, although Marlborough himself was permitted to
continue in his position a short time longer, his fall was only
delayed until the last day of 1711. Life in England had become
so unpleasant that he went to the Continent in November 1712
and remained abroad until the death of Anne (Aug. i, 1714).
Then he once more returned to England and resumed his old
military posts, but he took little part in public affairs. Even if
he had wished to regain his commanding position in the country,
ill health would have prevented him from obtaining his desires.
Johnson indeed says, in the Vanity of Human Wishes, that " the
streams of dotage " flowed from his eyes; but this is a poetical
exaggeration. It is certain that at the time of his death he was
able to understand the remarks of others and to express his own
wishes. At four o'clock on the morning of the i6th of June
1722 he died at Cranbourn Lodge, near Windsor. His remains
were at first deposited in Westminster Abbey, in the vault at
the east end of King Henry VII. 's chapel, but they now rest
in a mausoleum in the chapel at Blenheim.
His widow, to whom must be assigned a considerable share both
in his rise and in his fall, survived till the i8th of October 1744.
Those years were spent in bitter animosity with many within
and without her own family. Left by her husband with the
command of boundless wealth, she used it for the vindication
of his memory and for the justification of her own resentment.
Two of the leading opponents of the Whig ministry, Chesterfield
and Pitt, were especially honoured by her attentions. To Pitt
she left ten thousand pounds, to the other statesman twice that
sum and a reversionary interest in her landed property at
Wimbledon. Whilst a widow she received numerous offers of
marriage from titled suitors. She refused them all: from her
marriage to her death her heart had no other inmate than
the man as whose wife she had become almost a rival to
royalty.
740
MARLBOROUGH MARLITT
The rapid rise of Marlborough to the highest position in the
State was due to his singular tact and his diplomatic skill in the
management of men. In an age remarkable for grace of manner
and for adroitness of compliment, his courteous demeanour and
the art with which he refused or granted a favour extorted the
admiration of every one with whom he came in contact. Through
his consideration for the welfare of his soldiers he held together
for years an army drawn from every nation in Christendom.
His talents may not have been profound (he possessed " an
excellent plain understanding and sound judgment " is the
opinion of Lord Chesterfield), but they were such as Englishmen
love. Alike in planning and in executing, he took infinite pains
in all points of detail. Nothing escaped his observation, and in
the hottest moment of the fight the coolness of his intellect
shone conspicuous. His enemies indeed affected to attribute
his uniform success in the field to fortune, and they magnified
his love of money by drawing up balance sheets which included
every penny which he had received, but omitted the pounds
which he had spent in the cause he had sincerely at heart. All
that can be alleged in excuse of his attempts to serve two masters,
the king whom he had deserted and the king who had received
him into favour, is that not one of his associates was without sin
in this respect.
The books on Marlborough are very numerous. Under his name
in the catalogue of the British Museum there are 165 entries, and
44 under that of his wife. The chief works are Lediard's, Arch-
deacon William Coxe's (1818-1819), Sir Archibald Alison's (1855),
and Viscount Wolseley's (1894) Lives, but Wolseley stops with the
accession of Queen Anne; a French memoir in three volumes, 1808;
Marlborough's Letters and Despatches, edited by Sir George Murray
(5 vols., 1845); and the interesting summaries of Mrs Creighton
(1879) and George Saintsbury (1885). The descriptions in John
Hill Burton's Reign of Queen Anne of the battle scenes of Marlborough
are from personal observation. A good account of his birthplace
and country will be found in G. P. R. Pulman's Book of the Axe
District (4th ed., 1875); and for the home of the duchess the reader
can refer to the History of Hertfordshire, by J. E. Cussans. A memoir
of her, by one of her descendants, Mrs Arthur Colville, appeared in
1904. The pamphlets written on her conduct at court relate to
matters of little interest at the present time. (W. P. C.)
MARLBOROUGH, a market town and municipal borough in
the Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 75! m.
W. of London, on the Great Western and the Midland and South
Western Junction railways. Pop. (1901), 3887. It is an old-
fashioned place on the skirts of Savernake Forest, lying in a
valley of the chalk uplands known as Marlborough Downs, and
traversed by the river Kennet. It consists mainly of one broad
street, in which a majority of the houses are Jacobean; those on
the north side, which have projecting upper storeys, forming the
colonnade commended in the Diary of Samuel Pepys for 1668.
St Peter's church, a Perpendicular building, is said to have been
the scene of the ordination of Cardinal Wolsey in 1498. The
church of Preshute, largely rebuilt, but preserving its Norman
pillars, has a curious piscina, and a black basalt font of great
size dating from 1100-1150, in which according to a very old
tradition King John was baptized. Other noteworthy buildings
are the town-hall, i6th century grammar school and Marlborough
College. This important public school was opened in 1843,
originally for the sons of clergymen, by whom alone certain
scholarships are tenable. The number of boys is about 600.
Marlborough possesses little trade other than agricultural;
but there are breweries, tanneries and roperies. The town is
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,
598 acres.
The antiquity of Marlborough is shown by the Castle Mound,
a British earthwork, which local legend makes the grave of
Merlin; and the name of Marlborough has been regarded as a
corrupt form of Merlin's Berg or Rock.
Near the site of the modern Marlborough (Merleberge, Marle-
berge) was originally a Roman caslrum called Cunetio, and later
there was a Norman fortress in which William I. established a
mint. In Domesday it was royal demesne and during the
following centuries figures in numerous grants generally as the
dowry of queens. The castle, built under Henry I., by Roger,
bishop of Salisbury, was held for Matilda against Stephen, and
became a favourite residence of Henry II., Savernake being a
royal deer-park. In 1267 Henry III. held his last parliament
here, at which the Statute of Marlborough was passed. The
castle ceased to be an important stronghold after the Wars of
the Roses, but was garrisoned for Charles I. by its owners, the
Seymour family. Marlborough itself, however, is mentioned by
Clarendon as " the most notoriously disaffected [town] in Wilt-
shire," and was captured by the royal forces in 1642, and partly
burnt. At the Restoration Charles II. was received and mag-
nificently entertained by Lord Seymour, whose mansion forms
the oldest part of Marlborough College. The town was consti-
tuted a suffragan see by Henry II. Sacheverell, the politician
and divine, was born here in 1674, and educated at the grammar
school. In 1653 the town was nearly destroyed by fire, and- it
again suffered in 1679 and 1690; after which an act was passed
forbidding the use of thatch. Marlborough, from its position
on the Great Bath Road, was a famous coaching centre.
The first charter was granted by John in 1204, and conferred
a gild merchant, together with freedom from all pleas except
pleas of the Crown and from all secular exactions by sea and land.
This was confirmed by subsequent sovereigns from Henry III.
to Henry VIII. Later charters were obtained from Henry IV.
in 1407 and from Elizabeth in 1576. The former granted some
additional exemptions whilst the latter incorporated the town
under the title of mayor and burgesses of Marlborough. The
corporation was finally reconstructed in 1835 under the title of a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Marlborough returned
two members to parliament until 1867 when the number was
reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in
that of the county. A yearly fair was granted by John in 1 204,
for eight days from August 14, and two more by Henry III.
for three days from November n and June 29 respectively.
In 1204 John also granted a weekly market on Wednesday and
Saturday. In Tudor times the corn trade prospered here.
See " Victoria County History ": Wilts; James Waglen, History of
Marlboro (London, 1854).
MARLBOROUGH, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 28 m. W. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 13,609 (3311
were foreign-born); (1910), 14,579; it is served by the Boston &
Maine and the New York New Haven & Hartford railways, and
by inter-urban electric lines. The city, with a total area of
21-08 sq. m., lies in a fertile hilly country, and contains several
ponds, including the beautiful Williams Pond, which covers
i sq. m. A public library was established here in 1792; it was
housed in a new building in 1904. Other public buildings are
the city hall, the Federal building and a state armoury. There
is a boarding school for girls, St Ann's Academy (1887), under
the direction of the Sisters of St Ann. The city's importance
is industrial; in 1905 its factory product was valued at $7,468,849
(an increase of 66% since 1900), of which 88-6% was the value
of boots and shoes. Whether the city is named from Marl-
borough in Wiltshire, or, as seems more probable, because of
early spellings " Marlberg " and " Marlbridge," from the presence
of marl in the neighbourhood, is uncertain. Settlers from Sud-
bury in 1665 took possession of a hill called by the Indians
Whipsuffenicke and gradually hemmed in the Christian Indian
village of Ockoocangansett (or Ognoikonguamescitt), on an
adjoining hill still bearing this name. The town was incor-
porated in 1660. It was destroyed by Indians in March 1676,
during King Philip's war, and was abandoned for a year. West-
borough was separated from it in 1717, Southborough in 1727,
and a part of Berlin in 1784; parts of it were annexed to North-
borough in 1807, to Bolton in 1829 and to Hudson in 1866; and
it annexed parts of Framingham in 1791, and of Southborough
in 1843. In 1890 it was incorporated as a city.
See S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County, ii. 13? sqq.,
" Marlborough " by Rev. R. S. Griffin and E. L. Bigelow (Boston,
1880).
MARLITT, E., the pseudonym of EUGENIE JOHN (1825-1887),
German novelist, who was born at Arnstadt in Thuringia, the
daughter of a merchant, on the sth of December 1825. By her
musical talent she attracted the notice of the reigning princess
MARLOW MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER
of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, who provided for her training
as a singer at the Vienna Conservatoire. After three years'
study she made a successful stage debut, but was compelled in
consequence of deafness to abandon this career. She then
became reader and travelling companion to her patroness, and
her life at the court and on her many travels furnished her with
material for her novels. In 1863 she resigned her post, and then
lived with her brother at Arnstadt until her death on the 22nd
of June 1887.
Her first novel,- Die zwolf A pastel, was published in the Garten-
laube in 1865 and this was followed in 1866 by Goldelse (23rd ed.,
1890), with which she established her literary reputation. Among
others of her novels may be mentioned Blaubart (1866) ; Das Ge-
heimnis der alien Mamsell (1867; I3th ed., 1888); Reichsgrafin Gisela
(1869; 9th ed., 1900), Das He-ideprinzesschen (1871; 8th ed., 1888)
and Im Hause des Kommerzienrats (1877; 5th ed., 1891). All these
works are directed against social prejudices, but, although attrac-
tively written, are deficient in higher literary qualities and appeal
mostly to juvenile readers.
E. Marlitt's Gesammelte Romane und Novellen were published in
10 volumes (1888-1890; 2nd ed., 1891-1894), to which is appended
a biographical memoir.
MARLOW (GREAT MARLOW), a market town in the Wycombe
parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 31^ m.
W. of London on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 4526. It is beautifully situated on the
north (left) bank of the Thames, which is here confined closely
between low wooded hills. A weir and lock, near which rise the
high tower and spire of the modern church of All Saints, separate
two fine reaches of the river, and the town is a favourite resort
for boating and fishing. The village of Little Marlow, where the
foundations of a Benedictine nunnery of the time of Henry III.
have been revealed by excavation, lies near the river two miles
below. The town is, as a whole, modern in appearance, but a few
old houses remain, such as the grammar school, founded as a
bluecoat school in 1624, adjoining which is a house occupied by
the poet Shelley in 1817. The town has manufactures of chairs,
lace and embroidery, paper mills and breweries.
Great Marlow (Merlaue, Merlawe, Marlowe, Marlow) appears
as a manor in Domesday Book, but its " borough and liberties "
are not mentioned before 1261. It was then held by the earls
of Gloucester, and its importance was probably due to the bridge
across the Thames, first built, according to tradition, by the
Templars at Bisham. No charter of incorporation was ever
granted to the town, but there are faint traces of its constitution
in the i4th century. In 1342 the mayor and burgesses presented
to a chantry and continued to be the patrons till 1394. Later
writs addressed to the town only mention two bailiffs as officers
of the borough, nor were the pontage rights and dues held by it
until the isth century. Two burgesses sat in parliament from
1300 to 1309, but the representation of the borough lapsed until
1621, when the right to return members was re-established.
After the Reform Bill of 1832 the boundaries of the parliamen-
tary borough were enlarged, but in 1867 its representation was
reduced to one member, and in 1885 was merged in that of
the county. No grant of a market in the borough has been
found, but a market was held by the Despensers who had suc-
ceeded the De Clares as lords of the manor in the I4th century.
In the i6th century the market seems to have been given up, but
it was revived and held in the i8th century, only to disappear
again before 1862. Fairs were mentioned in 1306 on the death
of Gilbert de Clare, when they were held on St Luke's Day and on
the Wednesday in Whit-week by the earl of Gloucester, and Hugh
le Despenser was granted a fair in his manor of Marlow in 1324.
In 1792 there were two fairs, one of which, for horses and cattle,
is still held on the 29th of October. Lace and satin-stitch work
used to be made to a considerable extent.
MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER (1564-1593), English dramatist,
the father of English tragedy, and instaurator of dramatic
blank verse, the eldest son of a shoemaker at Canterbury, was
born in that city on the 6th of February 1564. He was chris-
tened at St George's Church, Canterbury, on the 26th of February,
'363/4, some two months before Shakespeare's baptism at Strat-
ford-on-Avon. His father, John Marlowe, is said to have been
the grandson of John Morley or Marlowe, a substantial tanner of
Canterbury. The father, who survived by a dozen years or so
his illustrious son, married on the 22nd of May 1561 Catherine,
daughter of Christopher Arthur, at one time rector of St Peter's,
Canterbury, who had been ejected by Queen Mary as a married
minister. The dramatist received the rudiments of his educa-
tion at the King's School, Canterbury, which he entered at
Michaelmas 1578, and where he had as his fellow-pupils Richard
Boyle, afterwards known as the great earl of Cork, and Will
Lyly, the brother of the dramatist. Stephen Gosson entered
the same school a little before, and William Harvey, the famous
physician, a little after Marlowe. He went to Cambridge as
one of Archbishop Parker's scholars from the King's School, and
matriculated at Benet (Corpus Christi) College, on the I7th of
March 1571, taking his B.A. degree in 1584, and that of M.A.
three or four years later.
Francis Kelt, the mystic, bur-nt in 1589 for heresy, was a
fellow and tutor of his college, and may have had some share in
developing Marlowe's opinions in religious matters. Marlowe's
classical acquirements were of a kind which was then extremely
common, being based for the most part upon a minute acquain-
tance with Roman mythology, as revealed in Ovid's Meta-
morphoses. His spirited translation of Ovid's Amores (printed
1596), which was at any rate commenced at Cambridge, does not
seem to point to any very intimate acquaintance with the gram-
mar and syntax of the Latin tongue. Before 1587 he seems to
have quitted Cambridge for London, where he attached himself
to the Lord Admiral's Company of Players, under the leadership
of the famed actor Edward Alleyn, and almost at once began
writing for the stage. Of Marlowe's career in London, apart
from his four great theatrical successes, we know hardly anything;
but he evidently knew Thomas Kyd, who shared his unorthodox
opinions. Nash criticized his verse, Greene affected to shudder
at his atheism; Gabriel Harvey maligned his memory. On the
other hand Marlowe was intimate with the Walsinghams of
Scadbury, Chiselhurst, kinsmen of Sir Francis Walsingham: he
was also the personal friend of Sir Walter Raleigh, and perhaps
of the poetical earl of Oxford, with both of whom, and with such
men as Walter Warner and Robert Hughes the mathemati-
cians, Thomas Harriott the notable astronomer, and Matthew
Royden, the dramatist is said to have met in free converse.
Either this free converse or the licentious character of some of
the young dramatist's tirades seems to have sown a suspicion
among the strait-laced that his morals left everything to be
desired. It is probable enough that this attitude of reprobation
drove a man of so exalted a disposition as Marlowe into a more in-
surgent attitude than he would have otherwise adopted. He seems
at any rate to have been associated with what was denounced as
Sir Walter Raleigh's school of atheism, and to have dallied with
opinions which were then regarded as putting a man outside the
pale of "civilized humanity. As the result of some depositions
made by Thomas Kyd under the influence of torture, the Privy
Council were upon the eve of investigating some serious charges
against Marlowe when his career was abruptly and somewhat scan-
dalously terminated. The order had already been issued for his
arrest, when he was slain in a quarrel by a man variously named
(Archer and Ingram) at Deptford, at the end of May 1593, and he
was buried on the ist of June in the churchyard of St Nicholas at
Deptford. The following September Gabriel Harvey referred
to him as " dead of the plague." The disgraceful particulars
attached to the tragedy of Marlowe in the popular mind would
not seem to have appeared until four years later (1597) when
Thomas Beard, the Puritan author of The Theatre of God's
Judgements, used the death of this playmakcr and atheist as
one of his warning examples of the vengeance of God. Upon
the embellishments of this story, such as that of Francis Meres
the critic, in 1598, that Marlowe came to be " stabbed to death
by a bawdy servingman, a rival of his in his lewde love," or that
of William Vaughan in the Golden Grove of 1600, in which the
unfortunate poet's dagger is thrust into his own eye in prevention
of his felonious assault upon an innocent man, his guest, it is
impossible now to pronounce. We really do not know the
742
MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER
circumstances of Marlowe's death. The probability is he was
killed in a brawl, and his atheism must be interpreted not accord-
ing to the ex parte accusation of one Richard Baines, a profes-
sional informer (among the Privy Council records), but as a species
of rationalistic antinomianism, dialectic in character, and closely
related to the deflection from conventional orthodoxy for which
Kelt was burnt at Norwich in 1589. A few months before the
end of his life there is reason to believe that he transferred his
services from the Lord Admiral's to Lord Strange's Company,
and pnay have thus been brought into communication with
Shakespeare, who in such plays as Richard II. and Richard III.
owed not a little to the influence of his romantic predecessor.
Marlowe's career as a dramatist lies between the years 1587
and 1593, and the four great plays to which reference has been
made were Tamburlaine the Great, an heroic epic in, dramatic
form divided into two parts of five acts each (1587, printed in
1590); Dr Faustus (1588, entered at Stationers' Hall 1601);
The Famous Tragedy of the Rich Jew of Malta (dating perhaps
from 1589, acted in 1592, printed in 1633); and Edward the
Second (printed 1594). The very first words of Tamburlaine
sound the trumpet note of attack in the older order of things
dramatic :
" From jigging veins of riming mother wits
And such conceits as clownage keeps in pay
We'll lead you to the stately tent of war,
Where you shall hear the Scythian Tamburlaine
Threatening the world with high astounding terms
And scourging kingdoms with his conquering sword."
It leapt with a bound to a place beside Kyd's Spanish Tragedy,
and few plays have been more imitated by rivals (Greene's
Alphonsus of Aragon, Peele's Battle of Alcazar, Selimus, Scander-
beg) or more keenly satirized by the jealousy and prejudice of
out-distanced competitors. (T. SE.)
The majestic and exquisite excellence of various lines and
passages in Marlowe's first play must be admitted to relieve, if
it cannot be allowed to redeem, the stormy monotony of Titanic
truculence which blusters like a simoom through the noisy course
of its ten fierce acts. With many and heavy faults, there is some-
thing of genuine greatness in Tamburlaine the Great; and for two
grave reasons it must always be remembered with distinction
and mentioned with honour. It is the first poem ever written in
English blank, verse, as distinguished from mere rhymeless deca-
syllabics; and it contains one of the noblest passages, perhaps
indeed the noblest, in the literature of the world, ever written by
one of the greatest masters of poetry in loving praise of the
glorious delights and sublime submission to the everlasting limits
of his art. In Its highest and most distinctive qualities, in
unfaltering and infallible command of the right note of music
and the proper tone of colour for the finest touches of poetic
execution, no poet of the most elaborate modern school, working
at ease upon every consummate resource of luxurious learning
and leisurely refinement, has ever excelled the best and most
representative work of a man who had literally no models before
him and probably or evidently was often if not always com-
pelled to write against time for his living.
The just and generous judgment passed by Goethe on the
Faustus of his English predecessor in t'ragic treatment of the
same subject is somewhat more than sufficient to counterbalance
the slighting or the sneering references to that magnificent poem
which might have been expected from the ignorance of Byron
or the incompetence of Hallam. And the particular note of
merit observed, the special point of the praise conferred, by
the great German poet should be no less sufficient to dispose of
the vulgar misconception yet lingering among sciolists and pre-
tenders to criticism, which regards a writer than whom no man
was ever born with a finer or a stronger instinct for perfection
of excellence in execution as a mere noble savage of letters, a
rough self-taught sketcher or scribbler of crude and rude genius,
whose unhewn blocks of verse had in them some veins of rare
enough metal to be quarried and polished by Shakespeare. What
most impressed the author of Faust in the work of Marlowe was a
quality the want of which in the author of Manfred is proof
enough to consign his best work to the second or third class at
most. " How greatly it is all planned!" the first requisite of
all great work, and one of which the highest genius possible to a
greatly gifted barbarian could by no possibility understand the
nature or conceive the existence. That Goethe " had thought
of translating it " is perhaps hardly less precious a tribute to its
greatness than the fact that it has been actually and admirably
translated by the matchless translator of Shakespeare the son
of Victor Hugo; whose labour of love may thus be said to have
made another point in common, and forged as it were another
link of union, between Shakespeare and the young master of
Shakespeare's youth. Of all great poems in dramatic form
it is perhaps the most remarkable for absolute singleness of aim
and simplicity of construction; yet is it wholly free from all
possible imputation of monotony or aridity. Tamburlaine is
monotonous in the general roll and flow of its stately and sonorous
verse through a noisy wilderness of perpetual bluster and slaugh-
ter; but the unity of tone and purpose in Doctor Faustus is not
unrelieved by change of manner and variety of incident. The
comic scenes, written evidently with as little of labour as of relish,
are for the most part scarcely more than transcripts, thrown into
the form of dialogue, from a popular prose History of Dr Faustus,
and therefore should be set down as little to the discredit as to
the credit of the poet. Few masterpieces of any age in any
language can stand beside this tragic poem it has hardly the
structure of a play for the qualities of terror and splendour,
for intensity of purpose and sublimity of note. In the vision
of Helen, for example, the intense perception of loveliness gives
actual sublimity to the sweetness and radiance of mere beauty
in the passionate and spontaneous selection of words the most
choice and perfect ; and in like manner the sublimity of simplicity
in Marlowe's conception and expression of the agonies endured
by Faustus under the immediate imminence of his doom gives
the highest note of beauty, the quality of absolute fitness and
propriety, to the sheer straightforwardness of speech in which
his agonizing horror finds vent ever more and more terrible from
the first to the last equally beautiful and fearful verse of that
tremendous monologue which has no parallel in all the range of
tragedy.
It is now a commonplace of criticism to observe and regret the
decline of power and interest after the opening acts of The Jew
of Malta. This decline is undeniable, though even the latter part
of the play (the text of which is very corrupt) is not wanting
in rough energy; but the first two acts would be sufficient
foundation for the durable fame of a dramatic poet. In the blank
verse of Milton alone who perhaps was hardly less indebted
than Shakespeare was before him to Marlowe as the first English
master of word-music in its grander forms has the glory or the
melody of passages in the opening soliloquy of Barabbas been
possibly surpassed. The figure of the hero before it degenerates
into caricature is as finely touched as the poetic execution is excel-
lent; and the rude and rapid sketches of the minor characters
show at least some vigour and vivacity of touch.
In Edward the Second the interest rises and the execution
improves as visibly and as greatly with the course of the advanc-
ing story as they decihie in The Jew of Malta. The scene of the
king's deposition at Kenilworth is almost as much finer in tragic
effect and poetic quality as it is shorter and less elaborate than
the corresponding scene in Shakespeare's King Richard II. The
terror of the death-scene undoubtedly rises into horror; but this
horror is with skilful simplicity of treatment preserved from
passing into disgust. In pure poetry, in sublime and splendid
imagination, this tragedy is excelled by Doctor Faustus; in
dramatic power and positive impression of natural effect it is
certainly the masterpiece of Marlowe. It was almost inevitable,
in the hands of any poet but Shakespeare, that none of the
characters represented should be capable of securing or even
exciting any finer sympathy or more serious interest than
attends on the mere evolution of successive events or the mere
display of emotions (except always in the great scene of the
deposition) rather animal than spiritual in their expression
of rage or tenderness or suffering. The exact balance of
mutual effect, the final note of scenic harmony, between ideal
MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER
743
conception and realistic execution is not yet struck with perfect
accuracy of touch and security of hand; but on this point also
Marlowe has here come nearer by many degrees to Shake-
speare than any of his other predecessors have ever come near
to Marlowe.
Of The Massacre at Paris (acted in 1593, printed 1600?) it is
impossible to judge fairly from the garbled fragment of its
genuine text which is all that has come down to us. To Mr
Collier, among numberless other obligations, we owe the discovery
of a noble passage excised in the piratical edition which gives
us the only version extant of this unlucky play, and which, it
must be allowed, contains nothing of quite equal value. This
is obviously an occasional and polemical work, and being as it
is overcharged with the anti-Catholic passion of the time has a
typical quality which gives it some empirical significance and
interest. That antipapal ardour is indeed the only note of unity
in a rough and ragged chronicle which shambles and stumbles
onward from the death of Queen Jeanne of Navarre to the murder
of the last Valois. It is possible to conjecture, what it would
be fruitless to affirm, that it gave a hint in the next century to
Nathaniel Lee for his far superior and really admirable tragedy
on the same subject, issued ninety-seven years after the death
of Marlowe.
In the tragedy of Dido Queen of Carthage (completed by
Thomas Nash, produced and printed 1594), a servile fidelity to
the text of Virgil's narrative has naturally resulted in the failure
which might have been expected from an attempt at once to
transcribe what is essentially inimitable and to reproduce it
under the hopelessly alien conditions of dramatic adaptation.
The one really noble passage in a generally feeble and incomposite
piece of work is, however, uninspired by the unattainable model
to which the dramatists have been only too obsequious in their
subservience. It is as nearly certain as anything can be which
depends chiefly upon cumulative and collateral evidence that
the better part of what is best in the serious scenes of King Henry
VI. is mainly the work of Marlowe. That he is at any rate the
principal author of the second and third plays passing under that
name among the works of Shakespeare, but first and imperfectly
printed as The Contention between the two Famous Houses of York
and Lancaster, can hardly be now a matter of debate among
competent judges. The crucial difficulty of criticism in this
matter is to determine, if indeed we should not rather say to
conjecture, the authorship of the humorous scenes in prose,
showing as they generally do a power of comparatively high and
pure comic realism to which nothing in the acknowledged works
of any pre-Shakespearian dramatist is even remotely compar-
able. Yet, especially in the original text of these scenes as they
stand unpurified by the ultimate revision of Shakespeare or his
editors, there are tones and touches which recall rather the
clownish horseplay and homely ribaldry of his predecessors than
anything in the lighter interludes of his very earliest plays. We
find the same sort of thing which we find in their writings, only
better done than they usually do it, rather than such work as
Shakespeare's a little worse done than usual. And even in the
final text of the tragic or metrical scenes the highest note struck
is always, with one magnificent and unquestionable exception,
rather in the key of Marlowe at his best than of Shakespeare
while yet in great measure his disciple.
A Taming of a Shrew, the play on which Shakespeare's comedy
was founded, has been attributed, without good reason, to
Marlowe. The passages in the play borrowed from Marlowe's
works provide an argument against, rather than for his author-
ship; while the humorous character of the play is not in keeping
with his other work. He may have had a share in The Trouble-
some Raignc of King John (1591), and Fleay conjectured that the
plays Edward HI. and Richard III. usually included in editions
of Shakespeare are at least based on plays by Marlowe. Lust's
Dominion, printed in 1637, was incorrectly ascribed to him, and
a play no longer extant, The True History of George Scanderbage,
was assumed by Fleay on the authority of an obscure passage
of Gabriel Harvey to be his work. The Maiden's Holiday,
assigned to Day and Marlowe, was destroyed by Warburton's
cook. Day was considerably Marlowe's junior, and collaboration
between the two is not probable.
Had every copy of Marlowe's boyish version or perversion
of Ovid's Elegies (P. Ovidii Nasonis Amorum compressed into
three books) deservedly perished in the flames to which it was
judicially condemned by the sentence of a brace of prelates, it
is possible that an occasional bookworm, it is certain that no
poetical student, would have deplored its destruction, if its
demerits could in that case have been imagined. His translation
of the first book of Lucan "alternately rises above the original
and falls short of it, often inferior to the Latin in point and
weight of expressive rhetoric, now and then brightened by a
clearer note of poetry and lifted into a higher mood of verse. Its
terseness, vigour and purity of style would in any case have been
praiseworthy, but are nothing less than admirable, if not wonder-
ful, when we consider how close the translator has on the whole
(in spite of occasional slips into inaccuracy) kept himself to the
most rigid limit of literal representation, phrase by phrase and
often line by line. The really startling force and felicity of
occasional verses are worthier of remark than the inevitable
stiffness and heaviness of others, when the technical difficulty
of such a task is duly taken into account.
One of the most faultless lyrics and one of the loveliest frag-
ments in the whole range of descriptive and fanciful poetry would
have secured a place for Marlowe among the memorable men of
his epoch, even if his plays had perished with himself. His
Passionate Shepherd remains ever since unrivalled in its way
a way of pure fancy and radiant melody without break or lapse.
The untitled fragment, on the other hand, has been very closely
rivalled, perhaps very happily imitated, but only by the greatest
lyric poet of England by Shelley alone. Marlowe's poem of
Hero and Leander (entered at Stationers' Hall in September
J593; completed and brought out by George Chapman, who
divided Marlowe's work into two sestiads and added four of his
own, 1598), closing with the sunrise which closes the night of
the lovers' union, stands alone in its age, and far ahead of the
work of any possible competitor between the death of Spenser
and the dawn of Milton. In clear mastery of narrative and
presentation, in melodious ease and simplicity of strength, it
is not less pre-eminent than in the adorable beauty and impec-
cable perfection of separate lines or passages. It is doubtful
whether the heroic couplet has ever been more finely handled.
The place and the value of Christopher Marlowe as a leader
among English poets it would be almost impossible for historical
criticism to over-estimate. To none of them all, perhaps, have
so many of the greatest among them been so deeply and so
directly indebted. Nor was ever any great writer's influence
upon his fellows more utterly and unmixedly an influence for
good. He first, and he alone, guided Shakespeare into the right
way of work; his music, in which there is no echo of any man's
before him, found its own echo in the more prolonged but hardly
more exalted harmony of Milton's. He is the greatest discoverer,
the most daring and inspired pioneer, in all our poetic literature.
Before him there was neither genuine blank verse nor a genuine
tragedy in our language. After his arrival the way was prepared,
the paths were made straight, for Shakespeare. (A. C. S.)
Marlowe's fame, so finely appreciated by Shakespeare and
Drayton, was in obscuration from the fall of the theatres until the
generation of Lamb and Hazlitt. A collected edition was brought
out by Pickering in 1826. This was greatly improved upon by
A. Dyce (1858, 1865, 1876). A one-volume edition was prepared
by Colonel Francis Cunningham in 1871. The standard edition
of Mr A. H. Bullen in 3 vols. appeared in 1884-1885 and is now
under revision. The " Best Plays " were edited for the Mermaid
series by Havelock Ellis with an Introduction by J. A. Symonds
(1887-1889). The best modern text is that edited by C. F. Tucker
Brooke (Oxf. Univ. Press, 1910). A sketch in outline of Marlowe's
Life was essayed by I. G. Lewis (Canterbury, 1891). A not very
conclusive monograph on Christopher Marlowe and his Associates
by J. H. Ingram, followed in 1904. For further information the
reader should consult the histories of the stage by Collier, Ward,
Fleay, Schelling, and the studies of Shakespeare's Predecessors by
Symonds, Mezi^res, Boas, Manley, Churton Collins, Feuillerat and
;. M. Robertson. See also Verity's Essay on Marlowe's Influence
1886); Mod. Lang. Rev. iv. 167 (M. at Cambridge); Swinburne,
744
Study of Shakespeare (1880); Elze, Notes, and Hazlitt Dramatic Lit.
of the Age of Elizabeth; Fortnightly Review, xiii., Ixxi., and Sept.-
Oct., 1905; Jusserand, Hist, of English Lit.; the Cambridge Hist,
of English Lit.; Seccombe and Allen, Age of Shakespeare (vol. ii.
3rd ed., 1909), and the separate editions of Dr Faustus, Edward II.,
&c. The main sources of Marlowe were as follows: for Tamburlaine,
Pedro Mexia's Life of Timur in his Silva (Madrid, 1543), anglicized
by Fortescue in his Foreste (1571) and Petrus Perondinus Vita
Magni Tamerlanis (1551); for Faustus: a contemporary English
version of the Faust-buch or Historia von D. Johann Fausten
(Frankfort, 1587), and for Edward II., the Chronicles of Fabyan
(1516), Holinshed (1577) and Stow (1^80). (T. SE.)
MARLOWE, JULIA [SARAH FRANCES FROST] (1870- ),
American actress, was born near Keswick, England, on the i7th
of August 1870, and went with her family to America in 1875.
Her first formal appearance on the stage was in New York in
1887, although she had before that travelled with a juvenile opera
company in H.M.S. Pinafore, and afterwards was given such parts
as Maria in Twelfth Night in Miss Josephine Riley's travelling
company. Her first great success was as Parthenia in Ingomar,
and her subsequent presentations of Rosalind, Viola, and Julia
in The Hunchback confirmed her position as a " star." In 1894
she married Robert Taber, an actor, with whom she played until
their divorce in 1900. Subsequently she had great success as
Barbara Frietchie in Clyde Fitch's play of that name, and other
dramas; and from 1904 to 1907 she acted with E. H. Sothern
in a notable series of Shakespeare plays, as well as in modern
drama.
MARLY-LE-ROI, a village of northern France in the depart-
ment of Seine-et-Oise, 5 m. N. by W. of Versailles by road.
Pop. (1906), 1409. Notwithstanding some fine country houses,
Marly is dull and unattractive, and owes all its celebrity to the
sumptuous chateau built towards the end of the i7th century
by Louis XIV., and now destroyed. It was originally designed
as a simple hermitage to which the king could occasionally
retire with a few of his more intimate friends from the pomp of
Versailles, but gradually it grew until it became one of the most
ruinous extravagances of the Grand Monarque. The central
pavilion (inhabited by the king himself) and its twelve subsidiary
pavilions were intended to suggest the sun surrounded by the
signs of the zodiac. Seldom visited by Louis XV., and wholly
abandoned by Louis XVI., it was demolished after the Revolu-
tion, its art treasures having previously been dispersed, and
the remains now consist of a large basin, the Abreuvoir, a few
mouldering ivy-grown walls, some traces of parterres with magni-
ficent trees, the park, and the forest of 83 sq. m., one of the most
pleasant promenades of the neighbourhood of Paris, containing
the shooting preserves of the President of the Republic.
Close to the Seine, half-way between Marly-Ie-Roi and St
Germain, is the village of Port-Marly, and one mile farther up
is the hamlet of Marly-la-Machine. Here, in 1684, an immense
hydraulic engine, driven by the current of the river, was erected;
it raised the water to a high tower, where the aqueduct of Marly
began (700 yds. in length, 75 in height, with 36 arches, still
well-preserved), carrying the waters of the Seine to Versailles.
MARMALADE (adopted from Fr. marmelade, from marmelo,
a quince, derived through the Lat. melimelum, from Gr. /ieXt,
honey, and prjKov, an apple, an apple grafted on a quince), a
preserve originally made of quinces, but now commonly of
Seville oranges. The " marmalade-tree " (Lucuma mammosa)
bears a fruit whose thick pulp resembles marmalade and is
called natural marmalade. " Marmalade box " is the name
of the fruit of the Genipa Americana, which opens in the
same manner as a walnut, the nut being replaced by a soft
pulp.
MARMANDE, a town of south-western France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 35 m.
N.W. of Agen, on the Southern railway from Bordeaux to Cette.
Pop. (1906), town 6373; commune, 9748. Marmande is situated
at the confluence of the Tree with the Garonne on the right bank
of the latter river, which is here crossed by a suspension bridge.
Public institutions include the sub-prefecture, the tribunals of
first instance and commerce, the communal college and schools
of commerce and industry and of agriculture. Apart from
MARLOWE, J. MARMONT
the administrative offices, the only building of importance is
the church of N6tre-Dame, which dates from the i3th, i4th and
1 5th centuries. The graceful windows of the nave, the altar-
piece of the 1 8th century, and in particular, the Renaissance
cloister adjoining the south side, are its most interesting features.
Among the industries are iron-founding, steam sawing, the
manufacture of woollens, carriage-making, cooperage and
brandy-distilling. There is a large trade in wine, plums, cattle,
grain and other agricultural produce.
Marmande was a bastide founded about 1195 on the site of a
more ancient town by Richard Coeur de Lion, who granted it
a liberal measure of self-government. Its position on the banks
of the Garonne made it an important place of toll. It soon
passed into the hands of the counts of Toulouse, and was three
times besieged and taken during the Albigensian crusade, its
capture by Amaury de Montfort in 1219 being followed by a
massacre of the inhabitants. It was united to the French crown
under Louis IX. ' A short occupation by the English in 1447,
an unsuccessful siege by Henry IV. in 1577 and its resistance of
a month to a division of Wellington's army in 1814, are the chief
events in its subsequent history.
MARMIER, XAVIER (1809-1892), French author, was born
at Pontarlier, in Doubs, on the 24th of June 1809. He had a
passion for travelling, and this he combined throughout his life
with the production of literature. After journeying in Switzer-
land, Belgium and Holland, he was attached in 1835 to the Arctic
expedition of the " Recherche "; and after a couple of years at
Rennes as professor of foreign literature, he visited (1842) Russia,
(1845) Syria, (1846) Algeria, (1848-1849) North and South
America, and numerous volumes from his pen were the result. In
1870 he was elected to the Academy, and he was for many years
prominently identified with the Sain te- Gene vie ve library. He
did much to encourage the study of Scandinavian literature in
France, publishing translations of Holberg, Oehlenschlager and
others. He died in Paris on the nth of October 1892.
MARMONT, AUGUSTE FREDERIC LOUIS VIESSE DE, DUKE
OF RAGUSA (i 774-1852), marshal of France, was born at Chatillon-
sur-Seine, on the 2oth of July 1774. He was the son of an ex-
officer in the army who belonged to the petite noblesse and adopted
the principles of the Revolution. His love of soldiering soon
showing itself, his father took him to Dijon to learn mathematics
prior to entering the artillery, and there he made the acquain-
tance of Bonaparte, which he renewed after obtaining his com-
mission when he served in Toulon. The acquaintance ripened
into intimacy; Marmont became General Bonaparte's aide-de-
camp, remained with him during his disgrace and accompanied
him to Italy and Egypt, winning distinction and promotion to
general of brigade. In 1799 he returned to Europe with his
chief; he was present at the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire, and
organized the artillery for the expedition to Italy, which he
commanded with great effect at Marengo. For this he was at
once made general of division. In 1801 he became inspector-
general of artillery, and in 1804 grand officer of the Legion of
Honour, but was greatly disappointed at being omitted from
the list of officers who were made marshals. In 1805 he received
the command of a corps, with which he did good service at Ulm.
He was then directed to take possession of Dalmatia with his
army, and occupied Ragusa. For the next five years he was
military and civil governor of Dalmatia, and traces of his bene-
ficent regime still survive both in great public works and in the
memories of the people. In 1808 he was made duke of Ragusa,
and in 1809, being summoned by Napoleon to take part in the
Austrian War, he marched to Vienna and bore a share in the
closing operations of the campaign. Napoleon now made him
a marshal and governor-general of all the Illyrian provinces
of the empire. In July 1810 Marmont was hastily summoned
to succeed Mass6na in the command of the French army in the
north of Spain. The skill with which he manoeuvred his army
during the year he commanded it has been always acknowledged.
His relief of Ciudad Rodrigo in the autumn of 1811 in spite of the
presence of the English army was a great feat, and in the
manoeuvring which preceded the battle of Salamanca he had
MARMONTEL MARMOSET
745
the best of it. But Wellington more than retrieved his position
in the battle (see SALAMANCA), and inflicted a severe defeat
on the French, Marmont himself being gravely wounded in the
right arm and side. He retired to France to recover, and was
still hardly cured when in April 1813 Napoleon, who soon forgot
his fleeting resentment for the defeat, gave him the command
of a corps. With it he served at the battles of Liitzen, Bautzen
and Dresden, and throughout the great defensive campaign of
1814 until the last battle before Paris, from which he drew back
his forces to the commanding position of Essonne. Here he had
20,000 men in hand, and was the pivot of all thoughts. Napoleon
said of this camp of Essonne, " C'est la que viendront s'addresser
toutes les intrigues, toutes les trahisons; aussi y ai-je place
Marmont, mon enfant 61eve sous ma tente." Marmont then took
upon himself a political r61e which has, no doubt justly, been
stigmatized as ungrateful and treasonable. A secret convention
was concluded, and Marmont's corps was surrounded by the
enemy. Napoleon, who still hoped to retain the crown for his
infant son, was prostrated, and said with a sadness deeper than
violent words, " Marmorit me porte le dernier coup."
This act was never forgiven by Marmont's countrymen. On
the restoration of the Bourbons he was indeed made a peer of
France and a major-general of the royal guard, and in 1820
a knight of the Saint Esprit and a grand officer of the order of
St Louis; but he was never trusted. He was the major-general
of the guard on duty in July 1830, and was ordered to put down
with a strong hand any opposition to the ordinances (see FRANCE) .
Himself opposed to the court policy, he yet tried to do his duty,
and only gave up the attempt to suppress the revolution when
it became clear that his troops were outmatched. This brought
more obloquy upon him, and the due d'Angouleme even ordered
him under arrest, saying, " Will you betray us, as you betrayed
him?" Marmont did not betray them; he accompanied the
king into exile and forfeited his marshalate thereby. His desire
to return to France was never gratified and he wandered in
central and eastern Europe, settling finally in Vienna, where he
was well received by the Austrian government, and strange to
say made tutor to the duke of Reichstadt, the young man who
had once for a few weeks been styled Napoleon II. He died
at Venice on the 22nd of March 1852.
Much of his time in his last years was spent upon his Mtmoires,
which are of great value for the military history of his time,
though they must be read as a personal defence of himself in
various junctures rather than as an unbiased account of his
times. They show Marmont, as he really was, an embittered
man, who never thought his services sufficiently requited, and
above all, a man too much in love with himself and his own glory
to be a true friend or a faithful servant. His strategy indeed
tended to become pure virtuosity, and his tactics, though neat,
appear frigid and antiquated when contrasted with those of the
instinctive leaders, the fighting generals whom the theorists
affect to despise. But his military genius is undeniable, and he
was as far superior to the mere theorist as Lannes and Davout
were to the pure divisionnaire or " fighting " general.
His works are Voyage en Hongrie, &c. (4 vols., 1837) ; Voyage en
Sidle (1838); Esprit lies institutions militaires (1845); Cesar;
Xenophon; and Memoires (8 vols., published after his death in
1856). See the Jong and careful notice by Sainte-Beuve, Causeries
du Lundi, vol. vi.
MARMONTEL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1723-1799), French writer,
was born of poor parents at Bort, in Cantal, on the nth of July
1723. After studying with the Jesuits at Mauriac, he taught
in their colleges at Clermont and Toulouse; and in 1745, acting
on the advice of Voltaire, he set out for Paris to try for literary
honours. From 1748 to 1753 he wrote a succession of tragedies
which, 1 though only moderately successful on the stage, secured
the admission of the author to literary and fashionable circles.
He wrote for the Encyclopedic a series of articles evincing con-
siderable critical power and insight, which, in their collected form,
under the title Elements de Literature, still rank among the French
l Denys le Tyran (1748); Aristomene (1749); Cleop&tre (1750);
Heraclides (1752); Egyptus (1753).
classics. He also wrote several comic operas, the two best of
which probably are Sylvain (1770) and Ztmire et Azore (1771).
In the Gluck-Piccini controversy he was an eager partisan of
Piccini with whom he collaborated in Didon (1783) and Ptnelope
(1785). In 1758 he gained the patronage of Madame de Pom-
padour, who obtained for him a place as a civil servant, and the
management of the official journal Le Mercure, in which he had
already begun the famous series of Conies moraux. The merit
of these tales lies partly in the delicate finish of the style, but
mainly in the graphic and charming pictures of French society
under Louis XV. The author was elected to the French Academy
in 1763. In 1767 he published a romance, Belisaire, now remark-
able only on account of a chapter on religious toleration which
incurred the censure of the Sorbonne and the archbishop of
Paris. Marmontel retorted in Les Incas (1778) by tracing the
cruelties in Spanish America to the religious fanaticism of the
invaders.
He was appointed historiographer of France (1771), secretary
to the Academy (1783), and professor of history in the Lyce
(1786). In his character of historiographer Marmontel wrote
a history of the regency (1788) which is of little value. Reduced
to poverty by the Revolution, Marmontel in 1792 retired during
the Terror to Evreux, and soon after to a cottage at Abloville
in the department of Eure. To that retreat we owe his Memoires
d'un pere (4 vols., 1804) giving a picturesque review of his whole
life, a literary history of two important reigns, a great gallery
of portraits extending from the venerable Massillon, whom more
than half a century previously he had seen at Clermont, to
Mirabeau. The book was nominally written for the instruction
of his children. It contains an exquisitely drawn picture of his
own childhood in the Limousin ; its value for the literary historian
is very great. Marmontel lived for some time under the roof of
Mme Geoffrin, and was present at her famous dinners given to
artists; he was, indeed, an habitue of most of the houses where
the encyclopaedists met. He had thus at his command the best
material for his portraits, and made good use of his opportunities.
After a short stay in Paris when elected in 1797 to the Conseil
des Anciens, he died on the 3ist of December 1799 at Abloville.
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, iv. ; Morellet, Eloge (1805).
MARMORA (anc. Proconnesus) , an island in the sea of the
same name. Originally settled by Greeks from Miletus in the
8th century B.C., Proconnesus was annexed by its powerful
neighbour Cyzicus in 362. The island has at all times been noted
for its quarries of white marble which supplied the material
for several famous buildings of antiquity (e.g. the palace of
Mausolus at Halicarnassus).
See C. Texier, Asie mineure (Paris, 1839-1849); M. I. Gedeon,
IIpoucii'Miffoj (Constantinople, 1895); an exhaustive monograph by
F. W. Hasluck in Journ. Hell. Stud., xxix., 1909.
MARMORA, SEA OF (anc. Propontis; Turk. Mermer Denist),
the small inland sea which (in part) separates the Turkish
dominions in Europe from those in Asia, and is connected through
the Bosporus with the Black Sea (q.v.) and through the Darda-
nelles with the Aegean. It is 170 m. long (E. to W.) and nearly
50 m. in extreme width, and has an area of 4500 sq. m. Its
greatest depth is about 700 fathoms, the deepest parts (over 500
fathoms) occurring in three depressions in the northern portion
one close under the European shore to the south of Rodosto,
another near the centre of the sea, and a third at the mouth of
the Gulf of Ismid. There are several considerable islands, of
which the largest, Marmora, lies in the west, off the peninsula
of Kapu Dagh, along with Afsia, Aloni and smaller islands. In
the east, off the Asiatic shore between the Bosporus and the Gulf
of Ismid, are the Princes' Islands.
MARMOSET, a name derived from Fr. marmouset (meaning
" of a gross figure "), and used to designate the small tropical
American monkeys, classed by naturalists in the family Hapalidae
(or Chrysothricidae) . Marmosets are not larger than squirrels,
and present great variation in colour; all have long tails, and
many have the ears tufted. They differ from the other American
monkeys in having one pair less of molar teeth in each jaw. The
common marmoset, Hapale (or Chrysothrix) jacchus, is locally
746
MARMOT MARNE
known as the oustili, while the name piriche is applied to another
species (see PRIMATES).
MARMOT, the vernacular name of a large, thickly built,
burrowing Alpine rodent mammal, allied to the squirrels, and
typifying the genus Arclomys, of which there are numerous
species ranging from the Alps through Asia north of (but in-
cluding the inner ranges of) the Himalaya, and recurring in North
America. All these may be included under the name marmot.
In addition to their stout build and long thickly haired tails,
marmots are characterized by the absence of cheek-pouches, and
the rudimentary first front-toe, which is furnished with a flat
nail, as well as by certain features of the skull and cheek-teeth.
Europe possesses two species, the Alpine or true marmot
(A. marmolta), and the more eastern bobac (A. bobac); and there
are numerous kinds in Central Asia, one of which, thered marmot
(X.coMifa/(i),isamuchlargeranimal, with a longer tail. Marmots
inhabit open country, either among mountains, or, more to the
north, in the plains; and associate in large colonies, forming
burrows, each tenanted by a single family. During the day-
time the hillock at the entrance to the burrow is frequently
occupied by one or more members of the family, which at the
approach of strangers sit up on their hind-legs in order to get a
better view. If alarmed they utter a shrill loud whistle, and
rush down the burrow, but reappear after a few minutes to see if
the danger is past. In the winter when the ground is deep in
snow, marmots retire to the depths of their burrows, where as
many as ten or fifteen may occupy the same chamber. No
store of food is accumulated, and the winter sleep is probably
unbroken. From two to four is the usual number of young in a
litter. In America marmots are known as " wood-chucks "
The Alpine Marmot (Arclomys marmotta).
(q.v.), the commonest species being A. monax. The so-called
prairie-dogs, which are smaller and more slender North American
rodents with small cheek-pouches, form a separate genus,
Cynomys; while the term pouched-marmots denotes the
various species of souslik (q.v.), Spermophilus (or Citillus),
which are common to both hemispheres, and distinguished by
the presence of large cheek-pouches (see RODENTIA). (R.L.*)
MARNE, a river of northern France, rising on the Plateau of
Langres, 3 m. S. by E. of Langres, and uniting with the Seine at
Charenton, an eastern suburb of Paris. Leaving Langres on
the left the river flows northward, passing Chaumont, as far as
a point a little above St Dizier. Here it turns west and enters
the department of Marne, where it waters the Perthois and the
wide plain of Champagne-Pouilleuse. Soon after its entrance
into this department it receives the Blaise; and turning north-
west passes Vitry-le-Francois where it receives the Saulx,
Chalons, below which it resumes a westerly course, and Epernay,
where it enters picturesque and undulating country. Its sub-
sequent course lies through the departments of Aisne, where it
flows through Chateau-Thierry; Seine-et-Marne, where it drives
the picturesque mills of Meaux; Seine-et-Oise and Seine. Its
chief tributaries in those departments are the Petit-Morin, the
Ourcq and the Grand-Morin. The length of the Marne is 328 m.,
the area of its basin 4894 sq. m. It is joined a mile from
its source of the Marne-Saone canal which is continued at
Rouvroy by the Haute-Marne canal as far as Vitry-le-Francois.
From that town, which is the starting-point of the canal between
the Marne and the Rhine, it is accompanied by the lateral canal
of the Marne to Dizy where its own channel is canalized. At
Conde, above Epernay, the river is joined by the canal connecting
it with the Aisne. From Lizy, above Meaux, it is accompanied
on the right bank, though at some distance, by the Ourcq canal.
MARNE, a department of north-eastern France, made up from
Champagne-Pouilleuse, Remois, Haute-Champagne, Perthois,
Tardenois, Bocage and Brie-Pouilleuse, districts formerly belong-
ing to Champagne, and bounded W. by Seine-et-Marne and
Aisne, N. by Aisne and Ardennes, E. by Meuse, and S. by Haute-
Marne and Aube. Pop. (1906), 434,157. Area 3167 sq. m.
About one-half consists of Champagne-Pouilleuse, a mono-
tonous and barren plain covering a bed of chalk 1300 ft. in thick-
ness. On the west and on the east it is commanded by two
ranges of hills. The highest point in the department (920 ft.) is
in the hill district of Reims, which rises to the south-west of the
town of the same name, between the Vesle and the Marne. The
lowest level (164 ft.) where the Aisne leaves the department, is
not far distant. To the south of the Marne the hills of Reims are
continued by the heights of Brie (700 to 800 ft.)- All these belong
geologically to the basin of Paris. They slope gently towards
the west, but command the plain of Champagne-Pouilleuse by a
steep descent on the east. On the farther side of the plain are
the heights of Argonne (860 ft.) formed of beds of the Lower
Chalk, and covered by forests; they unite the calcareous forma-
tions of Langres to the schists of Ardennes, and a continuation of
them stretches southward into Perthois and the marshy Bocage.
The department belongs entirely to the Seine basin, but includes
only 13 miles of that river, in the south-west; it there receives the
Aube, which flows for 10 miles within the department. The
principal river is the Marne, which runs through the department
for 105 miles in a great sweep concave to the south-west. The
Aisne enters the department at a point 1 2 miles from its source,
and traverses it for 37 miles. Two of its affluents on the left,
the Suippes and the Vesle, on which stands Reims, have a longer
course from south-east to north-west across the department.
Marne has the temperate climate of the region of the Seine;
the annual mean temperature is 50 F., the rainfall about
24 in. Oats, wheat, rye and barley among the cereals, lucerne,
sainfoin and clover, and potatoes, mangold-wurzels and sugar-
beet are the principal agricultural crops. The raising of sheep
of a mixed merino breed and of other stock together with bee-
farming are profitable. The vineyards, concentrated chiefly
round Reims and Epernay, are of high value; the manufacture
of the sparkling Champagne wines being a highly important
industry, of which Epernay, Reims and Chalons are the chief
centres. Several communes supply the more valuable vegetables,
such as asparagus, onions, &c. The principal orchard fruits are
the apple, plum and cherry. Pine woods are largely planted
in Champagne-Pouilleuse. The department produces peat,
millstones and chalk.
The woollen industry has brought together in the neighbour-
hood of Reims establishments for spinning, carding, dyeing and
weaving. The materials wrought are flannels, merinoes,
tartans, shawls, rugs and fancy articles; the manufacture of
woollen and cotton hosiery must also be mentioned. The
manufacture of wine-cases, corks, casks and other goods for
the wine trade is actively carried on. Marne contains blast-
furnaces, iron and copper foundries, and manufactories of
agricultural implements. Besides these there are tan-yards,
currying and leather-dressing establishments and glassworks,
which, with sugar, chemical, whiting and oil works, potteries,
flour-mills and breweries, complete the list of the most important
industries. Biscuits and gingerbread are a speciality of Reims.
The chief imports are wool and coal; the exports are wine,
grain, live-stock, stone, whiting, pit-props and woollen stuffs.
Communication is afforded chiefly by the river Marne with
its canal connexions, and by the Eastern railway. There are
five arrondissements those of Chalons (the capital), Epernay,
MARNIAN EPOCH MARONITES
747
Reims, Ste Menehould and Vitry-le-Francois with 33 cantons
and 662 communes. The department belongs partly to the
archbishopric of Reims and partly to the see of Chalons.
Chalons is the headquarters of the VI. army corps. Its educa-
tional centre and court of appeal are at Paris. The principal towns
Chalons-sur-Marne, Reims, Epernay and Vitry-le-Francois
are separately treated. The towns next in population are
Ay (4994) and Sezanne (4504). Other places of interest are
Ste Menehould (3348), formerly an important fortress and
capital of the Argonne; Montmort with a Renaissance chateau
once the property of Sully; Trois-Fontaines with a ruined church
of the 1 2th century and the remains of a Cistercian abbey
founded in 1115; and Orbais with an abbey church dating from
about 1200.
MARNIAN EPOCH, the name given by G. de Mortillet to
the period usually called in France the Gallic, which extends
from about five centuries before the Christian era to the conquest
of Gaul by Caesar. M. de Mortillet objects to the term " Gallic,"
as the civilization characteristic of the epoch was not peculiar
to the ancient Gauls, but was common to nearly all Europe at
the same date. The name is derived from the fact that the
French department of Marne has afforded the richest " finds."
MAROCHETTI, CARLO, BARON (1805-1867), Italian sculptor,
was born at Turin. Most of his early life was spent in
France, his first systematic instruction being given him by
Bosio and Gros in Paris. Here his statue of " A Young Girl
playing with a Dog " won a medal in 1829. But between
1822 and 1830 he studied chiefly in Rome. From 1832 to 1848
he lived in France. His " Fallen Angel " was exhibited in 1831.
In 1848 Marochetti removed to London, and there he lived
for the greater part of his time till his death in 1867. Among
his chief works were statues of Queen Victoria, Lord Clyde
(the obelisk in Waterloo Place), Richard Cceur-de-Lion (West-
minster), Emmanuel Philibert (1833, Turin), the tomb of Bellini
(Pere-la-Chaise), and the altar in the Madeleine. His style
was vigorous and effective, but rather popular than artistic.
Marochetti, who was created a baron by the king of Sardinia,
was also a chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
MARONITES (Arab. Mawarina), a Christian people of the
Ottoman Empire in communion with the Papal Church, but
forming a distinct denomination. The original seat and present
home of the nucleus of the Maronites is Mt Lebanon; but they
are also to be found in considerable force in Anti-Lebanon
and Hermon, and more sporadically in and near Antioch, in
Galilee, and on the Syrian coast. Colonies exist in Cyprus
(with a large convent near Cape Kormakiti), in Alexandria,
and in the United States of America. These began to be formed
during the troubles of 1860. The Lebanon community numbers
about 300,000, and the total of the whole denomination cannot
be much under half a million.
The origin of Maronism has been much obscured by the
efforts of learned Maronites like Yusuf as-Simani (Assemanus),
Vatican librarian under Clement XII., Faustus Nairon, Gabriel
Sionita and Abraham Ecchellensis to clear its history from
all taint of heresy. We are told of an early Antiochene, Mar
Marun or Maro, who died about A.D. 400 in the odour of sanctity
in a convent at Ribla on the Orontes, whence orthodoxy spread
over mid-Syria. But nothing sure is known of him, and not much
more about a more historical personage, Yuhanna Marun (John
Sirimensis of Suedia), said to have been patriarch of Antioch, to
have converted Lebanon from Monothelism, and to have died
in A.D. 707. It is, however, certain that the Lebanon Christians
as a whole were not orthodox in the time of Justinian II.,
against whose supporters, the Melkites, they ranged themselves
after having co-operated awhile with the emperor against the
Moslems. They were then called Mardaites or rebels, and
were mainly Monothelite in the I2th century, and remained
largely so even a century later. The last two facts are attested
by William of Tyre and Barhebraeus. It seems most probable
that the Lebanon offered refuge to Antiochene Monothelites flying
from the ban of the Constantinopolitan Council of A.D. 680;
that these converted part of the old mountain folk, who already
held some kind of Incarnationist creed; and that their first
patriarch and his successors, for about 500 years at any rate,
were Monothelite, and perhaps also Monophysite. It is worth
noting that even as late as the close of the i6th century the
Maronite patriarch found it necessary to protest by anathema
against imputations of heresy. In 1182 it is said that Amaury,
patriarch of Antioch, induced some Maronite bishops, who had
fallen under crusading influences, to rally to Rome; and a
definite acceptance of the Maronite Church into the Roman
communion took place at the Council of Florence in 1445.
But it is evident that the local particularism of the Lebanon
was adverse to this union, and that even Gregory XIII., who sent
the pallium to the patriarch Michael, and Clement VII. who
in 1596 dispatched a mission to a synod convoked at Kannobin,
the old patriarchal residence, did not prevail on the lower
clergy or the mass of the Maronites. A century and a half
later Clement XII. was more successful. He sent to Syria,
Assemanus, a Maronite educated at the Roman college of
Gregory XIII.; and at last, at a council held at the monastery
of Lowaizi on the 30th of September 1736, the Maronite Church
accepted from Rome a constitution which is still in force, and
agreed to abandon some of its more incongruous usages such
as mixed convents of monks and nuns. It retained, however,
its Syriac liturgy and a non-celibate priesthood. The former
still persists unchanged, while the Bible is read and exhortations
are given in Arabic; and priests may still be ordained after
marriage. But marriage is not permitted subsequent to ordina-
tion, nor does it any longer usually precede it. The tendency
to a celibate clergy increases, together with other romanizing
usages, promoted by the papal legate in Beirut, the Catholic
missioners, and the higher native clergy who are usually educated
in Rome or at St Sulpice. The legate exercises growing
influence on patriarchal and other elections, and on Church
government and discipline. The patriarch receives confirmation
from Rome, and the political representation of the Maronites
at Constantinople is in the hands of the vicar apostolic. Rome
has incorporated most of the Maronite saints in her calendar,
while refusing (despite their apologists) to canonize either of the
reputed eponymous founders of Maronism.
While retaining many local usages, the Maronite Church
does not differ now in anything essential from the Papal,
either in dogma or practice. It has, like the Greek Church,
two kinds of clergy parochial and monastic. The former
are supported by their parishes; the latter by the revenues of
the monasteries, which own about one-sixth of the Lebanon
lands. There are some 1400 monks in about 120 monastic
establishments (many of these being mere farms in charge of
one or two monks). All are of the order of St Anthony, but
divided into three congregations, the Ishaya, the Halebiyeh
(Aleppine) and the Beladiyeh or Libnaniyeh (local). The
distinction of the last named dates only from the early i8th
century. The lower clergy are educated at the theological
college of Ain Warka. There are five archbishoprics and five
bishoprics under the patriarch, who alone can consecrate. The
sees are Aleppo, Baalbek, Tripoli, Ehden, Damascus, Beirut,
Tyre, Cyprus and Jebeil (held by the patriarch himself ex officio).
There are also four prelates in partibus.
The Maronites are most numerous and unmixed in the north
of Lebanon (districts of Bsherreh and Kesrawan). Formerly
they were wholly organized on a clan system under feudal chiefs,
of whom those of the house of Khazin were the most powerful;
and these fought among themselves rather than with the Druses
or other denominations down to the i8th century, when the Arab
family of Shehab for its own purposes began to stir up strife between
Maronites and Druses (see DRUSES). Feudalism died hard, but
since 1860 has been practically extinct; and so far as the Maronites
own a chief of their own people it is the " Patriarch of Antioch and
the whole East," who resides at Bkerkeh near Beirut in winter,
and at a hill station (Bdiman or Raifun) in summer. The latter,
however, has no recognized jurisdiction except over his clergy.
The Maronites have four members on the provincial council, two
of whom are the sole representatives of the two mudirats of Kesra-
wan; and they have derived benefit from the fact that so far the
governor of the privileged province has always been a Catholic
(see LEBANON). The French protection of them, which dates
MAROONS MAROT, C.
from Louis XIV., is no longer operative but to French official
representatives is still accorded a courteous precedence. The
Maronite population has greatly increased at the expense of the
Druses, and is now obliged to emigrate in considerable numbers.
Increase of wealth and the influence of returned emigrants tend to
soften Maronite character, and the last remnants of the barbarous
state of the community even the obstinate blood-feud are
disappearing.
See C. F. Schnurrer, De ecclesia Maronitica (1810); F. J. Bliss
in Pal. Expl. Fund Quarterly Statement (1892); and authorities for
DRUSES and LEBANON. (D. G. H.)
MAROONS. A negre marron is defined by Littre as a fugitive
slave who betakes himself to the woods; a similar definition
of cimarron (apparently from cima, a mountain top) is given
in the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy. The old English
form of the word is symaron (see Hawkins's Voyage, 68).
The term "Maroons" is applied almost as a proper name to
the descendants of those negroes in Jamaica who at the first
English occupation, in the tyth century fled to the mountains.
(See JAMAICA.)
MAROS-VAsARHELY, a town of Hungary in Transylvania,
capital of the county of Maros-Torda, 79 m. E. of Kolozsvar
by rail. Pop. (1900), 19,522. It is situated on the left bank
of the Maros, and is a well-built town, once the capital of the
territory of the Szeklers. On a hill dominating the town
stands the old fortress, which contains a beautiful church in
Gothic style built about 1446, where in 1571 the diet was held
which proclaimed the equality of the Unitarian Church with
the Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, and Calvinistic Churches.
The Teleki palace contains the Teleki collections, which include
a library of 70,000 volumes and several valuable manuscripts
(e.g. the Teleki Codex), a collection of old Hungarian poems,
and a manuscript of Tacitus, besides a collection of antiquities
and another of minerals. Maros- Vasarhely has also an interest-
ing Szekler industrial museum. The trade is chiefly in timber,
grain, wine, tobacco, fruit and other products of the neighbour-
hood. There are manufactures of sugar, spirits and beer.
MAROT, CLEMENT (1496-1544), French poet, was born
at Cahors, the capital of the province of Quercy, some time
during the winter of the year 1496-1497. His father, Jean Marot
(c. 1463-1523), whose more correct name appears to have been
des Mares, Marais or Marets, was a Norman of the neighbourhood
of Caen. Jean was himself a poet of considerable merit, and
held the post of escripvain (apparently uniting the duties of
poet laureate and historiographer) to Anne of Brittany. He
had however resided in Cahors for a considerable time, and was
twice married there, his second wife being the mothe'r of Clement.
The boy was " brought into France " it is his own expression,
and is not unnoteworthy as showing the strict sense in which
that term was still used at the beginning of the i6th century
in 1506, and he appears to have been educated at the university
of Paris, and to have then begun the study of law. But,
whereas most other poets have had to cultivate poetry against
their father's will, Jean Marot took great pains to instruct his
son in the fashionable forms of verse-making, which indeed
required not a little instruction. It was the palmy time of the
rhetoriqueurs, poets who combined stilted and pedantic language
with an obstinate adherence to the allegorical manner of the
1 5th century and to the most complicated and artificial forms
of the ballade and the rondeau. Clement himself practised
with diligence this poetry (which he was to do more than any
other man to overthrow), and he has left panegyrics of its
coryphaeus Guillaume Cr6tin, the supposed original of the
Raminagrobis of Rabelais, while he translated Virgil's first
eclogue in 1512. Nor did he long continue even a nominal
devotion to law. He became page to Nicolas de Neuville,
seigneur de Villeroy, and this opened to him the way to court
life. Besides this, his father's interest must have been not
inconsiderable, and the house of Valois, which was about to
hold the throne of France for the greater part of a century,
was devoted to letters.
As early as 1514, before the accession of Francis I., Clement
presented to him his Judgment of Minos, and shortly afterwards
he was either styled or styled himself facteur (poet) de la reine
to Queen Claude. In 1519 he was attached to the suite of
Marguerite d'Angouleme, the king's sister, who was for many
years to be the mainstay not only of him but of almost all
French men of letters. He was also a great favourite of Francis
himself, attended the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and
duly celebrated it in verse. Next year he was at the camp
in Flanders, and writes of the horrors of war. It is certain
that Marot, like most of Marguerite's literary court, and perhaps
more than most of them, was greatly attracted by her gracious
ways, her unfailing kindness, and her admirable intellectual
accomplishments, but there is not the slightest ground for
thinking that his attachment was other than platonic. It is,
however, evident that at this time either sentiment or matured
critical judgment effected a great change in his style, a
change which was wholly for the better. At the same time he
celebrates a certain Diane, whom it has been sought to identify
with Diane de Poitiers. There is nothing to support this idea
and much against it, for it was an almost invariable habit of
the poets of the i6th century, when the mistresses whom they
celebrated were flesh and blood at all (which was not always
the case), to celebrate them under pseudonyms. In the same
year, 1524, Marot accompanied Francis on his disastrous Italian
campaign. He was wounded and taken at Pavia, but soon
released, and he was back again at Paris by the beginning of 1525.
His luck had, however, turned. Marguerite for intellectual
reasons, and her brother for political, had hitherto favoured
the double movement of Aufkliirung, partly humanist, partly
Reforming, which distinguished the beginning of the century.
Formidable opposition to both forms of innovation, however, now
began to be manifested, and Marot, who was at no time par-
ticularly prudent, was arrested on a charge of heresy and lodged
in the Chatelet, February 1526. But this was only a foretaste of
the coming trouble, and a friendly prelate, acting for Marguerite,
extricated him from his durance before Easter. The imprison-
ment gave him occasion to write a vigorous poem on it entitled
Enfer, which was afterwards imitated by his luckless friend
Etienne Dolet. His father died about this time, and Marot
seems to have been appointed to the place which Jean had
latterly enjoyed, that of valet de chambre to the king. He
was certainly a member of the royal household in 1528 with a
stipend of 250 livres, besides which he had inherited property in
Quercy. In 1 530, probably, he married. Next year he was again
in trouble, not it is said for heresy, but for attempting to rescue
a prisoner, and was again delivered; this time the king and
queen of Navarre seem to have bailed him themselves.
In 1532 he published (it had perhaps appeared three years
earlier), under the title of Adolescence Clementine, a title the
characteristic grace of which excuses its slight savour of affecta-
tion, the first printed collection of his works, which was very
popular and was frequently reprinted with additions. Dolet 's
edition of 1538 is believed to be the most authoritative. Un-
fortunately, however, the poet's enemies were by BO means
discouraged by their previous ill-success, and the political
situation was very unfavourable to the Reforming party.
In 1535 Marot was implicated in the affair of " The Placards," 1
and this time he was advised or thought it best to fly. He
passed through Beam, and then made his way to Ren6e, duchess
of Ferrara, a supporter of the French reformers as steadfast
as her aunt Marguerite, and even more efficacious, because
her dominions were out of France. At Ferrara he wrote a
good deal, his work there including his 'celebrated Blasons (a
descriptive poem, improved upon medieval models 2 ), which set
all the verse-writers of France imitating them. But the
duchess Renee was not able to persuade her husband, Ercole
d'Este, to share her views, and Marot had to quit the city.
1 These " placards " were the work of the extreme Protestants.
Pasted up in the principal streets of Paris on the night of the I7th
of October 1534, they vilified the Mass and its celebrants, and thus
led to a renewal of the religious persecution.
2 The blason was defined by Thomas Sibilet as a perpetual praise
or continuous vituperation of its subject. The blasons of Marot's
followers were printed in 1543 with the title of Blasons anatomiquef
du corps feminin.
MAROT, D.
749
He then went to Venice, but before very long the pope Paul III.
remonstrated with Francis I. on the severity with which the
Protestants were treated, and they were allowed to return to
Paris on condition of recanting their errors. Marot returned
with the rest, and abjured his heresy at Lyons. In 1539
Francis gave him a house and grounds in the suburbs.
It was at this time that his famous translations of the Psalms
appeared. The merit of these has been sometimes denied,
it is, however, considerable, and the powerful influence which
the book exercised on contemporaries is not denied by anyone.
The great persons of the court chose different pieces, each as
his or her favourite. They were sung in court and city,
and they are said, with exaggeration doubtless, but still with a
basis of truth, to have done more than anything else to advance
the cause of the Reformation in France. Indeed, the vernacular
prose translations of the Scriptures were in that country of little
merit or power, and the form of poetry was still preferred
to prose, even for the most incongruous subjects. At the same
time Marot engaged in a curious literary quarrel characteristic
of the time, with a bad poet named Sagon, who represented
the reactionary Sorbonne. Half the verse-writers of France
ranged themselves among the Marotiques or the Sagontiques,
and a great deal of versified abuse was exchanged. The victory,
as far as wit was concerned, naturally rested with Marot, but his
biographers are probably not fanciful in supposing that a certain
amount of odium was created against him by the squabble,
and that, as in Dolet's case, his subsequent misfortunes were
not altogether unconnected with a too little governed tongue
and pen.
The publication of the Psalms gave the Sorbonne a handle,
and the book was condemned by that body. In 1543 it was
evident that he could not rely on the protection of Francis.
Marot accordingly fled to Geneva; but the stars were now
decidedly against him. He had, like most of his friends, been
at least as much of a freethinker as of a Protestant, and this
was fatal to his reputation in the austere city of Calvin. He
had again to fly, and made his way into Piedmont, and he died
at Turin in the autumn of 1544.
In character Marot seems to have been a typical Frenchman of
the old stamp, cheerful, good-humoured and amiable enough, but
probably not very much disposed to elaborately moral life and
conversation or to serious reflection. He has sometimes been charged
with a want of independence of character; but it is fair to remember
that in the middle ages men of letters naturally attached them-
selves as dependants to the great. Such scanty knowledge as we
have of his relations with his equals is favourable to him. He
certainly at one time quarrelled with Dolet, or at least wrote a
violent epigram against him, for which there is no known cause.
But, as Dolet quarrelled with almost every friend he ever had, and
in two or three cases played them the shabbiest of tricks, the pre-
sumption is not against Marot in this matter. With other poets
like Mellin de Saint Gelais and Brodeau, with prose writers like
Rabelais and Bonaventure Desperiers, he was always on excellent
terms. And whatever may have been his personal weaknesses,
his importance in the history of French literature is very great,
and was long rather under than over-valued. Coming immediately
before a great literary reform that of the Pleiade Marot suffered
the drawbacks of his position; he was both eclipsed and decried by
the partakers in that reform. In the reaction against the Pl&ade
he recovered honour; but its restoration to virtual favour, a per-
fectly just restoration, again unjustly depressed him. Yet Marot
is in no sense one of those writers of transition who are rightly
obscured by those who come after them. He himself was a reformer
and a reformer on perfectly independent lines, and he carried his
own reform as far as it would go. His early work was couched in
the rhetortqueur style, the distinguishing characteristics of which
are elaborate metre and rhyme, allegoric matter and pedantic
language. In his second stage he entirely emancipated himself
rom this, and became one of the easiest, least affected and most
vernacular poets of France. In these points indeed he has, with
the exception of La Fontaine, no rival, and the lighter verse-writers
ever since have taken one or the other or both as model. In his
third period he lost a little of this flowing grace and ease, but ac-
quired something in stateliness, while he certainly lost nothing in
wit. Marot is the first poet who strikes readers of French as being
distinctively modern. He is not so great a poet as Villon nor at
if his successors of the P16iade, but he is much less antiquated
than the first (whose works, as well as the Roman de la rose, it may
ie well to mention that he edited) and not so elaborately artificial
as the second. Indeed if there be a fault to find with Marot, it is
undoubtedly that in his gallant and successful effort to break up,
supple, and liquefy the stiff forms and suffer language of the isth
century, he made his poetry almost too vernacular and pedestrian.
He has passion, and picturesqueness, but rarely; in his hands, and
while the style Marotique was supreme, French poetry ran some
risk of finding itself unequal to anything but graceful vers de sociiti.
But it is only fair to remember that for a century and more its
best achievements, with rare exceptions, had been vers de societi
which were not graceful.
The most important early editions of Marot's (Euvres are those
published at Lyons in 1538 and 1544. In the second of these the
arrangement of his poems which has been accepted in later issues
was first adopted. In 1596 an enlarged edition was edited by
Franc.ois Miziere. Others of later date are those of N. Lenglet du
Fresnoy (the Hague, 1731) and P. Jannet (1868-1872; new ed.,
1873-1876), on the whole the best, but there is a very good selection
with a still better introduction by Charles d'HeVicault, the joint
editor of the Jannet edition in the larger Collection Gamier (no
date). An elaborate edition by G. Guiffrey remained incomplete,
only vols. ii. and iii. (1875-1881) having been issued. For infor-
mation about Marot himself see Notices biographiques des trots
Marot, edited from the MS. of Guillaume Colletet by G. Guiffrey
(1871) ; H. Morley, Clement Marot, a study of Marot as a reformer;
O. Douen, Clement Marot et le psautier huguenot; the section con-
cerning him in G. Saintsbury s The Early Renaissance (1901);
and A. Tilley, Literature of the French Renaissance, vol. i., ch. iv.
(1904). (G. SA.)
MAROT, DANIEL (seventeenth century), French architect,
furniture designer and engraver, and pupil of Jean le Pautre
(q.v.), was the son of Jean Marot (1620-1679,), who was also an
architect and engraver. He was a Huguenot, and was compelled
by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 to settle in
Holland. His earlier work is characteristic of the second period
'of Louis XIV., but eventually it became tinged with Dutch
influence, and in the end the English style which is loosely
called " Queen Anne " owed much to his manner. In Holland
he was taken almost immediately into the service of the Stadt-
holder, who, when he shortly afterwards became William III.
of England, appointed him one of his architects and master
of the works. Comparatively little is known of his architectural
achievements, and his name cannot be attached to any English
building, although we know from his own engraving that he
designed the great hall of audience for the States-General at
the Hague. He also decorated many Dutch country-houses.
In England his activities appear to have been concentrated
upon the adornment of Hampton Court Palace. Among his plans
for gardens is one inscribed: " Parterre d'Amton-court invent6
par D. Marot." Much of the furniture especially the mirrors,
gueridons and beds at Hampton Court bears unmistakable
traces of his authorship; the tall and monumental beds, with
their plumes of ostrich feathers, their elaborate valances and
chanlournes in crimson velvet or other rich stuffs agree very
closely with his published designs. As befits an artist of the
time of Louis XIV. splendour and elaboration are the out-
standing characteristics of Marot's style, and he appears even
to have been responsible for some of the curious and rather .
barbaric silver furniture which was introduced into England
from France in the latter part of the I7th century. At Windsor
Castle there is a silver table, attributed to him, supported by
caryatid legs and gadrooned feet, with a foot-rail supporting
the pine-apple which is so familiar a motive -in work of this
type. The slab is engraved with the arms of William III.
and with the British national emblems with crowns and cherubs.
Unquestionably it is an exceedingly fine example of its type.
During his life in France Marot made many designs for Andr6
Charles Boulle (q.v.), more especially for long case and bracket
clocks. The bracket clocks were intended to be mounted in
chased and gilded bronze, and with their garlands and masque-
rons and elegant dials are far superior artistically to those of
the "grandfather" variety. It is impossible to examine the
designs for Marot's long clocks without suspecting that Chippen-
dale derived from them some at least of the inspiration which
made him a master of that kind of furniture. Marot's range
was extraordinarily wide. He designed practically every detail
in the internal ornamentation of the house carved chimney-
pieces, ceilings, panels for walls, girandoles and wall brackets,
and even tea urns and cream jugs he was indeed a prolific
75
MARPLE MARQUESAS ISLANDS
designer of gold and silver plate. Many of his interiors are
very rich and harmonious although commonly over-elaborated.
The craze for collecting china which was at its height in his time
is illustrated in his lavish designs for receptacles for porcelain
in one of his plates there are more than 300 pieces of china on
the chimney-piece alone. Marot was still living in 1718, and
the date of his death is unknown.
We owe much of our knowledge of his work to the volume of
his designs published at Amsterdam in 1712: (Euvres du Sieur
D. Marot, architecte de Guillaume III. Roi de la Grande Bretagne,
and to Receuil des planches des sieurs Marot, pereetfils. In addition
to decorative work these books contain prints of scenes in Dutch
history, and engravings of the statues and vases, produced by
Marot, at the Palace of Loo.
MARPLE, an urban district in the Hyde parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 12 m. S.E. of Manchester,
served by the Great Central, Midland & Sheffield and Midland
railways, and the Cheshire lines. Pop. (1901), 5595. It lies
on and above the valley of the Goyt, and its situation has
brought the town into favour as a residential centre for those
whose business lies in Manchester, Stockport, and the great
manufacturing district to the west. Marple Hall, a beautiful
Elizabethan mansion, is connected with the youth, and some-
times stated to be the birthplace, of John Bradshaw the
regicide (1602-1659).
MARPRELATE CONTROVERSY, a war of pamphlets waged
in 1588 and 1589 between a puritan writer who employed
the pseudonym " Martin Marprelate " and defenders of the
Established Church. Martin's tracts are characterized by
violent and personal invective against the Anglican dignitaries,
by the assumption that the writer had numerous and powerful
adherents and was able to enforce his demands for reform, and
by a plain and homely style combined with pungent wit. While
he maintained the puritan doctrines as a whole, the special
point of his attack was the Episcopacy. The pamphlets were
printed at a secret press established by John Penry, a Welsh
puritan, with the help of the printer Robert Waldegrave, about
midsummer 1588, for the issue of puritan literature forbidden
by the authorities. The first tract by " Martin Marprelate,"
known as the Epistle, appeared at Molesey in November 1588.
It is in answer to A Defence of the Government established in the
Church of Englande, by Dr. John Bridges, dean of Salisbury,
itself a reply to earlier puritan works, and besides attacking
the episcopal office in general assails certain prelates with much
personal abuse. The Epistle attracted considerable notice, and
a reply was written by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Winchester,
under the title An Admonition to the People of England, but this
was too long and too dull to appeal to the same class of readers
as the Marprelate pamphlets, and produced little effect. Penry's
press, now removed to Fawsley, near Northampton, produced
a second tract by Martin, the Epitome, which contains more
serious argument than the Epistle but is otherwise similar,
and shortly afterwards, at Coventry, Martin's reply to the
Admonition, entitled Hay any Worke for Cooper (March 1589).
It now appeared to some of the ecclesiastical authorities that
the only way to silence Martin was to have him attacked in
his own railing style, and accordingly certain writers of ready
wit, among them John Lyly, Thomas Nashe and Robert
Greene, were secretly commissioned to answer the pamphlets.
Among the productions of this group were Pappe with an
Hatchet (Sept. 1589), probably by Lyly, and An Almond for a
Parr at (1590), which, with certain tracts under the pseudonym
of Pasquil, has been attributed to Nashe (q.v.). Some anti-
Martinist plays or shows (now lost) performed in 1589 were
perhaps also their work. Meanwhile, in July 1589, Penry's
press, now at Wolston, near Coventry, produced two tracts
purporting to be by " sons " of Martin, but probably by Martin
himself, namely, Theses Martinianae by Martin Junior, and The
Just Censure of Martin Junior by Martin Senior. Shortly after
this, M ore Work for Cooper, a sequel to H ay any Worke, was
begun at Manchester, but while it was in progress the press was
seized. Penry however was not found, and in September
issued from Wolston or Haseley The Protestation of Martin
Marprelate, the last work of the series, though several of the
anti-Martinist pamphlets appeared after this date. He then
fled to Scotland, but was later apprehended in London, charged
with inciting rebellion, and hanged (May 1593). The author-
ship of the tracts has been attributed to several persons:
to Penry himself, who however emphatically denied it and
whose acknowledged works have little resemblance in style to
those of Martin, to Job Throckmorton, and to Henry Barrow.
See, for list and full titles of the tracts, related documents, and
discussion of the authorship, E. Arber's Introductory Sketch to the
Martin Marprelate Controversy (1880), which, however, gives no
connected account of the matter. A good summary, with quota-
tions from the pamphlets, will be found in H. M. Dexter's Con-
gregationalism (New York, 1880), pp. 129-202. See also articles
on John Penry and Job Throckmorton in Diet, of Nat. Biography;
and for the history of the press, Bibliographica, ii. 172-180. Maskcll's
Martin Marprelate Controversy (1845) is of little service. The
more important tracts have been reprinted by Petheram in his
series of Puritan Discipline Tracts (1842-1860), in Arber's English
Scholar's Library (1879-1880), in R. W. Bond's edition of Lyly
and in the editions of Nashe. (R. B. McK.)
MARQUAND, HENRY GURDON (1810-1902), American
philanthropist and collector, was born in New York City on the
nth of April 1819. In 1839, upon the retirement from the
jewelry business of his brother Frederick (1799-1882), who was
a liberal benefactor of Yale College and of the Union Theological
Seminary, he became his brother's agent. He was one of the
purchasers in 1868 of the Iron Mountain railroad, afterwards its
president, and a director of the Missouri-Pacific system. He
was the first honorary member of the American Institute of Archi-
tects, and president (1889-1902) of the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, to which he made valuable presents and loans from his
collection of paintings. He died in New York City, on the 26th
of February 1902. His varied and valuable art collection and
rare books were sold in 1903. He was a benefactor of Princeton
University and other institutions. His son, ALLAN MARQUAND
(b. 1853), graduated at Princeton in 1874, and in 1883 became
professor of archaeology and art.
MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812-1882), German historian and
writer on Roman antiquities, was born at Danzig on the igth
of April 1812. He studied at Berlin and Leipzig, held various
educational appointments from 1833 onwards at Berlin, Danzig
and Posen, and became in 1859 head of the gymnasium in Gotha,
where he died on the 3oth of November 1882. The dedication of
his treatise Historiae equitum romanorum libri quatuor (1841) to
Lachmann led to his being recommended to the publisher of
W. A. Becker's Handbuch der romischen Alterthumer to continue
the work on the death of the author in 1846. It took twenty
years to complete, and met with such success that a new edition
was soon called for. Finding himself unequal to the task
single-handed, Marquardt left the preparation of the first three
volumes (Romisches Staatsrecht) to Theodor Mommsen, while he
himself contributed vols. iv.-vi. (Romische Slaalsvcrwaltung,
1873-1878; 2nd ed., 1881-1885, vol. v. by H. Dessau and A. von
Domaszewski, vol. vi. by G. Wissowa) and vol. vii.(DasPrivatleben
der Romer, 1879-1882; 2nd ed., by A. Mau, 1886). Its clearness
of style, systematic arrangement and abundant references to
authorities ancient and modern, will always render it valuable to
the student.
See E. Forstemann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, Bd. XX;
R. Ehwald, Gedachtnisrede (progr. Gotha, 1883).
MARQUESAS or MENDANA ISLANDS (Fr. Les Marquises),
an archipelago of the Pacific Ocean lying between 7 50' and
10 35' S. and 138 50' and 140 50' W., and belonging to France. It
extends over 250 m. from S.E. to N.W., and has a total area of
490 sq. m. The southern or Mendana group consists of the islands
Fatuhiva or Magdalena, Motane or San Pedro, Tahuata or Santa
Christina and Hivaoa or Dominica, the last with a coast-line of
more than 60 m. With these is often included the rocky islet of
Fatuhuku or Hood, lying in mid-channel to the north of Hivaoa.
The north-western or Washington group is formed of seven
islands, the four largest being Huapu or Adams, Huahuna or
Washington, Nukuhiva (70 m. in circumference) and Eiao. 1 Along
1 Most of the islands have each three or four alternative names.
MARQUESS MARQUETRY
the centre of each island is a ridge of mountains, attaining an
altitude of 4042 ft. in Huapu, whence rugged spurs forming deep
valleys stretch towards the sea. The volcanic origin of the whole
archipelago is proved by the principal rocks being of basalt,
trachyte and lava. Vegetation is luxuriant in the valleys,
which are well watered with streams and, from their seaward
termination in small bays, are themselves known as " bays." The
flora includes about four hundred known species, many of them
identical with those belonging to the Society Islands. The
vegetable products comprise bananas, bread-fruit, yams, plan-
tains, wild cotton, bamboos, sugar-cane, coco-nut and dwarf
palms, and several kinds of timber trees. The land fauna how-
ever is very poor; there are few mammals with the exception of
dogs, rats and pigs; and amphibia and insects are also generally
scarce. Of twenty species of birds more than half belong to the
sea, where animal life is as abundant as about other sub-tropical
Polynesian groups. The climate, although hot and damp, is
not unhealthy. During the greater part of the year moderate
easterly trade-winds prevail, and at the larger islands there are
often both land and sea breezes. The rainy season accompanied
by variable winds sets in at the end of November, and lasts for
about six months. During this period the thermometer varies
from 84 to 91 F. ; in the dry season its average range is from 77
to 86. The archipelago, which has some small trade in copra,
cotton and cotton seeds, is administered by a French resident,
and has a total population of about 4300, nearly all natives.
The natives, a pure Polynesian race, are usually described as
physically the finest of all South Sea Islanders. Their traditions
point to Samoa as the colonizing centre from which they sprang.
Their complexion is a healthy bronze. Until the introduction
of civilization they were remarkable for their elaborate tattooing.
Their cannibalism seems to have been dictated by taste, for it
was never associated with their religion, the sacrifices to their
gods being always swine. Of these and fowls they rear a great
quantity. Their native drink is kava. Their houses are unlike
those usual in Polynesia in being built on platforms raised from
the ground. In disposition the islanders are friendly and hos-
pitable, brave and somewhat bloodthirsty; and, although natur-
ally indolent and morose, they have proved industrious and keen
traders. As among their kinsfolk the Tahitians, debauchery was
systematized and infanticide an organized institution. A popu-
lation which at the time of the annexation by France (1842)
was 20,000 has been reduced to little over 4000. Latterly the
natives have for the most part outwardly adopted Christianity.
The Marquesas Islands were discovered on the 2ist of July
'595 by Alvaro Mendana, who, however, only knew of the south-
eastern group, to which h6 gave the name by which they are gener-
ally known (although they also bear his own), in honour of Don
Garcia Hurtado de Mcndoza, marquis of Canete, viceroy of Peru,
and patron of the voyage. Captain Cook pursuing the same track
rediscovered this group, with the addition of Fatuhuku, in 1774.
The north-western islands were first sighted by the American
Captain Ingraham in 1791, and given the name of Washington by
him; the French Captain Marchand followed in the same year,
and Lieut. Hergest in 1792. The Russian explorer, Adam
Ivan Krusenstern, made an extensive investigation of the archi-
pelago in 1804. In 1813 the American Commodore David Porter
failed to establish a colony here; and in May 1842, after French
Roman Catholic missionaries had prepared the way, Rear-admiral
Dupetit-Thouars took formal possession of the archipelago for
France. A complete settlement was not effected without bloodshed
and about 1860-1870 the colony was practically abandoned.
See Vincendon-Dumoulin ties Marquises (Paris, 1843) ; E. Jardin,
Essai sur I'histoire naturelle de I'archipel de Mendana (Paris, 1860);
Clayel, Les Marguisiens (Paris, 1885); Dordillon, Grammaire et
dictionnaire de la langiie des lies Marquises (Paris, 1904).
MARQUESS, or MARQUIS (Fr. marquis, Ital. marchese; from
med. Lat. marchio, marchisus, i.e. comes marchiae, " count of the
March "), a title and rank of nobility. In the British peerage
it is the second in order and therefore next to duke. In this
sense the word was a reintroduction from abroad; but lords of
the Welsh and Scottish " marches " are occasionally termed
marchiones from an early date. The first marquess in England
was Robert de Vere, the gth earl of Oxford, who was created
marquess of Dublin by Richard II. on the ist of December 1385
and assigned precedence between dukes and earls. On the I3th
of October following the patent of this marquessate was recalled,
Robert de Vere then having been raised to a dukedom. John
de Beaufort, earl of Somerset, the second legitimate son of John
of Gaunt, was raised to the second marquessate as marquess of
Dorset on the 2gth of September 1397, but degraded again to
earl in 1399. The Commons petitioned for the restoration of
his marquessate in 1402, but he himself objected because " le
noun de Marquys feust estraunge noun en cest Roialme." From
that period this title appears to have been dormant till the reign
of Henry VI., when it was revived (1442), and thenceforward it
maintained its place in the British peerage. Anne Boleyn was
created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532. A marquess is
" most honourable," and is styled " my lord marquess." His
wife, who is also " most honourable," is a marchioness, and is
styled " my lady marchioness." The coronet is a circlet of gold
on which rest four leaves and as many large pearls, all of them
of equal height and connected. The cap and lining, if worn, arc
the same as in the other coronets (see CROWN and CORONET).
The mantle of parliament is scarlet, and has three and a half
doublings of ermine.
In France , so early as the 9th century, counts who held several
counties and had succeeded in making themselves quasi-indepen-
dent began to describe themselves as marchiones, this use of the
word being due to the fact that originally none but the margraves,
or counts of the marches, had been allowed to hold more than
one county. The marchio or marquess thus came to be no more
than a count of exceptional power and dignity, the original signi-
ficance of the title being lost. In course of time the title was
recognized as ranking between those of duke and count; but
with the decay of feudalism it lost much of its dignity, and by the
1 7th century the savour of pretentiousness attached to it had
made it a favourite subject of satire for Moliere and other drama-
tists of the classical comedy. Abolished at the Revolution, the
title of marquess was not restored by Napoleon, but it was
again revived by Louis XVIII., who created many of Napoleon's
counts marquesses. This again tended to cheapen the title,
a process hastened under the republic by its frequent assumption
on very slender grounds in the absence of any authority to
prevent its abuse. In Italy too the title of marchese, once borne
only by the powerful margraves of Verona, has shared the fate
of most other titles of nobility in becoming common and of no
great social significance. (See also MARGRAVE.) (J. H. R.)
MARQUETRY (Fr. marqueterie, from marqueler, to inlay,
literally to mark, marquer), an inlay of ornamental woods,
ivory, bone, brass and other metals, tortoise-shell, mother-of-
pearl, &c., in which shaped pieces of different materials or tints
are combined to form a design. It is a later development of the
ornamental inlays of wood known by the name of Intarsia, and
though in the main the latter was a true inlay of one or more
colours upon a darker or lighter ground, while marquetry is
composed of pieces of quite thin wood or other material of equal
thickness laid down upon a matrix with glue, there are examples
of Intarsia in which this mode of manufacture was evidently
followed. For instance, the backs of the stalls in the cathedral
of Ferrara show the perspective lines of some of the subjects
traced upon the ground where the marquetry has fallen off, but
none of the sinkings in the surface which would be there if the
panels had been executed as true inlays. In the endeavour to gain
greater relief, shading and tinting the wood were resorted to, the
shading being generally produced by scorching, either with a hot
iron or hot sand, and the tinting by chemical washes and even by
the use of actual colour, but the result is usually hardly commen-
surate with the labour expended. A combination of tortoise-
shell and metal, the one forming the ground and the other the
pattern upon it, which may be classed as marquetry also appears
in the I7th century. The subjects of the intarsiatori are gener-
ally arabesques or panels with elaborate perspectives, either of
buildings or cupboards with different articles upon the shelves
seen through half-open doors, which themselves are frequently
of lattice-work delineated with extraordinary perfection, though
figure subjects occur also. The later marqueteurs used a freer
form of design for the most part, and scrolls and bunches of
752
MARQUETTE MARRADI
flowers appear in profusion, while if architectural forms occur
they are generally in the shape of ruins amid landscape. The
greater portion of the examples in England are importations,
either from Holland (in which country very fine work was pro-
duced during the latter half of the i6th and i;th centuries) or
from France. The reputation of the Dutch marqueteurs was so
great that Colbert engaged two, named Pierre Gole and Vordt,
for the Gobelins at the beginning of the i;th century. Jean
Mace of Blois, the first Frenchman known to have practised the
art, who was at work in Paris from 1644 (when he was lodged in
the Louvre), or earlier, till 1672, as a sculptor and painter, learnt
it in the Netherlands. His title was " menuisier et faiseur de
cabinets et tableaux en marqueterie de bois "; but as early as
1576 a certain Hans Kraus had been called " marqueteur du
roi." Jean Mace's daughter married Pierre Boulle, and the
greatest of the family, Andre Charles Boulle (?..), succeeded to
his lodging in the Louvre on his death in 1672. The members of
this family are perhaps the best known of the French marqueteurs.
Their greatest triumphs were gained in the marquetry of metal
and tortoise-shell combined with beautifully chiselled ormulu
mountings; but many .foreign workmen found employment in
France from the time of Colbert, and some of them rose to the
highest eminence. The names of Roentgen, under whom the
later German marquetry perhaps reached its highest point,
Riesener and Oeben, testify to their nationality. A good deal of
marquetry was executed in England in the later Stuart period,
mainly upon long-case clocks, cabinets and chests of drawers,
and it is often of real excellence. Marquetry in a shallower form
was also extensively used in the latter part of the i8th century.
The most beautiful examples of the art in Italy are mainly panels
of choir stalls or sacristy cupboards, though marriage coffers
Were also often sumptuously decorated in this manner. With
the increase in luxury and display in the i7th and i8th centuries
in France and Germany cabinets and escritoires became objects
upon which extraordinary talent and expenditure were lavished.
In South Germany musical instruments, weapons and bride
chests were often lavishly decorated with marquetry. The
cabinets are of elaborate architectural design with inlays of
ebony and ivory or with veneers of black and white, the design
counterchanging so that one cutting produced several repeats
of the same pattern in one colour or the other. In modern
practice as many as four or even six thicknesses are put together
and so cut. When all the parts have been cut and fitted to-
gether face downwards paper is glued over them to keep them
in place and the ground and the veneer are carefully levelled
and toothed so as to obtain a freshly worked surface. The
ground is then well wetted with glue at a high temperature and
the surfaces squeezed tightly together between frames called
" cauls " till the glue is hard. There are several modes of
ensuring the accurate fitting of the various parts, which is a
matter of the first importance.
MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1637-1675), French Jesuit mission-
ary and explorer, re-discoverer (with Louis Joliet) of the Missis-
sippi. He was born at Laon, went to Canada in 1666, and was
sent in 1668 to the upper lakes of the St Lawrence. Here he
worked at Sault Ste Marie, St Esprit (near the western extremity
of Lake Superior) and St Ignace (near Michilimackinac or
Mackinaw, on the strait between Huron and Michigan). In 1673
he was chosen with Joliet for the exploration of the Mississippi,
of which the French had begun to gain knowledge from Indians
of the central prairies. The route taken lay up the north-west
side of Lake Michigan, up Green Bay and Fox river, across
Lake Winnebago, over the portage to the Wisconsin river, and
down the latter into the Mississippi, which was descended to
within 700 m. of the sea, at the confluence of the Arkansas river.
Entering the Mississippi on the I7th of May, Joliet and his
companion turned back on the i7th of July, and returned to
Green Bay and Michigan (by way of the Illinois river) at the end
of September 1673. On the journey Marquette fell ill of dys-
entery; and a fresh excursion which he undertook to plant a
mission among the Indians of the Illinois river in the winter of
i674-i67sprovedfatal. He died on his way home to St Ignace on
the banks of a small stream (the lesser and older Marquette River)
which enters the east side of Lake Michigan in Marquette Bay
(May 18, 1675). His name is now borne by a larger watercourse
which flows some distance from the scene of his death.
See Marquette's Journal, first published in Melchiss&lech Thve-
not's Recueil de Voyages (Paris, 1681), and fully given in Martin's
Relations inedites, and in Shea's Discovery and Exploration of the
Mississippi Valley (New York, 1852) ; cf. also Pierre Margry's
Decouvertes . . . des Franc, ais dans Vouest et dans le sud de I' A merique
septentrionale (1614-1^4) '< Memoires et documents originaux (Paris,
'875), containing Joliet 's Details and Relations; Francis Parkman,
La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (Boston 1869-1878),
esp. pp. x., 20, 32-33, 49-72.
MARQUETTE, a city, a port of entry and the county seat of
Marquette county, Michigan U.S.A., on the south shore of Lake
Superior. Pop. (1900), 10,058 (3460 foreign-born) ; (1910), 11,503.
It is served by the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, the Marquette
& South-Eastern, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago
& North-Western.fand the Lake Superior & Ishpeming railways.
The city, which is situated on a bluff 100 ft. above the lake, in
a region characterized by rounded hills and picturesque irregu-
larities, has a delightful climate, and is a popular summer resort.
Presque Isle park (400 acres), a headland north of the city, is
one of its principal attractions. Marquette is the seat of the
Northern State Normal School (established 1899) and of the
state house of correction and branch prison (established 1885).
A county-court-house, the Peter White library, and the Federal
building are the most prominent public buildings. Marquette is
the seat of Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishoprics.
The city is best known as a shipping centre of one of the richest
iron-ore districts in the world, and its large and well-equipped
ore docks are among its most prominent features. Marquette is
the port of entry of the customs district of Superior. In 1896 its
imports were valued at $358,505 and its exports at $4,708,302;
in 1908, imports $1,845,724 and exports $7,040,473. Foundries,
railway machine-shops, lumber and planing-mills, brewery and
bottling works, and quarries of brownish-red sandstone contri-
bute largely to the city's economic importance. The charcoal
iron blast-furnaces of the city manufacture pig-iron, and, as
by-products, wood alcohol and acetic acid, recovered from the
smoke of the charcoal pits. The value of the city's factory
products increased from $1,585,083 in 1900 to $2,364,081 in
1905, or 49-1 %. The first settlement was made about 1845,
and in 1849 it was named Worcester; but " Marquette " was
soon substituted in honour of Jacques Marquette. It was
incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in
1871.
MARR, CARL (1858- ) (> American artist, was born at
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on the'i4th of February 1858, the son of
an engraver. He was a pupil of Henry Vianden in Milwaukee,
of Schauss in Weimar, of Gussow in Berlin, and subsequently of
Otto Seitz, Gabriel and Max Lindenschmitt in Munich. His
first work, " Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew," received a medal
in Munich. One of his pictures, " Episode of 1813," is in the
Royal Hanover Gallery, and his " Germany in 1806 " received
a gold medal in Munich and is in the Royal Academy of Koenigs-
berg. A large canvas " The Flagellants," now in the Milwaukee
public library, received a gold medal at the Munich Exposition
in 1889. Another canvas, " Summer Afternoon," in the Phoebe
Hearst collection, received a gold medal in Berlin, in 1892.
Marr became a professor in the Munich Academy in 1893, and
in 1895 a member of the Berlin Academy of Arts.
MARRADI, GIOVANNI (1852- ), Italian poet, was born
at Leghorn, and educated at Pisa and Florence. At the latter
place he started with others a short-lived review, the Nuovi
Goliardi, which made some literary sensation. He became a
teacher at various colleges, and eventually an educational
inspector in Massa Carrara. He was much influenced by
Carducci, and became known not only as a critic but as a
charming descriptive poet, his principal volumes of verse being
Canzone moderns (1870), Fantasie marnie (1881), Canzoni e
fantasie (1853), Ricordi Hrici (1884), Poesie (1887), Nuori
canii (1891) and Battate modcrne (1895).
MARRAKESH MARRIAGE
753
MARRAKESH (erroneously MOROCCO or M AROCCO CITY) , one of
the quasi-capitals of the sultanate of Morocco, Fez and Mequinez
being the other two. It lies in a spacious plain Blad el Hamra,
" The Red " about ism. from the northern underfalls of the
Atlas, and 96 m. E.S.E. of Saffi, at a height variously estimated
at 1639 ft. (Hooker and Ball) and 1410 ft. (Beaumier). Rank-
ing during the early centuries of its existence as one of the greatest
cities of Islam, Marrakesh has long been in a state of grievous
decay, but it is rendered attractive by the exceptional beauty of
its situation, the luxuriant groves and gardens by which it is
encompassed and interspersed, and the magnificent outlook
which it enjoys towards the mountains. The wall, 25 or 30 ft.
high, and relieved at intervals of 360 ft. by square towers, is so
dilapidated that foot-passengers, and in places even horsemen,
can find their way through the breaches. Open spaces of great
extent are numerous within the walls, but for the most part they
are defaced by mounds of rubbish and putrid refuse. With the
exception of the tower of the Kutubia Mosque and a certain
archway which was brought in pieces from Spain, there is not, it
is asserted, a single stone building in the city; and even bricks
(although the local manufacture is of excellent quality) are
sparingly employed. Tabiya or rammed concrete of red earth
and stone is the almost universal building material, and the
houses are consequently seldom more than two storeys in height.
The palace of the sultan covers an extensive area, and beyond
it lie the imperial parks of Agudal, the inner pne reserved for
the sultan's exclusive use. The tower of the Kutubia is a
memorial of the constructive genius of the early Moors; both it
and the similar Hasan tower at Rabat are after the type of the
contemporary Giralda at Seville, and if tradition may be trusted,
all three were designed by the same architect, Jabir. The mosque
to which the tower belongs is a large brick building erected by
'Abd el Mumin; the interior is adorned with marble pillars, and
the whole of the crypt is occupied by a vast cistern excavated
by Yakub el Mansur. Other mosques of some note are those of
Ibn Yusef, El Mansur and El Mo'izz; the chapel of Sidi Bel
Abbas, in the extreme north of the city, possesses property of
great value, and serves as an almshouse and asylum. There is
a special Jews' quarter walled off from the rest. The general
population is of a very mixed and turbulent kind; crimes of
violence are common, and there are many professional thieves.
The murder of a Frenchman, Dr Mauchamp, in March 1907, by
the rabble of Marrakesh was the immediate cause of the occupa-
tion of Udja by France (see MOROCCO: History). Almost the
only manufacture extensively prosecuted is that^of Morocco
leather, mainly red and yellow, about 1,500 men being employed
as tanners and shoemakers. Scottish missionaries and a few
European traders have become established here. The city was
founded in 1062 by Yusef bin Tashfin. Before it was a hundred
years old it is said to have had 700,000 inhabitants, but the
population in 1906 probably did not exceed 50,000 to 60,000.
See Leo Africanus, and Paul Lambert's detailed description in
Notice sur la ville de Maroc (Paris, 1868). Lambert's plan of
Marrakesh is reproduced with some additions by Dr A. Leared,
and another may be found in Gatell.
MARRI, a Baluch tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of
Baluchistan. In the census of 1901 they numbered 19,161 and
their fighting strength is about 3000. Their relations with the
British commenced in 1840 with attacks made on the communica-
tions of Sir John Keane's army, after it had passed through the
Bolan. An attempt was made to punish the tribe, which ended
in disastrous failure. Major Clibborn was repulsed in an attempt
to storm the Naffusak Pass, losing 179 killed and 92 wounded
out of 650. Many of his force died of heat and thirst. The fort
of Kahan, which he was trying to relieve at the time, was forced
to capitulate with the honours of war. The Marris, however,
joined the British against the Bugtis in 1845. After the annexa-
tion of Sind in 1843 the Marris gave much trouble, but were
pacified by the policy of General John Jacob and Sir Robert
Sandeman. In 1880 during the second Afghan War they made
frequent raids on the British line of communications, ending with
the plunder of a treasure convoy. A force of 3070 British
troops under Brigadier-General Macgregor marched through
the country, and the tribe submitted and paid ij lakh (12,500)
out of a fine of 2 lakhs (20,000) ; they also gave hostages for their
future good behaviour. Since then they have given little trouble.
The Marri-Bugti country is classed as a tribal area in Baluchis-
tan, politically controlled from Sibi, but enjoying a large measure
of autonomy under its own chieftains. Total area, 7129 sq. m.;
total pop. (1901), 38,919, almost equally divided between the two
tribes of Marris and Bugtis.
MARRIAGE. Marriage (Fr. mariage, from marier, to marry;
Lat. maritare, from mas, marts, a male), or " matrimony "
(Lat. matrimonium, from mater, a mother), may be defined
either (a) as the act, ceremony, or process by which the legal
relationship of husband and wife is constituted; or (6) as a
physical, legal and moral union between man and woman in
complete community of life for the establishment of a family. 1
It is possible to discriminate between three stages, taking mar-
riage in the latter sense as an institution the animal or physical
stage, the proprietary or legal stage, and the personal or moral
stage. In the first or physical stage the relation of the sexes was
unregulated, and in many cases of brief duration. In the second
or legal stage greater permanence was secured in marriage by
assigning the husband a property right in his wife or wives. In
the last stage the proprietary relation falls more and more into
the background, and the relation of husband and wife approxi-
mates that of two individuals entirely equal before the law.
Although in the history of marriage these three stages have been
roughly successive, the order of their entering the conscious
experience of the individual is usually the reverse of their order
in the development of the race; and in the solemnization of a
marriage based upon affection and choice the growth of the
relation begins with the moral, advances to the legal and cul-
minates in the physical union, each one of these deriving its
meaning and its worth from the preceding. In most legal
systems marriage, in the sense of a ceremony, takes the form of a
contract the mutual assent of the parties being the prominent
and indispensable feature. Whether it is really a contract or
not, and if so to what class of contracts it belongs, are ques-
tions which have been much discussed, but into which it is
not necessary to enter. While the consent of parties is uni-
versally deemed one of the conditions of a legal marriage, all
the incidents of the relationship constituted by the act are abso-
lutely fixed by law. The jurist has to deal with marriage in so
far as it creates the legal status of husband and wife. It should
be added that, while marriage is generally spoken of by lawyers
as a contract, its complete isolation from all other contracts is
invariably recognized. Its peculiar position may be seen at
once by comparing it with other contracts giving rise to continu-
ous relationships with more or less indefinite obligations, like
those of landlord and tenant, master and servant, &c. In these
the parties may in general make their rights and duties what they
please, the law only intervening when they are silent. In
marriage every resulting right and duty is fixed by the law.
Besides true marriage, inferior forms of union have from time
to time been recognized, and may be briefly noticed here. These
have all but disappeared from modern society, depending as they
do on matrimonial restriction^ now obsolete.
The institution of slavery is a fruitful source of this kind of de-
based matrimony. In Roman law no slave could contract marriage
whether with another slave or a free person. The union of male
and female slaves (contubernium) was recognized for various purposes ;
a free woman entering into a union with a slave incurred under the
S.C. Claudianum the forfeiture of her own liberty; but the bond-
woman might be the concubine of a freeman. In the United States,
where slavery was said to be regulated by the principle of the
civilj law, the marriage of slaves was so far recognized that on
emancipation complete matrimony took effect and the children
became legitimate without any new ceremony.
1 It is doubtless true, as anthropologists have pointed out, that in
the history of the race " marriage is rooted in the family rather
than the family in marriage " (WESTERMARCK: History of Human
Marriage, p. 22); but in that conscious experience of the individual
with which law and ethics are especially concerned, this relationship
is reversed, and the family originates in marriage (see FAMILY, and
allied headings).
754
MARRIAGE
In Roman law no legal marriage could be contracted unless there
was connubium between the parties. Originally there was no
connubium between plebs and patricians, and the privilege was
conceded after a long struggle by the Lex Canuleia. In later times
Latini and Peregrini were excluded from connubium except where
the right had been expressly conferred. The great matrimonial
law of the early empire (Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea) introduced
restrictions depending on the condition of the parties which later
legislation extended and perpetuated. Senators under that law
were forbidden to marry freedwomen or women of inferior rank,
and the husband of a freedwoman becoming a senator was set
free from his marriage. In the canon law 1 new restrictions were
developed. Persons who bound themselves not to marry were
deemed incapable of marrying. The order of the clergy were
forbidden to marry. And disparity of faith was recognized by the
early church as a bar to matrimony, e.g. between Christians and
pagans and between orthodox and heretics (see Dictionary of
Christian Antiquities, art. " Marriage ").
CONCUBINAGE, which such restrictions tended to develop, is
noticed under a separate heading (q.v.). It might be described as
. ~ ' r *-& w*"/ * ""111. ui^ vita_i lu^ru da
marriage which has no consequences, or only slight and peculiar
consequences, in legal status. In the left-handed or " morganatic "
marriages of the German royal families we have the nearest approach
ever made by concubinage to true marriage, the children being
legitimate, but neither they nor the wife acquiring any right to the
rank or fortune of the husband. The marriage of persons of different
religions frequently requires the intervention of the law as to the
faith of the children, more particularly in Europe as between
Roman Catholics and Protestants. English law gives the father,
except under special circumstances, the right to dictate the faith
of his children (see INFANT). The practice on this point varies in
Europe the question being ignored in French law, Germany
following in some parts the same rule as England, in others giving
effect to ante-nuptial stipulations. In Ireland mixed marriages
(i.e. between Roman Catholic and Protestant) were by 19 Geo. II.
c. 13 null and void if celebrated by a Roman Catholic priest. This
act was repealed by 33 & 34 Viet. c. no, which permits mixed
marriages to be validly celebrated by an Episcopalian or Roman
Catholic clergyman, subject to conditions set forth in 38.
Roman law. The three primitive modes of marriage were
confarrealio, coemptio in manum, and usus, all of which had the
effect of placing the woman in the " power " (man-its) of her
husband, and on the same footing as the children. The first
was a religious ceremony before ten witnesses, in which an ox
was sacrificed and a wheaten cake broken and divided between
the spouses by the priest. Coemptio was a conveyance of the
woman by mancipatio, and might be described as a fictitious sale
per aes et libram, like that employed in emancipation and testa-
mentary disposition and other processes. Usus was the acqui-
sition of the wife by prescription, through her cohabiting with
the husband for one year, without having been absent from his
house three continuous nights. But a true marriage might be
concluded without adopting any of these modes, and they all
fell into desuetude and with them the subjection of the wife to
the manus. Marriage without manus was contracted by the
interchange of consent, without writing or formality of any
kind. By some jurists it is regarded as incomplete until con-
summated by delivery of the woman, and is accordingly referred
to the class of real contracts. The restrictions as to age, rela-
tionship by consanguinity and affinity, previous marriage, &c.,
were in the main those which have continued to prevail in modern
Europe with one important exception. The consent of the
paterfamilias to the marriage of the children under his power was
essential.
Canon law. The canon law of marriage is based partly on
the Roman law, the validity of which the Church from the first
recognized, partly on the Jewish Jaw as modified by the new
principles introduced by Christ and his apostles, developed
by the fathers of the Church and medieval schoolmen, and regu-
lated and defined by popes and councils. The most important
of these principles was that of the indissolubility of marriage,
proclaimed by Christ without qualification according to Mark x.
ii, 12, and with the qualifying clause "saving for the cause
of fornication " according to Matt. v. 32. This lofty view of
marriage, according to which man and wife are made " one
1 The restrictions are enumerated in the following lines :
Error, Conditio, Votum, Cognatio, Crimen,
Cultus, Disparitas, Vis, Ordo, Ligamen, Honestas,
Aetas, Affinis, si Clandestinus et Impos,
Raptave sit mulier nee parti reddita tutae.
flesh " by the act of God (" What therefore God hath joined
together, let no man put asunder," Mark x. 9) was, however,
modified by the idea of the consummating act of marriage as in
itself something unholy, a result of the Fall. Christ himself,
indeed, did not teach this; but for St Paul marriage is clearly a
concession to the weakness of the flesh (i Cor. vii.). " The time
is short," and in view of the imminent coming of the Lord the
procreation of children a matter of no importance (v. 29), but
"it is better to marry than to burn" (v. 9). He is, however
obviously not clear on the point, and at the end of his argu-
ment strikes a note of doubt (v. 40) ; elsewhere he defends mar-
riage, against those who would have forbidden it altogether, as a
gift of God (i Tit. iv. 3-5) and even, in seeming contradiction
to i Cor. vii. 29, commands the bearing of children (i Tit. v. 14).
Finally it is to St Paul that the idea of marriage as a sacrament
is to be traced, in the mystic comparison of the relations of
husband and wife to those of Christ and his Church (Eph. v.
23-32). These are the main foundations in Scripture on which
the Christian law of marriage is built up, and they are obviously
principles which admit of a large amount of variety of interpre-
tation and of practice. They were developed in the early
Church under the influence of the rapidly growing passion for
the celibate life, partly an outcome of the same dualistic principle
which produced the asceticism of the Jewish Essenes and of the
Gnostics, partly perhaps a natural reaction from the appalling
moral corruption of the decaying empire. Marriage, it is true,
from being no more than a terminable civil contract, became a
thing holy, a mystic union of souls and bodies never to be
divided; valid, indeed, but not spiritually complete, without the
public blessing of the Church (Tertullian, Ad uxorem, lib. ii.
cap. 9); and from Augustine's time onward it was reckoned as a
sacrament. But at the same time there was a tendency to re-
strict its rights and its range. So far as marriage was a physical
union, this had for its object solely the perpetuation of the race
and the avoidance of fornication; the most that was conceded
was_ that the intention of having offspring not only made the
conjugal act blameless, but even gave to the desire that inspired
it an element of good (Augustine, de nupt. et cone. 3). But the
ideal married life was that attributed to Mary and Joseph.
Thus Augustine cited this as an example that a true marriage
may exist where there is a mutual vow of chastity (op. cit. 12),
and held that the sooner this relation was established the better
(de bono conjug. 22). Marriage being then an inferior state, to
be discouraged rather than the reverse, the tendency was
rapidly to narrow the field within which it might be contracted.
Remarriage (bigamy) was only allowed after many struggles,
and then only to the laity; St Paul had laid down that a
" bishop " must be " the husband of one wife," and to this day
the priests of the Orthodox Eastern Church may not remarry.
Clerical celibacy, at first a counsel of perfection, was soon to
become the rule of the Church, though it was long before it was
universally enforced in the West; in the East it still applies
only to monks, nuns and bishops (see CELIBACY). The marriage
of the laity was hampered by the creation of a number of impedi-
ments. The few and definite prohibitions of the Roman and of
the Jewish law (Lev. xviii. 6-18; xx.) in the matter of marriage
between kindred, were indefinitely extended; until in 506 the
council of Agde laid it down that any consanguinity or affinity
whatever constituted an impediment. 2 Moreover, man and wife
being "one flesh," the Church exaggerated relationship by
affinity into equal importance with that of consanguinity as an
impediment to matrimony; and, finally, to all this added the
impediments created by " spirtual affinity," i.e. the relations
established between baptizer and baptized, confirmer and con-
firmed, and between godparents, their godchildren and their
godchildren's relatives.
The result of this system was hopeless confusion and
2 Canon Ixi. Aut qui ex propria consanguinitate aliquam, aut
quam consanguineus habuit . . . duceret uxorem . . . incestos
esse non dubitamus (Mansi Cone. viii. p. 336). According to
the canon law " affinity " is the relation between two persons of
whom one has had commerce, licit or illicit, with a relation of the
other.
MARRIAGE
755
uncertainty, and it was early found necessary to modify it. This
was done by Pope Gregory I., who limited the impediment to
the 7th degree of relationship inclusive (civil computation) 1
which was afterwards made the law of the empire by Charle-
magne. Later still Innocent III. found it necessary again to
issue a decree (4th Lateran Council) permitting marriages be-
tween a husband and the relations of his wife, and vice versa,
beyond the 4th degree inclusive (canonical computation). 2 This
remains the canonical rule of the Roman Catholic Church. As
regards impediments due to spiritual affinity, these were limited
by the Council of Trent to the relation of the baptizer and
baptized; the baptizer and the parents of the baptized; the bap-
tizer and the godfather and godmother; the godparents and the
baptized and its parents: i.e. a godfather may not marry the
mother of the child he has held at the font, nor the godmother
the father of such child.
In the fully developed canon law impediments to marriage
are of two kinds, public and private (impedimenta publica and
prhata), i.e. according as the objection arises out of the very
nature of marriage itself or from consideration for the rights of
particular persons; near relationship, for instance, is a public
impediment, impotence (impotentia) and force (vis et metus) are
private impediments. Impediments are further divided into
separating (impedimenta dirimentia) or merely suspensive
(impedimenta tantum impedientia) ; to the first class belongs,
e.g. a previous marriage not dissolved by death, which involves
the nullification of the marriage even where through ignorance
the crime of bigamy is not involved; to the second belongs the
case of one or both of the contracting parties being under
the age of puberty. 3 Impediments, moreover, are absolute or
relative, according as they are of universal application or only
affect certain persons; near relationship, for instance, is an
absolute impediment, difference of religion between the parties
a relative impediment. Iij addition to consanguinity and
affinity, impuberty and existing marriage, the canon law lays
down as public and absolute impediments to marriage the taking
of holy orders and the vows of chastity made on entering
any of the religious orders approved by the Holy See. In these
impediments the canon law further distinguishes between those
which are based on the law of nature (jus naturae) and those
which are based on the law of the Church (jus ecclesiae). From
impediments based on the law of nature, or of God, there is no
power even in the pope to dispense; e.g. marriage of father and
daughter, brother and sister, or remarriage of husband or wife
during the lifetime of the wife or husband of another marriage,
which is held to be a violation of the very nature of marriage as
1 The civil law counts, in the direct line, as many degrees as
there are generations between the parties; e.g. the son is in regard
to his father in the 1st degree, the grandson in the 2nd, and vice
versa. In the collateral line it computes degrees by generations,
i.e. from one of the relations to the common ancestor, without
including him or her, and from him or her back to the other relation ;
e.g. two brothers are in the 2nd degree of relationship to one another,
uncle and nephew in the 3rd, cousins-german in the 4th.
The canon law, which in this case derives from the old Germanic
law, has the same computation as regards the direct line. In the
case of collateral relations, however, it differs, having two rules:
(l) In the case of equal line i.e. when the collaterals are equally
removed from the common progenitor, it reckons the same number
of degrees between the collaterals as between one of them and the
progenitor; e.g. brothers are related in the 1st degree, while cousins-
german are related in the 2nd degree because they are two genera-
tions from the common grandfather. (2) In the case of unequal
line i.e. when the collaterals are unequally removed from the
common ancestor, the degree of their relationship is that of the
most remote from the common progenitor; e.g. uncle and niece are
related in the 2nd degree i.e. that of the niece to the grandfather.
The civil computation was furiously attacked by canonists as
tending to laxity (see Peter Damianus, " De parentelae gradibus,"
in Migne, Patrol. Lat. cxlv. 191, &c.).
1 Innocent III. also decided that the husband's relations were
not related to those of the wife, and vice versa, thus establishing
the rule that " affinity does not breed affinity " (affinitas non parit
affinitatem).
* This is fixed by the canon law at 14 for a male, 12 for a female.
If, however, owing to the precocious physical development of a
girl, the marriage has been consummated before she has reached this
age, it cannot be nullified.
an indissoluble .union. 4 From impediments arising out of the
law of the Church dispensations are granted, more or less readily,
either by the pope or by the bishop of the diocese in virtue of
powers delegated by the pope (see DISPENSATION). Thus dis-
pensations may be granted for marriage between persons related
by consanguinity in any beyond the 2nd degree and not in the
direct line of ascent or descent; e.g. between uncle and niece
(confined by the council of Trent to the case of royal marriages
for reasons of state) and between cousins-german, or in the case
of marriage with a heretic. In this latter case a dispensation
is now (i.e. since the papal decrees ne temere of the 2nd of August
1907, which came into force at Easter 1908) only granted on con-
dition that the parties are married by a Catholic bishop, or a
priest accredited by him, that no religious ceremony shall take
place except in a Catholic church, and that all the children
shall be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith.*
In the absence of any impediment a marriage is according
to the canon law completed between baptized persons by the
facts of consent and consummation; the principle is still main-
tained that the parties to the marriage, not the priest, are the
" ministers of the sacrament " (ministri sacramenti) .* From
the first, however, the Church, while recognizing the validity of
private contracts, enjoined the addition of a public religious
ceremony, so that they might be " sanctified by the word of God
and prayer " (i Tim. iv. s). 7 Tertullian (de pudicilia, cap. iv.)
says that clandestine marriages, not professed in the Church,
were reckoned among Christians as all but fornication, and he
speaks of the custom of seeking permission to marry from the
bishop, priests and deacons (de monogamia, cap. xi.). This latter
precaution became increasingly necessary as impediments were
multiplied, and Charlemagne, in a capitulary of 802, forbade the
celebration of a marriage until " the bishops, priests and elders
of the people " had made diligent inquiry into the question of
the consanguinity of the parties. This was the origin of the
publication of banns which, long customary in France, was made
obligatory on the whole Church by Pope Innocent III. In the
Eastern Church the primitive practice survives in the ceremonial
blessing by the priest of the betrothal, as distinguished from the
marriage ceremony. The ecclesiastical recognition of clandestine
marriages, however, survived until the crying evil was remedied
4 It is maintained that no pope has ever given a dispensation for
such a marriage. Such a case seems, however, to be narrated by
Ordericus Vitalis (Hist, eccles. viii. 23; ed. A. le Prevost, Paris,
1838-1855, t.iii. p. 408; ed. A. Duchesne, 1619, 704 B). Robert
Mowbray, earl of Northumberland, had only been married to Maud
de Laigfe three months when he was condemned to perpetual
imprisonment for rebellion against King William Rufus. After
describing her forlorn state Orderic continues : " Nee ipsa eo vivente,
secundum legem Dei, alteri nubere legitime valebat. Tandum,
permissu Paschalis Papae (II.), cui res, a curiosis enucleata, pa tint,
post multos dies Nigellus de Albineo ipsam uxorem accepit.' This
may mean no more, of course, than that the curiosi " untied the
knot " by discovering an impediment the usual expedient in such
cases. In any case the fact that Nigel de Albini, in his turn,
soon afterwards obtained a " divorce ' from her on the ground
that her first husband was his relative by consanguinity, hardly
points to a strict view of the sanctity of the marriage tie.
6 The customary rule for more than three centuries after the
Council of Trent was that male children followed the religion of
the father, female children that of the mother. On the general
subject of the attitude of the Church towards mixed marriages
see O. D. Watkins, Holy Matrimony, pp. 468 et seq. For the Roman
Catholic view see " An Instruction on Mixed Marriages " in Bishop
Ullathorne's Eccl. Discourses (London, 1876).
* Among the " errors " denounced by Pope Pius IX. in the Sylla-
bus of 1864 is Ixvi.: Matrimonii sacramentum non est, nisi quid
contractui accessorium ab eoque separable, ipsumque sacramentum
in una tantum nuptiali benedictione situm est." This condemns
the attempts of certain canonists (e.g. Melchior Canp) to distinguish
between the contraclus naturalis and sacramentalis. This view,
which was first advanced by the jurist and theologian Johann
Cropper (1502-1559) at the council of Cologne (1536), and gained
support especially in France, makes the " matter of the sacrament
the consent of the parties, the " form " the prayers and benedictions,
the " minister " the priests (see e.g. " Du sacrament de manage "
in vol. v. of the Dissertationes selectae of Petrus de Marca, d. 1662,
archbishop of Paris, Bamberg, 1789, p. 148).
7 See the list of quotations from the early fathers given by
Watkins, Holy Matrimony, p. 93.
756
MARRIAGE
by a decree of the council of Trent (Sess. xiv. de matrim.), 1 which
laid it down that for a valid marriage it was at least necessary
that consent should be declared before a priest and in the pres-
ence of three witnesses. According to the actual law of the
Roman Catholic Church, then, a civil marriage is only valid
when the Tridentine decree has not been published; where this
has been published, or has been in practice without publication,
such a marriage can only become valid if followed by a religious
ceremony in the prescribed form. Where such form has not
followed the ecclesiastical courts must treat the marriage as
voidable through the impedlmentum clandestinitalis.
Divorce, i.e. the annulment of marriage for any cause but an
impediment which makes the marriage ipso facto void, is un-
known to the Roman Catholic Church. Separation a iiinctdo
matrimonii is only possible under the canon law by a judicial
decree of nullity (annullatio matrimonii), which implies, not the
severing of the ties of a real marriage, but the solemn declaration
that such marriage has never existed. There may, however,
be a " separation from bed and board " (a thoro et mensa), even
perpetual, which does not however give either party the right
to remarry during the lifetime of the other. But, marriage
not being regarded as a sacrament until consummated, it may
be dissolved, if non-consummation be proved, by one or both
parties taking the religious vows, or by papal dispensation.
The Church claims exclusive control over marriage, and the
council of Trent anathematized the opinion held by Luther
and other Reformers, that it was properly a subject for the
civil courts (si guis dixerit causas matrimoniales non spectare ad
judices ecclesiasticos anathema sit, Sess. xxiv. cap. 2). This
attitude became of extreme political importance when even in
Catholic countries the codes established civil marriage as the
only legally binding form.
England. Marriage may be the subject of an ordinary contract
on which an action may be brought by either party. It is not
necessary that the promise should be in writing, or that any
particular time should be named. Promises to marry are not
within the meaning of " agreement made in consideration of
marriage " in the statute of frauds, which requires such agree-
ments to be in writing. Contracts in restraint of marriage,
i.e. whose object is to prevent a person from marrying anybody
whatever, are void, as are also contracts undertaking for reward
to procure a marriage between two persons. These latter are
termed marriage brocage contracts.
Any man and woman are capable of marrying, subject to
certain disabilities, some of which are said to be canonical as
having been formerly under the cognisance of the ecclesiastical
courts, others civil. The effect of a canonical disability as such
was to make the marriage not void but voidable. The marriage
must be set aside by regular process, and sentence pronounced
during the lifetime of the parties. Natural inability at the
time of the marriage to procreate children is a canonical dis-
ability. So was relationship within the prohibited degrees,
which has been made an absolute avoidance of marriage by
the Marriage Act 1835. Civil disabilities are (i) the fact that
either party is already married and has a spouse still living; 2
(2) the fact that either person is a party of unsound mind;
(3) want of full age, which for this purpose is fixed at the age
of puberty as defined in the Roman law, viz. fourteen for males
and twelve for females; 3 (4) relationship within the prohibited
degrees.
The statute which lawyers regard as establishing the rule on
1 The later teaching of the Eastern Church is laid down in the
Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogilas, patriarch of Kiev (1640).
There are three essentials for a Christian marriage: (i) suitable
matter (8X7) APM<^>S), i.e. a man and woman whose union no
Impediment bars, (2) a duly ordained bishop or priest, (3) the
invocation of the Holy Ghost, and the solemnity of the formularies
(r& eI5(K TUV \oylwv).
1 A divorce nisi does not enable the parties to marry until it is
made absolute.
' A marriage in which either of the parties is below the age of
consent is, however, said to be not absolutely void; if the parties
agree to continue together at the age of consent no new marriage
is necessary, but either of them may disagree and avoid the marriage.
Marriage
with a
Deceased
Wife's
Sister.
this last point is the 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38 (repealed in part
by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 23, in whole by i & 2 P. and M. c. 8, but
revived by i Eliz. c. i, and so left as under the Act of Edward),
which enacts that " no prohibition, God's law except, shall
trouble or impeach any marriage without the Levitical degrees."
The forbidden marriages, as more particularly specified in
previous statutes, are those between persons in the ascending
and descending line in infinitum, and those between collaterals
to the third degree inclusive, according to the computation of
the civil law. The prohibitions extend not only to consanguinei
(related by blood) but to affines (related by marriage), now altered
so far as a deceased wife's sister is concerned (see below). The
act of 1835 enacted that " all marriages which shall hereafter
be celebrated between persons within the prohibited degrees
of consanguinity or affinity shah 1 be absolutely null and void
to all intents and purposes whatsoever." They had previously
been only voidable. The act at the same time legalized
marriages within the prohibited degrees of affinity (but not con-
sanguinity) actually celebrated before the 3ist of August 1835.
For many years an active and ceaseless agitation was carried on
on behalf of the legalization in England of marriage with a deceased
wife's sister. In all the self-governing colonies, with the
exception of Newfoundland, the restriction had ceased to
exist. The first act legalizing marriage with a deceased
wife's sister was adopted by South Australia. The
royal assent, however, was not given till the parliament
of that state had five times passed the bill. In quick
succession similar statutes followed in Victoria, Tasmania, New South
Wales, Queensland, New Zealand, West Australia, Barbados, Canada,
Mauritius, Natal and Cape Colony. As regards the Channel
Islands, marriages of the kind in question were made legal in 1899,
and in 1907 in the Isle of Man.
_ In England the bill to render marriage with a deceased wife's
sister valid was first adopted by the House of Commons in 1850,
and rejected by the House of Lords in 1851. It was subsequently
brought before the legislature in 1855, 1856, 1858, 1859, 1861, 1862,
1866, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1875, 1877 and 1878 (Colonial
bills), 1879 (6th May, when in the" House of Lords the prince of
Wales and the duke of Edinburgh voted in favour of it), 1880, 1882,
1883, 1884, 1886, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1896, and 1898 and 1900
(Colonial bills). In most cases it passed the House of Commons
but was rejected in the House of Lords. The bill of 1896, however,
which was judiciously drafted to avoid the compulsory celebration
by clergymen of marriages against which they had conscientious
scruples, was carried in the Lords. Both the prince of Wales and the
duke of York were among the " contents." The prime minister and
eighteen bishops, including the two archbishops, voted against the
bill, the earl of Rosebery and Lord Kimberley for it. At the third
reading the bill was carried by 142 to 104 votes. Its prompters,
however, did not succeed in getting an opportunity of bringing it
before the House of Commons.
From 1896 to 1901 no further direct steps were taken, but in 1898
and again in 1900 (May 28) the subject was brought forward in the
House of Lords by Lord Strathcona in the form of a bill under which
marriages with a deceased wife's sister contracted in any British
colony should be deemed valid for all purposes within the United
Kingdom. In 1898, and again in 1900, the bill was carried on the
third reading without a dissentient vote. The House of Commons
took no action on either occasion. An imperial bill reached a second
reading in the House of Commons in 1901 and again in 1902, but it
was blocked by the High Church opponents of the measure when
attempts were made to get it to the committee stage (Feb. 5 and June
6). The reform was, however, finally adopted in 1906 under the
title of the Colonial Marriages (Deceased Wife's Sister) Act. The
effect of the act was to make such marriages legal in all respects,
including the right of succession to real property and to honours
and dignities within the United Kingdom. The natural sequence
of the passing of the act of 1906 was the reintroduction in 1907 of
the bill relating to England. Introduced by a private ipember, it
was adopted by the government, passed the House of Commons, and
finally the House of Lords (on the second reading by 1 1 1 votes to
79) , and became law as the Deceased Wife's Sister Marriage Act, 1907.
The act contains a proviso justifying clergymen in refusing to
solemnize marriages with a deceased wife's sister, and it preserves
the peculiar status of the wife's sister under the Matrimonial Causes
Act 1857, under which adultery with her by the husband is incestuous
adultery.
The celebration of marriages is now regulated wholly by statutory
legislation. The most important acts in force are the Marriage
Acts 1823, 1836, 1886 and 1898. 4 The former regulates marriages
4 A complete list of the acts regulating the solemnization of mar-
riage or confirming marriages, which through some defect might be
void, will be found in Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed. 1895).
MARRIAGE
757
within the Church of England, but was intended to be of universal
application, Jews and Quakers only being excepted by section 31.
It requires either the previous publication of banns, or a licence
from the proper ecclesiastical authority. As to banns, the rule of
the rubric, so far as not altered by the statute, is required to be
observed. They must be published on three successive Sundays
at morning service after the second lesson, in the church of the parish
in which the parties dwell ; the bishop may, however, authorize the
publication of banns in a public chapel. Seven days' notice must
be given to the clergyman of the names of the parties, their place
of abode, and the time during which they have lived there. If
either party is under age, the dissent of the parents or guardians
expressed at the time of publication of banns renders such publication
null and void. Licence in lieu of banns may only be granted by the
archbishop, bishop or other authority, for the solemnization of a
marriage within the church of the parish in which one of the parties
shall have resided for fifteen days before. Before a licence can be
granted an oath must be taken as to the fact of residence and that
the necessary consent has been obtained in the case of persons under
age. The father, or lawful guardian, is the proper person to consent
to the marriage of a minor, and the place of any such person incapaci-
tated mentally is taken by the lord chancellor. The absence of
such consent does not, however, avoid a marriage once solemnized.
But if persons wilfully intermarry (unless by special licence) in a
place not being a church or public chapel, or without due publication
of banns or proper licence, or before a person not in holy orders,
the marriage is null and void to all purposes. Marriage must be
celebrated within three months after banns or licence, and between
the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon.
For the relief of the great body of Dissenters the act of 1836 was
passed. _ It permits marriage to be solemnized in two additional
ways viz. (i) by certificate of the superintendent registrar of a
district without licence, and (2) by such certificate with licence.
In the first case, notice must be given to the registrar of the district
or districts within which the parties have resided for seven days
previous, which notice is inscribed in a marriage-notice book, open
to public inspection at all reasonable times, and thereafter suspended
for twenty-one days in some conspicuous place in the registrar's
office. Any person whose consent is necessary to an ecclesiastical
licence may forbid the issue of a certificate, but in default of such
prohibition the certificate will issue at the end of the twenty-one
days. The marriage may then take place on any day within three
months of the entry of notice, and in one of the following ways:
(i) in a certified place of religious worship, registered for the solemni-
zation of marriage ; in that case a registrar of the district with two
witnesses must be present, and the ceremony must include a mutual
declaration of assent by the parties and a disavowal of any impedi-
ment ; (2) at the superintendent registrar's office, with the same
declaration, but with no religious service; (3) in a church according
to the usual form, the consent of the minister thereof having been
previously obtained ; (4) according to the usages of Jews and Quakers.
The place of marriage in all cases must have been specified in the
notice and certificate.
In the second case, when it is desired to proceed by licence, notice
must be given to the registrar of the district in which one of the
persons resides, together with a declaration that he or she has resided
tor fifteen days therein, that there is no impediment, and that the
necessary consents if any have been obtained. The notice is not
exhibited in the registrar's office, and the certificate may be obtained
at the expiration of one whole day after entry, together with the
licence. No registrar's licence can be granted for a marriage in
church or according to the forms of the Church of England the
ecclesiastical authorities retaining their jurisdiction in that respect.
It is also provided that in the case of persons wilfully intermarrying
in a place other than that mentioned in the notice -and certificate,
or without notice or certificate, &c., the marriage shall be null and
void.
The various rules as to consent of parents, &c., to the marriages
of minors are regulations of procedure only. The absence of the
necessary consent is not a disability invalidating a marriage actually
solemnized.
The Act 26 Geo. II. c. 33, commonly known as Lord Hardwicke's
Act, which forbids the solemnization of marriage without banns or
licence, also enacts that " in no case whatsoever shall any suit or
proceeding be had in any ecclesiastical court in order to compel a
celebration in facie ecclestae, by reason of any contract of matrimony
whatsoever whether per verba de presenti or per verba de futuro.
Blackstone observes that previous to this act " any contract made
per verba de presenti, or in words of the present tense, and in case of
cohabitation per verba de futuro also, was deemed valid marriage to
many purposes ; and the parties might be compelled in the spiritual
courts to celebrate it in facie ecclesiae."
Royal marriages in England have been subject to special laws.
The Royal Marriage Act of 1772 (12 Geo. III. c. n), passed in con-
sequence of the marriages of the dukes of Cumberland and Gloucester,
enacted that " no descendant of his late majesty George II. (other
than the issue of princesses married or who may marry into foreign
families) shall be capable of contracting matrimony without the
previous consent of his majesty, his heirs and successors, signified
under the Great Seal. But in case any descendant of George II.,
being above twenty-five years old, shall persist to contract a marriage
disapproved of by his majesty, such descendant, after giving twelve
months' notice to the privy council, may contract such marriage,
and the same may be duly solemnized without the consent of his
majesty, &c., and shall be good except both Houses of Parliament
shall declare their disapprobation thereto."
In 1886 an act was passed in the British parliament to remove
doubts which had been entertained as to the validity of certain
marriages solemnized in England when one of the parties was
resident in Scotland. The Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women)
Act of 1895 enabled a wife whose husband is convicted of an assault
on her, or who has been deserted by him, or been obliged owing to
his cruelty to live apart from him, to apply to the justices, who are
empowered by the act to make an order for separation and for
payment by the husband to his wife of such weekly sum, not ex-
ceeding two pounds, as they may consider reasonable. The Marriage
Act 1898 authorized the celebration of marriages in places of
worship duly registered for the solemnization of marriages under
the Marriage Act of 1836 without the presence of the registrar, on
condition of their being solemnized in the presence of a person duly
authorized by the governing body of the place of worship in question.
It also made further provision for the due recording of all marriages
in the general registers. The Marriages Validity Act of 1890
removed doubts as to the validity of marriages in England on Irish
banns and in Ireland on English banns. Lastly, the Marriage
with Foreigners Act 1906 enabled a British subject desirous of
marrying a foreigner in a foreign country to comply with the foreign
law by obtaining from a registrar a certificate that no legal impedi-
ment to the marriage has been shown. Similar certificates, by
arrangement between His Majesty and foreign countries, are issued
in the case of a foreigner desirous of marrying a British subject in
the United Kingdom.
The Foreign Marriage Act 1892 has consolidated the English
law relating to marriages celebrated abroad, and brings it into har-
mony with the current tendencies of marriage law reform generally.
Under it a marriage between British subjects abroad is as valid as
a marriage duly solemnized in England (as heretofore), if celebrated
in accordance with the local law or in the presence of diplomatic
or consular agents who are appointed to act as " marriage officers."
The old fiction of assimilation of a British embassy to British soil
can no longer be relied upon to uphold a marriage at a British
embassy solemnized by an ordained clergyman. An order in
council of the 28th of October 1892, moreover, provides that in the
case of any marriage under the act, if it appears to the marriage
officer that the woman about to be married is a British subject, and
that the man is an alien, he must be satisfied that the marriage will
be recognized by the law of the foreign country to which the alien
belongs.
A marriage may be solemnized on board one of His Majesty's
ships at a foreign station, provided a warrant of a secretary of
state has authorized the commanding officer to be a marriage officer.
At sea, marriages on British public or private ships seem still valid
at common law, if performed by an episcopally ordained minister.
The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 (sect. 240) provides that the
master of a ship for which an official log is required shall enter in
it every marriage taking place on board, with the names and ages
of the parties.
Again, under the Foreign Marriage Act all marriages solemnized
within the British lines by a chaplain or officer or other person
officiating under the orders of the commanding officer of a British
army serving abroad, are- as valid in law as if they had been solem-
nized within the United Kingdom subject to due observance of all
forms required by law. The Naval Marriages Act 1908 authorizes,
for the purpose of marriages in the United Kingdom, the publica-
tion of banns and the issue of certificates on board His Majesty's
ships in certain cases, or when one of the parties to a marriage
intended to be solemnized in the United Kingdom is an officer,
seaman or marine, borne on the books of one of His Majesty's ships
at sea.
The principle of the English law of marriage, that a marriage
contracted abroad is valid if it has been solemnized according to
the lex loci, may be now taken to apply just as much to a marriage
in a heathen as in a Christian country. Whether the marriage
has or has not been celebrated according to Christian laws has no
bearing upon the question, providing it is a monogamous marriage
a marriage which prevents the man who enters into it from
marrying any other woman while his wife continues alive.
Scotland. The chief point of distinction, as compared with
English law, is the recognition of irregular marriages, (i) " A
public or regular marriage," says Fraser, "is one celebrated,
after due proclamation of banns, by a minister of religion;
and it may be celebrated either in a church or in a private house,
and on any day of the week at any hour of the day." The
ministers of the National Church at first alone could perform the
ceremony; but the privilege was extended to Episcopalians by
10 Anne c. 7 (1711), and to other ministers by 4 and 5 Will. IV.
c. 28 (1834). (2) A marriage may also " be constituted by
758
MARRIAGE
declarations made by the man and the woman that they presently
do take each other for husband and wife." These declarations
" may be emitted on any day at any time and without the
presence of witnesses," and either by writing or orally or by
signs, and in any form which is clearly expressive of intention.
Such a marriage is as effectual to all intents and purposes as a
public marriage. The children of it would be legitimate; and
the parties to it would have all the rights in the property of
each other, given by the law of Scotland to husband and wife.
(3) A promise followed by copula does not constitute marriage,
unless followed either by solemnization in facie ecclesiae or
declarator. Lord Moncreiff's opinion in the case of Brown v.
Burns is admitted to be good law, viz. that declarator is essential
to the constitution of a marriage of this kind, so that, if no such
declarator be brought in the lifetime of both parties, the marriage
can never be established afterwards. The copula is presumed
to have reference to the promise, but evidence may be adduced
to show that such was not the case.
By the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1856 it is enacted that no
irregular marriage shall be valid in Scotland, unless one of the
parties has lived in Scotland for the twenty-one days next preced-
ing the marriage, or has his or her usual residence there at the time.
" Habit and repute " has sometimes been spoken of as constituting
marriage in the law of Scotland, but it is more correctly described as
evidence from which marriage may be inferred. The repute must be
the general, constant, and unvarying belief of friends and neighbours,
not merely the controverted opinion of a section of them. The
cohabitation must be in Scotland, but in one case proof of cohabita-
tion in another country was allowed, as tending to throw light on
the nature of the cohabitation in Scotland.
The consent of parents is not necessary to the validity of the
marriage, even of minors, but marriage under the age of puberty
with or without such consent is void.
United States. The absence of ecclesiastical courts has sug-
gested difficulties as to the extent to which the law of England
on this subject continued to prevail after the revolution. Bishop
holds it to be the universal fact running through all the cases
that everywhere in the country the English decisions on marriage
and divorce are referred to with the same apparent deference
which is shown on other subjects to the decisions of the English
common law and equity tribunals. The same author observes
that " all our marriage and divorce laws, and of course all our
statutes on the subject, in so far as they pertain to localities
embraced within the limits of particular states, are state laws
and state statutes, the national power with us not having legis-
lative or judicial cognisance of the matter within those localities."
Some of the states have extended the ages below which marriage
cannot take place. The common law of the states is assumed
to be that " a contract per verba de presenti, or per verba de future
cum copula, constitutes a complete marriage." Conditions,
however, may be imposed by the various state legislatures, and
as to these the rule has established itself in American juris-
prudence that " a marriage good at common law is good not-
withstanding the existence of any statute on the subject, unless
the statute contains express words of nullity." Thus in Pennsyl-
vania, where a statute provided that all marriages " should be
solemnized before twelve witnesses," marriages not so celebrated
were nevertheless held to be good. In New Hampshire justices
and ministers of the gospel are authorized to solemnize marriage,
and all other persons are forbidden to do so under penalties;
yet a marriage by consent, as at common law, without justice
or minister, has been held valid. On the other hand, under
a very similar statute in Massachusetts, it was held that " parties
could not solemnize their own marriage," and that a marriage
by mutual agreement, not in accordance with the statute, was
void. Bishop regards this as an isolated exception to the
general course of the decisions. So when state legislation
requires any particular form to be used the want thereof only
invalidates the act if the statute expressly so enacts. Many
of the state codes inflict penalties on ministers or justices for
celebrating the marriage of minors without the consent of the
parents or guardians. The original law as to prohibited degrees
has been considerably modified in the states. The prohibition
of marriage with a deceased wife's sister has been abolished in
the United States. But New Hampshire, Ohio, Indiana, Kansas,
Arkansas, Nevada, Washington, the Dakotas and Montana have
for long forbidden marriages between first cousins by blood,and
Louisiana, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Nebraska, Utah and
Wisconsin have since adopted the same principle. Virginia
prohibits the marriage of a woman with the husband of her
brother's or sister's daughter.
Attention is also being paid to the question of marriage from a
physical point of view. New Jersey prohibits the marriage of any
person who has been confined in any public asylum as an epileptic,
insane or feeble-minded patient, without a medical certificate
from two physicians of complete recovery, and that there is no
probability of the transmission of such defects. This prohibits
the granting of a marriage licence where either party is an habitual
drunkard, epileptic, imbecile or insane, or where the applicant at
the time of making application is under the influence of any in-
toxicant or narcotic drug. In Michigan, Minnesota, Kansas and
Oregon, marriage is prohibited to epileptics, &c., except when the
woman is over forty-five. In Michigan, also, marriage is forbidden
to anyone who has suffered from a venereal disease and has not
been cured. The equality of property rights between husband
and wife is fully established in America. Indeed, in many states
the movement has gone so far as to give the wife in matters of
property and in reference to divorce greater privileges than the
husband. Thus a husband is often liable for a wife's debts where
a wife would not be, mutatis mutandis, for a husband's; and a wife
may usually obtain a decree of divorce for any ground on which
one may be awarded to the husband, and, in addition, for neglect
to provide sustenance or support. Emphasis on the personal or
moral relation of the parties in marriage tends to throw into the
background the legal aspects and requirements; and it tends also
to minimize, so far as the state is concerned, the religious and
sacramental aspect of marriage, Marriage tends to become a
relation established by parties between themselves, and one in
which the consent of the parties becomes the only constitutive
element. In the theory of American law no ceremony is essential
to create the marriage relation. But this position has never been
endorsed by any considerable proportion of the community, and
in fact probablv ftths and perhaps A'oths o { t h e marriages in the
United States are contracted through some ceremony.
France. Articles 144-226 of the Code Napoleon, as amended
by an act of 1907, prescribe the qualifications and conditions
of marriage. The man must be eighteen and the woman fifteen
years of age. A son and daughter under twenty-one cannot
marry without consent of the father and mother, or of the father
only if they disagree, or of the survivor if one be dead. If
both are dead grandfather and grandmother take their place.
Between the ages of twenty-one and thirty the parties must still
obtain the consent of their parents, but if this be refused it
can be regulated by means of a " respectful and formal act "
before a notary. If the consent is not given within thirty days
the marriage may take place without it. If neither parents nor
grandparents be alive, parties under twenty-one require the
consent of the family council. These rules apply to natural
children when affiliated; those not affiliated require the consent
of a specially appointed guardian. Marriage is prohibited
between all ascendants and descendants in the direct line, and
between persons related by marriage in the same line, between
brother and sister, between uncle and niece, and brother-in-law
and sister-in-law.
Before the solemnization of marriage banns are required to be
published for a period of ten days, which must include two Sundays,
containing the names, occupations, and domiciles of the parties and
their parents. There must be an interval of three days before the
marriage can take place, and if a year is allowed to elapse fresh
banns must be put up. On the day appointed by the parties, and
in the parish to which one of them belongs, the marriage is cele-
brated by the civil officer or registrar reading over to them the
various necessary documents, with the chapter of the code relating
to husband and wife, receiving from each a declaration that they
take each other for husband and wife, and drawing up the act of
marriage. All this has to be done in the presence of four witnesses.
Marriages contracted abroad between French subjects or between
French subjects and foreigners are valid in France if celebratet
according to the forms of the foreign law, provided the French
conditions as to consent of parents have been observed. (See also
Marriage with Foreigners Act, supra.)
Germany. The code of 1000 lays down rules applicable to
the celebration of all marriages within the German Empire.
Civil marriage alone is recognized by the code. It is effected
by the declaration of the parties before a registrar in the presence
MARRUCINI MARRY AT
759
of each other of their intention to be married. Two witnesses
of full age must be present. The registrar asks each of the
parties whether he or she will marry the other, and on their
answer in the affirmative declares them duly married and enters
the marriage in the register. The marriage must be preceded
by a public notice. Marriages are void between descendants and
ascendants; relatives by marriage in the ascending or descending
line ; brother and sister of the whole or half blood.
Other Countries. In the great majority of the other European
countries civil marriage is obligatory. In Roman Catholic
countries the parties usually supplement the obligatory civil
marriage by a religious ceremony, more especially since the
papal decree Ne temere of the 2nd of August 1907 (which came
into force at Easter 1908), which requires marriages between
Roman Catholics, or between Roman Catholics and those not
professing that faith, to be celebrated before a bishop or priest
duly authorized for the celebration thereof.
AUTHORITIES. Eversley, The Law of Domestic Relations (yd ed.,
London, 1906) ; Lush, Tlte Law of Husband and Wife (London,
1909); Crawley, The Law of Husband and Wife (London, 1892);
Geary, Marriage and Family Relations (London, 1892); Griffiths,
Married Women's Property Acts (London, 1891); Vaizley, Law of
Settlements of Property made on Marriage (London, 1887); Bishop,
(America) Marriage, Divorce and Separation (Chicago, 1892);
David Murray, (Scotland) The Law relating to the Properly of Married
Persons (Glasgow, 1892); E. A. Westermarck, History of Human
Marriage (3rd ed., '1901), with other works cited in the article
FAMILY. M. Neustadt, Kritische Studien zum Familienrecht des
biirgerlichen Gesetzbuchs (Berlin, 1907) ; O. D. Watkins, Holy Matri-
mony (London, 1895), a comprehensive study of the history and
theory of Christian marriage, from the High Anglican point of
view, with special reference to missions dealing with heathen
converts; J. Wickham Legg, " Notes on the Marriage Service in
the Book of Common Prayer of 1549," in Ecclesiological Essays
(London, 1905), a valuable comparative study of Christian marriage
rites, with numerous references; the articles " Ehe, Christliche,"
by Gottschick, and " Eherecht " (many references), by Sehling,
in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (yd ed., Leipzig, 1898, vol. v.) ;
Abbd Andrd, Cours de droit canon (yd ed., Wagner, Paris, 1901),
art. " Mariage," " Affinit6," &c.
See also AGE; DIVORCE; FAMILY; HUSBAND AND WIFE; LEGI-
TIMACY AND LEGITIMATION; MORGANATIC MARRIAGE.
MARRUCINI, an ancient tribe which occupied a small strip
of territory round about Teate (mod. Chieti), on the east coast
of Italy. It is first mentioned in history as a member of a
confederacy with which the Romans came into conflict in the
second Samnite War, 325 B.C., and it entered the Roman Alliance
as a separate unit at the end of that war (see further PAELIGNI) .
We know something of the language of the Marrucini from an
inscription known as the " Bronze of Rapino," which belongs to
about the middle of the 3rd century B.C. It is written in Latin
alphabet, but in a dialect which belongs to the North Oscan
group (see PAELIGNI). The name of the city or tribe which it
gives us is toula marouca, and it mentions also a citadel with
the epithet larincris. Several of its linguistic features, both in
vocabulary and in syntax, are of considerable interest to the
student of Latin or Italic grammar (e.g. the use of the subjunc-
tive, without any conjunction, to express purpose, a clause
prescribing a sacrifice to Ceres being followed immediately by
pacr si ut propitia sit). The earliest Latin inscriptions are of
Ciceronian date.
The form of the name is of considerable interest, as it shows
the suffix -NO- superimposed upon the suffix -CO-, a change
which probably indicates some conquest of an earlier tribe by
the invading Safini (or Sabini, q.v.).
For further details as to Marrucine inscriptions and place-names
see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 253 seq. (R. S. C.)
MARRUVIUM, the chief town of the Marsi, on the E. bank
of the Lacus Fucinus, 4 m. S. of Cerfennia. on the Via Valeria.
Though no doubt of great antiquity, nothing is known of its
history before the imperial period; and none of the remains
visible there (city walls, various buildings within them, an
amphitheatre, &c.), from which it seems to have been a place
of some importance, can be attributed to an earlier date. On
the site is the insignificant village of St Benedetto.
MARRYAT, FREDERICK (1792-1848), English sailor and
novelist, was born at Westminster on the loth of July 1792. He
was the grandson of Thomas Marryat (physician, author of The
Philosophy of Masons, and writer of verse), and son of Joseph
Marryat, agent for the island of Grenada, who wrote pamphlets
in defence of the Slave Trade. His mother was a Bostonian
of German extraction. Young Marryat distinguished himself as
a boy by frequently running away to go to sea; and at last,
at the age of fourteen, he was allowed to enter the navy. His
first service was under Lord Cochrane (afterwards tenth earl of
Dundonald) in the famous " Imperieuse," and no midshipman
ever had a livelier apprenticeship to the sea. During his two
and a half years of service under Cochrane, the young midship-
man witnessed more than fifty engagements, and had much
experience of service on the coast of Spain in the early stage
of the Peninsular War, in the attack on the French squadron in
the Roads (April 1809) and in the Walcheren expedition. Before
the general peace of 1815 he had served in North America and
the West Indies and gained a wide knowledge of conditions of
life on board ship under various commanders. In 1815 he was
promoted to the rank of commander. After holding various
commands he commissioned the " Larne," 20, for the East Indies
and was senior naval officer at Rangoon during the Burmese
War from May to September 1824. In the early part of the
next year he commanded an expedition up the Bassein River,
in which Bassein was occupied and the Burmese stores seized.
His services were acknowledged by a nomination as C.B. in 1826.
He frequently received honourable mention for his behaviour
in action, and in 1818 he received the medal of the Humane
Society for " at least a dozen " gallant rescues. Marryat's
honours were not confined to gallant exploits. He adapted
Sir Home Popham's code of signals to a code for the Mercantile
Marine, for which he was made F.R.S. in 1819, and received
the Legion of Honour from Louis Philippe in 1833. A pamphlet
written to propose a substitute for the system of impressment
in 1822 is said to have offended King William IV.
Marryat brought ripe experience and unimpaired vivacity to
his work when he began to write novels. Frank Mildmay,
or the Naval Officer, was published in 1829, and The King's Own
followed in 1830. The novels of the sea captain at once won
public favour. The freshness of the new field which was opened
up to the imagination so full of vivid lights and shadows,
light-hearted fun, grinding hardship, stirring adventure, heroic
action, warm friendships, bitter hatreds was in exhilarating
contrast to the world of the historical romancer and the fashion-
able novelist, to which the mind of the general reader was at
that date given over. He had an admirable gift of lucid, direct
narrative, and an unfailing fund of incident, and of humour,
sometimes bordering on farce. Of all his portraits of adven-
turous sailors, " Gentleman Chucks " in Peter Simple and
" Equality Jack " in Mr Midshipman Easy are the most famous,
but he created many other types which take rank among the
characteristic figures in English fiction. Marryat's first attempt
was somewhat severely criticized from an artistic point of view,
and he was accused of gratifying private grudges by introducing
real personages too thinly disguised; and as he attributed some
of his own adventures to Frank Mildmay he was rather shocked
to learn that readers identified him with that disagreeable
character. The King's Own was a vast improvement, in point
of construction, upon Frank Mildmay; and he went on, through
a quick succession of tales, Newton Forster (1832), Peter Simple
(1834), Jacob Faithful (1834), The Pacha of Many Tales (1835),
Japhet in Search of a Father (1836), Mr Midshipman Easy (1836),
The Pirate and the Three Cutters (1836), till he reached his high-
water mark of constructive skill in Snarley-yow, or the Dog Fiend
(1837). The best of his books after this date are those written
expressly for boys, the favourites being Masterman Ready (1841),
The Settlers in Canada (1844), and The Children of the New Forest
(1847). Among his other works are The Phantom Ship (1839);
A Diary in America (1839); Otta Podrida (1840), a collection of
miscellaneous papers; Poor Jack (1840); Joseph Rushbrook (1841);
Percival Keene (1842); Monsieur Violet (1842); The Privateer's
y6o
MARS, MLLE MARS
Man (1844); The Mission, or Scenes in Africa (1845); The Little
Savage (1848-1849), published posthumously; and Valerie, not
completed (1849). His novels form an important link between
Smollett and Fielding and Charles Dickens.
Captain Marryat had retired from the naval service in 1830,
becoming equerry to the duke of Sussex. He edited the Metro-
politan Magazine from 1832 to 1835, and some of his best stories
appeared in that paper. He spent a great part of his time in
Brussels, where he was very popular. He visited Canada during
Papineau's revolt and the United States in 1837, and gave a
disparaging account of American institutions in a Diary published
on his return to England. While at New York he wrote a play,
The Ocean Waif, or Channel Outlaw, which was acted, and
is forgotten. His versatility is further shown by the fact that
he drew rough caricatures and other sketches with some spirit.
Some capital snatches of verse are scattered throughout his
novels, the best being " Poll put her arms akimbo " in Snarley-
yow, and the " Hunter and the Maid " in Poor Jack. In 1843
he settled at Langham Manor, Norfolk. He indulged in costly
experiments in farming, so that in spite of the large income
earned by his books he was not a rich man. He died at Langham
on the 9th of August 1848, his death being hastened by news
of the loss of his son by shipwreck.
His daughter, Florence Marryat, herself a novelist, published his
Life and Letters in 1872. See also David Hannay, Life of Marryat
(1889). (D. H.)
MARS, MLLE [ANNE FRANCHISE HYPPOLYTE BOUTET]
(1770-1847), French actress, was born in Paris on the 9th of
February 1779, the natural daughter of the actor-author
named Monvel [Jacques Marie Boutet, 1745-1812!, and Mile
Mars Salvetat, an actress whose southern accent had made
her Paris debut a failure. Mile Mars began her stage career
in children's parts, and by 1799, after the rehabilitation of
the Comedie Francaise, she and her sister (Mars ainte) joined
that company, of which she remained an active member for
thirty-three years. Her beauty and talents soon placed her
at the top of her profession. She was incomparable in ingenue
parts, and equally charming as the coquette. Moliere, Mari-
vaux, Sedaine, and Beaumarchais had no more accomplished
interpreter, and in her career of half a century, besides many
comedy roles of the older repertoire, she created fully a hundred
parts in plays which owed success largely to her. For her
farewell performance she selected Elmire in Tartuffe, and
Silvia in Jeu de I'amour et du hasard, two of her most popular
r⩽ and for her benefit, a few days after, Celimene in Le Mis-
anthrope and Araminthe in Les Femmes savantes. She retired
in 1841, and died in Paris on the 2oth of March 1847.
MARS (MAYORS, MARMAR, MARSPITER OR MASPITER), after
Jupiter the most important deity of the Roman state, and
one who, unlike most Roman deities, was never so much affected
by foreign influences as to lose his essentially Roman and
Italian character. Traces of his worship are found in all parts
of central and southern Italy, in Umbria, Picenum, Samnium,
and in one or two Etruscan cities, as well as in Latium; and
in several communities, as we learn from Ovid (Fasti, 3. 93 seq.),
he gave his name to a month, as at Rome to the first month
of the old Roman year. We know little of the character of
his cult except at Rome, and even at Rome it has been variously
interpreted. He has been explained as a sun-god, a god of
wind and storm, a god of the year and a god of vegetation;
and he has been compared with Apollo by Roscher (Apollo,
and Mars, 1873, and in the article " Mars " in his Lexicon of
Mythology). But in historical times his chief function at Rome
was to protect the state in war, and it is as a god of war that he
is known to all readers of Roman literature. So entirely did
this characteristic get the better of all others, that his name
came to be used as a synonym for helium; and in the latest
and most careful of all accounts of the Roman religion he is
pronounced to have been from first to last a god of war only
(see Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer, p. 129 seq.).
Until the time of Augustus Mars had but two temples at
Rome, and both are connected with warlike operations. One of
these was originally only an altar; it was in the Campus Martius,
the exercising-ground of the army. The other was outside
the Porta Capena, the gate through which the army marched
on its way to campaigns to the south: here too each year the
Equites met in order to start in procession through the city
(Dion. Hal. 6. 13). Each of these sites was outside the pomerium,
and this has been explained to mean that the war-god " must
be kept at a distance " (Carter, Religion of Numa, p. 19). But
in the heart of the city there was a sacrarium of Mars in the
regia, originally the king's house, in which the sacred spears
of Mars were kept, and the fact that on the outbreak of war
the consul had to shake these spears, saying as he did it, Mars
nigila (" Mars, wake up!"), shows that the god was believed
to reside here in some spiritual sense. If the spears moved of
themselves, the omen was bad and called for expiation. The
ancilia, or sacred shields, also formed part "of this symbolic
armoury of the Roman state: they were carried in procession by
the Salii (<?..) or dancing warrior-priests of Mars on several occa-
sions during the month of March up to the 23rd (tubilustrium) ,
when the military trumpets (lubae) were lustrated: and again
in October to the igth (armilustrium] , when both the ancilia
and the arms of the exercitus were purified and put away for
the winter. During the four months of the Italian winter the
worship of Mars seems at a standstill: we have no trace of
it in the calendar or in Roman literature. His activity is
all in the warm season, i.e. in the season of warfare. It is
only at the end of February that we find indications of the
coming force of the Mars-cult in the month which bears his
name: Quirinus, who was probably the Mars of the community
settled on the Quirinal Hill, and had his twelve Salii corre-
sponding to those of the Palatine Mars, held his festival on the
1 7th of February, and on the 27th was the first festival called
Equirria, the second being on the I4th of March. The name
indicates horse-racing; horses were bred and used at Rome
chiefly for military purposes, and it is possible to see here,
as in the Equirria of the I4th of March, which we know was a
festival of Mars (W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 44), an
exercise of the war-horses, accompanied with sacrifice to Mars,
preparatory to the opening of the season of arms.
There is thus abundant evidence, based on the ancient calen^
dars and the features of the cult, that Mars was all along a
deity especially connected with warfare; and it is hardly neces-
sary to add proof of a less convincing kind, e.g. that the wolf,
his special animal, is a warlike beast, or that Nerio, a female
deity who may anciently have been coupled with him, seems
to be etymologically " the strong one," or that he is in legend
the father of Romulus the warlike king and founder of the
Roman army, as compared with Numa, who instituted the
Roman law and religion. Enough has been said to show why
Mars should have become exclusively a god of war, even if
the Roman state in its advance in the conquest of other peoples
had not given a continual impulse to this aspect of the cult.
In founding his famous temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger
of Caesar) in the Forum Augusti, Augustus gave a new
turn to this worship, and for a time it seems to have been a
rival of that of the Capitoline Jupiter (see Carter, Religion
of Numa. p. 174 seq.), and late in the period of the empire
Mars became the most prominent of the di militares worshipped
by the Roman legions.
There are however certain features in the Mars cult which
make it probable that this god was not entirely warlike in
character. He seems, in early times, at least, to have been
also associated with agriculture; and this is in harmony with
the facts: (i) that the season of arms is also the season of the
growth, ripening and harvesting of the crops; (2) that the early
Roman community was an agricultural as well as a military
one, as is indicated in its religious calendar (Fowler, Roman
Festivals, p. 334).' Thus Mars was invoked in the ancient hymn
of the Arval Brothers, whose religious duties had as their object
to keep off enemies of all kinds from crops and herds (Henzen,
Acta Fratr. An. p. 26, 1874; Wordsworth, Fragments and
Specimens of Early Latin, p. 385 seq.) ; and his association here
MARS
761
with the Lares (q.v.) proves that he is not regarded as a war-
god who could avert the raid of an enemy. Still more striking
is the invocation of Mars (with the cult-title Silvanus) in the
yearly lustration of his land by the Roman farmer (Cato, De
re rustica, 141), where it is not a human enemy, but disease,
and all unwholesome influences, which the god is besought to
avert from the farm and land, plantations and flocks. Three
times the procession went round the land, reciting prayers
and driving the victims to be sacrificed, viz. ox, sheep and
pig (suovelaurilia), representing the farmer's most valuable
stock. We can hardly doubt that in the state ceremony of
the Ambarvalia, i.e. the lustratio of the ager romanus in its
earliest form, the same god was invoked and the same ritual
used (Fowler, op. cit. p. 124 seq.). Again in the curious ritual
of the sacrifice to Mars of the October horse (Oct. 15: Fowler
op. cit. 241), though the animal was undoubtedly a war-horse,
the head was cut off and decked with cakes, as we are told
(Paul. Diac. 220) ob frugum eventum. Even Quirinus, the
form of Mars worshipped in the Quirinal community, is not
without an association with agricultural perils, for it was his
flamen who sacrificed the victims at the Robigalia on the 25th
of April, when the spirit of the mildew (robigus) was invoked
to spare the corn (Ovid, Fasti, 4. 901 seq.).
War and agriculture are thus the two factors of human life
and experience which are unquestionably prominent in the
cult of Mars, and explain his importance in a community like
that of Rome: and there is no need, in a short account of this
religious conception, to determine whether he was by origin
a solar deity, a storm-god, or a vegetation-spirit. His name
gives us no help, its etymology is uncertain (Roscher in Mytho-
logical Lexicon, s.v. " Mars," p. 2436). But we are safe in con-
jecturing that Mars first came into prominence among the
Latins and kindred peoples in the course of their long struggle
for settlements among the mountains and forests of Italy.
The clearing of primeval woodland, the perils of agriculture
from the raids of enemies and of wild beasts, and from the
ravages of disease, are aU indicated in the later Mars cult.
The wolf and the woodpecker, denizens of the forest, always
remained his sacred animals, and were believed in Italian
legend to have led the Piceni and Hirpini to their places of
settlement. Mars is specially associated with the early founda-
tion legends of Italy, as was the case at Rome: and it was to
him that the ver sacrum was dedicated, i.e. the entire produce
of a spring, including the children born then, who were eventually
driven forth from their homes to form new settlements else-
where (Roscher in Lex. Myth. 2411). The fierce character of
the god, gained no doubt in this period of struggle and danger,
never entirely left him. Even in the hymn of the Fratres
Arvales he is the " fierce Mars " (fere Mars), and in the prayer
of Cato's farmer, though he has become " Father Mars," he is
Silvanus (?..), the dweller in the woodland which surrounded
the agricultural clearing.
See Roscher in Myth. Lex. s.v. 2385 seq. ; Wissowa, Religion und
Kultus der Romer, p. 129 seq.; Preller, Romische Mytholotie, ed.
Jordan, i. 332 seq. ; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 33 seq. (W. W. F.*)
MARS, in astronomy, the fourth planet in the order of distance
from the sun, and the next outside the earth. To the naked
eye it appears as a bright star of a decidedly reddish or lurid
tint, which contrasts strongly with the whiteness of Venus
and Jupiter. At opposition it is brighter than a first magnitude
star, sometimes outshining even Sirius. It is by virtue of
its position the most favourably situated of all the planets
for observation from the earth. The eccentricity of its orbit,
'933) is greater than that of any other major planet except
Mercury. The result is that at an opposition near perihelion
Mars is markedly nearer to the earth than at an opposition
near aphelion, the one distance being about 35 million miles;
the other 63 million. These numbers express only the minimum
distances at or near opposition, and not the distance at other
times. The time of revolution of Mars is 686-98 days. The
mean interval between oppositions is 2 years 49$ days, but,
owing to the eccentricity of the orbit, the actual excess over
two years ranges from 36 days to more than i\ months. Its
period of rotation is 24)1. 37 m. 22-66 s. (H. G. Bakhuyzen).
Motions. The accompanying diagram will convey a notion
of the varied aspects presented by the planet, of the cycles of
change through which they go, and of the order in which the
oppositions follow each other. The outer circle represents
the orbit of Mars, the inner one that of the earth. AE is the
line of the equinoxes from which longitudes are counted. The
perihelion of Mars is in longitude 335 at the point r. The as-
cending node Q is in longitude 47. The line of nodes makes
FIG. i. Orbits of Mars and the Earth, showing aspects of the
planet relative to the earth and sun.
an angle of 74 with the major axis, so that Mars is south of
the ecliptic near perihelion, but north of it near aphelion.
Around the inner circle, representing the earth's orbit, are marked
the months during which the earth passes through the different
parts of the orbit. It will be seen that the distance of Mars
at the time of any opposition depends upon the month in which
opposition occurs. The least possible distance would occur
in an opposition about the end of August, a little before Mars
reached the perihelion, because the eccentricity of the earth's
orbit throws our planet a little farther from the sun and nearer
the orbit of Mars in July than it does in August. The opposition
of 1909 occurred on the 24th of September, at a point marked
by the year near the equinox, and the month and years of the
oppositions following, up to 1941, are also shown in the same
way. Tracing them around, it will be seen that the points
of opposition travel around the orbit in about 16 years, so
that oppositions near perihelion, when Mars is therefore nearest
the earth, occur at intervals of 15 or 17 years.
The axis of rotation of the planet is inclined between 23
and 24 to the orbit, and the equator of the planet has the same
inclination to the plane of the orbit. The north pole is directed
toward a point in longitude 355, in consequence of which the
projection of the planet's axis upon the plane of the ecliptic
is nearly parallel to the line of our equinoxes. This projection
is shown by the dotted line SP-NP, which corresponds closely
to the line of the Martian solstices. It will be seen that at a
September opposition the north pole of the planet is turned
away from the sun, so that only the southern hemisphere is
presented to us, and only the south pole can be seen from the
earth. The Martian vernal equinox is near Q and the northern
solstice near A. Here at the point S.P. the northern hemisphere
is turned toward the sun. It will be seen that the aspect of
the planet at opposition, especially the hemisphere which is
visible, varies with the month of opposition, the general rule
being that the northern hemisphere of the planet is entirely
seen only near aphelion oppositions, and therefore when farthest
762
MARS
from us, while the southern hemisphere is best seen near
perihelion oppositions. The distances of the planet from the
sun at aphelion and at perihelion are nearly in the ratio 6:5.
The intensity of the sun's radiation on the planet is as the
inverse square of this ratio. It is therefore more than 40%
greater near perihelion than near aphelion. It follows from
all this that the southern hemisphere is subjected to a more
intense solar heat than the northern, and must therefore have
a warmer summer season. But the length of the seasons is the
inverse of this, the summer of the northern hemisphere being
longer and the heat of the southern hemisphere shorter in
proportion.
Surface Features. The surface features of the planet will
be better understood by first considering what is known of
its atmosphere and of the temperature which probably prevails
on its surface. One method of detecting an atmosphere is
through its absorption of the different rays in the spectrum
of the sunlight reflected from the planet. Several observers
have thought that they saw fairly distinct evidence of such
absorption when the planet was examined with the spectroscope.
But the observations were not conclusive; and with the view
of setting the question at rest if possible, W. W. Campbell
at the Lick Observatory instituted a very careful series of
spectroscopic observations. 1 To reduce the chances of error
to a minimum the spectrum of Mars was compared with that
of the moon when the two bodies were near each other. Not
the slightest difference could be seen between any of the lines
in the two spectra. It being certain that the spectrum of
the moon is not affected by absorption, it followed that any
absorption produced by the atmosphere of Mars is below the
limit of perception. It was considered by Campbell that if
the atmosphere of Mars were j that of the earth in density,
the absorption would have been visible. Consequently the
atmosphere of Mars would be of a density less than j that of
the earth. 2
Closely related to the question of an atmosphere is that
of possible clouds above the surface of the planet, the existence
of which, if real, would necessarily imply an atmosphere of a
density approaching the limit set by Campbell's observations.
The most favourable opportunity for seeing clouds would be
when they are formed above a region of the planet upon which
the sun is about to rise, or from which it has just been setting.
The cloud will then be illuminated by the sun's rays while the
surface below it is in darkness, and will appear to an observer on
the earth as a spot of light outside the terminator, or visible edge
of the illuminated part of the disk. It is noticeable that phe-
nomena more or less of this character, though by no means
common, have been noted by observers on several occasions.
Among these have been the Mt Hamilton and Lowell observers,
and W. H. Pickering at Arequipa. Campbell has shown that
many of them may be accounted for by supposing the presence
of mountains not more than two miles in height, which may
well exist on the planet. While this hypothesis will serve
to explain several of these appearances, this can scarcely be
said of a detached spot observed on the evening of the 26th
of May 1903, at the Lowell Observatory. 3 Dr Slipher, who
first saw it, was so struck by the appearance of the projection
from the terminator upon the dark side of the disk that he
called the other observers to witness it. Micrometric measures
showed that it was some 300 miles in length, and that its highest
1 Astronomy and Astrophysics, iii. 752, and Astron. Soc. of the
Pacific, Publications, vi. 273 and ix. 109.
2 According to Percival Lowell these results were, however,
inconclusive because the strong atmospheric lines lie redwards
beyond the part of the spectrum then possible to observe. Subse-
quently, by experimenting with sensitizing dyes, Dr Slipher of the
Lowell Observatory succeeded in 1908 in photographing the
spectrum far into the red. Comparison spectrograms of Mars and
the Moon, taken by him at equal altitudes on such plates, eight in
all, _show the " a ' band, the great band of water-vapour was
distinctly stronger in the spectrum of Mars, thus affording what
appeared decisive evidence of water vapour in the atmosphere of
the planet.
3 Lowell, Mars and its Canals, p. 101.
point stood some 17 miles above the surface of the plane
That a cloud should be formed at such a height in so rare an
atmosphere seems difficult to account for except on the principle
that the rate of diminution of the density of an atmosphere
with its height is proportional to the intensity of gravity,
which is smaller on Mars than on the earth. The colour was
not white, but tawny, of the tint exhibited by a cloud of dust.
Percival Lowell therefore suggests that this and other appear-
ances of the same kind seen from time to time are probably
dust clouds, travelling over the desert, as they sometimes do on
the earth, and settling slowly again to the ground.
Temperature. Up to a recent time all that could be said
of the probable temperature of Mars was that, being more
distant from the sun than the earth, and having a rarer atmo-
sphere, it had a general mean temperature probably below that
of the earth. Greater precision can now be given to this
theoretical conclusion by recent determination of the law of
radiation of heat by bodies at different temperatures. Regard-
ing it as fairly well established that at ordinary temperatures
the radiation varies directly as the fourth power of the absolute
temperature, it is possible when the " solar constant " is known
to compute the temperature of a non-coloured body at the
distance of Mars which presents every part of its surface in
rapid succession to the sun's rays in the absence of atmosphere
only. This has been elaborately done for the major planets
by J. H. Poynting, 4 who computes that the mean temperature
of Mars is far below the freezing point of water. On the other
hand an investigation made by Lowell in 1907^ taking into
account the effect of the rare atmosphere on the heat lost by
reflection, and of several other factors in the problem hitherto
overlooked, led him to the conclusion that the mean temper-
ature is about 48 Fahr. 6 But the temperature may rise much
above the mean on those regions of the surface exposed to a
nearly vertical noon-day sun. The diurnal changes of temper-
ature, being diminished by an atmosphere, must be greater
on Mars than on the earth, so that the vicissitudes of temperature
are there very great, but cannot be exactly determined, because
they must depend upon the conductivity and thermal capacity
of the matter composing the surface of the planet. What we
can say with confidence is that, during the Martian winter of
between eight and twelve of our months, the regions around
either pole must fall to a temperature nearer the absolute zero
than any known on this planet. In fact the climatic conditions
in all but the equatorial regions are probably of the same nature
as those which prevail on the tops of our highest mountains,
except that the cold is more intense. 7
Having these preliminary considerations in mind, we may
now study the features presented to our view by the surface
of the planet. These have a permanence and invariability
which markedly differentiate them from the ever varying
surfaces of Jupiter and Saturn, and show that what we see is
a solid surface, like that of our earth. They were observed
and delineated by the leading astronomers of the i6th century,
especially Huygens, Cassini and Hooke. These observers
could only distinguish the different regions upon the planet
as bright or dark. Reasoning as they did in the case of the
moon, it was naturally supposed that the brighter regions
were land and the darker ones seas. The observers of our time
find that the darker regions have a slightly blue-green aspect,
which might suggest the idea of water, but are variegated in
a way to show that they must be composed of a solid crust,
like the brighter regions. The latter have a decidedly warm
red or ochre tint, which gives the characteristic colour to the
planet as seen by the naked eye. The regions in equatorial
and middle latitudes, which are those best seen from our planet,
show a surface of which the general aspect is not dissimilar
to that which would be presented by the deserts of our earth
4 Phil. Trans., vol. 202 A, p. 525.
6 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. xlii. No. 25.
Professor F. W. Very concurs with Lowell (Phil. Mag., 1908).
7 According to Lowell, the climatic conditions are proportionally
warm in summer.
MARS
763
when seen from the moon. With each improvement in the
telescope the numerous drawings of the planet show more
definiteness and certainty in details. About 1830 a fairly
good map was made by W. Beer and J. H. Madler, a work
which has been repeated by a number of observers since that
time. The volume of literature on the subject, illustrated by
drawings and maps, has become so great that it is impossible
here to present even an abstract of it; and it would not be
practicable, even were it instructive, to enter upon any detailed
description of Martian topography. A few great and well-
marked features were depicted by the earliest observers, who
saw them so plainly that they may be recognized by their
drawings at the oresent time. There is also a general agreement
among nearly all observers with good instruments as to the
general features of the planet, but even in the latest drawings
there is a marked' divergence as to the minuter details. This
is especially true of the boundaries of the more ill-defined
regions, and of the faint and difficult markings of various kinds
which are very numerous on every part of the planet. There
is not even a close agreement between the drawings by the
same observer at different oppositions; but this may be largely
due to seasonal and other changes.
The most striking feature, and one which shows the greatest
resemblance to a familiar terrestrial process, is that when
cither polar region comes into view after being turned nearly
a year away from the sun, it is found to be covered with a white
cap. This gradually contracts in extent as the sun shines
upon it during the remaining half of the Martian year, sometimes
nearly disappearing. That this change is due to the pre-
cipitation of watery vapour in the form of ice, snow or frost
during the winter, and its melting or evaporation when exposed
to the sun's rays, is so obvious a conclusion that it has never
been seriously questioned. It has indeed been suggested that
the deposit may be frozen carbonic acid. While we cannot
pronounce this out of the question, the probabilities seem in
favour of the deposit being due to the precipitation of aqueous
vapour in a frozen form. At a temperature of -50 C, which
is far above what we can suppose to prevail in the polar regions
during the winter, the tension of aqueous vapour is 0-034 mm.
On the other hand Faraday found the tension of carbonic acid
to be still an entire atmosphere at as low a temperature as
-80 C. Numerically exact statements are impossible owing
to our want of knowledge of the actual temperature, which
must depend partly upon air currents between the equator
and the poles of Mars. It can, however, be said, in a general
way, that a proportion of aqueous vapour in the rare atmosphere
of Mars, far smaller than that which prevails on the earth,
would suffice to explain the observed formation and disappear-
ances of the polar caps. Since every improvement in the
telescope and in the conditions of observation must enable
modern observers to see all that their predecessors did and yet
more, we shall confine our statements to the latest results.
These may be derived from the work of Professor Lowell of
Boston, who in 1804 founded an observatory at Flagstaff,
Arizona, 7250 ft. above sea-level, and supplied it with a 24*
telescope, of which the main purpose was the study of Mars.
This work has been continued with such care and assiduity
that its results must take precedence of all others in everything
that relates to our present subject. 1
Among the more probable conclusions to be drawn from
Lowell's observations, the following are of most interest. The
darker areas are all seamed by lines and dots darker than them-
selves, which are permanent in position, so that there can be
no bodies of water on the planet. On the other hand, their
colour, blue-green, is that of vegetation. This fades out as
vegetation would at certain seasons to faint blue-green, but
in some places to a tawny brown. Each hemisphere undergoes
these changes in its turn, the changes being opposite in opposite
'The great space penetration of the Lowell Observatory is
shown in the case of stars. More stars have been mapped there
in a given space than at the Lick, and Mr Ritchey of the Yerkes
Observatory found stars easily visible there which were only just
perceptible at Yerkes.
hemispheres. The changes in the dark areas follow some
time after the melting of the polar caps. The aspect of these
areas suggests old sea bottoms, and when on the terminator
appear as depressions, though this may be only apparent and
due to the dark colour. The smoothness and soft outline
of the terminator shows that there are no mountains on Mars
comparable with ours, but that the surface is surprisingly flat.
White spots are occasionally visible in the tropical and temperate
regions, which are perhaps due to the condensation of frost
or snow, or to saline exudation such as seasonally occurs in
India (Lowell). Moreover in winter the temperate zones
are more or less covered by a whitish veil, which may be either
hoar frost or cloud. A spring haze seems to surround the
north polar cap during its most extensive melting; otherwise
the Martian sky is quite clear, like that of a dry desert land.
When either polar cap is melting it is bordered by a bluish
area, which Lowell attributes to the water produced by the
melting. But the obliquity at which the sun's rays strike
the surface as the cap is melting away is so great that it would
seem to preclude the possibility of a temperature high enough
to melt the snow into water. Under the low barometric pressure
prevailing on the planet, snow would evaporate under the
influence of the sun's rays without changing into water. It
is also contended that what looks like such a bluish border
may be formed around a bright a'rea by the secondary aberration
of a refracting telescope. 2
The modern studies of Mars which have aroused so much
public interest began with the work of Schiaparelli in 1877.
Accepting the term " ocean," used by the older observers,
to designate the widely extended darker regions on the planet,
and holding that they were really bodies of water, he found
that they were connected by comparatively narrow streaks.
(Schiaparelli considered them really water until after the Lowell
observations.) In accordance with the adopted system of
nomenclature, he termed these streaks canale, a word of which
the proper rendering into English would be channels. But
the word was actually translated into both English and French
as canal, thus connoting artificiality in the supposed waterways,
which were attributed to the inhabitants of the planet. The
fact that they were many miles in breadth, and that it was
therefore absurd to call them canals, did not prevent this term
from being so extensively used that it is now scarcely possible
to do away with it. A second series of observations was made
by Schiaparelli at the opposition of 1879, when the planet was
farther away, but was better situated as to altitude above
the horizon. He now found a number of additional channels,
which were much finer than those he had previously drawn.
The great interest attaching to their seemingly artificial character
gave an impetus to telescopic study of the planet which has
continued to the present time. New canals were added, especi-
ally at the Lowell Observatory, until the entire number listed
in 1908 amounted to more than 585. The general character
of this complex system of lines is described by Lowell as a
network covering the whole face of the planet, light and dark
regions alike, and connecting at either end with the respective
polar caps there. At their junctions are small dark pinheads
of spots. The lines vary in size between themselves, but each
maintains its own width throughout. But the more difficult
of these objects are only seen occasionally and are variable
in definiteness. Of two canals equally well situated for seeing,
only one may be visible at one time and only the other at
other times. If this variability of aspect among different
canals is true as they are seen from the Lowell Observatory,
we find it true to a much greater extent when we compare
descriptions by different observers. At Flagstaff, the most
favourably situated of all the points of observation, they are
seen as fine sharp lines, sometimes as well marked as if drawn
with a pencil. But other observers see them with varying
degrees of breadth and diffuseness.
One remarkable feature of these objects is their occasional
* As against this, Lowell's answer is that the effect is not optical;
for the belt surrounds the melting, not the making cap.
MARS
" gemination," some of the canals appearing as if doubled.
This was first noticed by Schiaparelli, and has been confirmed,
so far as observations can confirm it, by other observers. Dif-
ferent explanations of this phenomenon have been suggested,
but the descriptions of it are not sufficiently definite to render
any explanation worthy of entire confidence possible. Indeed
the more cautious astronomers, who have not specially devoted
themselves to the particular phenomena, reserve a doubt
as to how far the apparent phenomena of the finer canals are
real, and what the markings which give rise to their appearance
might prove to be if a better and nearer view of the planet
than is now possible could be obtained. Of the reality of the
better marked ones there can be no doubt, as they have been
seen repeatedly by many observers, including those at the
Lick Observatory, and have actually been photographed at
the Lowell Observatory. The doubt is therefore confined
to the vast network of lines so fine that they never certainly
have been seen elsewhere than at Flagstaff. The difficulty
of pronouncing upon their reality arises from the fact that
we have to do mainly with objects not plainly visible (or, as
Lowell contends, not plainly visible elsewhere). The question
therefore becomes one of psychological optics rather than of
astronomy. When the question is considered from this point
of view it is found that combinations of light and shaded areas
very different from continuous lines, will, under certain con-
ditions, be interpreted by the eye as such lines; and when such
is the cp.se, long practice by an observer, however carefully
conducted, may confirm him in this interpretation. To give
a single example of the principles involved; it is found by
experiment that if, through a long line so fine as to approach
the limit of visibility, segments not too near each other, or so
short that they would not be visible by themselves, be taken
out, their absence from the line will not be noticed, and the
latter will still seem continuous. 1 In other words we do not
change the aspect of the line by taking away from it a part
which by itself would be invisible. This act of the eye, in
interpreting a discontinuous series of very faint patches as a
continuous line, is not, properly speaking, an optical illusion,
but rather a habit. The arguments for the reality of all the
phenomena associated with the canals, while cogent, have not
sufficed to bring about a general consensus of opinion among
critics beyond the limit already mentioned.
Accepting the view that the dark lines on Mars are objectively
real and continuous, and are features as definite in reality as
they appear in the telescope, Professor Lowell has put forth an
explanation of sufficient interest to be mentioned here. His
first proposition is that lines frequently thousands of miles long,
each following closely a great circle, must be the product of
design rather than of natural causes. His explanation is that
they indicate the existence of irrigating canals which carry the
water produced annually by the melting of the polar snows to
every part of the planet. The actual canals are too minute to
be visible to us. What we really see as dark lines are broad
strips of vegetation, produced by artificial cultivation extending
along each border of the irrigating streams. On the other hand,
in the view of his critics, the quantity of ice or snow which the
sun's rays could melt around the poles of Mars, the rate of flow
and evaporation as the water is carried toward the equator,
and several other of the conditions involved, require investigation
before the theory can be established. 2
The accompanying illustrations of Mars and its canals are
1 For limits 'of this theory and Lowell's view "of its inapplicability
to Mars, see Astrophys. Jour., Sept. 1907.
2 Prof. Lowell's theory is supported by so much evidence of differ-
ent kinds that his own exposition should be read in extenso in Mars
and its canals and Mars as the abode of life. In order, however,
that his views may be adequately presented here, he has kindly
supplied the following summary in his own words :
_ ' Owing to inadequate atmospheric advantages generally, much
misapprehension exists as to the definiteness with which the surface
of Mars is seen under good conditions. In steady air the canals
are perfectly distinct lines, not unlike the Fraunhofer ones of the
Spectrum, pencil lines or gossamer filaments according to size. All
the observers at Flagstaff concur in this. The photographs of them
those of Lowell, and represent the planet as seen by the Flagstaff
observers.
Satellites and Pole of Mars. At the opposition of Mars which
occurred in August 1877 the planet was unusually near the earth.
Asaph Hall, then in charge of the 26" telescope at the Naval
Observatory in Washington, took advantage of this favourable
circumstance to make a careful search for a visible satellite of
the planet. On the night of the nth of August he found a
faint object near the planet. Cloudy weather intervened, and
FIG. 2.
the object was not again seen until the i6th, when it was found
to be moving with the planet, leaving no doubt as to its being
a satellite. On the night following an inner satellite much nearer
the planet was observed. This discovery, apart from its intrinsic
taken there also confirm it up to the limit of their ability. Careful
experiments by the same observers on artificial lines show that if
the canals had breaks amounting to 16 m. across, such breaks would
be visible. None are; while the lines themselves are thousands of
miles long and perfectly straight (Astrophys. Journ., Sept. 1907).
Between expert observers representing the planet at the same epoch
the accordance is striking; differences in drawings are differences
of time and are due to seasonal and secular changes in the planet
itself. These seasonal changes have been carefully followed at
Flagstaff, and the law governing them detected. They are found to
depend upon the melting of the polar caps. After the melting is
under way the canals next the cap proceed to darken, and the darken-
ing thence progresses regularly down the latitudes. Twice this
happens every Martian year, first from one cap and then six Martian
months later from the other. The action reminds one of the quicken-
ing of the Nile valley after the melting of the snows in Abyssinia;
only with planet-wide rhythm. Some of the canals are paired.
The phenomenon is peculiar to certain canals, for only about one-
tenth of the whole number, 56 out of 585, ever show double and these
do so regularly. Each double has its special width ; this width
between the pair being 400 m. in some cases, only 75 in others. Care-
ful plotting has disclosed the fact that the doubles cluster round the
planet's equator, rarely pass 40 Lat., and never occur at the poles,
though the planet's axial tilt reveals all its latitudes to us in turn.
They are thus features of those latitudes where the surface is greatest
compared with the area of the polar cap, which is suggestive. Space
precludes mention of many other equally striking peculiarities of
the canals' positioning and development. At the junctions of the
canals are small, dark round spots, which also wax and wane with
the seasons. These facts and a host of others of like significance have
led Lowell to the conclusion that the whole canal system is of artifi-
cial origin, first because of each appearance and secondly because of
the laws governing its development. Every opposition has added
to the assurance that the canals are artificial; both by disclosing
their peculiarities better and better and by removing generic doubts
as to the planet's habitability. The warmer temperature disclosed
from Lowell's investigation on the subject, and the spectrographic
detection by Slipher of water-vapour in the Martian air, are among
the latest of these confirmations. [En.]
MARSALA
765
interest, is also noteworthy as the first of a series of discoveries
of satellites of the outer planets. The satellites of Mars are
difficult to observe, on account not merely of their faintness, but
of their proximity to the planet, the light of which is so bright
as to nearly blot out that of the satellite. Intrinsically the inner
satellite is brighter than the outer one, but for the reason just
mentioned it is more difficult to observe. The names given them
by Hall were Dcimos for the outer satellite and Phobos for the
inner one, derived from the mythological horses that drew the
chariot of the god Mars. A remarkable feature of the orbit
of Phobos is that it is so near the planet as to perform a revolu-
tion in less than one-third that of the diurnal rotation of Mars.
The result is that to an inhabitant of Mars this satellite would
rise in the west and set in the east, making two apparent diurnal
revolutions every day. The period of Deimos is only six days
greater than that of a Martian day; consequently its apparent
FIG. 3.
motion around the planet would be so slow that more than two
days elapse between rising and setting, and again between
setting and rising.
Owing to the minuteness of these bodies it is impossible to
make any measures of their diameters. These can be inferred
only from their brightness. Assuming them to be of the same
colour as Mars, Lowell estimates them to be about ten miles for
Deimos and somewhat more for Phobos. But these estimates
are uncertain, not only from the somewhat hypothetical character
of the data on which they rest, but from the difficulty of accu-
rately estimating the brightness of such an object in the glare
of the planet.
A long and careful series of observations was made upon these
bodies by other observers. Later, especially at the very favour-
able oppositions of 1892 and 1894, observations were made by
Hermann Struve at Poulkova, who subjected all the obser-
vations up to 1898 to a very careful discussion. He showed that
the inclination of the planes of the orbits to the equator of the
planet is quite small, thus making it certain that these two planes
can never wander far from each other. In the following state-
ment of the numerical elements of the entire system, Struve's
results are given for the satellites, while those of Lowell are
adopted for the position of the plane of the equator.
The relations of the several planes can be best conceived by
considering the points at which lines perpendicular to them, or
their poles, meet the celestial sphere. By theory, the pole of
the orbital plane of each satellite revolves round the pole of a
certain fixed plane, differing less from the plane of the equator
of Mars the nearer the satellite is to Mars. Lowell from a combi-
nation of his own observations with those of Schiaparelli, Lohse
and Cerulli, found for the pole of the axis of rotation of Mars':
R.A. =317-5; Dec. = + 54-5; Epoch, 1905.
Tilt* of Martian Equator to Martian ecliptic, 23. 59'. Her-
mann Struve, from the observations of the satellites, found
theoretically the following positions of this pole, and of those of
the fixed planes of the satellite orbits for 1900: .
Pole of Mars: R.A. =317-25 Dec. = 52-63
Pole of fixed plane for Phobos =317-24 = 52-64
Pole of fixed plane for Deimos = 3 16-20 = 53-37
Lowell's position of the pole is that now adopted by the
British Nautical Almanac.
The actual positions of the poles of the satellite orbits revolve
around these poles of the two fixed planes in circles. Putting N
for the right-ascensions of their nodes on the plane of the terres-
trial equator, and J for their angular distance from the north
terrestrial pole, N, and J, for the corresponding poles of the fixed
planes, and / for the time in years after 1900, Struve's results
are:
Deimos.
Ni=46. 12' 0-463' /; J= 36. 42' -0-24' t
(N-N.) sin J =97-6' sin (356-8 -6-375
J-Ji=97'6 cos (356-8 -6-375
Phobos.
N,=47 14-3' + 0-46' /; T, = 37 21-9' - 0-24' /
(N - N,) sin J = 53-1' no (257-!' - 158-0 t)
J-Ji = 53'* cos (257!* - 158-00
The other elements are:
Deimos.
186-25
285-16198
Phobos.
296-13
1128-84396"
Mean long. 1894, Oct. o.o. G.M.T
Mean daily motion (tropical)
Mean distance (A = l) 32-373* 12-938*
Long, of pericentre, (ir-f-N) 264+6-375 / 14+ 158-0* /
Eccentricity of orbit 0-0031 0-0217
Epoch for t 1900-0 1900-0
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Flammarion, La Planete Mars et ses conditions
d'habitilite (Paris, 1892), embodies so copious a resume of all the
publications and drawings relating to Mars up to 1891 that there is
little occasion for reference in detail to early publications. Amone
the principal sources may be mentioned the Monthly Notices and
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, the publications of the
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, especially vols. vi., viii. and ix.,
containing observations and discussions by the Mt Hamilton
astronomers, and the journals, Sidereal Messenger, Astronomy and
Astrophysics and Astrophysical Journal. Schiaparelli's extended
memoirs appeared under the general title Osservazioni astronomiche
e fisiche suit' asse di rotazione e sutta topografia del pianela Marie,
and were published in different volumes of the Memoirs of the Reale
Accademia dei Lincei of Rome. The observations and drawings of
Lowell are found in extenso in Annals of the Lowell Observatory.
Lowell's conclusions are summarized in Mars and its Canals, by
Percival Lowell (1906), and Mars as the Abode of Life (1909). In
connexion with his work may be mentioned Mars and its Mystery,
by Edward S. Morse (Boston, 1906), the work of a naturalist who
made studies of the planet at the Lowell Observatory in 1905.
Brief discussions and notices will also be found in the Lowell Observa-
tory Bulletins. The optical principles involved in the interpreta-
tions of the canals are discussed in recent volumes of the Monthly
Notices, R.A.S., and in the Astrophysical Journal. In 1907 the
veteran A. R. Wallace disputed Lowell's views vigorously in his
Is Mars Habitable? and was briefly answered by Lowell in Nature,
who contended that Wallace's theory was not in accord with celestial
mechanics. (S. N.)
MARSALA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Trapani,
19 m. by rail S. of Trapani. Pop. (1881), 19,732; (^901), 57,567.
The low coast on which it is situated is the westernmost point of
the island. The town is the seat of a bishop, and the cathedral
contains 16 grey marble columns, which are said to have been
intended for Canterbury Cathedral in England, the vessel
conveying them having been wrecked here. The town owes its
importance mainly to the trade in Marsala wine.
Marsala occupies the site of Lilybaeum, the principal strong-
hold of the Carthaginians in Sicily, founded by Himilco after the
abandonment of Motya. Neither Pyrrhus nor the Romans were
able to reduce it by siege, but it was surrendered to the latter in
241 B.C. at the end of the First Punic War. In the later wars it
was a starting point for the Roman expeditions against Carthage;
1 Bulletin Lowell Obsy., Monthly Notices, R.A.S. (1005), 66, p. 51.
* St Petersburg Memoirs, series viii., Phys. Mars-classe, vol. viii.
7 66
MARSDEN MARSEILLES
and under Roman rule it enjoyed considerable prosperity (C.I.L.
x. p. 742). It obtained municipal rights from Augustus and
became a colony under Pertinax or Septimus Severus. The
Saracens gave it its present name, Marsa AH, port of Ali. The
harbour, which lay on the north-east, was destroyed by Charles
V. to prevent its occupation by pirates. The modern harbour
lies to the south-east. In 1860 Garibaldi landed at Marsala
with 1000 men and began his campaign in Sicily. Scanty
remains of the ancient Lilybaeum (fragments of the city walls,
of squared stones, and some foundations of buildings between
the walls and the sea) are visible; and the so-called grotto and
spring of the Sibyl may be mentioned. To the east of the town
is a great fosse which defended it on the land side, and beyond
this again are quarries like those of Syracuse on a small scale.
The modern town takes the shape of the Roman camp within
the earlier city, one of the gates of which still existed in 1887.
The main street (the Cassaro) perpetuates the name castrum.
MARSDEN, WILLIAM (1754-1836), English orientalist, the
son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Verval, Co. Wicklow on
the i6th of November 1754. He was educated in Dublin, and
having obtained an appointment in the civil service of the East
India Company arrived at Benkulen, Sumatra, in 1771. There
he soon rose to the office of principal secretary to the government,
and acquired a knowledge of the Malay language and country.
Returning to England in 1779 with a pension, he wrote his
History of Sumatra, published in 1783. Marsden was appointed
in 1795 second secretary and afterwards first secretary to the
admiralty. In 1807 he retired and published in 1812 his Gram-
mar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, and in 1818 his
translation of the Travels of Marco Polo. He was a member of
many learned societies, and treasurer and vice-president of the
Royal Society. In 1834 he presented his collection of oriental
coins to the British Museum, and his library of books and
Oriental MSS. to King's College, London. He died on the 6th
of October 1836.
Marsden 's other works are: Numismata orientalia (London,
1823-1825); Catalogue of Dictionaries, Vocabularies, Grammars and
Alphabets (1796); and several papers on Eastern topics in the
Philosophical Transactions and the Archaelogia.
MARSEILLES, a city of southern France, chief seaport of
France and of the Mediterranean, 219 m. S. by E. of Lyons and
534 m. S.S.E. of Paris, by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway.
Pop. (1906), commune 517,498; town 421,116. Marseilles is
situated on the Golfe du Lion on the eastern shore of a bay
protected to the south by Cape Croisette but open towards the
west; to the east the horizon is bounded by an amphitheatre
of hills, those in the foreground clothed with vegetation while
the more distant eminences are bare and rugged. The city is
built on undulating ground and the south-western and most
aristocratic quarter covers the slopes of the ridge crowned by a
fort and the church of Notre-Dame de la Garde and projecting
westward into the bay to form a protection for the harbour.
The newest and most pleasant portion lies on the south-eastern
slope of the ridge, between the southern end of the Rue Paradis
and the Prado avenues, which is better protected than most
other quarters from the mistral that blows down the Rhone
valley, and where in summer the temperature is always a little
lower than in the centre of the town. The old harbour of
Marseilles opens on the west to the Golfe du Lion, the famous
Rue Cannebiere 1 prolonged by the Rue Noailles leading E.N.E.
from its inner end. These two streets are the centre of the life
of the city. Continued in the Alices de Meilhan and the Boule-
vard de la Madeleine, they form one of its main arteries. The
other, at right angles with the first, connects the Place d'Aix
with the spacious and fashionable Promenade du Prado, by
way of the Cours Belsunce and the Rue de Rome. Other fine
streets the Rue St Ferr6ol, the Rue Paradis and the Rue
Breteuil are to the south of the Cannebiere running parallel with
the Rue de Rome. To these must be added the neighbouring
avenue of Pierre Puget named after the sculptor whose statue
1 From the Latin cannabis, Provencal cannebe, " hemp," in allusion
to the rope-walks formerly occupying its site.
stands in the Borely Park. The Prado, with its avenues
trees and fine houses, runs to within a quarter of a mile of the
Huveaune, a stream that borders the city on the south-east,
then turns off at right angles and extends to the sea, coming
to an end close to the Borely Park and the race-course. From
its extremity the Chemin de la Corniche runs northwards along
the coast, fringed by villas and bathing establishments, to the
Anse des Catalans, a distance of 4% miles.
The old town of Marseilles is bounded W. by the Joliette basin
and the sea, E. by the Cours Belsunce, S. by the northern quay
of the old port, and N. by the Boulevard des Dames. It consists
of a labyrinth of steep, dark and narrow streets inhabited by
a seafaring population. Through its centre runs the broad Rue
de la Republique, extending from the Cannebiere to the Place
de la Joliette. The entrance to the old harbour is defended by
Fort St Jean on the north and Fort St Nicolas on the south.
Behind the latter is the Anse (Creek) de la Reserve. Beyond
this again, situated in succession along the shore, come the
Chateau du Pharo, given by the empress Eugenie to the town,
the Anse du Pharo, the military exercising ground, and the Anse
des Catalans. To the old harbour, which covers only 70 acres
with a mean depth of 19! ft. and is now used by sailing vessels,
the basin of La Joliette (55 acres) with an entrance harbour was
added in 1853. Communicating with the old harbour by a
channel which passes behind Fort St Jean, this dock opens on
the south into the outer harbour, opposite the palace and the
Anse du Pharo. A series of similar basins separated from the
roadstead by a jetty 25 m. long was subsequently added along
the shore to the north, viz. the basins of Lazaret and Arenc,
bordered by the harbour railway station and the extensive ware-
houses of the Compagnie des Docks et Entrepots, the Bassin
de la Gare Maritime with the warehouses of the chamber of
commerce; the Bassin National with the refitting basin, com-
prising six dry docks behind it; and the Bassin de la Pinede
entered from the northern outer harbour. These new docks
have a water area of 414 acres and over u m. of quays, and
are commodious and deep enough for the largest vessels to
manoeuvre easily.
In the roads to the south-west of the port lie the islands of
Ratonneau and Pomegue, united by a jetty forming a quarantine
port. Between them and the mainland is the islet of Chateau
d'lf, in which the scene of part of Dumas' Monte Crislo is
laid.
Marseilles possesses few remains of either the Greek or Roman
periods of occupation, and is poor in medieval buildings. The
old cathedral of la Major (Sainte-Marie-Majeure), dating chiefly
from the i2th century and built on the ruins of a temple of Diana,
is in bad preservation. The chapel of St Lazare (late isth
century) in the left aisle is in the earliest Renaissance style, and a
bas-relief of white porcelain by Lucca della Robbia is of artistic
value. Beside this church and alongside the Joliette basin is a
modern building begun in 1852, opened for worship in 1893 and
recognized as the finest modern cathedral in France. It is a
Byzantine basilica, in the form of a Latin cross, 460 ft. long,
built in green Florentine stone blended with white stone from the
neighbourhood of Aries. The four towers which surmount it
two at the west front, one over the crossing, one at the east end
are roofed with cupolas. Near the cathedral stands the bishop's
palace, and the Place de la Major, which they overlook, is em-
bellished with the statue of Bishop Belsunce, who displayed great
devotion during the plague of 1 7 20-1 721. The celebrated Notre-
Dame de la Garde, the steeple of which, surmounted by a gilded
statue of the Virgin, 30 ft. in height, rises 150 ft. above the
summit of the hill on which it stands, commands a view of the
whole port and town, as well as of the surrounding mountains
and the neighbouring sea. The present chapel is modern and
occupies the site of one built in 1214.
On the south side of the old harbour near the Fort St Nicolas
stands the church of St Victor, built in the i3th century and once
attached to an abbey founded early in the 4th century. With
its lofty crenellated walls and square towers built of large blocks
of uncemented stone, it resembles a fortress. St Victor is built
MARSEILLES
767
above crypts dating mainly from the nth century but also
embodying architecture of the Carolingian period and of the
early centuries of the Christian era. Tradition relates that St
Lazarus inhabited the catacombs under St Victor; and the black
image of the Virgin, still preserved there, is popularly attributed
to St Luke. The spire, which is the only relic of the ancient
church of Accoules, marks the centre of Old Marseilles. At its
foot are a " calvary " and a curious underground chapel in rock
work, both modern. Notre-Dame du Mont Carmel, also in the
old town, occupies the place of what was the citadel of the
Massaliots when they were besieged by Julius Caesar.
Of the civil buildings of the city, the prefecture, one of the
finest in France, the Palais de Justice, in front of which is the
statue of the advocate Antoine Berryer (1790-1868) and the
Exchange, all date from the latter half of the igth century. The
Exchange, built at the expense of the Chamber of Commerce,
includes the spacious hall of that institution with its fine mural
paintings and gilding. The hotel-de-ville (i7th century) stands
on the northern quay of the old harbour. All these buildings
are surpassed by the Palais Longchamp (1862-1870), situated
in the north-east of the town at the end of the Boulevard Long-
champ. The centre of the building is occupied by a monumental
chdteau d'eatt (reservoir). Colonnades branch off from this,
uniting it on the left to the picture gallery, with a fine collection
of ancient and modern works, and on the right to the natural
history museum, remarkable for its conchological department
and collection of ammonites. In front are ornamental grounds;
behind are extensive zoological gardens, with the astronomical
observatory. The museum of antiquities i? established in the
Chateau Borely (1766-1778) in a fine park at the end of
the Prado. It includes a Phoenician collection (containing the
remains that support the hypothesis of the Phoenician origin
of Marseilles), an Egyptian collection, numerous Greek, Latin,
and Christian inscriptions in stone, &c. A special building
within the city contains the school of art with a valuable library
and a collection of medals and coins annexed to it. The city
also has a colonial museum and a laboratory of marine zoology.
The triumphal arch of Aix, originally dedicated to the victors
of the Trocadero, was in 1830 appropriated to the conquests of
the empire.
The canal de Marseille, constructed from 1837 to 1848, which
has metamorphosed the town and its arid surroundings by bring-
ing to them the waters of the Durance, leaves the river opposite
Pertuis. It has a length of 97 miles (including its four main
branches) of which 13 are underground, and irrigates some 750x3
acres. After crossing the valley of the Arc, between Aix and
Rognac, by the magnificent aqueduct of Roquefavour, it purifies
its waters, charged with ooze, in the basins of Realtort. It
draws about 2200 gallons of water per second from the Durance,
supplies 2450 horse-power to works in the vicinity of Marseilles,
and ensures a good water-supply and efficient sanitation to the
city.
Marseilles is the headquarters of the XV. army corps and the
seat of a bishop and a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade
arbitration, and a branch of the Bank of France. The educa-
tional institutions include a faculty of science, a school of
medicine and pharmacy, and a faculty (Jandli libre) of law,
these three forming part of the university of Aix-Marseille;
Iyc6es for boys and girls, a conservatoire of music, a school of
fine art, a higher school of commerce, a school for ships' boys, a
school of navigation and industrial schools for both sexes.
Trade and Industry. Marseilles is the western emporium for the
Levant trade and the French gate of the Far East. It suffers,
however, from the competition of Genoa, which is linked with the
Rhine basin by the Simplon and St Gotthard railway routes, and from
lack of communication with the inland waterways of France. In
January 1902 the chamber of deputies voted 5,656,000 for the con-
struction of a canal from Marseilles to the Rhone at Aries. This
scheme was designed to overcome the difficulties of egress from the
Rhone and to make the city the natural outlet of the rich Rhone
basin. Much of the activity of the port is due to the demand for
raw material created by the industries of Marseilles itself. The
imports include raw silk, sesame, ground-nuts and other oil-producing
fruits and seeds largely used in the soap manufacture, cereals and
flour, wool, hides and skins, olive and other oils, raw cotton, sheep
and other livestock, woven goods, table fruit, wine, potatoes and
dry vegetables, lead, cocoon silk, coffee, coal, timber. The total
value of imports was 64,189,000 in 1907, an increase of 18,000,000
in the preceding decade. The exports, of which the total value was
52,901,000 (an increase of 21,000,000 in the decade) included
cotton fabrics, silk fabrics, cereals and flour, hides and skins, wool
fabrics, worked skins, olive and other oils, chemical products, wine,
refined sugar, raw cotton, wool, coal, building-material, machinery
and pottery.
The port is the centre for numerous lines of steamers, of which
the chief are the Messageries Maritimes, which ply to the eastern
Mediterranean, the east coast of Africa, Australia, India, Indo-China,
Havre and London, and the Compagnie Ge'ne'rale Transatlantique,
whose vessels run to Algiers, Tunis, Malta, Corsica, Morocco and the
Antilles. In addition many important foreign lines call at the port,
among them being the P. and O., the Orient, the North German
Lloyd, and the German East Africa lines.
Marseilles has five chief railway stations, two of which serve the
new harbours, while one is alongside the old port ; the city is on the
main line of the Paris-Lyon-Metliterranee railway from the Riviera
and Toulon to Paris via Aries, Avignon and Lyons, another less
important line connecting it with Aix.
Soap-making, introduced in antiquity from Savona and Genoa,
is carried on in upwards of fifty factories. These utilize the products
of the oil-distilleries and of the chemical works, the latter being also
an important adjunct to the manufacture of candles, another leading
industry. A large quantity of iron, copper and other ores is smelted
in the blast-furnaces of Saint Louis in the vicinity and in other
foundries, and the Mediterranean Engineering Company and other
companies have large workshops for the construction or repair of
marine steam-engines and every branch of iron ship-building. To
these industries must be added flour-milling, the manufacture of
semolina and other farinaceous foods and of biscuits, bricks and
tiles, rope, casks, capsules for bottles and other tin-goods, tanning,
distilling, brewing and sulphur- and sugar-refining. There are state
tobacco and match factories.
History. The Greek colony of Massalia (Lat. Massilia) was
founded by the mariners of Phocaea in Asia Minor, about 600 B.C.
The settlement of the Greeks in waters which the Carthaginians
reserved for their own commerce was not effected without a naval
conflict; it is not improbable that the Phoenicians were settled
at Marseilles before the Greek period, and that the name of the
town is the Phoenician for " settlement." Whether the judges
(sophetim, " suffetes ") of the Phoenician sacrificial tablet of
Marseilles were the rulers of a city existing before the advent of
the Phocaeans, or were consuls for Punic residents in the Greek
period, is disputed. In 542 B.C. the fall of the Phocaean cities
before the Persians probably sent new settlers to the Ligurian
coast and cut off the remote city of Massalia from close connexion
with the mother country. Isolated amid alien populations, the
Massaliots made their way by prudence in dealing with the
inland tribes, by vigilant administration of their oligarchical
government, and by frugality united to remarkable commercial
and naval enterprise. Their colonies spread east and west
along the coast from Monaco to Cape St Martin in Spain,
carrying with them the worship of Artemis; the inland trade, in
which wine was an important element, can be traced by finds of
Massalian coins across Gaul and through the Alps as far as Tirol.
In the 4th century B.C. the Massaliot Pytheas visited the coasts
of Gaul, Britain and Germany, and Euthymenes is said to have-
sailed down the west coast of Africa as far as Senegal. The great
rival of Massalian trade was Carthage, and in the Punic Wars the
city took the side of Rome, and was rewarded by Roman assistance
in the subjugation of the native tribes of Liguria. In the war
between Caesar and Pompey Massilia took Pompey's side and in
A.D. 49 offered a vain resistance to Caesar's lieutenant Trebonius.
[n memory of its ancient services the city, " without which,"
as Cicero says, " Rome had never triumphed over the Transalpine
nations," was left as a civitas libera, but her power was broken
and most of her dependencies taken from her. From this time
Massilia has little place in Roman history; it became for a time
an important school of letters and medicine, but its commercial
and intellectual importance declined. The town appears to
lave been christianized before the end of the 3rd century, and
at the beginning of the 4th century was the scene of the martyr-
dom of St Victor. Its reputation partly revived through the
names of Gennadius and Cassian, which give it prominence
7 68
MARSH, A. MARSH, H.
in the history of Semi-Pelagianism and the foundation of western
monachism.
After the ravages of successive invaders, Marseilles was re-
peopled in the loth century under the protection of its viscounts.
The town gradually bought up their rights, and at the beginning
of the I3th century was formed into a republic, governed by a
pedestal, who was appointed for life, and exercised his office in
conjunction with 3 notables, and a municipal council, composed of
80 citizens, 3 clerics, and 6 principal tradesmen. During the rest
of the middle ages, however, the higher town was governed by
the bishop, and had its harbour at the creek of La Joliette which
at that period ran inland to the north of the old town. The
southern suburb was governed by the abbot of St Victor, and
owned the Port des Catalans. Situated between the two, the
lower town, the republic, retained the old harbour, and was the
most powerful of the three divisions. The period of the crusades
brought prosperity to Marseilles, though throughout the middle
ages it suffered from the competition of Pisa, Genoa and Venice.
In 1245 and 1256 Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, whose
predecessors had left the citizens a large measure of independence,
established his authority above that of the republic. In 1423
Alphonso V. of Aragon sacked the town. King Ren6, who had
made it his winter residence, however, caused trade, arts and
manufactures again to flourish. On the embodiment of Provence
in the kingdom of France in 1481, Marseilles preserved a separate
administration directed by royal officials. Under Francis I.
the disaffected constable Charles de Bourbon vainly besieged the
town with the imperial forces in 1524. During the wars of
religion, Marseilles took part against the Protestants, and long
refused to acknowledge Henry IV. The loss of the ancient
liberties of the town brought new disturbances under the Fronde,
which Louis XIV. came in person to suppress. He entered the
town by a breach in the walls and afterwards had Fort St Nicolas
constructed. Marseilles repeatedly suffered from the plague,
notably from May 1720 to May 1721.
During the Revolution the people rose against the aristocracy,
who up to that time had governed the commune. In the Terror
they rebelled against the Convention, but were promptly subdued
by General Carteaux. The wars of the empire, by dealing a
blow to their maritime commerce, excited the hatred of the
inhabitants against Napoleon, and they hailed the return of the
Bourbons and the defeat of Waterloo. The news of the latter
provoked a bloody reaction in the town against those suspected
of imperialism. The prosperity of the city received a considerable
impulse from the conquest of Algeria and from the opening of
the Suez Canal.
See P. Castanier, Histoire de la Provence dans I'antiquM, vol. ii.
(Paris, 1896); E. Caman, Marseille au XX*" siecle (Paris, 1905);
P. Joanne, Marseille et ses environs.
MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258), English
Franciscan, scholar and theologian, was born about 1 200 in the
diocese of Bath, and educated at Oxford under the famous
Grosseteste. Before 1226 Adam received the benefice of Wear-
mouth from his uncle, Richard Marsh, bishop of Durham; but
between that year and 1230 he entered the Franciscan order.
About 1238 he became the lecturer of the Franciscan house at
Oxford, and within a few years was regarded by the English
province of that order as an intellectual and spiritual leader.
Roger Bacon, his pupil, speaks highly of his attainments in
theology and mathematics. His fame, however, rests upon the
influence which he exercised over the statesmen of his day.
Consulted as a friend by Grosseteste, as a spiritual director by
Simon de Montfort, the countess of Leicester and the queen,
as an expert lawyer and theologian by the primate, Boniface
of Savoy, he did much to guide the policy both of the opposition
and of the court party in all matters affecting the interests of
the Church. He shrank from office, and never became provincial
minister of the English Franciscans, though constantly charged
with responsible commissions. Henry III. and Archbishop
Boniface unsuccessfully endeavoured to secure for him the see of
Ely in 1256. In 1257 Adam's health was failing, and he appears
to have died in the following year. To judge from his corre-
spondence he took no interest in secular politics. He sympathized
with Montfort as with a friend of the Church and an unjustly
treated man; but on the eve of the baronial revolution he was
on friendly terms with the king. Faithful to the traditions of his
order, he made it his ambition to be a mediator. He rebuked
both parties in the state for their shortcomings, but he did not
break with either.
See his correspondence, with J. S. Brewer's introduction, in
Monumenta franciscana, vol. i. (Rolls ser., 1858); the biographical .
notice in A. G. Little's Grey Friars in Oxford (Oxford, 1892), where
all the references are collected. On Marsh's relations with Grosse-
teste, see Roberti Grosseteste epistolae, ed. H. R. Luard (Rolls ed.,
1861), and F. S. Stevenson, Robert Grosseteste (London, 1809).
(H. W. C. D.)
MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882), American diplo-
matist and philologist, was born at Woodstock, Vermont, on
the isth of March 1801. He graduated at Dartmouth College
in 1820, was admitted to the bar in 1825, and practised law
at Burlington, Vermont, devoting himself also with ardour to
philological studies. In 1835 he was a member of the Supreme
Executive Council of Vermont, and from 1843 to 1849 a Whig
representative in Congress. In 1849 he was appointed United
States minister resident in Turkey, and in 1852-1853 discharged
a mission to Greece in connexion with the imprisonment by
the authorities of that country of an American missionary,
Dr Jonas King (1792-1869). He returned to Vermont in 1854,
and in 1857 was a member of the state railway commission.
In 1861 he became the first United States minister to the kingdom
of Italy, and died in that office at Vallombrosa on the 23rd of
July 1882. He was. buried in a Protestant cemetery in Rome.
Marsh was an able linguist, writing and speaking with ease the
Scandinavian and half a dozen other European languages, a
remarkable philologist for his day, and a scholar of great breadth,
knowing much of military science, engraving and physics, as
well as of Icelandic, which was his specialty. He wrote many
articles for Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, and contributed
many reviews and letters to the Nation. His chief published
works are: A Compendious Grammar of the Old Northern or
Icelandic Language (1838), compiled and translated from the
grammars of Rask; The Camel, his Organization, Habits, and Uses,
with Reference to his Introduction into the United States (1856);
Lectures on Ike English Language (1860); The Origin and History
of the English Language (1862; revised ed., 1885); and Man
and Nature (1865). The last-named work was translated into
Italian in 1872, and, largely rewritten, was issued in 1874 under
the title The Earth as Modified by Human Action; a revised
edition was published in 1885. He also published a work on
Mediaeval and Modern Saints and Miracles (1876). His valuable
library was presented in 1883 by Frederick Billings to the
university of Vermont. His second wife, CAROLINE (CRANE)
MARSH (1816-1901), whom he married in 1839, published Wolfe
of the Knoll and other Poems (1860), and the Life and Letters of
George Perkins Marsh (New York, 1888). This last work was
left incomplete, the second volume never having been pub-
lished. She also translated from the German of Johann C.
Biernatzki (1795-1840), The Hallig; or the Sheepfold in the
Waters (1856).
MARSH, HERBERT (1757-1839), English divine, was born at
Faversham, Kent, on the loth of December 1757, and was
educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow in 1782, having been second wrangler and second Smith's
prizeman. For some years he studied at Leipzig, and between
1793 and 1801 published in four volumes a translation of
J. D. Michaelis's Introduction to the New Testament, with
notes of his own, in which he may be said to have intro-
duced German methods of research into English biblical
scholarship. His History of the Politics of Great Britain and
France (1799) brought him much notice and a pension
from William Pitt. In 1807 he was appointed Lady Margaret
professor of j divinity at Cambridge, and lectured to large
audiences on biblical criticism, substituting English for the
traditional Latin. Both here, and afterwards as bishop of
Llandaff (1816) and of Peterborough (1819). he stoutly opposed
MARSH, N. MARSHAL
769
hymn-singing, Calvinism, Roman Catholicism, and the Evangel-
ical movement as represented by Charles Simeon and the Bible
Society. Among his writings are Lectures on the Criticism and
Interpretation of the Bible (1828), A Comparative View of the
Churches of England and Rome (1814), and Horae Pelasgicae
(1815). He died at Peterborough on the ist of May 1839.
MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713), archbishop of Dublin and
Armagh, was born at Hannington, Wiltshire, and educated at
Oxford. He became a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, in 1658.
In 1662 he was ordained, and presented to the living of Swindon,
which he resigned in the following year. After acting as chaplain
to Seth Ward, bishop of Exeter and Salisbury, and Lord
Chancellor Clarendon, he was elected principal of St Alban Hall,
Oxford, in 1673. In 1679 he was appointed provost of Trinity
College, Dublin, where he did much to encourage the study of the
Irish language. He helped to found the Royal Dublin Society,
and contributed to it a paper entitled " Introductory Essay to
the Doctrine of Sounds " (printed in Philosophical Transactions,
No. 156, Oxford, 1684). In 1683 he was consecrated bishop of
Ferns and Leighlin, but after the accession of James II. he was
compelled by the turbulent soldiery to flee to England (1689),
where he became vicar of Gresford, Flint, and canon of St Asaph.
Returning to Ireland in 1691 after the battle of the Boyne, he
was made archbishop of Cashel, and three years later he became
archbishop of Dublin. About this time he founded the Marsh
Library in Dublin. He became archbishop of Armagh in 1703.
Between 1699 and 1711 he was six times a lord justice of Ireland.
He died on the 2nd of November 1713.
MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899), American
palaeontologist, was born in Lockport, New York, on the 29th
of October 1831. He graduated at Yale College in 1860, and
studied geology and mineralogy in the Sheffield scientific school,
New Haven, and afterwards palaeontology and anatomy in
Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau. Returning to America in 1866
he was appointed professor of vertebrate palaeontology at Yale
College, and there began the researches of the fossil vertebrata
of the western states, whereby he established his reputation. He
was aided by a private fortune from his uncle, George Peabody,
whom he induced to establish the Peabody Museum of Natural
History (especially devoted to zoology, geology and mineralogy)
in the college. In May 1871 he discovered the first pterodactyl
remains found in America, and in subsequent years he brought to
light from Wyoming and other regions many new genera and
families, and some entirely new orders of extinct vertebrata,
which he described in monographs or periodical articles. These
included remains of the Cretaceous toothed birds Hesperornis
and Ichthyornis, the Cretaceous flying-reptiles (Pteranodon) ,
the swimming reptiles or Mosasauria, and the Cretaceous and
Jurassic land reptiles (Dinosauria) among which were the Bronto-
saurus and Atlantosaurus. The remarkable mammals which he
termed Brontotheria (now grouped as Titanotheriidae) , and the
huge Dinocerata, one being the Uintatherium, were also brought
to light by him. Among his later discoveries were remains of
early ancestors of horses in America. On becoming vice-
president of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in 1875 he gave an address on the " Introduction and
Succession of Vertebrate Life in America," summarizing his
conclusions to that date. He repeatedly organized and often
accompanied scientific exploring expeditions in the Rocky
Mountains, and their results tended in an important degree to
support the doctrines of natural selection and evolution. He
oublished many papers on these, and found time besides that
necessarily given to the accumulation and care of the most
extensive collection of fossils in the world to write Odont-
ornithes: A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed Birds of North
America (1880); Dinocerata: A Monograph on an Extinct Order
of Gigantic Mammals (1884) ; and The Dinosaurs of North America
(1896). His work is full of accurately recorded facts of perma-
nent value. He was long in charge of the division of vertebrate
palaeontology in the United States Geological Survey, and
received many scientific honours, medals and degrees, American
and foreign. He died in New Haven on the :8th of March 1899.
xvii. 25
See obituary by Dr Henry Woodward (with portrait) in Ceol.
Mag. (1899), p. 237.
HARSH (O. F. mersc, for merisc, a place full of "meres" or
pools; cf. Ger. Meer, sea, Lat. mare), an area of low-lying
watery land. The significance of a marsh area is not so much
in the manner of its formation as in the peculiar chemical and
physical results that accompany it,- and its relation to the ecology
of plant and animal life. Chemically it is productive of such
gases as arise from decomposing vegetation and are transitory
in their effects, and in the production of hydrated iron oxide,
which may be seen floating as an iridescent scum at the edge of
rusty, marshy pools. This sinks into the soil and forms a
powerful iron cement to many sandstones, binding them into a
hard local mass, while the surrounding sandstones are loose and
friable. A curious morphological inversion follows in a later
geological period, the marsh area forming the hard cap of a hill
(see MESA) while the surrounding sandstones are weathered
away. Salt marshes are a feature of many low-lying sea-coasts
and areas of inland drainage.
MARSHAL (med. Lat. ntarescalcus, from O.H.Ger. tnarah,
horse, and scale, servant), a title given in various countries
to certain military and civil officers, usually of high rank. The
origin and development of the meaning of the designation is
closely analogous with that of constable (q.v.). Just as the title
of constable, in all its medieval and modern uses, is traceable to
the style and functions of the Byzantine count of the stable, so
that of marshal was evolved from the title of the marescaki,
or masters of the horse, of the early Frankish kings. In this
original sense the word survived down to the close of the Holy
Roman empire in the titular office of En-Marschalk (arch-
marshal), borne by the electors of Saxony. Elsewhere the
meaning of office and title was modified. The importance of
cavalry in medieval warfare led to the marshalship being associ-
ated with military command; this again led to the duty of keeping
order in court and camp, of deciding questions of chivalry, and
to the assumption of judicial and executive functions. The
marshal, as a military leader, was originally a subordinate officer,
the chief command under the king being held by the constable;
but in the i2th century, though still nominally second to the
constable, the marshal has come to the forefront as commander
of the royal forces and a great officer of state. In England after
the Conquest the marshalship was hereditary in the family which
derived its surname from the office, and the hereditary title of
earl-marshal originated in the marriage of William Marshal
with the heiress of the earldom of Pembroke (see EARL MARSHAL).
Similarly, in Scotland, the office of marischal (from the French
mar(chal), probably introduced under David I., became in the I4th
century hereditary in the house of Keith. In 1485 the Scottish
marischal became an earl under the designation of earl-marischal,
the dignity coming to an end by the attainder of George, loth
earl-marischal, in 1716. In France, on the other hand, though
under Philip Augustus the marshal of France (marescalcus
Franciae) appears as commander-in-chief of the forces, care was
taken not to allow the office to become descendible; under
Francis I. the number of marshals of France was raised to two,
under Henry III. to four, and under Louis XIV. to twenty.
Revived by Napoleon, the title fell into abeyance with the
downfall of the Second empire.
In England the use of the word marshal in the sense of com-
mander of an army appears very early; so Matthew Paris records
that in 1214 King John constituted William, earl of Salisbury,
marescalcus of his forces. The modern military title of field
marshal, imported from Germany by King George II. in 1736,
is derived from the high dignity of the marescalcus in a round-
about way. The marescalcus campi, or martchal des champs, was
originally one of a number of officials to whom the name, with
certain of the functions, of the marshal was given. The marshal,
being responsible for order in court and camp, had to employ
subordinates, who developed into officials often but nominally
dependent upon him. On military expeditions it was usual
for two such marshals to precede the army, select the site of the
camp and assign to the lords and knights their places in it. In
770
MARSHALL, A. MARSHALL, J.
time of peace they preceded the king on a journey and arranged
{or his lodging and maintenance. In France marechal des logis
is the title of superior non-commissioned officers in the cavalry.
Similarly at the king's court the marescalcus aulae or inlrin-
secus was responsible for order, the admission or exclusion of
those seeking access, ceremonial arrangements, &c. Such
" marshals " were maintained, not only by the king, but by great
lords and ecclesiastics. The more dignified of their functions,
together with the title, survive in the various German courts,
where the court marshal (Hofmarschall) is equivalent to the
English lord chamberlain. Just as the marescalcus intrinsecus
acted as the vicar of the marshal for duties " within " the court,
so the marescalcus forinsecus was deputed to perform those acts
of serjeanty due from the marshal to the Crown " without."
Similarly there appears in the statute 5 Edw. III. cap. 8, a
marescalcus band regii {marechal du Bane du Roy), or marshal
of the king's bench, who presided over the Marshalsea Court,
and was responsible for the safe custody of prisoners, who were
bestowed in the mareschalcia, or Marshalsea prison. The office
of marshal of the queen's bench survived till 1849 (see LORD
STEWARD; and MARSHALSEA). The official known as a judge's
marshal, whose office is of considerable antiquity, and whose
duties consisted of making abstracts of indictments and pleadings
for the use of the judge, still survives, but no longer exercises the
above functions. He accompanies a judge of assize on circuit
and is appointed by him at the beginning of each circuit. His
travelling and other expenses are paid by the judge, and he
receives an allowance of two guineas a day, which is paid through
the Treasury. He introduces the high sheriff of the county to
the judge of assize on his arrival, and swears in the grand
jury. For the French marechaussee see FRANCE: Law and
Institutions.
In the sense of executive legal officer the title marshal survives
in the United States of America in two senses. The United
States marshal is the executive officer of the Federal courts, one
being appointed for each district, or exceptionally, one for two
districts. His duties are to open and close the sessions of the
district and circuit courts, serve warrants, and execute through-
out the district the orders of the court. There are United States
marshals also in Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and the Philippines.
They are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent
of the Senate, for a term of four years, and, besides their duties
in connexion with the courts, are employed in the service of the
internal revenue, public lands, post office, &c. The temporary
police sworn in to maintain order in times of disturbance, known
in England as special constables, are also termed marshals in the
United States. In some of the southern and western states of the
Union the title marshal has sunk to that of the village policeman,
as distinct from the county officers known as sheriffs and those
of the justices' courts called constables.
In England the title of marshal, as applied to an executive
officer, survives only in the army, where the provost marshal
is chief of the military police in large garrisons and in field forces.
Office and title were borrowed from the French prevot des
marechaux, the modern equivalent of the medieval praepositus
marescalcorum or guerrarum.
MARSHALL, ALFRED (1842- ), English economist, was
born in London on the 26th of July 1842. He was educated at
the Merchant Taylors' School and St John's College, Cambridge,
being second wrangler in 1865, and in the same year becoming
fellow of his college. He became principal of University College,
Bristol, in 1877, and was lecturer and fellow of Balliol College,
Oxford ; " 1883-1884. He was professor of political economy
at Cambridge University from 1885 to 1908, and was a member
of the Royal Commission on Labour in 1891. He became a
fellow of the British Academy in 1902. He wrote (in conjunction
with his wife) Economics of Industry (1879), whilst his Principles
of Economics (ist ed., 1890) is a standard English treatise.
MARSHALL, JOHN (1755-1835), American jurist, chief-
justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, was born on the 24th of Sep-
tember 1755 at Germantown (now Midland), in what four years
later became Fauquier county, Virginia. He was of English
descent, the son of Thomas Marshall (1732-1806) and his wife
Mary Isham Keith. Marshall served first as lieutenant and after
July 1778 as captain in the Continental Army during the War
of Independence. He resigned his commission early in 1781;
was admitted to the bar after a brief course of study, first
practised in Fauquier county; and after two years began to
practise in Richmond. In 1786 we find him counsel in a case
of great importance, Hite v. Fairfax, involving the original title
of Lord Fairfax to that large tract of country between the head-
waters of the Potomac and Rappahannock, known as the north-
ern neck of Virginia. Marshall represented tenants of Lord
Fairfax and won his case. From this time, as is shown by
an examination of Call's Virginia Reports which cover the period,
he maintained the leadership of the bar of Virginia. He was a
member of the Virginia Assembly in 1782-1791 and again in 1795-
1797; and in 1788, he took a leading part in the Virginia Con-
vention called to act on the proposed constitution for the United
States, with Madison ably urging the ratification of that instru-
ment. In 1 795 Washington offered him the attorney-generalship,
and in 1796, after the retirement of James Monroe, the position
of minister to France. Marshall declined both offers because
his situation at the bar appeared to him " to be more indepen-
dent and not less honourable than any other," and his " prefer-
ence for it was decided." He spent the autumn and winter of
1797-1798 in France as one of the three commissioners appointed
by President John Adams to adjust the differences between
the young republic and the directory. The commission failed,
but the course pursued by Marshall was approved in America,
and with the resentment felt because of the way in which the
commission had been treated in France, made him, on his return,
exceedingly popular. To this popularity, as well as to the earnest
advocacy of Patrick Henry, he owed his election as a Federalist
to the National House of Representatives in the spring of 1799,
though the feeling in Richmond was overwhelmingly in favour
of the opposition or Republican party. His most notable service
in Congress was his speech on the case of Thomas Nash, alias
Jonathan Robbins, in which he showed that there is nothing
in the constitution of the United States which prevents the
Federal government from carrying out an extradition treaty.
He was secretary of state under President Adams from the 6th
of June 1800 to the 4th of March 1801. In the meantime he
had been appointed chief-justice of the Supreme Court, his
commission bearing date the 3ist of January. Thus while still
secretary he presided as chief-justice.
At the time of Marshall's appointment it was generally con-
sidered that the Supreme Court was the one department of the
new government which had failed in its purpose. John Jay, the
first chief-justice, who had resigned in 1795, had just declined
a reappointment to the chief-justiceship on the ground that he
had left the bench perfectly convinced that the court would never
acquire proper weight and dignity, its organization being fatally
defective. The advent of the new chief-justice was marked by a
change in the conduct of business in the court. Since its organi-
zation, following the prevailing English custom, the judges had
pronounced their opinions seriatim. But beginning with the
December term 1801, the chief-justice became practically the
sole mouthpiece of the court. For eleven years the opinions
are almost exclusively his, and there are few recorded dissents.
The change was admirably adapted to strengthen the power and
dignity of the court. The chief-justice embodied the majesty
of the judicial department of the government almost as fully as
the president stood for the power of the executive. That this
change was acquiesced in by his associates without diminishing
their goodwill towards their new chief is testimony to the per-
suasive force of Marshall's personality; for his associates were
not men of mediocre ability. After the advent of Mr Justice
Joseph Story the practice was abandoned. Marshall, however,
still delivered the opinion in the great majority of cases, and in
practically all cases of any importance involving the inter-
pretation of the Constitution. During the course of his judicial
life his associates were as a rule men of learning and ability.
During most of the time the majority were the appointees of
MARSHALL, J.
Democratic presidents, and before their elevation to the bench
supposed to be out of sympathy with the federalistic ideas of the
chief-justice. Yet in matters pertaining to constitutional con-
struction, they seem to have had hardly any other function than
to add the weight of their silent concurrence to the decision of
thi-ir great chief. Thus the task of expounding the constitution
during the most critical period of its history was his, and it
was given to him to preside over the Supreme Court when it was
called upon to decide four cases of vital importance: Marbury
v. Madison, M'Culloch v. Maryland, Cohens v. Virginia and
Gibbons v. Ogden. In each of these cases it is Marshall who
writes the opinion of the court; in each the continued existence
of the peculiar Federal system established by the Constitution
depended on the action of the court, and in each the court
adopted a principle which is now generally perceived to be
essential to the preservation of the United States as a federal
state.
In Marbury v. Madison, which was decided two years after his
rli v.ition to the bench, he decided that it was the duty of the court
to ilisrcgard any act of Congress, and, therefore, a fortiori any act
of a legislature of one of the states, which the court thought contrary
to the Federal Constitution.
In Cohens v. Virginia, in spite of the contention of Jefferson and
the then prevalent school of political thought that it was contrary
to the Constitution for a person to bring one of the states of the
United States, though only as an appellee, into a court of justice,
he held that Congress could lawfully pass an act which permitted a
n who was convicted in a state court, to appeal to the Supreme
Court of the United States, if he alleged that the state act under which
he was convicted conflicted with the Federal Constitution or with an
act of Congress.
In M'Culloch v. Maryland, though admitting that the Federal
government is one of delegated powers and cannot exercise any power
not expressly given in the Constitution, he laid down the rule that
Congress in the exercise of a delegated power has a wide latitude in
the choice of means, not being confined in its choice of means to
which must be used if the power is to be exercised at all.
Lastly, in Gibbons v. Ogden, he held that when the power to regu-
late interstate and foreign commerce was conferred by the Constitu-
tion on the Federal government, the word " commerce " included
not only the exchange of commodities, but the means by which
interstate and foreign intercourse was carried on, and therefore
that Congress had the power to license vessels to carry goods and
passengers between the states, and an act of one of the states making
a regulation which interfered with such regulation of Congress was,
pro tanto, of no effect. It will be seen that in the first two cases
he established the Supreme Court as the final interpreter of the
Constitution.
The decision in M'Culloch v. Maryland, by leaving Congress
unhampered in the choice of means to execute its delegated powers,
made it possible for the Federal government to accomplish the ends
of its existence. " Let the end be legitimate," said Marshall in the
course of its opinion, " let it be within the scope of the Constitution,
and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted
to that end, whieh are not prohibited, but consist with the letter
and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional."
If the decision in M'Culloch v. Maryland gave vigour to all
Federal power, the decision in Gibbons v. Ogden, by giving the Federal
government control over the means by which interstate and foreign
commerce is carried on, preserved the material prosperity of the
country. The decision recognizes what the framers of the Consti-
tution recognized, namely that the United States is an economic
union, and that business which is national should be under national,
not state, control.
Though for the reasons stated, the four cases mentioned
are the most important of his decisions, the value of his work
as an expounder of the Constitution of the United States is not
to be measured by these cases alone. In all he decided forty-four
cases involving constitutional questions. Nearly every impor-
tant part of the Constitution of the United States as it existed
before the amendments which were adopted after the Civil
\Var. is treated in one or more of them. The Constitution in its
most important aspects is the Constitution as he interpreted it.
He did not work out completely the position of the states in
the Federal system, but he djd grasp and establish the position
of the Federal legislature and the Federal judiciary. To
appreciate his work, however, it is necessary to see that it was
the work not of a statesman but of a judge. Had Marshall
been merely a far-seeing statesman, while most of his important
cases would have been decided as he decided them, his life-
work would have been a failure. It was not only necessary
771
that he should decide great constitutional questions properly,
but also that the people of the United States should be convinced
of the correctness ot his interpretation of the Constitution.
His opinions, therefore, had to carry to those who studied them
a conviction that the constitution as written had been interpreted
according to its evident meaning. They fulfilled this prime
requisite. Their chief characteristic is the cumulative force
of the argument. The ground for the premiss is carefully
prepared, the premiss itself is clearly stated; nearly every
possible objection is examined and answered; and then comes
the conclusion. There is little or no repetition, but there is a
wealth of illustration, a completeness of analysis, that convinces
the reader, not only that the subject has been adequately
treated, but that it has been exhausted. His style, reflecting
his character, suits perfectly the subject matter. Simple in
the best sense of the word, his intellectual processes were so
clear that he never doubted the correctness of the conclusion
to which they led him. Apparently from his own point of
view, he merely indicated the question at issue, and the inexor-
able rules of logic did the rest. Thus his opinions are simple,
clear, dignified. Intensely interesting, the interest is in the
argument, not in its expression. He had, in a wonderful degree,
the power of phrase. He expressed important principles of
law in language which tersely yet clearly conveyed his exact
meaning. Not only is the Constitution interpreted largely
as he taught the people of the United States to interpret it,
but when they wish to express important constitutional prin-
ciples which he enunciated they use his exact words. Again,
his opinions show that he adhered closely to the words of the
Constitution; indeed no one who has attempted to expound
that instrument has confined himself more strictly to an
examination of the text. In the proper, though not in the
historical, sense he was the strictest of strict constructionalists,
and as a result his opinions are practically devoid of theories
of government, sovereignty and the rights of man.
A single illustration of his avoidance of all theory and his adher-
ence to the words of the Constitution will suffice. In the case of the
United States v. Fisher the constitutional question involved was the
power of Congress to give to the United States a preference over all
other creditors in the distribution of the assets of a bankrupt. Such
an act can be upheld on the ground that all governnlents have
necessarily the right to give themselves priority. Not so Marshall.
To him the act must be supported, if supported at all, not on any
theory of the innate nature of the government, national or otherwise,
but as a reasonable means of carrying out one of the express powers
conferred by the Constitution on the Federal government. Thus,
he upholds the act in question because of the power expressly
conferred on'the Federal government to pay the debts of the union,
and as a necessary consequence of this power the right to make
remittances by bills or otherwise and to take precautions which will
render the transactions safe.
It is important to emphasize the fact that Marshall adhered
in his opinions to the Constitution as written, not only because
it is a fact which must be recognized if we are to understand
the correct value of his work in the field of constitutional law,
but also because there exists to-day a popular impression that
by implication he stretched to the utmost the powers of the
Federal government. This impression is due primarily to the
ignorance of many of those who have undertaken to praise
him. During his life he was charged by followers of the
States Rights School of political thought with upholding Federal
power in cases not warranted by the constitution. Later,
however, those who admired a strong national government,
without taking the trouble to ascertain whether the old criticism
by members of the States Rights Party was just, regarded
the assumption on which it was founded as Marshall's best claim
to his country's gratitude.
As a constitutional lawyer, Marshall stands without a rival.
His work on international law and admiralty is of first rank
But though a good, he was not a great, common law or equity
lawyer. In these fields he did not make new law nor clarify
what was obscure, and his constitutional opinions which to-day
are found least satisfactory are those in which the question to be
solved necessarily involves the discussion of some common-law
772
conception, especially those cases in which he was required
to construe the restriction imposed by the Constitution on any
state impairing the obligation of contracts. His decision in
the celebrated case of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, in which
he held that a state could not repeal a charter of a private
corporation, because a charter is a contract which a subsequent
act of the state repealing the charter impairs, though of great
economic importance, does not touch any fundamental question
of constitutional law. The argument which he advances lacks
the clearness and finality for which most of his opinions are
celebrated. It is not certain with whom he thought the contract
was made: with the corporation created by the charter, with the
trustees of the corporation, or with those who had contributed
money to its objects.
Of the wonderful persuasive force of Marshall's personality
there is abundant evidence. His influence over his associates,
already referred to, is but one example though a most impressive
one. From the moment he delivered the opinion in Marbury
v. Madison the legal profession knew that he was a great judge.
Each year added to his reputation and made for a better
appreciation of his intellectual and moral qualities. The bar
of the Supreme Court during his chief-justiceship was the most
brilliant which the United States has ever known. Leaders,
not only of legal, but political thought were among its members;
one, Webster, was a man of genius and commanding position.
To a very great degree Marshall impressed on the members
of this bar and on the profession generally his own ideas of
the correct interpretation of the Constitution and his own love
for the union. He did this, not merely by his arguments but
by the influence which was his by right of his strong, sweet
nature. Statesmen and politicians, great and small, were at
this time, almost without exception, members of the bar. To
influence the political thought of the bar was to a great extent
to influence the political thought of the people.
~ In 1782 he married Mary Willis Ambler, the daughter of
the then treasurer of Virginia. They had ten children, six
of whom grew to full age. For the greater part of the forty-
eight years of their married life Mrs Marshall suffered in-
tensely from a nervous affliction. Her condition called out the
love and sympathy of her husband's deep and affectionate
nature. Judge Story tells us: " That which, in a just sense,
was his highest glory, was the purity, affectionateness, liberality
and devotedness of his domestic life." For the first thirty
years of his chief-justiceship his life was a singularly happy one.
He never had to remain in Washington for more than three
months. During the rest of the year, with the exception of
a visit to Raleigh, which his duties as circuit judge required
him to make, and a visit to his old home in Fauquier county,
he lived in Richmond. His house on Shockhoe Hill is still
standing.
On Christmas Day 1831 his wife died. He never was quite
the same again. On returning from Washington in the spring
of 1835 he suffered severe contusions, from an accident to the
stage coach in which he was riding. His health, which had not
been good, now rapidly declined and in June he returned to
Philadelphia for medical attendance. There he died on the
6th of July. His body, which was taken to Richmond, lies
in Shockhoe Hill Cemetery under a plain marble slab, on which
is a simple inscription written by himself. In addition to his
decisions Marshall wrote a famous biography of George Washing-
ton (5 vols., 1804-1807; and ed., 2 vols., 1832), which though
prepared hastily contains much material of value.
The principal sources of information are: an essay by James B.
Thayer (Boston and New York, 1904); Great American Lawyers
(Philadelphia, 1908), ii. 313-408, an essay by Wm. Draper Lewis;
and Allan B. Magruder, John Marshall (Boston, 1885), in the " Ameri-
can Statesmen Series." The addresses delivered on Marshall Day, the
dth of February 1901, are collected by John F. Dillon (Chicago, 1903).
In the " Appendix " to Dillon's collection will be found the " Dis-
course " by Joseph Story and the " Eulogy " by Horace Binney,
both delivered soon after Marshall's death. For a study of Marshall's
decisions, the Constitutional Decisions of John Marshall, edited
by Joseph P. Collon, Jr. (New York and London, 1905), is of value.
(W. D. L.)
MARSHALL, J. MARSHALL
MARSHALL, JOHN (1818-1891), British surgeon and physiolo-
gist, was born at Ely, on the nth of September 1818, his father
being a lawyer of that city. He entered University College,
London, in 1838, and in 1847 he was appointed assistant-surgeon
at the hospital, becoming in 1866 surgeon and professor of
surgery. He was professor of anatomy at the Royal Academy
from 1873 till his death. In 1883 he was president of the
College of Surgeons, also Bradshaw lecturer (on "-Nerve-
stretching for the relief or cure of pain "), Hunterian orator in
1885, and Morton lecturer in 1889. In 1867 he published his
well-known textbook The Outlines of Physiology in two volumes.
He died on the ist of January 1891. " Marshall's fame,"
wrote Sir W. MacCormac in his volume on the Centenary of the
College of Surgeons (1900), " rests on the great ability with which
he taught anatomy in relation to art, on the introduction into
modern surgery of the galvano-cautery, and on the operation
for the excision of varicose veins. He was one of the first to
show that cholera might be spread by means of drinking water,
and issued a report on the outbreak of cholera in Broad Street,
St James's, 1854. He also invented the system of circular
wards for hospitals, and to him are largely owing the details
of the modern medical student's education."
MARSHALL, STEPHEN (c. 1594-1655), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Godmanchester in Huntingdonshire, and
was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (M.A. 1622,
B.D. 1629). After holding the living of Wethersfield in Essex
he became vicar of Finchingfield in the same county, and in
1636 was reported for " want of conformity." He was a
preacher of great power, and influenced the elections for the
Short Parliament of 1640. Clarendon esteemed his influence
on the parliamentary side greater than that of Laud on the
royalist. In 1642 he was appointed lecturer at St Margaret's,
Westminster, and delivered a series of addresses to the Commons
in which he advocated episcopal and liturgical reform. He had
a share in writing Smectymnuus, was appointed chaplain to the
earl of Essex's regiment in 1642, and a member of the Westminster
Assembly in 1643. He represented the English Parliament in
Scotland in 1643, and attended the parliamentary commissions
at the Uxbridge Conference in 1645. He waited on Archbishop
Laud before his execution, and was chaplain to Charles I. at
Holmby House and at Carisbrooke. A moderate and judicious
presbyterian, he prepared with others the " Shorter Catechism "
in 1647, and was one of the " Triers," 1654. He died in November
1655 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, but his body was
exhumed and maltreated at the Restoration. His sermons,
especially that on the death of John Pym in 1643, reveal eloquence
and fervour. The only " systematic " work he published was
A Defence of Infant Baptism, against John Tombes (London,
1646).
MARSHALL, a city and the county-seat of Saline county,
Missouri, U.S.A., situated a little W. of the centre of the state,
near the Salt Fork of the La Mine River. Pop. (1890), 4297;
(1900), 5086 (208 being foreign-born and 98 negroes); (1910)
4869. It is served by the Missouri Pacific and the Chicago
& Alton railways. The city is laid out regularly on a high,
undulating prairie. It is the seat of Missouri Valley College
(opened 1889; coeducational), which was established by the
Cumberland Presbyterian church, and includes a preparatory
department and a conservatory of music. The court-house
(1883), a Roman Catholic convent and a high school (19?)
are the principal buildings. The Missouri colony for the
feeble-minded and epileptic (1899) is ( at Marshall. The
principal trade is with the , surrounding farming country.
The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Marshall
was first settled and was made the county seat in 1839; ft
became a town in 1866 (re-incorporated 1870) and a city in
1878.
MARSHALL, a city and the county-seat of Harrison county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 145 m. E. by S. of Dallas. Pop. (1890),
7207; (1900) 7855 (3769 negroes); (1910) n,4S 2 - Marshall is
served by the Texas & Pacific and the Marshall & East Texas
railways, which have large shops here. Wiley University was
MARSHALL ISLANDS MARSH GAS
773
founded in 1873 by the Freedman's Aid Society of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, and Bishop College, was founded in 1881
by the American Baptist Home Mission Society and incorporated
in 1885. Marshall is situated in a region growing cotton and
Indian corn, vegetables, small fruits and sugar-cane; in the
surrounding country there are valuable forests of pine, oak and
gum. In the vicinity of the city there are several lakes (including
Caddo Lake) and springs (including Hynson and Rosborough
springs). The city has a cotton compress, and among its manu-
factures are cotton-seed oil, lumber, ice, foundry products
and canned goods. The municipality owns and operates the
waterworks. Marshall was first settled in 1842, was incorporated
in 1843, and received a city charter in 1848; in 1909 it adopted
the commission form of government.
MARSHALL ISLANDS, an island group in the western Pacific
Ocean (Micronesia) belonging to Germany. The group consists
of a number of atolls ranged in two almost parallel lines, which
run from N.W. to S.E. between 4 and 15 N. and 161 and
174 E. The north-east line, with fifteen islands, is called
Ratak, the other, numbering eighteen, Ralik. These atolls
are of coralline formation and of irregular shape. They rise
but little above high-water mark. The highest elevation occurs
on the island of Likieb, but is only 33 ft. The lagoon is scarcely
more than 150 ft. deep and is accessible through numerous
breaks in the reef. On the outward side the shore sinks rapidly
to a great depth. The surface of the atolls is covered with
sand, except in a few places where it has been turned into soil
through the admixture of decayed vegetation. The reef in
scarcely any jnstance exceeds 600 ft. in width.
The climate is moist and hot, the mean temperature being
80-50 F. Easterly winds prevail all the year round. There
is no difference between the seasons, which, though the islands
belong to the northern hemisphere, have the highest temperature
in January and the lowest in July. Vegetation, on the whole,
is very poor. There are many coco-nut palms, bread-fruit
trees (Artocarpus incisa), various kinds of bananas, yams and
taro, and pandanus, of which the natives eat the seeds. From
the bark of another plant they manufacture mats. There are
few animals. Cattle do not thrive, and even poultry are scarce.
Pigs, cats, dogs and rats have been imported. There are a few
pigeons and aquatic birds, butterflies and beetles. Crustacea
and fish abound on the reefs.
The natives are Micronesians of a dark brown colour, though
lighter shades occur. Their hair is not woolly but straight and
long. They practise tattooing, and show Papuan influence
by distending the ear-lobes by the insertion of wooden disks.
They are expert navigators, and construct curious charts of
thin strips of wood tied together with fibres, some giving the
position of the islands and some the direction of the prevailing
winds. Their canoes carry sails and are made of the trunk
of the bread-fruit tree. The people are divided into four classes,
of which only two are allowed to own land. The islands lie
entirely within the German sphere of interest, and the boundaries
were agreed upon between Great Britain and Germany on the
xoth of April 1889. Their area is estimated at 160 sq. m.,
with 15,000 inhabitants, who are apparently increasing, though
the contrary was long believed. All but about 250 are natives.
The administrator of the islands is the governor of German
New Guinea, but a number of officials reside on the islands.
There is no military force, the natives being of peaceful disposi-
tion. The chief island and seat of government is Jaluit. The
most populous island is Majeru, with 1600 inhabitants. The
natives are generally pagans, but a Roman Catholic mission
has been established, and the American Mission Board maintains
coloured teachers on many of the islands. There is com-
munication with Sydney by private steamer, and a steamer
sails between Jaluit and Ponape to connect with the French
boats for Singapore. The chief products for export are copra,
tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, sharks' fins and trepang. The
natives are clever boat-builders, and find a market for their
canoes on neighbouring islands. They have made such progress
in their art that they have even built seaworthy little schooners
of 30 to 40 tons. The only other articles they make are a few
shell ornaments.
The Marshall Islands may have been visited by Alvaro de
Saavedra in 1529, Captain Wallis touched at the group in 1767,
and in 1788 Captains Marshall and Gilbert explored it. The
Germans made a treaty with the chieftains of Jaluit in 1878
and annexed the group in 1885-1886.
See C. Hager, Die Marshall- Inseln (Leipzig, 1886); Steinbach and
Grosser, Wiirlerbuch der Marshall-Sprache (Hamburg, 1902).
MARSHALLTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Marshall
county, Iowa, U.S.A., near the Iowa River and about 60 m.
N.E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890), 8914; (1000), 11,544, of
whom 1590 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,374. Mar-
shalltown is served by the Chicago & North- Western, the
Chicago Great Western, and the Iowa Central railways, the
last of which has machine shops here. At Marshalltown are
the Iowa soldiers' home, supported in part by the Federal
Government, and St. Mary's institute, a Roman Catholic
commercial and business school. The city is situated in a
rich agricultural region, and is a market for grain, neat cattle,
horses and swine. There are miscellaneous manufactures,
a"nd in 1905 the factory product was valued at $3,090,312.
The municipality owns and operates its waterworks and its
electric-lighting plant. Marshalltown, named in honour of
Chief Justice John Marshall, was laid out in 1853, and became
the county-seat in 1860. It was incorporated as a town in
1863, and was chartered as a city in 1868.
MARSHALSEA, a prison formerly existing in Southwark,
London. It was attached to the court of that name held by
the steward and marshal of the king's house (see LORD STEWARD
and MARSHAL). The date of its first establishment is unknown,
but it existed as early as the reign of Edward III. It was
consolidated in 1842 with the queen's bench and the Fleet,
and was then described as " a prison for debtors and for persons
charged with contempt of Her Majesty's courts of the Marshalsea,
the court of the queen's palace of Westminster, and the high
court of admiralty, and also for admiralty prisoners under
sentence of courts martial." It was abolished in 1849. The
Marshalsea Prison is described in Charles Dickens' Little Dorrit^
MARSHBUCK, a book-name proposed for such of the African
bushbucks or harnessed antelopes as have abnormally long
hoofs to support them in walking on marshy or swampy ground.
(See BUSHBUCK and ANTELOPE.)
MARSHFIELD, a city of Wood county, Wisconsin, about 165
m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3450; (1900), 5240, of
whom 1161 were foreign-born; (1905) 6036; (1910) 5783. It
is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, St
Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, and the Minneapolis, St Paul &
Sault Ste Marie railways. It contains the mother-house of
the Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother. Lumbering is the most
important industry, and there are various manufactures. The
city is situated in a clover region, in which dairying is important,
and Guernsey and Holstein-Friesland cattle are raised. The
municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the
electric-lighting plant. The site of Marshfield was part of a
tract granted by the Federal government to the Fox River
Improvement Company, organized to construct a waterway
between the Mississippi river and Green Bay, and among the
original owners of the town site were Samuel Marsh of Massachu-
setts (in whose honour the place was named) and Horatio
Seymour, Ezra Cornell, Erastus Corning, and William A. Butler
of New York. Marshfield was settled about 1870, and was first
chartered as a city in 1883.
MARSH GAS (methane), CH4, the first member of the series
of paraffin hydrocarbons. It occurs as a constituent of the
" fire-damp " of coal-mines, in the gases evolved from volcanoes,
and in the gases which arise in marshy districts (due to the
decomposition of vegetable matter under the surface of water).
It is found associated with petroleum and also in human intes-
tinal gases. It is a product of the destructive distillation of
complex organic matter (wood, coal, bituminous shale, &c.),
forming in this way from 30 to 40% of ordinary illuminating
774
MARSHMAN MARSIGLI
gas. It may be synthetically obtained by passing a mixture of
the vapour of carbon bisulphide with sulphuretted hydrogen over
red-hot copper (M. Berthelot, Comptes rendus, 1856, 43, p. 236),
CS 2 + 2H 2 S + 8Cu = 4Cu 2 S + CIL.; by passing a mixture of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide over reduced nickel at 200-250
C., or hydrogen and carbon dioxide at 230-300 C. (P. Sabatier
and J. B. Senderens, Comptes rendus, 1902, 134, pp. 514, 689);
by the decomposition of aluminium carbide with water [H.
Moissan, Bull. Soc. Ckim., 1894, (3) n, p. 1012]; and by heating
phosphonium iodide with carbon bisulphide in a sealed tube
to 120-140 C. (H. Jahn, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 127). It is also
obtained by the reduction of many methyl compounds with
nascent hydrogen; thus methyl iodide dissolved in methyl
alcohol readily yields methane when acted on by the zinc-copper
couple (J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe, Jour. Ghent. Soc.,
1884, 45, p. 156) or by the aluminium-mercury couple. It may
be obtained in an indirect manner from methyl iodide by
conversion of this compound into zinc methyl, or into magne-
sium methyl iodide (formed by the action of magnesium on
methyl iodide dissolved in anhydrous ether), and decomposing
these latter substances with water (E. Frankland, 1856; V.
Grignard, 1900),
Zn(CH,) 2 -|-H 2 O=2CH+ZnO;2CHsM g I+H 2 O=2CH 4 +Mgl2-fMgO.
In the laboratory it is usually prepared by J. B. A. Dumas'
method (Ann., 1840, 33, p. 181), which consists in heating an-
hydrous sodium acetate with soda lime, CHaCO 2 Na + NaOH =
Na2COs + CIL.. The product obtained by this method is not
pure, containing generally more or less ethylene and hydrogen.
Methane is a colourless gas of specific gravity 0-559 (air = i).
It may be condensed to a colourless liquid at -155 to -160 C.
under atmospheric pressure (S. Wroblewsky, Comptes rendus,
1884, 99, p. 136). It boils at -162 C. and freezes at -i86C. Its
critical temperature is -99-5 C. (J. Dewar). The gas is almost
insoluble in water, but is slightly soluble in alcohol. It decom-
poses into its constituents when passed through a red-hot tube,
small quantities of other hydrocarbons (ethane, ethylene,
acetylene, benzene, &c.) being formed at the same time. It
burns with a pale flame, and when mixed with air or oxygen
forms a highly explosive mixture. W. A. Bone (Jour. Chem.
Soc., i<)02, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074) has shown that in the
oxidation of methane by oxygen at 450-500 C. formaldehyde
(or possibly methyl alcohol) is formed as an intermediate product,
and is ultimately oxidized to carbon dioxide. Methane is an
exceedingly stable gas, being unaffected by the action of chromic
acid, nitric acid, or a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids.
Chlorine and bromine, however, react with methane, gradually
replacing hydrogen and forming chlor- and brom- substitution
products.
MARSHMAN, JOSHUA (1768-1837), English Baptist mission-
ary and orientalist, was born on the zoth of April 1768, at
Westbury Leigh, in Wiltshire. He followed the occupation
of a weaver until 1794, but having meanwhile devoted himself
to study he removed to Broadmead, Bristol, to take charge of
a small school. In 1799 he was sent by the Baptist Missionary
Society to join their mission at Serampur. Here, in addition
to his more special duties, he studied Bengali and Sanskrit, and
afterwards Chinese. He translated the Bible into various
dialects, and, aided by his son, established newspapers and
founded Serampur College. He received the degree of D.D.
from Brown University, U.S.A., in 1810. He died at Serampur
on the 5th of December 1837. His son, John Clark Marshman
(1794-1877), was official Bengali translator; he published a
Guide to the Civil Law which, before the work of Macaulay, was
the civil code of India, and wrote a History of India (1842).
Marshman translated into Chinese the book of Genesis, .the Gospels,
and the Epistles of Paul to the Romans and the Corinthians; in 1811
he published The Works of Confucius, containing the Original Text,
with a Translation, and in 1814 his Clavis Sinica. He was also the
author of Elements of Chinese Grammar, with Preliminary Dissertation
on the Characters and Colloquial Mediums of the Chinese, and was
associated with W. Carey in the preparation of a Sanskrit grammar
and of a Bengali-English dictionary.
See J. C. Marshman, Life arid Times of Carey, Marshman and
Ward (2 vols., 1859).
MARSI, an ancient people of Italy, whose chief centre was
Marruvium, on the eastern shore of Lake Fucinus. They are
irst mentioned as members of a confederacy with the Vestini,
Paeligni and Marrucini (Liv. viii. 29, cf. viii. 6, and Polyb. ii. 24,
12). They joined the Samnitesin3o8B.c. (Liv. ix. 41), and on their
submission became allies of Rome in 304 B.C. (Liv. ix. 45). After
a short-lived revolt two years later, for which they were punished
by loss of territory (Liv. x. 3), they were readmitted to the Roman
alliance and remained faithful down to the social war, their
contingent (e.g. Liv. xliv. 46) being always regarded as the flower
of the Italian forces (e.g. Hor. Od. ii. 20, 18). In this war,
which, owing to the prominence of the Marsian rebels is often
known as the Marsic War, they fought bravely against odds
under their leader Q. Pompaedius Silo, and, though they were
frequently defeated, the result of the war was the enfranchisement
of the allies (see ROME: History, " The Republic ") The Marsi
were a hardy mountain people, famed for their simple habits
and indomitable courage. It was said that the Romans had
never triumphed over them or without them (Appian). They
were also renowned for their magicians, who had strange
remedies for various diseases.
The Latin colony of Alba Fucens near the north-west corner
of the lake was founded in the adjoining Aequian territory in
303, so that from the beginning of the 3rd century the Marsians
were in touch with a Latin-speaking community, to say nothing
of the Latin colony of Carsioli (298 B.C.) farther west. The
earliest pure Latin inscriptions of the district seem to be C.I.L.
ix. 3827 and 3848 from the neighbourhood of Supinum; its
character generally is of the Gracchan period, though it might
be somewhat earlier.
Mommsen (Unteritalische Dialekten, p. 345) pointed out that
in the social war all the coins of Pompaedius Silo have the Latin
legend " Italia," while the other leaders in all but one case used
Oscan.
The chief record of the dialect or patois we owe to the goddess
Angitia, whose chief temple and grove stood at the south-west
corner of Lake Fucinus, near the inlet to the emissarius of
Claudius (restored by Prince Torlonia), and the modern village
of Luco. She (or they, for the name is in the plural in the Latin
inscription next cited) was widely worshipped in the central
highlands (Sulmo, C.I.L. ix. 3074, Furfo Vestinorum, ibid. 3515)
as a goddess of healing, especially skilled to cure serpent bites by
charms and the herbs of the Marsian woods. Her worshippers
naturally practised the same arts as their descendants do (see
A. de Nino's charming collection of Usi e costumi abruzzesi),
their country being in Rome counted the home of witchcraft; see
Hor. Sat. i, 9, 29, Epod. 17, 28, &c.
The earliest local inscriptions date from about 300 to 150 B.C.
and include the interesting and difficult bronze of Lake Fucinus,
which seems to record a votive offering to Angitia, if A(n)ctia,
as is probable, was the local form of her name. Their language
differs very slightly from Roman Latin of that date; for appar-
ently contracted forms like Fougno instead of Fucino may really
only be a matter of spelling. In final syllables the diphthongs at,
ei, oi, all appear as e. On the other hand, the older form of the
name of the tribe (dat. plur. Martses = Lat. Marliis) shows its
derivation and exhibits the assibilation of -/to- into 'tso- proper
to many Oscan dialects (see OSCA LINGUA) but strange to classical
Latin.
See R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 290 seq. (from which some
portions of this article are taken by permission of the syndics of the
Camb. Univ. Press); on the Fucino-Bronze, ib. p. 294. (R. S. C.)
MARSIGLI [Latinized MARSILIUS], LUIGI FERDINANDO,
COUNT (1658-1730), Italian soldier and scientific writer, was
born at Bologna on the roth of July 1658. After a course of
scientific studies in his native city he travelled through Turkey
collecting data on the military organization of that empire, as
well as on its natural history. On his return he entered the ser-
vice of the emperor Leopold (1682) and fought with distinction
against the Turks, by whom he was wounded and captured in an
MARSILIUS OF PADUA
775
action on the river Raab, and sold to a pasha whom he accom-
panied to the siege of Vienna. His release was purchased in 1684,
and he afterwards took part in the war of the Spanish succession.
In 1703 he was appointed second in command under Count
Arco in the defence of Alt-Breisach. The fortress surrendered
to the duke of Burgundy, and both Arco and Marsigli were
court martialled; the former was condemned to death and the
latter cashiered, although acquitted of blame by public opinion.
Having thus been forced to give up soldiering, he devoted the
rest of his life to scientific investigations, in the pursuit of which
he made many journeys through Europe, spending a considerable
time at Marseilles to study the nature of the sea. In 1712 he
presented his collections to his native city, where they formed the
nucleus of the Bologna Institute of Science and Art. He died
at Bologna on the ist of November 1730. Marsigli was a fellow
of the London Royal Society and a member of the Paris Academy
of Science.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A list of his works, over twenty in number, is
given in Niceron's Memoirs; his Breve ristretto del saggio fisico intorno
alia storia del mare was published at Venice in 1711, and again at
Amsterdam (in French) in 1725; the Stato militare dell' impero
otlomano was published at Amsterdam and the Hague in Italian and
French (1732), the Osservazioni intorno al Bosforo Tracio in Rome
(1681) and the Danubius pannonico-mysicus, a large work in six
volumes containing much valuable historic and scientific information
on the Danubian countries, at the Hague (1725). See Fontenelle,
" Eloge " in the Mem. de Vacad. des sciences (Paris, 1730); Quincy,
Memoires sur la vie de M. le cpmte Marsigli (Zurich, 1741), and
Fantuzzi's biography of Marsigli (Bologna, 1770).
MARSILIUS OF PADUA [MARSIGLIO MAINARDINO] (1270-
1342), Italian medieval scholar, was born at Padua, and at first
studied medicine in his own country. After practising various
professions, among others that of a soldier, he went to Paris
about 131 1. The reputation which he had gained in the physical
sciences soon caused him to be raised to the position of rector
of the university (for the first term of the year 1313). While
still practising medicine he entered into relations with another
master of Paris, the philosopher John of Jandun, who collabo-
rated with him in the composition of the famous Defensor pads
(1324), one of the most extraordinary political and religious works
which appeared during the i4th century. A violent struggle
had just broken out between pope John XXII. and Louis of
Bavaria, king of the Romans, and the latter, on being excom-
municated and called upon to give up the empire, only replied
to the pope's threats with fresh provocations. Marsilius of
Padua and John of Jandun, though they had both reason to be
grateful for the benefits of John XXII., chose this moment to
demonstrate, by plausible arguments, the supremacy of the
Empire, its independence of the Holy See, and the emptiness
of the prerogatives " usurped " by the sovereign pontiffs a
demonstration naturally calculated to give them a claim on the
gratitude of the German sovereign.
The Defensor pads, as its name implies, is a work intended to
restore peace, as the most indispensable benefit of human society.
The author of the law is the people, i.e. the whole body, or at
least the most important part (valentior) of the citizens; the
people should themselves elect, or at least appoint, the head of
the government, who, lest he should be tempted to put himself
above the scope of the laws, should have at his disposal only a
limited armed force. This chief is responsible to the people for
his breaches of the law, and in serious cases they can condemn
him to death. The real cause of the trouble which prevails
among men is the papacy, a " fictitious " power, the develop-
ment of which is the result of a series of usurpations. Marsilius
denies, not only to the pope, but to the bishops and clergy, any
coercive jurisdiction or any right to pronounce on their own
authority excommunications and interdicts, or in any way to
impose the observation of the divine law. He is not opposed to
penalties against heretics, but he would have them pronounced
only by civil tribunals. Desiring to see the clergy practise a holy
poverty, he proposes the suppression of tithes and the seizure
by the secular power of the greater part of the property of the
church. The clergy, thus deprived of its wealth, privileges
and jurisdiction, is further to be deprived of independence, for
the civil power is to have the right of appointing to benefices,
&c. The supreme authority in the church is to be the council,
but a council summoned by the emperor. The pope, no longer
possessing any more power than other bishops (though Marsilius
recognizes that the supremacy of the Church of Rome goes back
to the earliest times of Christianity), is to content himself with a
pre-eminence mainly of an honorary kind, without claiming
to interpret the Holy Scriptures, define dogmas or distribute
benefices; moreover, he is to be elected by the Christian people,
or by the delegates of the people, i.e. the princes, or by the
council, and these are also to have the power to punish, suspend
or depose him. Such is this famous work, full of obscurities,
redundancies and contradictions, in which the thread of the
argument is sometimes lost in a labyrinth of reasonings and
citations, both sacred and profane, but which nevertheless
expresses, both in religion and politics, such audacious and novel
ideas that it has been possible to trace in it, as it were, a rough
sketch of the doctrines developed during the periods of the
Reformation and of the French Revolution. The theory was
purely democratic, but was all ready to be transformed, by means
of a series of fictions and implications, into an imperialist doctrine;
and in like manner it contained a visionary plan of reformation
which ended, not in the separation of the church from the state,
but in the subjection of the church to the state. To overthrow
the ecclesiastical hierarchy, to deprive the clergy of all their
privileges, to reduce the pope to the rank of a kind of president
of a Christian republic, which governs itself, or rather submits
to the government of Caesar such is the dream formed in 1324
by two masters of the university of Paris.
When in 1326 Louis of Bavaria saw the arrival in Nuremberg
of the two authors of the book dedicated to him, startled by
the boldness of their political and religious theories, he was at
first inclined to treat them as heretics. He soon changed his
mind, however, and, admitting them to the circle of his intimates,
loaded them with favours. Having become one of the chief
inspirers of the imperial policy, Marsilius accompanied Louis
of Bavaria to Italy, where he preached or circulated written
attacks against the pope, especially at Milan, and where he came
within the sight of the realization of his wildest Utopias. To see
a king of the Romans crowned emperor at Rome, not by the
pope, but by those who claimed to be the delegates of the people
(Jan. 17, 1328), to see John XXII. deposed by the head
of the Empire (April 18), and a mendicant friar, Pietro de
Corbara, raised by an imperial decree to the throne of St Peter
(as Nicholas V.) after a sham of a popular election (May 12),
all this was merely the application of principles laid down in the
Defensor pads. The two authors of this book played a most
active part in the Roman Revolution. Marsilius, appointed
imperial vicar, abused his power to persecute the clergy who had
remained faithful to John XXII. In recompense for his services,
he seems to have been appointed archbishop of Milan, while his
collaborator, John of Jandun, obtained from Louis of Bavaria
the bishopric of Ferrara.
Marsilius of Padua also composed a treatise De translation
imperil romani, which is merely a rearrangement of a work of
Landolfo Colonna, De jurisdiclione imperatoris in causa matri-
moniali, intended to prove the exclusive jurisdiction of the
emperor in matrimonial affairs, or rather, to justify the inter-
vention of Louis of Bavaria, who, in the interests of his policy,
had just annulled the marriage of the son of the king of Bohemia
and the countess of Tirol. But, above all, in an unpublished
work preserved at Oxford, the Defensor minor, Marsilius com-
pleted and elaborated in a curious manner certain points in the
doctrine laid down in the Defensor pads. In it he deals with
ecclesiastical jurisdiction, penances, indulgences, crusades and
pilgrimages, vows, excommunication, the pope and the council,
marriage and divorce. Here his democratic theory still more
clearly leads up to a proclamation of the imperial omnipotence.
Marsilius of Padua does not seem to have lived long after 1342.
But the scandal provoked by his Defensor pads, condemned by
the court of Avignon in 1326, lasted much longer. Benedict
XII. and Clement VI. censured it in turn; Louis of Bavaria
776
MARSIVAN MARSTON, J.
disowned it. Translated into French, then into Italian (i4th
century) and into English (i6th century), it was known by
Wycliffe and Luther, and was not without an influence on the
Reform movement.
See J. Sullivan, American Historical Review, vol. ii. (1896^-1897),
and English Historical Review for April 1905; Histoire litter -aire
de la France (1906), xxxiii. 528-623; Sigmund Riezler, Die literari-
schen Widersacher der Pdpste zur Zeit Ludwig des Baiers (Leipzig,
1874).
There are numerous manuscripts of the Defensor pacis extant.
We will here mention only one edition, that given by Goldast, in
1614, in vol. i. of his Monarchia sacri imperii; an unpublished
last chapter was published by Karl Muller, in 1883, in the Gottin-
gische gelehrte Anzeigen, pp. 923-925.
Count Ltitzow in The Life and Times of Master John Hus (London
and New York, 1909), pp. 5-9, gives a good abstract of the Defensor
pacis and the relations of Marsilius to other precursors of the
Reformation.
(N. V.)
MARSIVAN, or MERZIFUN (anc. Phazemon?), a town in the
Amasia sanjak of the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor, situated at
the foot of the Tavshan Dagh. Pop. about 20,000, two-thirds
Mussulman. It is a centre of American missionary and educa-
tional enterprise, and the seat of Anatolia College, a theological
seminary, and schools which were partly destroyed in the anti-
Armenian riots of 1893 and 1895. There is also a Jesuit school.
Marsivan is an unusually European place both in its aspect and
the commodities procurable in the bazaar.
MARS-LA-TOUR, a village of Lorraine, between Metz and the
French frontier, which formed part of the battlefield of the i6th
of August 1870. The battle is often called the battle of Mars-
la-Tour, though it is more usually named after Vionville. (See
Metz; and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.) At Mars-la-Tour occurred
the destruction of the German 38th brigade.
MARSTON, JOHN (c. 1575-1634), English dramatist and
satirist, eldest son of John Marston of Coventry, at one time
lecturer of the Middle Temple, was born in 1575, or early in 1576.
Swinburne notes his affinities with Italian literature, which may
be partially explained by his parentage, for his mother was the
daughter of an Italian physician, Andrew Guarsi. He entered
Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1592, taking his B.A. degree in
1594. The elder Marston in his will expresses regret that his
son, to whom he left his law-books and the furniture of his rooms
in the Temple, had not been willing to follow his profession.
John Marston married Mary Wilkes, daughter of one of the
royal chaplains, and Ben Jonson said that " Marston wrote his
father-in-law's preachings, and his father-in-law his sermons."
His first work was The Metamorphosis of Pigmalions Image,
and certaine Satyres (1598). " Pigmalion " is an erotic poem
in the metre of Venus and Adonis, and Joseph Hall attached a
rather clumsy epigram to every copy that was exposed for sale
in Cambridge. In the same year Marston published, under the
pseudonym of W. Kinsayder, already employed in the earlier
volume, his Scourge of Villanie, eleven satires, in the sixth of
which he asserted that Pigmalion was intended to paiody the
amorous poetry of the time. Both this volume and its predeces-
sor -were burnt by order of the archbishop of Canterbury. The
satires, in which Marston avowedly took Persius as his model,
are coarse and vigorous. In addition to a general attack on the
vices of his age he avenges himself on Joseph Hall who had
assailed him in Virgidemiae. He had a great reputation among
his contemporaries. John Weever couples his name with Ben
Jonson's in an epigram; Francis Meres in Palladis lamia (1598)
mentions him among the satirists; a long passage is devoted to
" Monsieur Kinsayder " in the Return from Parnassus (1606),
and Dr Brinsley Nicholson has suggested that Furor poeticus
in that piece may be a satirical portrait of him. But his invective
by its general tone, goes far to justify Mr W. J. Courthope's *
judgment that " it is likely enough that in seeming to satirize
the world without him, he is usually holding up the mirror to his
own prurient mind."
On the 28th of September 1599 Henslowe notices in his diary
that he lent " unto Mr Maxton, the new poete, the sum of forty
shillings," as an advance on a play which is not named. Another
1 Hist, of Eng. Poetry, iii. 70.
hand has amended " Maxton " to " Mastone." The earliest
plays to which Marston's name is attached are The History of
Antonio and Mellida. The First Part; and Antonio's Revenge.
The Second Part (both entered at Stationers' Hall in 1601 and
printed 1602). The second part is preceded by a prologue which,
in its gloomy forecast of the play, moved the admiration of
Charles Lamb, who also compares the situation of Andrugio and
Lucia to Lear and Kent, but the scene which he quotes gives a
misleading idea of the play and of the general tenor of Marston's
work.
The melodrama and the exaggerated expression of these two
plays offered an opportunity to Ben Jonson, who had already
twice ridiculed Marston, and now pilloried him as Crispinus in
The Poetaster (1601). The quarrel was patched up, for Marston
dedicated his Malcontent (1604) to Jonson, and in the next year
he prefixed commendatory verses to Sejanus. Far greater
restraint is shown iu The Malcontent than in the earlier plays.
It was printed twice in 1604, the second time with additions by
John Webster. The Dutch Courtezan (1605) and Parasilaster,
or the Fawne (1606) followed. In 1605 Eastward Hoe* a gay
comedy of London life, which gave offence to the king's Scottish
friends, caused the playwrights concerned in its production
Marston, Chapman and Jonson to be imprisoned at the instance
of Sir James Murray. The Wonder of Women, or the Tragedie of
Sophonisba (1606), seems to have been put forward by Marston
as a model of what could be accomplished in tragedy. In the
preface he mocks at those authors who make a parade of their
authorities and their learning, and the next play, What you Witt
(printed 1607; but probably written much earlier), contains a
further attack on Jonson. The tragedy of The Insatiate
Countesse was printed in 1613, and again, this time anonymously,
in 1616. It was not included in the collected edition of Marston's
plays in 1633, and in the Duke of Devonshire's library there is
a copy bearing the name of William Barksteed, the author of
the poems, Myrrha, the Mother of Adonis (1607), and Hiren and
the Fair Greek (1611). The piece contains many passages
superior to anything to be found in Marston's well-authenticated
plays, and Mr A. H. Bullen suggests that it may be Barksteed's
version of an earlier one drafted by Marston. The character
and history of Isabella are taken chiefly from " The Disordered
Lyfe of the Countess of Celant " in William Paynter's Palace
of Pleasure, derived eventually from Bandello. There is no
certain evidence of Marston's authorship in Histriomaslix
(printed 1610, but probably produced before 1599), or in Jacke
Drums Entertainement, or the Comedie of Pasquil and Kalherine
(1616), though he probably had a hand in both. Mr R. Boyle
(Englische Sludien, vol. xxx., 1901), in a critical study of Shake-
speare's Troiltis and Cressida, assigns to Marston's hand the
whole of the action dealing with Hector, with the prologue and
epilogue, and attributes to him the bombast and coarseness in
the last scenes of the play. It will be seen that his undoubted
dramatic work was completed in 1607. It is uncertain at
what time he exchanged professions, but in 1616 he was presented
to the living of Christchurch, Hampshire. He formally resigned
his charge in 1631, and when his works were collected in 1633
the publisher, William Sheares, stated that the author " in his
autumn and declining age " was living " far distant from this
place." Nevertheless he died in London, in the parish of Alder-
manbury, on the 25th of June 1634. He was buried in the
Temple Church.
Marston's works were first published in 1633, once anonymously
as Tragedies and Comedies, and then in the same year as Workes
of Mr John Marston. The Works of John Marston (3 vols.) were
reprinted by Mr J. O. Halliwell (Phillipps) in 1856, and again by
Mr. A. H. Bullen (3 vols.) in 1887. His .Poems (2 vols.) were edited by
Dr A. B. Grosart in 1879. The British Museum Catalogue tenta-
tively assigns to Marston The Whipper of the Satyre his pennance in a
white sheete; or, the Beadle's Confutation (1601), a pamphlet in answer
to The Whipping of the Satyre. For an account of the quarrel of
Dekker and Marston with Ben Jonson see Dr R. A. Small, The
2 Revived at Drury Lane (1751) as The Prentices, in 1775 as Old
City Manners, -and said to have suggested Hogarth's " Industrious
and Idle Prentices."
MARSTON, P. B. MARSTON MOOR
777
i;
Stage Quarrel between Ben Jonson and the so-called Poetasters; in
E. Koelbing, Forschungen zur englischen Sprache und Litteratur,
it. i. (1899). See also three articles John Marston als Dramatiker,
uy Ph. Aronstein in Englische Studien (vols. xx. and xxi., 1895), and
" Quellcnstudien zu den IJramen Ben Jonsons, John Marstons ..."
by Emil Koeppel (Munchener Beitrdge zur roman. und engl.
Philologie, pt. xi. 1895).
MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE (1850-1887), English poet, was
born in London on the i3th of August 1850. His father, JOHN
WESTLAND MARSTON (1819-1890), of Lincolnshire origin, the
friend of Dickens, Macready and Charles Kean, was the author of
a series of metrical dramas which held the stage in succession
to the ambitious efforts of John Tobin, Talfourd, Bulwer and
Sheridan Knowles. His chief plays were The Patrician's
Daughter (i84i),Strathmore (1849), A Hard Struggle (1858) and
Donna Diana (1863). He was looked up to as the upholder of
the outworn tradition of the acted poetic drama, but his plays
showed little vitality, and Marston's reviews for the Athenaeum,
including one of Swinburne's Atalanta in Calydon, and his
dramatic criticisms embodied in Our Recent Actors (1888) will
probably claim a more enduring reputation. His Dramatic and
Poetical Works were collected in 1876. The son, Philip Bourke,
was born in a literary atmosphere. His sponsors were Philip
James Bailey and Dinah Mulock (Mrs Craik). At his father's
house near Chalk Farm he met authors and actors of his father's
generation, and subsequently the Rossettis, Swinburne, Arthur
O'Shaughnessy and Irving. From his earliest years his literary
precocity was overshadowed by misfortunes. In his fourth year,
in part owing to an accident, his sight began to decay, and he
gradually became almost totally blind. His mother died in 1870.
Hisjiancte, Mary Nesbit, died in 1871; his closest friend, Oliver
Madox Brown, in 1874; his sister Cicely, his amanuensis, in
1878; in 1879 his remaining sister, Eleanor, who was followed
to the grave after a brief interval by her husband, the
poet O'Shaughnessy, and her two children. In 1882 the death
of his chief poetic ally and inspirer, Rossetti, was followed
closely by the tragedy of another kindred spirit, the sympa-
thetic pessimist, James Thomson (" B. V."), who was carried
dying from his blind friend's rooms, where he had sought
refuge from his latest miseries early in June of the same year.
It is said that Marston came to dread making new friendships,
for fear of evil coming to the recipients of his affection. In the
face of such calamities it is not surprising that Marston's verse
became more and more sorrowful and melancholy. The idylls
of flower-life, such as the early and very beautiful " The Rose
and the Wind " were succeeded by dreams of sleep and the repose
of death. These qualities and gradations of feeling, reflecting
the poet's successive ideals of action and quiescence, are traceable
through his three published collections, Songtide (1871), All in
All (1875) and Wind Voices (1883). The first and third, con-
taining his best work, went out of print, but Marston's verse was
collected in 1892 by Mrs Louise Chandler Moulton, a loyal and
devoted friend, and herself a poet. Marston read little else but
poetry; and of poetic values, especially of the intenser order,
his judgment could not be surpassed in sensitiveness. He was
saturated with Rossetti and Swinburne, and his imitative power
was remarkable. In his later years he endeavoured to make
money by writing short stories in Home Chimes and other
American magazines, through the agency of Mrs Chandler
Moulton. His popularity in America far exceeded that in his
own country. His health showed signs of collapse from 1883;
in January 1887 he lost his voice, and suffered intensely from the
failure to make himself understood. He died on the I3th of
February 1887.
He was commemorated in Dr Gordon Hake's " Blind Boy," and
in a fine sonnet by Swinburne, beginning " The days of a man are
threescore years and ten." There is an intimate sketch of the blind
poet by a friend, Mr Coulson Kernahan, in Sorrow and Song (1894),
P- 127- (T. SE.)
MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF, was fought on the 2nd of July
1644 on a moor (now enclosed) seven miles west of York, between
the Royalist army under Prince Rupert and the Parliamentary
and Scottish armies under the earl of Manchester, Lord Fairfax
and Lord Leven. For the operations that preceded the battle see
GREAT REBELLION. Rupert had relieved York and joined
forces with the marquess of Newcastle's army that had defended
that city, and the Parliamentarians and Scots who had besieged
it had drawn off south-westward followed by the Royalists. On
the morning of the 2nd of July, however, Rupert's attack on
their rearguard forced them to halt and deploy on rising ground
on the south edge of the moor, their position being defined on the
right and left by Long Marston and Tockwith and divided from
the Royalist army on the moor by a lane connecting these two
villages. The respective forces were Royalists about 18,000,
Parliamentarians and Scots about 27,000. The armies stood
front to front. On the Royalist right was half the cavalry under
Rupert; the infantry was in the centre in two lines and the left
wing of cavalry was under General (Lord) Goring. The lane
along the front was held by skirmishers. On the other side the
cavalry of the Eastern Association under Lieut.-General Cromwell
and that of the Scots under Major-General Leslie (Lord Newark)
formed the left, the infantry of the Eastern Association under
Major-General Crawford, of the Scots under Lord Leven, and of
the Yorkshire Parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax was in the
centre and the Yorkshire cavalry under Sir Thomas Fairfax was
on the right wing.
During the afternoon there was a desultory cannonade, but
neither side advanced. At last, concluding from movements in
the enemy's lines that there would be no fighting that day,
Rupert and Newcastle strolled away to their coaches and their
soldiers dismounted and lay down to rest. But seeing this
Cromwell instantly advanced his wing to the attack (5 p.m.).
His dragoons drove away the skirmishers along the lane, and the
line cavalry crossed into the moor. The general forward move-
ment spread along the Parliamentary line from left to right, the
Eastern Association infantry being the first to cross the road.
In Rupert's momentary absence, the surprised Royalist cavalry
could make no head against Cromwell's charge, although the
latter was only made piecemeal as each unit crossed the lane
and formed to the front. Rupert soon galloped up with his
fresh second line and drove back Cromwell's men, Cromwell him-
self being wounded, but Leslie and the Scots Cavalry, taking
ground to their left, swung in upon Rupert's flank, and 'after a
hard struggle the hitherto unconquered cavalry of the prince
was broken and routed. Then, being unlike other cavalry of the
time, a thoroughly disciplined force, the Eastern Association
cavalry rallied, leaving the pursuit to the Scots light horse. On
the Parliamentary right, Goring had swept away the Yorkshire
horse, and although most of his troopers had followed in dis-
orderly pursuit, Sir Charles Lucas with some squadrons was
attacking the exposed right of Leven's infantry. At the same
time the Parliamentary infantry had mostly crossed the lane
and was fighting at close quarters and suffering severely, New-
castle's north-country " White-Coat " brigade driving back and
finally penetrating their centre. Lord Leven gave up the battle
as lost and rode away to Tadcaster. But the Scots on the right
of the foot held firm against Lucas's attacks, and Cromwell and
Leslie with their cavalry passed along the rear of the Royal army,
guided by Sir Thomas Fairfax (who though wounded in the
rout of his Yorkshire horse had made his way to the other
flank). Then, on the ground where Goring had routed Fairfax,
Cromwell and Leslie won an easy victory over Goring's scattered
and disordered horsemen. The Eastern Association infantry
had followed the horse and was now in rear of the Royalists.
The original Parliamentary centre of foot, a remnant, but one
containing only the bravest and steadiest men, held fast, and
soon the Royalist infantry was broken up into isolated regiments
and surrounded by the victorious horse and foot of the enemy.
The White-Coats retreated into an enclosure and there defended
themselves to the last man. The rest were cut down on the field
or scattered in the pursuit and [at nightfall the Royalist army had
ceased to exist. Some of Rupert's foot regiments made their
way to York, but the dispirited garrison only held out for a fort-
night. Rupert rallied some six thousand of the men and escaped
over the hills into Lancashire, thence rejoining King Charles in
778
MARSUPIALIA
the south. But the Northern army, the main hope of the
Royalist cause, was destroyed.
MARSUPIALIA (from Lat. marsupium, a "pouch," or "bag"),
the group of mammals in which the young are usually carried for
some time after birth in a pouch on the under-surface of the
body of the female. The group, which has also the alternative
title of Didelphia, is by some authorities regarded as a sub-class
of the mammalia of equal rank with the Monotremata, while by
others it is brigaded with the placentals, so that the two to-
gether form a sub-class of equal grade with the one represented
by the monotremes. There is much to be urged in favour of either
view; and in adopting the former alternative, it must be borne in
mind that the difference between monotremes and marsupials is
vastly greater than that which separates the latter from placen-
tals. In elevating the marsupials to the rank of a sub-class the
name Metatheria has been suggested as the title for the higher
grade, with Marsupialia as the designation for the single order
by which they are now represented. It is, however, less liable
to cause confusion, and in many other ways more convenient to
employ the better known term Marsupialia in both senses.
Marsupials may be defined as viviparous (that is non-egg-
laying) mammals, in which the young are born in an imperfect
condition, and almost immediately attached to the teats of
the mammary glands; the latter being generally enclosed in a
pouch, and the front edge of the pelvis being always furnished
with epipubic or " marsupial " bones. As a rule there is no
allantoic placenta forming the means of communication between
the blood of the parent and the foetus, and when such a structure
does occur its development is incomplete. In all cases a more or
less full series of teeth is developed, these being differentiated into
incisors, canines, premolars and molars, when all are present;
but only a single pair of teeth in each jaw has deciduous
predecessors.
The pouch from which the marsupials take their name is
supported by the two epipubic bones, but does not correspond to
the temporary breeding-pouch of the monotremes. It may open
either forward or backwards; and although present in the great
majority of the species, and enclosing the teats, it may, as in
many of the opossums, be completely absent, when the teats
extend in two rows along the whole length of the under-surface of
the body. Whether a pouch is present or not, the young are
born in an exceedingly imperfect state of development, after
a very short period of gestation, and are immediately transferred
by the female parent to the teats, where they remain firmly
attached for a considerable time; the milk being injected into
their mouths at intervals by means of a special muscle which
compresses the glands. In the case of the great grey kangaroo,
for instance, the period of gestation is less than forty days, and
the newly-born embryo, which is blind, naked, and unable to use
its bud-like limbs, is little more than an inch in length.
As additional features of the subclass may be mentioned the
absence of a corpus callosum connecting the right and left hemi-
spheres of the brain, 1 and of a fossa in the septum between the two
auricles of the heart. In the skull there are always vacuities, or
unossified spaces in the bones of the palate, while the " angle," or
lower hind extremity of each half of the lower jaw is strongly bent
inwards so as to form a kind of shelf, and the alisphenoid bone takes
a share in the formation of the tympanum, or auditory bladder, or
bulla. Didelphia, the alternative name of the group was given in
allusion to the circumstance that the uterus has two separate open-
ings; while other features are the inclusion of the openings of the
alimentary canal and the urino-genital sinus in a common sphincter
muscle, and the position of the scrotum in advance of the penis.
The bandicoots alone possess a placenta. Lastly the number of
trunk- vertebrae is always nineteen, while there are generally thirteen
pairs of ribs.
As regards the teeth, in all cases except the wombats the number
of upper incisors differs from that of the corresponding lower teeth.
As already stated, there is no vertical displacement and succession
of the functional teeth except in the case of a single tooth on each
side of each jaw, which is the third of the premolar series, and is
preceded by a tooth having more or less of the characters of a molar
(see fig. i). In some cases (as in rat-kangaroos) this tooth retains
its place and function until the animal has nearly, if not quite,
1 The presence or absence of the corpus callosum has been much
disputed ; the latest researches, however, indicate its absence.
attained its full stature, and is not shed and replaced by its successor
until after all the other teeth, including the molars, are in place and
use. In others, as the thylacine, it is rudimentary, being shed or
absorbed before any of the other teeth have cut the gum, and there-
fore functionless. It may.be added that there are some marsupials,
such as the wombat, koala, marsupial ant-eater and the dasyures,
FIG. I. Teeth of Upper Jaw of Opossum (Didelphys marsupialis),
all of which are unchanged, except the third premolar, the place of
which is occupied in the young animal by a molariform tooth, repre-
sented in the figure below the line of the other teeth.
in which no such deciduous tooth, even in a rudimentary state, has
been discovered. In addition to this replacement of a single pair
of functional teeth in each jaw, it has been discovered that marsupials
possess rudimentary tooth-germs which never cut the gum. Accord-
ing to one theory, these rudimentary teeth, together with the one
pair of functional teeth in each jaw that has vertical successors,
represent the milk-teeth of placental mammals. On the other hand,
there are those who believe that the functional dentition (other
than the replacing premolar and the molars) correspond to the
milk-dentition of placentals, and that the rudimentary tooth-germs
represent a " prelacteal " dentition. The question, however, is of
academic rather than of practical interest, and whichever way it is
answered does not affect our general conception of the nature and
relationships of the group.
Unfortunately the homology of the functional series does not by
any means end the uncertainty connected with the marsupial denti-
tion ; as there is also a difference of opinion with regard to the serial
homology of some of the cheek-teeth. For instance, according to
the older view, the dental formula in the thylacine or Tasmanian wolf
is i. J, c, \, p. |, m. 4 =46. On the other hand, in the opinion of the
present writer, this formula, so far as the cheek-teeth are concerned,
should be altered to p. J, m. f , thus bringing it in accord, so far as
these teeth are concerned, with the placental formula, and making
the single pair of replacing teeth the third premolars. It may be
added that the formula given above shows that the marsupial denti-
tion may comprise more teeth than the 44 which form the normal
full placental complement.
As regards geographical distribution, existing marsupials,
with the exception of two families, Didelphyidae and Epanorth-
idae, are mainly limited to the Australian region, forming the
chief mammalian fauna of Australia, New Guinea, and some of
the adjacent islands. The Didelphyidae are almost exclusively
Central and South American, only one or two species ranging
into North America. Fossil remains of members of this family
have also been found in Europe in strata of the Oligocene
period.
History. The origin and evolution of the Australian marsupials
have been discussed by Mr B. A. Bensley. In broad contrast
to the views of Dr A. R. Wallace, this author is of opinion that
marsupials did not effect an entrance into Australia till about
the middle of the Tertiary period, their ancestors being probably
opossums of the American type. They were then arboreal; but
they speedily entered upon a rapid, although short-lived, course
of evolution, during which leaping terrestrial forms like the
kangaroos were developed. The short period of this evolution
is at least one factor in the primitive grade of even the most
specialized members of the group. In the advance of their molar
teeth from a tritubercular to a grinding type, the author traces a
curious parallelism between marsupials and placentals. Taking
opossums to have been the ancestors of the group, the author
considers that the present writer may be right in his view that
marsupials entered Australia from Asia by way of New Guinea.
On the other hand there is nothing absolutely decisive against
their origin being southern.
Again, taking as a text Mr L. Dollo's view that marsupials
were originally arboreal, that, on account of their foot-structure,
they could not have been the ancestors of placentals, and that
they themselves are degenerate placentals, Mr Bensley contrasts
this with Huxley's scheme of mammalian evolution. According
MARSUPIALIA
779
to the latter, the early monotremes which became specialized
into modern monotremes, gave rise to the ancestors of the modern
marsupials; while the modern placentals are likewise an offshoot
from the ancestral marsupial strck. This phylogeny, the author
thinks, is the most probable of all. It is urged that the imperfect
placenta of the bandicoots instead of being vestigial, may be an
instance of parallelism, and that in marsupials generally the
allantois failed to form a placental connexion. Owing to the
antiquity of both placentals and marsupials, the arboreal
character of the feet of the modern forms of the latter is of little
importance. Further, it is considered that too much weight has
been assigned to the characters distinguishing monotremes from
other mammals, foetal marsupials showing a monotreme type
of coracoid, while it is probable that in the long run it will be
found impossible to maintain the essential dissimilarity between
the milk-glands of monotremes and other mammals.
Another view is to regard both marsupials and placentals as
derivates from implacental ancestors more or less nearly related
to the creodont carnivora, or possibly as independently descended
from anomodont reptiles (see CREODONTA). Finally, there is the
hypothesis that marsupials are the descendants of placentals,
in which case, as was suggested by its discoverer, the placenta
of the bandicoots would be a true vestigial structure.
Classification.
Existing marsupials may be divided into three main divisions
or sub-orders, of which the first, or Polyprotodontia, is common
to America and Australasia; the second, or Paucituberculata, is
exclusively South American; while the third, or Diprotodonts,
is as solely Australasian inclusive of a few in the eastern
Austro-Malayan islands.
i. Polyprotodonts. The Polyprotpdonts are characterized by
their numerous, small, sub-equal incisors, of which there are either
five or four pairs in the upper and always three in the lower jaw,
(fig. 2) and the generally strong and large canines, as well as by the
From Flower, Quart. Jour. Ccol. Sac.
FIG. 2. Front View of Skull of the Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus
ursinus) to exhibit polyprotodont type of dentition.
presence of from four to five sharp cusps or tubercles on the crown of
the molars. The pouch is often absent, and may open backwards.
For the most part the species are carnivorous or insectivorous.
The first family is that of the true or American opossums
Didelphyidae, in which there are five pairs of upper incisors, while
the feet are of the presumed primitive arboreal type, the hind foot
having the four outer toes subequal and separate, with the first
opposable to them all. With the exception of the water-opossum,
forming the genus Chironectes, all the living members of the family
may be included in the genus Didelphys. The latter may, however,
be split up into several sub-generic groups, such as Metachirus, Philan-
der, Marmosa (Micoureus or Grymaeomys), Peramys, Dromiciops, &c.
The small South American forms included in Marmosa, which lack
the pouch, and have numerous teats, and molar teeth of a primitive
type, are doubtless the most generalized representatives of the
group (see OPOSSUM; and WATER-OPOSSUM).
Nearly allied is the Australian family Dasyuridae, characterized
by the presence of only four pairs of upper incisors, the generally
small and rudimentary condition of the first hind toe, which can but
seldom be opposed to the rest, and the absence of prehensile power
in the tail; the pouch being either present or absent, and the fore
feet always five-toed. The stomach is simple, and there is no caecum
to the intestine, although this is present in the opossums.
The largest representative of the family is the Tasmanian wolf,
or thylacine, alone representing the genus Thylacinus, in which the
dentition numbers i. |,c. \, p. }, m. } = 46; with the incisors small and
vertical, the outer one in the upper jaw being larger than the others.
Summits of the lower incisors, before they are worn, with a deep
transverse groove, dividing it into an anterior and a posterior cusp.
Canines long, strong and conical. Premolars with compressed
crowns, increasing in size from before backwards. Molars in general
characters resembling those of Sarcophilus, but of more simple form,
the cusps being less distinct and not so sharply pointed. Deciduous
FIG. 3. The Tasmanian Wolf, or Thylacine (Thylacinus
cynocephalus).
molar very small, and shed before the animal leaves the mother's
pouch. General form dog-like, with the head elongated, the muzzle
pointed, and the ears moderate, erect and triangular. Fur short
and closely applied to the skin. Tail of moderate length, thick at
the base and tapering towards the apex, clothed with short hair.
First hind toe (including the metacarpal bone) absent. Vertebrae:
C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 23. Marsupial bones unossified. The gradual
passage of the thick root of the tail into the body is a character com-
mon to the Tasmanian wolf and the aard-vark, and may be directly
inherited from reptilian ancestors (see THYLACINE).
The next genus is represented solely by the Tasmanian devil,
Sarcophilus (or Diabolus) ursinus, a medium-sized animal with a
dental formula similar to that of the dasyures, but with teeth (fig. 2)
approximating to those of the thylacine, though markedly different
in details. The first hind toe is absent.
In the " native cats," or dasyures, constituting the genus Dasyu-
rus, the dental formula is i._j, c. \, p. I, m. f : total 42. The upper
Incisors are nearly equal and vertical, with the first slightly longer,
narrower, and separated from the rest. Lower incisors sloping
forward and upward. Canines large and sharply pointed. First
two premolars with compressed and sharp-pointed crowns, and
slightly developed anterior and posterior accessory basal cusps.
Molars with numerous sharp-pointed cusps. In the upper jaw the
first two with crowns having a triangular free surface; the last
small, simple, narrow and placed transversely. In the lower jaw
the molars more compressed, with longer cusps; the last not notably
smaller than the others. Ears of moderate size, prominent and
obtusely pointed. First hind toe rudimentary, clawless or absent;
its metatarsal bone always present. Tail generally long and well
clothed with hair. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 18-20 (see
DASYURE).
The genus Phascologale comprises a number of small marsupials,
none exceeding a rat in size, differing from the dasyures in possessing
an additional premolar the dentition being i. }, c. \, p. J, m. | :
total 46 and in having the teeth generally developed upon an insecti-
vorous rather than a carnivorous pattern, the upper middle incisors
being larger and inclined forward, the canines relatively smaller,
and the molars with broad crowns, armed with 'prickly tubercles.
The muzzle is pointed. Ears moderately rounded, and nearly naked.
Fore feet with five sub-equal toes, with compressed, slightly curved
pointed claws. Hind feet with the four outer toes sub-equal, with
claws similar to those in the fore feet; the first toe alrrost always
distinct and partially opposable, though small and nailless, some-
times absent.
In some respects intermediate between the preceding and the
next genus is Dasyuroides byrnei, of Central Australia, an animal of
the size of a rat, with one lower premolar less than in PhascologaU,
without the first hind toe, and with a somewhat thickened tail.
The pouch is incomplete, with two lateral folds, and the number of
teats six.
Sminihopsis includes several very small species, with the same
dental formula as Phascologale, but distinguished from that genus
by the narrowness of the hind foot, in which the first toe is present,
and the granulated or hairy (in place of broad, smooth and naked)
y8o
MARSUPIALIA
soles. A pouch is present, and there are eight or ten teats. Nearly
allied is the jumping Antechinomys laniger, of East Central Australia,
an elegant mouse-like creature, with large oval ears, elongated limbs,
a long and tufted tail and no first hind toe. In connexion with the
large size of the ears is the excessive inflation of the auditory bulla
of the skull.
From all other members of the family the marsupial, or banded,
ant-eater (Myrmecobius fasciatus) differs by the presence of more
than seven pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, as well as by the
exceedingly long and protrusile tongue. Hence it is made the type
of a distinct subfamily, the Myrmecobiinae, as distinct from the
Dasyurinae, which includes all the other members of the family.
From the number of its cheek-teeth, the banded ant-eater has been
regarded as related to some of the primitive Jurassic mammals;
but this view is disputed by Mr Bensley, who regards this multiplicity
of teeth as a degenerate feature. On the other hand, it is noteworthy
that this marsupial retains in its lower jaw the so-called mylo-hyoid
groove, which is found in the aforesaid Jurassic mammals. Myrmeco-
bius has a total of 52 or 54 teeth, which may be classed as i. f, c. \,
p. + m. |^|. The teeth are all small and (except the four pos-
terior inferior molars) separated from each other by an interval.
Head elongated, but broad behind ; muzzle long and pointed ; ears
of moderate size, ovate and rather pointed. Fore-feet with five toes,
all having strong pointed, compressed claws, the second, third and
fourth nearly equal, the fifth somewhat and the first considerably
shorter. Hind-feet with no trace of first toe externally, but the
metatarsal bone is present. Tail long, clothed with long hairs.
Fur rather harsh and bristly. Female without pouch, the young
when attached to the nipples being concealed by the long hair of the
abdomen. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 23.
From Gould.
FIG. 4. The Marsupial or Banded Ant-eater (Myrmecobius fasciatus).
The single species, which is a native of western and southern Australia,
is about the size of an English squirrel, to which its long bushy tail
gives it some resemblance; but it lives entirely on the ground, especi-
ally in sterile sandy districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing colour
is chestnut-red, but the hinder part of the back is marked with
broad, white, transverse bands on a dark ground.
With the bandicoots, or Peramelidae, we come to a family of poly-
protpdpnts which resemble the diprotodonts in the peculiarly
specialized structure of their hind limbs; an adaptation which we
must apparently' regard as having been independently acquired
in the two groups. The dentition is i. |,.c. }, p. f, m. jf; total, 48;
the upper incisors being small, with short, broad crowns; the lower
incisors moderate, narrow, proclivous; canines well developed.
Premolars compressed, pointed; and the molars with quadrate
tuberculated crowns. Deciduous premolar preceded by a minute
molariform tooth, which remains in place until the animal is nearly
full grown. Fore feet with two or three of the middle toes of nearly
equal size, and provided with strong, sharp, slightly curved claws,
the other toes rudimentary. Hind feet long and narrow; the first
toe rudimentary or absent; the second and third very slender and
united in a common integument; the fourth very large, with a stout
elongated conical claw; the fifth smaller than the fourth (see fig. 6).
The terminal phalanges of the large toes of both feet cleft at their
extremities. Head elongated, with the muzzle long, narrow and
pointed. Stomach simple. Caecum of moderate size. Pouch
complete, generally opening backwards. Alone among marsupials
bandicoots have no clavicles. More remarkable still is the
development of a small allantoic placenta.
In the true bandicoots of the genus Perameles (fig. 5) the fore-feet
have the three middle toes well developed, the third slightly larger
than the second, the fourth somewhat shorter, provided with long,
strong, slightly curved, pointed claws. First and fifth toes very
short and without claws. Hind feet with one or two phalanges,
in the first toe forming a distinct tubercle visible externally; the
second and third toes very slender, of equal length, joined as far
I
'
From Gould.
FIG. 5. Gunn's Bandicoot (Perameles gunni).
as the terminal phalange, but with distinct claws; the fifth inter-
mediate in length between these and the largely developed fourth
toe. Ears of moderate or small size, ovate, pointed. Tail rather
short, clothed with short depressed hairs. Fur short and harsh.
Pouch opening backwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. I, Ca. 17.
(see BANDICOOT.)
The rabbit-bandicoot, Peragale (or Thylacomys) represents a genus
in which the cheek-teeth are curved, with longer crowns and shorter
roots than in the last. Hind extremities proportion-
ally longer with inner toe represented only by a
small metatarsal bone. Muzzle much elongated and
narrow. Fur soft and silky. Ears very large, long
and pointed. Tail long, its apical half-clothed on
the dorsal surface with long hairs. Pouch opening
forwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 23.
The one species, from Western Australia, is the
largest member of the family, being about the size
of a rabbit, to which it bears sufficient superficial
resemblance to have acquired the name of " native
rabbit " from the colonists. It burrows in the
ground, but in other respects resembles bandicoots
in habits.
In the pig-footed bandicoot (Choeropus castanotis)
the dentition generally resembles that of Perameles,
but the canines are less developed, and in the upper
jaw two-rooted. Limbs very slender; posterior
nearly twice the length of the anterior. Fore feet
with the functional toes reduced to two, the second
and third, of equal length, with closely united
metacarpals and short, sharp, slightly curved, com-
pressed claws. First toe represented by a minute
rudiment of a metacarpal .bone; the fourth by a
metacarpal and two small phalanges without a claw,
and not reaching the middle of the metacarpal of
the third; fifth entirely absent. Hind foot long and
narrow, mainly composed of the strongly developed no/is.
fourth toe, terminating in a conical pointed nail, c - calcanium ;
with a strong pad behind it; the first toe repre- J,bo?d; T 15 ; na ri-
sented by a rudimentary metatarsal; the remaining cuiar ; '<:>, 'cctocu-
toes completely developed, with claws, but exceed- neiform ; II. and
ingly slender; the united second and third reaching b$* *$!*
a little way beyond the metatarso-phalangeal articu- dj g i ts ; iv. the
lation of the fourth; the fifth somewhat shorter, large and only func-
Tail not quite so long as the body, and covered tio " al <*'' : v -JEf
. , _.?_ r^i j.^j j rudimentary nitn
with short hairs. Ears large and pointed, and ^^
folded down when the animal is at rest. Fur soft
and loose. Pouch opening backwards. Vertebrae : C. 7i D- I3> L. 6,
S. i, Ca. 20.
The only species of this genus is about the size of a small rat,
found in the interior of Australia. Its general habits and food appear
to resemble those of other bandicoots. A separate family, Notoryc-
tidae, is represented by the marsupial mole (Nptoryctes typhlcps),
of the deserts of south Central Australia, a silky, golden-haired,
burrowing creature, with a curious leathery muzzle, and a short,
naked stumpy tail. The limbs are five-toed, with the third and
fourth toes of the front pair armed with enormous digging claws;
F '5y. 6 j~:
MARSUPIALIA
781
there are no external ear-conchs ; and the dentition includes four pairs
of upper, and three of lower, incisors, and distinctly tritubercular
cheek-teeth. The small pouch, supported by the usual epipubic
bones, opens backwards. In correlation with its burrowing habits,
some of the vertebrae of the neck and of the loins are respectively
welded together. The eyes have degenerated to a greater extent than
From Gould.
FIG. 7. The Pig-footed Bandicoot (Choeropus castanotis).
those of any other burrowing mammal, the retina being reduced to a
mass of simple cells, and the cornea and sclerotic (" white ") to a pear-
shaped fibrous capsule enclosing a ball of pigment. The reason for
this extreme degeneration is probably to be found in the sandy nature
of the soil in which the creature burrows, a substance which would
evidently irritate and inflame any functional remnant of an eye.
The portion of the lachrymal duct communicating with the cavity
of the nose has, on the other hand, been abnormally developed,
apparently for the purpose of cleansing that chamber from particles
of sand which may obtain an entrance while the animal is burrowing.
(See MARSUPIAL MOLE.)
2. Paucituberculates. The second suborder of marsupials, the
Paucituberculata, is exclusively South American, and typically
represented by the family Epanorthidae, the majority of the members
of which are extinct, their remains being found in the probably
Miocene Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, although one existing genus
(Caenolestes) survives in Ecuador and Colombia. One of the two
living species was, indeed, described so long ago as the year 1863,
under the preoccupied name of Hyracodon, but attracted little or
no attention, as its affinities were not fully recognized. Externally
Caenolestes has a shrew-like appearance. The elongated skull
(fig. 8) has four pairs of upper incisors and long upper canines,
while in the lower jaw there is a single pair of procumbent incisors.
Alter Thomas.
FIG. 8. Skull of Caenolestes obscurus.
followed by several small teeth representing the canine and earlier
premolars. The three pairs of molars in each jaw are, like the last
premolar, quadritubercular oblong teeth. The five-toed feet are
of normal structure, and the rat-like tail is prehensile towards the
tip. The female has a small pouch. The extinct members of the
family are represented by the genera Epanorthus, Acdestis, Garzonia,
&c. In a second family Abderitidae also from the Patagonian
Miocene, the penultimate premolar is developed into an enormous
tooth, with a tall, secant and grooved crown, somewhat after the
fashion of the enlarged premolar of Plagiaulax. From the struc-
ture of the skull, it is thought probable that Abderitfs had an elon-
gated snout, like that of many Insectivora. As a sub-order, the
Paucituberculata are characterized by the presence of four pairs of
upper and three of lower incisor teeth ; the enlargement and forward
inclination of the first pair of lower incisors, and the presence of four
or five sharp cusps on the cheek-teeth, coupled with the absence of
" syndactylism ' in the hind limbs.
3. Diprotodonts. The third and last sub-order of marsupials is
the Diprotodontia, which is exclusively Australasian and includes
the wombats, koala, cuscuses, kangaroos and their relatives. There
are never more than three pairs of upper and one of lower incisors,
of which the middle upper and the single lower pair are large and
chisel-like (fig. 9); the canines are small or absent; the cheek-teeth
have bluntly tuberculate or transversely-ridged crowns in most
cases; and the hind-feet are syndactylous. With one exception,
the intestine has a caecum, and the pouch is large and opens for-
wards. It should be added that Professor Elliot Smith has pointed
out a certain peculiarity in its commissures whereby the brain of
the diprotodonts differs markedly from that of the polyprotodonts
From Flower, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
FIG. 9. Front view of Skull of the Koala (Phascolarctus cinereus)
to exhibit Diprotodont type of dentition.
and approximates to the placental type. Dr Einar Lonnberg has
also recorded certain adaptive peculiarities in the stomach. Most
of the species, particularly the specialized types, are more or less
completely herbivorous.
The first family, Phascolomyidae, is typified by the wombats;
but according to the view adopted by Mr H. Winge, and endorsed
by Professor Max Weber, is also taken to include the koala. In this
wider sense the family may be characterized as follows. The tym-
panic process of the alisphenoid bone of the skull is short, not cover-
ing the cavity of the tympanum, nor reaching the paroccipital
process. The tail is rudimentary, the first hind-toe opposable, the
first pair of upper incisors very large, but the second and third either
absent or small and placed partially behind the larger pair ; and only
five pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. The stomach has a cardiac
gland, and the number of teats is two.
In the wombats (Phascolomys) the dentition is i. }, c. j, p. + m. |,
total 24; all the teeth growing from persistent pulps, and the incisors
large and chisel-like, with enamel only on the front surface. The
cheek-teeth strongly curved, forming from the base to the summit
about a quarter of a circle, the concavity being directed outwards
in the upper and inwards in the lower teeth. The first of the series
(which appears to have no predecessor) single-lobed ; the other four
composed of two lobes, each subtriangular in section. Limbs equal,
stout and short. Fore-feet with five distinct toes, each furnished
with a long, strong and slightly curved nail, the first and fifth consider-
ably shorter than the other three. Hind-feet with a very short nail-
less first toe, the second, third and fourth toes partially united by
integument, of nearly equal length, the fifth distinct and rather
shorter; all four with long and curved nails. In the skeleton the
second and third toes are distinctly more slender than the fourth,
showing a tendency towards the character so marked in the following
families. Tail rudimentary. Caecum very short and wide, with a
vermiform appendage (see WOMBAT).
In addition to remains referable to the existing genus, the Pleisto-
cene deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of an extinct giant
wombat constituting the genus Phascolonus (Sceparnodon).
The koala, or" native bear " (Phascolarctus cinereus), which differs
widely from the wombats in its arboreal habits, is less specialized
as regards its dentition, of which the formula is i. ?, c. J, p. + m. I,
total 30. Upper incisors crowded together, cylindroidal, the first
much larger than the others, with a bevelled cutting edge (fig. 9).
Canine very small ; a considerable interval between it and the first
premolar, which is as long from before backwards but not so broad
as the molars, and has a cutting edge, with a smaller parallel inner
ridge. The molar-like teeth slightly diminishing in size from the
782
MARSUPIALIA
first to the fourth, with square crowns, each bearing four pyramidal
cusps. The lower incisors are partially inclined forwards, compressed
and tapering, bevelled at the ends. Cheek-teeth in continuous
series, as in the upper jaw. Fore-feet with the two inner toes slightly
separated from and opposable to the remaining three, all with strong
curved and much compressed claws. Hind-toot (fig. 10) with the
first toe placed far back, large
and broad, the second and third
(united) toes considerably smaller
than the other two; the fourth the
largest. No external tail. Fur dense
and woolly. Ears of moderate size,
thickly clothed with long hair.
Caecum very long and dilated, with
numerous folds. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 1 1, L. 8, S. 2, Ca. 8. Ribs eleven
pairs (see KOALA).
Here may be noticed three genera
of large extinct marsupials from
the Pleistocene of Australia whose
affinities appear to ally them to
the wombat-group on the one hand
and to the phalangers on the other.
The longest known is Diprotodon,
an animal of the size of a rhinoceros,
with a dental formula of i. f, c. $,
p. |, m. f , total 28. The first upper
FIG. 10. Skeleton of Right incisor very large and chisel-like,
Hind-Foot of Koala (Phas- molars with prominent transverse
colarctus cinereus), showing ridges, as in Macropus, but without
stout opposable hallux, fol- the longitudinal connecting ridge,
lowed by two slender toes, Complete skeletons disinterred by
which in the living animal are Dr E. C. Stirling indicate that in the
enclosed as far as the nails in structure of the feet this creature
a common integument. presents resemblances both to the
wombats and the phalangers, but
is nearer to the former than to the latter. On the other hand,
the considerably smaller Nototherium, characterized by its sharp
and broad skull and smaller incisors, seems to have been much more
wombat-like, and may perhaps have possessed similar burrowing
habits.
The last of the three is Thylacoleo carnifex, so named on account
of its supposed carnivorous habits. In the adult the dentition
(fig. 1 1) is i. f , c. i, p.+m. j, total 24. The first upper incisor is much
larger than the others; canine and first two premolars rudimentary.
In the lower jaw there are also one or two small and early deciduous
premolars; third premolars of both jaws formed on the same type
as that of the rat- kangaroos, but relatively much larger; molars
rudimentary, tubercular. The functional teeth are reduced to one
From Flower, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
FIG. II. Front view of Skull of Thylacoleo carnifex, restored.
pair of large cutting incisors situated close to the middle line, and
one great, cutting, compressed premolar, on each side above and
below. As already mentioned, Thylacoleo was originally regarded
as a carnivorous creature, but this view was subsequently disputed,
and its diet supposed to consist of soft roots, bulbs and fruits, with
an occasional small bird or mammal. Recently, however, the
pendulum of opinion has swung back towards the original view:
and Dr R. Broom believes Thylacoleo to have been " a purely carni-
vorous animal, and one which would be quite able to, and probably
did, kill animals as large or larger than itself." The affinities of
the creature are clearly with the phalangers.
By means of the little musk-kangaroo, the cuscuses and phalangers.
constituting the family Phalangeridae, are so closely connected with
the kangaroos, or Macropodidae, that in the opinion of some natural-
ists they ought all to be included in a single family, with three
sub-families. Theoretically, no doubt, this is correct, but the typical
members of the two groups are so different from one another that,
as a matter of convenience, the retention of the two families seems
advisable. From the Phascolomyidae, the two families, which may
be collectively designated Phalangeroidea, differ by the circum-
stance that in the skull the tympanic process of the alisphenoid covers
the tympanic cavity and reaches the paroccipital process. The tail
is long and in some cases prehensile; the first hind-toe may be either
large, small or absent; the dentition usually includes three pairs
of upper and one of lower incisors, and six or seven pairs of cheek-
teeth in each jaw; the stomach is cither simple or sacculated-, with-
out a cardiac gland ; and there are four teats.
With the exception of the aberrant long-snouted phalanger, the
members of the family Phalangeridae have the normal number of
functional incisors, in addition to which there may be one or two
rudimentary pairs in the lower jaw. The first in the upper jaw is
strong, curved and cutting, the other two generally somewhat
smaller; the single lower functional incisor large, more or less
inclined forwards; canines - , upper small or moderate, conical
I oro
and sharp-pointed; lower absent or rudimentary; premolars
variable; molars j, or , with four obtuse tubercles, sometimes
forming crescents. Limbs subequal. Fore-feet with five distinct
subequal toes with claws. Hind-feet short and broad, with five well-
developed toes; the first large, nailless and opposable; the second
and third slender and united by a common integument as far as
the claws. Caecum present (except in Tarsipes), and usually large.
From Gould.
FIG. 12. The Long-snouted Phalanger (Tarsipes rostratus).
The lower jaw has no pocket on the outer side. All are animals of
small or moderate size and arboreal habits, feeding on a vegetable
or mixed diet, and inhabiting Australia, Papua and the Moluccan
Islands.
As the first example of the group may be taken the elegant little
long-snouted phalanger (Tarsipes rostratus, fig. 12), a west Australian
creature of the size of a mouse, which may be regarded as represent-
ing by itself a sub-family (Tarsipediinae), characterized by the rudi-
mentary teeth, the long and extensile tongue, and absence of a
caecum. The head is elongated, with a slender muzzle and the
mouth-opening small. The two lower incisors are long, very slender,
sharp-pointed and horizontally placed. All the other teeth are
simple, conical, minute and placed at considerable and irregular
intervals apart in the jaws, the number appearing to vary in different
individuals and even on different sides of the jaw of the same indi-
viduals. The formula in one specimen was i-^-^i c. _ ,
p. +m.-S _ 4 ; total 20. The lower jaw is slender, nearly straight,
and without a coronoid process or inflected angle. Fore-feet with
five well-developed toes, carrying small, flat, scale-like nails, not
reaching the extremity of the digits. Hind-feet rather long and
slender, with a well-developed opposable and nailless first toe;
MARSUPIALIA
783
second and third digits united, with sharp, compressed curved
claws; the fourth and fifth free, with small flat nails. Ears of
moderate size and rounded. Tail longer than the body and head,
scantily clothed with short hairs, prehensile. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13,
L. 5, S. 3, Ca. 24.
As indicated in the accompanying illustration, the long-snouted
phalanger is arboreal in habits, extracting honey and probably
small insects from long-tubed flowers by means of its extensile
tongue.
The remaining members of the family may be included in the
sub family Phalangerinae, characterized by the normal nature of the
dentition (which shows rudimentary lower canines) and tongue.
C'uscuscs and phalangers form a numerous group, all the members
of which are arboreal, and some of which are provided with lateral
expansions of skin enabling them to glide from tree to tree like
flying-squirrels. The typical members of the group are the cuscuses
(Phalanger), ranging from the Moluccas and Celebes to New Guinea,
in which the males are often different in colour from the females.
The true phalangers, or opossums of the colonists, constitute the
genus Trichosurus, while the ring-tailed species are known as Pseudo-
chirus; the latter ranging to New Guinea. Dactylopsila is easily
recognized by its attenuated fourth finger and parti-coloured fur;
the flying species are classed as Petauroides, Petaurus, Gymnobe-
lideus and Acrobates, the last no larger than a mouse ; while Dromicia,
Distaechurus and Acrobates are allied types without parachutes (see
PHALANGER).
An equally brief notice must suffice of the kangaroo tribe or
Macropodidae, since these receive a special notice elsewhere. The
dentition is i. 3-c. or * p..2.m..2;theincisorsbeingsharpandcutting,
and those of the lower jaw frequently having a scissor-like action
against one another. The broad molars are either bluntly tuber-
culated or transversely ridged; the outer side of the hind part of
the lower jaw has a deep pocket; and the hind-limbs are generally
very long, with the structure of the foot similar to that of the bandi-
coots. The family is connected with the Phalangeridae by means
of the musk-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus) ; forming the
sub-family Hypsiprymnodontinae. Then come the rat-kangaroos,
or kangaroo-rats, constituting the sub-family Potoroinae; while the
tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus) , rock-wallabies (Petrogale), and wal-
labies and kangaroos (Macropus) form the Macropodinae (see
KANGAROO).
Extinct Marsupials
Reference has been made to the Australasian Pleistocene genera
Phascolonus, Diprotodon, Nototherium and Thylacoleo, whose affinities
are with the wombats and phalangers. The same deposits have also
yielded remains of extinct types of kangaroo, some of gigantic size,
constituting the genera Sthenurus, Procoptodon and Palorchestes.
Numerous types more or less nearly allied to the phalangers, such
as Burramys and Triclis have also been described, as well as a flying
form, Paiaeopelaurus. It is also interesting to note that fossil
remains indicate the former occurrence of thylacines and Tasmanian
devils on the Australian mainland. Of more interest is the im-
perfectly known Wynyardia, from older Tertiary beds in Tasmania,
which apparently presents points of affinity both to phalangers
and dasyures. From the Oligocene deposits of France and southern
England have been obtained numerous remains of opossums refer-
able to the American family Didelphyidae. These ancient opossums
have been separated generically from Didelphys (in its widest sense)
on account of certain differences in the relative sizes of the lower
premolars, but as nearly the whole of the species have been formed
on lower jaws, of which some hundreds have been found, it is im-
possible to judge how far these differences are correlated with other
dental or osteological characters. In the opinion of Dr H. Filhol,
the fossils themselves represent two genera, Peratherium, containing
the greater part of the species, about twenty in number, and Amphi-
peratherium, with three species only. All are comparatively small
animals, few of them exceeding the size of a rat.
Besides these interesting European fossils, a certain number of
didelphian bones have been found in the caves of Brazil, but these
are either closely allied to or identical with the species now living
in the same region.
The occurrence in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia of fossil
marsupials allied to the living Caenolestes has been mentioned above.
The alleged occurrence in the same beds of marsupials allied to the
thylacine is based on remains now more generally regarded as refer-
able to the creodont carnivores (see CREODONTA).
Mesozoic Mammals. Under the heading of MULTITUBERCULATA
will be found a brief account of certain extinct mammals from the
Mesozoic formations of Europe and North America which have been
regarded as more or less nearly related to the monotremes. The
same deposits have yielded remains of small mammals whose denti-
tion approximates more nearly to that of either polyprotodont
marsupials or insectiyores; and! these may be conveniently noticed
here without prejudice to their true affinities. Before proceeding
further it may be mentioned that the remains of many of these
mammals are very scarce, even in formations apparently in every
way suitable to the preservation of such fossils, and it hence seems
probable that these creatures are stragglers from a country where
primitive small mammals were abundant. Not improbably this
country was either " Gondwana-land," connecting Mesozoic India
with Africa, or perhaps Africa itself. At any rate, there seems little
doubt that it was the region where creodonts and other primitive
mammals were first differentiated from their reptilian ancestors.
Of the Old World forms, the family
Triconodontidae is typified by the genus
Triconedon, from the English Purbeck, in
which the cheek-teeth carry three cut-
ting cusps arranged longitudinally.
There seems to have been a replace-
ment of some of these teeth; and it
has been suggested that this was of
the marsupial type. To the same family
are referred Phascolotherium (fig. 14), of
the Lower Jurassic Stonesfield slate of
England, and Spalacotherium (fig. 15),
of the Dorsetshire Purbeck; the latter having the three cusps of
the cheek-teeth rotated so as to assume a tritubercular type. Other
From Owen.
FIG. 13. Lower Jawof
Triconodon mordax (nat.
size).
From Owen.
FIG. 14. Lower Jaw and Teeth of Phascolotherium bucklandi (mt.
size in outline).
genera are Menacodon and Priacodon, the former American, and the
latter common to Europe and North America. By one authority
Amphilestes (fig. 16), of the
Stonesfield Slate, is included
in the same group, while by
a second it is regarded as
representing a family by it-
self. Amphitherium, of the
From Owen. Stonesfield Slate, typifies the
FlG. 15. Spalacotherium tricuspidens family Amphitheriidae, which
(twice nat. size), Purbeck beds. includes the American Dryo-
lestes, and in which some
would class the European Purbeck genus Amblotherium, although
Professor H. F. Osborn has made the last the type of a d'stinct
family. Yet another family, according to the palaeontologist
last named, is typified by the genus Stylacodon, of the English
Purbeck. To mention the other forms which have received names
will be unnecessary on this occasion.
It will be observed from the figures of the lower jaws, which are
in most cases the only parts known, that in many instances the
number of cheek-teeth exceeds that found in modern marsupials
except Myrmecobius. The latter has indeed been regarded as the
direct descendant of these Mesozoic forms; but as already stated,
in the opinion of Mr B. A. Bensley, this is incorrect. It may be
added that the division of these teeth into premolars and molars
in figs. 14 and 16 is based upon the view of Sir R. Owen, and is not
altogether trustworthy, while the restoration of some of the missing
Prorn Owen.
FIG. 16. Lower Jaw and Teeth of Amphilestes broderipi
(twice nat. size).
teeth is more or less conjectural. As regards the affinities of the
creatures to which these jaws belonged. Professor Osborn has referred
the Triconodontidae and Amphitheriidae, together with the Curto-
dontidae (as represented by the English Purbeck Curtodon), to a
primitive group of marsupials, while he has assigned the Amblotheri-
idae and Stylacodontidae to an ancestral assemblage of Insectivora.
On the other hand, in the opinion of Professor H. Winge, a large
number of these creatures are primitive monotremes. Besides the
above, in the Trias of North America we have Dromotherium and
Microconodon, extremely primitive forms, representing the family
7 8 4
MARSUPIAL MOLE MARTEN, H.
Marsupial Mole (Notoryctes
typhlops).
Dromotheriidae, and apparently showing decided traces of reptilian
affinity. It may be added that a few traces of mammals have been
obtained from the English Wealden, among which an incisor tooth
foreshadows the rodent type.
AUTHORITIES. The above article is partly based on that by Sir
W. H. Flower in the gth edition of this work. See also O. Thomas,
Catalogue of Monotremata and Marsupialia in the British Museum
(1888); "On Caenolestes, a Survivor of the Epanorthidae," Proc.
Zool. Soc. London (1895); J. D. Ogilby, Catalogue of Australian
Mammals (Sydney, 1805); B. A. Bensley, " A Theory of the Origin
and Evolution of the Australian Marsupialia," American Naturalist
(1901) ; " On the Evolution of the Australian Marsupialia, &c.," Trans.
Linn. 5oc.(vol. ix., 1903) ; L.Dollo," Arboreal Ancestry of Marsupials,"
Miscell. Biologiques (Paris, 1899); B. Spencer, " Mammalia of the
Horn Expedition " (1896) ; "Wynyardia, a Fossil Marsupial from Tas-
mania," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1900) ; J. P. Hill, " Contributions to
the Morphology of the Female Urino-genital Organs in Marsupialia,"
Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, vols. xxiv. and xxv. ; " Contributions
to the Embryology of the Marsupialia," Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,
vol. xliii. ; E. C. Stirling, " On Notoryctes typhlops," Proc. Zool. Soc.
London (1891) ; " Fossil Remains of Lake Cadibona," Part I. Dipro-
todon, Mem. R. Soc. S. Australia (vol. i., 1889) ; R. Broom, " On the
Affinities of Thylacoleo," Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales (1898) ; H. F.
Osborn, " Mesozoic Mammalia," Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia
(vol. ix., 1888); E. S. Goodrich, " On the Fossil Mammalia from the
Stonesfield Slate," Quart. Journ. Micr. Science (vol. xxxv., 1894).
(R. L.*)
MARSUPIAL MOLE (Notoryctes typhlops), the " Ur-quamata "
of the natives, an aberrant polyprotodont from central South
Australia, constituting a
family (Notoryctidae). This
is a small burrowing animal,
: of a pale golden-yellow colour,
witji long silky hair, a horny
shield on the nose, and a
stumpy leathery tail. The
feet are five-toed, and the
third and fourth toes of the
front pair armed with enor-
mous claws adapted for digging. Neither ear-conches nor
eyes are visible externally. There are but three pairs of incisor
teeth in each jaw, and the upper molars are tricuspid. This
animal spends most of its time burrowing in the sand in
search of insects and their larvae, but occasionally makes its
appearance on the surface.
MARSUS, DOMITIUS, Latin poet, the friend of Virgil and
Tibullus, and contemporary of Horace. He survived Tibullus
(d. 19 B.C.), but was no longer alive when Ovid wrote (c. A.D. 12)
the epistle from Pontus (Ex Ponto, iv. 16) containing a list of
poets. He was the author of a collection of epigrams called
Cicuta (" hemlock ")* from their bitter sarcasm, and of a beautiful
epitaph on the death of Tibullus; of elegiac poems, probably of
an erotic character; of an epic poem Amazonis; and of a prose
work on wit (De urbanitale). Martial often alludes to Marsus
as one of his predecessors, but he is never mentioned by Horace,
although a passage in the Odes (iv. 4, 19) is supposed to be an
indirect allusion to the Amazonis (M. Haupt, Opuscula, iii. 332).
See J. A. Weichert, Poetarum latinorum vitae et reliquiae (1830);
R. Unger, De Dom. Marsi cicula (Friedland, 1861).
MARSYAS, in Greek mythology, a Phrygian god or Silenus,
son of Hyagnis. He was originally the god of the small river
of the same name near Celaenae, an old Phrygian town. He
represents the art of playing the flute as opposed to the lyre the
one the accompaniment of the worship of Cybele, the other that
of the worship of Apollo. According to the legend, Athena, who
had invented the flute, threw it away in disgust, because it
distorted the features. Marsyas found it, and having acquired
great skill in playing it, challenged Apollo to a contest with his
lyre. Midas, king of Phrygia, who had been appointed judge,
declared in favour of Marsyas, and Apollo punished Midas by
changing his ears into ass's ears. In another version, the Muses
were judges and awarded the victory to Apollo, who tied Marsyas
to a tree and flayed him alive. Marsyas, as well as Midas and
Silenus, are associated in legend with Dionysus and belong to
the cycle of legends of Cybele. A statue of Marsyas was set
1 According to others, a reed-pipe made of the stalks of hemlock ;
the reading scutica (" whip ") has also been proposed.
up in the Roman forum and colonies as a symbol of liberty
The contest and punishment of Marsyas were favourite subjects
in Greek art, both painting and sculpture. In Florence there
are several statues of Marsyas hanging on the tree as he is going
to be flayed (see GREEK ART, fig. 54, PI. II.); Apollo and the
executioner complete the group. In the Lateran museum at
Rome there is a statue representing Marsyas in the act of
picking up the flute, a copy of a masterpiece by Myron (Hyginus,
Fab. 167, 191; Apollodorus i. 4, 2; Ovid, Metam. vi. 382-400,
xi. 145-193), for which see GREEK ART, fig. 64 (PI. III.).
MARTABAN, a town in the Thaton district of Lower Burma,
on the right bank of the Salween, opposite Moulmein. It is
said to have been founded in A.D. 573, by the first king of Pegu,
and was once the capital of a powerful Talaing kingdom; but
it is now little more than a village. Martaban is frequently
mentioned by European voyagers of the i6th century; and
it has given the name of " Martavans " to a class of large vessels
of glazed pottery, also known in India as " Pegu jars." It was
twice captured by the British, in 1824 and 1852. The Bay of
Martaban receives the rivers Irrawaddy and Salween.
MARTELLO TOWER, a kind of tower formerly used in
English coast defence. The name is a corruption of Mortella.
The Martello tower was introduced in consequence of an incident
of the French revolutionary wars. In September 1793 a
British squadron of three ships of the line and two frigates was
ordered to support the Corsican insurgents. It was determined
in the first place to take a tower on Cape Mortella which com-
manded the only secure anchorage in the Gulf of San Fiorenzo.
This tower, according to James, was named " after its inventor " ;
but the real derivation appears to be the name of a wild myrtle
which grew thickly around. The tower, which mounted one
24-pounder and two i8-pounders on its top, was bombarded
for a short time by the frigates, was then deserted by its little
garrison, and occupied by a landing party. The tower was
afterwards retaken by the French from the Corsicans. So far
it had done nothing to justify its subsequent reputation. In
1794, however, a fresh attempt was made to support the insur-
gents. On the 7th of February 1400 troops were landed, and
the tower was attacked by land and sea on the 8th. The
" Fortitude " and " Juno " kept up a cannonade for 25 hours
and then hauled off, the former being on fire and having sixty-
two men killed and wounded. The fire from the batteries on
shore produced no impression until a hot shot set fire to the
" bass junk with which, to the depth of 5 ft., the immensely
thick parapet was lined." The garrison of thirty-three men
than surrendered. The armament was found to consist only
of two i8-pounders and one 6-pounder. The strong resistance
offered by these three guns seems to have led to the conclusion
that towers of this description were specially formidable, and
Martello towers were built in large numbers, and at heavy
expense, along the shores of England, especially on the southern
and eastern coasts, which in certain parts are lined with these
towers at short intervals. They are structures of solid masonry,
containing vaulted rooms for the garrison, and providing a
platform at the top for two or three guns, which fire over a
low masonry parapet. Access is provided by a ladder, communi-
cating with a door about 20 ft. above the ground. In some cases
a deep ditch is provided around the base. The chief defect of
the tower was its weakness against vertical fire; its masonry
was further liable to be cut through by breaching batteries.
The French tours modeles were somewhat similar to the Martello
towers; their chief use was to serve as keeps to unrevetted
works. While the Martello tower owes its reputation and its
widespread adoption in Great Britain to a single incident of
modern warfare, the round masonry structure entered by a door
raised high above the base is to be found in many lands, and is
one of the earliest types of masonry fortification.
MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680), English regicide, was the
elder son of Sir Henry Marten, and was educated at University
College, Oxford. As a public man he first became prominent
in 1639 when he refused to contribute to a general loan, and
in 1640 he entered parliament as one of the members for
MARTEN
785
Berkshire. In the House of Commons he joined the popular party,
spoke in favour of the proposed bill of attainder against Strafford,
and in 1642 was a member of the committee of safety. Some
of his language about the king was so frank that Charles
demanded his arrest and his trial for high treason. When the
Great Rebellion broke out Marten did not take the field, although
he was appointed governor of Reading, but in parliament he
was very active. On one occasion his zeal in the parliamentary
cause led him to open a letter from the earl of Northumberland
to his countess, an impertinence for which, says Clarendon, he
was "cudgelled" by the earl; and in 1643, on account of some
remark about extirpating the royal family, he was expelled
from parliament and was imprisoned for a few days. In the
following year, however, he was made governor of Aylesbury,
and about this time took some small part in the war. Allowed
to return to parliament in January 1646, Marten again advocated
extreme views. He spoke of his desire to prepare the king for
heaven; he attacked the Presbyterians, and, supporting the
army against the parliament, he signed the agreement of August
1647. He was closely associated with John Lilburne and the
Levellers, and was one of those who suspected the sincerity of
Cromwell, whose murder he is said personally to have contem-
plated. However, he acted with Cromwell in bringing Charles I.
to trial; he was one of the most prominent of the king's judges
and signed the death warrant. He was then energetic in
establishing the republic and in destroying the remaining vestiges
of the monarchical system. He was chosen a member of the
council of state in 1649, and as compensation for his losses and
reward for his services during the war, lands valued at ioco
a year were settled upon him. In parliament he spoke often
and with effect, but he took no part in public life during the
Protectorate, passing part of this time in prison, where he was
placed on account of his debts. Having sat among the restored
members of the Long Parliament in 1659, Marten surrendered
himself to the authorities as a regicide in June 1660, and with
some others he was excepted from the act of indemnity, but
with a saving clause. He behaved courageously at his trial,
which took place in October 1660, but he was found guilty of
taking part in the king's death. Through the action, or rather
the inaction of the House of Lords, he was spared the death
penalty, but he remained a captive, and was in prison at
Chepstow Castle when he died on the gth of September 1680.
Although a leading Puritan, Marten was a man of loose morals.
He wrote and published several pamphlets, and in 1662 there
appeared Henry Marten's Familiar Letters to his Lady of Delight,
which contained letters to his mistress, Mary Ward.
Marten's father, Sir Henry Marten (c. 1562-1641), was born
in London and was educated at Winchester school and at New
College, Oxford, becoming a fellow of the college in 1582. Having
become a barrister, he secured a large practice and soon came to
the front in public life. He was sent abroad on some royal
business, was made chancellor of the diocese of London, was
knighted, and in 1617 became a judge of the admiralty court.
Later he was appointed a member of the court of high commission
and. dean of the arches. He became a member of parliament
in 1625, and in 1628 represented the university of Oxford, taking
part in the debates on the petition of right.
See J. Forster, Statesmen of the Commonwealth (1840); M. Noble,
Lives of the English Regicides (1798); the article by C. H. Firth in
Diet. Nat. Biog. (1893); and S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great
Civil War and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate.
MARTEN, 1 a name originally belonging to the pine-marten
(Mustela martes), but now applied to all members of the same
1 By all old authors, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw and Fleming, the
word is written " Martin," but this form of spelling is now generally
reserved for the bird (see MARTIN). The word, as applied to the
animal here described, occurs in most Germanic and Romanic
languages: German, marder; Dutch, marter; Swedish, mard;
Danish, maar; English, marteron, mortem, marten, martin and
martlett; French, marte and marlre; Italian, martora andmartorella;
Spanish and Portuguese, marta. Its earliest known use is in the
form martes (Martial, Ep. x. 37), but it can scarcely be an old Latin
word, as it is not found in Pliny or other classical writers, and Martial
often introduced foreign words into his Latin. Its etymology has
genus of carnivorous mammals (see CARNIVORA). Martens are
limited to the northern hemisphere, ranging throughout the
greater part of the northern temperate regions of both Old and
New Worlds, and southwards in America to 35 N. lat., while in
Asia one species is met with in Java.
The species appear to be similar in their habits. They live
in woods and rocky places, and spend most of their time in trees,
although descending to the ground in quest of prey. They
climb with great facility, and are agile and graceful in their
movements. Some are said occasionally to resort to berries
and other fruit for food, but as a rule they are carnivorous,
feeding chiefly on birds and their eggs, small mammals, as
squirrels, hares, rabbits and moles, but chiefly mice of various
kinds, and occasionally snakes, lizards and frogs. In proportion
to their size they are among the most bloodthirsty of animals,
though less so than the weasels. The female makes her nest
of moss, dried leaves and grass in the hollow of a tree, but
sometimes in a hole among rocks or ruined buildings, and pro-
duces several young at a birth, usually from four to six. Though
wild and untameable to a great degree if captured when fully
grown, if taken young they are docile, and have frequently
been made pets, not having the strong unpleasant odour of the
smaller Mustelidae. The pine-marten appears to have been
partially domesticated by the Greeks and Romans, and used to
keep houses clear from rats and mice. In the same way, accord-
ing to Brian Hodgson, the yellow-bellied weasel (Putorius kathia)
" is exceedingly prized by the Nepalese for its service in ridding
houses of rats. It is easily tamed; and such is the dread of it
common to all murine animals that not one will approach a
house where it is domiciled." It is, however, to the great value
attached to the pelts of these animals that their importance
to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of serviceable
quality, the commercial value varies immensely, not only accord-
ing to the species from which it is obtained, but according to
individual variation, depending upon age, sex, season, and other
circumstances. The skins from northern regions are more
full and of a finer colour and gloss than those from more tem-
perate climates, as are those of animals killed in winter compared
to the same individuals in summer. Fashion has, moreover,
set fictitious values upon slight shades of colour. Enormous
numbers of animals are caught, chiefly in traps, to supply the
demand of the fur trade, Siberia and North America being the
principal localities from which they are obtained.
With the exception of the pekan (M. pennanli), the martens are
much alike in size, general colouring and cranial and dental char-
acters. The following description by Dr Elliott Coues of the American
marten (M. americana) will apply almost equally well to most of the
others. " It is almost impossible to describe the colotor of the
marten, except in general terms, without going into the details of
the endless diversities occasioned by age, sex, season, or other inci-
dents. The animal is ' brown,' of a shade from orange or tawny
to quite blackish ; the tail and feet are ordinarily the darkest, the
head lightest, often quite whitish; the ears usually have a whitish
rim, while on the throat there is usually a large tawny-yellowish or
orange-brown patch, from the chin to the fore legs, sometimes entire,
sometimes broken into a number of smaller, irregular blotches,
sometimes wanting, sometimes prolonged on the whole under surface,
when the animal is bicolor like a stoat in summer. The general
'brown' has a greyish cast, as far as the under fur is concerned,
and is overlaid with rich lustrous blackish-brown in places where
the long bristly hairs prevail. The claws are whitish; the naked
nose pad and whiskers are black. The tail occasionally shows
interspersed white hairs, or a white tip."
The following are the best-known species:
Mustela fpina: the beech-marten, stone-marten or white-breasted
marten. Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth
of the skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by
the dull greyish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts and the
pure white of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater part
of the continent of Europe, but is more southern than the next in
its distribution, not being found in Sweden or Norway.
Af. martes, the pine-marten (see figure). Fur rich dark brown;
under fur reddish-grey, with clear yellow tips; breast spot usually
yellow, varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or yellowish-
white. Length of bead and body 16 to 18 in., of tail (including
been connected with the German " martern," to torment. A second
Romanic name for the same animal is fuina, in French fouine.
The term " Marten Cat ' is also used.
786
MARTENS, F. F. DE MARTENS, G. F. VON
the hair) 9 to 12 in. This species is extensively distributed
throughout northern Europe and Asia, and was formerly common
in most parts of Great Britain and Ireland. It is still found in the
northern counties of England and North Wales, but in decreasing
numbers. In Scotland it is rare, but in Ireland may be found in
almost every county occasionally. Though commonly called
The Pine-Marten (Mustela martes).
" pine-marten," it does not appear to have any special preference
for coniferous trees.
Next comes M. zibellina, the sable (German, Zobel and Zebel;
Swedish, sabel; Russian, sobel, a word probably of Turanian origin),
which closely resembles the last, if indeed it differs except in the
quality of the fur the most highly valued of that of all the group.
The sable is found chiefly in eastern Siberia.
Very distinct is the brilliantly coloured orange-and-black Indian
marten (M. flavigula), found from the Himalaya and Ceylon to
Java.
The North American M. americana is closely allied to the pine-
marten and Asiatic sable. The importance of the fur of this animal
as an article of commerce may be judged of from the fact that 15,000
skins were sold in one year by the Hudson's Bay Company as long ago
as 17^.3. It is ordinarily caught in wooden traps of simple con-
struction, being little enclosures of stakes or brush in which the bait
is placed upon a trigger, with a short upright stick supporting a log
of wood, which falls upon its victim on the slightest disturbance.
A line of such traps, several to a mile, often extends many miles.
The bait is any kind of meat, a mouse, squirrel, piece of fish or bird's
head. It is principally trapped during the colder months, from
October to April, when the fur is in good condition, as it is nearly
valueless during the shedding in summer. It maintains its numbers
partly in consequence of its shyness, which keeps it away from the
abodes of men, and partly because it is so prolific, bringing forth
six to eight young at a litter. Its home is sometimes a den under
ground or beneath rocks, but oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is
said to take possession of a squirrel's nest, driving off or devouring
the rightful proprietor.
The pekan or Pennant's marten, also called fisher marten, though
there appears to be nothing in its habits to justify the appellation,
is the largest of the group, the. head and body measuring from 24
to 30 in., and the tail 14 to 18 in. It is also more robust in
form than the others, its general aspect being more that of a fox
than a weasel; in fact its usual name among the American hunters
is " black fox." Its general colour is blackish, lighter by mixture
of brown or grey on the head and upper fore part of the body, with
no light patch on the throat, and unlike other martens generally
darker below than above. It was generally distributed in wooded
districts throughout the greater part of North America, as far north
as Great Slave Lake, lat. 63 N., and Alaska, and extending south
to the parallel of 35; but at the present time is almost exterminated
in the settled parts of the United States east of the Mississippi.
(W. H. F.)
MARTENS, FRfiDfiRIC FROMMHOLD DE (1845-1909),
Russian jurist, was born at Pernau in Livonia. In 1868 he
entered the Russian ministry of foreign affairs, was admitted in
1871 as a Dozent in international law in the university of St
Petersburg, and in 1871 became lecturer and then (1872) pro-
fessor of public law in the Imperial School of Law and the
Imperial Alexander Lyceum. In 1874 when Prince Gorchakov,
then imperial chancellor, needed assistance for certain kinds of
special work, Martens was chosen to afford it. His book on
The Right of Private Property in War had appeared in 1869,
and had been followed in 1873 by that upon The Office of Consul
and Consular Jurisdiction in the East, which had been translated
into German and republished at Berlin. These were the first
of a long series of studies which won for their author a world- wide
reputation, and raised the character of the Russian school of
international jurisprudence in all civilized countries. First
amongst them must be placed the great Recueil des Iraites et
conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances etrangeres
(13 vols., 1874-1902). This collection, published in Russian and
French in parallel columns, contains not only the texts of the
treaties but valuable introductions dealing with the diplomatic
conditions of which the treaties were the outcome. These
introductions are based largely on unpublished documents from
the Russian archives. Of Martens' original works his Inter-
national Law of Civilized Nations is perhaps the best known;
it was written in Russian, a German edition appearing in 1884-
1885, and a French edition in 1887-1888. It displays much
judgment and acumen, though some of the doctrines which it
defends by no means command universal assent. More openly
" tendencious " in character are such treatises as Russia and
England in Central Asia (1879); Russia's Conflict with China
(1881), The Egyptian Question (1882), and The African Con-
ference of Berlin and the Colonial Policy of Modern States (1887).
In the delicate questions raised in some of these works Martens
stated his case with learning and ability, even when it was
obvious that he was arguing as a special pleader. Martens was
repeatedly chosen to act in international arbitrations. Among
the controversies which he helped to adjust were that between
Mexico and the United States the first case determined by
the permanent tribunal of The Hague and the difference
between Great Britain and France in regard to Newfoundland
in 1891. He played an important part in the negotiations
between his own country and Japan, which led to the peace of
Portsmouth (Aug. 1905) and prepared the way for the
Russo-Japanese convention. He was employed in laying the
foundations for The Hague Conferences. He was one of the
Russian plenipotentiaries at the first conference and president
of the fourth committee that on maritime law at the second
conference. His visits to the chief capitals of Europe in the
early part of 1907 were an important preliminary in the pre-
paration of the programme. He was judge of the Russian
supreme prize court established to determine cases arising during
the war with Japan. He received honorary degrees from the
universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Yale; he was also awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1902. In April 1907 he addressed a
remarkable letter to The Times on the position of the second
Duma, in which he argued that the best remedy for the ills of
Russia would be the dissolution of that assembly and the election
of another on a narrower franchise. He died suddenly on the
2oth of June 1909.
See T. E. Holland, in Journal of the Society of Comparative Legisla-
tion for October 1909, where a list of the writings of Martens appears.
MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON (1756-1821), German
jurist and diplomatist, was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of
February 1756. Educated at the universities of Gottingen,
Regensburg and Vienna, he became professor of jurisprudence at
Gottingen in 1783 and was ennobled in 1789. He was made
a counsellor of state by the elector of Hanover in 1808, and in
1810 was president of the financial section of the council of
state of the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 he was appointed
privy cabinet-councillor (Geheimer Kabinetsrat) by the king of
Hanover, and in 1816 went as representative of the king to the
diet of the new German Confederation at Frankfort, where he
died on the 2ist of February 1821.
Of his works the most important is the great collection of treaties
Recueil des traites, &c.) from 1761 onwards. Of this the first seven
volumes were published at Gottingen (1791-1801), followed by four
supplementary volumes partly edited by his nephew Karl von
Martens (see below). These were followed by Nouveau recueil, of
treaties subsequent to 1808, in 16 vols. (Gottingen, 1817-1842), of
which G. F. von Martens edited the first four, the fifth being the
MARTENSEN MARTHA'S VINEYARD
787
work of K. von Martens, the others (6-9) by F. Saalfeld and (10-16)
F. Murhard. A Nouveau supplement, in 3 vols., filling gaps in
the previous collection, was also published by Murhard (Gottingcn,
1839-1842). This was followed by Nouveau recueil . . . continua-
tion du grand recueil de Martens, in 20 vols. (Gottingen, 1843-1875),
edited in turn by F. Murhard, C. Murhard, J. Pinhas, C. Samwer
and J. Hopf, with a general index of treaties from 1404 to 1874 (1876).
This was followed by Nouveau recueil, 2me serie (Gottingen, 1876-
1896; vols. xxii.-xxxv., Leipzig, 1897-1908). From vol. xi. on
this series was edited by Felix Stork, professor of public law at
Greifswald. In 1909 appeared vol. i. of a further Continuation
(troisieme s6rie) under the editorship of Professor Heinrich Tricpcl
of Kiel University.
Of Martens' other works the most important are the Precis du
droit des gens modernes de I'Europe (1789; 3rd ed., Gottingen, 1821 ;
new ed., G. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira, 2 vols., 1858, 1864); Erzdhlungen
merkvnirdiger Fdlle des neueren europaischen Volkerrechts, 2 vols.
(Gottingen, 1800-1802); Cours diplomatique ou tableau des relations
des puissances de I'Europe, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1801); Grundriss einer
diplomatischen Gesch. der europ. Staatshandel u. Friedensschltisse
seitdemEndedes i$.Jahrhunderts (ibid. 1807).
His nephew KARL VON MARTENS (1790-1863), who athisdeath
was minister resident of the grand-duke of Weimar at Dresden,
published a Manuel diplomatique (Leipzig, 1823), re-issued as Guide
diplomatique in two vols. in 1832 (sth ed. by Geffcken, 1866), a
valuable textbook of the rules and customs of the diplomatic
service; Causes celebres du droit des gens (2 vols., ibid., 1827) and
Nouvelles causes celebres (2 vols., ibid., 1843), both republished, in
5 vols. (1858-1861) ; Recueil manuel et pratique de traites (7 vols., ibid.,
1846-1857); continued by Geffcken in 3 vols., 1885-1888).
MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN (1808-1884), Danish divine,
was born at Flensburg on the ipth of August 1808. He studied
in Copenhagen, and was ordained in the Danish Church,. At
Copenhagen he was lektor in theology in 1838, professor extra-
ordinarius in 1840, court preacher also in 1845, and professor
ordinarius in 1850. In 1854 he was made bishop of Seeland.
In his studies he had come under the influence of Schleiermacher,
Hegel and Franz Baader; but he was a man of independent
mind, and developed a peculiar speculative theology which
showed a disposition towards mysticism and theosophy. His
contributions to theological literature included treatises on
Christian ethics and dogmatics, on moral philosophy, on baptism,
and a sketch of the life of Jakob Boehme, who exercised so
marked an influence on the mind of the great English theologian
of the i8th century, William Law. Martensen was a distin-
guished preacher, and his works were translated into various
languages. The " official " eulogy he pronounced upon Bishop
Jakob P. Mynster (1775-1854) in 1854, brought down upon
his head the invectives of the philosopher Soren Kierkegaard.
He died at Copenhagen on the 3rd of February 1884.
Amongst his works are: Grundriss des Systems der Moral-
philosophie(i&4\ ;3rded., i879;German, 1845), Die christl. Taufeund
die baptistische Prate (2nd ed., 1847; German, 2nd ed., 1860), Den
Christelige Dogmatik (4th ed., 1883; Eng. trans., 1866; German by
himself, 4th ed., 1897); Christliche Ethik (1871; Eng. trans., Part I.
1873, Part II. 1881 scq.); Hirtenspiegel (1870-1872); Katholizismus
und Protestantismus (1874); Jacob Biihme (1882; Eng. trans., 1885).
An autobiography, Aus meinem Leben, appeared in 1883, and after
his death the Briefwechsel zwischen Martensen und Dorner (1888).
MARTHA'S VINEYARD, an island including the greater
part of Dukes county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., lying about
3 m. off the southern coast of that state. Its extreme length
(east to west) is about 20 m., and its extreme width (north
to south) about 9? m. Along its north-west and a portion of its
north-east shore lies Vineyard Sound. Its principal bays are
Vineyard Haven Harbor, a deep indentation at the northernmost
angle of the island; and, on the eastern coast, Edgartown
Harbor and Katama Bay, both formed by the juxtaposition
of Chappaquiddick Island. The surface is mainly flat, excepting
a strip about 2 m. broad along the north-western coast, and
the two western townships (Chilmark and Gay Head), which
are hilly, with several eminences of 200 to 300 ft. the highest,
Prospect Peak, in Chilmark township, 308 ft. Gay Head
Light, a beacon near the western extremity, stands among
picturesque cliffs, 145 ft. above the sea. Along the southern
coast are many ponds, all shut off from the ocean by a narrow
strip of land, excepting Tisbury Great Pond, which has a small
outlet to the sea. Others are Sengekontacket Pond on the
eastern coast; Lagoon Pond, which is practically an arm of
Vineyard Haven Harbor; and, about a mile east of the Harbor,
Chappaquonsett Pond. Martha's Vineyard is divided into
the following townships (from east to west): Edgartown (in
the south-eastern part of the island), pop. (1910), 1191; area,
29*7 sq. m.; Oak Bluffs (north-eastern portion), pop. (1910),
1084; area, 7^9 sq. m.; Tisbury, pop. (1910), 1196; area, 7"! sq.
m.; West Tisbury, pop. (1910), 437; area, 30'$ sq. m.; Chilmark,
pop. (1910), 282; area, 19-4 sq. m.; and Gay Head, pop. (1910),
162; area 5-2 sq. m. The population of the county, including
the Elizabeth Ids. (Gosnold town, pop. 152), N. W. of Martha's
Vineyard; Chappaquiddick Island (Edgartown township),
and No Man's Land (a small island south-west of Martha's
Vineyard), was 4561 in 1900 (of whom 645 were foreign-born,
including 79 Portuguese and 72 English-Canadians, and 154
Indians), and in 1910, 4504. The principal villages are Oak
Bluffs on the north-cast coast, facing Vineyard Sound; Vineyard
Haven, in Tisbury township, beautifully situated on the west
shore of Vineyard Haven Harbor, and Edgartown on Edgar-
town Harbor all summer resorts. No Man's Land, included
politically in Chilmark township, lies about 6^ m. south of
Gay Head. It is about ij m. long (east and west) and about
i m. wide, is composed of treeless swamps, and is used mainly
for sheep-grazing; the neighbouring waters are excellent fishing
ground. Martha's Vineyard is served by steamship lines from
Wood's Hole and New Bedford to Vineyard Haven, Oak Bluffs,
and Edgartown. The Martha's Vineyard railway (from Oak
Bluffs to the south-east extremity of the island, by way of
Edgartown), opened in 1874, was not a financial success, and
had been practically abandoned in 1909, but an electric line
from Oak Bluffs to Vineyard Haven provides transit facilities
for that part of the island.
For more than a century whale fishing was practically the
sole industry of Martha's Vineyard. It was carried on at
first from the shore in small boats; but by the first decade
of the i8th century vessels especially built for the purpose
were being used, and by 1760 shore fishing had been practically
abandoned. The industry, seriously crippled by invasions
of British troops during the War of American Independence
especially by a force which landed at Holmes's Hole (Vineyard
Haven) in September 1778 and again during the War of
1812, revived and was at its height in 1840-1850, only to receive
another setback during the Civil War. In the last part of
the 1 9th century its decline was rapid, not only because of the
increasing scarcity of whales, but because of the introduction
of the mineral oils, and by the end of the century whaling had
ceased to be of any economic importance. Herring fishing,
on both the north and the south shore, occupies a small percent-
age of the inhabitants, and there is also some deep-sea fishing.
Sheep-raising, especially for wool, is an industry of considerable
importance, and Dukes county is one of the three most important
counties of the state in this industry.
Martha's Vineyard was discovered in 1602 by Captain Bar-
tholomew Gosnold, who landed (May 21) on the island now
called No Man's Land, and named it Martha's Vineyard, 1
which name was subsequently applied to the larger island.
Captain Gosnold rounded Gay Head, which he named Dover
Cliff, and established on what is now Cuttyhunk Island, which
he called Elizabeth Island, the first (though, as it proved,
a temporary) English settlement in New England. The entire
line of sixteen islands, of which Cuttyhunk is the westernmost
of the larger ones, have since been called the Elizabeth Islands:
they form the dividing line between Buzzards Bay and Vineyard
Sound, and in 1864 were incorporated as Gosnold township
(pop. in 1005, 161) of Dukes county.
The territory within the jurisdiction of the Council for New
England was parcelled in 1635 among the patentees in such
1 In the I7th century both " Martha's Vineyard " and "Martin's
Vineyard " were used, and the latter appears in a book as early as
1638 and in another as late as 1699, and on a map as late as 1670.
It seems probable that the original form was Martin, the name of
one of Gosnold's crew; according to some authorities the name
Martha's Vineyard was adopted by Mayhew in honour of his wife
or daughter.
7 88
MARTI MARTIAL
terms owing to insufficient knowledge of the geography of
the coast that both William Alexander, earl of Stirling, and
Sir Ferdinando Gorges, proprietor of Maine, claimed Martha's
Vineyard. In 1641 Stirling's agent, Forrett, sold to Thomas
Mayhew (I592-I682), 1 of Watertown, Massachusetts, for $200,
the island of Nantucket, with several smaller neighbouring
islands, and also Martha's Vineyard. It seems probable that
Forrett acted without authority, and his successor, Forrester,
was arrested by the Dutch in New Amsterdam and sent to
Holland before he could confirm the transfer. In 1644 the
Commissioners of the United Colonies, apparently at the request
of the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard, annexed the island to
Massachusetts, but ten years later the islanders declared their
independence of that colony, and apparently for the next
decade managed their own affairs. Meanwhile Mayhew had
recognized the jurisdiction of Maine; 2 and though the officials
of that province showed no disposition to press their claim,
it seems that this technical suzerainty continued until 1664,
when the Duke of York received from his brother, Charles II.,
the charter for governing New York, New Jersey, and other
territory, including Martha's Vineyard. In 1671 Governor
Francis Lovelace, of New York, appointed Mayhew governor
for life of Martha's Vineyard; in 1683, the island, with Nantucket,.
the Elizabeth Islands, No Man's Land, and Chappaquiddick
Island were erected into Dukes county, and in 1695 the county
was re-incorporated by Massachusetts with Nantucket excluded.
Under the new charter of Massachusetts Bay (1691), after
some dispute between Massachusetts and New York, Martha's
Vineyard became a part of Massachusetts.
There is a tradition that the first settlement of Martha's
Vineyard was made in 1632, at or near the present site of Edgar-
town village, by several English families forming part of a
company bound for Virginia, their ship having put in at this
harbour on account of heavy weather. It is certain, however,
that in 1642, the year after Thomas Mayhew bought the island,
his son, also named Thomas Mayhew (c. 1616-1657), and several
other persons established a plantation on the site of what is
now Edgartown village. This settlement was at first called
" Great Harbor," but soon after Mayhew was appointed
governor of the island it was named Edgartown, probably
in honour of the only surviving son of the Duke of York. The
younger Mayhew, soon after removing to Martha's Vineyard,
devoted himself to missionary work among the Indians, his
work beginning at about the same time as that of John Eliot;
he was lost at sea in 1657 while on his way to secure financial
assistance in England, and his work was continued successfully
by his father. 3 The township of Edgartown was incorporated
in 1671, and is the county-seat of Dukes county. In 1783
several Edgartown families joined the association made up of
Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Providence and Newport
whalers, who founded Hudson, on the Hudson river, in Columbia
county, New York. Oak Bluffs had its origin as a settlement
in the camp meetings, which were begun here in 1835, and by
1860 had grown to large proportions. As the village expanded
1 Mayhew was born at Tisbury, Wiltshire, was a merchant in
Southampton, emigrated to Massachusetts about 1633, settled at
Watertown, Mass., in 1635; was a member of the Massachusetts
General Court in 1636-1644, and after 1644 or 1645 lived on
Martha's Vineyard.
* It appears from a letter from Mayhew to Governor Andros in
1675 that about 1641 Mayhew obtained a conveyance to Martha's
Vineyard from Richard Vines, agent of Gorges. See F. B. Hough,
Papers Relating to the Island of Nantucket, with Documents Relating
to the Original Settlement of that Island, Martha's Vineyard, &c.
(Albany, N.Y., 1856).
! In 1901, a boulder memorial was erected to the younger Mayhew
on the West Tisbury road, between the village of that name and
Edgartown, marking the spot where the missionary bade farewell
to several hundred Indians. The Martha's Vineyard Indians were
subject to the Wampanoag tribe, on the mainland, were expert
watermen, and were very numerous when the whites first came.
Nearly all of them were converted to Christianity by the Mayhews,
and they were friendly to the settlers during King Philip's war.
By 1698 their numbers had been reduced to about 1000, and by
1764 to about 300. Soon after this they began to intermarry with
negroes, and now only faint traces of them remain.
it took the name of Cottage City. In 1880 the township was
incorporated under that name, which it retained until January
1907, when the name (and that of the village also) was changed
to Oak Bluffs. Tisbury township was bought from the Indians
in 1669 and was incorporated in 1671. Its principal village,
Vineyard Haven, was called " Holmes's Hole " (in honour
of one of the early settlers) until 1871, when the present name
was adopted. West Tisbury township was set off from Tisbury,
and incorporated in 1892. Chilmark township was incorporated
in 1694. Gay Head township was set off from Chilmark,
and incorporated in 1870.
See C. Gilbert Hine, The Story of Martha's Vineyard (New York,
1908); Charles E. Banks, " Martha's Vineyard and the Province of
Maine " in Collections and Proceedings of the Maine Historical Society,
2nd series, vol. ix. p. 123 (Portland, Maine, 1898); and Walter
S. Tower, A History of the American Whale Fishery (Philadelphia,
1907)- (G. G.*)
MARTf, JUAN JOSfi (15707-1604), Spanish novelist, was
born at Orihuela (Valencia) about 1570. He graduated as
bachelor of canon law at Valencia in 1591, and in 1598 took
his degree as doctor of canon law; in the latter year he was
appointed co-examiner in canon law at Valencia University,
and held the post for six years. He died at Valencia, and
was buried in the cathedral of that city on the 22nd of December
1604. Marti joined the Valencian Academia de los nocturnes,
under the name of " Atrevimiento," but is best known by
another pseudonym, Mateo Lujan de Sayavedra, under which
he issued an apocryphal continuation (1602) of Aleman's Guzmdn
de Alfarache (1599). Marti obtained access to Aleman's un-
finished manuscript, and stole some of his ideas; this dishonesty
lends point to the sarcastic congratulations which Aleman,
in the genuine sequel (1604) pays to his rival's sallies: "I
greatly envy them, and should be proud that they were mine."
Martf's book is clever, but the circumstances in which it was
produced account for its cold reception and afford presumption
that the best scenes are not original.
It has been suggested that Marti is identical with Avellaneda, the
writer of a spurious continuation (1614) to Don Quixote; but he
died before the first part of Don Quixote was published (1605).
MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS), Latin epigram-
matist, was born in one of the years A.D. 38-41, for in
book x., of which the poems were composed in the years 95-98,
he is found celebrating his fifty-seventh birthday (x. 24). Our
knowledge of his career is derived almost entirely from himself.
Reference to public events enables us approximately to fix the
date of the publication of the different books of epigrams, and
from these dates to determine those of various important events
in his life. The place of his birth was Bilbilis, officially Augusta
Bilbilis, in Spain. His name seems to imply that he was born
a Roman citizen, but he speaks of himself as " sprung from the
Celts and Iberians, and a countryman of the Tagus; " and,
in contrasting his own masculine appearance with that of an
effeminate Greek, he draws especial attention to " his stiff
Spanish hair " (x. 65, 7). His parents, Fronto and Flaccilla,
appear to have died in his youth (v. 34). His home was evidently
one of rude comfort and plenty, sufficiently in the country
to afford him the amusements of hunting and fishing, which
he often recalls with keen pleasure, and sufficiently near the
town to afford him the companionship of many comrades,
the few survivors of whom he looks forward to meeting again
after his four-and-thirty years' absence (x. 104). The memories
of this old home, and of other spots, the rough names and
local associations which he delights to introduce into his
verse, attest the enjoyment which he had in his early life, and
were among the influences which kept his spirit alive in the
routine of social life in Rome. But his Spanish home could
impart, not only the vigorous vitality which was one condition
of his success as a wit and poet, but the education which made
him so accomplished a writer. The literary distinction obtained
by the Senecas, by Lucan, by Quintilian, who belonged to a
somewhat older generation, and by his friends and contem-
poraries, Licinianus of Bilbilis, Decianus of Emerita, and Canius
of Gades, proves how eagerly the novel impulse of letters was
MARTIAL
789
received in Spain in the first century of the empire. The
success of his countrymen may have been the motive which
induced Martial to remove to Rome when he had completed
his education. This he did in A.D. 64, one year before the
fall of Seneca and Lucan, who were probably his earliest patrons.
Of the details of his life for the first twenty years or so after
he came to Rome we do not know much. He published some
juvenile poems of which he thought very little in his maturer
years, and he laughs at a foolish bookseller who would not
allow them to die a natural death (i. 113). Martial had neither
youthful passion nor youthful enthusiasm to make him pre-
cociously a poet. His faculty ripened with experience and
with the knowledge of that social life which was both his theme
and his inspiration; and many of his best epigrams are among
those written in his last years. From many answers which he
makes to the remonstrances of friends among others to those
of Quintilian it may be inferred that he was urged to practise
at the bar, but that he preferred his own lazy Bohemian kind
of life. He made many influential friends and patrons, and
secured the favour both of Titus and Domitian. From them
he obtained various privileges, among others the semestris
tribunatus, which conferred on him equestrian rank. He failed,
however, in his application to the latter for more substantial
advantages, although he commemorates the glory of having
been invited to dinner by him, and also the fact that he procured
the privilege of citizenship for many persons in whose behalf
he appealed to him. The earliest of his extant works, that
known by the name of Liber spectaculorum, was first published
at the opening of the Colosseum in the reign of Titus, and relates
to the theatrical performances given by him; but the book
as it now stands was given to the world in or about the first
year of Domitian, i.e. about A.D. 81. The favour of the emperor
procured him the countenance of some of the worst creatures
at the imperial court among them of the notorious Crispinus,
and probably of Paris, the supposed author of Juvenal's exile,
for whose monument Martial afterwards wrote a eulogistic
epitaph. The two books, numbered by editors xiii. and xiv.,
and known by the names of Xenia and Apophoreta inscrip-
tions in two lines each for presents, were published at the
Saturnalia of 84. In 86 he gave to the world the first two
of the twelve books on which his reputation rests. From
that time till his return to Spain in A.D. 98 he published a volume
almost every year. The first nine books and the first edition
of book x. appeared in the reign of Domitian; and book xi.
at the end of A.D. 96, shortly after the accession of Nerva.
A revised edition of book x., that which we now possess, appeared
in A.D. 98, about the time of the entrance of Trajan into Rome.
The last book was written after three years' absence in Spain,
shortly before his death, which happened about the year A.D. 102
or 103.
These twelve books bring Martial's ordinary mode of life
between the age of five-and-forty and sixty very fully before
us. His regular home for five-and-thirty years was Rome.
He lived at first up three pairs of stairs, and his " garret "
overlooked the laurels in front of the portico of Agrippa.
He had a small villa and unproductive farm near Nomentum, in
the Sabine territory, to which he occasionally retired from the
bores and noises of the city (ii. 38, xii. 57). In his later years
he had also a small house on the Quirinal, near the temple
of Quirinus. At the time when his third book was brought
out he had retired for a short time to Cisalpine Gaul, in weariness,
as he tells us, of his unremunerative attendance on the levees
of the great. For a time he seems to have felt the charm of
the new scenes which he visited, and in a later book (iv. 25)
he contemplates the prospect of retiring to the neighbourhood
of Aquileia and the Timavus. But the spell exercised over him
by Rome and Roman society was too great; even the epigrams
sent from Forum Corneli and the Aemilian Way ring much more
of the Roman forum, and of the streets, baths, porticos and
clubs of Rome, than of the places from which they are dated.
So too his motive for his final departure from Rome in A.D. 98
was a weariness of the burdens imposed on him by his social
position, and apparently the difficulties of meeting the ordinary
expenses of living in the metropolis (x. 96) ; and he looks forward
to a return to the scenes familiar to his youth. The well-known
epigram a,ddressed to Juvenal (xii. 18) shows that for a time
his ideal was realized; but the more trustworthy evidence
of the prose epistle prefixed to book xii. proves that his con-
tentment was of short duration, and that he could not live
happily away from the literary and social pleasures of Rome.
The one consolation of his exile was the society of a lady, Mar-
cella, of whom he writes rather as if she were his patroness
and it seems to have been a necessity of his being to have always
a patron or patroness than his wife or mistress.
During his life at Rome, although he never rose to a position
of real independence, and had always a hard struggle with
poverty, he seems to have known everybody, especially every
one of any eminence at the bar or in literature. In addition
to Lucan and Quintilian, he numbered among his friends or
more intimate acquaintances Silius Italicus, Juvenal, the younger
Pliny; and there were many others of high position whose
society and patronage he enjoyed. The silence which he and
Statius, although authors writing at the same time, having
common friends and treating often of the same subjects, main-
tain in regard to one another may be explained by mutual
dislike or want of sympathy. Martial in many places shows
an undisguised contempt for the artificial kind of epic on which
Statius's reputation chiefly rests; and it seems quite natural
that the respectable author of the Thebaid and the Silvae should
feel little admiration for either the life or the works of the
Bohemian epigrammatist.
Martial's faults are of the most glaring kind, and are exhibited
without the least concealment. Living under perhaps the
worst of the many bad emperors who ruled the world in the
ist century, he addresses him and his favourites with the most
servile flattery in his lifetime, censures him immediately after
his death (xii. 6), and offers incense at the shrine of his successor.
He is not ashamed to be dependent on his wealthy friends and
patrons for gifts of money, for his dinner, and even for his dress.
We cannot feel sure that even what seem his sincerest tributes
of regard may not be prompted by the hope of payment. Further,
there are in every book epigrams which cannot be read with
any other feelings than those of extreme distaste.
These faults are so unmistakable and undeniable that many
have formed their whole estimate of Martial from them, and
have declined to make any further acquaintance with him.
Even those who greatly admire his genius, and find the freshest
interest in his representation of Roman life and his sketches
of manners and character, do not attempt to palliate his faults,
though they may partially account for them by reference to
the morals of his age and the circumstances of his life. The
age was one when literature had either to be silent or to be
servile. Martial was essentially a man of letters: he was bound
either to gain favour by his writings or to starve. Even Statius,
whose writings are in other respects irreproachable, is nearly
as fulsome in his adulation. The relation of client to patron
had been recognized as an honourable one by the best Roman
traditions. No blame had attached to Virgil or Horace on
account of the favours which they received from Augustus and
Maecenas, or of the return which they made for these favours
in their verse. That old honourable relationship had, however,
greatly changed between Augustus and Domitian. Men of
good birth and education, 'and sometimes even of high official
position (Juv. i. 117), accepted the dole (sportula). Martial
was merely following a general fashion in paying his court
to " a lord," and he made the best of the custom. In his-earlier
career he used to accompany his patrons to their villas at Baiae
or Tibur, and to attend their morning levies. Later on he
went to his own small country house, near Nomentum, and
sent a poem, or a small volume of his poems, as his representative
at the early visit. The fault of grossness Martial shares with
nearly all ancient and many modern writers who treat of life
from the baser or more ridiculous side. That he offends more
than perhaps any of them is not, apparently, to be explained on
790
MARTIALIS MARTIAL LAW
the ground that he had to amuse a peculiarly corrupt public.
Although there is the most cynical effrontery and want of self-
respect in Martial's use of language, there is not much trace of the
satyr in him much less, many readers will think, than in Juvenal.
It remains to ask, What were those qualities of nature and
intellect which enable us to read his best work even the great
body of his work with the freshest sense of pleasure in the
present day? He had the keenest capacity for enjoyment,
the keenest curiosity and power of observation. He had also
a very just discernment. It is rare to find any one endowed
with so quick a perception of the ridiculous who is so little
of a caricaturist. He was himself singularly free from cant,
pedantry or affectation of any kind. Though tolerant of most
vices, he had a hearty scorn of hypocrisy. There are few better
satirists of social and literary pretenders in ancient or modern
times. Living in a very artificial age, he was quite natural,
hating pomp and show, and desiring to secure in life only what
really gave him pleasure. To live one's own life heartily from
day to day without looking before or after, and to be one's
self without trying to be that for which nature did not
intend him, is the sum of his philosophy. Further, while
tolerant of much that is bad and base the characters of
Crispinus and Regulus, for instance he shows himself genuinely
grateful for kindness and appreciative of excellence. He has
no bitterness, malice or envy in his composition. He professes
to avoid personalities in his satire;'" Ludimus innocui "
is the character he claims for it. Pliny, in the short tribute
which he pays to him on hearing of his death, says, " He had
as much good-nature as wit and pungency in his writings "
(Ep. iii. 21).
Honour and sincerity (fides and simplidlas) are the qualities
which he most admires in his friends. Though many of his
epigrams indicate a cynical disbelief in the character of women,
yet others prove that he could respect and almost reverence
a refined and courteous lady. His own life in Rome afforded
him no experience of domestic virtue; but his epigrams show
that, even in the age which is known to modern readers chiefly
from the Satires of Juvenal, virtue was recognized as the purest
source of happiness. The tenderest element in Martial's nature
seems, however, to have been his affection for children and for
his dependents.
The permanent literary interest of Martial's epigrams arises
not so much from their verbal brilliancy, though in this they
are unsurpassed, as from the amount of human life and character
which they contain. He, better than any other writer, enables
us to revive the outward spectacle of the imperial Rome. If
Juvenal enforces the lesson of that time, and has penetrated
more deeply into the heart of society, Martial has sketched
its external aspect with a much fairer pencil and from a much
more intimate contact with it. Martial was to Rome in the
decay of its ancient virtue and patriotism what Menander
was to Athens in its decline. They were both men of cosmo-
politan rather than of a national type, and had a closer affinity
to the life of Paris or London in the i8th century than to that
of Rome in the days of the Scipios or of Athens in the age
of Pericles. The form of epigram was fitted to the critical
temper of Rome as the comedy of manners was fitted to the
dramatic genius of Greece. Martial professes to be of the school
of Catullus, Pedo, and Marsus, and admits his inferiority only
to the first. But, though he is a poet of a less pure and genuine
inspiration he is a greater epigrammatist even than his master.
Indeed the epigram bears to this day the form impressed upon
it by his unrivalled skill.
AUTHORITIES. The MSS. of Martial are divided by editors into
three families according to the recension of the text which they offer.
Of these the oldest and best is represented by three MSS. which
contain only selected extracts. The second family is derived from
an inferior source, a MS. which was edited in A.D. 401 by Torquatus
Gennadius; it comprises four MSS. and contains the whole of the
text. The third family, of which the MSS. are very numerous, also
contains the whole of the text in a recension slightly different from
that of the other two; the best representative of this family is the
MS. preserved in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh.
The best separate edition of the text is that of Lindsay (Oxford,
1902); earlier editions of importance are those of Schneidewin
(1842 and 1853), and of Gilbert (Leipzig, 1886). The best commen-
tary is that of L. Friedlander (Leipzig, 1886) in two volumes with
German notes) and in the same scholar's Sittengeschichte Roms much
will be found that explains and illustrates Martial's epigrams.
There is a large selection from the epigrams with English notes by
Paley and Stone (1875), a smaller selection with notes by Stephenson
(1880); see also Edwin Post, Selected Epigrams of Martial (1908),
with introduction and notes. The translation into English verse
by Elphinston (London, 1782) is famous for its absurdity, which
drew an epigram from Burns. (W. Y. S.)
MARTIALIS, QUINTUS GARGILIUS, a Latin writer on
horticultural subjects. He has been identified by some with
the military commander of the same name, mentioned in a
Latin inscription of A.D. 260 (C. I. L. viii. 9047) as having
lost his life in the colony of Auzia (Aumale) in Mauretania
Caesariensis. Considerable fragments of his work (probably
called De hortis), which treated of the cultivation of trees and
vegetables, and also of their medicinal properties, have survived,
chiefly in the body of and as an appendix to the Medicina
Plinii (an anonymous 4th century handbook of medical recipes
based upon Pliny, Nat. Hist, xx.-xxxii.). Extant sections
treat of apples, peaches, quinces, almonds and chestnuts.
Gargilius also wrote a treatise on the tending of cattle (De curis
bourn), and a biography of the emperor Alexander Severus is
attributed by two of the Scriptores historiae Augustae (Aelius
Lampridius and Flavius Vopiscus) to a Gargilius Martialis,
who may be the same person.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gargilii Martialis . . . fragmenta, ed. A. Mai
(1846); Plinii secundi quae fertur medicina, ed. V. Rose (1876);
De curis bourn, ed. E. Lommatzsch (1903) with Vegetius Renatus's
Mulomedicina ; " Gargilius Martialis und die Maurenkriege,"
C. Cichorius in G. Curtius, Leipziger Studien. x. (1887), where the
inscription referred to above is fully discussed: see also Teuffel-
Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), 380.
MARTIAL LAW. " Martial law " is an unfortunate term
and in a sense a misnomer. It describes a suspension of ordinary
law, rendered necessary by circumstances of war or rebellion.
The confusion arose from the fact that the marshal's court
administered military law before the introduction of articles
of war, which were in their turn merged in the Army Act.
But martial law is not a law in the proper sense of the term.
It is the exercise of the will of the military commander, who
takes upon himself the responsibility of suspending ordinary
law in order to ensure the safety of the state. It is declared,
by a proclamation issued by the executive, that ordinary law
is inadequate to cope with the circumstances, and provides
exceptional means of arrest and punishment of persons who
resist the government or aid the enemy. But such a proclama-
tion, while invariably issued in order to give publicity to the
suspension of ordinary law, does not invest the step with the
force of law. It is simply military authority exercised in
accordance with the laws and usages of war, and is limited
by military necessity. Yet in reality it is part of common law
which justifies acts done by necessity for the defence of the
commonwealth when there is war. H. W. Halleck in his work
on International Law (i. 544), says, " Martial law originates
either in the prerogative of the crown, as in Great Britain, or
from the exigency of the occasion, as in other states: it is one
of the rights of sovereignty, and is essential to the existence
of a state, as is the right to declare or to carry on war."
This opinion, however, must be read, as regards the British
Empire, with the passage in the Petition of Right which is
reproduced in the preamble of each annual Army Act, and
asserts the illegality of martial law in time of peace in the
following terms: " No man shall be fore-judged or subjected
in time of peace to any kind of punishment within this realm
by martial law." Therefore, whilst martial law is declared
illegal in time of peace, it is indirectly declared lawful in time
of war and intestinal commotion when the courts are closed,
or when there is no time for their cumbrous action. C. M.
Clode, in Military Forces of the Crown, argues that the words
of the Petition of Right and of the Military Act since the reign
of Anne are plain in this respect " that . . . the crown possesses
MARTIAL LAW
791
the right of issuing commissions in war and rebellion." But
he rightly adds that the military commander may permit the
usual courts to continue their jurisdiction upon such subjects
as he thinks proper. Legislative enactments have also sanc-
tioned this special jurisdiction at various times, notably in
1798, 1799, 1801, and in 1803. These enactments lay down
that exceptional powers may be exercised " whether the ordinary
courts shall or shall not be open." As an invariable rule
an act of indemnity has been passed on the withdrawal of
martial law, but only to protect any person in charge of the
execution of martial law who has exceeded his powers in good
faith.
There has been much discussion as to whether, in districts
where martial law has not been proclaimed, a person can be
sent for trial from such district into a district where martial
law was in operation. It is argued that if the ordinary courts
were open and at work in the non-proclaimed district recourse
should be had to them. The Privy Council in 1902 (re Marais)
refused leave to appeal where the Supreme Court of Cape Colony
had declined to issue a writ of Habeas Corpus in these circum-
stances. Mr Justice Blackburn in his charge in R. v. Eyre
says, " I have come to the conclusion that, looking at what
martial law was, the bringing of a person into the proclaimed
district to be tried might, in a proper case, be justified." The
learned judge admits that there should be a power of summary
trial, observing all the substantials of justice, in order to stamp
out an insurrection by speedy trial.
Whilst martial law is the will of the commanders, and is
only limited by the customs of war and the discretion of those
who administer it, still, as far as practicable, the procedure
of military law is followed, and a military court is held on the
same lines as a court-martial. Charges are simply framed
without technicalities. The prisoner is present, the evidence
of prosecution and prisoner is taken on oath, the proceedings
are recorded, and the sentence of the court must be confirmed
according to the rules of the Army Act. Sentences of death
and penal servitude must be referred to headquarters for con-
firmation. In the South African War (1899-1902) these limits
of procedure were observed, and when possible will always be.
Entering more into detail, the term martial law has been
employed in several senses: (i) As applied to the military
Different forces of the crown, apart from the military law
Applications under the old Mutiny Acts, and the present annual
of Martial Army Acts. (2) As applied to the enemy. (3)
As applied to rebels. (4) As applied to civilian
subjects who are not in rebellion, but in a district where the
ordinary course of civil life cannot be maintained owing to
war or rebellion.
1 . In regard to the military forces of the crown, the superseding
of justice as administered under the Army Act could only occur
in a time of great need; e.g. mutiny of five or six regiments in
the field, with no time to take the opinion of any executive
authority. The officer in command would then be bound to
take measures for the purpose of suppressing such mutiny,
even to putting soldiers to death if necessary. It would be
a case where necessity forced immediate action.
2. Martial law as applied to the enemy or the population of
the enemy's country, is in the words of the duke of Welling-
ton, " the will of the general of the army, though it must be
administered in accordance with the customs of war."
3. 4. But it is as affecting the subjects of the crown in rebellion
that the subject of martial law really obtains its chief importance;
and it is in this sense that the term is generally used; i.e. the
suspension of ordinary law and the temporary government of
the country, or parts of it, or all of it, by military tribunals.
It has often been laid down that martial law in this sense is
unknown to the law of England. A. V. Dicey, for instance,
restricts martial law to only another expression for " the common
right of the crown and its servants to repel force by force,
in the case of invasion, insurrection, or riot, or generally of
any violent resistance." But more than this is understood
by the term martial law.
When the proposition was laid down that martial law in
this sense is unknown to the law of England, it is to be remem-
bered that fortunately in England there never had been a
state at all similar to that prevailing in Cape Colony in 1900-
1902, and it may perhaps be questioned whether the statement
would have been made with such certainty if similar events
had been present to the writers' minds.
In the charge delivered by Mr Justice Blackburn in the
Jamaica case the law as affecting the general question of martial
law is well set out.
" By the laws of this country," said Mr Justice Blackburn, " be-
ginning at Magna Carta and getting more and more established,
down to the time of the Revolution, when it was finally and com-
pletely established, the general rule was that a subject was not to
be tried or punished except by due course of law ; all crimes are to be
determined by juries subject to the guidance of the judge; that is
the general rule, and is established law. But from the earliest
times there was this also which was the law, and is the law still, that
when there was a foreign invasion or an insurrection, it was the duty
of every good subject, in obedience to the officers and magistrates,
to resist the rebels, ... in such a case as that of insurrection pre-
vailing so far that the courts of law cannot sit, there must really be
anarchy unless there is some power to keep the people in order, . . .
before that principle the crown claimed the prerogative to exercise
summary proceedings by martial law ... in time of war when this
disturbance was going on, over others than the army. And further
than that, the crown made this further claim against the insurgents,
that whilst it existed, pending the insurrection and for a short time
afterwards, the crown had . . . the power to proclaim martial law
in the sense of using summary proceedings, to punish the insurgents
and to check and stop the spread of the rebellion by summary pro-
ceedings against the insurgents, spas . . . to stamp out the rebellion.
Now no doubt the extent to which the crown had power to do that
has never been yet decided. Our law has been declared from time
to time and has always been a practical science, that is, the judges
have decided so much as was necessary for the particular case, and
that has become part of the^aw. But it never has come to be decided
what this precise power is."
So far as the United Kingdom is concerned the need has
never arisen. It has always been found possible to employ
the ordinary courts directly the rebels have been defeated in
the field and have been made prisoners or surrendered. " Fortu-
nately in England only three occasions have arisen since the
Revolution when the authority of the civil power was for a time,
and then only partially, suspended," 1715, 1745 and 1780.
Clode, Military Forces, ii. 163, says: " Upon the threat of
invasion followed by rebellion in 1715, the first action of the
government was to issue a proclamation authorizing all officers,
civil and military, by force of arms (if necessary) to suppress
the rebellion." This, therefore, would only seem to fall within
the limited sense in which Dicey understands martial law to be
legal, " the right of the crown and its servants to repel force
by force." There was no attempt to bring persons before
courts-martial who ought to be tried by the common law, and
all the extraordinary acts of the crown were sanctioned by
parliament. After the rebellion had been suppressed two
statutes were passed, one for indemnity and the other for
pardon. Before the revolution of 1745 similar action was
adopted, a proclamation charging civil magistrates to do their
utmost to prevent and suppress all riots, and acts of parliament
suspending Habeas Corpus, providing for speedy trials; and
of indemnity. In the Gordon Riots of 1780 a very similar
course was pursued, and nothing was done which would not
fall within Dicey's limitation. No prisoners were tried by
martial law.
In Ireland the ordinary law was suspended in 1798-1801
and in 1803. In 1798 an order in Council was issued to all
general officers commanding H.M. forces to punish all persons
acting in, aiding, or in any way assisting the rebellion, according
to martial law, either by death or otherwise, as to them should
seem expedient for the suppression and punishment of all
rebels; but the order was communicated to the Irish houses of
parliament, who expressed their approval by addresses to the
viceroy. It was during the operation of this order that Wolfe
Tone's case arose. Tone, a subject of the king, was captured
on board a French man-of-war, and condemned to death by
a court-martial. Curran, his counsel, applied to the king's
792
bench at Dublin for a Habeas Corpus, on the grounds that
only when war was raging could courts-martial be endured,
not while the court of king's bench sat. The court granted
his application; but no ultimate decision was ever given, as
Tone died before it could be arrived at.
In 1799 application was made to parliament for express
sanction to martial law. The preamble of the act declared
that " The Rebellion still continues . . . and stopped the
ordinary course of justice and of the common law; and that
many persons . . . who had been taken by H.M. forces . . .
have availed themselves of such partial restoration of the ordinary
course of the common law to evade the punishment of their
crimes, whereby it had become necessary for parliament to
interfere." The act declared that martial law should prevail
and be put in force whether the ordinary courts were or were
not open, &c. And nothing in the act could be held to take
away, abridge or eliminate the acknowledged prerogative of
war, for the public safety to resort to the exercise of martial
law against open enemies or traitors, &c.
After the suppression of the rebellion an act of indemnity
was passed in 1801.
In 1803 a similar act was passed by the parliament of the
United Kingdom as it was after the Act of Union. In intro-
ducing it Mr Pitt stated: " The bill is not one to enable
the government in Ireland to declare martial law in districts
where insurrection exists, for that is a power which His
Majesty already possesses the object will be to enable
the lord-lieutenant, when any persons shall be taken in
rebellion, to order them to be tried immediately by a court-
martial."
During the iQth century martial law was proclaimed by the
British government in the following places :
1. Barbados, 1805-1816. 6. Cephalonia, 1848.
2. Demerara, 1823. 7. Cape of Good Hope, 1834;
3. Jamaica, 1831-1832; 1865. 1849-1851.
4. Canada, 1837-1838. 8. St Vincent, 1863.
5. Ceylon, 1817 and 1848. 9. South Africa, 1899-1901.
The proclamation was always based on the grounds of necessity,
and where any local body of a representative character existed it
would seem that its assent was given, and an act of indemnity
obtained after the suppression of the rebellion. UNO. S.)
MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE SYLVERE GAY, VICOMTE
DE (1778-1832), French statesman, was born at Bordeaux on
the aoth of June 1778. In 1798 he acted as secretary to Sieyes;
then after serving for a while in the army, he turned to literature,
producing several light plays. Under the Empire he practised
with success as an advocate at Bordeaux, where in 1818 he
became advocate-general of the cour royale. In 1819 he was
appointed procureur-gfneral at Limoges, and in 182 1 was returned
for Marmande to the Chamber of Deputies, where he supported
the policy of Villele. In 1822 he was appointed councillor
of state, in 1823 he accompanied the due d'Angouleme to Spain
as civil commissary; in 1824 he was created a viscount and
appointed director-general of registration. In contact with
practical politics his ultra-royalist views were gradually modified
in the direction of the Doctrinaires, and on the fall of Villele
he was selected by Charles X. to carry out the new policy of
compromise. On the 4th of January 1828 he was appointed
minister of the interior, and, though not bearing the title of
president, became the virtual head of the cabinet. He succeeded
in passing the act abolishing the press censorship, and in persuad-
ing the king to sign the ordinances of the i6th of June 1828 on
the Jesuits and the little seminaries. He was exposed to attack
from both the extreme Left and the extreme Right, and when
in April 1829 a coalition of these groups defeated him in the
chamber, Charles X., who had never believed in the policy
he represented, replaced him by the prince de Polignac. In
March 1830 Martignac voted with the majority for the address
protesting against the famous ordinances; but during the
revolution that followed he remained true to his legitimist
principles. His last public appearance was in defence of Polignac
in the Chamber of Peers in December 1830. He died on the
3rd of April 1832.
MARTIGNAC MARTIN (POPES)
Martignac published Bordeaux au mois de Mars 1815 (Paris, 1830),
and an Rssai historique sur les revolutions d'Espagne et I' intervention
frangaise de 1823 (Paris, 1832). See also E. Daudet.Le Ministere de
M. de Martignac (Paris, 1875).
MARTIGUES, a port of south-eastern France in the depart-
ment of Bouches-du-Rhone, on the southern shore of the lagoon
of Berre, and at the eastern extremity of that of Caronte, by
which the former is connected with the Mediterranean. Pop.
(1906), 4,178. Martigues is 23 m. W.N.W. of Marseilles by
rail. Divided into three quarters by canals, the place has
been called the Venice of Provence. It has a harbour (used
by coasting and fishing vessels), marine workshops, oil and
soap manufactures and cod-drying works. A special industry
consists in the preparation of boutargue from the roes of the
grey mullet caught in the salt lagoons, which rivals Russian
caviare.
Built in 1232 by Raymond BeVenger, count of Provence, Martigues
was made a viscountship by Joanna I., queen of Naples. Henry IV.
made it a principality, in favour of a princess of the house of Luxem-
bourg. It afterwards passed into the hands of the duke of Villars.
MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400), bishop of Tours, was born of
heathen parents at Sabaria (Stein am Agger) in Pannonia, about
the year 316. When ten years old he became a catechumen,
and at fifteen he reluctantly entered the army. While stationed
at Amiens he divided his cloak with a beggar, and on the following
night had the vision of Christ making known to his angels
this act of charity to Himself on the part of " Martinus, still
a catechumen." Soon afterwards he received baptism, and
two years later, having left the army, he joined Hilary of Poitiers,
who wished to make him a deacon, but at his own request
ordained him to the humbler office of an exorcist. On a visit
home he converted his mother, but his zeal against the Arians
roused persecution against him and for some time he lived
an ascetic life on the desert island of Gallinaria near Genoa.
Between 360 and 370 he was again with Hilary at Poitiers, and
founded in the neighbourhood the monasterium locociagense
(Licuge). In 371-372 the people of Tours chose him for their
bishop. He did much to extirpate idolatry from his diocese
and from France, and to extend the monastic system. To
obtain privacy for the maintenance of his personal religion, he
established the monastery of Marmoutier-les-Tours (Martini
monasterium) on the banks of the Loire. At Treves, in 385,
he entreated that the lives of the Priscillianist heretics should
be spared, and he ever afterwards refused to hold ecclesiastical
fellowship with those bishops who had sanctioned their execution.
He died at Candes in the year 400, and is commemorated by
the Roman Church on the nth of November (duplex). He left
no writings, the so-called Confessio being spurious. He is the
patron saint of France and of the cities of Mainz and Wiirzburg.
The Life by his disciple Sulpicius Severus is practically the
only source for his biography, but it is full of legendary matter
and chronological errors. Gregory of Tours gives a list of 206
miracles wrought by him after his death; Sidonius Apollinaris
composed a metrical biography of him. The Feast of St Martin
(Martinmas) took the place of an old pagan festival, and inherited
some of its usages (such as the Martinsmannchen, Martinsfeuer,
Martinshorn and the like, in various parts of Germany); by
this circumstance is probably to be explained the fact that
Martin is regarded as the patron of drinking and jovial meetings,
as well as of reformed drunkards.
See A. Dupuy, Geschichte des heiligen Martins (Schaffhausen, 1855) ;
J. G. Cazenove in Diet. chr. biog. iii. 838.
MARTIN (Martinus), the name of several popes.
MARTIN I. succeeded Theodore I. in June or July 649. He
had previously acted as papal apocrisiarius at Constantinople,
and was held in high repute for learning and virtue. Almost
his first official act was to summon a synod (the first Lateran)
for dealing with the Monothelite heresy. It met in the Lateran
church, was attended by one hundred and five bishops (chiefly
from Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, a few being from Africa and
other quarters), held five sessions or " secretarii " from the
Sth to the 3 ist of October 649, and in twenty canons condemned
the Monothelite heresy, its authors, and the writings by which
MARTIN, B. L. H.
793
it had been promulgated. In this condemnation were included,
not only the Ecthesis or exposition of faith of the patriarch
Sergius for which the emperor Heraclius had stood sponsor,
but also the Typus of Paul, the successor of Sergius, which
had the support of the reigning emperor (Constans II.). Martin
published the decrees of his Lateran synod in an encyclical,
and Constans replied by enjoining his exarch to seize the pope
and send him prisoner to Constantinople. Martin was arrested
in the Lateran (June 15, 653), hurried out of Rome, and
conveyed first to Naxos and subsequently to Constantinople
(Sept. 17, 654). He was ultimately banished to Cherson, where
he arrived on the 26th of March 655, and died on the i6th of
September following. His successor was Eugenius I. (L. D.*)
A full account of the events of his pontificate will be found in
Hefele's Conciliengeschichte, vol. iii. (1877).
MARTIN II., the name commonly given in error to Marinus I.
(?..).
MARTIN III., see Marinus II.
MARTIN IV. (Simon Mompitie de Brion), pope from the 22nd
of February 1281 to the 28th of March 1285, should have been
named Martin II. He was born about 1210 in Touraine. He
became a priest at Rouen and canon of St Martin's at Tours,
and was made chancellor of France by Louis IX. in 1260 and
cardinal-priest of Sta Cecilia by Urban IV. in 1261. As papal
legate in France he held several synods for the reformation of
the clergy and conducted the negotiations for the assumption
of the crown of Sicily by Charles of Anjou. It was through
the latter's influence that he succeeded Nicholas III., after a
six-months' struggle between the French and Italian cardinals.
The Romans at first declined to receive him, and he was con-
secrated at Orvieto on the 23rd of March 1281. Peaceful
and unassuming, he relied completely on Charles of Anjou,
and showed little ability as pope. His excommunication of
the emperor Michael Palaeologus (NoV. 1281), who stood
in the way of the French projects against Greece, weakened
the union with the Eastern Christians, dating from the Lyons
Council of 1274. He unduly favoured his own countrymen,
and for three years after the Sicilian Vespers (Mar. 31, 1282)
he employed all the spiritual and material resources at his com-
mand on behalf of his patron against Peter of Aragon. He
was driven from Rome by a popular uprising and died at Perugia.
His successor was Honorius IV. (C. H. HA.)
His registers have been published in the Bibliotheque des Scales
frangaises d'Athenes et de Rome (Paris, 1901).
See A. Potthast, Regesta pontif. roman., vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875) ;
K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, Bd. 6, 2nd ed. ; F. Gregorovius,
Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton
(London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, Latin Christianity, vol. 6
(London, 1899); W. Norden, Das Papsttum u. Byzanz (Berlin,
1903) ; E. Choullier, " Recherches sur la vie du pape Martin IV.,"
in Revue de Champagne, vol. 4 (1878); Processo istorico dell' insur-
rezione di Sicilia dell' anno 1282, ed. by G. di Marzo (Palermo, 1882).
MARTIN V. (Otto Colonna) (1417-1431) was elected at Con-
stance on St Martin's Day, in a conclave composed of twenty-
three cardinals and thirty delegates from the five different
" nations " of the council. Son of Agapito Colonna, who had
himself become a bishop and cardinal, the new pope belonged to
one of the greatest Roman families; to Urban VI. had been
due his entry, as referendarius, upon an ecclesiastical career.
Having become a cardinal under Innocent VII., he had
seceded from Gregory XII. in 1408, and together with the other
cardinals at Pisa, had taken part in the election of Alexander V.
and afterwards of John XXIII. At Constance, his r61e had
been chiefly that of an arbiter; he was a good and gentle man,
leading a simple life, free from intrigue. While refraining
from making any pronouncement as to the validity of the decrees
of the fourth and fifth sessions, which had seemed to proclaim the
superiority of the council over the pope, Martin V. nevertheless
soon revealed his personal feelings by having a constitution
read in consistory which forbade any appeal from the judgment
of the sovereign pontiff in matters of faith (May 10, 1418).
As to the reform, of which everybody felt the necessity, the
fathers in council had not succeeded in arriving at any agreement.
Martin V. himself settled a great number of points, and then
passed a series of special concordats with Germany, France,
Italy, Spain and England. Though this was not the thorough
reform of which need was felt, the council itself gave the pope
a satisfecit. When the council was dissolved Martin V. made it
his task to regain Italy. After staying for long periods at
Mantua and -Florence, where the deposed pope, Baldassare
Cossa(JohnXXIII.),cameandmadesubmissionto him, Martin
V. was enabled to enter Rome (Sept. 30, 1420) and measure
the extent of the ruins left there by the Great Schism of the
West. He set to work to restore some of these ruins, to recon-
stitute and pacify the Papal State, to put an end to the Schism,
which showed signs of continuing in Aragon and certain parts
of southern France; to enter into negotiations, unfortunately
unfruitful, with the Greek Church also with a view to a return
to unity, to organize the struggle against heresy in Bohemia;
to interpose his pacific mediation between France and England,
as well as between the parties which were rending France;
and, finally, to welcome and act as patron to saintly re-
formers like Bernardino of Siena and Francesca Romana,
foundress of the nursing sisterhood of the Oblate di Tor de'
Speech! (1425).
In accordance with the decree Frequens, and the promises
which he had made, Martin V., after an interval of five years,
summoned a new council, which was almost immediately
transferred from Pavia to Siena, in consequence of an epidemic
(1423). But the small number of fathers who attended at the
latter town, and above all, the disquieting tendencies which
began to make themselves felt there, induced the pope to force
on a dissolution of the synod. Pending the reunion of the new
council which had been summoned at Basel for the end of a
period of seven years, Martin V. himself endeavoured to effect a
reformation in certain points, but he was carried off by apoplexy
(Feb. 20, 1431), just as he had designated the young and brilliant
Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini to preside in his place over the council
of Basel.
See L. Pastor, Geschichte der Papste (1901), i. 205-279; J. Guiraud,
L'tat pontifical apres le Grand Schisme (1896); Muntz, Les Arts a
la cour des popes pendant le xV et le xvi' siecle (1878); N. Valois,
La Crise religieuse du xV siecle; le pape et le concile (1909), vol. i.
p. i.-xxix., 1-93. (N. V.)
MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883), French historian,
was born on the 2oth of February 1810 at St Quentin (Aisne),
where his father was a judge. Trained as a notary, he followed
this profession for some time but having achieved success with
an historical romance, Wolfthurm (1830), he applied himself
to historical research. Becoming associated with Paul Lacroix
(" le Bibliophile Jacob "), he planned with him a history of
France, to consist of excerpts from the chief chroniclers and
historians, with original matter filling up gaps in the continuity.
The first volume, which appeared in 1833, encouraged the
author to make the work his own, and his Hisloire de France,
in fifteen volumes (1833-1836), was the result. This magnum
opus, rewritten and further elaborated (4th ed., 16 vols. and
index, 1861-1865) gained for the author in 1856 the first prize of
the Academy, and in 1869 the grand biennial prize of 20,000
francs. A popular abridgment in seven volumes was published
in 1867. This, together with the continuation, Hisloire de
France depuis 1789 jusqu'a nos jours (6 vols. 1878-1883), gives
a complete history of France, and superseded Sismondi's Hisloire
des Franqais.
This work is in parts defective; Martin's descriptions of the
Gauls are based rather on romance than on history, and in
this respect he was too much under the influence of Jean Reynaud
and his cosmogonic philosophy. However he gave a great
impetus to Celtic and anthropological studies. His knowledge
of the mddile ages is inadequate, and his criticisms are not
discriminating. As a free-thinking republican, his prejudices
often biassed his judgment on the political and religious history
of the ancien regime. The last six volumes, devoted to the
lyth and i8th centuries, are superior to the earlier ones. Martin
sat in the assembles nationals as deputy for Aisne in 1871,
794
MARTIN, C. MARTIN, L.
and was elected life senator in 1878, but he left no mark as a
politician. He died in Paris on the I4th of December 1883.
Among his minor works may be mentioned : De la France, de
son genie et de ses destinies (1847); Daniel Manin (1860), La Russie
el I'Europe (1866) ; Etudes d'archeologie celtique (1872) ; Les Napoleon
et les frontihes de la France (1874). See his biography by Gabriel
Hanotaux, Henri Martin; sa vie, ses ceuvres, son temps (1885).
MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800), French adventurer and officer
in the army of the English East India Company, was born at
Lyons on the 4th of January 1735, the son of a cooper. He
went out to India in 1751 to serve under Dupleix and Lally
in the Carnatic wars. When Pondicherry fell in 1761, he seems,
like others of his countrymen, to have accepted service in the
Bengal army of the English, obtaining an ensign's commission
in 1 763, and steadily rising to the rank of major-general. He was
employed on the building of the new Fort William at Calcutta,
and afterwards on the survey of Bengal under Rennell. In
1776 he was allowed to accept the appointment of superintendent
of the arsenal of the nawab of Oudh at Lucknow, retaining his
rank but being ultimately placed on half pay. He acquired
a large fortune, and on his death (Sept. 13, 1800) he bequeathed
his residuary estate to found institutions for the education
of European children at Lucknow, Calcutta and Lyons, all
known by the name of " La Martiniere." That at Lucknow
is the best known. It was housed in the palace that he had
built called Constantia, which, though damaged during the
Mutiny, retains many personal memorials of its founder.
See S. C. Hill, The Life of Claud Martin (Calcutta, 1901).
MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846), American jurist
and author, was born in Marseilles, France, on the i7th of March
1762, of Provencal descent. In 1780 he went to Martinique,
and before the close of the American war of Independence
went to North Carolina, where (in New Bern) he taught French
and learnt English, and set up as a printer. He studied law,
and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in 1789. He
published various legal books, and edited Acts of the North
Carolina Assembly from 1715 to 1803 (2nd ed., 1809). He
was a member of the lower house of the General Assembly
in 1806-1807. In 1809 he was commissioned a judge of the
superior court of the territory of Mississippi, and in March
1810 became judge of the superior court of the territory of
Orleans. Here the law was in a chaotic condition, what with
French law hefore O'Reilly's rule, then a Spanish code, and in
1808 the Digest of the Civil Laws, an adaptation by James
Brown and Moreau Lislet of the code of Napoleon, which
repealed the Spanish fueros, partidas, recopilationes and
laws of the Indies only as they conflicted with its provisions.
Martin published in 1811 and 1813 reports of cases decided by
the superior court of the territory of Orleans. For two years
from February 1813 Martin was attorney-general of the
newly established state of Louisiana, and then until March 1846
was a judge and (from 1836 to 1846) presiding judge of the
supreme court of the state. For the period until 1830 he
published reports of the decisions of the supreme court; and in
1816 he published two volumes, one French and one English, of
A General Digest of the Acts of Legislatures of the Late Territory
of Orleans and of the State of Louisiana. He won the name of
the " father of Louisiana jurisprudence " and his work was of
great assistance to Edward Livingston, Pierre Derbigny and
Moreau Lislet in the Louisiana codification of 1821-1826.
Martin's eyesight had begun to fail when he was seventy, and
after 1836 he could no longer write opinions with his own hand. 1
He died in New Orleans on the nth of December 1846.
Martin translated Robert J. Pothier On Obligations (1802), and
wrote The History of Louisiana from the Earliest Period (2 vols.
1827-1829) and The History of North Carolina (2 vols., 1829). There
1 His holographic will in favour of his brother (written in 1844
and devising property worth nearly $400,000) was unsuccessfully
contested by the state of Louisiana on the ground that the will was
void as being a legal and physical impossibility, or as being an
attempted fraud on the state, as under it the state would not
receive a 10% tax if the property went to the heirs of Martin
(as intestate) in France.
is a memoir by Henry A. Bullard in part ii. of B. F. French's
Historical Collections of Louisiana (Philadelphia, 1850), and one by
W. W. Howe in John F. Condon's edition of Martin's History of
Louisiana (New Orleans, 1882).
MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897), American artist, was
born at Albany, New York, on the 28th of October 1836. A
pupil for a short time of William Hart, his earlier work followed
the lines of the Hudson River School. He was elected as
associate of the National Academy of Design, New York, in
1868, and a full academician in 1874. During a trip to Europe
in 1876 he was captivated by the Barbizon school, and from
1882 to 1886 he lived in France spending much of the time
in Normandy. At Villerville he painted his " Harp of the
Winds," now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Among his important canvases are " Westchester Hills,"
" Adirondack Scenery," " The Cinquebceuf Church," " Sand
Dunes," and "A Newport Landscape." Martin is generally
spoken of as one of the great trio of American landscapists,
the other two being Inness and Wyant, and examples of his
work are in most of the important American collections. He
died at St. Paul, Minnesota, on the 2nd of February 1897.
MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854), English painter, was born
at Haydon Bridge, near Hexham, on the igth of July 1789.
He was apprenticed by his father to a coachbuilder to learn
heraldic painting, but owing to a quarrel the indentures were
cancelled, and he was placed under Bonifacio Musso, an Italian
artist, father of the enamel painter Charles Musso. With his
master Martin removed to London in 1806, where he married
at the age of nineteen, and supported himself by giving draw-
ing lessons, and by painting in water colours, and on china and
glass. His leisure was occupied in the study of perspective and
architecture. His first picture, " Sadak in Search of the Waters
of Oblivion," was exhibited in the Royal Academy of 1812, and
sold for fifty guineas. It was followed by the "Expulsion" (1813),
"Paradise" (1813), "Clytie" (1814), and "Joshua" (1815). In 1821
appeared his " Belshazzar's Feast," which excited much favour-
able and hostile comment, and was awarded a prize of 200 at the
British Institution, where the Joshua had previously carried off a
premium of 100. Then came the "Destruction of Herculaneum"
(1822), the" Creation " (1824), the "Eve of the Deluge" (1841),
and a series of other Biblical and imaginative subjects. In 1832-
1833 Martin received 2000 for drawing and engraving a fine
series of designs to Milton, and with Westall he produced a set of
Bible illustrations. He was also occupied with schemes for
the improvement of London, and published various pamphlets
and plans dealing with the metropolitan water supply, sewage,
dock and railway systems. During the last four years of his
life he was engaged upon his large subjects of "The Judgment,"
the " Day of Wrath," and the " Plains of Heaven." He was
attacked with paralysis while painting, and died in the Isle of
Man on the i7th of February 1854.
MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826), American lawyer, was
born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, on the 9th of February
1748. He graduated at the college of New Jersey (now Princeton
University) at the head of a class of thirty-five in 1766, and
immediately afterwards removed to Maryland, teaching at
Queenstown in that colony until 1770, and being admitted to
the bar in 1771. He practised law for a short time in Virginia,
then returned to Maryland, and became recognized as the leader
of the Maryland bar and as one of the ablest lawyers in the United
States. From 1778 to 1805 he was attorney-general of Maryland;
in 1814-1816 he was chief judge of the court of Oyer and
Terminer for the city of Baltimore; and in 1818-1822 he was
attorney-general of Maryland. He was one of Maryland's
representatives in the Continental Congress in 1784-1785 and
in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia, but
opposed the constitution and refused to affix his signature. He
subsequently allied himself with the Federalists, and was an
opponent of Thomas Jefferson, who in 1807 spoke of him as the
"Federal Bull-Dog." His ability wasshown in his famous defence
of Judge Samuel Chase (q.v.) in the impeachment trial before the
United States Senate in 1804-1805, and in his defence of Aaron
MARTIN, SIR T. MARTIN OF TROPPAU
795
Burr (q.v.) against the charge of treason in 1807. He has been
described by the historian Henry Adams, writing of the Chase
trial, as at that time the " most formidable of American advo-
cates." Though he received a large income, he was so impro-
vident that he was frequently in want, and on the 22nd of
February 1822 the legislature of Maryland passed a remarkable
resolution the only one of the kind in American history
requiring every lawyer in the state to pay an annual licence
fee of five dollars, to be handed over to trustees appointed " for
the appropriation of the proceeds raised by virtue of this re-
solution to the use of Luther Martin." This resolution was
rescinded on the 6th of February 1823. Martin died at the
home of Aaron Burr in New York on the loth of July 1826.
In 1783 he had married a daughter of the Captain Michael
Cresap (1742-1775), who was unjustly charged by Jefferson,
in his Notes on Virginia, with the murder of the family of
the Indian chief, John Logan, and whom Martin defended in
a pamphlet long out of print.
See the biographical sketch by Henry P. Goddard, Luther Martin,
the Federal Bull-Dog (Baltimore, 1887), No. 24 of the " Peabody
Fund Publications," of the Maryland Historical Society.
MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909), British author and
translator, the son of a solicitor, was born at Edinburgh on the
i6th of September 1816, and educated at the Royal High School
and the University, from which he subsequently received the
honorary degree of LL.D. He practised for some time as a
solicitor in Edinburgh, but in 1846 went to London, where he
became senior partner in the firm of Martin & Leslie, parlia-
mentary agents. He early contributed to Eraser's Magazine
and Tail's Magazine, under the signature of " Bon Gaultier,"
and in 1856, in conjunction with Professor Aytoun, he published
the Book of Ballads under the same pseudonym. This work at
once obtained popular favour. In 1858 he published a volume of
translations of the Poems and Ballads of Goethe, and this was
followed by a rendering of the Danish poet Henrik Hertz's
lyric drama, King Rene's Daughter. The principal character in
this drama, lolanthe, was sustained by Helena Faucit (q.v.),
who in 1851 became the author's wife. Martin's translations of
Ohlenschlager's dramas, Correggio (1854) and Aladdin, or the
Wonderful Lamp (1857), widened the fame of the Danish poet in
England. In 1860 appeared Martin's metrical translation of the
Odes of Horace; and in 1870 he wrote a volume on Horace for the
series of " Ancient Classics for English Readers." In 1882 his
Horatian labours were concluded by a translation of the poet's
whole works, with a life and notes, in two volumes. A poetical
translation of Catullus was published in 1861, followed by a
privately printed volume of Poems, Original and Translated, in
1863. The came translations of the Vila Nuova of Dante, and
the first part of Goethe's Faust. A metrical translation of the
second part of Faust appeared in 1866. Martin wrote a memoir
of his friend Aytoun in 1867, and while engaged upon this work
he was requested by Queen Victoria, to whom he was introduced
by his friend Sir Arthur Helps, to undertake the Life of His
Royal Highness the Prince Consort. The first volume of this
well-known work was published in 1874. In 1878 Martin's
translation of Heine's Poems and Ballads appeared. Two years
later the Life of the Prince Consort was brought to a successful
conclusion by the publication of the fifth volume. A knighthood
was then conferred upon him. In the following November he was
elected lord rector of the university of St Andrews. Martin's
Life of Lord Lyndhurst, based upon papers furnished by the family,
was published in 1883. In 1889 appeared The Song of the Bell,
and other Translations from Schiller, Goethe, Uhland, and Others;
in 1894 Madonna Pia, a Tragedy, and three Other Dramas; a
translation of Leopardi's poems in 1905; and in 1901 he published
a biography of his wife. The kindly relations which subsisted
between Queen Victoria and Sir Theodore Martin were continued
after the completion of the Life of the prince consort up to
the queen's death. Sir Theodore's account of these relations
was privately printed in 1902, and, with King Edward's consent,
for general publication in 1908. This little book, Queen Victoria
as I knew her, throws a good deal of light on the Queen's
character and private life. Sir Theodore Martin died on the
1 8th of August 1909.
MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810), English naturalist, the son
of a hosier, was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, in 1767.
He studied drawing at an early age from James Bolton at
Halifax, and gained from him a taste for the study of natural
history. In 1805 he was appointed drawing master in the gram-
mar school at Macclesfield. Meanwhile he cultivated his taste
for natural history, and was in 1796 elected a fellow of the
Linnaean Society. He is best known for his early works on
British fossils, entitled Pelrifacla derbiensia or Figures and
Descriptions of Petrifactions collected in Derbyshire (1809); and
Outlines of an Attempt to establish a Knowledge of Extraneous
Fossils on Scientific Principles (1809). He died at Macclesfield on
the 3ist of May 1810.
MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801-1895), British
admiral, son of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin,
comptroller of the navy, and grandson, on the mother's side, of
Captain Robert Fanshawe, who commanded the " Namur " oo
in Rodney's victory of the 1 2th of April 1 782, was born on the sth
of December 1801. Entering the navy at the age of twelve,
his father's interest secured his rapid promotion: he was made
a lieutenant on the isth of December 1820; on the Sth of
February 1823 he was promoted to be commander of the
" Fly " sloop, his good service in which in support of the inier-
ests of British merchants at Callao secured his promotion
as captain on the sth of June 1824. He afterwards served
in the Mediterranean and on the home station. In 1840-
1852 he was commodore commanding the Channel squadron,
and gave evidence of a remarkable aptitude for command.
He was made rear-admiral in May 1853, and for the next four
years was superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard. He -was
made vice-admiral in February 1858, and after a year as a lord
of the admiralty, was appointed commander-in-chief in the
Mediterranean. The discipline of the navy was then bad. It
was a tradition sprung from the wholesale shipment of gaol-birds
during the old war, that the men were to be treated without
consideration; moreover the ships had been largely filled up with
" bounty men" bought into the service with a 10 note without
training. Out of this unpromising material Martin formed the
fleet which was at that time the ideal of excellence. He had no
war service, and, beyond the Italian disturbance of 1860-61, no
opportunity for showing diplomatic ability. But his memory
lives as that of the reformer of discipline and the originator of a
comprehensive system of steam manoeuvres. He became an
admiral in November 1863, and on the 4th of December succeeded
to the baronetcy which had been conferred on his grandfather.
His last appointment was the command at Plymouth, 1866-1869,
and in 1870 he was put on the retired list. In 1873 the G.C.B.
was conferred on him, and in 1878 he was made rear-admiral.
He died at Upton Grey, near Winchfield, on the 24th of March
1895. He was twice married, and left, besides daughters, one
son, who succeeded to the baronetcy.
MARTIN OF TROPPAU, or MARTIN THE POLE (d. 1278), chron-
icler, was born at Troppau, and entered the order of St Dominic
at Prague. Afterwards he went to Rome and became papal
chaplain under Clement IV. and other popes. In 1278 Pope
Nicholas III. appointed him archbishop of Gnesen, but he died
at Bologna whilst proceeding to Poland to take up his new duties.
Martin wrote some sermons and some commentaries on the
canon law; but more important is his Chronicon pontificum et
imperatorum, a history of the popes and emperors to 1277.
Written at the request of Clement IV. the Chronicon is jejune
and untrustworthy, and was mainly responsible for the currency
of the legend of Pope Joan, and the one about the institution of
seven electors by the pope. Nevertheless it enjoyed an extra-
ordinary popularity and found many continuators; but its value
to students arises solely from the fact that it was used by
numerous chroniclers during the I4th, isth and i6th centuries.
In the 1 5th century it was translated into French, and as part of
the Chronique marliniane was often quoted by controversialists.
It has also been translated into German, Italian and Bohemian.
79 6
MARTIN MARTINEAU, HARRIET
The Latin text is printed, with introduction by L. Weiland, in
Band XXII. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica (Hanover and
Berlin, 1826 seq.). See G. Waitz, H. Brosien and others in the
Neues Arckiv der Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde
(Hanover, 1876 seq.); W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts-
quellen. Band II. (Berlin, 1894); and A. Molinier, Les Sources de
I'histoire de France, Tome III. (Paris, 1903).
MARTIN l (Fr. Martinet), the Hirundo urbica of Linnaeus and
Chelidon urbica of modern ornithologists, a bird well known
throughout Europe, including even Lapland, where it is abun-
dant, retiring in winter to the south of Africa. It also inhabits
the western part of Asia, and appears from time to time in large
flocks in India. The martin (or house-martin, as it is often
called, to distinguish it from the sand-martin) commonly reaches
its summer quarters a few days later than the SWALLOW (q.v.),
with which it is often confused in spite of the differences
between them, the martin's white rump and lower parts being
conspicuous as it flies or clings to its nest attached to houses.
This nest, made of the same material as the swallow's, is, how-
ever, a more difficult structure to rear, and a week or more is
often occupied in laying its foundations the builders clinging
to the wall while depositing the mud of which it is composed.
The base once fixed, the superstructure is often quickly added,
till the whole takes the shape of the half or quarter of a hemi-
sphere, and is finished with a lining of feathers mixed with a few
bents or straws. The martin builds soon after its return, and a
nest that has outlasted the winter is almost at once re-occupied.
The bird usually in the course of the summer raises a second, or
rarely a third, brood of offspring though the latest broods
often die in the nest, apparently through failure of food.
What seem to be adults are observed in England every year so
late as November, and sometimes within a few days of the
winter solstice, but these late birds are almost certainly
strangers.
The sand-martin, Hirundo riparia of Linnaeus and Cotile
riparia of modern writers, differs much in appearance and habits
from the former. Its smaller size, mouse-coloured upper surface
and jerking flight distinguish it from the other British Hirun-
dinidae; but it is seldom discriminated, and, being the first of
the family to return to its northern home, the so-called " early
swallow " is nearly always of this species. Instead of the clay-
built nest of the house-martin, this bird bores horizontal galleries
in an escarpment. When beginning its excavation, it clings to
the face of the bank, and with its bill loosens the earth, working
from the centre outwards, and often hanging head downwards.
The tunnel may extend to 4, 6, or even 9 ft. The gallery seems
intended to be straight, but inequalities of the ground, and espe-
cially the meeting with stones, often causes it to take a sinuous
course. At the end is formed a nest lined with a few grass-stalks
and feathers. The sand-martin has several broods in the year,
and is more regular than other Hirundinidae in its departure for
the south. The kind of soil needed for its nesting habits makes
it somewhat local, but no species of the order Passeres has a
geographical range that can compare with this. In Europe it is
found nearly to the North Cape, and thence to the Sea of Okhotsk.
In winter it visits many parts of India and South Africa to the
Transvaal. In America its range extends (having due regard
to the season) from Melville Island to Caicara in Brazil, and
from" Newfoundland to Alaska.
The purple martin of America, Progne purpurea, is a favourite
in Canada and the United States. Naturally breeding in hollow
trees, it readily adapts itself to the nest-boxes which are com-
monly set up for it; but its numbers are in some years and places
diminished in a manner unexplained. The limits of its range in
winter are not determined, chiefly owing to the differences of
opinion as to the validity of certain supposed kindred species
found in South America; but according to some authorities it
reaches the border of Patagonia, while in summer it is known to
inhabit lands within the Arctic Circle. The male is almost
1 The older English form, martlet (French, Martelet), is, except in
heralds' language, almost obsolete, arid when used is now applied
in some places to the SWIFT (q.v.). The bird called martin by French
colonists in the Old World is a my nah (Acridotheres). (SeeGRACKLE.)
wholly of a glossy steel-blue, while the female is duller in colour
above, and beneath of a brownish-grey.
Birds that may be called martins occur almost all over the
world except in New Zealand, which is not regularly inhabited
by any member of the family. The ordinary martin of Australia
is the Petrochelidon nigricans of most ornithologists, and another
and more beautiful form is the ariel or fairy-martin of the same
country, Petrochelidon ariel. This last builds a bottle-shaped
nest of mud, as does also the rock-martin of Europe, Cotile
rupestris. The eggs of martins are from four to seven in number,
and generally white, while those of swallows usually have
brown, grey or lilac markings. (A. N.)
MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876), English writer, was
born at Norwich, where her father was a manufacturer, on the
1 2th of June 1802. The family was of Huguenot extraction
(see MARTINEAU, JAMES) and professed Unitarian views. The
atmosphere of her home was industrious, intellectual and austere;
she herself was clever, but weakly and unhappy; she had no sense
of taste or smell, and moreover early grew deaf. At the age of
fifteen the state of her health and nerves led to a prolonged visit
to her father's sister, Mrs Kentish, who kept a school at Bristol.
Here, in the companionship of amiable and talented people, her
life became happier. Here, also, she fell under the influence of
the Unitarian minister, Dr Lant Carpenter, from whose instruc-
tions, she says, she derived " an abominable spiritual rigidity
and a truly respectable force of conscience strangely mingled
together." From 1819 to 1830 she again resided chiefly at
Norwich. About her twentieth year her deafness became, con-
firmed. In 1821 she began to write anonymously for the Monthly
Repository, a Unitarian periodical, and in 1823 she published
Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns.
In 1826 her father died, leaving a bare maintenance to his
wife and daughters. His death had been preceded by that of
his eldest son, and was shortly followed by that of a man to
whom Harriet was engaged. Mrs Martineau and her daughters
soon after lost all their means by the failure of the house where
their money was placed. Harriet had to earn her living, and,
being precluded by deafness from teaching, took up authorship
in earnest. Besides reviewing for the Repository she wrote
stories (afterwards collected as Traditions of Palestine), gained
in one year (1830) three essay-prizes of the Unitarian Association,
and eked out her income by needlework. In 1831 she was
seeking a publisher for a series of tales designed as Illustrations
of Political Economy. After many failures she accepted disad-
vantageous terms from Charles Fox, to whom she was introduced
by his brother, the editor of the Repository. The sale of the first
of the series was immediate and enormous, the demand increased
with each new number, and from that time her literary success
was secured. In 1832 she moved to London, where she numbered
among her acquaintance Hallam, Milman, Malthus, Monckton
Milnes, Sydney Smith, Bulwer, and later Carlyle. Till 1834
she continued to be occupied with her political economy series
and with a supplemental series of Illustrations of Taxation.
Four stories dealing with the poor-law came out about the same
time. These tales, direct, lucid, written without any appearance
of effort, and yet practically effective, display the characteris-
tics of their author's style. In 1834, when the series was com-
plete, Miss Martineau paid a long visit to America. Here her
open adhesion to the Abolitionist party, then small, and very
unpopular, gave great offence, which was deepened by the pub-
lication, soon after her return, of Society in America (1837) and
a Retrospect of Western Travel (1838). An article in the West-
minster Review, " The Martyr Age of the United States," intro-
duced English readers to the struggles of the Abolitionists. The
American books were followed by a novel, Deerbrook (1839)
a story of middle-class country life. To the same period
belong a few little handbooks, forming parts of a Guide to
Service. The veracity of her Maid of All Work led to a wide-
spread belief, which she regarded with some complacency, that
she had once been a maid of all work herself.
In 1839, during a visit to the Continent, Miss Martineau 's
health broke down. She retired to solitary lodgings in Tyne-
MARTINEAU, JAMES
797
mouth, and remained an invalid till 1844. Besides a novel, The
Hour and the Man (1840), Life in the Sickroom (1844), and the
Playfellow (1841), she published a series of tales for children
containing some of her most popular work: Settlers at Home,
The Peasant and the Prince, Feats on the Fiord, &c. During this
illness she for a second time declined a pension on the civil list,
fearing to compromise her political independence. Her letter
on the subject was published, and some of her friends raised a
small annuity for her soon after.
In 1844 Miss Martineau underwent a course of mesmerism,
and in a few months was restored to health. She eventually
published an account of her case, which had caused much dis-
cussion, in sixteen Letters on Mesmerism. On her recovery she
removed to Ambleside, where she built herself " The Knoll," the
house in which the greater part of her after life was spent. In
1845 she published three volumes of Forest and Game Law Tales.
In 1846 she made a tour with some friends in Egypt, Palestine
and Syria, and on her return published Eastern Life, Present
and Past (1848). This work showed that as humanity passed
through one after another of the world's historic religions, the
conception of the Deity and of Divine government became at
each step more and more abstract and indefinite. The ultimate
goal Miss Martineau believed to be philosophic atheism, but this
belief she did not expressly declare. She published about this
time Household Education, expounding the theory that freedom
and rationality, rather than command and obedience, are the
most effectual instruments of education. Her interest in
schemes of instruction led her to start a series of lectures,
addressed at first to the school children of Ambleside, but after-
wards extended, at their own desire, to their elders. The
subjects were sanitary principles and practice, the histories of
England and North America, and the scenes of her Eastern
travels. At the request of Charles Knight she wrote, in
1849, The History of the Thirty Years' Peace, 1816-1846
an excellent popular history written from the point of
view of a " philosophical Radical," completed in twelve
months.
In 1851 Miss Martineau edited a volume of Letters on the Laws
of Man's Nature and Development. Its form is that of a corre-
spondence between herself and H. G. Atkinson, and it expounds
that doctrine of philosophical atheism to which Miss Martineau
in Eastern Life had depicted the course of human belief as
tending. The existence of a first cause is not denied, but is
declared unknowable, and the authors, while regarded by others
as denying it, certainly considered themselves to be affirming
the doctrine of man's moral obligation. Atkinson was a zealous
exponent of mesmerism, and the prominence given to the topics
of mesmerism and clairvoyance heightened the general dis-
approbation of the book, which caused a lasting division between
Miss Martineau and some of her friends.
She published a condensed English version of the Philosophic
Positive (1853). To the Daily News she contributed regularly
from 1852 to 1866. Her Letters from Ireland, written during a
visit to that country in the summer of 1852, appeared in that
paper. She was for many years a contributor to the Westminster
Review, and was one of the little band of supporters whose
pecuniary assistance in 1854 prevented its extinction or forced
sale. In the early part of 1855 Miss Martineau found hersell
suffering from heart disease. She now began to write her auto-
biography, but her life, which she supposed to be so near its
close, was prolonged for twenty years. She died at " The Knoll '
on the 27th of June 1876.
She cultivated a tiny farm at Ambleside with success, and her
poorer neighbours owed much to her. Her busy life bears the
consistent impress of two leading characteristics industry and
sincerity. The verdict which she records on herself in the
autobiographical sketch left to be published by the Daily News
has been endorsed by posterity. She says " Her original power
was nothing more than was due to earnestness and intellectual
clearness within a certain range. With small imaginative and
suggestive powers, and therefore nothing approaching to genius
she could see clearly what she did see, and give a dear expression
o what she had to say. In short, she could popularize while
ihe could neither discover nor invent." Her judgment on large
questions was clear and sound, and was always the judgment of
mind naturally progressive and Protestant.
See her A utobiography, with Memorials by Maria Weston Chapman
[1877) and Mrs. Fenwick Miller, Harriet Martineau (1884, " Eminent
Women Series ").
MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1000), English philosopher and
divine, was born at Norwich on the zist of April 1805, the
seventh child of Thomas Martineau and Elizabeth Rankin, the
sixth, his senior by almost three years, being his sister Harriet
(see above). He was descended from Gaston Martineau, a
Huguenot surgeon and refugee, who married in 1693 Marie Pierre,
and settled soon afterwards in Norwich. His son and grandson
respectively the great-grandfather and grandfather of James
Martineau were surgeons in the same city, while his father was
a manufacturer and merchant. James was educated at Norwich
Grammar School under Edward Valpy, as good a scholar as his
better-known brother Richard. But the boy proving too sensi-
tive for the life of a public day school, was sent to Bristol to the
private academy of Dr Lant Carpenter, under whom he studied
for two years. On leaving he was apprenticed to a civil engineer
at Derby, where he acquired " a store of exclusively scientific
conceptions," 1 but also experienced the hunger of mind which
forced him to look to religion for satisfaction. Hence came his
conversion," and the sense of vocation for the ministry which
impelled him in 1822 to enter Manchester College, then lodged
at York. Here he " woke up to the interest of moral and
metaphysical speculations." Of his teachers, one, the Rev.
Charles Wellbeloved, was, Martineau said, " a master of the true
Lardner type, candid and catholic, simple and thorough, humanly
fond indeed of the counsels of peace, but piously serving every
bidding of sacred truth." " He never justified a prejudice; he
never misdirected our admiration; he never hurt an innocent
feeling or overbore a serious judgment; and he set up within us a
standard of Christian scholarship to which it must ever exalt us
to aspire." 2 The other, the Rev. John Kenrick, he described as
a man so learned as to be placed by Dean Stanley " in the same
line with Blomfield and Thirlwall," 3 and as " so far above the
level of either vanity or dogmatism, that cynicism itself could
not think of them in his presence." *
On leaving the college in 1827 Martineau returned to Bristol
to teach in the school of Lant Carpenter; but in the following year
he was ordained for a Unitarian church in Dublin, whose senior
minister was a relative of his own. But his career there was in
1832 suddenly cut short by difficulties growing out of the
" regium donum," which had on the death of the senior minister
fallen to him. He conceived it as " a religious monopoly " to
which " the nation at large contributes," while " Presbyterians
alone receive," and which placed him in " a relation to the state "
so "seriously objectionable" as to be "impossible to hold." 5
The invidious distinction it drew between Presbyterians on the
one hand, and Catholics, Friends, freethinking Christians, unbe-
lievers and Jews on the other, who were compelled to support a
ministry they " conscientiously disapproved," offended his always
delicate conscience; while possibly the intellectual and ecclesi-
astical atmosphere of the city proved uncongenial to his liberal
magnanimity. From Dublin he was called to Liverpool, and
there for a quarter of a century he exercised extraordinary
influence as a preacher, and achieved a high reputation as a
writer in religious philosophy. In 1840 he was appointed
professor of mental and moral philosophy and political economy
in Manchester New College, the seminary in which he had himself
been educated, and which had now removed from York to the
city after which it was named. This position he held for forty-
five years. In 1853 the college removed to London, and four
years later he followed it thither. In 1858 he was called to
1 Types of Ethical Theory, i. 8.
1 Essays, Reviews and Addresses, iv. 54. Ibid. i. 397.
4 Essays, Reviews and Addresses, i. 419.
' Martineau's " Letter to the Dissenting Congregation of Lustace
Street " (Dublin).
798
MARTINEAU, JAMES
occupy the pulpit of Little Portland Street chapel in London,
which he did at first for two years in conjunction with the Rev.
J. J. Tayler, who was also his colleague in the college, and then
for twelve years alone. In 1866 the chair of the philosophy of
mind and logic in University College, London, fell vacant, and
Martineau became a candidate. But potent opposition was
offered to the appointment of a minister of religion, and the
chair went to George Croom Robertson then an untried man
between whom and Martineau a cordial friendship came to exist.
In 1885 he retired, full of years and honours, from the prin-
cipalship of the college he had so long served and adorned.
Martineau, who was in his youth denied the benefit of a
university education, yet in his age found famous universities
eager to confer upon him their highest distinctions. He was
made LL.D. of Harvard in 1872, S.T.D. of Leiden in 1874,
D.D. of Edinburgh in 1884, D.C.L. of Oxford in 1888 and
D.Litt. of Dublin in 1891. He died in London on the nth of
January 1900.
The life of Martineau was so essentially the life of the thinker,
and was so typical of the century in which he lived and the society
within which he moved, that he can be better understood through
his spoken mind than through his outward history. He was a
man happy in his ancestry; he inherited the dignity, the reserve,
the keen and vivid intellect, and the picturesque imagination of
the French Huguenot, though they came to him chastened and
purified by generations of Puritan discipline exercised under the
gravest ecclesiastical disabilities, and of culture maintained in
the face of exclusion from academic privileges. He had the
sweet and patient temper which knew how to live, unrepining
and unsoured, in the midst of the most watchful persecution,
public and private; and it is wonderful how rarely he used his
splendid rhetoric for the purposes of invective against the
spirit and policy from which he must have suffered deeply,
while, it may be added, he never hid an innuendo under a
metaphor or a trope. He was fundamentally too much a man
of strong convictions to be correctly described as open-minded,
for if nature ever determined any man's faith, it was his; the root
of his whole intellectual life, which was too deep to be disturbed
by any superficial change in his philosophy, being the feeling for
God. He has, indeed, described in graphic terms the greatest of
the more superficial changes he underwent; how he had " carried
into logical and ethical problems the maxims and postulates of
physical knowledge," and had moved within the narrow lines
drawn by the philosophical instructions of the class-room
" interpreting human phenomena by the analogy of external
nature "; how he served in willing captivity " the 'empirical '
and ' necessarian ' mode of thought," even though " shocked "
by the dogmatism and acrid humours " of certain distinguished
representatives "j 1 and how in a period of " second education "
at Berlin, " mainly under the admirable guidance of Professor
Trendelenburg," he experienced " a new intellectual birth" which
" was essentially the gift of fresh conceptions, the unsealing of
hidden openings of self-consciousness, with unmeasured corridors
and sacred halls behind; and, once gained, was more or less avail-
able throughout the history of philosophy, and lifted the darkness
from the pages of Kant and even Hegel." 2 But though this
momentous change of view illuminated his old beliefs and helped
him to re-interpret and re-articulate them, yet it made him no
more of a theist than he had been before. And as his theism
was, so was his religion and his philosophy. Certainly it was
true of him, in a far higher degree than of John Henry Newman,
that the being of God and himself were to his mind two abso-
lutely self-luminous truths though both his God and his self
were almost infinitely remote from Newman's. And as these truths
were self-evident, so the religion he deduced from them was
sufficient, not only for his own moral and intellectual nature,
but also for man as he conceived him, for history as he knew it,
and for society as he saw it.
We may, alternatively, describe Martineau's religion as his applied
philosophy or his philosophy as his explicated religion, and both as
1 Types of Ethical Theory, \. pp. vii.-ix.
2 Ibid. p. xiii.
the expression of his singularly fine ethical and reverent nature.
But to understand these in their mutual and explanatory relations
it will be necessary to exhibit the conditions under which his
thought grew into consistency and system. His main function
made him in his early life a preacher even more emphatically than
a teacher. In all he said and all he thought he had the preacher's
end in view. He was, indeed, no mere orator or speaker to mul-
titudes. He addressed a comparatively small and select circle,
a congregation of thoughtful and devout men, who cultivated
reverence and loved religion all the more that their own beliefs
were limited to the simplest and sublimest truths. He felt the
majesty of these truths to be the greater that they so represented
to him not only the most fundamental of human beliefs, but also all
that man could be reasonably expected to believe, though to believe
with his whole reason. Hence the beliefs he preached were never
to him mere speculative ideas, but rather the ultimate realities of
being and thought, the final truths as to the character and ways of
God interpreted into a law for the government of conscience and
the regulation of life. And so he became a positive religious teacher
by virtue of the very ideas that made the words of the Hebrew
prophets so potent and sublime. But he did more than interpret
to his age the significance of man's ultimate theistic beliefs, he gave
them vitality by reading them through the consciousness of Jesus
Christ. His religion was what he conceived the personal religion
of Jesus to have been; and He was to him more a person to be
imitated than an authority to be obeyed, rather an ideal to be
revered than a being to be worshipped.
Martineau's mental qualities fitted him to fulfil these high inter-
pretative functions. He had the imagination that invested with
personal being and ethical qualities the most abstruse notions. To
him space became a mode of divine activity, alive with the presence
and illuminated by the vision of God ; time was an arena where the
divine hand guided and the divine will reigned. And though he did
not believe in the Incarnation, yet he held deity to be in a sense
manifest in humanity; its saints and heroes became, in spite of
innumerable frailties, after a sort divine; man underwent an
apotheosis, and all life was touched with the dignity and the grace
which it owed to its source. The igth century had no more reverent
thinker than Martineau; the awe of the Eternal was the very
atmosphere that he breathed, and he looked at man with the
compassion of one whose thoughts were full of God.
To his function as a preacher we owe some of his most character-
istic and stimulating works, especially the discourses by which it
may be said he won his way to wide and influential recognition
Endeavours after the Christian Life, 1st series, 1843; 2nd series, 1847;
Hours of Thought, 1st series, 1876; 2nd series, 1879; the various
hymn-books he issued at Dublin in 1831, at Liverpool in 1840, in
London in 1873; and the Home Prayers in 1891. But besides the
vocation he had freely selected and assiduously laboured to fulfil,
two more external influences helped to shape Martineau's mind and
define his problem and his work; the awakening of English thought
to the problems which underlie both philosophy and religion, and
the new and higher opportunities offered for their discussion in the
periodical press. The questions which lived in the earlier and more
formative period of his life concerned mainly the idea of the church,
the historical interpretation of the documents which described the
persons who had created the Christian religion, especially the person
and work of its founder; but those most alive in his later and
maturer time chiefly related to the philosophy of religion and ethics.
In one respect Martineau was singularly happy; he just escaped
the active and, on the whole, belittling period of the old Unitarian
controversy. When his ministry began its fires were slowly dying
down, though the embers still glowed. We feel its presence in his
earliest notable work, The Rationale of Religious Enquiry, 1836;
and may there see the rigour with which it applied audacious logic
to narrow premisses, the tenacity with which it clung to a limited
literal supernaturalism which it had no philosophy to justify, and
so could not believe without historical and verbal authority. This
traditional conservatism survived in the statement, which, while
it caused vehement discussion when the book appeared, was yet
not so much characteristic of the man as of the school in which he
had been trained, that " in no intelligible sense can any one who
denies the supernatural origin of the religion of Christ be termed
a Christian," which term, he explained, was used not as " a name
of praise," but simply as " a designation of belief." 3 He censured
the German rationalists " for having preferred, by convulsive
efforts of interpretation, to compress the memoirs of Christ and His
apostles into the dimensions of ordinary life, rather than admit the
operation of miracle on the one hand, or proclaim their abandon-
ment of Christianity on the other." 4 The echoes of the dying
controversy are thus distinct and not very distant in this book,
though it also offers in its larger outlook, in the author's evident
uneasiness under the burden of inherited beliefs, and his inability
to reconcile them with his new standpoint and accepted principles,
a curious forecast of his later development, while in its positive
premisses it presents a still more instructive contrast to the con-
clusions of his later dialectic. Nor did the sound of the ancient
controversy ever cease to be audible to him. In 1839 he sprang
3 Rationale, 2nd ed., pref., p. vii.
Ibid. p. 133.
MARTINEAU, JAMES
to the defence of Unitarian doctrine, which had been assailed by
certain Liverpool clergymen, of whom Fielding Ould was the most
active and Hugh McNeill the most famous. As his share in the
controversy, Martineau published five discourses, in which he
discussed " the Bible as the great autobiography of human nature
from its infancy to its perfection," " the Deity of Christ," " Vicarious
Redemption," "Evil," and "Christianity without Priest and
without Ritual." 1 He remained to the end a keen and vigilant
apologist of the school in which he had been nursed. But the
questions proper to the new day came swiftly upon his quick and
susceptible mind enlarged, deepened and developed it. Within
his own fold new light was breaking. To W. E. Channing (?..),
whom Martineau had called " the inspirer of his youth," Theodore
Parker had succeeded, introducing more radical ideas as to religion
and a more drastic criticism of sacred history. Blanco White, " the
rationalist A'Kempis," who had dared to appear as " a religious
sceptic in God's presence," had found a biographer and interpreter
in Martineau's friend and colleague, John Hamilton Thorn. Within
the English Church men with whom he had both personal and
religious sympathy rose Whately, of whom he said, " We know
no living writer who has proved so little and disproved so much "; 2
and Thomas Arnold, "a man who could be a hero without romance " ; '
F. D. Maurice, whose character, marked by " religious realism,"
sought in the past " the witness to eternal truths, the manifestation
by time-samples of infinite realities and unchanging relations"; 4
and Charles Kingsley, " a great teacher," though one " certain to
go astray the moment he becomes didactic." 6 Beside these may
be placed men like E. B. Pusey and J. H. Newman, whose mind
Martineau said was " critical, not prophetic, since without immedi-
ateness of religious vision," and whose faith is " an escape from an
alternative scepticism, which receives the veto not of his reason but
of his will," 6 as men for whose teachings and methods he had a
potent and stimulating antipathy. The philosophic principles and
religious deductions of Dean Mansel he disliked as much as those of
Newman, but he respected his arguments more. Apart from the
Churches, men like Carlyle and Matthew Arnold with whom he
had much in common influenced him; while Herbert Spencer in
England and Comte in France afforded the antithesis needful to
the dialectical development of his own views. He came to know
German philosophy and criticism, especially the criticism of Baur
and the Tubingen school, which affected profoundly his construction
of Christian history. And these were strengthened by French
influences, notably those of Renan and the Strassburg theologians.
The rise of evolution, and the new scientific way of looking at nature
and her creative methods, compelled him to rethink and reformulate
hib theistic principles and conclusions, especially as to the forms
under which the relation of God to the world and His action within
it could be conceived. Under the impulses which came from these
various sides Martineau's mind lived and moved, and as they
successively rose he promptly, by appreciation or criticism, responded
to the dialectical issues which they raised.
In the discussion of these questions the periodical press supplied
him with the opportunity of taking an effective part. At first his
literary activity was limited to sectional publications, and he ad-
dressed his public, now as editor and now as leading contributor,
in the Monthly Repository, the Christian Reformer, the Prospective,
the Westminster and the National Review. Later, especially when
scientific speculation had made the theistic problem urgent, he was a
frequent contributor to the literary monthlies. And when in 1890
he began to gather together the miscellaneous essays and papers
written during a period of sixty years, he expressed the hope that,
though " they could lay no claim to logical consistency," they might
yet show " beneath the varying complexion of their thought some
intelligible moral continuity," " leading in the end to a view of life
more coherent and less defective than was presented at the begin-
ning." 7 And though it is a proud as well as a modest hope, no one
could call it unjustified. For his essays are fine examples of per-
manent literature appearing in an ephemeral medium, and represent
work which has solid worth for later thought as well as for the specu-
jation of their own time. There is hardly a name or a movement
in the religious history of the century which he did not touch and
illuminate. It was in this form that he criticized the " atheistic
mesmerism " to which his sister Harriet had committed herself,
and she never forgave his criticism. But his course was always
singularly independent, and, though one of the most affectionate
and most sensitive of men, yet it was his fortune to be so fas-
tidious in thought and so conscientious in judgment as often to give
offence or create alarm in those he deeply respected or tenderly
loved.
The theological and philosophical discussions which thus appeared
he later described as " the tentatives which gradually prepared
the way for the more systematic expositions of the Types of Ethical
'They stand as Lectures ii., v., vi., xi., xii. in the volume Uni-
tarianism Defended, 1839.
1 Essays, Reviews and Addresses, ii. 10.
' Ibid. i. 46. < Ibid. i. 258, 262.
6 Ibid. ii. 285. Ibid. i. 233.
7 Essays, Reviews and Addresses, i., iii.
799
Theory and The Study of Religion, and, in some measure, of The
Seat of Authority in Religion."* These books expressed his mature
thought, and may be said to contain, in what he conceived as a final
form, the speculative achievements of his life. They appeared re-
spectively in 1885, 1888 and 1890, and were without doubt remarkable
feats to be performed by a man who had passed his eightieth year.
Their literary and speculative qualities are indeed exceptionally
brilliant; they are splendid in diction, elaborate in argument, cogent
yet reverent, keen while fearless in criticism. But they have also
most obvious defects: they are unquestionably the books of an old
man who had thought much as well as spoken and written often on
the themes he discusses, yet who had finally put hjs material together
in haste at a time when nis mind had lost, if not its dialectic vigour,
yet its freshness and its sense of proportion; and who had been so
accustomed to amplify the single stages of his argument that he had
forgotten how much they needed to be reduced to scale and to be
built into an organic whole. In the first of these books his nomen-
clature is unfortunate; his division of ethical theories into the
" unpsychological," " idiopsychological," and the " hetero-psycho-
logical," is incapable of historical justification; his exposition of
single ethical systems is, though always interesting and suggestive,
often arbitrary and inadequate, being governed by dialectical
exigencies rather than historical order and perspective. In the
second of the above books his idea of religion is somewhat of an
anachronism; as he himself confessed, he "used the word in the
sense which it invariably bore half a century ago," as denoting
" belief in an ever-living God, a divine mind and will ruling the
universe and holding moral relations with mankind." As thus
used, it was a term which governed the problems of speculative
theism rather than those connected with the historical origin,
the evolution and the organization of religion. And these are the
questions which are now to the front. These criticisms mean that
his most elaborate discussions came forty years too late, for they were
concerned with problems which agitated the middle rather than the
end of the igth century. But if we pass from this criticism of form
to the actual contents of the two books, we are bound to confess
that they constitute a wonderfully cogent and persuasive theistic
argument. That argument may be described as a criticism of man
and his world used as a basis for the construction of a reasoned idea
of nature and being. Man and nature, thought and being, fitted
each other. What was implicit in nature had become explicit in
man; the problem of the individual was one with the problem of
universal experience. The interpretation of man was therefore
the interpretation of his universe. Emphasis was made to fall on
the reason, the conscience and the will of the finite personality;
and just as these were found to be native in him they were held to be
immanent in the cause of his universe. What lived in time belonged
to eternity; the microcosm was the epitome of the macrocosm;
the reason which reigned in man interpreted the law that was
revealed in conscience and the power which governed human destiny,
while the freedom which man realized was the direct negation both
of necessity and of the operation of any fortuitous cause in the
cosmos.
It was not possible, however, that the theistic idea could be dis-
cussed in relation to nature only. It was necessary that it should
be applied to history and to the forces and personalities active within
it. And of these the greatest was of course the Person that had
created the Christian religion. What did Jesus signify? What
authority belonged to Him and to the books that contain His
history and interpret His person? This was the problem which
Martineau attempted to deal with in The Seat of Authority in Religion.
The workmanship of the book is unequal: historical and literary
criticism had never been Martineau's strongest point, although he
had almost continuously maintained an amount of New Testament
study, as his note-books show. In its speculative parts the book is
quite equal to those that had gone before, but in its literary and
historical parts there are indications of a mind in which a long-
practised logic had become a rooted habit. While a comparison
of his expositions of the Pauline and Johannine Christologies with
the earlier Unitarian exegesis in which he had been trained shows
how wide is the interval, the work does not represent a mind that had
throughout its history lived and worked in the delicate and judicial
investigations he here tried to conduct.
Martineau's theory of the religious society or church was
that of an idealist rather than of a statesman or practical politi-
cian. He stood equally remote from the old Voluntary principle,
that " the State had nothing to do with religion," and from the
sacerdotal position that the clergy stood in an apostolic suc-
cession, and either constituted the Church or were the persons
into whose hands its guidance had been committed. He hated
two things intensely, a sacrosanct priesthood and an enforced
uniformity. He may be said to have believed in the sanity and
sanctity of the state rather than of the Church. Statesmen
he could trust as he would not trust ecclesiastics. And so he
even propounded a scheme, which fell still-born, that would have
8 Ibid, iii., pref., p. vi.
8oo
MARTINET- -MARTINI, G. B.
repealed uniformity, taken the church out of the hands of a
clerical order, and allowed the coordination of sects or churches
under the state. Not that he would have allowed the state to
touch doctrine, to determine polity or discipline; but he would
have had it to recognize historical achievement, religious char-
acter and capacity, and endow out of its ample resources those
societies which had vindicated their right to be regarded as
making for religion. His ideal may have been academic, but
it was the dream of a mind that thought nobly both of religion
and of the state.
See Life and Letters by J. Drummond and C. B. Upton (2 vols.,
1901); J. E. Carpenter, James Martineau, Theologian and Teacher
(!95) ; J- Crawford, Recollections of James Martineau (1903) ; A. W.
Jackson, James Martineau, a Biography and a Study (Boston, 1900) ;
H. Sidgwick, Lectures on the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau
(1902) ; and J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England in the loth Century.
(A. M. F.)
MARTINET, a military term (more generally used in a
disparaging than in a complimentary sense) implying a strict
disciplinarian or drill-master. The term originated in the French
army about the middle of Louis XIV.'s reign, and was derived
from Jean Martinet (d. 1672), who as lieutenant-colonel of the
King's regiment of foot and inspector-general of infantry drilled
and trained that arm in the model regular army created by Louis
and Louvois between 1660 and 1670. Martinet seems also to have
introduced the copper pontoons with which Louis bridged the
Rhine in 1672. He was killed, as a marechal de camp, at the
siege of Duisburg in the same year, being accidentally shot by
his own artillery while leading the infantry assault. His death,
and that of the Swiss captain Soury by the same discharge gave
rise to a ban mot, typical of the polite ingratitude of the age,
that Duisburg had only cost the king a martin and a mouse.
The " martin " as a matter of fact shares with Vauban and other
professional soldiers of Louis XIV. the glory of having made the
French army the first and best regular army in Europe. Great
nobles, such as Turenne, Conde and Luxemburg, led this army
and inspired it, but their fame has obscured that of the men who
made it manageable and efficient. It was about this time that
the soldier of fortune, who joined a regiment with his own arms
and equipment and had learned his trade by varied experience,
began to give place to the soldier regularly enlisted as a recruit in
permanent regiments and trained by his own officers. The
consequence of this was the introduction of a uniform, or nearly
uniform system of drill and training, which in all essentials has
endured to the present day. Thus Martinet was the forerunner
of Leopold of Dessau and Frederick William, just as Jean
Jacques de Fourilles, the organizer of the cavalry, who was
forced into an untimely charge at Seneffe (1674) by a brutal
taunt of Conde, and there met his death, was the forerunner
of Zieten and Seydlitz. These men, while differing from the
creators of the Prussian army in that they contributed nothing
to the tactics of their arms, at least made tactics possible by the
thorough drilling and organization they imparted to the formerly
heterogeneous and hardly coherent elements of an army.
MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA (1789-
1862), Spanish statesman and dramatist, was born on the loth
of March 1789 at Granada, and educated at the university there.
He won popularity with a series of epigrams on local celebrities
published under the title of El Cementerio de momo. During
the struggle against Napoleon he took the patriotic side, was
elected deputy, and at Cadiz produced his first play, Lo que puede
un empleo, a prose comedy in the manner of the younger Moratin.
La Viuda de Padilla (1814), a tragedy modelled upon Alfieri, was
less acceptable to the Spanish public. Meanwhile the author
became more and more engulfed in politics, and in 1814 was
banished to Africa, where he remained till 1820, when he was
suddenly recalled and appointed prime minister. During the
next three years he was the most unpopular man in Spain;
denounced as a revolutionist by the Conservatives and as a
reactionary by the Liberals, he alienated the sympathies of all
parties, and his rhetoric earned for him the contemptuous nick-
name of Rosila la Pastelera. Exiled in 1823, he took refuge in
Paris, where he issued his Obras lilerarias (1827), including his
Arte poetica, in which he exaggerated the literary theories
already promulgated by Luzan. Returning to Spain in 1831,
he became prime minister on the death of Ferdinand VII., but
proved incapable of coping with the insurrectionary movement
and resigned in 1834. He was ambassador at Paris in 1830-1840
and at Rome in 1842-1843, joined the Conservative party, held
many important offices, and was president of congress and
director of the Spanish academy at the time of his death, which
took place at Madrid on the 7th of February 1862. As a states-
man, Martinez de la Rosa never rose above mediocrity. It was
his misfortune to be in place without real power, to struggle
against a turbulent pseudo-democratic movement promoted by
unscrupulous soldiers, and to contend with the intrigues of the
king, the court camarilla and the clergy. But circumstances
which hampered him in politics favoured his career in literature.
He was not a great natural force; his early plays and poems are
influenced by Moratin or by Melendez Valdes; his Espiritu del
siglo (1835) is an elegant summary of all the commonplaces con-
cerning the philosophy of history; his Dona Isabel de Soils (1837-
1846) is a weak imitation of Walter Scott's historical novels.
Still his place in the history of Spanish literature is secure, if not
eminent. Through the happy accident of his exile at Paris he
was thrown into relations with the leaders of the French'romantic
movement, and was so far impressed with the innovations of the
new school as to write in French a romantic piece entitled Aben-
Humeya (1830), which was played at the Porte Saint-Martin.
The experiment was not unsuccessful, and on his return to Madrid
Martinez de la Rosa produced La Conjuration de Venecia
(April 23, 1834), which entitles him to be called the pioneer of the
romantic drama in Spain. The play is more reminiscent of
Casimir Delavigne than of Victor Hugo; but it was unquestion-
ably effective, and smoothed the way for the bolder essays of
Rivas, Garcia Gutierrez and Hartzenbusch.
MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1706-1784), Italian musi-
cian, was born at Bologna on the 24th of April 1706. . His father,
Antonio Maria Martini, a violinist, taught him the elements
of music and the violin; later he learned singing and harpsichord
playing from Padre Pradieri, and counterpoint from Antonio
Riccieri. Having received his education in classics from
the fathers of the oratory of San Filippo Neri, he afterwards
entered upon a noviciate at the Franciscan monastery at Lago,
at the close of which he was received as a Minorite on the i ith of
September 1722. In 172 5, though only nineteen years old, he
received the appointment of chapel-master in the Franciscan
church at Bologna, where his compositions attracted attention.
At the invitation of amateurs and professional friends he opened
a school of composition at which several celebrated musicians
were trained; as a teacher he consistently declared his preference
for the traditions of the old Roman school of composition.
Padre Martini was a zealous collector of musical literature, and
possessed an extensive musical library. Burney estimated it at
17,000 volumes; after Martini's death a portion of it passed
to the Imperial library at Vienna, the rest remaining in Bologna,
now in the Liceo Rossini. Most contemporary musicians speak
of Martini with admiration, and Mozart's father consulted him
with regard to the talents of his son. Abt Vogler, however,
makes reservations in his -praise, condemning his philosophical
principles as too much in sympathy with those of Fox, which
had already been expressed by P. Vallotti. He died at Bologna
on the 4th of August 1784. His Elogio was published by Pietro
della Valle at Bologna in the same year.
The greater number of Martini's sacred compositions remain
unprinted. The Liceo of Bologna possesses the MSS. of two ora-
torios; and a requiem, with some other pieces of church music, are
now in Vienna. Litaniae atque antiphonae finales B. V. Mariae were
published at Bologna in 1734, as also twelve Sonate d'intavolatura;
six Sonate per I'organo ed il cembalo in 1747; and Duetti da camera
in 1763. Martini's most important works are his Storia della musica
(Bologna, 1757-1781) and his Saggio di contrapunto (Bologna,
1774-1775). The former, of which the three published volumes
relate wholly to ancient music, and thus represent a mere fragment
of the author's vast plan, exhibits immense reading and industry,
but is written in a dry and unattractive style, and is overloaded with
matter which cannot be regarded as historical. At the beginning
MARTINI, S. MARTINIQUE
801
and end of each chapter occur puzzle-canons, wherein the primary
part or parts alone are given, and the reader has to discover the
canon that fixes the period and the interval at which the response
i> to enter. Some of these are exceedingly difficult, but Cherubini
solved the whole of them. The Sag^io is a learned and valuable
work, containing an important collection of examples from the best
masters of the old Italian and Spanish schools, with excellent
explanatory notes. It treats chiefly of the tonalities of the plain
chant, and of counterpoints constructed upon them. Besides being
the author of several controversial works, Martini drew up a Diction-
ary of Ancient Musical Terms, which appeared in the second volume
of G. B. Doni's Works; he also published a treatise on The Theory
of Numbers as applied to Music. His celebrated canons, published
in London, about 1800, edited by Pio Cianchettini, show him to have
had a strong sense of musical humour.
MARTINI, SIMONE (1283-1344), Sienese painter, called also
Simone di Martino, and more commonly, but not correctly,
Simon Memmi, 1 was born in 1283. He followed the manner
of painting proper to his native Siena, as improved by Duccio,
which is essentially different from the style of Giotto and his
school, and the idea that Simone was himself a pupil of Giotto
is therefore wide of the mark. The Sienese style is less natural,
dignified and reserved than the Florentine; it has less unity of
impression, has more tendency to pietism, and is marked by
exaggerations which are partly related to the obsolescent
Byzantine manner, and partly seem to forebode certain pecu-
liarities of the fully developed art which we find prevalent in
Michelangelo. Simone, in especial, tended to an excessive and
rather affected tenderness in his female figures; he was more
successful in single figures and in portraits than in large com-
positions of incident. He finished with scrupulous minuteness,
and was elaborate in decorations of patterning, gilding, &c.
The first known fresco of Simone is the vast one which he
executed in the hall of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena the
' Madonna Enthroned, with the Infant," and a number of angels
and saints; its date is 1315, at which period he was already an
artist of repute throughout Italy. In S. Lorenzo Maggiore of
Naples he painted a life-sized picture of King Robert crowned
by his brother Lewis, bishop of Toulouse; this also is extant,
but much damaged. In 1320 he painted for the high altar of
the church of S. Caterina in Pisa the Virgin and Child between
six saints; above are archangels, apostles and other figures.
The compartmented portions of this work are now dispersed,
some of them being in the academy of Siena. Towards 1321
he executed for the church of S. Domenico in Orvieto a picture
of the bishop of Savona kneeling before the Madonna attended
by saints, now in the Fabriceria of the cathedral. Certain
frescoes in Assisi in the chapel of San Martino, representing the
life of that saint, ascribed by Vasari to Puccio Capanna, are
now, upon internal evidence, assigned to Simone. He painted
also, in the south transept of the lower church of the same
edifice, figures of the Virgin and eight saints. In 1328 he
produced for the sala del consilio in Siena a striking eques-
trian portrait of the victorious general Guidoriccio Fogliani
de' Ricci.
Simone had married in 1324 Giovanna, the daughter of
Memmo (Guglielmo) di Filippuccio. Her brother, named Lippo
Memmi, was also a painter, and was frequently associated with
Simone in his work; and this is the only reason why Simone
has come down to us with the family-name Memmi. They
painted together in 1333 the " Annunciation " which is now in
the Uffizi gallery. Simone kept a bottega (or shop), undertaking
any ornamental work, and his gains were large. In 1339 he
settled at the papal court in Avignon, where he made the
acquaintance of Petrarch and Laura; and he painted for the
poet a portrait of his lady, which gave occasion for two of
Petrarch's sonnets, in which Simone is eulogized. He also
illuminated for the poet a copy of the commentary of Servius
upon Virgil, now preserved in the Ambrosian library of Milan.
He was largely employed in the decorations of the papal buildings
1 The ordinary account of Simone is that given by Vasari, and since
repeated in a variety of forms. Modern research shows that it is
far from correct, the incidents being erroneous, and the paintings
attributed to Simone in various principal instances not his. We
follow the authority of Crowe and Cavalcaselle.
xvn. 26
in Avignon, and several of his works still remain in the cathe-
dral, in the hall of the consistory, and, in the two chapels of
the palace, the stories of the Baptist, and of Stephen and other
saints. One of his latest productions (1342) is the picture of
" Christ Found by his Parents in the Temple," now in the
Liverpool Gallery. Simone died in Avignon in July 1344.
Some of the works with which Simone's name and fame have been
generally identified are not now regarded as his. Such are the com-
positions, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from the legend of S. Ranieri,
and the " Assumption of the Virgin "; and the great frescoes in the
Cappellone degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella, Florence, represent-
ing the Triumph of Religion through the work of the Dominican
order, &c. (W. M. R.)
MARTINIQUE, an island of the West Indies, belonging to
the chain of the Lesser Antilles, and constituting a French
colony, between the British islands of Dominica and St Lucia,
25 m. S. of the one and 20 m. N. of the other, about 14 40' N.,
61 W. Its length is 40 m., its greatest width 21 m.; and the area
comprises 380 sq. m. A cluster of volcanic mountains in the
north, a similar group in the south, and a line of lower heights
between them, form the backbone of the island. Its deep
ravines and precipitous escarpments are reduced in appearance
to gentle undulations by the drapery of the forests. The massif
of Mont Pele in the north is the culminating point of the island
(4430 ft.); that of Carbet is little inferior (3963 ft.), but the
mountains in the south are much lower. Mont Pele is notorious
for an appalling eruption in May 1902.
Of the numerous streams which traverse the few miles of country
between the watershed and the sea (the longest radiating from Mount
Carbet), about seventy-five are of considerable size, and in the rainy
season become deep and often destructive torrents. On the north-
west and north the coast is elevated and bold; and similarly on the
south, where a lateral range, branching from the backbone of the
island, forms a blunt peninsula bounding the low-shored western
bay of Fort de France on the south. Another peninsula, called
Carayelle, projects from the middle part of the east coast, and south
of this the coast is low and fretted, with many islets and cays lying
off it. Coral reefs occur especially in this locality. Plains, most
numerous and extensive in the south, occupy about one-third of the
total area of the island.
The mean annual temperature is 80 F. in the coast region,
the monthly mean for June being 83", and that for January 77.
Of the annual rainfall of 87 in., August has the heaviest share
(11-3 in.), though the rainy season extends from June to October;
March, the driest month, has 3-7. Martinique enjoys a marked
immunity from hurricanes. The low coastal districts are not very
healthy for Europeans in the hotter months, but there are numerous
sanatoria in the forest region at an elevation of about 1500 ft.,
where the average temperature is some 10 F. lower than that
already quoted. The north winds which prevail from November to
February are comparatively fresh and dry; those from the south
(July to October) are damp and warm. From March to June easterly
winds are prevalent.
The population increased from 162,861 in 1878 to 175,863 in
1888 and 203,781 in 1001. In 1902 the great eruption of Mont
Pele occurred, and in 1005 the population was only 182,024.
The bulk of the population consists of Creole negroes and half-
castes of various grades, ranging from the " Saccatra," who has
retained hardly any trace of Caucasian blood, to the so-called
" Sangmle," with only a suspicion of negro commixture. The
capital of the island is Fort de France, on the west-coast bay of
the same name, with a fine harbour defended by three forts, and
a population of 18,000. The other principal centres of popula-
tion are, on the west coast Lamentin, on the same bay as the
capital, and on the east coast Le Francois and Le Robert. The
colony is administered by a governor and a general council, and
returns a senator and two deputies. There are elective municipal
councils. The chief product is sugar, and some coffee, cocoa,
tobacco and cotton are grown. The island is served by British,
French and American steamship lines, and local communications
are carried on by small coasting steamers and by subsidized
mail coaches, as there are excellent roads. In 1905 the total
value of the exports, consisting mainly of sugar, rum and cocoa,
was 725,460, France taking by far the greater part, while
imports were valued at 596,294, of which rather more than
one-half by value came from France, the United States of
America being the next principal importing country. In 1903,
802
MARTINSBURG MARTINS FERRY
the year following the eruption of Mont Pele, exports were
valued at 604,163.
Martinique, the name of which may be derived from a native
form Madiana or Mantinino, was probably discovered by Colum-
bus on the 1 5th of June 1502; although by some authorities
its discovery is placed in 1493. It was at that time inhabited
by Caribs who had expelled or incorporated an older stock.
It was not until the 25th of June 1635 that possession was taken
of the island in the name of the French Compagnie des lies
d' Amerique. Actual settlement was carried out in the same
year by Pierre Belain, Sieur d'Esnambuc, captain-general of
the island of St Christopher. In 1637 his nephew Dyel Dupar-
quet (d. 1658) became captain-general of the colony, now
numbering seven hundred men, and subsequently obtained the
seigneurie of the island by purchase from the company under
the authority of the king of France. In 1654 welcome was
given to three hundred Jews expelled from Brazil, and by 1658
-**
MARTINIQUE
Scale, i -.600.000
English Mile*
o i a 4 6 8 ip
Boundary of ArrondisttmentS *"**
-
Oofkfr d
( Diamond Rodi I
' 1 "f '.
Mfri
thoPt
f^i-^f- <*/' ft. '
Longitmlc West f Tof Grfcn virh (g) Cafc-.t/.
there were at least five thousand people exclusive of the Caribs,
who were soon after exterminated. Purchased by the French
government from Duparquet's children for 120,000 livres,
Martinique was assigned to the West India Company, but in
1674 it became part of the royal domain. The habitants (French
landholders) at first devoted themselves to the cultivation of
cotton and tobacco; but in 1650 sugar plantations were begun,
and in 1723 the coffee plant was introduced. Slave labour
having been introduced at an early period of the occupation,
there were 60,000 blacks in the island by 1736. This slavery
was abolished in 1860. Martinique had a full share of wars.
In early days the Caribs were not brought under subjection
without severe struggles. In 1666 and 1667 the island was
attacked by the British without success, and hostilities were
terminated by the treaty of Breda. The Dutch made similar
attempts in 1674, and the British again attacked the island in
1693. Captured by Rodney in 1762, Martinique was next year
restored to the French; but after the conquest by Sir John
Jervis and Sir Charles Grey in 1793 it was retained for eight
years; and, seized again in 1809, it was not surrendered till 1814.
The island was the birth-place of the Empress Josephine.
Martinique has suffered from occasional severe storms, as in
1767, when 1600 persons perished, and M. de la Pagerie, father
of the Empress Josephine, was practically ruined, and in 1839,
1891 and 1903, when much damage was done to the sugar crop.
Earthquakes have also been frequent, but the most terrible
natural disaster was the eruption of Mont Pele in 1902, by which
the town of St Pierre, formerly the chief commercial centre of
the island, was destroyed. During the earlier months of the
year various manifestations of volcanic activity had occurred;
on the 25th of April there was a heavy fall of ashes, and on the
2nd and 3rd of May a heavy eruption destroyed extensive sugar
plantations north of St Pierre, and caused a loss of some 150
lives. A few days later the news that the Souffriere in St Vincent
was in eruption reassured the inhabitants of St Pierre, as it was
supposed that this outbreak might relieve the volcano of Pele.
But on the 8th of May the final catastrophe came without
warning; a mass of fire, compared to a flaming whirlwind, swept
over St Pierre, destroying the ships in the harbour, among which,
however, one, the " Roddam " of Scrutton, escaped. A fall
of molten lava and ashes followed the flames, accompanied by
dense gases which asphyxiated those who had thus far escaped.
The total loss of life was estimated at 40,000. Consternation
was caused not only in the West Indies, but in France and
throughout the world, and at first it was seriously suggested
that the island should be evacuated, but no countenance was
lent to this proposal by the French government. Relief
measures were undertaken and voluntary subscriptions raised.
The material losses were estimated at 4,000,000; but, besides
St Pierre, only one-tenth of the island had been devastated,
and although during July there was further volcanic activity,
causing more destruction, the economic situation recovered more
rapidly than was expected.
See Annuaire de la Martinique (Fort de France); H. Mouet, La
Martinique (Paris, 1892); M. J. Guet, Origines de la Martinique
(Vannes, 1893); G. Landes, Notice sur la Martinique (with full
bibliography), (Paris, 1900); M.-Dumoret, Au pays du sucre
(Paris, 1902); and on the eruption of 1902, A. Heilprin, Mont
Pelee and the Tragedy of Martinique (Philadelphia and London, 1903) ;
A. Lacroix, La Montagne Pelee et ses eruptions (Paris, 1904) ; and the
report of Drs J. S. Flett and T. Anderson (November 20, 1902),
who investigated the eruptions on behalf of the Royal Society;
cf. T. Anderson, " Recent Volcanic Eruptions in the West Indies,"
in Geographical Journal, \o\. xxi. (1903).
MARTINSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Berkeley
county, West Virginia, U.S.A., about 74 m. W.N.W. of Washing-
ton, D.C. Pop. (1890) 7226; (IQOO) 7564 (678 negroes);
(1910) 10,698. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the
Cumberland Valley railways; the former has repair shops here.
It lies in the Lower Shenandoah Valley at the foot of Little North
mountain, in the midst of a fruit-growing region, peaches and
apples being the principal crops. Slate and limestone also
abound in the vicinity. The town has a fine Federal Building
and a King's Daughters' hospital. There are grain elevators,
and various manufactures, including hosiery, woollen goods,
dressed lumber, &c. Martinsburg owns its waterworks, the
supply being derived from a neighbouring spring. A town was
laid out here a short time before the War of Independence and
was named Martinstown in honour of Colonel Thomas Bryan
Martin, a nephew of Thomas, Lord Fairfax (1692-1782); in
1778 it was incorporated under its present name. During the
Civil War Martinsburg was occupied by several different Union
and Confederate forces.
MARTINS FERRY, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio River, nearly opposite Wheeling, West Virginia.
Pop. (1890), 6250; (1900), 7760, including 1033 foreign-born
and 252 negroes; (1910), 9133. It is served by the Pennsylvania
(Cleveland & Pittsburg Division), the Baltimore & Ohio, and the
Wheeling & Lake Erie (Wabash System) railways, and by several
steamboat lines. The city is situated on two plateaus; the
lower is occupied chiefly by factories, the upper by dwellings.
Coal mining and manufacturing are the principal industries;
among factory products are iron, steel, tin, stoves, machinery
and glassware. The municipality owns and operates the water-
works and an electric-lighting plant. A settlement was attempted
here in 1785, but was abandoned on account of trouble with
the Indians. In 1795 a town was laid out by Absalom Martin
and was called Jefferson, but this, too, was abandoned, on
MARTINUZZI MARTOS, C.
803
account of its not being made the county-seat. The town was
laid out again in 1835 by Ebenezer Martin (son of Absalom
Martin) and was called Martinsville; the present name was
substituted a few years later. The Martins and other pioneers
are buried in Walnut Grove Cemetery within the city limits.
Martins Ferry was incorporated as a town in 1865 and chartered
as a city in 1885.
MARTINUZZI, GEORGE [GYORGY UTIESENOVIC] (1482-1551),
Hungarian statesman, who, since he usually signed himself
" Frater Georgius," is known in Hungarian history as PRATER
GYORGY or simply THE FRATER, was born at Kamicic in Croatia,
the son of Gregory Utiesenovic, a Croatian gentleman. His
mother was a Martinuzzi, a Venetian patrician family. From
his eighth to his twentieth year he was attached to the court
of John Corvinus; subsequently, entering the service of the
Zapolya family, he saw something of warfare under John Zapolya
but, tiring of a military life, he entered the Paulician Order in
his twenty-eighth year. His historical career began when his
old patron Zapolya, now king of Hungary, forced to fly before
his successful rival Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand
I., sent him on a diplomatic mission to Hungary. It was
due to his tact and ability that John recovered Buda (1529),
and henceforth Frater Gyorgy became his treasurer and chief
counsellor. In 1534 he became bishop of Grosswardein; in 1538
he concluded with Austria the peace of Grosswardein, whereby
the royal title and the greater part of Hungary were conceded
to Zapolya. King John left the Frater the guardian of his
infant son John Sigismund, who was proclaimed and crowned
king of Hungary, the Frater acting as regent. He frustrated
all the attempts of the queen mother, Isabella, to bring, in the
Austrians, and when, in 1541, an Austrian army appeared
beneath the walls of Buda, he arrested the queen and applied
to the Porte for help. On the 28th of August 1541, the Frater
did homage to the sultan, but during his absence with the baby
king in the Turkish camp, the grand vizier took Buda by subtlety.
Then only the Frater recognized the necessity of a composition
with both Austria and Turkey. He attained it by the treaty
of Gyula (Dec.' 29, 1541), whereby western Hungary fell to
Ferdinand, while Transylvania, as an independent principality
under Turkish suzerainty, reverted to John Sigismund. It
included, besides Transylvania proper, many Hungarian counties
on both sides of the Theiss, and the important city of Kassa.
It was the Prater's policy to preserve Transylvania neutral and
intact by cultivating amicable relations with Austria without
offending the Porte. It was a difficult policy, but succeeded
brilliantly for a time. In 1545, encouraged by the growing
unpopularity of Ferdinand, owing to his incapacity to defend
Hungary against the Turks, the Frater was tempted to unite
Austrian Hungary to Transylvania and procure the election of
John Sigismund as the national king. But recognizing that this
was impossible, he aimed at an alliance with Ferdinand on
terms of relative equality, and to this system he adhered till his
death. Queen Isabella, who hated the Frater and constantly
opposed him, complained of him to the sultan, who commanded
that either the traitor himself or his head should be sent to
Constantinople (1550). A combination was then formed against
him of the queen, the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia and
the Turks; but the Frater shut the queen up in Gyula- Fehervar,
drove the hospodars out of Transylvania, defeated the Turks at
D6va, and finally compelled Isabella to accept a composition
with Austria very profitable to her family and to Transylvania,
at the same time soothing the rage of the sultan by flatteries and
gifts. This compact, a masterpiece of statesmanship, was con-
firmed by the diet of Kolozsvar in August 1551. The Frater
retained the governorship of Transylvania, and was subsequently
consecrated archbishop of Esztergom and received the red hat.
Thus Hungary was once more reunited, but the inability of
Ferdinand to defend it against the Turks, as promised, forced
the Frater, for the common safety, to resume the payment of
tribute to the Porte in December 1551. Unfortunately, the
Turks no longer trusted a diplomatist they could not understand,
while Ferdinand suspected him of an intention to secure Hungary
for himself. When the Turks (in 1551) took Csanad and other
places, the Frater and the imperial generals Castaldo and
Pallavicini combined their forces against the common foe; but-
when the Frater privately endeavoured to mediate between the
Turks and the Hungarians, Castaldo represented him to Ferdinand
as a traitor, and asked permission to kill him if necessary. The
Prater's secretary Marco Aurelio Ferrari was hired, and stabbed
his master from behind at the castle of Alvinczy while reading
a letter, on the i8th of December 1551; but the cardinal, though
in his sixty-ninth year, fought for his life, and was only
despatched with the aid of Pallavicini and a band of bravos.
Ferdinand took the responsibility of the murder on himself.
He sent to Julius III. an accusation of treason against the Frater
in eighty-seven articles, and after long hesitation, and
hearing one hundred and sixteen witnesses, the pope exonerated
Ferdinand of blame.
See A. Bechet, Histoire du minis&re du cardinal Martinusius
(Paris, 1715); O. M. Utiesenovic, Lebensgeschichte des Cardinals
Georg Utiesenovit (Vienna, 1881); Codex epistolaris Fratris Georgii
/5J5-/55/, ed. A. Karolyi (Budapest, 1881). But the most vivid
presentation of Frater is to be found in M. Jokai's fine historical
romance, Brother George (Hung.) (Budapest, 1893). (R. N. B.)
MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794-1868),
German botanist and traveller, was born on the I7th of April
1794 at Erlangen, where he graduated M.D. in 1814, publishing
as his thesis a critical catalogue of plants in the botanic garden
of the university. He afterwards devoted himself to botanical
study, and in 1817 he and J. B. von Spix were sent to Brazil
by the king of Bavaria. They travelled from Rio de Janeiro
through several of the southern and eastern provinces of Brazil,
and ascended the river Amazon to Tabatinga, as well as some of
its larger affluents. On his return to Europe in 1820 he was
appointed conservator of the botanic garden at Munich, and in
1826 professor of botany in the university there, and held both
offices till 1864. He devoted his chief attention to the flora of
Brazil, and in addition to numerous short papers he published
the Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Brasiliensium (1823-1832,
3 vols.) and Icones seleclae Plantarum Cryptogamicarum Brasil-
iensium (1827), both works being finely illustrated. An account
of his travels in Brazil appeared in 3 vols. 4to, 1823-1831, with
an atlas of plates, but probably the work by which he is best
known is his Hisloria Palmarum (1823-1850) in 3 large folio
volumes, of which one describes the palms discovered by himself
in Brazil. In 1840 he began the Flora Brasiliensis, with the
assistance of the most distinguished European botanists, who
undertook monographs of the various orders. Its publication
was continued after his death under the editorship of A. W.
Eichler (1839-1887) until 1887, and subsequently of Ignaz von
Urban. He also edited several works on the zoological collec-
tions made in Brazil by Spix, after the death of the latter in
1826. On the outbreak of potato disease in Europe he investi-
gated it and published his observations in 1842. He also
published works and short papers on the aborigines of Brazil,
on their civil and social condition, on their past and probable
future, on their diseases and medicines, and on the languages
of the various tribes, especially the Tupi. He died at Munich
on the I3th of December 1868.
MARTOS, CHRISTINO (1830-1893), Spanish politician, was
born at Granada on the I3th of September 1830. He was
educated there and at Madrid University, where his Radicalism
soon got him into trouble, and he narrowly escaped being
expelled for his share in student riots and other demonstrations
against the governments of Queen Isabella. He distinguished
himself as a journalist on El Tribune. He joined O'Donnell and
Espartero in 1854 against a revolutionary cabinet, and shortly
afterwards turned against O'Donnell to assist the Democrats
and Progressists under Prim, Rivero, Castelar, and Sagasta in
the unsuccessful movements of 1866, and was obliged to go
abroad. His political career had not prevented Martos from
rising into note at the bar, where he was successful for forty
years. After remaining abroad three years, he returned to
Spain to take his seat in the Cortes of 1869 after the revolution
8 04
MARTOS MARTYR
of 1868. Throughout the revolutionary period he represented
in cabinets with Prim, Serrano and Ruiz Zorilla, and lastly under
King Amadeus, the advanced Radical tendencies of the men
who wanted to give Spain a democratic monarchy. After the
abdication of Amadeus of Savoy, Martos played a prominent
part in the proclamation of the federal republic, in the struggle
between the executive of that republic and the permanent
committee of the Cortes, backed by the generals and militia,
who nearly put an end to the executive and republic in April
1873. When the republicans triumphed Martos retired into
exile, and soon afterwards into private life. He reappeared for
a few months after General Pavia's coup d'etat in January 1874, to
join a coalition cabinet formed by Marshal Serrano, with Sagasta
and Ulloa. Martos returned to the Bar in May 1874, and quietly
looked on when the restoration took place at the end of that
year. He stuck to his democratic ideals for some years, even
going to Biarritz in 1881 to be present at a republican congress
presided over by Ruiz Zorilla. Shortly afterwards Martos joined
the dynastic Left organized by Marshal Serrano, General Lopez
Dominguez, and Moret, Becerra, Balaguer, and other quondam
revolutionaries. He sat in several parliaments of the reign
of Alphonso XII. and of the regency of Queen Christina, joined
the dynastic Liberals under Sagasta, and gave Sagasta not a
little trouble when the latter allowed him to preside over the
House of Deputies. Having failed to form a rival party against
Sagasta, Martos subsided into political insignificance, despite
his great talent as an orator and debater, and died in Madrid on
the 1 6th of January 1893.
MARTOS, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen,
16 m. W.S.W. of Jaen, by the Jaen-Lucena railway. Pop.
(1900), 17,078. Martos is situated on an outlying western peak
of the Jabalcuz mountains, which is surmounted by a ruined
castle and overlooks the plain of Andalusia. In the neighbour-
hood are two sulphurous springs with bathing establishments.
The local trade is almost exclusively agricultural.
Martos perhaps stands on or near the site of the Tucci of Ptolemy,
which was fortified and renamed Colonia Augusta Gemella by the
Romans. By Ferdinand III. it was taken from the Moors in 1225,
and given to the knights of Calatrava ; it was here that the brothers
Carvajal, commanders of the order, were in 1312 executed by
command of Ferdinand IV. Before their death they summoned
Ferdinand to meet them within thirty days at the judgment-seat of
God. Ferdinand died a month later and thus received the popular
name of el Emplazado " the Summoned."
MARTYN, HENRY (1781-1812), English missionary to India,
was born on the i8th of February 1781, at Truro, Cornwall.
His father, John Martyn, was a " captain " or mine-agent at
Gwennap. The lad was educated at Truro grammar school
under Dr Cardew, entered St John's College, Cambridge, in
the autumn of 1797, and was senior wrangler and first Smith's
prizeman in 1801. In 1802 he was chosen a fellow of his college.
He had intended to go to the bar, but in the October term of 1802
he chanced to hear Charles Simeon speaking of the good done
in India by a single missionary, William Carey, and some time
afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd, the apostle of the
Indians of North America. He resolved, accordingly, to become
a Christian missionary. On the 22nd of October, 1803, he was
ordained deacon at Ely, and afterwards priest, and served as
Simeon's curate at the church of Holy Trinity, taking charge of
the neighbouring parish of Lolworth. He was about to offer
his services to the Church Missionary Society, when a disaster in
Cornwall deprived him and his unmarried sister of the provision
their father had made for them, and rendered it necessary that
he should obtain a salary that would support her as well as
himself. He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the East
India Company and left for India on the sth of July 1805. For
some months he was stationed at Aldeen, near Serampur; in
October 1806 he proceeded to Dinapur, where he was soon able
to conduct worship among the natives in the vernacular, and
established schools. In April 1809 he was transferred to
Cawnpore, where he preached in his own compound, in spite of
interruptions and threats. He occupied himself in linguistic
study, and had already, during his residence at Dinapur, been
engaged in revising the sheets of his Hindostani version of the
New Testament. He now translated the whole of the New
Testament into Hindi also, and into Persian twice. He trans-
lated the Psalms into Persian, the Gospels into Judaeo-Persic,
and the Prayer-book into Hindostani, in spite of ill-health and
" the pride, pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat."
Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage, he obtained leave
to go to Persia and correct his Persian New Testament, whence
he wished to go to Arabia, and there compose an Arabic version.
Accordingly, on the ist of October 1810, having seen his work
at Cawnpore crowned on the previous day by the opening of
a church, he left for Calcutta, whence he sailed on the 7th of
January 1811, for Bombay, which he reached on his thirtieth
birthday. From Bombay he set out for Bushire, bearing letters
from Sir John Malcolm to men of position there, as also at Shiraz
and Isfahan. After an exhausting journey from the coast he
reached Shiraz, and was soon plunged into discussion with the
disputants of all classes, " Sufi, Mahommedan, Jew, and Jewish-
Mahommedan, even Armenian, all anxious to test their powers
of argument with the first English priest who had visited them."
Having made an unsuccessful journey to Tabriz to present the
shah with his translation of the New Testament, he was seized
with fever, and after a temporary recovery, had to seek a change
of climate. On the I2th of September 1812, he started with
two Armenian servants, crossed the Araxes, rode from Tabriz to
Erivan, from Erivan to Kars, from Kars to Erzerum, from
Erzerum to Chiflik, urged on from place to place by a thoughtless
Tatar guide, and, though the plague was raging at Tokat (near
Eski-Shehr in Asia Minor), he was compelled by prostration
to stop there. On the 6th of October he died. Macaulay's
youthful lines, written early in 1813, testify to the impression
made by his career.
His Journals and Letters were published by Samuel Wilberforce
in 1837. See also Lives by John Sargent (1819; new ed. 1885), and
G. Smith (1892) ; and The Church Quarterly Review (Oct. 1881).
MARTYN, JOHN (1699-1768), English botanist, was born in
London on the i2th of September 1699. Originally intended for
a business career, he abandoned it in favour of medical and
botanical studies. He was one of the founders (with J. J. Dillen
and others) and the secretary of a botanical society which met for
a few years in the Rainbow Coffee-house, Watling Street ; he also
started the Grub Street Journal, a weekly satirical' review, which
lasted from 1730 to 1737. In 1732 he was appointed professor
of botany in Cambridge University, but, finding little encourage-
ment and hampered by lack of appliances, he soon discontinued
lecturing. He retained his professorship, however, till 1762,
when he resigned in favour of his son Thomas (1735-1825),
author of Flora rustica (1792-1794). Although he had not
taken a medical degree, he long practised as a physician at
Chelsea, where he died on the 2gth of January 1768. His
reputation chiefly rests upon his Historia plantarum rariorum
(1728-1737), and his translation, with valuable agricultural and
botanical notes, of the Eclogues (1749) and Georgics (1741) of
Virgil. On resigning the botanical chair at Cambridge he pre-
sented the university with a number of his botanical specimens
and books.
See memoir by Thomas Martyn in Memoirs of John Martyn and
Thomas. Martyn, by G. C. Gorham (1830).
MARTYR (Gr. naprvp or judprus), a word meaning literally
" witness " and often used in that sense in the New Testament
e.g. Matt, xviii. 16; Mark xiv. 63. During the conflict between
Paganism and Christianity when many Christians " testified "
to the truth of their convictions by sacrificing their lives, the
word assumed its modern technical sense. The beginnings of
this use are to be seen in such passages as Acts xxii. 20; Rev. ii.
13, xiii. 6. During the first three centuries the fortitude of
these " witnesses " won the admiration of their brethren.
Ardent spirits craved the martyr's crown, and to confess Christ
in persecution was to attain a glory inferior only to that won by
those who actually died. Confessors were visited in prison,
martyrs' graves were scenes of pilgrimage, and the day on which
MARTYROLOGY MARVELL, ANDREW
805
they suffered was celebrated as the birthday of their glory.
Martyrology was the most popular literature in the early Church.
While the honour paid to martyrdom was a great support to early
champions of the faith, it was attended by serious evils. It was
thought that martyrdom would atone for sin, and imprisoned
confessors not only issued to the Churches commands which
were regarded almost as inspired utterances, but granted pardons
in rash profusion to those who had been excommunicated by the
regular clergy, a practice which caused Cyprian and his fellow
bishops much difficulty. The zeal of Ignatius (c. 115), who begs
the Roman Church to do nothing to avert from him the martyr's
death, was natural enough in a spiritual knight-errant, but with
others in later days, especially in Phrygia and North Africa, the
passion became artificial. Fanatics sought death by insulting
the magistrates or by breaking idols, and in their enthusiasm
for martyrdom became self-centred and forgetful of their normal
duty. None the less it is true that these men and women endured
torments, often unthinkable in their cruelty, and death rather
than abandon their faith. The same phenomena have been
witnessed, not only in the conflicts within the Church that
marked the I3th to the i6th centuries, but in the different
mission fields, and particularly in Madagascar and China.
Sec A. J. Mason, The Historic Martyrs of the Primitive Church
(London, 1905); H. B. Workman, Persecution in the Early Church
(London, 1906); Paul Allard, Ten Lectures on the Martyrs (London,
I9 O 7); John Foxe, The Book of Martyrs; Mary I. Bryson, Cross and
Crown (London, 1904).
MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or list of martyrs, or, more
exactly, of saints, arranged in the order of their anniversaries.
This is the now accepted meaning in the Latin Church. In the
Greek Church the nearest equivalent to the martyrology is the
Synaxarium (<?..). As regards form, we should distinguish
between simple martyrologies, which consist merely of an
enumeration of names, and historical martyrologies, which also
include stories or biographical details. As regards documents,
the most important distinction is between local and general
martyrologies. The former give a list of the festivals of some
particular Church; the latter are the result of a combination of
several local martyrologies. We may add certain compilations
of a factitious character, to which the name of martyrology is
given by analogy, e.g. the Martyrologe ttniversel of Chatelain
(1709). As types of local martyrologies we may quote that of
Rome, formed from the Depositio martyrum and the Deposilio
episcoporum of the chronograph of 354; the Gothic calendar of
Ulfila's Bible, the calendar of Carthage published by Mabillon,
the calendar of fasts and vigils of the Church of Tours, going
back as far as Bishop Perpetuus (d. 490), and preserved in the
Historia francorum (xi. 31) of Gregory of Tours. The Syriac
martyrology discovered by Wright (Journal of Sacred Literature,
1866) gives the idea of a general martyrology. The most
important ancient martyrology preserved to the present day is
the compilation falsely attributed to St Jerome, which in its
present form goes back to the end of the 6th century. It is the
result of the combination of a general martyrology of the Eastern
Churches, a local martyrology of the Church of Rome, some
general martyrologies of Italy and Africa, and a series of local
martyrologies of Gaul. The task of critics is to distinguish
between its various constituent elements. Unfortunately, this
document has reached us in a lamentable condition. The proper
names are distorted, repeated or misplaced, and in many places
the text is so corrupt that it is impossible to understand it.
With the exception of a few traces of borrowings from the
Passions of the martyrs, the compilation is in the form of a
simple martyrology. Of the best -known historical martyrologies
the oldest are those which go under the name of Bede and of
Florus (Ada sanctorum Martii, vol. ii.); of Wandelbert, a
monk of Prtim (842); of Rhabanus Maurus (c. 845); of Ado
(d. 875); of Notker (896); and of Wolfhard (c. 896 v. Analecta
bollandiana, xvii. n). The most famous is that of Usuard
(c. 875), on which the Roman martyrology was based. The first
edition of the Roman martyrology appeared at Rome in 1583.
The third edition, which appeared in 1584, was approved by
Gregory XIII., who imposed the Roman martyrology upon the
whole Church. In 1586 Baronius published his annotated
edition, which in spite of its omissions ajid inaccuracies is a
mine of valuable information.
The chief works on the martyrologies are those of Rosweyde, who
in 1613 published at Antwerp the martyrology of Ado (also edition
of Giorgi, Rome, 1745); of Sollerius, to whom we owe a learned
edition of Usuard (Acta sanctorum Junii, vols. vi. and vii.) ; and of
Fiorentini, who published in 1688 an annotated edition of the Martyr-
ology of St Jerome. The critical edition of the latter by J. B. de
Rossi and Mgr. L. Duchesne, was published in 1894, in vol. ii. of the
Acta sanctorum Novembris. The historical martyrologies taken as
a whole have been studied by Dom Quentin (1908). There are also
numerous editions of calendars or martyrologies of less universal
interest, and commentaries upon them. Mention ought to be made
of the famous calendar of Naples, commented on by Mazocchi
(Naples, 1744) and Sabbatini (Naples, 1744).
See C. de Smedt, Introductio generalis ad historiam ecclesiasticam
(Gandavi, 1876), pp. 127-156; H. Matagne and V. de Buck in De
Backer, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus, 2nd ed.,
vol. iii. pp. 369-387; De Rossi- Duchesne, Les Sources du martyrolpge
hieronymien (Rome, 1885); H. Achelis, Die Martyrologien, ihre
Geschichte und ihr Wert (Berlin, 1900) ; H. Delehaye, " Le T6moignage
des martyrologes," in Analecta bollandiana, xxvi. 78-99 (1907);
H. Quentin, Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen age (Paris,
1908). (H. DE.)
MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA (d. 1500), Greek
scholar, poet, and soldier, was born at Constantinople. In
1453) when the Turks captured Constantinople, he was taken
to Ancona in Italy, where he became the friend and pupil of
J. J. Pontanus, with whom his name is associated by Ariosto
(Orl. Fur. xxxvii. 8). He received his education at Florence,
where he obtained the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici. He was
the author of epigrams and hymni naturales, in which he happily
imitated Lucretius. He took no part in the work of translation,
then the favourite exercise of scholars, but he was understood
to be planning some great work when he was drowned, on the
icth of April 1500, in the river Cecina near Volterra. He was a
bitter enemy of Politian, whose successful rival he had been in the
affections of the beautiful and learned Alessandra Scala. He is
remembered chiefly for the brilliant emendations on Lucretius
which he left unpublished; these were used for the Juntine
edition (Munro's Lucretius, Introduction).
The hymns, some of the epigrams, and a fragment, De Principum
institutione, were reprinted in Paris by C. M. Sathas in Docu-
ments inedits relatifs a fhistoire de la Grece au moyen Age, vol. vii.
(1888).
MARUM, MARTIN VAN (1750-1837), Dutch man of science,
was born on the 2oth of March 1750 at Groningen, where he
graduated in medicine and philosophy. He began to practise
medicine at Haarlem, but devoted himself mainly to lecturing
on physical subjects. He became secretary of the scientific
society of that city, and under his management the society was
advanced to the position of one of the most noted in Europe.
He was also entrusted with the care of the collection left to
Haarlem by P. Teyler van der Hulst (1702-1778). His name
is not associated with any discovery of the first order, but his
researches (especially in connexion with electricity) were remark-
able for their number and variety. He died at Haarlem on the
26th of December 1837.
MARUTS, in Hindu mythology, storm-gods. Their numbers
vary in the different scriptures, usually thrice seven or thrice
sixty. In the Vedas they are called the sons of Rudra. They
are the companions of Indra, and associated with him in the
wielding of thunderbolts, sometimes as his equals, sometimes
as his servants. They are armed with golden weapons and
lightnings. They split drought (Vritra) and bring rain, and
cause earthquakes. Various myths surround their birth. A
derivative word, Maruti or Maroti, is the popular name through-
out the Deccan for Hanuman (q.v.).
MARVELL, ANDREW (1621-1678), English poet and satirist,
son of Andrew Marvell and his wife Anne Pease, was born at the
rectory house, Winestead, in the Holderness division of York-
shire, on the 3ist of March 1621. In 1624 his father exchanged
the living of Winestead for the mastership of Hull grammar
school. He also became lecturer at Holy Trinity Church and
8o6
MARVELL, ANDREW
master of the Charterhouse in the same town. Thomas Fuller
(Worthies of England, ed. 1811, i. 165) describes him as "a most
excellent preacher." The younger Marvell was educated at
Hull grammar school until his thirteenth year, when he matricu-
lated on the 1 4th of December 1633 (according to a doubtful
statement in Wood's Athen. oxon.) at Trinity College, Cambridge.
It is related by his early biographer, Thomas Cooke, that he was
induced by some Jesuit priests to leave the university. After
some months he was discovered by his father in a bookseller's
shop in London, and returned to Cambridge. 1 He contributed
two poems to the Musa cantabrigiensis in 1637, and in the
following year he received a scholarship at Trinity College, and
took his B.A. degree in 1639. His father was drowned in 1640
while crossing the Humber in company with the daughter of
a Mrs Skinner, almost certainly connected with the Cyriack
Skinner to whom two of Milton's sonnets are addressed. It is
said that Mrs Skinner adopted Marvell and provided for him at
her death. The Conclusion Book of Trinity College, Cambridge,
registers the decision (Sept. 24, 1641) that he with others should
be excluded from further advantages from the college either
because they were married, or did not attend their " days " or
" acts." He travelled for four years on the Continent, visiting
Holland, France, Italy and Spain. In Rome he met Richard
Flecknoe, whom he satirized in the amusing verses on " Flecnoe,
an English priest at Rome."
Although Marvell ranks as a great Puritan poet his sympathies
were at first with Charles I., and in the lines on " Torn May's
Death " he found no words too strong to express his scorn for the
historian of the Long Parliament. He himself was no partisan,
but had a passion for law and order. He acquiesced, accordingly,
in the strong rule of Cromwell, but in his famous " Horatian Ode
upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland" (1650)" he inserts a
tribute to the courage and dignity of Charles I., which forms the
best-known section of the poem. In 1650 he became tutor to
Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, afterwards duchess of Bucking-
ham, then in her twelfth year. During his life with the Fair-
faxes at Nunappleton, Yorkshire, he wrote the poems " Upon
the Hill and Grove at Billborow " and " On Appleton House."
Doubtless the other poems on country life, and his exquisite
" garden poetry " may be referred to this period. " Clorinda
and Damon " and " The Nymph complaining for the Death of her
Faun " are good examples of the beauty and simplicity of much
of this early verse. But he had affinities with John Donne and
the metaphysical poets, and could be obscure on occasion.
Marvell was acquainted with Milton probably through their
common friends, the Skinners, and in February 1653 Milton sent
him with a letter to the lord president of the council, John
Bradshaw, recommending him as " a man of singular desert for
the state to make use of," and suggesting his appointment as
assistant to himself in his duties as foreign secretary. The
appointment was, however, given at the time to Philip Meadows,
and Marvell became tutor to Cromwell's ward, William Dutton.
In 16,53 he was established with his pupil at Eton in the house of
John Oxenbridge, then a fellow of the college, but formerly a
minister in the Bermudas. No doubt the well-known verses,
" Bermudas," were inspired by intercourse with the Oxenbridges.
At Eton he enjoyed the society of John Hales, then living in
retirement. He was employed by Milton in 1654 to convey to
Bradshaw a copy of the Defensio secunda, and the letter to
Milton in which he describes the reception of the gift is preserved.
When the secretaryship again fell vacant in 1657 Marvell was
appointed, and retained the appointment until the accession of
Charles II. During this period he wrote many political poems,
1 There is an allusion to this escapade addressed by another
anxious parent to the elder Marvell in the Hull Corporation Records
(No. 498) [see Grosart, i. xxviii.]. The document is without address
or signature, but the identification seems safe.
1 This poem has been highly praised by Goldwin Smith (T. H.
Ward's English Poets, ii. 383 (1880)). It was first printed, so far as
we know, in 1776, and the only external testimony to Marvell's
authorship is the statement of Captain Thompson, who had included
many poems by other writers in his edition of Marvell, that this ode
was in poet's own handwriting. The internal evidence in favour
of Marvell may, however, be accepted as conclusive.
all of them displaying admiration for Cromwell. His " Poem
upon the Death of his late Highness the Lord Protector " has
been unfavourably compared to Edmund Waller's " Panegyric,"
but Marvell's poem is inspired with affection.
Marvell's connexion with Hull had been strengthened by the
marriages of his sisters with persons of local importance, and in
January 1659 he was elected to represent the borough in parlia-
ment. He was re-elected in 1660, again in 1661, and continued
to represent the town until his death. According to Milton's
nephew, Edward Phillips, the poet owed his safety at the
Restoration largely to the efforts of Marvell, who " made a
considerable party for him " in the House of Commons. From
1663 to 1665 he acted as secretary to Charles Howard, ist earl
of Carlisle, on his difficult and unsuccessful embassy to Muscovy,
Sweden, and Denmark; and this is the only official post he filled
during the reign of Charles. With the exception of this absence,
for which he had leave from his constituents, and of shorter
intervals of travel on private business which took him to Holland,
Marvell was constant in his parliamentary attendance to the day
of his death. He seldom spoke in the House, but his parliamentary
influence is established by other evidence. He was an excellent
man of affairs, and looked after the special interests of the port
of Hull. He was a member of the corporation of Trinity House,
both in London and Hull, and became a younger warden of
the London Trinity House. His correspondence with his con-
stituents, from 1660 to 1678, some 400 letters in all, printed by
Dr Grosart (Complete Works, vol. ii.), forms a source of informa-
tion all the more valuable because by a resolution passed at
the Restoration the publication of the proceedings of the House
without leave was forbidden. He made it a point of duty to
write at each post that is, every two or three days both on
local interests and on all matters of public interest. The discreet
reserve of these letters, natural at a time when the post office
was a favourite source of information to the government,
contrasts curiously with the freedom of the few private letters
which state opinions as well as facts. Marvell's constituents,
in their turn, were not unmindful of their member. He makes
frequent references to their presents, usually of Hull ale and
of salmon, and he regularly drew from them the wages of a
member, six-and-eightpence a day during session.
The development of Marvell's political opinions may be traced
in the satirical verse he published during the reign of Charles II.,
and in his private letters. With all his admiration for Cromwell
he had retained his sympathies with the royal house, and had
loyally accepted the Restoration. In 1667 the Dutch fleet sailed
up the Thames, and Marvell expressed his wrath at the gross
mismanagement of public affairs in " Last Instructions to a
Painter," a satire which was published as a broadside and of
course remained anonymous. Edmund Waller had published
in 1665 a gratulatory poem on the duke of York's victory in that
year over the Dutch as " Instructions to a Painter for the drawing
up and posture of his Majesty's forces at sea. . ." A similar form
was adopted in Sir John Denham's four satirical " Directions to
a Painter," and Marvell writes on the same model. His indigna-
tion was well grounded, but he had no scruples in the choice of
the weapons he employed in his warfare against the corruption of
the court, which he paints even blacker than do contemporary
memoir writers; and his satire often descends to the level of the
lampoon. The most inexcusable of his scandalous verses are
perhaps those on the duchess of York. In the same year he
attacked Lord Clarendon, evidently hoping that with the removal
of the " betrayer of England and Flanders " matters would
improve. But in 1672 when he wrote his " Poem on the Statue
in the Stocks-Market " he had no illusions left about Charles,
whom he describes as too often " purchased and sold," though
he concludes with " Yet we'd rather have him than his bigoted
brother." " An Historical Poem," " Advice to a Painter," and
" Britannia and Raleigh " urge the same advice in grave
language. In the last-named poem, probably written early in
1674, Raleigh pleads that " 'tis god-like good to save a fallen
king," but Britannia has at length decided that the tyrant cannot
be divided from the Stuart, and proposes to reform the state
MARX
807
on the republican model of Venice. These and other equally
bold satires were probably handed round in MS., or secretly
printed, and it was not until after the Revolution that they were
collected with those of other writers in Poems on Affairs of State
(3 pis., 1689; 4 pts., 1703-1707). Marvell's controversial prose
writings are wittier than his verse satires, and are free from the
scurrility which defaces the " Last Instructions to a Painter."
A short and brilliant example of his irony is " His Majesty's
Most Gracious Speech to both Houses of Parliament "(printed
in Grosdrt, ii. 431 seq.),in which Charles is made to take the
house into the friendliest confidence on his domestic affairs.
Marvell was among the masters of Jonathan Swift, who, in the
" Apology " prefixed to the Tale of a Tub, wrote that his answer
to Samuel Parker could be still read with pleasure, although the
pamphlets that provoked it were long since forgotten. Parker
had written a Discourse of Ecclesiastical Politye (1670) and other
polemics against Dissenters, to which Marvell replied in The
Rehearsal Transposed (2 pts., 1672 and 1673). The book contains
some passages of dignified eloquence, and some coarse vitupera-
tion, but the prevailing tone is that of grave and ironical banter
of Parker as " Mr Bayes." Parker was attacked, says Bishop
Burnet (Hist, of His Own Time, ed. 1823, i. 451), " by the
liveliest droll of the age, who writ in a burlesque strain, but with
so peculiar and entertaining a conduct, that, from the king down
to the tradesman, his books were read with great pleasure."
He certainly humbled Parker, but whether this effect extended,
as Burnet asserts, to the whole party, is doubtful. Parker had
intimated that Milton had a share in the first part of Marvell's
reply. This Marvell emphatically denied (Grosart, iii. 498).
He points out that Parker had, like Milton, profited by the royal
clemency, and that he had first met him at Milton's house. He
takes the opportunity to praise Milton's " great learning and
sharpness of wit," and to the second edition of Paradise
Lost (1674) he contributed some verses of just and eloquent
praise.
His Mr Smirke, or the Divine in Mode . . . (1676) was a defence
of Herbert Croft, bishop of Hereford, against the criticisms of
Dr Francis Turner, master of St John's College, Cambridge. A
far more important work was An Account of the Growth of Popery
and Arbitrary Government in England, more particularly from
(lie Long Prorogation of Parliament . . . (1677). This pamphlet
was written in the same outspoken tone as the verse satires,
and brought against the court the indictment of nursing designs
to establish absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic religion
at the same time. A reward was offered for the author, whose
identity was evidently suspected, and it is said that Marvell was
in danger of assassination. He died on the i6th of August 1678
in consequence of an overdose of an opiate taken during an
attack of ague. He was buried in the church of St Giles-in-the
Fields, London. Joint administration of his estate was granted
to one of his creditors, and to his widow, Mary Marvell, of whom
we have no previous mention.
As a humorist, and as a great " parliament man," no name is
of more interest to a student of the reign of Charles II. than that
of Marvell. He had friends among the republican thinkers of
the times. Aubrey says that he was intimate with James
Harrington, the author of Oceana, and he was probably a member
of the " Rota " club. In the heyday of political infamy, he, a
needy man, obliged to accept wages from his constituents, kept
his political Virtue unspotted, and he stood throughout his career
as the champion of moderate and tolerant measures. There is
a story that his old schoolfellow, Danby, was sent by the king to
offer the incorruptible poet a place at court and a gift of 1000,
which Marvell refused with the words: " I live here to serve
my constituents: the ministry may seek men for their purpose;
I am not one." When self-indulgence was the ordinary habit
of town life, Marvell was a temperate man. His personal
appearance is described by John Aubrey: " He was of a middling
stature, pretty strong set, roundish faced, cherry cheeked, hazel
eyed, brown haired. In his conversation he was modest and of
very few words." (" Lives of Eminent Persons," printed in
Letters . . . .in the i?th and i8th Centuries, 1813).
Among Marvell's works is also a Defence of John Howe on God's
Prescience . . . (1678), and among the spurious works fathered on
him are: A Seasonable Argument . . . for a new Parliament (1677),
A Seasonable Question and a Useful Answer . . . (1676), A Letter
from a Parliament Man . . . (1675), and a translation of Suetonius
(1672). Marvell's satires were no doubt first printed as broadsides,
but very few are still extant in that form. Such of his poems as
were printed during his lifetime appeared in collections of other
men's works. The earliest edition of his non-political verse is
Miscellaneous Poems (1681), edited by his wife, Mary Marvell. The
political satires were printed as A Collection of Poems on Affairs of
State, by A M I, Esq. and other Eminent Wits (1689), with
second and third parts in the same year. The works of Andrew
Marvell contained in these two publications were also edited by
Thomas Cooke (2 vols., 1726), who added some letters. Cooke s
edition was reprinted by Thomas Davies in 1772. Marvell's next
editor was Captain Thompson of Hull, who was connected with the
poet's family, and made further additions from a commonplace
book since lost. Other editions followed, but were superseded by
Dr A. B. Grosart's laborious work, which, in spite of many defects
of style, remains indispensable to the student. The Complete Works
in Verse and Prose of Andrew Marvell, M.P. (4 vols., 1872-1875)
forms part of his " Fuller Worthies Library." See also the admirable
edition of the Poems and Satires of Andrew Marvell. . . (p vols.,
1892) in the " Muses' Library," where a full bibliography of his wor.ks
and of the commentaries on them is provided; also The Poems and
some Satires of Andrew Marvell (ed. Edward Wright, 1904), and
Andrew Marvell (1905), by Augustine Birrell in the " English Men
of Letters " series.
MARX, HEINRICH KARL (1818-1883), German socialist, and
head of the International Working Men's Association, was born
on the sth of May 1818 in Treves (Rhenish Prussia). His father,
a Jewish lawyer, in 1824 went over to Christianity, and he and
his whole family were baptized as Christian Protestants. The
son went to the high grammar school at Treves, and from 1835
to the universities of Bonn and Berlin. He studied first law,
then history and philosophy, and in 1841 took the degree of
doctor of philosophy. In Berlin he had close intimacy with the
most prominent representatives of the young Hegelians the
brothers Bruno and Edgar Bauer and their circle, the so-called
" Freien." He at first intended to settle as a lecturer at Bonn
University, but his Radical views made a university career out
of the question, and he accepted work on a Radical paper, the
Rheinische Zeitung, which expounded the ideas of the most
advanced section of the Rhenish Radical bourgeoisie. In October
1842 he became one of the editors of this paper, which, however,
after an incessant struggle with press censors, was suppressed
in the beginning of 1843. In the summer of this year Marx
married Jenny von Westphalen, the daughter of a high govern-
ment official. Through her mother Jenny von Westphalen was
a lineal descendant of the earl of Argyle, who was beheaded under
James II. She was a most faithful companion to Marx during
all the vicissitudes of his career, and died on the 2nd of December
1 88 1 ; he outliving her only fifteen months.
Already in the Rheinische Zeitung some socialist voices had
been audible, couched in a somewhat philosophical strain. Marx,
though not accepting these views, refused to criticize them
until he had studied the question thoroughly. For this purpose
he went in the autumn of 1843 to Paris, where the socialist
movement was then at its intellectual zenith, and where he,
together with Arnold Ruge, the well-known literary leader of
Radical Hegelianism, was to edit a review, the Deutsch-franzo-
sische Jahrbucher, of which, however, only one number appeared.
It contained two articles by Marx a criticism of Bruno Bauer's
treatment of the Jewish question, and an introduction to a
criticism of Hegel's philosophy of the law. The first concluded
that the social emancipation of the Jews could only be achieved
together with the emancipation of society from Judaism, i.e.
commercialism. The second declared that in Germany no partial
political emancipation was possible; there was now onlyone class
from which a real and reckless fight against authority was to
be expected namely, the proletariate. But the proletariate
could not emancipate itself except by breaking all the chains,
by dissolving the whole constituted society, by recreating man
as a member of the human society in the place of established
states and classes. " Then the day of German resurrection will
be announced by the crowing of the Gallican cock." Both
8o8
MARX
articles thus relegated the solution of the questions then promi-
nent in Germany to the advent of socialism, and so far
resembled in principle other socialist publications of the time.
But the way of reasoning was different, and the final words
of the last quoted sentence pointed to a political revolution,
to begin in France as soon as the industrial evolution had
created a sufficiently strong proletariate. In contradistinc-
tion to most of the socialists of the day, Marx laid stress
upon the political struggle as the lever of social emancipa-
tion. In some letters which formed part of a correspondence
between Marx, Ruge, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Mikhail Bakunin,
published as an introduction to the review, this opposition
of Marx to socialistic " dogmatism " was enunciated in a still
more pronounced form: " Nothing prevents us," he said, " from
combining our criticism with the criticism of politics, from
participating in politics, and consequently in real struggles. We
will not, then, oppose the world like doctrinarians with a new
principle: here is truth, kneel down here! We expose new prin-
ciples to the world out of the principles of the world itself. We
don't tell it: ' Give up your struggles, they are rubbish, we will
show you the true war-cry.' We explain to it only the real
object for which it struggles, and consciousness is a thing it must
acquire even if it objects to it."
In Paris Marx met FRIEDRICH ENGELS (1820-1895), from whom
the Deutsch-franzosische Jahrbilcher had two articles a power-
fully written outline of a criticism of political economy, and a
letter on Carlyle's Past and Present. Engels, the son of a wealthy
cotton-spinner, was born in 1820 at Barmen. Although destined
by his father for a commercial career, he attended a classical
school, and during his apprenticeship and whilst undergoing in
Berlin his one year's military service, he had given up part of his
free hours to philosophical studies. In Berlin he had frequented
the society of the " Freien," and had written letters to the
Rheinische Zeitung. In 1842 he had gone to England, his father's
firm having a factory near Manchester, and had entered into con-
nexion with the Owenite and Chartist movements, as well as
with German communists. He contributed to Owen's New Moral
World and to the Chartist Northern Star, gave up much of his
abstract speculative reasoning for a more positivist conception of
things, and took to economic studies. Now, in September 1844,
on a short stay in Paris, he visited Marx, and the two found that
in regard to all theoretical points there was perfect agreement
between them. From that visit dates the close friendship and
uninterrupted collaboration and exchange of ideas which lasted
during their lives, so that even some of Marx's subsequent works,
which he published under his own name, are more or less also the
work of Engels. The first result of their collaboration was the
book Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen Kritik, gegen
Bruno Bauer und Konsorten, a scathing exposition of the per-
verseness of the high-sounding speculative radicalism of Bauer
and the other Berlin " Freie." By aid of an analysis, which,
though not free from exaggeration and a certain diffuseness,
bears testimony to the great learning of Marx and the vigorous
discerning faculty of both the authors, it is shown that the
supposed superior criticism the " critical criticism " of the
Bauer school, based upon the doctrine of a " self-conscious "
idea, represented by or incarnated in the critic was in fact
inferior to the older Hegelian idealism. The socialist and
working-class movements in Great Britain, France and Germany
are defended against the superior criticism of the " holy "
Bauer family.
In Paris, where he had very intimate intercourse with Heinrich
Heine, who always speaks of him with the greatest respect,
and some of whose poems were suggested by Marx, the latter
contributed to a Radical magazine, the Vorwdrts; but in conse-
quence of a request by the Prussian government, nearly the whole
staff of the magazine soon got orders to leave France. Marx
now went to Brussels, where he shortly afterwards was joined
by Engels. In Brussels he published his second great work,
La Misere de la philosophic, a sharp rejoinder to the Philosophic
de la misere ou contradictions fconomiqucsot J. P. Proudhon. In
this he deals with Proudhon, whom in the former work he had
defended against the Bauers, not less severely than with the
latter. It is shown that in many points Proudhon is inferior to
both the middle-class economists and the socialists, that his
somewhat noisily proclaimed discoveries in regard to political
economy were made long before by English socialists, and that
his main remedies, the " constitution of the labour-value " and
the establishment of exchange bazaars, were but a repetition of
what English socialists had already worked out much more
thoroughly and more consistently. Altogether the book shows
remarkable knowledge of political economy. In justice to
Proudhon, it must be added that it is more often his mode of
speaking than the thought underlying the attacked sentences
that is hit by Marx's criticism. In Brussels Marx and Engels
also wrote a number of essays, wherein they criticized the
German literary representatives of that kind of socialism and
philosophic radicalism which was mainly influenced by the
writings of Ludwig Feuerbach, and deduced its theorems or
postulates from speculations on the " nature of man." They
mockingly nicknamed this kind of socialism " German or True
Socialism," and ridiculed the idea that by disregarding historical
and class distinctions a conception of society and socialism
superior to that of the English and French workers and theorists
could be obtained. Some of these essays were published at the
time, two or three, curiously enough, by one of the attacked
writers in his own magazine; one, a criticism 'of Feuerbach
himself, was in a modified form published by Engels in 1885, but
others have remained in manuscript. They were at first intended
for publication in two volumes as a criticism of post-Hegelian
German philosophy, but the Revolution of 1848 postponed for a
time all interest in theoretical discussions.
In Brussels Marx and Engels came into still closer contact
with the socialist working-class movement. They founded a
German workers' society, acquired a local German weekly, the
Brilsseller deutsche Zeitung, and finally joined a communistic
society of German workers, the " League of the Just," a secret
society which had its main branches in London, Paris, Brussels
and several Swiss towns. For this league, which till then had
adhered to the rough-and-ready communism of the gifted German
workman Wilhelm Weitling, but which now called itself " League
of the Communists," and gave up its leanings towards conspiracy
and became an educational and propagandistic body, Marx and
Engels at the end of 1847 wrote their famous pamphlet, Manifest
der Kommunisten^ It was a concise exposition of the history
of the working-class movement in modern society according to
their views, to which was added a critical survey of the existing
socialist and communist literature, and an explanation of the
attitude of the Communists towards the advanced opposition
parties in the different countries. Scarcely was the manifesto
printed when, in February 1848, the Revolution broke out in
France, and " the crowing of the Gallican cock" gave the signal
for an upheaval in Germany such as Marx had prophesied. After
a short stay in France, Marx and Engels went to Cologne in
May 1848, and there with some friends they founded the Neue
rheinische Zeitung, with the sub-title " An Organ of Democracy,"
a political daily paper on a large scale, of which Marx was the
chief editor. They took a frankly revolutionary attitude;, and
directed their criticism 4 to a great extent against the middle-class
democratic parties, who, by evading all decisive Issues, delayed
the achievement of the upheaval. When in November 1848 the
king of Prussia dissolved the National Assembly, Marx and his
friends advocated the non-payment of taxes and the organization
of armed resistance. Then the state of siege was declared in
Cologne, the Neue rheinische Zeitung was suspended, and Marx
was put on trial for high treason. He was unanimously acquitted
by a middle-class jury, but in May 1849 he was expelled from
Prussian territory. He went to Paris, but was soon given the
option of either leaving France or settling at a small provincial
place. He preferred the former, and went to England. He
settled in London, and remained there for the rest of his life.
At first he tried to reorganize the Communist League; but
soon a conflict broke out in its ranks, and after some of its
members had been tried in Germany and condemned for high
MARX
809
treason, Marx, who had done everything to save the accused,
dissolved the Communist League altogether. Nor was a literary
enterprise, a review, also called the Neue rlieinische Zeitung,
more successful; only six numbers of it were issued. It contained,
however, some very remarkable contributions; and a series of
articles on the career of the French Revolution of 1848, which
first appeared there, was in 1895 published by Engels in book
form under the title of Die Klassenkampfe in Frankreich von
1848 " by Karl Marx." Carlyle's Latter Day Pamphlets, pub-
lished at that time, met with a very vehement criticism in the
.Y> ; rlieinische Zeitung. The endeavours of Ernest Jones and
others to revive the Chartist movement were heartily supported
by Marx, who contributed to several of the Chartist journals of
the period, mostly, if not wholly, without getting or asking pay-
ment. He lived at this time in great financial straits, occupied
a few small rooms in Dean Street, Soho, and all his children
then born died very young. At length he was invited to
write letters for the New York Tribune, whose staff consisted
of advanced democrats and socialists of the Fourierist school.
For these letters he was paid at the rate of a guinea each.
Part of them, dealing with the Eastern Question and the
Crimean War, were republished in 1897 (London, Sonnenschein).
Some were even at the time reprinted in pamphlet form.
The co-operation of Marx, who was determinedly anti-
Russian, since Russia was the leading reactionary power in
Europe, was obtained by David Urquhart and his followers.
A number of Marx's articles were issued as pamphlets by the
Urquhartite committees, and Marx wrote a series of articles
on the diplomatic history of the i8th century for the Urqu-
hartite Free Press (Sheffield and London, 1856-1857). When
in 1859 the Franco-Austrian War about Italy broke out, Marx
denounced it as a Franco-Russian intrigue, directed against
Germany on the one hand and the revolutionary movement in
France on the other. He opposed those democrats who sup-
ported a war which in their eyes aimed at the independence of
the Italian nation and promised to weaken Austria, whose
superiority in Germany was the hindrance to German unity.
Violent derogatory remarks directed against him by the well-
known naturalist Karl Vogt gave occasion to a not less violent
rejoinder, Herr Vogt, a book full of interesting material for the
student of modern history. Marx's contention, that Vogt acted
as an agent of the Bonapartist clique, seems to have been well
founded, whilst it must be an open question how far Vogt acted
from dishonourable motives. The discussions raised by the war
also resulted in a great estrangement between Marx and Ferdi-
nand Lassalle. Lassalle had taken a similar view of the war to
that advocated by Vogt, and fought tooth and nail for it in
letters to Marx. In the same year, 1859, Marx published as a
first result of his renewed economic studies the book Zur Kritik
der politischen Okonomie. It was the first part of a much larger
work planned to cover the whole ground of political economy.
But Marx found that the arrangement of his materials did not
fully answer his purpose, and that many details had still to be
worked out. He consequently altered the whole plan and sat
down to rewrite the book, of which in 1867 he published the first
volume under the title Das Kapital.
In the meantime, in 1864, the International Working Men's
Association was founded in London, and Marx became in fact
though not in name, the head of its general council. All its
addresses and proclamations were penned by him and explained
in lectures to the members of the council. The first years of the
International went smoothly enough. Marx was then at his
best. He displayed in the International a political sagacity and
toleration which compare most favourably with the spirit of
some of the publications of the Communist League. He was
more of its teacher than an agitator, and his expositions; of such
subjects as education, trade unions, the working day, and co-
operation were highly instructive. He did not hurry on extreme
resolutions, but put his proposals in such a form that they could
be adopted by even the more backward sections, and yet
contained no concessions to reactionary tendencies. But this
condition of things was not permitted to go on. The anarchist
agitation of Bakunin, the Franco-German War, and the Paris
Commune created a state of things before which the International
succumbed. Passions and prejudices ran so high that it proved
impossible to maintain any sort of centralized federation. At
the congress of the Hague, September 1872, the general council
was removed from London to New York. But this was only
a makeshift, and in July 1876 the rest of the old International
was formally dissolved at a conference held in Philadelphia.
That its spirit had not passed away was shown by subsequent
international congresses, and by the growth and character of
socialist labour parties in different countries. They have mostly
founded their programmes on the basis of its principles, but
are not always in their details quite in accordance with Marx's
views. Thus the programme which the German socialist party
accepted at its congress in 1875 was very severely criticized by
Marx. This criticism, reprinted in 1891 in the review Die neue
Zeit, is of great importance for the analysis of Marx's conception
of socialism.
The dissolution of the International gave Marx an opportunity
of returning to his scientific work. He did not, however,
succeed in publishing further volumes of Das Kapital. In order
to make it and especially the part dealing with property in
land as complete as possible, he took up, as Engels tells us, a
number of new studies, but repeated illness interrupted his
researches, and on the i4th of March 1883 he passed quietly
away.
From the manuscripts he left Engels compiled a second and a
third volume of Das Kapital by judiciously and elaborately using
complete and incomplete chapters, rough copies and excerpts,
which Marx had at different times written down. Much of the copy
used dates back to the 'sixties, i.e. represents the work as at first
conceived by Marx, so that, e.g., the matter published as the third
volume was in the main written much earlier than the matter which
was used for compiling the second volume. The same applies to
the fourth volume. Although the work thus comprises the four
volumes promised in the preface to the book, it can only in a very
restricted sense be regarded as complete. In substance and demons-
tration it must be regarded as a torso. And it is perhaps not quite
accidental that it should be so. Marx, if he had lived longer and
had enjoyed better health, would have given the world a much
greater amount of scientific work of high value than is now the case.
But it seems doubtful whether he would have brought Das Kapital,
his main work, to a satisfactory conclusion.
Das Kapital proposes to show up historically and critically the
whole mechanism of capitalist economy. The first volume deals
with the processes of producing capital, the second with the circula-
tion of capital, the third with the movements of capital as a whole,
whilst the fourth gives the history of the theories concerning capital.
Capital is, according to Marx, the means of appropriating sur-
plus-value as distinguished from ground rent (rent on every kind of
terrestrial property, such as land, mines, rivers, &c., based upon the
monopolist nature of such property). Surplus-value is created in the
process of production only, it is this part of the value of the newly
created product which is not given to the workman as a return the
wage of the labour-force he expended in working. If at first taken
by the employer, it is in the different phases of economic intercourse
split up into the profit of industrial enterprise, commercial or
merchants' profit, interest and ground rent. The value of every
commodity consists in the labour expended on it, and is measured
according to the time occupied by the labour employed on its produc-
tion. \Labour in itself has no value, being only the measure of value,
but the labour-force of the workman has a value, the value of the
means required to maintain the worker in normal conditions of social
existence. Thus, in distinction to other commodities, in the deter-
mination of the vajue of labour-force, besides the purely economical,
a moral and historical element enter. If to-day the worker receives
a wage which covers the bare necessaries of life, he is underpaid
he does not receive the real value of his labour-force. For the value
of any commodity is determined by its socially necessary costs of
production (or in this case, maintenance). " Socially necessary "
means, further, that no more labour is embodied in a commodity
than is required by applying labour-force, tools, &c., of average or
normal efficiency, and that the commodity is produced in such quan-
tity as is required to meet the effective demand for it. As this
generally cannot be known in advance, the market value of a com-
modity only gravitates round its (abstract) value. But in the long
run an equalization takes place, and for his further deductions Marx
assumes that commodities exchange according to their value.
_ That part of an industrial capital which is employed for installa-
tions, machines, raw and auxiliary materials, is called by Marx
constant capital, for the value of it or of its wear and tear reappears
in equal proportions in the value of the new product. It is other-
wise with labour. The new value of the product must by necessity
8io
MARX
be always higher than the value of the employed labour-force.
Hence the capital employed in buying labour-force, i.e. in wages,
is called variable capital. It is the tendency of capitalist production
to reduce the amount spent in wages and to increase the amount
invested in machines, &c. For with natural and social, legal and
other limitations of the working day, and the opposition to unlimited
reduction of wages, it is not possible otherwise to cheapen production
and beat competition. According to the proportion of constant to
variable capital, Marx distinguishes capitals of lowest average and
highest composition, the highest composition being that where
proportionately the least amount of variable (wages) capital is
employed.
The ratio of the wages which workmen receive to the surplus-
value which they produce Marx calls the rate of surplus-value; that
of the surplus-value produced to the whole capital employed is the
rate of profit. It is evident, then, that at the same time the rate
of surplus- value can increase and the rate of profit decrease, and this
in fact is the case. There is a continuous tendency of the rates of
profit to decrease, and only by some counteracting forces is their
decrease temporarily interrupted, protracted, or even sometimes
reversed. Besides, by competition and movement of capitals the
rates of profit in the different branches of trade are pressed towards
an equalization in the shape of an average rate of profits. This average
rate or profits, added to the actual cost price of a given commodity,
constitutes its price of production, and it is this price of production
which appears to the empirical mind of the business man as the
value of the commodity. The real law of value, on the contrary,
disappears from the surface in a society where, as to-day, commodities
are bought and sold against money and not exchanged against other
commodities. Nevertheless, according to Marx, it is also to-day this
law of value (" labour-value ") which in the last resort rules the prices
and profits. .
The tendency to cheapen production by increasing the relative
proportion of constant capital the fixed capital of the classical
economist plus that portion of the circulating capital which con-
sists of raw and auxiliary materials, &c. leads to a continuous
increase in the size of private enterprises, to their growing concentra-
tion. It is the larger enterprise that beats and swallows the smaller.
The number of dependent workmen " proletarians " is thus con-
tinually growing, whilst employment only periodically keeps pace
with their number. Capital alternately attracts and repels work-
men, and creates a constant surplus-population of workmen a
reserve-army for its requirements which helps to lower wages and
to keep the whole class in economic dependency. A decreasing
number of capitalists usurp and monopolize all the benefits or
industrial progress, whilst the mass of misery, of oppression, of
servitude, of depravation, and of exploitation increases. But at the
same time the working class continuously grows in numbers, and
is disciplined, united and organized by the very mechanism of the
capitalist mode of production. The centralization of the means of
production and the socialization of the mode of production reach
a point where they will become incompatible with their capitalist
integument. Then the knell of capitalist private property will have
been rung. Those who used to expropriate will be expropriated.
Individual property will again be established based upon co-opera-
tion and common ownership of the earth and the means of production
produced by labour.
These are the principal outlines of Das Kapital. Its purely
economic deductions are dominated throughout by the theory of
surplus-value. Its leading sociological principle is the materialist
conception of history. This theory is in Das Kapital only laid down
by implication, but it has been more connectedly explained in the
preface of Zur Kritik and several works of Engels. According to
it the material basis of life, the manner in which life and its require-
ments are produced, determines in the last instance the social ideas
and institutions of the time or historical epoch, so that fundamental
changes in the former produce in the long run also fundamental
changes in the latter. A set of social institutions answer to a given
mode of production, and periods where the institutions no longer
answer to the mode of production are periods of social revolution,
which go on until sufficient adjustment has taken place. "The main
subjective forces of the struggle between the old order and the new
are the classes into which society is divided after the dissolution of
the communistic or semi-communistic tribes and the creation of
states. And as long as society is divided into classes a class war will
persist, sometimes in a more latent or disguised, sometimes in a more
open or acute form, according to circumstances. In advanced
capitalist society the classes between whom the decisive war takes
place are the capitalist owners of the means of production and the
non-propertied or wage-earning workers, the " proletariate." But
the proletariate cannot free itself without freeing all other oppressed
classes, and thus its victory means the end of exploitation and
political repression altogether. Consequently the state as a repres-
sive power will die out, and a free association will take its place.
Almost from the first Das Kapital and the publications of Marx
and Engels connected with it have been subjected to all kinds of
criticisms. The originality of its leading ideas has been disputed,
the ideas themselves have been declared to be false or only partially
true, and consequently leading to wrong conclusions; and it has been
said of many of Marx's statements that they are incorrect, and that
many of the statistics upon which he bases his deductions do i
prove what he wants them to prove. In regard to the first point,
it must be conceded that the disjecta membra of Marx's value theory
and of his materialist conception of history are already to be found
in the writings of former socialists and sociologists. It may even be
said that just those points of the Marxist doctrine which have become
popular are in a very small degree the produce of Marx's genius,
and that what really belongs to Marx, the methodical conjunction
and elaboration of these points, as well as the finer deductions
drawn from their application, are generally ignored. But this is an
experience repeated over and over again in the history of deductive
sciences, and is quite irrelevant for the question of Marx's place in
the history of socialism and social science.
It must further be admitted that in several places the statistical
evidence upon which Marx bases his deductions is insufficient or
inconclusive. Moreover and this is one of the most damaging
admissions it repeatedly happens that he points out all the pheno-
mena connected with a certain question, but afterwards ignores
some of them and proceeds as if they did not exist. Thus, e.g.,
he speaks at the end of the first volume, where he sketches the his-
torical tendency of capitalist accumulation, of the decreasing number
of magnates of capital as of an established fact. But all statistics
show that the number of capitalists does not decrease, but increase ;
and in other places in Das Kapital this fact is indeed fully admitted,
and even accentuated. Marx was, as the third volume shows, also
quite aware that limited liability companies play an important part
in the distribution of wealth. But he leaves this factor, too, quite
out of sight, and confuses the concentration of private enterprises
with the centralization of fortunes and capitals. By these and other
omissions, quite apart from developments he could not well foresee,
he announces a coming evolution which is very unlikely to take place
in the way described.
In this and in other features of his work a dualism reveals itself
which is also often observable in his actions in life-^the alternating
predominance of the spirit of the scholar and the spirit of the radical
revolutionary. Marx originally entitled his great social work Criti-
cism of Political Economy, and this is still the sub-title of Das Kapital.
But the conception of critic or criticize has with Marx a very pro-
nounced meaning. He uses them mostly as identical with funda-
mentally opposing. Much as he had mocked the " critical criticism "
of the Bauers, he is in this respect yet of their breed and relapses
into their habits. He retained in principle the Hegelian dialectical
method, of which he said that in order to be rationally employed
it must be " turned upside down," i.e. put upon a materialist basis.
But as a matter of fact he has in many respects contravened against
this prescription. Strict materialist dialectics cannot conclude much
beyond actual facts. Dialectical materialism is revolutionary in
the sense that it recognizes no finality, but otherwise it is necessarily
positivist in the general meaning of that term. But Marx's opposi-
tion to modern society was fundamental and revolutionary, answer-
ing to that of the proletarian to the bourgeois. And here we come to
the main and fatal contradiction of his work. He wanted to pro-
ceed, and to a very great extent did proceed, scientifically. Nothing
was to be deduced from preconceived ideas; from the observed
evolutionary laws and forces of modern society alone were conclu-
sions to be drawn. And yet the final conclusion of the work, as
already noted, is a preconceived idea; it is the announcement of a
state of society logically opposed to the given one. Imperceptibly
the dialectical movement of ideas is substituted for the dialectical
movement of facts, and the real movement of facts is only considered
so far as is compatible with the former. Science is violated in the
service of speculation. The picture given at the end of the first
volume answers to a conception arrived at by speculative socialism
in the 'forties. True, Marx calls this chapter " the historical
tendency of capitalist accumulation," and " tendency " docs not
necessarily mean realization in every detail. But on the whole the
language used there is much too absolute to allow of the interpretation
that Marx only wanted to give a speculative picture of the goal to
which capitalist accumulation would lead if unhampered by socialist
counteraction. The epithet " historical " indicates rather that the
passage in question was meant to give in the main the true outline
of the forthcoming social revolution. We are led to this conclusion
also by the fact that, in language which is not in the least conditional,
it is there said that the change of capitalist property into social
property will mean " only the expropriation of a few usurpers by the
mass of the people." In short, the principal reason for the undeniable
contradictions in Das Kapital is to be found in the fact that where
Marx has to do with details or subordinate subjects he mostly notices
the important changes which actual evolution had brought about
since the time of his first socialist writings, and thus himself states
how far their presuppositions have been corrected by facts. But
when he comes to general conclusions, he adheres in the main to the
original propositions based upon the old uncorrected presuppositions.
Besides, the complex character of modern society is greatly under-
estimated, so that, e.g., such important features as the influence
of the changes of traffic and aggregation on modern life are scarcely
considered at all; and industrial and political problems are viewed
only from the aspect of class antagonism, and never under their
administrative aspect. With regard to the theory of surplus-
value and its foundation, the theory of labour-value, so much may be
MARY
8n
safely said that, its premisses accepted, it is most ingeniously and
most consistently worked out. And since its principal contention
is in any case so far true that the wage-earning workers as a whole
produce more than they receive, the theory has the great merit
of demonstrating in an admirably lucid way the relations between
wages and surplus-produce and the growth and movements of capital.
But the theory of labour-value as the determining factor of the
exchange or market value of commodities can with justification be
disputed, and is surely not more true than those theories of value
based on social demand or utility. Marx himself, in placing in the
third volume what he calls the law of value in the background and
setting out the formation of the "price of production" as the
empirical determinator of prices in modern society, justifies those who
looic upon the conception of labour-value as an abstract formula
which does not apply to individual exchanges of commodities at
all, but which only serves to show an imagined typical example
of what in reality to-day is only true with regard to the production
of the whole of social wealth. Thus understood, the conception of
labour-value is quite unobjectionable, but it loses much of the signifi-
cance attributed to it by most of the disciples of Marx and occasionally
bv Marx himself. It is a means of analysing and exemplifying sur-
plus labour, but quite inconclusive as to the proof of the surplus
value, or as an indication of the degree of the exploitation of the
workers. This becomes the more apparent the more the reader
advances in the second and third volumes of Das Kapital, where
commercial capital, money capital and ground rent are dealt with.
Though full of fine observations and deductions, they form, from a
revolutionary standpoint, an anti-climax to the first volume. It is
difficult to see how, after all that is explained there on the functions
of the classes that stand between industrial employers and workers,
Marx could have returned to those sweeping conclusions with which
the first volume ends.
The great scientific achievement of Marx lies, then, not in these
conclusions, but in the details and yet more in the method and prin-
ciples of his investigations in his philosophy of history. Here he has,
as is now generally admitted, broken new ground and opened new
ways and new outlooks. Nobody before him had so clearly shown
the r61e of the productive agencies in historical evolution ; nobody
so masterfully exhibited their great determining influence on the
forms and ideologies of social organisms. The passages and chapters
dealing with this subject form, notwithstanding occasional exaggera-
tions, the crowning parts of his works. If he has been justly compared
with Darwin, it is in these respects that he ranks with that great
genius, not through his value theory, ingenious though it be. With
the great theorist of biological transformation he had also in common
the indefatigable way in which he made painstaking studies of the
minutest details connected with his researches. In the same year
as Darwin's epoch-making work on the origin of species there
appeared also Marx's work Zur Kritik der politischen Okonomie,
where he explains in concise sentences in the preface that philosophy
of history which has for the theory of the transformation or evolution
of social organisms the same significance that the argument of
Darwin had for the theory of the transformation of biological
organisms.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The main writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels arc as follow (we givo only the titles of the original works and
of their English translations): (i) Of Karl Marx alone: La Misere
de la philosophic, reponse d, la philosophie de la misbre de M. Proudhon
(Paris, 1847; new ed., 1892; English ed., The Poverty of Philosophy,
London, 1900) ; Lohnarbeit und Kapital, pamphlet, written 1848 (new
ed., Berlin, 1891); English ed., Wage, Labour and Capital (London,
1900); Die Klassenkdmpfe in Frankreich, 1848 to 1850 (Berlin, 1895);
Der Achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte (New York, 1852;
3rd ed., Hamburg, 1889; Eng. ed., New York, 1889); Enthullungen
iiber den Kolner Kommunistenprozess (Basel, 1852; new ed., Zurich-
Berlin, 1885); "European Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions"
(reprints from the New York Tribune, 1851-1852; London, 1897);
" The Eastern Question " (reprints from the New York Tribune, 1853-
1856; London, 1898); Zur Kritik der politischen Okonomie (Berlin,
1859 ; new ed., Stuttgart, 1897) ; Herr Vogt (London, 1860) ; Inaugural
Address of the International Working Men's Association (London,
1864); Value, Price and Profit (written 1865, published London,
1898) ; Das Kapital, Kritik der politischen Okonomie (3 vols., Hamburg,
1867, 1885 and 1895; Eng. ed. of 1st vol., 1886); The Civil War tn
France, 1871 (London, 1871 ; new ed., 1894); L' Alliance de la demo-
cratie socialiste (London, 1873) ; articles printed or reprinted in Rhein-
ische Zeitung (1842-1843), Deutsch-franzosische Jahrbucher (Paris,
1844), Das westphalische Dampfboot (Bielefeld und Paderbcirn,
1845-1848), Der Gesellschaftsspiegel (Elberfeld, 1846), Deutsche
briisseler Zeitung (Brussels, 1847), Neue rheinische Zeitung
(daily, Cologne, 1848-1849; monthly, Hamburg, 1850), The People
(London, 1852-1858), The NewYork Tribune (New York, 1853-1860),
The Free Press (Sheffield and London, 1856-1857), Das Volk (London,
1859), Der Vorbote (Geneva, 1866-1875), Der Volkstaat (Leipzig,
1869-1876), Die Neue Zeit (Stuttgart, 1883, sqq.); Sozialistische
Mpnatshefte (Berlin, 1895, sqq.). (2) Of Friedrich Engels alone:
Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England (Leipzig, 1845; new ed.,
Stuttgart, 1892; Eng. ed., London, 1892); Zur Wohnungsfrage
(Leipzig, 1873-1874; new ed., Zurich-Berlin, 1887); Herrn Eugen
Diihrings Umwahung der Wissenschaft (Leipzig, 1877; 3rd ed.,
Stuttgart, 1894). Three chapters of the first-named are published
in English under the title Socialism, Utopian and Scientific (London,
1892). Der Ur sprung des Eigenthums, der Familie und des Staates
(Zurich and Stuttgart, 1885 and 1892); Ludwig Feuerbach und der
Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie (Stuttgart, 1886). In-
troductions to most of the posthumous works of K. Marx and articles
in the same periodicals as Marx. (3) Of Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels together: Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen
Kritik (Frankfurt, 1845); Manifest der kommunistischen Partei
(London, 1848; Eng. ed., 1848 and 1888). (4) With regard to Marx
generally, his theory and his school, see J. Stammhammer, Biblio-
graphie des Soziahsmus und Kommunismus (Jena, 1803); and
Th. G. Masaryk, Die philosophischen und soziologischen Grundlagen
des Marxismus (Vienna, 1899). Much biographical and biblio-
graphical information on Marx and Engels is to be found in Dr
Franz Mehring, Geschichte der deutschen Sozialdemokratie (Stuttgart,
1897-1898), and in the collection, edited also by Dr Fr. Mehring,
A us dem literarischen Nachlass von Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels und
Ferdinand Lassalle (Stuttgart, 1902). Of the criticisms of Marx's
economics, one of the most comprehensive is E. von Boehm-Bawerk's
Karl Marx and the Close of his System (London, 1898). Marx's
historic theory is, apart from Masaryk, very exhaustively analysed
by R. Stammler in Wirthschaft und Recht (Leipzig, 1896). (E. BN.)
MARY 1 (Mapia Mapia/*), the mother of Jesus. At the
time when the gospel history begins, she had her home in Galilee,
at the village of Nazareth. Of her parentage nothing is recorded
in any extant historical document of the ist century, for the
genealogy in Luke iii. (cf. i. 27) is manifestly that of Joseph.
In early life she became the wife of Joseph (q.v.) and the mother
of Jesus Christ; that she afterwards had other children is a
natural inference from Matt. i. 25, which the evangelists, who
frequently allude to " the brethren of the Lord," are at no
pains to obviate. The few incidents mentioned in Scripture
regarding her show that she followed our Lord to the very close
of His earthly career with unfailing motherliness, but the
" Magnificat " assigned to her in Luke i. is the only passage
which would distinctly imply on her part a high prophetic
appreciation of His divine mission. It is however doubtful
whether Luke really intended to assign this hymn to Mary
or to Elizabeth (cf. especially Niceta of Remesiana by A. E. Burn,
Cambridge, 1905; Harnack's " Das Magnificat der Elizabeth "
in the Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy for 1900, and
Burkitt's " Who spoke the Magnificat ? " in the Journal of
Theological Studies, Jan. 1906). The original text of Luke
probably mentioned no name in introducing the Magnificat;
scribes supplied the ambiguity by inserting, some Mary, others
Elizabeth. It is doubtful which represents the intention of
the writer: there is perhaps more to be said for the view that
he meant to assign the Magnificat to Elizabeth. Mary was
present at the Crucifixion, where she was commended by Jesus
to the care of the apostle John (John xix. 26, 27), Joseph having
apparently died before this time. Mary is mentioned in Acts i.
14 as having been among those who continued in prayer along
with the apostles at Jerusalem during the interval between
the Ascension and Pentecost. There is no allusion in the New
Testament to the time or place of her death.
The subsequent growth of ecclesiastical tradition and belief
regarding Mary will be traced must conveniently under the separ-
ate heads of (i) her perpetual virginity, (2) her absolute sinless-
ness, (3) her peculiar relation to the Godhead, which specially
fits her for successful intercession on behalf of mankind.
Her Perpetual Virginity. This doctrine was, to say the
least, of no importance in the eyes of the evangelists, and so
far as extant writings go there is no evidence of its having been
anywhere taught within the pale of the Catholic Church of the
first three centuries. On the contrary, to Tertullian the fact of
1 The name (Heb. D^P). that of the sister of Moses and Aaron,
is of uncertain etymology; many interpretations have been sug-
gested, including Stella marts (" star of the sea "), which, though
it has attained considerable currency through Jerome (the Ono-
maslicon), may be at once dismissed. It seems to have been very
common among the Jews in New Testament times: besides the
subject of the present notice there are mentioned (i) " Mary (the
wife) of Clopas," who was perhaps the mother of James " the
little " (A luxpfo) and of Joses; (2) Mary Magdalene, i.e. of Magdala ;
(3) Mary of Bethany, sister of Martha and Lazarus; (4) Mary, the
mother of Mark ; and (5) Mary, an otherwise unknown benefactress
of the apostle Paul (Rom. xvi. 6).
8l2
MARY
Mary's marriage after the birth of Christ is a useful argument
for the reality of the Incarnation against gnostic notions,
and Origen relies upon the references to the Lord's brethren
as disproving the Docetism with which he had to contend.
The afiirapdevla. though very ancient, is in reality a doctrine
of non-Catholic origin, and first occurs in a work proscribed
by the earliest papal Index librorum prohibitorum (attributed
to Gelasius) as heretical, the so-called Protevangelium Jacobi,
written, it is generally admitted, within the 2nd century. Ac-
cording to this very early source, which seems to have formed
the basis of the later Liber de infantia Marine et Christi salvatoris
and Evangelium de nalivitate Mariae, the name of Mary's
father was Joachim (in the Liber de infantia a shepherd of the
tribe of Judah, living in Jerusalem); he had long been married
to Anna her mother, whose continual childlessness had become
a cause of much humiliation and sorrow to them both. The
birth of a daughter was at last angelically predicted to each
parent separately. From her third to her twelfth year " Mary
was in the Temple as if she were a dove that dwelt there, and
she received food from the hand of an angel." When she
became of nubile age a guardian was sought for her by the
priests among the widowers of Israel " lest she should defile
the sanctuary of the Lord "; and Joseph, an elderly man with
a family, was indicated for this charge by a miraculous token.
Some time afterwards the annunciation took place; when the
Virgin's pregnancy was discovered, Joseph and she were brought
before the high priest, and, though asserting their innocence
in all sincerity, were acquitted only after they had been tried
with "the water of the ordeal of the Lord" (Num. v. n).
Numerous details regarding the birth at Bethlehem are then
given. The perpetual physical virginity of Mary, naively
insisted upon in this apocryphon, is alluded to only with a half
belief and a " some say " by Clement of Alexandria (Strom.
vii. 1 6), but became of much importance to the leaders of the
Church in the 4th century, as for example to Ambrose, who sees
in Ezek. xliv. 1-3 a prophetic indication of so great a mystery. 1
Those who continued to believe that Mary, after the miraculous
birth of Jesus, had become the mother of other children by
Joseph came accordingly to be spoken of as her enemies
Antidicomarianitae (Epiphanius) or Antidicomaritae (Augus-
tine) and the first-mentioned author devotes a whole chapter
(ch. 78) of his great work upon heresies to their confutation.
For holding the same view Bonosus of Sardica was condemned
by the synod of Capua in 391. To Jerome the perpetual virginity
not only of Mary but even of Joseph appeared of so much
consequence that while a young man he wrote (387) the long
and vehement tract Against Helvidius, in which he was the
first to broach the theory (which has since gained wide currency)
that the brethren of our Lord were children neither of Mary
by her husband nor of Joseph by a former marriage, but of
another Mary, sister to the Virgin and wife of Clopas or Alphaeus.
At last the epithet of Aet irapdivos was authoritatively applied
to the Virgin by the council of Chalcedon in 451, and the
doctrine implied has ever since been an undisputed point of
orthodoxy both in the Eastern and in the Roman Churches,
some even seeking to hold the Anglican Church committed to it
on account of the general declaration (in the Homilies) of con-
currence in the decisions of the first four general councils.
Her Absolute Sinlessness. While much of the apocryphal
literature of the early sects in which she is repeatedly spoken
of as " undefiled before God " would seem to encourage some
such doctrine as this, many passages from the acknowledged
fathers of the Church could be cited to show that it was originally
quite unknown to Catholicism. Even Augustine repeatedly
asserts that she was born in original sin (De gen. ad lit. x. 18);
and the locus classicus regarding her possible immunity from
actual transgression, on which the subsequent doctrine of
Lombardus and his commentators was based, is simply an
extremely guarded passage (De not. et grat. ch. 36), in which,
^ J De Inst. Virg., " quae cst haec porta nisi Maria ? . . . per quara
Christus intravit in hunc mundum, quando virginali fusus est partu
et genitalia virginitatis claustra non solvit."
while contradicting the assertion of Pelagius that many had
lived free from sin, he wishes exception to be made in favour
of " the holy Virgin Mary, of whom out of honour to the Lord
I wish no question to be made where sins are treated of
for how do we know what mode of grace wholly to conquer
sin may have been bestowed upon her who was found meet
to conceive and bear Him of whom it is certain that He had
no sin." A writer so late as Anselm (Cur deus homo, ii. 16).
declares that " the Virgin herself whence He (Christ) was assumed
was conceived in iniquity, and in sin did her mother conceive
her, and with original sin was she born, because she too sinned
in Adam in whom all sinned," and the same view was expressed
by Damiani. For the growth of the modern Roman doctrine
of the immaculate conception from the time in the I2th century,
when the canons of Lyons sought to institute a festival in
honour of her " holy conception," and were remonstrated with
by Bernard, see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. The epithets applied
to her in the Greek Church are such as d/ioXwroj, ira.va.'yvos,
ayia, -iravayia; but in the East generally no clear distinction
is drawn between immunity from actual sin and original
sinlessness.
Her Peculiar Relation to the Godhead, which specially fits
Her for Successful Intercession on Behalf of Mankind. It seems
probable that the epithet dtaroKos (" Mother of God ") was
first applied to Mary by theologians of Alexandria towards
the close of the 3rd century; but it does not occur in any
genuine extant writing of that period, unless we are to assign
an early date to the apocryphal Transitus Mariae, in which
the word is of frequent occurrence. In the 4th century it is
met with frequently, being used by Eusebius, Athanasius,
Didymus and Gregory of Nazianzus, the latter declaring
that the man who believes not Mary to have been OCOTOKOS has
no part in God (Oral. li. p. 738). 2 If its use was first recom-
mended by a desire to bring into prominence the divinity of
the Incarnate Word, there can be no doubt that latterly the
expression came to be valued as directly honourable to Mary
herself and as corresponding to the greatly increased esteem
in which she personally was held throughout the Catholic world,
so that when Nestorius and others began to dispute its propriety,
in the following century, their temerity was resented, not as
an attack upon the established orthodox doctrine of the Nicene
creed, but as threatening a more vulnerable and more tender
part of the popular faith. It is sufficient in illustration of the
drift of theological opinion to refer to the first sermon of Proclus,
preached on a certain festival of the Virgin (iravriyvpis irapdeviKri)
at Constantinople about the year 430 or to that of Cyril of
Alexandria delivered in the church of the Virgin Mary at the
opening of the council of Ephesus in 431. In the former
the orator speaks of " the holy Virgin and Mother of God " as
" the spotless treasure-house of virginity, the spiritual paradise
of the second Adam; the workshop in which two natures
were welded together .... the one bridge between God
and men"; 3 in the latter she is saluted as the "mother and
virgin," " through whom (6t* ^s) the Trinity is glorified and
worshipped, the cross of the Saviour exalted and honoured,
through whom heaven triumphs, the angels are made glad,
devils driven forth, the tempter overcome, and the fallen creature
raised up even to heaven." The response which such language
found in the popular heart was sufficiently shown by the shouts
of joy with which the Ephesian mob heard of the deposition
of Nestorius, escorting his judges with torches and incense
to their homes, and celebrating the occasion by a general illu-
mination. The causes which in the preceding century had
led to this exaltation of the Mother of God in the esteem of
the Catholic world are not far to seek. On the one hand the
solution of jthe Arian controversy, however correct it may
have been theoretically, undoubtedly had the practical effect
2 See Gieseler (KG., Bd. i. Abth. i), who points out instances in
which anti-Arianizing zeal went so far as to call David Btor&rup
and James dfoX^xSfeos.
3 Labb<5, Cone. iii. 51. Considerable extracts are given by August!
(Denkw. iii.) ; see also Milman (Lai. ChristA. 185), who characterizes
much of it as a " wild labyrinth of untranslatable metaphor."
MARY
813
of relegating the God-man redeemer for ordinary minds into
a far away region of " remote and awful Godhead," so that
the need for a mediator to deal with the very Mediator could
not fail to be felt. On the other hand, the religious instincts of
mankind are very ready to pay worship, in grosser or more
refined forms, to the idea of womanhood; at all events many
of those who became professing Christians at the political fall
of Paganism entered the Church with such instincts (derived
from the nature-religions in which they had been brought up)
very fully developed. Probably it ought to be added that the
comparative colourlessness with which the character of Mary
is presented, not only in the canonical gospels but even in the
most copious of the apocrypha, left greater scope for the un-
trammelled exercise of devout imagination than was possible
in the case of Christ, in the circumstances of whose humiliation
and in whose recorded utterances there were many things
which the religious consciousness found difficulty in under-
standing or in adapting to itself. At all events, from the time
of the council of Ephesus, to exhibit figures of the Virgin and
Child became the approved expression of orthodoxy, and the
relationship of motherhood in which Mary had been formally
declared to stand to God 1 was instinctively felt to give the
fullest and freest sanction of the Church to that invocation of
her aid which had previously been resorted to only hesitatingly
and occasionally. Previously to the council of Ephesus, indeed,
the practice had obtained complete recognition, so far as we
know, in those circles only in which one or other of the numerous
redactions of the Transilus Mariae passed current. 2 There
we read of Mary's prayer to Christ: " Do Thou bestow Thine
aid upon every man calling upon, or praying to, or naming
the name of Thine handmaid "; to which His answer is, " Every
soul that calls upon Thy name shall not be ashamed, but shall
find mercy and support and confidence both in the world that
now is and in that which is to come in the presence of My Father
in the heavens." But Gregory of Nazianzus also, in his pane-
gyric upon Justina, mentions with incidental approval that
in her hour of peril she " implored Mary the Virgin to come
to the aid of a virgin in her danger." * Of the growth of the
Marian cultus, alike in the East and in the West, after the
decision at Ephesus it would be impossible to trace the history,
however slightly, within the limitsof the present article. Justinian
in one of his laws bespeaks her advocacy for the empire, and
he inscribes the high altar in the new church of St Sophia
with her name. Narses looks to her for directions on the field
of battle. The emperor Heraclius bears her image on his
banner. John of Damascus speaks of her as the sovereign
lady to whom the whole creation has been made subject by
her son. Peter Damian recognizes her as the most exalted
of all creatures, and apostrophizes her as deified and endowed
with all power in heaven and in earth, yet not forgetful of our
race. 4 In a word, popular devotion gradually developed the
entire system of doctrine and practice which Protestant contro-
1 The term Seor&cos does not actually occur in the canons of
Ephesus. It is found, however, in the creed of Chalcedqn.
1 It is true that Irenaeus (Haer. v. 19, l) in the passage in which he
draws his well-known parallel and contrast between the first and
second Eve (cf. Justin, Dial. c. Tryph. loo), to the effect that
" as the human race fell into bondage to death by a virgin, so is it
rescued by a virgin," takes occasion to speak of Mary as the
" advocata" of Eve; but it seems certain that this word isa transla-
tion of the Greek awriyopos, and implies hostility and rebuke rather
than advocacy.
1 It is probable that the commemorations and invocations of the
Virgin which occur in the present texts of the ancient liturgies of
" St James " and " St Mark " are due to interpolation. In this
connexion ought also to be noted the chapter in Epiphanius (Haer.,
79) against the " Collyridians," certain women in Thrace, "Scythia
and Arabia, who were in the habit of worshipping the Virgin (4i
iraftiivov) as a goddess, the offering of a cake (xoXXvpiia TWO) being
one of the features of their worship. He rebukes them for offering
the worship which was due to the Trinity alone; " let Mary be held
in honour, but by no means worshipped." The cultus was pro-
bably a relic of heathenism ; cf . Jer. xhv. 19.
Numquid quia ita deificata, ideo nostrae humanitatis oblita
es? Nequaquam, Dpmina. . . . Data est tibi omnis pptestas in coelo
et in terra. Nil tibi impossibile." Serm. de nativ. Mariae, ap.
Gieseler, KG., Bd. ii. Abth. I.
versialists are accustomed to call by the name of Mariolatry.
With reference to this much-disputed phrase it is always to
be kept in mind that the directly authoritative documents,
alike of the Greek and of the Roman Church, distinguish formally
between lalria and dulia, and declare that the " worship " to be
paid to the mother of God must never exceed that superlative
degree of dulia which is vaguely described as hyperdulia. But
the comparative reserve shown by the council of Trent in its
decrees, and even in its catechism,' on this subject has not
been observed by individual theologians, and in view of the
fact of the canonization of some of these (such as Liguori)
a fact guaranteeing the absence of erroneous teaching from
their writings it does not seem unfair, to hold the Roman
Church responsible for the natural interpretations and just
inferences which may be drawn even from apparently exagger-
ated expressions in such works as the well-known Glories of
Mary and others frequently quoted in controversial literature.
There is a good resume of Catholic developments of the cultus
of Mary in Pusey's Eirenicon.
The following are the principal feasts of the Virgin in the order
in which they occur in the ecclesiastical year, (i) That of the
Presentation (Praesentatio B. V. M., T& dadiia. -rijj BforAxov), to com-
memorate the beginning of her stay in the Temple, as recorded in
the Protevangelium Jacobi. It is believed to have originated in the
East in the 8th century, the earliest allusion to it being made by
George of Nicomedia (gth century); Manuel Comnenus made it
universal for the Eastern Empire, and in the modern Greek Church
it is one of the five great festivals in honour of the Deipara. It was
introduced into the Western Church late in the I4th century, and,
after having been withdrawn from the calendar by Pius V., was
restored by Sixtus V., the day observed in both East and West
being the 2 1st of November. It is not mentioned in the English
calendar. (2) the Feast of the Conception (Conceptio B. V. M.,
Conceptio immaculata B. V. M., <r6XXi)^ rrjs 47(05 "Avnjs), observed
by the Roman Catholic Church on the 8th of December, and by
all the Eastern Churches on the ^th of December, has already been
explained ; in the Greek Church it only ranks as one of the middle
festivals of Mary. (3) The Feast of the Purification (Occursus,
Obviatio, Praesentatio, Festum SS Simeonis et Annae, Purificatio,
Candelaria, inrairavrri, inravrrf) is otherwise known as CANDLEMAS.
(4) The Feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary (Annunciatio,
Eiia.yyt\i<TiJi6s). It may be mentioned that at the council of Toledo
in 656 it was decreed that this festival should be observed on the
1 8th of December, in order to keep clear of Lent. (5) The Feast
of the Visitation (Visitatio B. V. M.) was instituted by Urban VI.,
promulgated in 1389 by Boniface IX., and reappointed by the
council of Basel in 1441 _in commemoration of the visit paid
by Mary to Elizabeth. It is observed on the 2nd of July, and has
been retained in the English calendar. (6) The Feast of the Assump-
tion (Dormitio, Pausatio, Transitus, Depositio, Migratio, Assumptio,
icoi^ijffis, /i-d(rra<m, dvAXij^is) has reference to the apocryphal story
related in several forms in various documents of the 4th century
condemned by Pope Gelasius. Their general purport is that as the
time drew nigh for " the most blessed Virgin " (who is also spoken of
as " Holy Mary," " the queen of all the saints," " the holy spotless
Mother of God ") to leave the world, the apostles were miraculously
assembled round her deathbed at Bethlehem on the Lord's Day,
whereupon Christ descended with a multitude of angels and
received her soul. After " the spotless and precious body " had
been laid in the tomb, " suddenly there shone round them (the
apostles) a miraculous light," and it was taken up into heaven. The
first Catholic writer who relates this story is Gregory of Tours
(c. 590) ; Epiphanius two centuries earlier had declared that nothing
was known as to the circumstances of Mary's death and burial; and
one of the documents of the council of Ephesus implies a belief that
she was buried in that city. The Sleep of the Theotokos is
observed in the Greek Church as a great festival on the isth of
August; the Armenian Church also commemorates it, but the
Ethiopic Church celebrates her death and burial on two separate
days. The earliest allusion to the existence of such a festival in
6 The points taught in the catechism are that she is truly the
Mother of God, and the second Eve, by whose means we have
received blessing and life; that she is the Mother of Pity, and very
specially our advocate; that her merits are highly exalted, and that
her dispositions towards us are extremely gracious; that her images
are of the utmost utility. In the Missal her intercessions (though
alluded to in the canon and elsewhere) are seldom directly appealed
to except in the Litany and in some of the later offices, such as those
for the 8th at September and for the Festival of the Seven Sorrows
(decree by Benedict XIII. in 1727). Noteworthy are the versicles
in the office for the 8th of December (The Feast of the Immaculate
Conception), " Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est
in te, and " Gloriosa dicta sunt de te, Maria, quia fecit tibi magna
qui potens est."
MARY MAGDALENE MARY I.
the Western Church seems to be that found in the proceedings of
the synod of Salzburg in 800; it is also spoken of in the thirty-sixth
canon of the reforming synod of Mainz, held in 813. It was not
at that time universal, being mentioned as doubtful in the capitu-
laries of Charlemagne. The doctrine of the bodily assumption of the
Virgin into heaven, although extensively believed, and indeed flowing
as a natural theological consequence from that of her sinlessness, has
never been declared to be " de fide " by the Church of Rome, and is
still merely a " pia sententia." (7) The Nativity of Mary (Nativitas,
yfveS\iov rfjs OtorbKov) observed on the 8th of September, is first men-
tioned in one of the homilies of Andrew of Crete (c. 750), and with
the Feasts of the Purification, the Annunciation and the Assumption,
it was appointed to be observed by the synod of Salzburg in 800, but
seems to have been unknown at that time in the Gallican Church,
and even two centuries later it was by no means general in Italy.
In the Roman Catholic Church a large number of minor festivals in
honour of the Virgin are locally celebrated ; and all the Saturdays
of the year as well as the entire month of May are also regarded
as sacred to her.
The chief apocryphal writings concerned with Mary are the
following: (i) The Portevangelium Jacobi, with its derivatives
the De nativitate Mariae, the Evangelium Ps.-Matthaei, the Historia
Josephi fabri lignarii (all edited by Tischendorf , Evangelia apocrypha ;
cf. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, p. 20 seq. and
Chronologie, i. 598 sqq.). (2) Evangelium Mariae (see Sitzungsberichte
der Berlinischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1896, pp. 839-847).
(3) IcoAwou rov 6fo\6yov Xoyos ets Trjv Kolinjffiv rfjs BtorbKov, which
appears- in Latin under the title of the Transitus Mariae (ed. Tischen-
dorf, Apocalypses apocryphae and Evangelia apocrypha, and see
Bonnet, Zeitschr.f. wissensch. Tkeol., 1880, pp. 222-247).
(J. S. BL.; K. L.)
MARY, known as MARY MAGDALENE, a woman mentioned
in the Gospels, first in Luke viii. 2, as one of a company who
" healed of evil spirits and infirmities . . . ministered unto them
(Jesus and the apostles) of their substance." It is said that
seven demons were cast out of her, but this need not imply
simply one occasion. Her name implies that she came from
Magdala (el-Mejdel, 3 m. N.W. from Tiberias: in Matt. xv. 39
the right reading is not Magdala by Magadan). She went
with Jesus on the last journey to Jerusalem, witnessed the
Crucifixion, followed to the burial, and returned to prepare
spices. John xx. gives an account of her finding the tomb
empty and of her interview with the risen Jesus. Mary of
Magdala has been confounded (i) with the unnamed fallen
woman who in Simon's house anointed Christ's feet (Luke vii.
37); (2) with Mary of Bethany, sister of Lazarus and Martha.
MARY I., queen of England (1516-1558), unpleasantly re-
membered as " the Bloody Mary " on account of the religious
persecutions which prevailed during her reign, was the daughter
of Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, born in the earlier
years of their married life, when as yet no cloud had darkened
the prospect of Henry's reign. Her birth occurred at Greenwich,
on Monday, the i8th February 1516, and she was baptized on
the following Wednesday, Cardinal Wolsey standing as her
godfather. She seems to have been a singularly precocious
child, and is reported in July 1520, when scarcely four and a
half years old, as entertaining some visitors by a performance on
the virginals. When she was little over nine she was addressed
in a complimentary Latin oration by commissioners sent over
from Flanders on commercial matters, and replied to them in
the same language " with as much assurance and facility as if
she had been twelve years old " (Gayangos, iii. pt. i, 82). Her
father was proud of her achievements. About the same time
that she replied to the commissioners in Latin he was arranging
that she should learn Spanish, Italian and French. A great
part, however, of the credit of her early education was un-
doubtedly due to her mother, who not only consulted the
Spanish scholar Vives upon the subject, but was herself Mary's
first teacher in Latin. She was also well instructed in music,
and among her principal recreations as she grew up was that
of playing on the virginals and lute.
It was a misfortune that she shared with high-born ladies
generally in those days that her prospects in life were made
a matter of sordid bargaining from the first. Mary was little
more than two years old when she was proposed in marriage
to the dauphin, son of Francis I. Three years afterwards the
French alliance was broken off, and in 1522 she was affianced
to her cousin the young emperor Charles V. by the Treaty of
Windsor. No one, perhaps, seriously expected either of these
arrangements to endure; and, though we read in grave state
papers of some curious compliments and love tokens (really
the mere counters of diplomacy) professedly sent by the girl
of nine to her powerful cousin, not many years passed away
before Charles released himself from this engagement and made
a more convenient match. In 1526 a rearrangement was made
of the royal household, and it was thought right to give Mary
an establishment of her own along with a council on the borders
of Wales, for the better government of the Marches. For
some years she accordingly kept her court at Ludlow, while
new arrangements were made for the disposal of her hand.
She was now proposed as a wife, not for the dauphin as before,
but for his father Francis I., who had just been redeemed from
captivity at Madrid, and who was only too glad of an alliance
with England to mitigate the severe conditions imposed on
him by the emperor. Wolsey, however, on this occasion,
only made use of the princess as a bait to enhance the terms
of the compact, and left Francis free in the end to marry the
emperor's sister.
It was during this negotiation, as Henry afterwards pre-
tended, that the question was first raised whether Henry's
own marriage with Catherine was a lawful one. Grammont,
bishop of Tarbes,who was one of the ambassadors sent over
by Francis to ask the princess in marriage, had, it was said,
started an objection that she might possibly be considered
illegitimate on account of her mother having been once the wife
of her father's brother. The statement was a mere pretence
to shield the king when the unpopularity of the divorce became
apparent. It is proved to be untrue by the strongest evidence,
for we have pretty full contemporary records of the whole
negotiation. On the contrary, it is quite clear that Henry, who
had already for some time conceived the project of a divorce,
kept the matter a dead secret, and was particularly anxious that
the French ambassadors should not know it, while he used his
daughter's hand as a bait for a new alliance. The alliance
itself, however, was actually concluded by a treaty dated West-
minster, the 3Oth of April 1527, in which it was provided, as
regards the Princess Mary, that she should be married either
to Francis himself or to his second son Henry duke of Orleans.
But the real object was only to lay the foundation of a perfect
mutual understanding between the two kings, which Wolsey
soon after went into France to confirm.
During the next nine years the life of Mary, as well as
that of her mother, was rendered miserable by the conduct of
Henry VIII. in seeking a divorce. During most of that period
mother and daughter seem to have been kept apart. Possibly
Queen Catherine had the harder trial; but Mary's was scarcely
less severe. Removed from court and treated as a bastard, she
was, on the birth of Anne Boleyn's daughter, required to give
up the dignity of princess and acknowledge the illegitimacy
of her own birth. On her refusal her household was broken
up, and she was sent to Hatfield to act as lady-in-waiting to
her own infant half-sister. Nor was even this the worst of
her trials; her very life was in danger from the hatred of Anne
Boleyn. Her health, moreover, was indifferent, and even when
she was seriously ill, although Henry sent his own physician,
Dr Buttes, to attend her, he declined to let her mother visit
her. So also at her mother's death, in January 1536, she was
forbidden to take a last farewell of her. But in May following
another change occurred. Anne Boleyn, the real cause of all
her miseries, fell under the king's displeasure and was put to
death. Mary was then urged to make a humble submission
to her father as the means of recovering his favour, and after a
good deal of correspondence with the king's secretary, Cromwell,
she actually did so. The terms exacted of her were bitter
in the extreme, but there was no chance of making life tolerable
otherwise, if indeed she was permitted to live at all; and the
poor friendless girl, absolutely at the mercy of a father who
could brook no contradiction, at length subscribed an act of
submission, acknowledging the king as " Supreme Head of
the Church of England under Christ," repudiating the pope's
MARY I.
815
authority, and confessing that the marriage between her father
and mother " was by God's law and man's law incestuous and
unlawful."
No act, perhaps, in the whole of Henry's reign gives us a
more painful idea of his revolting despotism. Mary was a
high-spirited girl, and undoubtedly popular. All Europe
looked upon her at that time as the only legitimate child of
her father, but her father himself compelled her to disown
the title and pass an unjust stigma on her own birth and her
mother's good name. Nevertheless Henry was now reconciled
to her, and gave her a household in some degree suitable to
her rank. During the rest of the reign we hear little about
her except in connexion with a number of new marriage projects
taken up and abandoned successively, one of which, to the
count palatine Philip, duke of Bavaria, was specially repugnant
to her in the matter of religion. Her privy purse expenses
for nearly the whole of this period have been published, and
show that Hatfield, Beaulieu or Newhall in Essex, Richmond
and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence.
Although she was still treated as of illegitimate birth, it was
believed that the king, having obtained from parliament the
extraordinary power to dispose of the crown by will, would
restore her to her place in the succession, and three years before
his death she was so restored by statute, but still under con-
ditions to be regulated by her father's will.
Under the reign of her brother, Edward VI. she was again
subjected to severe trials, which at one time made her seriously
meditate taking flight and escaping abroad. Edward himself
indeed seems to have been personally not unkind to her, but
the religious revolution in his reign assumed proportions such
as it had not done before, and Mary, who had done sufficient
violence to her own convictions in submitting to a despotic
father, was not disposed to yield an equally tame obedience
to authority exercised by a factious council in the name of a
younger brother not yet come to years of discretion. Besides,
the cause of the pope was naturally her own. In spite of the
forced declaration formerly wrung from herself, no one really
regarded her as a bastard, and the full recognition of her rights
depended on the recognition of the pope as head of the Church.
Hence, when Edward's parliament passed an Act of Uniformity
enjoining services in English and communion in both kinds,
the law appeared to her totally void of authority, and she
insisted on having Mass in her own private chapel under the
old form. When ordered to desist, she appealed for protection
to the emperor Charles V., who, being her cousin, intervened
for some time not ineffectually, threatening war with England
if her religious liberty was interfered with. But Edward's
court was composed of factions of which the most violent
eventually carried the day. Lord Seymour, the admiral,
was attainted of treason and beheaded in 1549. His brother,
the Protector Somerset, met with the same fate in 1552. Dudley,
duke of Northumberland, then became paramount in the privy
council, and easily obtained the sanction of the young king
to those schemes for altering the succession which led imme-
diately after his death to the usurpation of Lady Jane Grey.
Dudley had, in fact, overawed all the rest of the privy council,
and when the event occurred he took such energetic measures
to give effect to the scheme that Lady Jane was actually recog-
nized as queen for some days, and Mary had even to fly from
Hunsdon into Norfolk. But the country was really devoted
to her cause, as indeed her right in law was unquestionable,
and before many days she was royally received in London,
and took up her abode within the Tower.
Her first acts at the beginning of her reign displayed a char-
acter very different from that which she still holds in popular
estimation. Her clemency towards those who had taken up
arms against her was altogether remarkable. She released
from prison Lady Jane's father, Suffolk, and had difficulty
even in signing the warrant for the execution of Northumberland.
Lady Jane herself she fully meant to spare, and did spare till
after Wyatt's formidable insurrection. Her conduct, indeed,
was in every respect conciliatory and pacific, and so far as they
depended on her personal character the prospects of the new
reign might have appeared altogether favourable. But un-
fortunately her position was one of peculiar difficulty, and the
policy on which she determined was far from judicious. In-
experienced in the art of governing, she had no trusty councillor
but Gardiner; every other member of the council had been
more or less implicated in the conspiracy against her. And
though she valued Gardiner's advice she was naturally led to
rely even more on that of her cousin, the emperor, who had
been her mother's friend in adversity, and had done such material
service to herself in the preceding reign. Following the emperor's
guidance she determined almost from the first to make his son
Philip her husband, though she was eleven years his senior.
She was also strongly desirous of restoring the old religion
and wiping out the stigma of illegitimacy upon her birth, so
that she might not seem to reign by virtue of a mere parlia-
mentary settlement.
Each of these different objects was attended by difficulties
or objections peculiar to itself; but the marriage was the most
unpopular of all. A restoration of the old religion threatened
to deprive the new owners of abbey lands of their easy and
comfortable acquisitions; and it was only with an express
reservation of their interests that the thing was actually accom-
plished. A declaration of her own legitimacy necessarily cast
a slur on that of her sister Elizabeth, and cut her off from the
succession. But the marriage promised to throw England into
the arms of Spain and place the resources of the kingdom at
the command of the emperor's son. The Commons sent her
a deputation to entreat that she would not marry a foreigner,
and when her resolution was known insurrections broke out
in different parts of the country. Suffolk, whose first rebellion
had been pardoned, proclaimed Lady Jane Grey again in
Leicestershire, while young Wyatt raised the county of Kent
and, though denied access by London Bridge, led his men round
by Kingston to the very gates of London before he was repulsed.
In the midst of the danger Mary showed great intrepidity,
and the rebellion was presently quelled; after which, unhappily,
she got leave to pursue her own course unchecked. She married
Philip, restored the old religion, and got Cardinal Pole to come
over and absolve the kingdom from its past disobedience to
the Holy See.
It was a more than questionable policy thus to ally England
with Spain a power then actually at war with France. By
the treaty, indeed, England was to remain neutral; but the force
of events, in the end, compelled her, as might have been expected,
to take part in the quarrel. Meanwhile the country was full
of faction, and seditious pamphlets of Protestant origin inflamed
the people with hatred against the Spaniards. Philip's Spanish
followers met with positive ill-usage everywhere, and violent
outbreaks occurred. A year after his marriage Philip went
over to Brussels to receive from his father the government
of the Low Countries and afterwards the kingdom of Spain.
Much to Mary's distress, his absence was prolonged for a year
and a half, and when he returned in March 1557 it was only
to commit England completely to the war; after which he went
back to Brussels in July, to return no more to England.
Hostilities with France were inevitable, because France
had encouraged disaffection among Mary's subjects, even
during the brief truce of Vaucelles. Conspiracies had been
hatched by English refugees in Paris, and an attempt to seize
Scarborough had been made with the aid of vessels from the
Seine. But perhaps the strangest thing about the situation
was that the pope took part with France against Spain; and
so the very marriage which Mary had contracted to bring
England back to the Holy See made her the wife of the pope's
enemy. It was, moreover, this war with France that occasioned
the final calamity of the loss of Calais, which sank so deeply
into Mary's heart some time before she died.
The cruel persecution of the Protestants, which has cast
so much infamy upon her reign, was not due, as commonly
supposed, to inhumanity on her part. When the kingdom
was reconciled to Rome and absolved by Cardinal Pole, it
8i6
MARY II.
followed, almost as a matter of necessity, that the old heresy
laws should be revived, as they were then by Act of Parliament.
They had been abolished by the Protector Somerset for the
express purpose of promoting changes of doctrine which did
violence to what was still the prevailing religious sentiment;
and now the old religion required to be protected from insult
and fanatical outrages. Doubts were felt as to the result
even from the first; but the law having been once passed could
not be relaxed merely because the victims were so numerous;
for that would only have encouraged the irreverence which
it was intended to check. No doubt there were milder men
among the heretics, but as a class their stern fanaticism and
ill-will to the old religion made them dangerous, even to the
public peace. Rogers, the first of the martyrs, was burnt on
the 4th of February 1555. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester,
had been condemned six days before, and suffered the same
fate upon the pth. From this time the persecution went on
uninterrupted for three years and three quarters, numbering
among its victims Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer. It came
to an end at last on the death of Mary. It seems to have
been more severe in the eastern and southern parts of
England, and the largest number of sufferers was naturally
in the diocese of Bonner, bishop of London. From first
to last nearly three hundred victims are known to have
perished at the stake; and their fate certainly created a
revulsion against Rome that nothing else was likely to have
effected.
Mary was of weak constitution and subject to frequent
illnesses, both before and after her accession. One special
infirmity caused her to believe a few months after her marriage
that she was with child, and thanksgiving services were ordered
throughout the diocese of London in November 1554. The
same delusion recurred in March 1558, when though she did
not make her expectation public, she drew up a will in antici-
pation of the dangers of childbirth, constituting her husband
regent during the minority of her prospective heir. To this
she added a codicil on the 28th of October following, when
the illness that was to be her last had set in, showing that she
had ceased to have much expectation of maternity, and earnestly
entreating her " next heir and successor by the laws " (whom
she did not name) to allow execution of the instrument. She
died on the lyth of November.
Her name deserved better treatment than it has generally
met with; for she was far from cruel. Her kindness to poor
people is undoubted, and the severe execution of her laws
seemed only a necessity. Even in this matter, moreover, she
was alive to the injustice with which the law was usually strained
in behalf of the prerogative; and in appointing Sir Richard
Morgan chief justice of the Common Pleas she charged him
" not to sit in judgment otherwise for her highness than for
her subjects," and to avoid the old error of refusing to admit
witnesses against the Crown (Holinshed III. 1112). Her conduct
as queen was certainly governed by the best possible intentions;
and it is evident that her very zeal for goodness caused most
of the trouble she brought upon herself. Her subjects were
entirely released, even by papal authority, from any obligation
to restore the confiscated lands of the Church. But she herself
made it an object, at her own expense, to restore several of
the monasteries; and courtiers who did not like to follow her
example, encouraged the fanatics to spread an alarm that it
would even yet be made compulsory. So the worldly minded
joined hands with the godly heretics in stirring up enmity
against her. (J. GA.)
MARY II. (1662-1694), queen of England and wife of king
William III., elder daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards
King James II., by his first wife, Anne, daughter of Edward
Hyde, ist earl of Clarendon, was born in London on the 3oth
of April 1662. She was educated as a Protestant, and as it was
probable that she would succeed to the English throne after
the deaths of her uncle, Charles II., and her father, the choice
of a husband for her was a political event of high importance.
About 1672 the name of William, prince of Orange, was men-
tioned in this connexion; and after some hesitation on both
sides caused by the condition of European politics, the betrothal
of William and Mary took place in October 1677, and was
quickly followed by their marriage in London on the 4th of
November. Mary's married life in Holland does not appear
to have been a happy one. Although she soon became popular
among the Dutch, she remained childless, while William treated
her with neglect and even with insult; and her troubles were
not diminished after her father became king of England in 1685.
James had treated his daughter very shabbily in money matters;
and it was increasingly difficult for her to remain loyal to both
father and husband when they were so divergent in character
and policy. Although Mary never entirely lost her affection
for her father the wife prevailed over the daughter; and after
the birth of her half-brother, the prince of Wales, in 1688,
she regarded the dethronement of James as inevitable. It
cannot be said, however, that William merited this confidence.
Possibly he was jealous of his wife as the heiress of the English
throne, contrasting her future position with his own ; but accord-
ing to Burnet, who was then staying at the Hague, this cause of
difference was removed by the tactful interference of Burnet
himself. The latter asserts that having divined the reason
of the prince's jealousy he mentioned the matter to the princess,
who in her ignorance of statecraft had never considered the
relative positions of herself and her husband with regard to
the English throne; and that Mary, by telling the prince " she
would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that
lay in her power to make him king for life " (Burnet, Supplement,
ed. Foxcroft, p. 309), probably mollified her husband's jealousy.
On the other hand Macaulay's statement that henceforward
there was " entire friendship and confidence " between them
must be taken with some reserve. Mary shared heartily in the
events which immediately preceded William's expedition to
England in 1688. After the success of the undertaking she
arrived in London in February 1689; and by her faithful adher-
ence to her promise made a satisfactory settlement of the English
crown possible. William and Mary were together proclaimed
king and queen of England, and afterwards of Scotland, and
were crowned on the nth of April 1689. During the king's
absence from England the queen, assisted by a committee of
the privy council, was entrusted with the duties of government,
duties which she performed faithfully, but which she gladly
laid down on William's return. In these times of danger,
however, she acted when necessary with courage and prompti-
tude, as when in 1690 she directed the arrest of her uncle Henry
Hyde, 2nd earl of Clarendon; but she was constantly anxious
for William's safety, and unable to trust many of her advisers.
She was further distressed by a quarrel with her sister Anne
in 1692 following the dismissal of Marlborough, and this event
somewhat diminished her popularity, which had hitherto been
one of the mainstays of the throne. Weak in body and troubled
in mind, the queen died at Kensington Palace from small-pox
on the 28th of December 1694, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. Mary was a woman of a remarkably modest and
retiring disposition, whose outstanding virtue was perhaps
her unswerving loyalty to William. Burnet has passed a
remarkable panegyric upon her character. She was extremely
pious and charitable; her blameless private life was in marked
contrast with her surroundings, both in England and Holland;
without bigotry she was greatly attached to the Protestant
faith and to the Church of England; and she was always eager
to improve the tone of public morals, and to secure a better
observance of Sunday. Greenwich Hospital for Seamen was
founded in her honour.
For the political events of Mary's life see WILLIAM III. For her
private life see Sir John Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and
Ireland (London, 1790); Countess Bentinck, Lettres et memoires de
Marie, reine d'A ngleterre (The Hague, 1880); Memoires and Letters of
Mary Queen of England (ed. by R. Doebner, Leipzig, 1886) ; F. J. L.
Kramer, Maria II. Stuart (Utrecht, 1890); Agnes Strickland, Lives
of the Queens of England, vols. x. and xi. (London, 1847); G.
Burnet, History of my own Time (Oxford, 1833); and O. Klopp,
Der Fall des Hauses Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888).
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
817
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS 1 ( 1 542-1 587) , daughter of King James
V. and his wife Mary of Lorraine, was born in December 1 542,
a few days before the death of her father, heart-broken by the
disgrace of his arms at Solway Moss, where the disaffected nobles
had declined to encounter an enemy of inferior force in the cause
of a king whose systematic policy had been directed against
the privileges of their order, and whose representative on the
occasion was an unpopular favourite appointed general in
defiance of their ill-will. On the gth of September following the
ceremony of coronation was duly performed upon the infant.
A scheme for her betrothal to Edward, prince of Wales, was de-
feated by the grasping greed of his father, whose obvious ambi-
tion to annex the crown of Scotland at once to that of England
aroused instantly the general suspicion and indignation of Scot-
tish patriotism. In 1548 the queen of six years old was betrothed
to the dauphin Francis, and set sail for France, where she arrived
on the 1 5th of August. The society in which the child was
thenceforward reared is known to readers of Brantdme as well
as that of imperial Rome at its worst is known to readers of
Suetonius or Petronius as well as that of papal Rome at its worst
is known to readers of the diary kept by the domestic chaplain of
Pope Alexander VI. Only in their pages can a parallel be found
to the gay and easy record which reveals without sign of shame or
suspicion of offence the daily life of a court compared to which
the court of King Charles II. is as the court of Queen Victoria
to the society described by Grammont. Debauchery of all
kinds, and murder in all forms, were the daily matter of excite-
ment or of jest to the brilliant circle which revolved around
Queen Catherine de' Medici. After ten years' training under the
tutelage of the woman whose main instrument of policy was the
corruption of her own children, the queen of Scots, aged fifteen
years and five months, was married to the eldest and feeblest of
the brood on the 24th of April 1558. On the i7th of November
Elizabeth became queen of England, and the princes of Lorraine
Francis the great duke of Guise, and his brother the cardinal
induced their niece and her husband to assume, in addition to
the arms of France and Scotland, the arms- of a country over
which they asserted the right of Mary Stuart to reign as legiti-
mate heiress of Mary Tudor. Civil strife broke out in Scotland
between John Knox and the queen-dowager between the self-
styled " congregation of the Lord " and the adherents of the
regent, whose French troops repelled the combined forces of
the Scotch and their English allies from the beleaguered walls of
Lcith, little more than a month before the death of their mistress
in the castle of Edinburgh, on the loth of June 1 560. On the
25th of August Protestantism was proclaimed and Catholicism
suppressed in Scotland by a convention of states assembled
without the assent of the absent queen. On the sth of December
Francis II. died; in August 1561 his widow left France for
Scotland, having been refused a safe-conduct by Elizabeth on
the ground of her own previous refusal to ratify the treaty made
with England by her commissioners in the same month of the
preceding year. She arrived nevertheless in safety at Leith, es-
corted by three of her uncles of the house of Lorraine, and bring-
ing in her train her future biographer, Brant6me, and Chastelard,
the first of all her voluntary victims. On the 2ist of August
she first met the only man able to withstand her; and their first
passage of arms left, as he has recorded, upon the mind of
John Knox an ineffaceable impression of her " proud mind,
crafty wit and indurate heart against God and His truth." And
1 In a letter dated the 4th of April 1882, referring to the publica-
tion of his drama Mary Stuart, Swinburne wrote.to Edmund Clarence
Stedman: " Mary Stuart has procured me two satisfactions which
I prefer infinitely to six columns of adulation in The Times and any
profit thence resulting, (i) A letter from Sir Henry Taylor . . .
(2) An application from the editor of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
who might, 1 suppose, as in Macaulay's time, almost command
the services of the most eminent scholars and historians of the
country to me, a mere poet, proposing that I should contribute
to that great repository of erudition the biography of Mary Queen
of Scots. I doubt if the like compliment was ever paid before to
one of our ' idle trade.' " The present article is the biography
contributed by the poet to the 9th ed. in response to the invitation
referred to in this letter. ,
yet her acts of concession and conciliation were such as no
fanatic on the opposite side could have approved. She assented,
not only to the undisturbed maintenance of the new creed, but
even to a scheme for the endowment of the Protestant ministry
out of the confiscated lands of the Church. Her half-brother,
Lord James Stuart, shared the duties of her chief counsellor with
William Maitland of Lethington, the keenest and most liberal
thinker in the country. By the influence of Lord James, in
spite of the earnest opposition of Knox, permission was obtained
for her to hear Mass celebrated in her private chapel a licence
to which, said the Reformer, he would have preferred the invasion
9f ten thousand Frenchmen. Through all the first troubles of
her reign the young queen steered her skilful and dauntless way
with the tact of a woman and the courage of a man. An insurrec-
tion in the north, headed by the earl of Huntly under pretext
of rescuing from justice the life which his son had forfeited by his
share in a homicidal brawl, was crushed at a blow by the Lord
James against whose life, as well as against his sister's liberty,
the conspiracy of the Gordons had been aimed, and on whom,
after the father had fallen in fight and the son had expiated his
double offence on the scaffold, the leading rebel's earldom of
Murray was conferred by the gratitude of the queen. Exactly
four months after the battle of Corrichie, and the subsequent
execution of a criminal whom she is said to have " loved en-
tirely," had put an end to the first insurrection raised against her,
Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard, who had returned to France
with the other companions of her arrival, and in November 1562
had revisited Scotland, expiated with his head the offence or the
misfortune of a second detection at night in her bed-chamber.
In the same month, twenty-five years afterwards, the execution
of his mistress, according to the verdict of her contemporaries
in France, avenged the blood of a lover who had died without
uttering a word to realize the apprehension which (according to
Knox) had before his trial impelled her to desire her brother
" that, as he loved her, he would slay Chastelard, and let him
never speak word." And in the same month, two years from the
date of Chastelard's execution, her first step was unconsciously
taken on the road to Fotheringhay, when she gave her heart at
first sight to her kinsman Henry, Lord Darnley, son of Matthew
Stuart, earl of Lennox, who had suffered an exile of twenty years
in expiation of his intrigues with England, and had married the
niece of King Henry VIII., daughter of his sister Margaret, the
widow of James IV., by her second husband, the earl of Angus.
Queen Elizabeth, with the almost incredible want of tact or
instinctive delicacy which distinguished and disfigured her
vigorous intelligence, had recently proposed as a suitor to the
queen of Scots her own low-born favourite, Lord Robert Dudley,
the widower if not the murderer of Amy Robsart; and she now
protested against the project of marriage between Mary and
Darnley. Mary who had already married her kinsman in secret
at Stirling Castle with Catholic rites celebrated in the apartment
of David Rizzio, her secretary for correspondence with France,
assured the English ambassador, in reply to the protest of his
mistress, that the marriage would not take place for three
months, when a dispensation from the pope would allow the
cousins to be publicly united without offence to the Church. On
the 2Qth of July 1565 they were accordingly remarried at
Holyrood. The hapless and worthless bridegroom had already
incurred the hatred of two powerful enemies, the earls of Morton
and Glencairn; but the former of these took part with the queen
against the forces raised by Murray, Glencairn and others, under
the nominal leadership of Hamilton, duke of Chatelherault, on
the double plea of danger to the new religion of the country, and
of the illegal proceeding by which Darnley had been proclaimed
king of Scots without the needful constitutional assent of the
estates of the realm. Murray was cited to attend the " raid "
or array levied by the king and queen, and was duly denounced
by public blast of trumpet for his non-appearance. He entered
Edinburgh with his forces, but failed to hold the town against
the guns of the castle, and fell back upon Dumfries before the
advance of the royal army, which was now joined by James
Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, on his return from a three years'
8i8
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
outlawed exile in France. He had been accused in 1562 of a
plot to seize the queen and put her into the keeping of the earl of
Arran, whose pretensions to her hand ended only when his
insanity could no longer be concealed. Another new adherent
was the son of the late earl of Huntly, to whom the forfeited
honours of his house were restored a few months before the
marriage of his sister to Bothwell. The queen now appealed to
France for aid; but Castelnau, the French ambassador, replied
to her passionate pleading by sober and earnest advice to make
peace with the malcontents. This counsel was rejected, and in
October 1565 the queen marched an army of 18,000 men against
them from Edinburgh; their forces dispersed in face of superior
numbers, and Murray, on seeking shelter in England, was
received with contumely by Elizabeth, whose half-hearted help
had failed to support his enterprise, and whose intercession for
his return found at first no favour with the queen of Scots. But
the conduct of the besotted boy on whom at their marriage she
had bestowed the title of king began at once to justify the enter-
prise and to play into the hands of all his enemies alike. His
father set him on to demand the crown matrimonial, which
would at least have assured to him the rank and station of inde-
pendent royalty for life. Rizzio, hitherto his friend and advo-
cate, induced the queen to reply by a reasonable refusal to this
hazardous and audacious request. Darnley at once threw him-
self into the arms of the party opposed to the policy of the queen
and her secretary a policy which at that moment was doubly
and trebly calculated to exasperate the fears of the religious and
the pride of the patriotic. Mary was invited if not induced by
the king of Spain to join his league for the suppression of Pro-
testantism; while the actual or prospective endowment of Rizzio
with Morton's office of chancellor, and the projected attainder of
Murray and his allies, combined to inflame at once the anger and
the apprehension of the Protestant nobles. According to one
account, Darnley privately assured his uncle George Douglas of
his wife's infidelity; he had himself, if he might be believed,
discovered- the secretary in the queen's apartment at midnight,
under circumstances yet more unequivocally compromising than
those which had brought Chastelard to the scaffold. Another
version of the pitiful history represents Douglas as infusing
suspicion of Rizzio into the empty mind of his nephew, and thus
winning his consent to a deed already designed by others. A
bond was drawn in which Darnley pledged himself to support
the confederates who undertook to punish " certain privy
persons " offensive to the state, " especially a strange Italian,
called Davie "; another was subscribed by Darnley and the
banished lords, then biding their time in Newcastle, which
engaged him to procure their pardon and restoration, while
pledging them to insure to him the enjoyment of the title he
coveted, with the consequent security of an undisputed succes-
sion to the crown, despite the counter claims of the house of
Hamilton, in case his wife should die without issue a result
which, intentionally or not, he and his fellow-conspirators did
all that brutality could have suggested to accelerate and secure.
On the gth of March the palace of Holyrood was invested by a
troop under the command of Morton, while Rizzio was dragged
by force out of the queen's presence and slain without trial in
the heat of the moment. The parliament was discharged by
proclamation issued in the name of Darnley as king; and in the
evening of the next day the banished lords, whom it was to have
condemned to outlawry, returned to Edinburgh. On the day
following they were graciously received by the queen, who under-
took to sign a bond for their security, but delayed the subscrip-
tion till next morning under plea of sickness. During the night
she escaped with Darnley, whom she had already seduced from
the party of his accomplices, and arrived at Dunbar on the third
morning after the slaughter of her favourite. From thence they
returned to Edinburgh on the 28th of March, guarded by two
thousand horsemen under the command of Bothwell, who had
escaped from Holyrood on the night of the murder, to raise a
force on the queen's behalf with his usual soldierly promptitude.
The slayers of Rizzio fled to England, and were outlawed;
Darnley was permitted to protest his innocence and denounce
his accomplices; after which he became the scorn of all parties
alike, and few men dared or cared to be seen in his company.
On the ipth of June a son was born to his wife, and in the
face of his previous protestations he was induced to acknow-
ledge himself the father. But, as Murray and his partisans
returned to favour and influence no longer incompatible with
that of Bothwell and Huntly, he grew desperate enough with
terror to dream of escape to France. This design was at once
frustrated by the queen's resolution. She summoned him to
declare his reasons for it in presence of the French ambassador
and an assembly of the nobles; she besought him for God's sake
to speak out, and not spare her; and at last he left her presence
with an avowal that he had nothing to allege. The favour
shown to Bothwell had not yet given occasion for scandal,
though his character as an adventurous libertine was as notable
as his reputation for military hardihood; but as the summer
advanced his insolence increased with his influence at court and
the general aversion of his rivals. He was richly endowed by
Mary from the greater and lesser spoils of the Church; and the
three wardenships of the border, united for the first time in his
person, gave the lord high admiral of Scotland a position of
unequalled power. In the gallant discharge of its duties he
was dangerously wounded by a leading outlaw, whom he slew
in single combat; and while yet confined to Hermitage Castle
he received a visit of two hours from the queen, who rode thither
from Jedburgh and back through 20 miles of the wild borderland
where her person was in perpetual danger from the freebooters
whom her father's policy had striven and had failed to extirpate.
The result of this daring ride was a ten days' fever, after which
she removed by short stages to Craigmillar, where a proposal
for her divorce from Darnley was laid before her by Bothwell,
Murray, Huntly, Argyle and Lethington, who was chosen spokes-
man for the rest. She assented on condition that the divorce
could be lawfully effected without impeachment of her son's
legitimacy; whereupon Lethington undertook in the narn,e of all
present that she should be rid of her husband without any pre-
judice to the child at whose baptism a few days afterwards
Bothwell took the place of the putative father, though Darnley
was actually residing under the same roof, and it was not till
after the ceremony that he was suddenly struck down by a
sickness so violent as to excite suspicions of poison. He was
removed to Glasgow, and left for the time in charge of his father;
but on the news of his progress towards recovery a bond was
drawn up for execution of the sentence of death which had
secretly been pronounced against the twice-turned traitor who
had earned his doom at all hands alike. On the 22nd of the next
month (Jan. 1567) the queen visited her husband at Glasgow and
proposed to remove him to Craigmillar Castle, where he would
have the benefit of medicinal baths; but instead of this resort
he was conveyed on the last day of the month to the lonely and
squalid shelter of the residence which was soon to be made
memorable by his murder. Between the ruins of two sacred
buildings, with the town-wall to the south and a suburban
hamlet known to ill fame as the Thieves' Row to the north of it,
a lodging was prepared for the titular king of Scotland, and fitted
up with tapestries taken from the Gordons after the battle of
Corrichie. On the evening of Sunday, the gth of February, Mary
took her last leave of the miserable boy who had so often and so
mortally outraged her as consort and as queen. That night the
whole city was shaken out of sleep by an explosion of gunpowder
which shattered to fragments the building in which he should
have slept and perished ;and the next morning the bodies of Darnley
and a page were found strangled in a garden adjoining it, whither
they had apparently escaped over a wall, to be despatched by the
hands of Bothwell's attendant confederates.
Upon a view which may be taken of Mary's conduct during
the next three months depends the whole debateable question of
her character. According to the professed champions of that
character, this conduct was a tissue of such dastardly imbecility,
such heartless irresolution and such brainless inconsistency as
for ever to dispose of her time-honoured claim to the credit of
intelligence and courage. It is certain that just three months
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
819
and six days after the murder of her husband she became the
wife of her husband's murderer. On the nth of February she
wrote to the bishop of Glasgow, her ambassador in France, a
brief letter of simple eloquence, announcing her providential
csi ape from a design upon her own as well as her husband's life.
A reward of two thousand pounds was offered by proclamation
for discovery of the murderer. Bothwell and others, his
satellites or the queen's, were instantly placarded by name as
the criminals. Voices were heard by night in the streets of
Edinburgh calling down judgment on the assassins. Four days
after the discovery of the bodies, Darnley was buried in the
chapel of Holyrood with secrecy as remarkable as the solemnity
with which Rizzio had been interred there less than a year
before. On the Sunday following, Mary left Edinburgh for
Seton Palace, 12 miles from the capital, where scandal asserted
that she passed the time merrily in shooting-matches with Both-
well for her partner against Lords Seton and Huntly; other
accounts represent Huntly and Bothwell as left at Holyrood in
charge of the infant prince. Gracefully and respectfully, with
statesmanlike yet feminine dexterity, the demands of Darnley's
father for justice on the murderers of his son were accepted and
eluded by his daughter-in-law. Bothwell, with a troop of fifty
men, rode through Edinburgh defiantly denouncing vengeance
on his concealed accusers. As weeks elapsed without action
on the part of the royal widow, while the cry of blood was up
throughout the country, raising echoes from England and abroad,
the murmur of accusation began to rise against her also. Mur-
ray, with his sister's ready permission, withdrew to France.
Already the report was abroad that the queen was bent on mar-
riage with Bothwell, whose last year's marriage with the sister of
Huntly would be dissolved, and the assent of his wife's brother
purchased by the restitution of his forfeited estates. According
to the Memoirs of Sir James Melville, both Lord Herries and
himself resolved to appeal to the queen in terms of bold and
earnest remonstrance against so desperate and scandalous a
design; Herries, having been met with assurances of its unreality
and professions of astonishment at the suggestion, instantly fled
from court; Melville, evading the danger of a merely personal
protest without backers to support him, laid before Mary a letter
from a loyal Scot long resident in England, which urged upon her
consideration and her conscience the danger and disgrace of such
a project yet more freely than Herries had ventured to do by
word of mouth; but the sole result was that it needed all
the queen's courage and resolution to rescue him from the
violence of the man for whom, she was reported to have said, she
cared not if she lost France, England and her own country, and
would go with him to the world's end in a white petticoat before
she would leave him. On the 28th of March the privy council,
in which Bothwell himself sat, appointed the i2th of April
as the day of his trial, Lennox, instead of the crown, being
named as the accuser, and cited by royal letters to appear at
" the humble request and petition of the said Earl Bothwell,"
who, on the day of the trial, had 4000 armed men be-
hind him in the streets, while the castle was also at his command.
Under these arrangements it was not thought wonderful that
Lennox discreetly declined the danger of attendance, even with
3000 men ready to follow him, at the risk of desperate
street fighting. He pleaded sickness, asked for more time, and
demanded that the accused, instead of enjoying special favour,
should share the treatment of other suspected criminals. But,
as no particle of evidence on his side was advanced, the protest
of his representative was rejected, and Bothwell, acquitted in
default of witnesses against him, was free to challenge any
persistent accuser to the ancient ordeal of battle. His wealth
and power were enlarged by gift of the parliament which met on
the i4th and rose on the ipth of April a date made notable
by the subsequent supper at Ainslie's tavern, where Bothwell
obtained the signatures of its leading members to a document
affirming his innocence, and pledging the subscribers to maintain
it against all challengers, to stand by him in all his quarrels
and finally to promote by all means in their power the
marriage by which they recommended the queen to reward his
services and benefit the country. On the second day following
Mary went to visit her child at Stirling, where his guardian,
the earl of Mar, refused to admit more than two women in
her train. It was well known in Edinburgh that Bothwell
had a body of men ready to intercept her on the way back, and
carry her to Dunbar not, as was naturally inferred, without
good assurance of her consent. On the 24th of April, as
she approached Edinburgh, Bothwell accordingly met her
at the head of 800 spearmen, assured her (as she after-
wards averred) that she was in the utmost peril, and escorted
her, together with Huntly, Lethington and Melville, who were
then in attendance, to Dunbar Castle. On the 3rd of May Lady
Jane Gordon, who had become countess of Bothwell on the 22nd
of February of the year preceding, obtained, on the ground of her
husband's infidelities, a separation which, however, would not
under the old laws of Catholic Scotland have left him free to
marry again; on the 7th, accordingly, the necessary divorce was
pronounced, after two days' session, by a clerical tribunal which
ten days before had received from the queen a special commission
to give judgment on a plea of somewhat apocryphal consanguinity
alleged by Bothwell as the ground of an action for divorce against
his wife. The fact was studiously evaded or concealed that a
dispensation had been granted by the archbishop of St Andrews
for this irregularity, which could only have arisen through some
illicit connexion of the husband with a relative of the wife be-
tween whom and himself no affinity by blood or marriage could
be proved. On the day when the first or Protestant divorce was
pronounced, Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh with
every prepared appearance of a peaceful triumph. Lest her
captivity should have been held to invalidate the late legal
proceedings in her name, proclamation was made of forgiveness
accorded by the queen to her captor in consideration of his past
and future services, and her intention was announced to reward
them by further promotion; and on the same day (May 12), he
was duly created duke of Orkney and Shetland. The duke, as a
conscientious Protestant, refused to marry his mistress according
to the rites of her Church, and she, the chosen champion of its
cause, agreed to be married to him, not merely by a Protestant
but by one who before his conversion had been a Catholic bishop,
and should therefore have been more hateful and contemptible
in her eyes than any ordinary heretic, had not religion as well
as policy, faith as well as reason, been absorbed or superseded
by some more mastering passion or emotion. This passion or
emotion, according to those who deny her attachment to Both-
well, was simply terror the blind and irrational prostration of
an abject spirit before the cruel force of circumstances and the
crafty wickedness of men. Hitherto, according to all evidence,
she had shown herself on all occasions, as on all subsequent
occasions she indisputably showed herself, the most fearless, the
most keen-sighted, the most ready-witted, the most high-gifted
and high-spirited of women; gallant and generous, skilful and
practical, never to be cowed by fortune, never to be cajoled by
craft; neither more unselfish in her ends nor more unscrupulous
in her practice than might have been expected from her training
and her creed. But at the crowning moment of trial there are
those who assert their belief that the woman who on her way to
the field of Corrichie had uttered her wish to be a man, that she
might know all the hardship and all the enjoyment of a soldier's
life, riding forth " in jack and knapscull " the woman who
long afterwards was to hold her own for two days together
without help of counsel against all the array of English law and
English statesmanship, armed with irrefragable evidence and
supported by the resentment of a nation showed herself
equally devoid of moral and of physical resolution; too senseless
to realize the significance and too heartless to face the danger of
a situation from which the simplest exercise of reason, principle
or courage must have rescued the most unsuspicious and
inexperienced of honest women who was not helplessly deficient
in self-reliance and self-respect. The famous correspondence
produced next year in evidence against her at the conference of
York may have been, as her partisans affirm, so craftily garbled
and falsified by interpolation, suppression, perversion, or
820
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
absolute forgery as to be all but historically worthless. Its accep-
tance or its rejection does not in any degree whatever affect, for
better or for worse, the rational estimate of her character. The
problem presented by the simple existence of the facts just
summed up remains in either case absolutely the same.
That the coarse and imperious nature of the hardy and able
ruffian who had now become openly her master should no less
openly have shown itself even in the first moments of their
inauspicious union is what any bystander of common insight
must inevitably have foreseen. Tears, dejection and passionate
expressions of a despair " wishing only for death," bore fitful and
variable witness to her first sense of a heavier yoke than yet had
galled her spirit and her pride. At other times her affectionate
gaiety would give evidence as trustworthy of a fearless and
improvident satisfaction. They rode out in state together, and
if he kept cap in hand as a subject she would snatch it from him
and clap it on his head again ; while in graver things she took all
due or possible care to gratify his ambition, by the insertion of
a clause in their contract of marriage which made their joint
signature necessary to all documents of state issued under the
sign-manual. She despatched to France a special envoy, the
bishop of Dumblane, with instructions setting forth at length
the unparalleled and hitherto ill-requited services and merits
of Both well, and the necessity of compliance at once with his
passion and with the unanimous counsel of the nation a
people who would endure the rule of no foreign consort, and
whom none of their own countrymen were so competent to
control, alike by wisdom and by valour, as the incomparable
subject of her choice. These personal merits and this politi-
cal necessity were the only pleas advanced in a letter to her
ambassador in England. But that neither plea would avail
her for a moment in Scotland she had ominous evidence on
the thirteenth day after her marriage, when no response was
made to the usual form of proclamation for a raid or levy of
forces under pretext of a campaign against the rievers of the
border. On the 6th or 7th of June Mary and Bothwell took
refuge in Borthwick Castle, twelve miles from the capital, where
the fortress was in the keeping of an adherent whom the diplo-
macy of Sir James Melville had succeeded in detaching from his
allegiance to Bothwell. The fugitives were pursued and be-
leaguered by the earl of Morton and Lord Hume, who declared
their purpose to rescue the queen from the thraldom of her hus-
band. He escaped, leaving her free to follow him or to join the
party of her professed deliverers. But whatever cause she might
have found since marriage to complain of his rigorous custody
and domineering brutality was insufficient to break the ties by
which he held her. Alone, in the disguise of a page, she slipped
out of the castle at midnight, and rode off to meet him at a tower
two miles distant, whence they fled together to Dunbar. The
confederate lords on entering Edinburgh were welcomed by the
citizens, and after three hours' persuasion Lethington, who had
now joined them, prevailed on the captain of the castle to deliver
it also into their hands. Proclamations were issued in which the
crime of Bothwell was denounced, and the disgrace of the country,
the thraldom of the queen and the mortal peril of her infant son,
were set forth as reasons for summoning all the lieges of the chief
cities of Scotland to rise in arms on three hours' notice and join
the forces assembled against the one common enemy. News of
his approach reached them on the night of June 14, and they
marched before dawn with 2200 men to meet him near Mussel-
burgh. Mary meanwhile had passed from Dunbar to Hadding-
ton, and thence to Seton, where 1600 men rallied to her side.
On the i sth of June, one month from their marriage day, the
queen and Bothwell, at the head of a force of fairly equal numbers
but visibly inferior discipline, met the army of the confederates
at Carberry Hill, some six miles from Edinburgh. Du Croc, the
French ambassador, obtained permission through the influence
of Maitland to convey to the queen the terms proposed by their
leaders that she and Bothwell should part, or that he should
meet in single combat a champion chosen from among their
number. Bothwell offered to meet any man of sufficient
quality; Mary would not assent. As the afternoon wore on
their force began to melt away by desertion and to break up for
lack of discipline. Again the trial by single combat was pro-
posed, and thrice the proposal fell through, owing to objections on
this side or on that. At last it was agreed that the queen should
yield herself prisoner, and Bothwell be allowed to retire in safety
to Dunbar with the few followers who remained to him. Mary
took leave of her first and last master with passionate anguish
and many parting kisses; but in face of his enemies, and in hear-
ing of the cries which burst from the ranks, demanding her death
by fire as a murderess and harlot, the whole heroic and passionate
spirit of the woman, represented by her admirers as a spiritless
imbecile, flamed out in responsive threats to have all the men
hanged and crucified, in whose power she now stood helpless and
alone. She grasped the hand of Lord Lindsay as he rode beside
her, and swore " by this hand " she would " have his head for
this." In Edinburgh she was received by a yelling mob, which
flaunted before her at each turn a banner representing the corpse
of Darnley with her child beside it invoking on his knees the
retribution of divine justice. From the violence of a multitude
in which women of the worst class were more furious than the
men she was sheltered in the house of the provost, where she
repeatedly showed herself at the window, appealing aloud with
dishevelled hair and dress to the mercy which no man could look
upon her and refuse. At nine in the evening she was removed to
Holyrood, and thence to the port of Leith, where she embarked
under guard, with her attendants, for the island castle of Loch-
leven. On the zoth a silver casket containing letters and French
verses, miscalled sonnets, in the handwriting of the queen, was
taken from the person of a servant who had been sent by Both-
well to bring it from Edinburgh to Dunbar. Even in the exist-
ing versions of the letters, translated from the lost originals and
retranslated from this translation of a text which was probably
destroyed in 1603 by order of King James on his accession to
the English throne even in these possibly disfigured versions,
the fiery pathos of passion, the fierce and piteous fluctuations of
spirit between love and hate, hope and rage and jealousy, have
an eloquence apparently beyond the imitation or invention of
art (see CASKET LETTERS 1 ). Three days after this discovery
Lord Lindsay, Lord Ruthven and Sir Robert Melville were
despatched to Lochleven, there to obtain the queen's signature
to an act of abdication in favour of her son, and another appoint-
ing Murray regent during his minority. She submitted, and a
commission of regency was established till the return from
France of Murray, who, on the I5th of August, arrived at Loch-
leven with Morton and Athole. According to his own account,
the expostulations as to her past conduct which preceded his
admonitions for the future were received with tears, confessions
and attempts at extenuation or excuse; but when they parted
next day on good terms she had regained her usual spirits.
Nor from that day forward had they reason to sink again,
in spite of the close keeping in which she was held, with the
daughters of the house for bedfellows. Their mother and the
regent's, her father's former mistress, was herself not impervious
to her prisoner's lifelong power of seduction and subjugation.
Her son George Douglas fell inevitably under the charm. A
rumour transmitted to England went so far as to assert that she
had proposed him to their common half-brother Murray as a
fourth husband for herself; a later tradition represented her as
the mother of a child by him. A third report, at least as im-
probable as either, asserted that a daughter of Mary and Both-
well, born about this time, lived to be a nun in France. It is
certain that the necessary removal of George Douglas from Loch-
leven enabled him to devise a method of escape for the prisoner
on the 25th of March, 1568, which was frustrated by detection
of her white hands under the disguise of a laundress. But a
younger member of the household, Willie Douglas, aged eighteen,
whose devotion was afterwards remembered and his safety cared
for by Mary at a time of utmost risk and perplexity to herself,
succeeded on the 2nd of May in assisting her to escape by a
1 It is to be observed that the above conclusion as to the authen-
ticity of the Casket Letters is the same as that arrived at upon dif-
ferent grounds by the most recent research on the subject. ED. E. B.
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
821
postern gate to the lake-side, and thence in a boat to the main-
land, where George Douglas, Lord Seton and others were await-
ing her. Thence they rode to Seton's castle of Niddry, and
next day to Hamilton palace, round which an army of 6000 men
was soon assembled, and whither the new French ambassador
to Scotland hastened to pay his duty. The queen's abdication
was revoked, messengers were despatched to the English and
French courts, and word was sent to Murray at Glasgow that
he must resign the regency, and should be pardoned in common
with all offenders against the queen. But on the day when
Mary arrived at Hamilton Murray had summoned to Glasgow
the feudatories of the Crown to take arms against the insurgent
enemies of the infant king. Elizabeth sent conditional offers
of help to her kinswoman, provided she would accept of English
intervention and abstain from seeking foreign assistance; but
the messenger came too late. Mary's followers had failed to
retake Dunbar Castle from the regent, and made for Dumbarton
instead, marching two miles south of Glasgow, by the village
of Langside. Here Murray, with 4500 men, under leaders of
high distinction, met the 6000 of the queen's army, whose ablest
man, Herries, was as much distrusted by Mary as by every one
else, while the Hamiltons could only be trusted to think of their
own interests, and were suspected of treasonable designs on all
who stood between their house and the monarchy. On the i3th
of May the battle or skirmish of Langside determined the result
of the campaign in three-quarters of an hour. Kirkaldy of
Grange, who commanded the regent's cavalry, seized and kept
the place of vantage from the beginning, and at the first sign
of wavering on the other side shattered at a single charge the
forces of the queen with a loss of one man to three hundred.
Mary fled 60 miles from the field of her last battle before she
halted at Sanquhar, and for three days of flight, according to
her own account, had to sleep on the hard ground, live on oat-
meal and sour milk, and fare at night like the owls, in hunger,
cold and fear. On the third day from the rout of Langside she
crossed the Solway and landed at Workington in Cumberland,
May- 16, 1568. On the 2oth Lord Scrope and Sir Francis
Knollys were sent from court to carry messages and letters of
comfort from Elizabeth to Mary at Carlisle. On the nth of
June Knollys wrote to Cecil at once the best description and the
noblest panegyric extant of the queen of Scots enlarging, with
a brave man's sympathy, on her indifference to form and cere-
mony, her daring grace and openness of manner, her frank dis-
play of a great desire to be avenged of her enemies, her readiness
to expose herself to all perils in hope of victory, her delight to hear
of hardihood and courage, commending by name all her enemies
of approved valour, sparing no cowardice in her friends, but
above all things athirst for victory by any means at any price,
so that for its sake pain and peril seemed pleasant to her, and
wealth and all things, if compared with it, contemptible and vile.
What was to be done with such a princess, whether she were to be
nourished in one's bosom, above all whether it could be advisable
or safe to try any diplomatic tricks upon such a lady, Knollys
left for the minister to judge. It is remarkable that he should
not have discovered in her the qualities so obvious to modern
champions of her character easiness, gullibility, incurable
innocence and invincible ignorance of evil, incapacity to suspect
or resent anything, readiness to believe and forgive all things.
On the 1 5th of July, after various delays interposed by her reluc-
tance to leave the neighbourhood of the border, where on her
arrival she had received the welcome and the homage of the
leading Catholic houses of Northumberland and Cumberland,
she was removed to Bolton Castle in North Yorkshire. During
her residence here a conference was held at York between her
own and Elizabeth's commissioners and those appointed to
represent her son as a king of Scots. These latter, of whom
Murray himself was the chief, privately laid before the English
commissioners the contents of the famous casket. On the 24th
of October the place of the conference was shifted from York to
London, where the inquiry was to be held before Queen Elizabeth
in council. Mary was already aware that the chief of the English
commissioners, the duke of Norfolk, was secretly an aspirant to
the peril of her hand; and on the zist of October she gave the
first sign of assent to the suggestion of a divorce from Bothwell.
On the 26th of October the charge of complicity in the murder of
Darnley was distinctly brought forward against her in spite of
Norfolk's reluctance and Murray's previous hesitation. Eliza-
beth, by the mouth of her chief justice, formally rebuked the
audacity of the subjects who durst bring such a charge against
their sovereign, and challenged them to advance their proofs.
They complied by the production of an indictment under five
heads, supported by the necessary evidence of documents. The
number of English commissioners was increased, and they were
bound to preserve secrecy as to the matters revealed. Further
evidence was supplied by Thomas Crawford, a retainer of the
house of Lennox, tallying so exactly with the text of the casket
letters as to have been cited in proof that the latter must needs
be a forgery. Elizabeth, on the close of the evidence, invited
Mary to reply to the proofs alleged before she could be admitted
to her presence; but Mary simply desired her commissioners to
withdraw from the conference. She declined with scorn the pro-
posal made by Elizabeth through Knollys, that she should sign a
second abdication in favour of her son. On the loth of January,
1569, the judgment given at the conference acquitted Murray and
his adherents of rebellion, while affirming that nothing had been
proved against Mary a verdict accepted by Murray as equiva-
lent to a practical recognition of his office as regent for the infant
king. This position he was not long to hold; and the fierce
exultation of Mary at the news of his murder gave to those who
believed in her complicity with the murderer, on whom a pension
was bestowed by her unblushing gratitude, fresh reason to fear,
if her liberty of correspondence and intrigue were not restrained,
the likelihood of a similar fate for Elizabeth. On the 26th of Jan-
uary 1569 she had been removed from Bolton Castle to Tutbury
in Staffordshire, where proposals were conveyed to her, at the
instigation of Leicester, for a marriage with the duke of Norfolk,
to which she gave a graciously conditional assent; but the dis-
covery of these proposals consigned Norfolk to the Tower, and
on the outbreak of an insurrection in the north Mary, by Lord
Hunsdon's advice, was again removed to Coventry, when a body
of her intending deliverers was within a day's ride of Tutbury.
On the 2^rd of January following Murray was assassinated; and
a second northern insurrection was crushed in a single sharp fight
by Lord Hunsdon. In October Cecil had an interview with Mary
at Chatsworth, when the conditions of her possible restoration
to the throne in compliance with French demands were debated
at length. The queen of Scots, with dauntless dignity, refused
to yield the castles of Edinburgh and Dumbarton into English
keeping, or to deliver up her fugitive English partisans then in
Scotland; upon other points they came to terms, and the articles
were signed the i6th of October. On the same day Mary wrote to
Elizabeth, requesting with graceful earnestness the favour of an
interview which might reassure her against the suggestion that
this treaty was a mere pretence. On the 28th of November she
was removed to Sheffield Castle, where she remained for the next
fourteeen years in charge of the earl of Shrewsbury. The detection
of a plot, in which Norfolk was implicated, for the invasion of
England by Spain on behalf of Mary, who was then to take him
as the fourth and most contemptible of her husbands, made
necessary the reduction of her household and the stricter
confinement of her person. On the 28th of May 1572 a
demand from both houses of parliament for her execution
as well as Norfolk's was generously rejected by Elizabeth;
but after the punishment of the traitorous pretender to
her hand, on whom she had lavished many eloquent letters
of affectionate protestation, she fell into " a passion of
sickness " which convinced her honest keeper of her genuine
grief for the ducal caitiff. A treaty projected on the news of
the massacre of St Bartholomew, by which Mary should be sent
back to Scotland for immediate execution, was broken off by the
death of the earl of Mar, who had succeeded Lennox as regent;
nor was it found possible to come to acceptable terms on a like
understanding with his successor Morton, who in 1577 sent a
proposal to Mary for her restoration, which she declined, in
822
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
suspicion of a plot laid to entrap her by the policy of Sir Francis
Walsingham, the most unscrupulously patriotic of her English
enemies, who four years afterwards sent word to Scotland that
the execution of Morton, so long the ally of England, would be
answered by the execution of Mary. But on that occasion
Elizabeth again refused her assent either to the trial of Mary or
to her transference from Sheffield to the Tower. In 1581 Mary
accepted the advice of Catherine de' Medici and Henry III.
that she should allow her son's title to reign as king of Scotland
conjointly with herself when released and restored to a share of
the throne. This plan was but part of a scheme including the
invasion of England by her kinsman the duke of Guise, who was
to land in the north and raise a Scottish army to place the re-
leased prisoner of Sheffield beside her son on the throne of Eliza-
beth. After the overthrow of the Scottish accomplices in this
notable project, Mary poured forth upon Elizabeth a torrent of
pathetic and eloquent reproach for the many wrongs she had
suffered at the hands of her hostess, and pledged her honour to
the assurance that she now aspired to no kingdom but that of
heaven. In the spring of 1583 she retained enough of this saintly
resignation to ask for nothing but liberty, without a share in the
government of Scotland; but Lord Burghley not unreasonably
preferred, if feasible, to reconcile the alliance of her son with
the detention of his mother. In 1584 the long-suffering earl of
Shrewsbury was relieved of his fourteen years' charge through
the involuntary good offices of his wife, whose daughter by her
lirst husband had married a brother of Darnley; and their
orphan child Arabella, born in England, of royal descent on the
father's side, was now, in the hopeful view of her grandmother,
a more plausible claimant than the king or queen of Scots to the
inheritance of the English throne. In December 1583 Mary had
laid before the French ambassador her first complaint of the
slanders spread by Lady Shrewsbury and her sons, who were
ultimately compelled to confess the falsehood of their imputa-
tions on the queen of Scots and her keeper. It was probably at
the time when a desire for revenge on her calumniatress made
her think the opportunity good and safe for discharge of such a
two-edged dart at the countess and the queen that Mary wrote,
but abstained from despatching, the famous and terrible letter
in which, with many gracious excuses and professions of regret
and attachment, she transmits to Elizabeth a full and vivid
report of the hideous gossip retailed by Bess of Hardwick regard-
ing her character and person at a time when the reporter of these
abominations was on friendly terms with her husband's royal
charge. In the autumn of 1584 she was removed to Wingfield
Manor under charge of Sir Ralph Sadler and John Somers, who
accompanied her also on her next removal to Tutbury in January
1585. A letter received by her in that cold, dark and unhealthy
castle, of which fifteen years before she had made painful and
malodorous experience, assured her that her son would acknow-
ledge her only as queen-mother, and provoked at once the threat
of a parent's curse and an application to Elizabeth for sympathy.
In April 1585 Sir Amyas Paulet was appointed to the office of
which Sadler, accused of careless indulgence, had requested to
be relieved; and on Christmas Eve she was removed from the
hateful shelter of Tutbury to the castle of Chartley in the same
county. Her correspondence in cipher from thence with her Eng-
lish agents abroad, intercepted by Walsingham and deciphered
by his secretary, gave eager encouragement to the design for
a Spanish invasion of England under the prince of Parma, an
enterprise in which she would do her utmost to make her son
take part, and in case of his refusal would induce the Catholic
nobles of Scotland to betray him into the hands of Philip, from
whose tutelage he should be released only on her demand, or if
after her death he should wish to return, nor then unless he had
become a Catholic. But even these patriotic and maternal
schemes to consign her child and re-consign the kingdom to the
keeping of the Inquisition, incarnate in the widower of Mary
Tudor, were superseded by the attraction of a conspiracy against
the throne and life of Elizabeth. Anthony Babington, in his
boyhood a ward of Shrewsbury, resident in the household at
Sheffield Castle, and thus subjected to the charm before which so
many victims had already fallen, was now induced to under-
take the deliverance of the queen of Scots by the murder of the
queen of England. It is maintained by those admirers of Mary
who assume her to have been an almost absolute imbecile, gifted
with the power of imposing herself on the world as a woman of
unsurpassed ability, that, while cognisant of the plot for her
deliverance by English rebels and an invading army of foreign
auxiliaries, she might have been innocently unconscious that this
conspiracy involved the simultaneous assassination of Elizabeth.
In the conduct and detection of her correspondence with Babing-
ton, traitor was played off against traitor, and spies were utilized
against assassins, with as little scruple as could be required or
expected in the diplomacy of the time. As in the case of the
casket letters, it is alleged that forgery was employed to inter-
polate sufficient evidence of Mary's complicity in a design of
which it is thought credible that she was kept in ignorance by
the traitors and murderers who had enrolled themselves in her
service, that one who pensioned the actual murderer of Murray
and a would-be murderer of Elizabeth was incapable of approving
what her keen and practised intelligence was too blunt and torpid
to anticipate as inevitable and inseparable from the general
design. In August the conspirators were netted, and Mary was
arrested at the gate of Tixall Park, whither Paulet had taken her
under pretence of a hunting party. At Tixall she was detained
till her papers at Chartley had undergone thorough research.
That she was at length taken in her own toils even such a dullard
as her admirers depict her could not have failed to understand;
that she was no such dastard as to desire or deserve such defen-
ders the whole brief course of her remaining life bore consistent
and irrefragable witness. Her first thought on her return to
Chartley was one of loyal gratitude and womanly sympathy.
She cheered the wife of her English secretary, now under arrest,
with promises to answer for her husband to all accusations
brought against him, took her new-born child from the mother's
arms, and in default of clergy baptized it, to Paulet's Puritanic
horror, with her own hands by her own name. The next or the
twin-born impulse of her indomitable nature was, as usual in all
times of danger, one of passionate and high-spirited defiance
on discovering the seizure of her papers. A fortnight afterwards
her 'keys and her money were confiscated, while she, bedridden
and unable to move her hand, could only ply the terrible weapon
of her bitter and fiery tongue. Her secretaries were examined
in London, and one of them gave evidence that she had first
heard of the conspiracy by letter from Babington, of whose
design against the life of Elizabeth she thought it best to take
no notice in her reply, though she did not hold herself bound to
reveal it. On the 25th of September she was removed to the
strong castle of Fotheringay in Northamptonshire. On the 6th
of October she was desired by letter from Elizabeth to answer
the charges brought against her before certain of the chief
English nobles appointed to sit in commission on the cause.
In spite of her first refusal to submit, she was induced by the
arguments of the vice-chamberlain, Sir Christopher Hatton, to
appear before this tribunal on condition that her protest should
be registered against the legality of its jurisdiction over a
sovereign, the next heir of the English crown.
On the i4th and isth of October 1586 the trial was held in
the hall of Fotheringay Castle. Alone, " without one counsellor
on her side among so many," Mary conducted the whole of her
own defence with courage incomparable and unsurpassable
ability. Pathos and indignation, subtlety and simplicity,
personal appeal and political reasoning, were the alternate
weapons with which she fought against all odds of evidence or
inference, and disputed step by step every inch of debatable
ground. She repeatedly insisted on the production of proof in her
own handwriting as to her complicity with the project of the
assassins who had expiated their crime on the aoth and aist of
the month preceding. When the charge was shifted to the
question of her intrigues with Spain, she took her stand resolutely
on her own right to convey whatever right she possessed, though
now no kingdom was left her for disposal, to whomsoever she
might choose. One single slip she made in the whole course of
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS
823
her defence; but none could have been more unluckily character-
istic and significant. When Burghley brought against her the
unanswerable charge of having at that moment in her service,
and in receipt of an annual pension, the instigator of a previous
attempt on the life of Elizabeth, she had the unwary audacity
to cite in her justification the pensions allowed by Elizabeth to
her adversaries in Scotland, and especially to her son. It is
remarkable that just two months later, in a conversation with
her keepers, she again made use of the same extraordinary
argument in reply to the same inevitable imputation, and would
not be brought to admit that the two cases were other than
parallel. But except for this single instance of oversight or
perversity her defence was throughout a masterpiece of indomit-
able ingenuity, of delicate and steadfast courage, of womanly
dignity and genius. Finally she demanded, as she had demanded
before, a trial either before the estates of the realm lawfully
assembled or else before the queen in council. So closed the
second day of the trial; and before the next day's work could
begin a note of two or three lines hastily written at midnight
informed the commissioners that Elizabeth had suddenly deter-
mined to adjourn the expected judgment and transfer the place
of it to the star-chamber. Here, on the 25th of October, the
commissioners again met; and one of them alone, Lord Zouch,
dissented from the verdict by which Mary was found guilty of
having, since the ist of June preceding, compassed and imagined
divers matters tending to the destruction of Elizabeth. This
verdict was conveyed to her, about three weeks later, by Lord
Buckhurst and Robert Beale, clerk of the privy council. At
the intimation that her life was an impediment to the security
of the received religion, " she seemed with a certain unwonted
alacrity to triumph, giving God thanks, and rejoicing in her
heart that she was held to be an instrument " for the restoration
of her own faith. This note of exultation as in martyrdom was
maintained with unflinching courage to the last. She wrote to
Elizabeth and the duke of Guise two letters of almost matchless
eloquence and pathos, admirable especially for their loyal and
grateful remembrance of all her faithful servants. Between the
date of these letters and the day of her execution wellnigh three
months of suspense elapsed. Elizabeth, fearless almost to a
fault in face of physical danger, constant in her confidence even
after discovery of her narrow escape from the poisoned bullets
of household conspirators, was cowardly even to a crime in face
of subtler and more complicated peril. She rejected with
resolute dignity^ the intercession of French envoys for the life
of the queen-dowager of France; she allowed the sentence of
death to be proclaimed and welcomed with bonfires and bell-
ringing throughout the length of England; she yielded a respite
of twelve days to the pleading of the French ambassador, and
had a charge trumped up against him of participation in a
conspiracy against her life; at length, on the ist of February
1587, she signed the death-warrant, and then made her secre-
taries write word to Paulet of her displeasure that in all this
time he should not of himself have found out some way to shorten
the life of his prisoner, as in duty bound by his oath, and thus
relieve her singularly tender conscience from the guilt of blood-
shed. Paulet, with loyal and regretful indignation, declined the
disgrace proposed to him in a suggestion " to shed blood without
law or warrant "; and on the 7th of February the earls of
Shrewsbury and Kent arrived at Fotheringay with the commis-
sion of the council for execution of the sentence given against
his prisoner. Mary received the announcement with majestic
tranquillity, expressing in dignified terms her readiness to die,
her consciousness that she was a martyr for her religion, and
her total ignorance of any conspiracy against the life of Elizabeth.
At night she took a graceful and affectionate leave of her atten-
dants, distributed among them her money and jewels, wrote out
in full the various legacies to be conveyed by her will, and charged
her apothecary Gorion with her last messages for the king of
Spain. In these messages the whole nature of the woman was
revealed. Not a single friend, not a single enemy, was forgotten;
the slightest service, the slightest wrong, had its place assigned
in her faithful and implacable memory for retribution or reward.
Forgiveness of injuries was as alien from her fierce and loyal
spirit as forgetfulness of benefits; the destruction of England
and its liberties by Spanish invasion and conquest was the
strongest aspiration of her parting soul. At eight next morning
she entered the hall of execution, having taken leave of the
weeping envoy from Scotland, to whom she gave a brief message
for her son; took her seat on the scaffold, listened with an air
of even cheerful unconcern to the reading of her sentence,
solemnly declared her innocence of the charge conveyed in i 1
and her consolation in the prospect of ultimate justice, rejected
the professional services of Richard Fletcher, dean of Peter-
borough, lifted up her voice in Latin against his in English
prayer, and when he and his fellow-worshippers had fallen duly
silent prayed aloud for the prosperity of her own church, for
Elizabeth, for her son, and for all the enemies whom she had
commended overnight to the notice of the Spanish invader;
then, with no less courage than had marked every hour and
every action of her life, received the stroke of dea.th from the
wavering hand of the headsman.
Mary Stuart was in many respects the creature of her age.
of her creed, and of her station; but the noblest and most
noteworthy qualities of her nature were independent of rank,
opinion or time. Even the detractors who defend her conduct
on the plea that she was a dastard and a dupe are compelled in
the same breath to retract this implied reproach, and to admit,
with illogical acclamation and incongruous applause, that the
world never saw more splendid courage at the service of more
brilliant intelligence, that a braver if not " a rarer spirit never
did steer humanity." A kinder or more faithful friend, a
deadlier or more dangerous enemy, it would be impossible to
dread or to desire. Passion alone could shake the double fortress
of her impregnable heart and ever-active brain. The passion
of love, after very sufficient experience, she apparently and
naturally outlived; the passion of hatred and revenge was as
inextinguishable in her inmost nature as the emotion of loyalty
and gratitude. Of repentance it would seem that she knew as
little as of fear, having been trained from her infancy in a religion
where the Decalogue was supplanted by. the Creed. Adept as
she was in the most exquisite delicacy of dissimulation, the
most salient note of her original disposition was daring rather
than subtlety. Beside or behind the voluptuous or intellectual
attractions of beauty and culture, she had about her the fresher
charm of a fearless and frank simplicity, a genuine and enduring
pleasure in small and harmless things no less than in such as
were neither. In 1562 she amused herself for some days by
living " with her little troop " in the house of a burgess of St
Andrews " like a burgess's wife," assuring the English ambas-
sador that he should not find the queen there, " nor I know
not myself where she is become." From Sheffield Lodge, twelve
years later, she applied to the archbishop of Glasgow and the
cardinal of Guise for some pretty little dogs, to be sent her in
baskets very warmly packed, " for besides reading and working,
I take pleasure only in all the little animals that I can get." No
lapse of reconciling time, no extent of comparative indulgence,
could break her in to resignation, submission, or toleration of
even partial restraint. Three months after the massacre of St
Bartholomew had caused some additional restrictions to be
placed upon her freedom of action, Shrewsbury writes to Burghley
that " rather than continue this imprisonment she sticks not to
say she will give her body, her son, and country for liberty "; nor
did she ever show any excess of regard for any of the three.
For her own freedom of will and of way, of passion and of
action, she cared much; for her creed she cared something; for
her country she cared less than nothing. She would have flung
Scotland with England into the hell fire of Spanish Catholicism
rather than forgo the faintest chance of personal revenge. Her
profession of a desire to be instructed in the doctrines of Anglican
Protestantism was so transparently a pious fraud as rather to
afford confirmation than to arouse suspicion of her fidelity to
the teaching of her church. Elizabeth, so shamefully her
inferior in personal loyalty, fidelity and gratitude, was as clearly
her superior on the one all-important point of patriotism. The
824
MARY OF BURGUNDY MARY OF FRANCE
saving salt of Elizabeth's character, with all its wellnigh incred-
ible mixture of heroism and egotism, meanness and magnificence,
was simply this, that, overmuch as she loved herself, she did yet
love England better. Her best though not her only fine qualities
were national and political, the high public virtues of a good
public servant; in the private and personal qualities which
attract and attach a friend to his friend and a follower to his
leader, no man or woman was ever more constant and more
eminent than Mary Queen of Scots. (A. C. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The biography of Mary Stuart being virtually
the history of Scotland during the period covered by her life, with
which the history of England at the same period is also largely
concerned, the chief events in which she figured are related in all
the general Histories of both countries. The most important
original authorities are the voluminous State Papers of the period,
with other MS. documents preserved at the British Museum, the
Cambridge University Library, Hatfield and elsewhere. See
especially the Reports of the Hist. MSS. Commission; Calendar of
State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots (Scottish
Record Publ. 1898); Calendar of Letters and State Papers relating
to English Affairs, principally in the Archives at Simancas (vols.
i.-iv., 1892-1899); and the Calendars of State Papers: Domestic
Series, Edw. VI. James I.; Foreign Series, Elizabeth; Venice Series.
The most important unofficial contemporary works are the
Histories of John Knox, Bishop John Lesley, George Buchanan,
and Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie; the Diurnal of Remarkable
Occurrents from the death of James IV. till 1575 (Bannatyne Club,
1833); Robert Birrell's "Diary" in Sir J. G. Dalzell's Fragments
of Scottish History (Edinburgh, 1798); History of Mary Stuart, by
her secretary Claude Nau, ed. by J. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1883);
Sir James Melville's Memoirs of his own Life (Bannatyne Club,
1827); Richard Bannatyne, Memoriales of Transactions in Scot-
land (Edinburgh, 1836); William Camden s Annales (Eng. trans.,
London, 1635); Michel de Castelnau's Memoires (Brussels, 1731);
the Memoires of Brant6me (ed. by L. Lalanne, 12 vols., Paris,
1864-1896) ; Relations politiques de la France et de I'Espagne avec
I'Ecosse au 16 siecle (ed. by J. B. A. Teulet, 5 vols., Paris, 1862),
containing important original letters and documents; Thomas
Wright's Queen Elizabeth and her Times (2 vols., London, 1838),
consists of private letters of Elizabethan statesmen many of which
refer to Mary Stuart, and others are to be found in Sir Henry Ellis's
Original Letters illustrative of English History (London, 1825-1846);
much of Mary's own correspondence will be found in Prince A.
Labanoff's Lettres intdites, 1558-1587 (Paris, 1839), and Lettres,
instructions, et memoires de Marie Stuart (7 vols., London, 1844),
selections from which have been translated into English by W.
Turnbull in Letters of Mary Queen of Scots (London, 1845), and by
Agnes Strickland in Letters of Mary Queen of Scots and Documents
connected with her Personal History (3 vols., London, 1842).
Among authorities not actually contemporary but written within
a century of Mary's death are David Calderwood's Hist, of the
Kirk of Scotland (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); Archbishop
Spottiswoode's Hist, of the Church of Scotland (ed. by M. Russell,
3 vols., Edinburgh, 1847-1851), and Robert Keith's Hist, of Affairs
of Church and State in Scotland (Spottiswoode Society ed., 1844);
to which should be added the modern classic, George Grub's Eccle-
siastical History of Scotland (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1861).
Of modern general histories those of chief importance on the
subject are the Histories of England by Hume, Lingard and Froude ;
and the Histories of Scotland by Robertson, P. F. Tytler, John Hill
Burton, Malcolm Laing and Andrew Lang. Numerous biographies
of Mary Stuart have been published, as well as essays and treatises
dealing with particular episodes in her life, of which the most worthy
of mention are: George Chalmers, Life of Mary Queen of Scots,
(2 vols., London, 1818) ; Henry Glassford Bell, Life of Mary Queen
of Scots (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1831); the "Life" in Agnes
Strickland's Lives of the Queens of Scotland (8 vols., Edinburgh,
'850); J. D. Leader, Mary Queen of Scots in Captivity (Sheffield,
1880); Colin Lindsay, Mary Queen of Scots and her Marriage with
Both-well (London, 1883); Mrs Maxwell-Scott, The Tragedy of
Fotheringay (London, 1895); F. A. M. Mignet, Histoire de Marie
Stuart (2 vols., Brussels, 1851); Martin Philippson, Histoire du
regne de Marie Stuart ( 3 vols., Paris, 1891); Sir John Skelton, Mary
Stuart (London, 1893), Maitland of Lethington and the Scotland of
Mary Stuart (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1887), The Impeachment of Mary
Stuart (Edinburgh, 1878), and Essays in History and Biography,
including the Defence of Mary Stuart (Edinburgh, 1883); Joseph
Stevenson, Mary Stuart: The First Eighteen Years of her Life
(Edinburgh, 1886) ; D. Hay Fleming, Mary Stuart (2nd ed. 1898) ;
Jane Stoddart, Girlhood of Mary Queen of Scots.
With special reference to the controversy concerning the Casket
Letters, in addition to the article CASKET LETTERS and the above-
mentioned works by Sir John Skelton, the following should be
consulted: Walter Goodall, Examination of the Letters said to be
written by Mary Queen of Scots to Bothwell (2 vols., Edinburgh,
'754). which contains the letters themselves; William Tytler,
Inquiry into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots (2 vols., London,
I 79); John Whitaker, Mary Queen of Scots Vindicated (3 vols.,
London, 1788); F. de Peyster, Mary Stuart, Bothwell and the Casket
Letters (London, 1890); T. F. Henderson, The Casket Letters and
Mary Queen of Scots (Edinburgh, 1889) ; Andrew Lang, The Mystery
of Mary Stuart (London, 1900).
In 1690 Giovanni Francesco Savaro published a play La Maria
Stuarda, and since then the story of the Queen of Scots has been
the subject of numerous poems and dramas, of which the most
celebrated are Schiller's Maria Stuart, and three tragedies by
A. C. Swinburne Chastelard (1865), Bothwell (1874), and Mary
Stuart (1881).
MARY (1457-1482), duchess of Burgundy, only child of
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and his wife Isabella of
Bourbon, was born on the i3th of February 1457. As heiress
of the rich Burgundian domains her hand was eagerly sought
by a number of princes. When her father fell upon the field of
Nancy, on the sth of January 1477, Mary was not yet twenty
years of age. Louis XI. of France seized the opportunity
afforded by his rival's defeat and death to take possession of
the duchy of Burgundy as a fief lapsed to the French crown,
and also of Franche Comte, Picardy and Artois. He was
anxious that Mary should marry the Dauphin Charles and thus
secure the inheritance of the Netherlands for his descendants.
Mary, however, distrusted Louis; declined the French alliance,
and turned to her Netherland subjects for help. She obtained
the help only at the price of great concessions. On the nth of
February 1477 she was compelled to sign a charter of rights,
known as " the Great Privilege," by which the provinces and
towns of the Netherlands recovered all the local and communal
rights which had been abolished by the arbitrary decrees of
the dukes of Burgundy in their efforts to create in the Low
Countries a centralized state. Mary had to undertake not to
declare war, make peace, or raise taxes without the consent of
the States, and not to employ any but natives in official posts.
Such was the hatred of the people to the old regime that two
influential councillors of Charles the Bold, the Chancellor
Hugonet and the Sire d'Humbercourt, having been discovered
in correspondence with the French king, were executed at
Ghent despite the tears and entreaties of the youthful duchess.
Mary now made her choice among the many suitors for her hand,
and selected the archduke Maximilian of Austria, afterwards
the emperor Maximilian I., and the marriage took place at
Ghent on the i8th of August 1477. Affairs now went more
smoothly in the Netherlands, the French aggression was checked,
and internal peace was in a large measure restored, when the
duchess met her death by a fall from her horse on the 27th of
March 1482. Three children had been the issue 'of her marriage,
and her elder son, Philip, succeeded to her dominions under the
guardianship of his father.
See E. Munch, Maria von Burgund, nebst d. Leben v. Margaretha
v. York (2 vols., Leipzig, 1832), and the Cambridge Mod. Hist.
(vol. i., c. xii., bibliography, 1903).
MARY (1496-1533), queen of France, was the daughter of
Henry VII. of England and Elizabeth of York. At first it was
intended to marry her to Charles of Austria, the future emperor
Charles V., and by the treaty of Calais (Dec. 21, 1507) it was
agreed that the marriage should take place when Charles should
have attained the age of fourteen, the contract being secured
by bonds taken from various princes and cities in the Low
Countries. On the i7th of December 1508 the Sieur de Bergues,
who had come over as Charles's representative at the head of
a magnificent embassy, married the princess by proxy. The
contract, originally made by Henry VII., was renewed on the
1 7th of October 1513 by Henry VIII. at a meeting with Margaret
of Savoy at Lille, the wedding being fixed for the following year.
But the emperor Maximilian I., to whom Louis XII. had pro-
posed his daughter Renee as wife for Charles, with Brittany for
dowry, postponed the match with the English princess in a way
that left no doubt of his intention to withdraw from the contract
altogether. He was forestalled by the diplomacy of Wolsey, at
whose instance peace was signed with France on the 7th of
August 1514, and on the same date a treaty was concluded for
the marriage of Mary Tudor with Louis XII., who had recently
lost his wife Anne of Brittany. The marriage was celebrated
MARY OF LORRAINE
825
at Abbeville on the gth of October. The bridegroom was a
broken man of fifty-two; the bride a beautiful, well-educated
and charming girl of eighteen, whose heart was already engaged
to Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, her future husband. The
political marriage was, however, no long one. Mary was crowned
queen of France on the sth of November 1514; on the ist of
January following King Louis died. Mary had only been induced
to consent to the marriage with Louis by the promise that, on
his death, she should be allowed to marry the man of her choice.
But there was danger that the agreement would not be kept.
In France the dukes of Lorraine and Savoy were mentioned as
possible suitors, and meanwhile the new king, Francis I., was
making advances to her, and only desisted when she confessed
to him her previous attachment to Suffolk. The duke himself
was at the head of the embassy which came from England to
congratulate the new king, and to the detriment of his political
mission he used the opportunity to win the hand of the queen.
Francis good-naturedly promised to use his influence in his
favour; Henry VIII. himself was not averse to the match, but
Mary feared the opposition of the lords of the council, and, in
spite of Suffolk's promise to the king not to take any steps in
the matter until after his return, she persuaded him to marry
her secretly before he left Paris. On their return to England
in April, Suffolk was for a while in serious danger from the king's
indignation, but was ultimately pardoned through Wolsey's
intercession, on payment of a heavy fine and the surrender of
all the queen's jewels and plate. The marriage was publicly
solemnized at Greenwich on the I3th of May 1515. Suffolk had
been already twice married, and his first wife was still alive.
He thought it necessary later on (1528) to obtain a bull from
Pope Clement VII. declaring his marriage with his first wife
invalid and his union with Mary therefore canonical. Mary's
life after this was comparatively uneventful. She lived mainly
in the retirement of the country, but shared from time to time
in the festivities of the court, and was present at the Field of
the Cloth of Gold. She died on the 24th of June 1533. By
the duke of Suffolk she had three children: Henry, born on the
nth of March 1516, created earl of Lincoln (1525), who died
young; Frances, born on the i6th of July 1517, the wife of Henry
Grey, marquess of Northampton, and mother of Lady Jane Grey
(q.v.)', and Eleanor.
See Lettres de Louis XII. et du cardinal Georges d'Amboise
(Brussels, 1712) ; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (Cal. State Pap.) ;
M. A. E. Green, Lives of the Princesses of England (vol. v., 1849-
1855) ; Life by James Gairdner in Diet. Nat. Biog.-
MARY OF LORRAINE (1515-1560), generally known as MARY
OF GUISE, queen of James V. and afterwards regent of Scotland,
was born at Bar on the 22nd of November 1515. She was the
eldest child of Claude of Guise and Antoinette of Bourbon, and
married in 1534 Louis II. of Orleans, duke of Longueville, to
whom in 1535 she bore a son, Francis (d. 1551). The duke died
in June 1537, and Mary was sought in marriage by James V.,
whose wife Magdalene died in July, and by Henry VIII. after
the death of Jane Seymour. Henry persisted in his offers after
the announcement of her betrothal to James V. Mary, who
was made by adoption a daughter of France, received a papal
dispensation for her marriage with James, which was celebrated
by proxy in Paris (May 1538) and at St Andrews on her arrival
in Scotland. Her two sons, James (b. May 1540) and Robert
or Arthur (b. April 1541), died within a few days of one another
in April 1541, and her husband died in December 1542, within
a week of the birth of his daughter and heiress, Mary, Queen of
Scots. Cardinal David Beton, the head of the French and
Catholic party and therefore Mary of Lorraine's friend and ally,
produced a will of the late king in which the primacy in the
regency was assigned to himself. John Knox accused the queen
of undue intimacy with Beton, and a popular report of a similar
nature, probably unfounded, was revived in 1543 by Sir Ralph
Sadler, the English envoy. Beton was arrested and the regency
fell to the heir presumptive James, earl of Arran, whose inclina-
tions were towards England and the Protestant party, and who
hoped to secure the hand of the infant princess for his own son.
Mary of Lorraine was approached by the English commissioner,
Sir Ralph Sadler, to induce her to further her daughter's marriage
contract with Edward VI. She informed Sadler that Arran had
asked her whether Henry had made propositions of marriage
to herself, and that she had stated that " if Henry should mind
or offer her such an honour she must account herself much
bounden." Sadler further learnt that she was " singularly well
affected to Henry's desires." The marriage treaty between
Mary, not then one year old, and Edward VI. was signed on the
ist of July at Greenwich, and guaranteed that Mary should be
placed in Henry's keeping when she was ten years old. The
queen dowager and her daughter were carefully watched at
Linlithgow, but on the 23rd of July 1543 they escaped, with
the help of Cardinal Beton, to the safer walls of Stirling castle.
After the queen's coronation in September Mary of Lorraine was
made principal member of the council appointed to direct the
affairs of the kingdom. She was constantly in communication
with her kinsmen in France, and was already planning to secure
for her daughter a French alliance, which was opposed on different
grounds by all her advisers. She made fresh alliances with the
earl of Angus and Sir George Douglas, and in 1544 she made a
premature attempt to seize the regency; but a reconciliation
with Arran was brought about by Cardinal Beton. The assassi-
nation of Beton left her the cleverest politician in Scotland.
The English invasions of 1547, undertaken with a view to
enforcing the English marriage, gave Mary the desired pretext
for a French alliance. In June 1548 a French fleet, with
provisions and 5000 soldiers on board, under the command of
Andre de Montalembert, seigneur d'Essfi, landed at Leith to
reinforce the Scots army, and laid siege to Haddington, then
in the hands of the English. The Scottish parliament agreed
to the marriage of the young queen with the dauphin of France,
and, on the plea of securing her safety from English designs, she
set sail from Dumbarton in August 1548 to complete her
education at the French court.
Mary of Lorraine now gave her energies to the expulsion of
the English and to the difficult task of keeping the peace between
the Scots and their French auxiliaries. In September 1550 she
visited France and obtained from Henry II. the confirmation
of the dukedom and revenues of Chatelherault for the earl of
Arran, in the hope of inducing him to resign the regency. On
her way back to Scotland she was driven by storms to Ports-
mouth harbour and paid a friendly visit to Edward VI. Arran
refused, however, to relinquish the regency until April 1554,
when he resigned after receiving an assurance of his rights to
the succession. The new regent had to deal with an empty
exchequer and with a strong opposition to her daughter's
marriage with the dauphin. The gift of high offices of state
to Frenchmen lent to the Protestant opposition the aspect of
a national resistance to foreign domination. The hostility of
Arran and his brother Archbishop Hamilton forced Mary into
friendly relations with the lords who favoured the Protestant
party. Soon after her marriage miners had been brought from
Lorraine to dig for gold at Crawford Moor, and she now carried
on successful mining enterprises for coal and lead, which enabled
her to meet the expenses of her government. In 1554 she took
into her service William Maitland of Lethington, who as secretary
of state gained very great influence over her. She also provoked
a dangerous enemy in John Knox by her expressed contempt
for a letter which he had written to her, but the first revolt
against her authority arose from an attempt to establish a
standing army. When she provoked a war with England in
1557 the nobles refused to cross the border. In matters of
religion she at first tried to hold the balance between the
Catholic and Protestant factions and allowed the Presbyterian
preachers the practice of their religion so long as they
refrained from public preachings in Edinburgh and Leith.
The marriage of Francis II. and her daughter Mary in 1558
strengthened her position, and in 1559 she relinquished her
conciliatory tactics to submit to the dictation of her relatives,
the Guises, by falling more into line with their religious
policy. She was reconciled with Archbishop Hamilton, and
826
MARY OF MODENA MARYBOROUGH
took up arms against the Protestants of Perth, who, incited
by Knox, had destroyed the Charterhouse, where many of the
Scottish kings were buried. The reformers submitted on con-
dition that no foreign garrison was to be imposed on Perth and
that the religious questions in dispute should be brought before
the Scottish parliament. Mary of Lorraine broke the spirit of
this agreement by garrisoning Perth with Scottish troops in
the pay of France. The lords of the Congregation soon assembled
in considerable force on Cupar Muir. Mary retreated to Edin-
burgh and thence to Dunbar, while Edinburgh opened its gates
to the reformers, who issued a proclamation (Oct. 21, 1559)
claiming that the regent was deposed. The lords of the Con-
gregation sought help from Elizabeth, while the regent had
recourse to France, where an expedition under her brother,
Rene of Lorraine, marquis of Elbeuf, was already in preparation.
Mary, with the assistance of a French contingent, began to
fortify Leith. The strength of her opponents was increased by
the defection of Chatelherault and his son Arran; and an even
more serious danger was the treachery of her secretary Maitland,
who betrayed her plans to the lords of the Congregation. In
October 1559 they made an unsuccessful attack on Leith and
the seizure of an English convoy on the way to their army by
James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, increased their difficulties.
Mary entered Edinburgh and conducted a campaign in Fife.
Meanwhile Maitland of Lethington had been at the English
court, and an English fleet under William Winter was sent to
the Forth in January 1560 to waylay Elbeuf 's fleet, which was,
however, driven back by a storm to Calais. Elbeuf had been
commissioned by Francis I. and Mary to take over Mary's
regency on account of her failing health. An English army
under Lord Grey entered Scotland on the 29th of March 1560, and
the regent received an asylum in Edinburgh castle, which was
held strictly neutral by John Erskine. When she knew that she
was dying Mary sent for the lords of -the Congregation, with
whom she pleaded for the maintenance of the French alliance.
She even consented to listen to the exhortations of the preacher
John Willock. She died on the nth of June 1560. Her body
was taken to Reims and buried in the church of the nunnery
of St Peter, of which her sister was abbess.
The chief sources for her history are the Calendar of State Papers
for the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. in the Rolls Series;
A. Teulet, Papiers d'etat . . . relatifs & I'histoire de l'cosse au
XVI' siecle (Paris, 3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne Club; Hamilton
Papers, ed. J. Bain (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1890-1899); Calendar of
State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, 1547-1603
(Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1898-1900), &c. There is a Life in Miss
Strickland's Queens of Scotland (vols. i.-ii.) based on original
documents.
MARY OF MODENA [MARIA BEATRICE ANNE MARGARET
ISABEL D'ESTE] (1658-1718), queen of the English king James
II., was the daughter of Alphonso IV., duke of Modena, and the
Duchess Laura, of the Roman family Martinozzi. She was born
at Modena on the 5th of October 1658. Her education was
strict, and her own wish was to be a nun in a convent of the
order of the Visitation founded by her mother. As a princess
she was not free to choose for herself, and was selected, mainly
by the king of France, Louis XIV., as the wife of James, duke
of York, heir-presumptive to the English throne. The duke
had become a Roman Catholic, and it was a point of policy
with the French king to provide him with a Roman Catholic
wife. Mary Beatrice of Este was. chosen partly on the ground
of her known religious zeal, but also because of her beauty.
The marriage was celebrated by proxy on the 3oth of September
1673. She reached England in November. In later life she
confessed that her first feelings towards her husband could only
be expressed by tears. In England the duchess, who was
commonly spoken of as Madam East, was supposed to be an
agent of the pope, who had indeed exerted himself to secure
her consent. Her beauty and her fine manners secured her the
respect of her brother-in-law, Charles II., and she lived on good
terms with her husband's daughters by his first marriage, but
she was always disliked by the nation. The birth of her first
son (who died in infancy) on the i6th of January 1675 was
regretted. During the Popish Plot, to which her secretary
Coleman was a victim, she went abroad with her husband.
After her husband's accession she suffered much domestic
misery through his infidelity. Her influence on him was
unfortunate, for she was a strong supporter of the Jesuit party
which was in favour of extreme measures. Her second son,
James Francis Edward, was born on the loth of June (o.s.) 1688.
The public refused to believe that the baby was Mary's child,
and declared that a fraud had been perpetrated to secure a
Roman Catholic heir. When the revolution had broken out
she made the disastrous mistake of consenting to escape to
France (Dec. 10, 1688) with her son. She urged her husband
to follow her to France when it was his manifest interest to
stay in England, and when he went to Ireland she pressed
incessantly for his return. Her daughter, Louisa Maria, was
born at St Germain on the 28th of June 1692. When her
husband died on the 6th of September 1701, she succeeded
in inducing King Louis to recognize her son as king of England,
an act which precipitated the war of the Spanish Succession.
Queen Mary survived her husband for seventeen years and her
daughter for two. She received a pension of 100,000 crowns,
which was largely spent in supporting Jacobite exiles. At the
close of her life she had some success in obtaining payment of
her jointure. She lived at St Germain or at Chaillot, a religious
house of the Visitation. Her death occurred on the 7th of Ma;
1718, and is said by Saint-Simon to have been that of a saint.
See Miss Strickland, Queens of England (vols. 9 and 10, Londoi
1846); Campana di Cavclli, Les Derniers Stuarts d Saint-Germain
en-Laye (London, 1871); and Martin Haile Mary of Modena
(London, 1905).
MARY OF ORANGE (1631-1660), eldest daughter of the
English king Charles I., was born in London on the 4th of
November 1631. Her father wished her to marry a son of
Philip IV., king of Spain, while her cousin, the elector palatine,
Charles Louis, was also a suitor for her hand, but both proposals
fell through and she became the wife of a Dutch prince, William,
son of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. The marriage took
place in London on the 2nd of May 1641, but owing to the tender
years of the bride it was not consummated for several years.
However in 1642 Mary crossed over to Holland with her mother,
Queen Henrietta Maria, and in 1644, as the daughter-in-law of
the stadtholder, she began to take her place in public life. In
1647 her husband, William II., succeeded his father as stadt-
holder, but three years later, just after his attempt to capture
Amsterdam, he died; a son, afterwards the English king William
III., being born to him a few days later (Nov. 14, 1650). Mary
was obliged to share the guardianship of her infant son with his
grandmother Amelia, the widow of Frederick Henry, and with
Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg; moreover, she was
unpopular with the Dutch owing to her sympathies with her
kinsfolk, the Stuarts, and at length public opinion having been
further angered by the hospitality which she showed to her
brothers, Charles II. and James, duke of York, she was forbidden
to receive her relatives. From 1654 to 1657 the princess passed
most of her time away from Holland. In 1657 she was appointed
regent on behalf of her son for the principality of Orange, but
the difficulties of her position led her to implore the assistance
of Louis XIV., and the French king answered by seizing Orange
himself. The position both of Mary and of her son in Holland
was greatly bettered through the restoration of Charles II. in
Great Britain. In September 1660 Mary journeyed to England.
She was taken ill of small-pox, and died in London on the 24th
of December 1660, her death, says Bishop Burnet, being " not
much lamented."
MARYBOROUGH, a market town and the county town of
Queen's County, Ireland. Pop. (1901), 2957. It lies in the
broad lowland east of the Slieve Bloom mountains, on the
river Triogue, an affluent of the Barrow, and on the main line
of the Great Southern & Western railway, by which it is 51 m.
W.S.W. of Dublin. The town was chosen as county town
in the reign of Mary (1556), in whose honour both town and
county received their names. Its charter was granted in 1570,
Ui
:
MARYBOROUGH MARYLAND
827
but its present appearance, save a bastion of the ancient castle,
is wholly modern. There are flour-mills and a considerable
general trade. Maryborough returned two members to the
Irish parliament from 1585 until the union in 1800. The singular
lofty rock of Dunamase or Dunmall, about 3 m. from the town,
bears on its summit extensive ruins of a castle, originally
belonging to the kings of Leinster, but probably built in the
main by William Bruce (c. 1200) and dismantled in 1650 by
Cromwell's troops.
MARYBOROUGH, a town of March county, Queensland,
Australia, on the left bank and 25 m. from the mouth of the
Mary river, 180 m. by rail N. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901), 10,159.
Besides a handsome court-house and town hall, the principal
buildings are the hospital, a technical college, a library, the
Anglican Church of St Paul with a fine tower and peal of bells,
and the grammar schools. There is a large shipbuilding yard,
and breweries, distilleries, a tannery, boot factories, soap works,
saw-mills, flour-mills, carriage works and iron foundries, besides
extensive sugar factories in the neighbourhood. The largest
smelting works in Australia are 5 m. distant, in which ore from
all the states is treated. Maryborough is the port of shipment
for a wide agricultural district yielding maize and sugar, and
also for the Gympie gold-fields. . Timber abounds in the neigh-
bourhood and is exported. Maryborough is also the second
coaling port in Queensland, the government railway wharf being
in direct communication with the Burrum coal-fields.
MARYBOROUGH, a municipal town of Talbot county,
Victoria, Australia, 112 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop.
(IQOI), 5633. It has fine government buildings, a town hall, a
botanical garden, and numerous park lands. It is an important
railway centre, and has extensive railway workshops, as well
as coach factories, breweries and foundries. The gold mining
of the district is deep alluvial. Wheat, oats and wine are the
chief agricultural products of the neighbourhood.
MARYLAND, a South Atlantic state of the United States,
and one of the original thirteen, situated between latitudes
37 53' and 39 44' N. and longitudes 75 4' and 79 33' W. (the
precise western boundary has not been determined). It is
bounded N. by Pennsylvania and Delaware; E. by Delaware and
the Atlantic Ocean; S. and W. by the Potomac river and its
north branch, which separate it, except on the extreme W.
border, from Virginia and West Virginia; W., also, by West
Virginia. It is one of the small states of the Union only seven
are smaller its total area being 12,327 sq. m. of which 2386
sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. Maryland is crossed from north to south by
each of the leading topographical regions of the east section of the
United States the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, the
Appalachian Mountains, and the Appalachian Plateau hence its
; diversity of surface. The portion within the Coastal Plain
embraces nearly the whole of the south-east half of the state and
is commonly known as tide-water Maryland. It is marked off
from the Piedmont Plateau by a " Fall Line " extending from
Washington (D.C.) north-east through Baltimore to a point a little
south of the north-east corner of the state, and is divided by the
Chesapeake Bay into two parts known as the East Shore and the
West Shore. The East Shore is a low level plain, the least elevated
section of the state. Along its entire Atlantic border extends
the narrow sandy Sinepuxent Beach, which encloses a shallow lagoon
or bay also called Sinepuxent at the north, where, except in the
extreme north, it is very narrow, and Chincoteague at the south,
where its width is in most places from 4 to 5 m. JBetween this and
the Chesapeake to the west and north-west there is a slight general
rise, a height of about 100 ft. being reached in the extreme north.
A water-parting extending from north-east to south-west and close
to the Atlantic border separates the East Shore into two drainage
systems, though that next to the Atlantic is insignificant. That
on the Chesapeake side is drained chiefly by the Pocomoke, Nanti-
coke, Choptank and Chester rivers, together with their numerous
branches, the general direction of all of which is south-west. The
branches as well as the upper parts of the main streams flow through
broad and shallow valleys; the middle courses of the main streams
wind their way through reed-covered marshes, the water ebbing
and flowing with the tide; in their lower courses they become
estuarinc and the water flows between low banks. The West Shore
is somewhat more undulating than the East and also more elevated.
Its general slope is from north-west to south-east; along the west
border are points 300 ft. or more in height. The principal rivers
crossing this section are the Patuxent, Patapsco and Gunpowder,
with which may be grouped the Potomac, forming the state's
southern boundary. These rivers, lined in most instances with
terraces 30 to 40 ft. high on one or both sides, flow south-east into
the Chesapeake Bay through valleys bounded by low hills. The
Fall Line, which forms the boundary between the Coastal Plain
and the Piedmont Plateau, is a zone in which a descent of about
100 ft. or more is made in many places within a few miles and in
consequence is marked by waterfalls, cascades and rapids.
The part of Maryland within the Piedmont Plateau extends
west from the Fall Line to the base of Catoctin Mountain, or the
west border of Frederick county, and has an area of about 2500
sq. m. In general it has a broad rolling surface. It is divided into
two sections by an elevated strip known as Parr's Ridge, which
extends from north-east to south-west a short distance west of the
middle. The east section rises from about 450 ft. along the Fall
Line to from 850 to 900 ft. along the summit of Parr's Ridge. Its
principal streams are those that cross the West Shore of the Coastal
Plain and here _wind their way from Parr's Ridge rapidly toward
the south-east in narrow steep-sided gorges through broad lime-
stone valleys. To the west of Parr's Ridge the surface for the
most part slopes gently down to the east bank of the Monocacy
river (which flows nearly at a right angle with the streams east of
the Ridge), and then from the opposite bank rises rapidly toward
the Catoctin Mountain; but just above the mouth of the Monocacy
on the east side of the valley is Sugar Loaf Mountain, which makes
a steep ascent of 1250 ft.
The portion of the state lying within the Appalachian Region
is commonly known as Western Maryland. To the eastward it
abounds in mountains and valleys; to the westward it is a rolling
plateau. _ West of Catoctin Mountain (1800 ft.) is Middletown
Valley, with Catoctin Creek running through it from north to south,
and the Blue Ridge Mountains (2400 ft.), near the Pennsylvania
border, forming its west slope. Farther west the serrated crests
of the Blue Ridge overlook the Greater Appalachian Valley, here
73 m. in width, the broad gently-rolling slopes of the Great Cumber-
land or Hagerstown Valley occupying its eastern and the Appala-
chian Ridges its western portion. Through the eastern portion
Antietam Creek to the east and Conococheague Creek to the west
flow rapidly in meandering trenches that in places exceed 75 ft. in
depth. The Appalachian Ridges of the western portion begin with
North Mountain on the east and end with Wills Mountain on the
west. They are long, narrow, uniformly-sloping and level-crested
mountains, extending along parallel lines from north-east to south-
west, and reaching a maximum height in Martin's Ridge of more
than 2000 ft. Overlooking them from the west are the higher
ranges of the Alleghenies, among which the Savage, Backbone and
Negro Mountains reach elevations of 3000 ft. or more. In the
extreme west part of the state these mountains merge, as it were,
into a rolling plateau, the Appalachian Plateau, having an average
elevation of 2500 ft. All rivers of Western Maryland flow south
into the Potomac except in the extreme west, where the waters of
theYoughiogheny and its tributaries flow north into the Monongahela.
Fauna and Flora. In primitive times deer, ducks, turkeys, fish
and oysters were especially numerous, and wolves, squirrels and
crows were a source of annoyance to the early settlers. Deer,
black bears and wild cats (lynx) are still found in some uncultivated
sections. Much more numerous are squirrels, rabbits, " ground-
hogs " (woodchucks), opossums, skunks, weasels and minks. Many
species of ducks are also still found; and the reed-bird (bobolink),
partridge" (elsewhere called quail or "Bob White"), ruffed
grouse (elsewhere called partridge), woodcock, snipe, plover and
Carolina rail still abound. The waters of the Chesapeake Bay
are especially rich in oysters and crabs, and there, also, shad,
alewives, " striped " (commonly called " rock ") bass, menhaden,
white perch and weak-fish (" sea-trout ") occur in large numbers.
Among the more common trees are several species of oak, pine,
hickory, gums and maple, and the chestnut, the poplar, the beech,
the cypress and the red cedar; the merchantable pine has been cut,
but the chestnut and other hard woods of West Maryland are still
a product of considerable value. Among wild fruit-trees are the
persimmon and Chickasaw plum; grape-vines and a large variety
of berry-bushes grow wild and in abundance.
Climate. The climate of Maryland in the south-east is influenced
by ocean and bay perhaps also by the sandy soil while in the
west it is influenced by the mountains. The prevailing winds are
westerly; but generally north-west in winter in the west section
and south-west in summer in the south section. In the south the
normal winter is mild, the normal summer rather hot; in the west
the normal winter is cold, the normal summer cool. The normal
average annual temperature for the entire state is between 53 and
54 F., ranging from 48 at Grantsville in the north-west to 53 at
Darlington in the north-east, and to 57 at Princess Anne in the
south-east. The normal temperature for the state during July
(the warmest month) is 75-2 F., and during January (the coldest
month) 32-14 F. Although the west section is generally much
the cooler in summer, yet both of the greatest extremes recorded
since 1891 were at points not far apart in Western Maryland:
109 F. at Boettcherville and 26 F. at Sunnyside. The normal
828
MARYLAND
annual precipitation for the state is about 43 in. It is greatest,
about 53 in., on the east slope of Catoctin Mountain, owing to the
elevations which obstruct the moisture-bearing winds, and is
above the average along the middle of the shores of the Chesapeake.
It is least, from 25 to 35 in., in the Greater Appalachian Valley, in
the south on the West Shore, and along the Atlantic border. During
spring and summer the precipitation throughout the state is about
2 in. more than during autumn and winter.
Soils and Agriculture. The great variety of soils is one of the
more marked features of Maryland. On the East Shore to the
north is a marly loam overlying a yellowish-red clay sub-soil, to
the south is a soil quite stiff with light coloured clay, while here
and there, especially in the middle and south, are considerable
areas both of light sandy soils and tidal marsh loams. On the
West Shore the soils range from a light sandy loam in the lower
levels south from Baltimore to rather heavy loams overlying a
yellowish clay on the rolling uplands and on the terraces along the
Potomac and Patuxent. Crossing the state along the lower edge
of the Fall Line is a belt heavy with clay, but so impervious to
water as to be of little value for agricultural purposes. The soils
of the Piedmont Plateau east of Parr's Ridge are, like the under-
lying rocks, exceptionally variable in composition, texture and
colour. For the most part they are considerably heavier with
clay than are those of the Coastal Plain, and better adapted to
general agricultural purposes. Light loams, however, are found
both in the north-east and south-east. A soil of very close texture,
the gabbro, is found, most largely in the north-east. Alluvial
loams occupy the narrow river valleys; but the most common soil
of the section is that formed from gneiss' with a large per cent, of
clay in the subsoil. West of Parr s Ridge in the Piedmont, the
principal soils are those the character of which is determined either
by decomposed red sandstone or by decomposed limestone. In
the east portion of the mountainous region the soil so well adapted
to peach culture contains much clay, together with particles of
Cambrian sandstone. In Hagerstown Valley are rich red or yellow
limestone-clay soils. The Allegheny ridges have only a thin
stony soil; but good limestone, sandstone, shale and alluvial soils,
occur in the valleys and in some of the plateaus of the extreme
west.
Of the total land surface of the state 82 % was in 1900 included
in farms and 68% of the farmland was improved. There were
46,012 farms, of which 15,833 contained less than 50 acres, 3940
contained 260 acres or more, and 79 contained 1,000 acres or more
the average size being 112-4 acres. In 1890, 69% of the farms
were worked by the owners or their managers, in 1900 only 66-4%;
but share tenants outnumber cash tenants by almost three to one.
Of the total number of farms about seven times as many are operated
by white as by negro farmers, though the number of farms operated
by white share tenants outnumber those operated by negro share
tenants by only about five to one. Of all the inhabitants of the
state, at least ten years old, who in 1900 were engaged in gainful
occupations, 20-8% were farmers. The leading agricultural pur-
suits are the growing of Indian corn and wheat and the raising of
livestock, yet it is in the production of fruits, vegetables and
tobacco, that Maryland ranks highest as an agricultural state, and
in no other state except South Carolina is so large a per cent, of the
value of the crop expended for fertilizers. In 1907, according to
the Year Book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Indian
corn crop was 22,196,000 bushels, valued at $11,986,000; the wheat
crop was 14,763,000 bushels, valued at $14,172,000; the oat crop
was 825,000 bushels, valued at $404,000; and the crop of rye was
315,000 bushels, valued at $236,000. Of the livestock, hogs were
the most numerous in 1900, cattle next, sheep third, and horses
fourth. The hay and forage crop of 1899 (exclusive of corn-stalks)
grew on 374,848 acres. Until after the middle of the i8th century
tobacco was the staple crop of Maryland, and the total yield did
not reach its maximum until 1860 when the crop amounted to
51,000 hhds.; from this it decreased to 14,000 hhds., or 12,356,838 Ib
in 1889; in 1899 it rose again to 24,589,480 Ib, in 1907 the crop
was only 16,962,000 Ib, less than that of nine other states. In
market-garden products, including small fruits, Maryland ranked
in 1899 sixth among the states of the Union, the crop being valued
at $4,766,760, an increase of 350-9% over that of 1889. In the
yield both of strawberries and of tomatoes it ranked first; the yield
of raspberries and blackberries is also large. In its crop of green-
peas Maryland was exceeded (1899) by New York only; in sweet
Indian corn it ranked fifth; in kale, second; in spinach, third; in
cabbages, ninth. The number of peach-trees, especially in the
west part of the state, where the quality is of the best, is rapidly
increasing, and in the yield of peaches and nectarines the state
ranked thirteenth in 1899; in the yield of pears it ranked fifth; in
apples seventeenth.
The Indian-corn, wheat and livestock sections of the state, are
in the Piedmont Plateau, the Hagerstown Valley and the central
portion of the East Shore. Garrett county in the extreme north-
west, however, raises the largest number of sheep. Most of the
tobacco is grown in the south counties of the West Shore. The
great centre for vegetables and small fruits is in the counties border-
ing on the north-west shore of the Chesapeake, and in Howard,
Frederick and Washington counties, directly west, Anne Arundel
county producing the second largest quantity of strawberries of
all the counties in the Union in 1899. Peaches and pears grow in
large quantities in Kent and neighbouring counties on the East
Shore and in Washington and Frederick counties ; apples grow in
abundance in all parts of the Piedmont Plateau.
The woodland area of the state in 1900 was 4400 sq. m., about
44% (estimated in 1907 to be 3450 sq. m., about 35%) of the
total land area, but with the exception of considerable oak and chest-
nut, some maple and other hard woods in west Maryland, about
all of the merchantable timber has been cut. The lumber industry,
nevertheless, has steadily increased in importance, the value of
the product in 1860 amounting to only $605,864, that in 1890 to
$1,600,472, and that in 1900 to $2,650,082, of which sum $2,495,169
was the value of products under the factory system; in 1905 the value
of the factory product was $2,750,339.
Fisheries. In 1897 the value of the fishery product of Maryland
was exceeded only by that of Massachusetts, but by 1901, although
it had increased somewhat during the four years, it was exceeded
by the product of New Jersey, of Virginia and of New York. Oysters
constitute more than 80% of the total value, the product in 1901
amounting to 5,685,561 bushels, and being valued at $3,031,518.
The supply on natural beds has been diminishing, but the planting
of private beds promises a large increase. Crabs are next in value
and are caught chiefly along the East Shore and in Anne Arundel
and Calvert counties on the West Shore. Shad, to the number of
3,111,181 and valued at $120,602, were caught during 1901. In
Somerset and Worcester counties clams are a source of considerable
value. The terrapin catch decreased in value from $22,333 in 1891
to $1,139 ' n 1901. The total value of the fish product of 1901 was
$3,767,461. The state laws for the protection of fish and shell-fish
were long carelessly enforced because of the fishermen's strong
feeling against them, but this sentiment has slowly changed and
enforcement has become more vigorous.
Minerals and Manufactures. The coal deposits, which form a
part of the well-known Cumberland field, furnish by far the most
important mineral product of the state; more than 98% of this,
in 1901, was mined in Allegany county from a bed about 20 m. long
and 5 m. wide and the remainder in Garrett county, whose deposits,
though undeveloped, are of great value. The coal is of two varieties :
bituminous and semi-bituminous. The bituminous is of excellent
quality for the manufacture of coke and gas, but up to 1902 had
been mined only in small quantities. Most of the product has
been of the semi-bituminous variety and of the best quality in
the country for the generation of steam. Nearly all the high
grade blacksmithing coal mined in the United States comes from
Maryland. The deposits were discovered early in the igth century
(probably first in 1804 near the present Frostburg), but were not
exploited until railway transport became available in 1842, and
the output was not large until after the close of the Civil War; in
1865 it was 1,025,208 short tons, from which it steadily increased
to 5,532,628 short tons in 1907. From 1722 until the War of
Independence the iron-ore product of North and West Maryland
was greater than that of any of the other colonies, but since then
ores of superior quality have been discovered in other states and
the output in Maryland, taken chiefly from the west border of the
Coastal Plain in Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties, has
become comparatively of little importance 24,367 long tons in 1902
and only 8269 tons in 1905. Gold, silver and copper ores, have
been found in the state, and attempts have been made to mine
them, without much success. The Maryland building stone, of
which there is an abundance of good quality, consists chiefly of
granites, limestones, slate, marble and sandstones, the greater part
of which is quarried in the east section of the Piedmont Plateau
especially in Cecil county, though some limestones, including those
from which hydraulic cement is manufactured, and some sand-
stones are obtained from the western part of the Piedmont Plateau
and the east section of the Appalachian region; the value of stone
quarried in the state in 1907 was $1,439,355, of which $1,183,753
was the value of granite, $142,825 that of limestone, $98,918 that
of marble, and $13,859 that of sandstone. Brick, potter's and
tile clays are obtained most largely along the west border of the
Coastal Plain, and fire-clay from the coal region of West Maryland;
in 1907 the value of clay products was $1,886,362. Materials for
porcelain, including flint, feldspar and kaolin, abound in the east
portion of the Piedmont, the kaolin chiefly in Cecil county, and
material for mineral paint in Anne Arundel and Prince George's
counties, as well as farther north-west.
Between 1850 and 1900, while the population increased 103-8%,
the average number of wage-earners employed in manufacturing
establishments increased 258-5%, constituting 5-2% of the total
population in 1850 and 9-1% in 1900. In 1900 the total value of
manufactured goods was $242,552,990, an increase of 41-1% over
that of 1890. Of the total given for 1900, $211,076,143 was tl
value of products under the factory system; and in 1905 the value
of factory products was $243,375,996, being 15-3% more than in
1900. The products of greatest value in 1905 were: custom-made
men's clothing; fruits and vegetables and oysters, canned and
preserved; iron and steel; foundry and machine-shop products,
including stoves and furnaces; flour and grist mill products; tin-
ware, coppersmithing and sheet iron working; fertilizers; slaughtering
MAR\
LAND
and
DELAWARE
Scale, 1:1,000,000
English Miles
County Seats .... a
County Boundaries Car,
District of Columbia
and
Environs of Washington
Scale. 1:250,000
Environs of
BALTIMORE
Scale. 1:250.000
1. Executive Mansion (White House j
2. Caoitot
'" Jo Wnt 77 of Greenwich p
Enwry Walkd
MARYLAND
829
and meat-packing; cars and repairs by steam railways; shirts;
cotton goods; malt liquors; and cigars and cigarettes. In the
value of fertilizers manufactured, and in that of oysters canned
and preserved, Maryland was first among the states in 1900 and
id in 1905; in 1 900 and in 1905 it was fourth among the states
in the value of men s clothing. Baltimore is still the great manu-
Urt tiring centre, but of the state's total product the percentage
in value- of that manufactured there decreased from 82-5 in 1890
to ()(>-5 in 1900, and to 62-3 (of the factory product) in 1905. The
largest secondary centres are Cumberland, Hagerstown and Frede-
rick the total value of whose factory products in 1905 was less than
$10,000,000.
Communications. Tide- water Maryland is afforded rather unusual
facilities of water transportation by the Chesapeake Bay, with its
dcr|> channel, numerous deep inlets and navigable tributaries,
together with the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which crosses
the state of Delaware and connects its waters with those of the
Delaware river and bay. As early as 1783 steps were taken to
id these facilities to the navigable waters of the Ohio, chiefly
by improving the navigation of the Potomac above Georgetown.
By 1820 this project was merged into a movement for a Chesapeake
and Ohio canal along the same line. Ground was broken in 1828
and in 1850 the canal was opened to navigation from Georgetown
to Cumberland, a distance of 186 m. In 1878 and again in 1889 it
was wrecked by a freshet, and since then has been of little service. 1
However, on the same day that ground was broken for this canal,
ground was also broken for the Baltimore & Ohio railway, of which
15 m. was built in 1828-1830 and which was one of the first steam
railway lines in operation in the United States. Since then railway
building has progressed steadily. In Maryland (and including the
District of Columbia) there were 259 m. of railway in 1850, 386 m.
in 1860, 671 m. in 1870, and 1040 m. in 1880; in 1890, in Maryland
alone, the mileage was 1270-04 m., and in 1909 it was 1394-19 m.
The more important railway lines are the Baltimore & Ohio, the
Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (controlled by the Pennsyl-
vania and a consolidation of the Philadelphia, Wilmington &
Baltimore, and the Baltimore & Potomac), the Western Maryland,
the West Virginia Central & Pittsburg (leased by the Western
Maryland), the Northern Central, the Maryland electric railways
(including what was formerly the Baltimore & Annapolis Short
Line), and the Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis electric railway.
Baltimore is the chief railway centre and its harbour is one of the
most important in the country.
Inhabitants. The population of Maryland in 1880 was 934,943 ;
in 1890, 1,042,390, an increase of 11-5%; in 1900, 1,188,044
(14%); in 1910, 1,295,346 (increase 9%). Of the total
population in 1900 there were 952,424 whites, 235,064 negroes,
544 Chinese, 9 Japanese and 3 Indians, the increase in the white
population from 1890 to 1900 being 15-2%, while that of the
negroes was only 9%. In 1900 there were 1,094,110 native
born to 93,934 foreign-born, and of the foreign-born 44,990 were
natives of Germany and 68,600 were residents of the city of
Baltimore. The urban population, i.e. total population of cities
of 4000 or more inhabitants, in 1900, was 572,795, or 48-2% of
the total and an increase of 16-6% over that of 1890; while the
rural population, i.e. population outside of incorporated places,
was 539,685, an increase of about 8% over that of 1890. There
are about 59 religious sects, of which the members of the Roman
Catholic Church, which was prominent in the early history of
Maryland, are far the most numerous, having in 1906 166,941
members out of 473,257 communicants of all denominations;
in the same year there were 137,156 Methodists, 34,965 Protes-
tant Episcopalians, 32,246 Lutherans, 30,928 Baptists, 17,895
Presbyterians and 13,442 members of the Reformed Church in
the United States. The chief cities are Baltimore, pop. (1910)
558,485, Cumberland 21,839, Hagerstown 16,507, Frederick
10,411 and Annapolis 8609.
Government. The state constitution of 1867, the one now" in
force, has been frequently amended, all that is required for its
amendment being a three-fifths vote of all of the members
elected to each of the two houses of the General Assembly, fol-
lowed by a majority vote of the state electorate, and it is further
1 Maryland and Delaware together began the construction of the
Lncsapeake and Delaware canal (13} m. long) across the north part
it the state of Delaware, between the Delaware river and Chesa-
peake Bay; this canal received Federal aid in 1828, was completed
n 1829, and in 1907 was chosen as the most practicable route for
a proposed ship waterway between the Chesapeake and the Delaware.
Ine population at previous censuses was as follows: 319,728 in
1790; 341.548 m 1800; 380,546 in 1810; 407,350 in 1820; 447,040
1830; 470,019 in 1840; 583,034 in 1850; 687,049 in 1860; and
700,094 in 1870.
provided that once in twenty years, beginning with 1887, the
wish of the people in regard to calling a convention for altering
the constitution shall be ascertained by a poll. Any constitution
or constitutional amendment proposed by such constitutional
convention comes into effect only if approved by a majority of
the votes cast in a popular election. Since 1870 suffrage has
been the right of all male citizens (including negroes) twenty-one
years of age or over who shall have lived within the state for one
year and within the county or the legislative district of the city
of Baltimore in which they may offer to vote for six months
immediately preceding an election; persons convicted of larceny
or other infamous crime and not since pardoned by the governor,
as well as lunatics or those who have been convicted of bribery
at a previous election are excepted. In 1908 the General
Assembly passed a law providing for annual direct primary
elections (outside of Baltimore; and making the Baltimore
special primary law applicable to state as well as city officials),
but, as regards state officers, making only a slight improvement
upon previous conditions inasmuch as the county or district
is the unit and the vote of county or district merely " instructs "
delegates to the party's state nominating convention, representa-
tion in which is not strictly in proportion to population, the
rural counties having an advantage over Baltimore; no nomi-
nation petition is required. In the same year a separate law was
passed providing for primary elections for the choice of United
States senators; but here also the method is not that of nomina-
tion by a plurality throughout the state, but by the vote of
counties and legislative districts, so that this measure, like the
other primary law, is not sufficiently direct to give Baltimore a
vote proportional to its population.
The chief executive authority is vested in a governor elected by
popular vote for a term of four years. Since becoming a state Mary-
land has had no lieutenant-governor except under the constitution
of 1864 ; and the office of governor is to be filled in case of a vacancy
by such person as the General Assembly may elect.* Any citizen
of Maryland may be elected to the office who is thirty years of age
or over, who has been for ten years a citizen of the state, who has
lived in the state for five years immediately preceding election, and
who is at the time of his election a qualified voter therein. Until
1838 the governor had a rather large appointing power, but since
that date most of the more important offices have been filled by
popular election. He, however, still appoints, subject to the
confirmation of the senate, the secretary of state, the superintendent
of public education, the commissioner of the land office, the adjutant-
general, justices of the peace, notaries public, the members of
numerous administrative boards, and other administrative officers.
He is himself one of the board of education, of the board of public
works, and of the board for the management of the house of cor-
rection. No veto power whatever was given to the governor until
1867, when, in the present constitution, it was provided that no bill
vetoed by him should become a law unless passed over his veto by
a three*nfths vote of the members elected to each house, and an
amendment of 1890 (ratified by the people in 1891) further provides
that any item of a money bill may likewise be separately vetoed.
The governor's salary is fixed by the constitution at $4500 a year.
Other executive officers are a treasurer, elected by joint ballot of
the General Assembly for a term of two years, a comptroller elected
by popular vote for a similar term, and an attorney-general elected
by popular vote for four years.
The legislature, or General Assembly, meets biennially in even-
numbered years, at Annapolis, and consists of a Senate and a House
of Delegates. Senators are elected, one from each of the twenty-
three counties and one from each of the four legislative districts of
the city of Baltimore, for a term of four years, the terms of one-half
expiring every two years. Delegates are elected for a term of two
years, from each county and from each legislative district of
Baltimore, according to population, as follows: for a population of
18,000 or less, two delegates; 18,000 to 28,000, three; 28,000 to
40,000, four; 40,000 to 55,000, five; 55,000 and upwards, six. Each
legislative district of Baltimore is entitled tc 'he number of delegates
to which the largest county shall or may be entitled under the
foregoing apportionment, and the General Assembly may frorf
time to time alter the boundaries of Baltimore city districts in order
to equalize their population. This system of apportionment gives
to the rural counties a considerable political advantage over the
city of Baltimore, which, with 42-8% of the total population
according to the census of 1900, has only 4 out of 27 members of
the Senate and only 24 out of 101 members of the House of Delegates.
Since far back in the colonial era, no minister, preacher, or priest
1 The General Assembly regularly elected the governor during
the period 1776-1838.
8 3 o
MARYLAND
has been eligible to a seat in either house. A senator must be twenty-
five years of age or over, and both senators and delegates must have
lived within the state at least three years and in their county or
legislative district at least one year immediately preceding their
election.
The constitution provides that no bill or joint resolution shall pass
either house except by an affirmative vote of a majority of all the
members elected to that house and requires that on the final vote
the yeas and nays be recorded.
Justice, &c. The administration of justice is entrusted to a
court of appeals, circuit courts, special courts for the city of Balti-
more, orphans' courts, and justices of the peace. Exclusive of the
city of Baltimore, the state is divided into seven judicial circuits,
in each of which are elected for a term of fifteen years one chief judge
and two associate judges, who at the time of their election must be
members of the Maryland bar, between the ages of thirty and seventy,
and must have been residents of the state for at least five years.
The seven chief judges so elected, together with one elected from
the city of Baltimore, constitute the court of appeals, the governor
with the advice and consent of the senate designating one of the
eight as chief judge of that court. The court has appellate jurisdic-
tion only. The three judges elected in each circuit constitute the
circuit court of each of the several counties in such circuit. The
courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction and are required
to hold at least two sessions to which jurors shall be summoned
every year in each county of its circuit, and if only two such terms
are held, there must be two other and intermediate terms to which
jurors shall not be summoned. Three other judges are elected for
four-year terms, in each county and in the city of Baltimore to
constitute an orphans' court. The number of justices of the peace
for each county is fixed by local law; they are appointed by the
governor, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, for a term of
two years.
In the colonial era Maryland had an interesting list of governmental
subdivisions the manor, the hundred, the parish, the county, and
the city but the two last are about all that remain and even these
are in considerable measure subject to the special local acts of the
General Assembly. In general, each county has from three to
seven commissioners the number is fixed by county laws elected
on a general ticket of each county for a term of from two to six
years, entrusted with the charge and control of property owned by
the county, empowered to appoint constables, judges of elections,
collectors of taxes, trustees of the poor, and road supervisors, to
levy taxes, to revise taxable valuations of real property, and open
or close public roads.
In Maryland a wife holds her property as if single except that she
can convey real estate only by a joint deed with her husband (this re-
quirement being for the purpose of effecting a release of the husband's
" dower interest "), neither husband nor wife is liable for the separate
debts of the other, and on the death of either the rights of the survivor
in the estate of the other are about equal. Wife-beating is made
punishable by whipping in gaol, not exceeding forty lashes. Prior
to 1841 a divorce was granted by the legislature only, from then
until 1851 it could be granted by either the legislature or the equity
courts, since 1851 by the courts only. The grounds for a divorce
a mensa et thoro, which may be granted for ever or for a limited time
only, are cruelty, excessively vicious conduct, or desertion; for a
divorce a vinculo matrimonii the chief grounds are impotence at
the time of marriage, adultery or deliberate abandonment Spr three
years. There is no homestead exemption law and exemptions from
levy for the satisfaction of debts extend only to $100 worth of
property, besides wearing apparel and books and tools used by the
debtor in his profession or trade, and to all money payable in the
nature of insurance. Employers of workmen in a clay or coal mine,
stone quarry, or on a steam or street railway are liable for damage
in case of an injury to any of their workmen where such injury is
caused by the negligence of the employer or of any servant or
employee of the employer. The chief of the bureau of labour
statistics is directed in case of danger of a strike or lockout to seek
to mediate between the parties and if unsuccessful in that, then to
endeavour to secure their consent to the formation of a board of
arbitration.
The state penal and charitable institutions include a penitentiary
at Baltimore; a house of correction at Jessups, two houses of
refuge at Baltimore; a house of reformation in Prince George's
county; St Mary's industrial school for boys at Baltimore; an
industrial home for negro girls at Melyale; an asylum and training
school for the feeble-minded at Owings Mills; an infirmary at
Cumberland; the Maryland hospital for the insane at Catonsville;
the Springfield state hospital for the insane; the Maryland school
for the deaf and dumb at Frederick city; and the Maryland school
for the blind at Baltimore. Each of these is under the management
of a board appointed by the governor subject to the confirmation
of the senate. Besides these there are a large number of state-
aided charitable institutions. In 1900 there was created a board
of state aid and charities, composed of seven members appointed
by the governor for a term of two years, not more than four to be
reappointed. There is also a state lunacy commission of four
members, who are appointed for terms of four years, one annually,
by the governor.
Education. The basis of the present common school system
laid in 1865, after which a marked development was accompanied
by some important changes in the system and its administration,
and the percentage of total illiteracy (i.e. inability to write among
those ten years old and over) decreased from 19-3 in 1800 to n i
in 1900, while illiteracy among the native whites decreased during
the same period from 7-8 to 4-1 and among negroes from 59^6 to 35-2.
At the head of the system is a state board and a state superintendent,
and under these in each county is a county board which appoints
a superintendent for the county and a board of trustees for each
school district none of which is to be more than four miles square.
The state board is composed of the governor as its president, the
state superintendent as its secretary, six other members appointed
by the governor for a term of six years, and, as ex-officio members
without the right to vote, the principals of the state and other
normal schools. Prior to 1900 the principal of the state normal
was ex-officio state superintendent, but since then the superintendent
has been appointed by the governor for a term of four years. Each
county board is also appointed by the governor for a term of six
years. In both the state and the county boards at least one-third
of the members appointed by the governor are not to be of the
dominant political party and only one-third of the members are to
be appointed every two years. The state board enacts by-laws
for the administration of the system; its decision of controversies
arising under the school law is final; it may suspend or remove a
county superintendent for inefficiency or incompetency ; it issues
life state certificates, but applicants must have had seven years of
experience in teaching, five in Maryland, and must hold a first-class
certificate or a college or normal school diploma; and it pensions
teachers who have taught successfully for twenty-five years in any
of the public or normal schools of the state, who have reached the
age of sixty, and who have become physically or mentally incapable
of teaching longer, the pension amounting to $200 a year. The
legislature of 1908 passed a law under which the minimum pay for
a teacher holding a first-class certificate should be $350 a year after
three years' teaching, 400 after five years' teaching and 8450 after
eight years' teaching. By a law of 1904 all teachers who taught
an average of 15 pupils were to receive at least 8300. School books
are purchased out of the proceeds of the school tax, but parents may
purchase if they prefer. In 1908 the average school year was nine
and seven-tenths months ten in the cities and nine and four-tenths
in the counties; the aim is ten months throughout, and a law of
1904 provides that if a school is taught less than nine months a
portion of the funds set apart for it shall be withheld. A compulsory
education law of 1902 to operate, however, only in the city of
Baltimore and in Allegany county requires the attendance for
the whole school year of children between the ages of eight and twelve
and also of those between the ages of twelve and sixteen who are
not employed at home or elsewhere. A separate school for negro
children is to be maintained in every election district in which the
population warrants it. The system is maintained by a state tax
of 16 cents on each $100 of taxab! property.
The higher state educational institutions are two normal schools
and one agricultural college. One of the normal schools was opened
in Baltimore in 1866, the other at Frostburg in 1904. Both are under
the management of the state Board of Education, which appoints
the principals and teachers and prescribes the course of study.
There is besides, in Washington College at Chestertown, a normal
department supported by the state and under the supervision of
the state Board of Education. The Maryland Agricultural College,
to which an experiment station has been added, was opened in 1859;
it is at College Park in Prince George's county, and is largely under
state management. Maryland supports no state university, but
Johns Hopkins University, one of the leading institutions of its
kind in the country, receives $25,000 a year from the state; the
medical department of the university of Maryland receives an
annual appropriation of about $2500, and St John's College, the
academic department of the university of Maryland, receives from
the state $13,000 annually and gives for each county in the state
one free scholarship and one scholarship covering all expenses.
Among the principal institutions in the state are the university
of Maryland, an outgrowth of the medical college of Maryland
(1807) in Baltimore, with a law school (reorganized in 1869), a
dental school (1882), a school of pharmacy (1904). and, since 1907,
a department of arts and science in St John's College (non-sect.,
opened in 1789) at Annapolis; Washington College, with a normal
department (non-sect., opened in 1782) at Chestertown; Mount
St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1808) at Emmitsburg: New
Windsor College (Presbyterian, 1843) at New Windsor; St Charles
College (Roman Catholic, opened in 1848) and Rock Hill College
(Roman Catholic, 1857) near Ellicott City; Loyola College (Roman
Catholic, 1852) at Baltimore; Western Maryland College (Methodist
Protestant, 1867) at Westminster; Johns Hopkins University (non-
sect., 1876) at Baltimore; Morgan College (coloured, Methodist,
1876) at Baltimore; Goucher College (Methodist, founded 1884,
opened 1888) at Baltimore; several professional schools mostly
in Baltimore ' (q.v.); the Peabody Institute at Baltimore; and the
United States Naval Academy at Annapolis.
Revenue. -The state's revenue is derived from a general direct
property tax, a licence tax, corporation taxes, a collateral inheritance
MARYLAND
831
tax, fines, forfeitures and fees; and the penitentiary yields an annual
net revenue of about $40,000. There is no provision for a general
periodic assessment, but a state tax commissioner appointed by the
governor, treasurer and comptroller assesses the corporations, and
tin: county commissioners (in the counties) and the appeal tax court
(in the city of Baltimore) revise valuations of real property every
years. From 1820 to 1836 Maryland, in its enthusiasm over
internal improvements, incurred an indebtedness of more than
$16,000,000. To meet the interest, such heavy taxes were levied
that anti-tax associations were formed to resist the collection, and
in 1842 the state failed to pay what was due; but the accumulated
interest had been funded by 1848 and was paid soon afterwards,
xpenses of the government were curtailed by the constitution
of 1^51, and after the Civil War the amount of indebtedness steadily
.iscd until in 1902 the funded debt was $6,909,326 and the net
debt only $2,797,269-13, while on the 1st of October 1908 the net
debt was $306,643-91. As a result of incurring the large debt, a
f in the constitution prohibits the legislature from contracting
a debt without providing by the imposition of taxes for the payment
of the interest annually and the principal within fifteen years, except
to meet a temporary deficiency not exceeding $50,000. The first
bank of the state was established in 1790, and by 1817 there was one
in each of twelve counties and several in Baltimore; in 18181820
and in 1837-1839 there were several serious bank failures, but
there have been no serious failures since. A constitutional provision
makes each stockholder in a state bank liable to the amount of his
share or shares for all the bank's debts and liabilities. A savings bank
is taxed on its deposits, and a state bank is taxed on its capital-stock.
History. The history of Maryland begins in 1632 with the
procedure of Charles I. to grant a charter conveying almost
unlimited territorial and governmental rights therein to George
Calvert, first Lord Baltimore (i58o?-i632), and styling him its
absolute lord and proprietor. George Calvert died before the
charter had passed the great seal, but about two months later
in the same year it was issued to his eldest son, Cecilius. In
November 1633 two vessels, the " Ark " and the " Dove,"
carrying at least two hundred colonists under Leonard Calvert
(c. 1582-1647), a brother of the proprietor, as governor, sailed
from Gravesend and arrived in Maryland late in March of the
following year. Friendly relations were at the outset estab-
lished with the Indians, and the province never had much trouble
with that race; but with William Claiborne (is8Q?-i676?), the
arch-enemy of the province as long as he lived, it was otherwise.
He had opposed the grant of the Maryland charter, had estab-
lished a trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay in 1631,
and when commanded to submit to the new government he and
his followers offered armed resistance. A little later, during his
temporary absence in England, his followers on the island were
reduced 'to submission; but in 1644, while the Civil War in
England was in progress, he was back in the province assisting
Richard Ingle, a pirate who claimed to be acting in the interest
of parliament, in raising an insurrection which deprived Governor
Calvert of his office for about a year and a half. Finally, the
lord proprietor was deprived of his government from 1654 to
1658 in obedience to instructions from parliament which were
originally intended to affect only Virginia, but were so modified,
through the influence of Claiborne and some Puritan exiles from
Virginia who had settled in Maryland, as to apply also to " the
plantations within Chesapeake Bay." Then the long continued
unrest both in the mother country and in the province seems to
have encouraged Josias Fendall, the proprietor's own appointee
as governor, to strike a blow against the proprietary government
and attempt to set up a commonwealth in its place; but this revolt
was easily suppressed and order was generally preserved in the
province from the English Restoration of 1660 to the English
Revolution of 1688.
Meanwhile an interesting internal development had been in
progress. The proprietor was a Roman Catholic and probably it
was his intention that Maryland should be an asylum for per-
secuted Roman Catholics, but it is even more clear that he was
desirous of having Protestant colonists also. To this end he
promised religious toleration from the beginning and directed
his officers accordingly; this led to the famous toleration act
passed by the assembly in 1649, which, however, extended its
protection only to sects of Trinitarian Christianity. Again,
although the charter reserved to the proprietor the right of
calling an assembly of the freemen or their delegates at such
times and in such form and manner as he should choose, he sur-
rendered in 1638 his claim to the sole right of initiating legislation.
By 1650 the assembly had been divided into two houses, in one of
which sat only the representatives of the freemen without whose
consent no bill could become a law, and annual sessions as well
as triennial elections were coming to be the usual order. When
suffrage had thus come to be a thing really worth possessing,
the proprietor, in 1670, sought to check the opposition by dis-
franchising all freemen who did not have a freehold of fifty acres
or a visible estate of forty pounds sterling. But this step was
followed by more and more impassioned complaints against
him, such as: that he was interfering with elections, that he was
summoning only a part of the delegates elected, that he was
seeking to overawe those summoned, that he was abusing his veto
power, and that he was keeping the government in the hands of
Roman Catholics, who were mostly members of his own family.
About this time also the north and east boundaries of the province
were beginning to suffer from the aggressions of William Penn.
The territory now forming the state of Delaware was within the
boundaries defined by the Maryland charter, but in 1682 it was
transferred by the duke of York to William Penn and in 1685
Lord Baltimore's claim to it was denied by an order in council,
on the ground that it had been inhabited by Christians before
the Maryland charter was granted. In the next place, although
it was clear from the words of the charter that the parallel of
40 N. was intended for its north boundary, and although Penn's
charter prescribed that Pennsylvania should extend on the south
to the " beginning of the fortieth degree of Northern Latitude,"
a controversy arose with regard to the boundary between the
two provinces, and there was a long period of litigation; in 1763-
1767 Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathe-
maticians, established the line named from them (see MASON AND
DIXON LINE), which runs along the parallel 39 43' 26"-$ N. and
later became famous as the dividing line between the free states
and the slave states. While the proprietor was absent defending
his claims against Penn the English Revolution of 1688 was
started. Owing to the death of a messenger there was long delay
in proclaiming the new monarchs in Maryland; this delay, to-
gether with a rumor of a Popish plot to slaughter the Protestants,
enabled the opposition to overthrow the proprietary government,
and then the crown, in the interest of its trade policy, set up a
royal government in its place, in 1692, without, however, divest-
ing the proprietor of his territorial rights. Under the royal
government the Church of England was established, the people
acquired a strong control of their branch of the legislature and
they were governed more by statute law and less by executive
ordinance. The proprietor having become a Protestant, the
proprietary government was restored in 1715. Roman Catholics
were disfranchised immediately afterward. In 1730 Germans
began to settle in considerable numbers in the west-central part
of the colony, where they greatly promoted its industrial develop-
ment but at the same time added much strength to the opposi-
tion. The first great dispute between proprietor and people after
the restoration of 1715 was with regard to the extension of the
English statutes to Maryland, the popular branch of the legisla-
ture vigorously contending that all such statutes except those
expressly excluded extended to the province, and the lord pro-
prietor contending that only those in which the dominions were
expressly mentioned were in force there. Many other disputes
speedily followed and when the final struggle between the English
and French for possession in America came, although appro-
priations were made at its beginning to protect her own west
frontier from the attacks of the enemy, a dead-lock between the
two branches of the assembly prevented Maryland from respond-
ing to repeated appeals from the mother country for aid in the
latter part of that struggle. This failure was used as an argument
in favour of imposing the famous Stamp Act. Nevertheless,
popular clamour against parliament on account of that measure
was even greater than it had been against the proprietor. The
stamp distributor was driven out, and the arguments of Daniel
Dulany (1721-1797), the ablest lawyer in the province, against
the act were quoted by speakers in parliament for its repeal.
8 3 2
MARYLAND
In the years immediately preceding the Declaration of Inde-
pendence Maryland pursued much the same course as did other
leading colonies in the struggle a vessel with tea on board was
even burned to the water's edge and yet when it came to the
decisive act of declaring independence there was hesitation. As
the contest against the proprietor had been nearly won, the
majority of the best citizens desired the continuance of the old
government and it was not until the Maryland delegates in the
Continental Congress were found almost alone in holding back
that their instructions not to vote for independence were
rescinded. The new constitution drawn and adopted in 1776 to
take the place of the charter was of an aristocratic rather than
a democratic nature. Under it the property qualification for
suffrage was a freehold of 50 acres or 30 current money, the
property qualifications for delegates 500, for senators 1000,
and for governor 50x30. Four delegates were chosen from each
county and two each from Baltimore and Annapolis, the same
as under the proprietary government, population not being taken
into account. Senators were chosen by a college of fifteen
electors elected in the same manner as the delegates, and the
governor by a joint ballot of the two houses of assembly. In
1802 negroes were disfranchised, and in 1810 property qualifi-
cations for suffrage and office were abolished. The system of
representation that, with the rapid growth of population in the
north-east sections, especially in the city of Baltimore, placed
the government in the hands of a decreasing minority also began
to be attacked about this time; but the fear of that minority
which represented the tobacco-raising and slave-holding counties
of south Maryland, with respect to the attitude of the majority
toward slavery prevented any changes until 1837, when the oppo-
sition awakened by the enthusiasm over internal improvements
effected the adoption of amendments which provided for the
election of the governor and senators by a direct vote of the
people, a slight increase in the representation of the city of
Baltimore and the larger counties, and a slight decrease in that
of the smaller counties. Scarcely had these amendments been
carried when the serious financial straits brought on by debt in-
curred through the state's promotion of internal improvements
gave rise to the demand for a reduction of governmental expenses
and a limitation of the power of the General Assembly to contract
debts. The result'was the new constitution of 1851, which fully
established representation in the counties on the basis of popula-
tion and further increased that of Baltimore. The constitution
of 1851 was however chiefly a patchwork of compromises. So,
when during the Civil War Maryland was largely under Federal
control and the demand arose for the abolition of slavery by
the state, another constitutional convention was called, in 1864,
which framed a constitution providing that those who had given
aid to the Rebellion should be disfranchised and that only those
qualified for suffrage in accordance with the new document could
vote on its adoption. This was too revolutionary to stand long
and in 1867 it was superseded by the present constitution. In
national affairs Maryland early took a stand of perhaps far-
reaching consequences in refusing to sign the Articles of Con-
federation (which required the assent of all the states before
coming into effect), after all the other states had done so (in 1779),
until those states claiming territory between the Alleghany
Mountains and the Mississippi and north of the Ohio Virginia,
New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut should have sur-
rendered such claims. As those- states finally yielded, the
Union was strengthened by reason of a greater equality and con-
sequently less jealousy among the original states, and the United
States came into possession of the first territory in which all the
states had a common interest and out of which new states were
to be created. In the War of 1812 Frederick, Havre de Grace,
and Frenchtown were burned by the British; but particularly
noteworthy were the unsuccessful movements of the enemy by
land and by sea against Baltimore, in which General Robert Ross
(c. 1766-1814), the British commander of the land force, was
killed before anything had been accomplished and the failure
of the fleet to take Fort McHenry after a siege of a day and a
night inspired the song The Star-spangled Banner, composed by
Francis Scott Key who had gone under a flag of truce to secure
from General Ross the release of a friend held as a prisoner by the
British and during the attack was detained on his vessel within
the British lines. In 1861 Maryland as a whole was opposed to
secession but also opposed to coercing the seceded states.
During the war that followed the west section was generally loyal
to the north while the south section favoured the Confederacy
and furnished many soldiers for its army; but most of the state
was kept under Federal control, the writ of habeas corpus being
suspended. The only battle of much importance fought on
Maryland soil during the war was that of Sharpsburg or Antietam
on the i6th and I7th of September 1862. As between political
parties the state has usually been quite equally divided. From
1820 to 1860, however, the Whigs were in general a trifle the
stronger; and from 1866 to 1895 the Democrats were triumphant;
in 1895 a Republican governor was elected; in 1896 Maryland
gave McKinley 32,232 votes more than it gave Bryan; and in
1904 seven Democratic electors and one Republican were chosen;
and in 1908 five Democratic and three Republican.
The proprietors of Maryland were : Cecilius Calvert, second Lord
Baltimore (i6o5}?]-i675) from 1632 to 1675; Charles Calvert,
third Lord Baltimore (1629-1715) from 1675 to 1715; Benedict
Leonard Calvert, fourth Lord Baltimore (I684?-I7I5) 1715; Charles
Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore (1699-1751) from 1715 to 1751.
Frederick Calvert, sixth and last Lord Baltimore (1731-1771) from
1751 to 1771; Henry Harford, from 1771 to 1776.
Governors of Maryland.
Proprietary.
Leonard Calvert .... . . 1633-1645
Richard Ingle (usurper) . . 1645
Edward Hill (chosen by the council) . . 1646
Leonard Calvert .... . . 1646-1647
Thomas Greene .... . . 1647-1649
VVilliam Stone ."]... . . 1649-1652
ISdcS 1 (commissioners of I ^
William Claiborne J Parliament) f
William Stone 1652-1654
William Fuller and others (appointed by the com-
missioners of parliament) 1654-1658
Josias Fendall 1658-1660
Philip Calvert 1660-1661
Charles Calvert 1661-1675
Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore . . . 1675-1676
Cecilius Calvert (titular) and Jesse Wharton (real) . 1676
Thomas Notley 1676-1679
Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore . . . 1679-1684
Benedict Leonard Calvert (titular) and council (real). 1684-1688
William Joseph (president of the council) . . . 1688-1689
Protestant Associators under John Coode . . . 1689-1692
Royal.
Sir Lionel Copley 1692-1693
Sir Edmund Andros 1693-1694
Francis Nicholson 1694-1699
Nathaniel Blackistone 1699-1702
Thomas Tench (president of the council) . . . 1702-1704
John Seymour 1704-1709
Edward Lloyd (president of the council) . . . 1700-1714
John Hart 1714-1715
John Hart 1715-1720
Charles Calvert 1720-1727
Benedict Leonard Calvert 1727-173!
Samuel Ogle 1731-1732
Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore .... 1732-1733
Samuel Ogle 1 733-' 742
Thomas Bladen 1742-1747
Samuel Ogle 1747-1752
Benjamin Tasker (president of the council) . . 1752-1753
Horatio Sharpe 1752-1769
Robert Eden 1769-1774
Robert Eden (nominal) and Convention and Council
of Safety (real) 1774-1776
STATE
Thomas Johnson
Thomas Sim Lee
William Paca
William Smallwood
John Eager Howard
George Plater *
. 1777-1779
. 1779-1782
. 1782-1785
. . 1785-1788
. 1788-1791
. 1791-1792
1 Died in office.
MARYPORT MASACCIO
833
James Brice (acting)
Thomas Sim Lee
1792
1792-1794
1794-1797
John Henry
Democratic Republican 1797-1798
Benjamin Ogle
Federalist 1798-1801
John Francis Mercer
Democratic Republican 1801-1803
Robert Bowie .
1803-1806
Robert Wright 1
1806-1808
James Butcher (acting) .
1808-1809
Edward Lloyd .
Robert Bowie .
Whig 1809-1811
Democratic Republican 1811-1812
Levin Winder .
Federalist 1812-1815
Charles Ridgely
1815-1818
Charles Goldsborough
1818-1819
Samuel Sprigg .
Democratic'Republican 1819-1822
Samuel Stevens, jun.
1822-1825
Joseph Kent
1825-1828
Daniel Martin .
Anti-Jackson 1828-1829
Thomas King Carroll
Jackson Democrat 1829-1830
Daniel Martin .
Anti-Jackson 1830-1831
George Howard (acting).
Whig 1831-1832
George Howard
1832-1833
James Thomas
1833-1835
Thomas W. Veazey
1835-1838
William Grason
Democrat 1838-1841
Francis Thomas
,, 1841-1844
Thomas G. Pratt .
Whig 1844-1847
Philip Francis Thomas .
Democrat 1847-1850
Enoch Louis Lowe .
1850-1853
Thomas Watkins Ligon .
1853-1857
Thomas Holliday Hicks .
American or
Know-Nothing 1857-1861
Augustus W. Bradford .
Unionist 1861-1865
Thomas Swann
. 1865-1868
Oden Bowie
Democrat 1868-1872
William Pinkncy Whyte 2
1872-1874
James Black Groome
1874-1876
John Lee Carroll
1876-1880
William T. Hamilton
1880-1884
Robert M. McLane .
1884-1885
Henry Lloyd
1885-1888
F-lihu E. Jackson
1888-1892
Frank Brown .
1892-1896
Lloyd Lowndes
Republican 1896-1900
John Walter Smith
Democrat 1900-1904
Edwin Warfield
1904-1908
Austin L. Crothers .
1908-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Publications of the Maryland Geological Survey
(Baltimore, 1897); Maryland Weather Service Climatology and
Physical Features, biennial reports (Baltimore, 1892- ) ; United States
Census ; Reports of the U.S. Fish Commissionerand Bureau of Fisheries
(Washington, 1871); State Department, Maryland Manual, a Com-
pendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information (Baltimore,
1900- ) ; B.C. Steiner, Citizenship and Suffrage in Maryland (Balti-
more, 1895), an historical review of the subject; J. W. Harry, The
Maryland Constitution of iSjl, Johns Hopkins University Studies
in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, 1902), contains an
account of the agitation from 1835 to 1850 for constitutional reform;
B.C. Steiner, History of Education in Maryland, Circulars of Informa-
tion of the United States Bureau of Education (Washington, 1894),
a general historical survey of the common schools, public and private,
and a particular account of each college, university and professional
school; A. D. Mayo, The Final Establishment of the American School
System in West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia and Delaware, Report
of the Commissioner of Education (Washington, 1905) contains an
interesting account of the development of the public school system
of the state from 1864 to 1900; F. S. Adams, Taxation in Maryland,
Johns Hopkins University Studies (Baltimore, 1900), an historical
account of the sources of the state's revenue and administration
of its taxing system; A. V. Bryan, History of State Banking in
Maryland, Johns Hopkins University Studies (Baltimore, 1899), a
il study of the state's experience with banks from 1790 to
1864; J. L. Bozman, History of Maryland from 1633 to 1660 (Balti-
more, 1837), a compilation of much of the more important material
relating to the early history of the province; J. V. L. McMahon,
A n Historical View of the Government of Maryland from its Coloniza-
'ton to the Present Day (Baltimore, 1833), an able treatment of the
ibject by a learned jurist; J. T. Scharf, History of Maryland
[Baltimore, 1879), the most extensive general history of the state,
it contains numerous errors and the arrangement is poor;
II. Browne, Maryland: the History of a Palatinate (Boston,
884 and 1895), an excellent outline of the colonial history; N. D.
eness, Maryland as a Proprietary Province (New York, 1901), a
titutional history of the province in the light of its industrial
1 social development, contains a bibliography ; and Bernard
' Resigned on the 6th of May 1808.
Resigned in 187410 become (March 4, 1875) U.S. senator from
Maryland.
XVH. 27
C. Steiner, Maryland during the English Civil War (2 vols., Balti-
more, 1906-1907), one of the Johns Hopkins University Studies.
(N. D. M.)
MARYPORT, a market town and seaport in the Cockermouth
parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, 25 m. W.S.W.
of Carlisle, on the Maryport & Carlisle railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 11,897. It is irregularly built on the shore of the
Irish Sea and on the cliffs above, at the mouth of the river Ellen.
Until 1750 there were only a few huts here, the spot being called
Ellenfoot, but at this time the harbour was built by Humphrey
Senhouse. In 1892 Maryport became an independent port with
Workington, Whitehaven and Millom subordinate to it. Coal
and pig-iron are exported from the mining district inland, and
shipbuilding is carried on. There are also rope and sail works,
iron-foundries, saw-mills, breweries and tanneries. On the hill
north of the town there is a Roman fort which guarded the
coast, and many remains of this period have been discovered.
The fort was called Uxellodunum.
MARZABOTTO, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
Bologna, 17 m. S.S.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1901), 617
(village); 5272 (commune). It lies in the valley of the Reno,
443 ft. above sea-level. In and below the grounds of the
Villa Aria, close to it, are the remains of an Etruscan town of
the 5th century B.C., protected on the west by the mountains,
on the east and south by the river, which by a change of course
has destroyed about half of it. The acropolis was just below the
villa: here remains of temples were found. The town lay below
the modern high-road and was laid out on a rectangular plan
divided by main streets into eight quarters, and these in turn
into blocks or insulae. Cemeteries were found on the east and
north of the site. The name of the place is unknown: it was
partially inhabited later by the Gauls, but was not occupied by
the Romans.
The discoveries of 1888-1889 (with references to previous works)
are described by E. Brizio in Monumenti dei Lincei (1891), i. 249 sqq.
(T. As.)
MASACCIO (1402-1429), Italian painter. Tommaso Guidi,
son of a notary, Ser Giovanni di Simone Guidi, of the family
of the Scheggia, who had property in Castel S. Giovanni di Val
d'Arno, was born in 1402 (according to Milanesi, on the 2ist of
December 1401), and acquired the nickname of Masaccio, which
may be translated " Lubberly Tom," in consequence of his
slovenly dressing and deportment. From childhood he showed
a great inclination for the arts of design, and he is said to have
studied under his contemporary Masolino da Panicale. In
1421, or perhaps 1423, he was enrolled in the gild of the speziali
(druggists) in Florence, in 1424 in the gild of painters. His
first attempts in painting were made in Florence, and then in
Pisa. Next he went to Rome, still po doubt very young;
although the statement that he returned from Rome to Florence,
in 1420, when only eighteen or nineteen, seems incredible, con-
sidering the works he undertook in the papal city. These in-
cluded a series of frescoes still extant in a chapel of the church of
S. Clemente, a Crucifixion, and scenes from the life of St Catherine
and of St Clement, or perhaps some other saint. Though much
inferior to his later productions, these paintings are, for natural-
ism and propriety of representation, in advance of their time.
Some critics, however, consider that the design only, if even that,
was furnished by Masaccio, and the execution left to an inferior
hand; this appears highly improbable, as Masaccio, at his early
age, can scarcely have held the position of a master laying out
work for subordinates; indeed Vasari says that Lubberly Tom
was held in small esteem at all times of his brief life. In the
Crucifixion subject the group of the Marys is remarkable; the
picture most generally admired is that of Catherine, in the
presence of Maxentius, arguing against and converting eight
learned doctors. After returning to Florence, Masaccio was
chiefly occupied in painting in the church of the Carmine, and
especially in that " Brancacci Chapel " which he has rendered
famous almost beyond rivalry in the annals of painting.
The chapel had been built early in the isth century by Felice
Michele di Piuvichese Brancacci, a noble Florentine. Masaccio's
work in it began probably in 1423, and continued at intervals until
834
MASAI
he finally quitted Florence in 1428. There is a whole library-shelf
of discussion as to what particular things were done by Masaccio
and what by Masolino, and long afterwards by Filippino Lippi, in
the Brancacci Chapel, and also as to certain other paintings by
Masaccio in the Carmine. He began with a trial piece, a majestic
figure of St Paul, not in the chapel; this has perished. A mono-
chrome of the Procession for the Consecration of the Chapel, regarded
as a wonderful example, for that early period, of perspective and of
grouping, has also disappeared; it contains portraits of Brunelleschi,
Donatello and many others. In the cloister of the Carmine was
discovered in recent years a portion of a fresco by Masaccio represent-
ing a procession ; but this, being in colours and not in monochrome,
does not appear to be the Brancacci procession. As regards the
works in the Brancacci chapel itself, the prevalent opinion now is that
Masolino, who used to be credited with a considerable portion of
them, did either nothing, or at most the solitary compartment
which represents St Peter restoring Tabitha to life, and the same
saint healing a cripple. The share which Filippino Lippi bore in the
work admits of little doubt; to him are due various items on which
the fame of Masaccio used principally to be based as for instance
the figure of St Paul addressing Peter in prison, which Raphael
partly appropriated ; and hence it may be observed that an eloquent
and often-quoted outpouring of Sir Joshua Reynolds in praise of
Masaccio ought in great part to be transferred to Filippino. What
Masaccio really painted in the chapel appears with tolerable certainty
to be as follows, and is ample enough to sustain the high reputa-
tion he has always enjoyed: (i) The " Temptation of Adam and
Eve "; (2) " Peter and the Tribute-Money "; (3) The " Expulsion
from Eden"; (4) "Peter Preaching"; (5) "Peter Baptizing";
(6) " Peter Almsgiving "; (7) " Peter and John curing the Sick ";
(8) " Peter restoring to Life the Son of King Theophilus of Antioch "
was begun by Masaccio, including the separate incident of " Peter
Enthroned," but a large proportion is by Filippino; (9) the double
subject already allotted to Masolino may perhaps be by Masaccio,
and in that case it must have been one of the first in order of execu-
tion. A few words may be given to these pictures individually,
(i) The " Temptation " shows a degree of appreciation of nude form,
corresponding to the feeling of the antique, such as was at that date
unexampled in painting. (2) The " Tribute-Money," a full, harmoni-
ous and expressive composition, contains a head reputed to be the
portrait of Masaccio himself one of the apostles, with full locks,
a solid resolute countenance and a pointed beard. (3) The " Expul-
sion " was so much admired by Raphael that, with comparatively
slight modifications, he adopted it as his own in one of the subjects-
of the Logge of the Vatican. (5) " Peter Baptizing " contains some
nude figures of strong naturalistic design ; that of the young man,
prepared for the baptismal ceremony, who stands half-shivering
in the raw air, has always been a popular favourite and an object
of artistic study. (8) The restoration of the young man to life has
been open to much discussion as to what precise subject was in view,
but the most probable opinion is that the legend of King Theophilus
was intended.
In 1427 Masaccio was living in Florence with his mother,
then for the second time a widow, and with his younger brother
Giovanni, a painter of no distinction; he possessed nothing but
debts. In 1428 he was working, as we have seen, in the Brancacci
chapel. Before the end of that year he disappeared from
Florence, going, as it would appear, to Rome, to evade the
importunities of creditors. Immediately afterwards, in 1429,
when his age was twenty-seven or twenty-eight, he was reported
dead. Poisoning by jealous rivals in art was rumoured, but of
this nothing is known. The statement that several years after-
wards, in 1443, he was buried in the Florentine Church of the
Carmine, without any monument, seems to be improbable, and
to depend upon a confused account of the dates, which have now,
after long causing much bewilderment, been satisfactorily cleared
up from extant documents.
It has been said that Masaccio introduced into painting the
plastic boldness of Donatello, and carried out the linear per-
spective of Paolo Uccello and Brunelleschi (who had given him
practical instruction), and he was also the first painter who made
some considerable advance in atmospheric perspective. He was
the first to make the architectural framework of his pictures
correspond in a reasonable way to the proportions of the figures.
In the Brancacci chapel he painted with extraordinary swiftness.
The contours of the feet and articulations in his pictures are
imperfect; and his most prominent device for giving roundness
to the figures (a point in which he made a great advance upon
his predecessors) was a somewhat mannered way of putting
the high lights upon the edges. His draperies were broad and
easy, and his landscape details natural, and superior to his age.
In fact, he led the way in representing the objects of nature
correctly, with action, liveliness and relief. Soon after his
death, his work was recognized at its right value, and led to
notable advances; and all the greatest artists of Italy, through
studying the Brancacci chapel, became his champions and
disciples.
Of the works attributed to Masaccio in public or private galleries
hardly any are authentic. The one in the Florentine Academy, the
" Virgin and Child in the Lap of St Anna," is an exception. The
so-called portrait of Masaccio in the Uffizi Gallery is more probably
Filippino Lippi ; and Filippino, or Botticelli, may be the real author
of the head, at first termed a Masaccio, in the National Gallery,
London.
An early work on Masaccio was that of T. Patch, Life with Engrav-
ings (Florence, 1770-1772). See Layard, The Brancacci Cltapel, &c.
(1868); H. Eckstein, Life of Masaccio, Giotto, &c. (1882); Charles
Yriarte, Tommaso dei Guidi (1894). (W. M. R.)
MASAI, an Eastern Equatorial African people of Negro-
Hamitic stock, speaking a Nilotic language. The Hamitic
element, which is not great, has probably been derived from
the Galla. The Masai were probably isolated in the high moun-
tains or plateaus which lie between the Nile and the Karamojo
country. There they originally had their home, and there
to-day the Latuka, who show affinities with them, still live.
Famine or inter-tribal wars drove the Masai in the direction of
Mount Elgon and Lake Rudolf. After a long settlement there
they split into two groups, the Masai proper and the Wa-Kuafi
or agricultural Masai, and this at no very remote date, as the
two tribes speak practically the same language. The more
powerful Masai were purely nomadic and pastoral, their wealth
consisting in enormous herds. The Wa-Kuafi, losing their cattle
to their stronger kinsmen, split up again into the Burkeneji,
the -Gwas Ngishu, and the Nyarusi (Enjamusi) and settled as
agriculturists. Meantime the Masai became masters of the
greater part of inner East Africa from Ugogo and the Unyamwezi
countries on the south and west to Mount Kenya and Galla-land
on the north, and eastward to the hundred-mile strip of more
or less settled Bantu country on the coast of the Indian Ocean.
The Masai physical type is slender, but among the finest in
Africa. A tall, well-made people, the men are often well over
six feet, with slim wiry figures, chocolate-coloured, with eyes
often slightly oblique like the Mongolians, but the nose especially
being often almost Caucasian in type, with well formed bridge
and finely cut nostrils. Almost all the men and women knock
out the two lower incisor teeth. For this custom they give the
curious explanation that lockjaw was once very common in
Masai-land, and that it was found to be easy to feed the sufferer
through the gap thus made. All the hair on the body of both
sexes is pulled out with iron tweezers; a Masai with a moustache
or beard is unknown. The hair of the head is shaved in women
and married men; but the hair of a youth at puberty is allowed
to grow till it is long enough to have thin strips of leather plaited
into it. In this way the hair, after a coating of red clay and
mutton fat, is made into pigtails, the largest of which hangs
down the back, another over the forehead, and one on each side.
The warriors smear their whole bodies with the clay and fat,
mixed in equal proportion.
No tattooing or scarring is performed on the men, but Sir Harry
Johnston noticed women with parallel lines burnt into the skin round
the eyes. In both sexes the lobes of the ears are distended into great
loops, through holes in which large disks of wood are thrust. Bead
necklaces, bead and wood armlets are worn by men, and before
marriage the Masai girl has thick iron wire wound round her legs
so tightly as to check the calf development. The women wear
dressed hides or calico; the old men wear a skin or cloth cape. The
warriors wind red calico round their waists, a circle of ostrich feathers
round their face (or a cap of lion or colobus skin) and fringes of long
white fur round the knee. Masai houses are of two kinds. The
agricultural tribes build round huts with walls of reeds or sticks,
and conical, grass-thatched roofs. The true Masai nomads, how
ever, have houses unlike those of any other neighbouring negro tribe.
Long, low (not more than 6 ft. high), flat-roofed, they are built on a
framework of sticks with strong partitions dividing the structure
into separate compartments, each a dwelling, with low, oblong door.
Mud and cow-dung are plastered on to the brushwood used in the
roofing. Beds are made of brushwood neatly stacked and covered
with hides. The fireplace is a circle of stones. The only furniture,
besides cooking-pots, consists of long gourds used as milkcans, half
gourds as cups, and small three-legged stools cut out of a single block
MASANIELLO MASCARA
835
of wood and used by the elder men to sit on. The Masai are not
hunters of big game except lions, but they eat the eland and kudu.
The domestic animals are cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys and dogs.
Only women and the married men smoke. The dead are ordinarily
not buried, but the bodies are carried a short distance from the
village and left on the ground to be devoured by hyenas, jackals and
vultures. Important chiefs are buried, however, and a year later
the eldest son or successor recovers the skull, which is treasured as
a i harm. The medicine men of Masai are often the chiefs, and
the supreme chief is almost always a medicine man.
The Masai believe in a nature-god as a supreme being Ngai
(" sky ") and his aid is invoked in cases of drought by a ceremonial
chant of the children, standing in a circle after sunset, each with a
bunch of grass in its hand. They have creation-myths involving
four gods, the black, white, grey and red deities. They believe
there is no future for women or common people, but that such
distinction is reserved for chiefs. Pythons and a species of snake
are revered as the reincarnated forms of their more celebrated
ancestors. A kind of worship is paid to the hyena in some districts:
the whole tribe going into mourning if the beast crosses their
path. The Masai also have a vague tree-worship, and grass is a
d symbol. When making peace a tuft is held in the right hand,
and when the warriors start out on a raid their sweethearts throw
grass after them or lay it in the forks of trees. But the oddest of
their superstitious customs is the importance attached to spitting.
To spit upon a person or thing is regarded as a sign of reverence
and goodwill, as among other Nilotic tribes. Newly born children
are spat on by every one who sees them. Johnston states that every
Masai before extending his hand to him spat on it first. They spit
when they meet and when they part, and bargains are sealed in this
way. Joseph Thomson writes, being regarded as a wizard of the
first water, the Masai flocked to me . . . and the more copiously
I spat on them the greater was their delight." The Masai has no
love for work, and practises no industries. The women attend to
his personal needs; and trades such as smelting and forging are left
to enslaved tribes such as the Dorobo.(Wandorobo). These manu-
facture spears with long blades and butts and the peculiar swords
or simes like long slender leaves, very narrow towards the hilt and
broad at the point. Most of the Masai live in the British East
Africa Protectorate.
See A. C. Hollis, The Masai, their Language and Folklore (1905);
M. Merker, Die Nasai (1904); Sir H. H. Johnston, Kilimanjaro
Expedition (1886) and Uganda Protectorate (1902); Joseph Thomson,
Through Masai-land (1885); O. Baumann, Durch Massai-land zur
Nilquelle (1894); F. Kallenberg, Auf dent Kriegspfad gegen die
Massai (1892).
MASANIELLO, an abbreviation of TOMMASO ANIELLO (1622-
1647), an Amalfi fisherman, who became leader of the revolt
against Spanish rule in Naples in 1647. Misgovernment and
fiscal oppression having aroused much discontent throughout
the two Sicilies, a revolt broke out at Palermo in May 1647, and
the people of Naples followed the example of the Sicilians. The
immediate occasion of the latter rising was a new tax on fruit,
the ordinary food of the poor, and the chief instigator of the
movement was Masaniello, who took command of the malcon-
tents. The outbreak began on the 7th of July 1647 with a riot
at the city gates between the fruit-vendors of the environs and
the customs officers; the latter were forced to flee, and the
customs office was burnt. The rioters then poured into Naples
and forced their way into the palace of the viceroy, the hated
Count d'Arcos, who had to take refuge first in a neighbouring
convent, then in Castel Sant' Elmo, and finally in Castelnuovo.
Masaniello attempted to discipline the mob and restrain its
vandalic instincts, and to some extent he succeeded; attired in his
fisherman's garb, he gave audiences and administered justice
from a wooden scaffolding outside his house. Several rioters,
including the duke of Maddaloni, an opponent of the viceroy,
and his brother Giuseppe Caraffa, who had come to Naples to
make trouble, were condemned to death by him and executed.
The mob, which every day obtained more arms and was becom-
ing more intractable, terrorized the city, drove off the troops
summoned from outside, and elected Masaniello " captain-
general "; the revolt was even spreading to the provinces.
Finally, the viceroy, whose negotiations with Masaniello had
been frequently interrupted by fresh tumults, ended by granting
all the concessions demanded of him. On the I3th of July,
through the mediation of Cardinal Filomarino, archbishop of
Naples, a convention was signed between D'Arcos and Masaniello
as " leader of the most faithful people of Naples," by which the
rebels were pardoned, the more oppressive taxes removed, and
the citizens granted certain rights, including that of remaining
in arms until the treaty should have been ratified by the king
of Spain. The astute D'Arcos then invited Masaniello to the
palace, confirmed his title of "captain-general of the Neapolitan
people," gave him a gold chain of office, and offered him a
pension. Masaniello refused the pension and laid down his
dignities, saying that he wished to return to his old life as a
fisherman; but he was entertained by the viceroy and, partly
owing to the strain and excitement of the past days, partly
because he was made dizzy by his astonishing change of fortune,
or perhaps, as it was believed, because he was poisoned, he lost
his head and behaved like a frenzied maniac. The people
continued to obey him for some days, until, abandoned by his
best friends, who went over to the Spanish party, he was murdered
while haranguing a mob on the market-place on the i6th of July
1647; his head was cut off and brought by a band of roughs to
the viceroy and the body buried outside the city. But the next
day the populace, angered by the alteration of the measures
for weighing bread, repented of its insane fury; the body of
Masaniello was dug up and given a splendid funeral, at which the
viceroy himself was represented.
Masaniello's insurrection appealed to the imagination of poets
and composers, and formed the subject of several operas, of which
the most famous is Auber's La Muette de Portici (1828).
See Saavedra, Insurreccionde Napolieni64? (2 vols., Madrid, 1849) ;
A. von Reumont, Die Caraffa von. Maddaloni (2 vols., Berlin, 1849);
Capasso, La Casa efamiglia di Masaniello (Naples, 1893) ; V. Spinaz-
zola, Masaniello e la sua famiglia, secondo un codice bolognese del sec.
xvi. (in the review Flegrea, 1900); A. G. Meissner, Masaniello
(in German) ; E. Bourg, Masaniello (in French) ; F. Palermo,
Documenti diyersi sutte novita accadute in Napoli I'anno 1647 (in tho
Archivio storico italiano, 1st series, vol. ix.). See also NAPLES.
MASAYA, the capital of the department of Masaya, Nicaragua,
13 m. W.N.W. of Lake Nicaragua and the city of Granada, on
the eastern shore of Lake Masaya, and on the Granada-Managua
railway. Pop. (1905), about 20,000. The city is built in the
midst of a very fertile lowland region, which yields large
quantities of tobacco. The majority of the inhabitants are
Indians or half-castes. Lake Masaya occupies an extinct crater;
the isolated volcano of Masaya (3000 ft.) on the opposite side of
the lake was active at the time of the conquest of Nicaragua in
1522, and the conquerors, thinking the lava they saw was gold,
had themselves lowered into the crater at the risk of their lives,
The volcano was in eruption in 1670, 1782, 1857 and 1002.
MASCAGNI, PIETRO (1863- ), Italian operatic composer,
was born at Leghorn, the son of a baker, and educated for the
law; but he neglected his legal studies for music, taking secret
lessons at the Instituto Luigi Cherubini. There a symphony by
him was performed in 1879, and various other compositions
attracted attention, so that money was provided by a wealthy
amateur for him to study at the Milan Conservatoire. But
Mascagni chafed at the teaching, and soon left Milan to become
conductor to a touring operatic company. After a somewhat
chequered period he suddenly leapt into fame by the production
at Rome in 1800 of his one-act opera Cavalleria Rusticana,
containing a tuneful " intermezzo," which became wildly popular.
Mascagni was the musical hero of the hour, and Cavalleria
Rusticana was performed everywhere. But his later work
failed to repeat this success. L'Amico Fritz (1891), / Rantzau
(1892), Guglielmo Ralcli/ (1895), Silvano (1895), ZaneUo (1896),
Iris (1898), Le Maschere (1901), and Arnica (1905), were coldly
or adversely received; and though Cavalleria Rusticana, with its
catchy melodies, still held the stage, this succession of failures
involved a steady decline in the composer's reputation. 4 From
1895 to 1903 Mascagni was director of the Pesaro Conservatoire,
but in the latter year, having left his post in order to tour through
the United States, he was dismissed from the appointment.
MASCARA, chief town of an arrondissement in the department
of Oran, Algeria, 60 m. S.E. of Oran. It lies 1800 ft. above
the sea, on the southern slope of a range forming part of the
Little Atlas Mountains, and occupies two small hills separated
by the Wad Tudman, which is crossed by three stone bridges.
The walls, upwards of two miles in circuit, and strengthened by
bastions and towers, give the place a somewhat imposing
8 3 6
MASCARENE ISLANDS MASHAM, LADY
appearance. Mascara is a town of the French colonial type,
few vestiges of the Moorish period remaining. Among the
public buildings are two mosques, in one of which Abd-el-Kader
preached the jihad. The town also contains the usual establish-
ments attaching to the seat of a sub-prefect and the centre of a
military subdivision. The principal industry is the making of
wine, the white wines of Mascara being held in high repute.
There is also a considerable trade in grains and oil. A branch
railway eight miles long connects Mascara with the line from
the seaport of Arzeu to Ain Sefra. Access is also gained by this
line to Oran, Algiers, &c. Pop. (1906) of the town, 18,989; of
the commune, which includes several villages, 22,934; of the
arrondissement, comprising eleven communes, 190,154.
Mascara (i.e. " mother of soldiers ") was the capital of a Turkish
beylik during the Spanish occupation of Oran from the l6th to the
close of the l8th century; but for the most of that period it occupied
a site about two miles distant from the present position. On the
removal of the bey to Oran its importance rapidly declined; and
it was an insignificant place when in 1832 Abd-el-Kader, who was
born in the neighbourhood, chose it as the seat of his power. It
was laid in ruins by the French under Marshal Clausel and the duke
of Orleans in 1835, the amir retreating south. Being reoccupied
by Abd-el-Kader in 1838, Mascara was again captured in 1841 by
Marshal Bugeaud and General Lamoriciere.
MASCARENE ISLANDS (occasionally MASCARENHAS) , the
collective title of a group in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar,
viz. Mauritius, Reunion and Rodriguez (q.v.). The collective
title is derived from the Portuguese navigator Mascarenhas, by
whom Reunion, at first called Mascarenhas, was discovered.
MASCARON, JULES (1634-1703), French preacher, was the
son of a barrister at Aix. Born at Marseilles in 1634, he early
entered the French Oratory, and obtained great reputation as a
preacher. Paris confirmed the judgment of the provinces; in
1666 he was asked to preach before the court, and became a
great favourite with Louis XIV., who said that his eloquence
was one of the few things that never grew old. In 1671 he was
appointed bishop of Tulle; eight years later he was transferred
to the larger diocese of Agen. He still continued, however, to
preach regularly at court, being especially in request for funeral
orations. A panegyric on Turenne, delivered in 1675, is con-
sidered his masterpiece. His style is strongly tinged with
preciosite; and his chief surviving interest is as a glaring example
of the evils from which Bossuet delivered the French pulpit.
During his later years he devoted himself entirely to his pastoral
duties at Agen, where he died in 1703.
Six of his most famous sermons were edited, with a biographical
sketch of their author, by the Oratorian Borde in 1704.
MASCHERONI, LORENZO (1750-1800), Italian geometer, was
professor of mathematics at the university of Pavia, and pub-
lished a variety of mathematical works, the best known of which
is his Geometric, del compasso (Pavia, 1797), a collection of
geometrical constructions in which the use of the circle alone is
postulated. Many of the solutions are most ingenious, and some
of the constructions of considerable practical importance.
There is a French translation by A. M. Carette (Paris, 1798), who
also wrote a biography of Mascheroni. See Poggendorff, Biog.
Lit. Handworterbuch.
MASCOT (Fr. slang: perhaps from Port, mascolto, " witch-
craft "), the term for any person, animal, or thing supposed
to bring luck. The word was first popularized by Edmond
Audran through his comic opera La Mascotte (1880), but it had
been common in France long before among gamblers. It has
been traced back to a dialectic use in Provence and Gascony,
where it meant something which brought luck to a household.
The suggestion that it is from masque (masked or concealed),
the provincial French for a child born with a caul, in allusion to
the lucky destiny of such children, is improbable.
MASDEU, JUAN FRANCISCO (1744-1817), Spanish historian,
was born at Palermo on the 4th of October 1 744. He joined the
Company of Jesus on the igth of December 1759, and became
professor in the Jesuit seminaries at Ferrara and Ascoli. He
visited Spain in 1799, was exiled, and returned in 1815, dying at
Valencia on the nth of April 1817. His Storia critica di Spagna
e della cultura spagnuola in ogni genere (2 vols., 1781-1784) was
finally expanded into the Historic, critica de Espana y de la
cultura espanola (1783-1805), which, though it consists of twenty
volumes, was left unfinished; had it been continued on the same
scale, the work would have consisted of fifty volumes. Masdeu
wrote in a critical spirit and with a regard for accuracy rare in his
time; but he is more concerned with small details than with the
philosophy of history. Still, his narrative is lucid, and later
researches have not yet rendered his work obsolete^
MASERU, the capital of Basutoland, British South Africa.
It is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Caledon river,
90 m. by rail E. by S. of Bloemfontein, and 40 m. N.E. of Wepener.
It is in the centre of a fertile grain-growing district. Pop. (1904),
862, of whom 99 were Europeans. The principal buildings
are Government House, the church of the Paris Evangelical
Missionary Society, the hospital, and the railway station. (See
BASUTOLAND.)
MASHAM, ABIGAIL, LADY (d. 1734), favourite of Anne,
queen of England, was the daughter of Francis Hill, a London
merchant, her mother being an aunt of Sarah Jennings, duchess
of Marlborough. The family being reduced to poor circumstances
through Hill's speculations, Lady Churchill (as she then was),
lady of the bedchamber to the Princess Anne, befriended her
cousin Abigail, whom she took into her own household at
St Albans, and for whom after the accession of the princess to
the throne she procured an appointment in the queen's household
about the year 1704. It was not long before Abigail Hill began
to supplant her powerful and imperious kinswoman in the
favour of Queen Anne. Whether she was guilty of the deliberate
ingratitude charged against her by the duchess of Marlborough
is uncertain. It is not unlikely that, in the first instance at all
events, Abigail's influence over the queen was not so much due
to subtle scheming on her part as to the pleasing contrast
between her gentle and genial character and the dictatorial
temper of the duchess, which after many years of undisputed
sway had at last become intolerable to Anne. The first intimation
of her protege's growing favour with the queen came to the
duchess in the summer of 1707, when she learned that Abigail
Hill had been privately married to a gentleman of the queen's
household named Samuel Masham, and that the queen herself
had been present at the marriage. Inquiry then elicited the
information that Abigail had for some time enjoyed considerable
intimacy with her royal mistress, no hint of which had previously
reached the duchess. Abigail was said to be a cousin of Robert
Harley, earl of Oxford, and after the latter's dismissal from office
in February 1708 she assisted him in maintaining confidential
relations with the queen. The completeness of her ascendancy
was seen in 1710 when the queen compelled Marlborough, much
against his will, to give an important command to Colonel John
Hill, Abigail's brother; and when Sunderland, Godolphin, and
the other Whig ministers were dismissed from office, largely
owing to her influence, to make way for Oxford and Bolingbroke.
In the following year the duchess of Marlborough was also dis-
missed from her appointment at court, Mrs Masham taking her
place as keeper of the privy purse. In 1 7 1 1 the ministers, intent on
bringing about the disgrace of Marlborough and arranging the
Peace of Utrecht, found it necessary to secure their position in the
House of Lords by creating twelve new peers; one of these was
Samuel Masham, the favourite's husband, though Anne showed
some reluctance to raise her bedchamber woman to a position
in which she might show herself less ready to give her personal
services to the queen. Lady Masham soon quarrelled with
Oxford, and set herself to foster by all the means in her power the
queen's growing personal distaste for her minister. Oxford's
vacillation between the Jacobites and the adherents of the
Hanoverian succession to the Crown probably strengthened the
opposition of Lady Masham, who now warmly favoured the
Jacobite party led by Bolingbroke and Atterbury. Altercations
took place in the queen's presence between Lady Masham and
the minister; and finally, on the 27th of July 1714, Anne dis-
missed Oxford from his office of lord high treasurer, and three
days later gave the staff to the duke of Shrewsbury. Anne died
MASHAM, BARON MASKELYNE
837
on the ist of August, and Lady Masham then retired into private
life. She died on the 6th of December 1734.
Lady Masham was by no means the vulgar, ill-educated person
she was represented to have been by her defeated rival, the
duchess of Marlborough; her extant letters, showing not a little
refinement of literary style, prove the reverse. Swift, with
whom both she and her husband were intimate, describes Lady
Masham as "a person of a plain sound understanding, of great
truth and sincerity, without the least mixture of falsehood or
disguise." The barony of Masham became extinct when Lady
Masham's son, Samuel, the 2nd baron, died in June 1776.
AUTHORITIES. Gilbert Bqrnet, History of My Own Time, vol. vi.
(2nd ed., 6 vols., Oxford, 1833); F. W. Wyon, History of Great
Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne (2 vols., London, 1876) ; Earl
Stanhope, History of England, comprising the Reign of Queen Anne
until the Peace of Utrecht (London, 1870), and History of England
from the Peace of Utrecht, vol. i. (7 vols., London, 1836-1854) ; Justin
irthy, The Reign of Queen Anne (2 vols., London, 1902); An
Account of the Conduct of the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough from
first coming to Court to 1710, edited by Nathaniel Hopke, with an
anonymous reply entitled A Review of a Late Treatise (London,
1842); Private Correspondence of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough
(2 vols., London, 1838); Letters of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough
(London, 1875) ; Mrs Arthur Colville, Duchess Sarah (London, 1904).
Numerous references to Lady Masham will also be found scattered
through Swift's Works (2nd ed., 19 vols., Edinburgh, 1824).
(R. J. M.)
MASHAM, SAMUEL CUNLIFFE LISTER, IST BARON (1815-
1906), English inventor, born at Calverley Hall, near Bradford,
on the ist of January 1815, was the fourth son of Ellis Cunliffe
(1774-1853), who successively took the names of Lister and
Lister-Kay, and was the first member of parliament elected
for Bradford after the Reform Act of 1832. It was at first
proposed that he should take orders, but he preferred a business
career and became a clerk at Liverpool. In 1838 he and his
elder brother John started as worsted spinners and manu-
facturers in a new mill which their father built for them at
Manningham, and about five years later he turned his atten-
tion to the problem of mechanical wool-combing, which, in
spite of the efforts of E. Cartwright and numerous other
inventors, still awaited a satisfactory solution. Two years
of hard work spent in modifying and improving existing
devices enabled him to produce a machine which worked
well, and subsequently he consolidated his position by
buying up rival patents, as well as by taking out additional
ones of his own. His combing machines came into such
demand that though they were made for only 200 apiece he
was able to sell them for 1200, and the saving they effected
in the cost of production not only brought about a reduction
in the price of clothing, but in consequence of the increase in
the sales created the necessity for new supplies of wool, and
thus contributed to the development of Australian sheep-farming.
In 1855 he was sent a sample of silk waste (the refuse left in
reeling silk from the cocoons) and asked whether he could find
a way of utilizing the fibre it contained. The task occupied
his time for many years and brought him to the verge of bank-
ruptcy, but at last he succeeded in perfecting silk-combing
appliances which enabled him to make yarn that in one year
sold for 235. a pound, though produced from raw material
costing only 6d. or is. a pound. Another important and lucrative
invention in connexion with silk manufacture was his velvet
loom for piled fabrics; and this, with the silk comb worked at
his Manningham mill, yielded him an annual income of 200,000
for many years. But the business was seriously affected by the
prohibitory duties imposed by America, and this was one reason
why he was an early and determined critic of the British policy
of free imports. In 1891 he was made a peer; he took his title
from the little Yorkshire town of Masham, close to which is
Swinton Park, purchased by him in 1888. In 1886 an Albert
medal was awarded him for his inventions, which were mostly
related to the textile industries, though he occasionally diverged
to other subjects, such as an air-brake for railways. He was
fond of outdoor sports, especially coursing and snooting, and
was a keen patron of the fine arts. He died at Swinton
Park on the 2nd of February 1006, and was succeeded in the
title by his son.
MASHONA, a Bantu-negro people, inhabitants of Mashona-
land, Southern Rhodesia. The name Mashona has been derived
from the contemptuous term Amashuina applied by the Matabele
to the aborigines owing to the habit of the latter of taking
refuge in the rocky hills with which the country abounds. Before
the Matabele invasion about 1840 most of Southern Rhodesia
was occupied by the Makalanga, the Makorikori and the Banyai,
all closely related. Most of them became subject to the Matabele,
but although they suffered severely from their attacks, the
Mashona preserved a certain national unity. In 1890 the
Mashona came under British protection (see RHODESIA). They
are in general a peaceful, mild-mannered people, industrious
and successful farmers, skilful potters, and weavers of bark
cloth.
The crafts, however, in which they excel are the smelting
and forging of iron and wood-carving. They are also great
hunters; and they are very fond of music, the most usual instru-
ment being the " piano " with iron keys. Bows and arrows,
assegais and axes are the native weapons, but all who can get
them now use guns. Up to their conquest by the Matabele the
Mashona worked the gold diggings which are scattered over
their country; indeed as late as 1870- certain Mashona were still
extracting gold from quartz (Geog. Jour. April 1906).
For the possible connexion of these people with the builders of
the ruins at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, see RHODESIA: Archaeology;
and ZIMBABWE.
MASK (Fr. masque, apparently from med. Lat. mascus, masca,
spectre, through Ital. maschera, Span, mascara), a covering
for the face, taking various forms, used either as a protective
screen or as a disguise. In the latter sense masks are mostly
associated with the artificial faces worn by actors in dramatic
representations, or assumed for exciting terror (e.g. in savage
rites). The spelling " masque," representing the same word,
is now in English used more specially for certain varieties of
drama in which masks were originally worn (see DRAMA); so
also " masquerade," particularly in the sense of a masked ball
or an entertainment where the personages are disguised. Both
" mask " and " masquerade " have naturally passed into
figurative and technical meanings, the former especially for
various senses of face and head (head of a fox, grotesque faces
in sculpture), or as equivalent to " cloak " or " screen " (as in
fortification or other military uses, fencing, &c.). And in the
case of " death-masks " the term is employed for the portrait-
casts, generally of plaster or metallic foil, taken from the face
of a dead person (also similarly from the living), an ancient
practice of considerable interest in art. An interesting collection
made by Laurence Hutton (see his Portraits in Plaster, 1894),
is at Princeton University in the United States. (For the
historical mystery of the " man in the iron mask," see IRON
MASK.)
The ancient Greek and Roman masks worn by their actors
hollow figures of heads had the double object of identifying
the performers with the characters assumed, and of increasing
the power of the voice by means of metallic mouthpieces. They
were derived like the drama from the rural religious festivities,
the wearing of mock faces or beards being a primitive custom,
connected no doubt with many early types of folk-lore and
religion. The use of the dramatic mask was evolved in the
later theatre through the mimes and the Italian popular comedy
into pantomime; and the masquerade similarly came from
Italy, where the domino was introduced from Venice. The
domino (originally apparently an ecclesiastical garment) was
a loose cloak with a small half-mask worn at masquerades and
costume-balls by persons not otherwise dressed in character;
and the word is applied also to the person wearing it.
See generally Altmann, Die Masken der Schauspieler (1875; new
ed., 1896); and Dale, Masks, Labrets and Certain Aboriginal Customs
(1885) ; also DRAMA.
MASKELYNE, NEVIL (1732-1811), English astronomer-
royal, was born in London on the 6th of October 1732. The
8 3 8
MASOLINO DA PANICALE MASON, G.
solar eclipse of 1748 made a deep impression upon him; and
having graduated as seventh wrangler from Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1754, he determined to devote himself wholly
to astronomy. He became intimate with James Bradley in
1755, and in 1761 was deputed by the Royal Society to make
observations of the transit of Venus at St Helena. During
the voyage he experimented upon the determination of longitude
by lunar distances, and ultimately effected the introduction
of the method into navigation (q.v.). In 1765 he succeeded
Nathaniel Bliss as astronomer-royal. Having energetically
discharged the duties of his office during forty-six years, he
died on the pth of February 1811.
Maskelyne's first contribution to astronomical literature was
" A Proposal for Discovering the Annual Parallax of Sirius," pub-
lished in 1760 (Phil. Trans, li. 889). Subsequent volumes of the
same series contained his observations of the transits of Venus
(1761 and 1769), on the tides at St Helena (1762), and on various
astronomical phenomena at St Helena (1764) and at Barbados
(1764). In 1763 he published the British Mariner's Guide, which
includes the suggestion that in order to facilitate the finding of
longitude at sea lunar distances should be calculated beforehand
for each year and published in a form accessible to navigators.
This important proposal, the germ of the Nautical Almanac, was
approved of by the government, and under the care of Maskelyne
the Nautical Almanac for 1767 was published in 1766. He continued
during the remainder of his life the superintendence of this invaluable
annual. He further induced the government to print his observa-
tions annually, thereby securing the prompt dissemination of a large
mass of data inestimable from their continuity and accuracy.
Maskelyne had but one assistant, yet the work of the obser-
vatory was perfectly organized and methodically executed. He
introduced several practical improvements, such as the measure-
ment of time to tenths of a second; and he prevailed upon the
government to replace Bird's mural quadrant by a repeating
circle 6 ft. in diameter. The new instrument was constructed
by E. Troughton; but Maskelyne did not live to see it completed.
In 1772 he suggested to the Royal Society the famous Schehallion
experiment for the determination of the earth's density and carried
out his plan in 1774 (Phil. Trans. 1. 495), the apparent difference
of latitude between two stations on opposite sides of the mountain
being compared with the real difference of latitude obtained by
triangulation. From Maskelyne's observations Charles Hutton
deduced a density for the earth 4-5 times that of water (ib. Ixviii.
782). Maskelyne also took a great interest in various geodetical
operations, notably the measurement of the length of a degree of
latitude in Maryland and Pennsylvania (ibid. Iviii. 323), executed
by Mason and Dixon in 17661768, and later the determination of
the relative longitude of Greenwich and Paris (ib. Ixxvii. 151). On
the French side the work was conducted by Count Cassini, Legendre,
and Mechain ; on the English side by General Roy. This triangula-
tion was the beginning of the great trigonometrical survey which
has since been extended all over the country. His observations
appeared in four large folio volumes (i77&-;i8n). Some of them
were reprinted in S. Vince's Astronomy (vol. iii.). (A. M. C.)
MASOLINO DA PANICALE (1383-^. 1445), Florentine painter,
was said to have been born at Panicale di Valdelsa, near Florence.
It is more probable, however, that he was born in Florence
itself, his father, Cristoforo Fini, who was an " imbiancatore,"
or whitewasher, having been domiciled in the Florentine quarter
of S. Croce. There is reason to believe that Tommaso, nick-
named Masolino, was a pupil of the painter Starnina, and
was principally influenced in style by Antonio Veneziano; he
may probably enough have become in the sequel the master
of Masaccio. He was born in 1383; he died later than 1429,
perhaps as late as 1440 or even 1447. Towards 1423 he entered
the service of Filippo Scolari, the Florentine-born ober-
gespann of Temeswar in Hungary, and stayed some time in
that country, returning towards 1427 to Italy. The only works
which can with certainty be assigned to him are a series of
wall paintings executed towards 1428, commissioned by Cardi-
nal Branda Castiglione, in the church of Castiglione d'Olona,
not far from Milan, and another series in the adjoining bap-
tistery. The first set is signed as painted by " Masolinus de
Florentia." It was recovered in 1843 from a coating of white-
wash, considerably damaged; its subject matter is taken
from the lives of the Virgin and of SS Lawrence and Stephen.
The series in the baptistery relates to the life and death of
John the Baptist. The reputation of Masolino had previously
rested almost entirely upon the considerable share which he
was supposed to have had in the celebrated frescoes of the
Brancacci Chapel, in the Church of the Carmine in Florenc
he was regarded as the precursor of Masaccio, and by many
years the predecessor of Filippino Lippi, in the execution
a large proportion of these works. But from a comparison
of the Castiglione with the Brancacci frescoes, and from othe
data, it is very doubtful whether Masolino had any hand
all in the latter series. Possibly he painted in the Brancacc
Chapel certain specified subjects which are now either destroyed
or worked over. Several paintings assigned to Masolino on th
authority of Vasari are now ascribed to Masaccio. (W. M. R.)
MASON, FRANCIS (1799-1874), American missionary, wa
born in York, England, on the 2nd of April 1799. His grand-
father, Francis Mason, was the founder of the Baptist Societj
in York, and his father, a shoemaker by trade, was a Baptis
lay preacher there. After working with his father as a shoemake
for several years, he emigrated in 1818 to the United States, and
in Massachusetts was licensed to preach as a Baptist in 1827.
In 1830 he was sent by the American Baptist Missionar
Convention to labour among the Karens in Burma. Beside
conducting a training college for native preachers and teacher
at Tavoy, he translated the Bible into the two principal dialec
of the Karens, the Sgaw and the Pwo (his translation being pub
lished in 1853), and Matthew, Genesis, and the Psalms into th
Bghai dialect. He also published A Pali Grammar on the Basis i
Kachchayano, with Chrestomathy and Vocabulary (1868).
1852 he published a book of great value on the fauna and flor
of British Burma, of which an improved edition appeared
1860 under the title Burmah, its People and Natural Production
and a third edition (2 vols.) revised and enlarged by W. Theobald
in 1882-1883. He died at Rangoon on the 3rd of March 1874.
See his autobiography, The Story cf a Working Man's Life, will
Sketches of Travel in Europe, Asia, Africa and America (New York
1870).
MASON, GEORGE (1725-1792), American statesman, wa
born in Stafford county (the part which is now Fairfax county),
Virginia, in 1725. His family was of Royalist descent an
emigrated to America after the execution of Charles I.
colonial ancestors held official positions in the civil and militar
service of Virginia. Mason was a near neighbour and a life-
long friend of George Washington, though in later years they
disagreed in politics. His large estates and high social standing,
together with his personal ability, gave Mason great influence
among the Virginia planters, and he became identified with
many enterprises, such as the organization of the Ohio Company
and the founding of Alexandria (1749). He was a member of
the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1759-1760. In 1769 he drew
up for Washington a series of non-importation resolutions,
which were adopted by the Virginia legislature. In July 1774
he wrote for a convention in Fairfax county a series of resolutions
known as the Fairfax Resolves, in which he advocated a congress
of the colonies and suggested non-intercourse with Great Britain,
a policy subsequently adopted by Virginia and later by the
Continental Congress. He was a member of the Virginia
Committee of Safety from August to December 1775, and of
the Virginia Convention in 1775 and 1776; and in 1776 he drew
up the Virginia Constitution and the famous Bill of Rights,
a radically democratic document which had great influence on
American political institutions. In 1780 he outlined the plan
which was subsequently adopted by Virginia for ceding to
the Federal government her claim to the " back lands," i.e. to
territory north and north-west of the Ohio river. From 1776
to 1788 he represented Fairfax county in the Virginia Assembly.
He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1776-1780
and again in 1787-1788, and in 1787 was a member of the conven-
tion that framed the Federal Constitution, and as one of its
ablest debaters took an active part in the work. Particularly
notable was his opposition to the compromises in regard to
slavery and the slave-trade. Indeed, like most of the prominent
Virginians of the time, Mason was strongly in favour of the
gradual abolition of slavery. He objected to the large and
indefinite powers given by the completed Constitution
on to
MASON, G. H. MASON, SIR J.
Congress, so he joined with Patrick Henry in opposing its rati-
fication in the Virginia Convention (1788). Failing in this he
suggested amendments, the substance of several of which was
afterwards embodied in the present Bill of Rights. Declining
an appointment as a United States Senator from Virginia, he
retired to his home, Gunston Hall (built by him about 1758
and named after the family home in Staffordshire, England),
where he died on the 7th of October 1792. With James Madison
and Thomas Jefferson, Mason carried through the Virginia
legislature measures disestablishing the Episcopal Church
and protecting all forms of worship. In politics he was a
radical republican, who believed that local government should
be kept strong and central government weak; his democratic
theories had much influence in Virginia and other southern
and western states.
See Kate Mason Rowland, Life and Writings of George Mason
(2 vols., New York, 1892).
MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818-1872), English painter,
was born at Wetley Abbey, the eldest son of a Staffordshire
county gentleman. He was educated at King Edward's School,
Birmingham, and studied for the medical profession for five
years under Dr Watt of that city. But all his thoughts being
given to art, he abandoned medicine in 1844 and travelled
for a time on the Continent, finally settling in Rome, where he
remained for some years and sought to make a living as an
artist. During this period he underwent many privations
which permanently affected his health; but he continued to
labour assiduously, making studies of the picturesque scenery
that surrounded him, and with hardly any instruction except
that received from Nature and from the Italian pictures he
gradually acquired the painter's skill. At least two important
works are referable to this period: " Ploughing in the Cam-
pagna," shown in the Royal Academy of 1857, and " In the Salt
Marshes, Campagna," exhibited in the following year. After
Mason's return from the continent, in 1858, when he settled at
Wetley Abbey, he continued for a while to paint It alum subjects
from studies made during his stay abroad, and then his art
began to touch in a wonderfully tender and poetic way the
peasant life of England, especially of his native Staffordshire,
and the homely landscape in the midst of which that life was
set. The first picture of this class was " Wind on the Wold,"
and it was followed along with much else of admirable quality
by the painter's three greatest works: The " Evening Hymn "
(1868), a band of Staffordshire mill-girls returning from their
work; " Girls dancing by the Sea " (1869); and the " Harvest
Moon " (1872). He left Staffordshire in 1865 and went to
live at Hammersmith; and he was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy in 1869. By that time he had fully established
his position as an artist of unusual power and individuality.
Mason died on the 22nd of October 1872. In his work he laboured
under the double disadvantage of feeble and uncertain health,
and a want of thorough art-training, so that his pictures were
never produced easily, or without strenuous and long-continued
effort. His art is great in virtue of the solemn pathos which
pervades it, of the dignity and beauty in rustic life which
it reveals, of its keen perception of noble form and graceful
motion, and of rich effects of colour and subdued light. In
motif and treatment it has something in common with the art
of Millet and Jules Breton, as with that of Frederick Wolker
among Englishmen; though he had neither the occasional
uncouth robustness of Millet nor the firm actuality of Jules
Breton. His pictures " Wind on the Wold " and " The Cast
Shoe " are in the National Gallery of British Art.
MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871), American political
leader, was born in Fairfax county, Virginia, on the 3rd of
November 1798, the grandson of George Mason (1725-1792).
Educated at the university of Pennsylvania and the college
of William and Mary, he was admitted to the bar in 1820. He
was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1826-1827
and 1828-1831, of the state Constitutional Convention of 1829,
of the National House of Representatives (1837-1839), of the
United States Senate from 1847 until July 1861 (when, with
other Southern senators he was formally expelled he had
previously withdrawn), and of the Virginia Secession Convention
in April 1861. Entering politics as a Jacksonian Democrat,
Mason was throughout his career a consistent strict construc-
tionist, opposing protective tariffs, internal improvements by
the national government, and all attempts to restrict or control
the spread of slavery, which he sincerely believed to be essential
to the social and political welfare of the South. He was the
author of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, and in 1860 was
chairman of the Senate committee which investigated the John
Brown raid. After Lincoln's election as President he was one
of the strongest advocates of secession in Virginia. He was
appointed in August 1861 commissioner of the Confederate
States to Great Britain. The British ship " Trent," upon
which he and John Slidell, the commissioner to France, sailed,
was intercepted (Nov. 8, 1861) by a United States ship-of-war
(the " San Jacinto," Captain Charles Wilkes), and the two
commissioners were seized and carried as prisoners to Boston.
Great Britain immediately demanded their release, and war
for a time seemed imminent; but owing mainly to the tactful
diplomacy of the prince consort, Lincoln acknowledged that
the seizure of Mason and Slidell was a violation of the rights
of Great Britain as a neutral, and on the ist of January 1862
released the commissioners. The incident has become known
in history as the " Trent Affair." Mason at once proceeded
to London, where, however, he was unable to secure official
recognition, and his commission to Great Britain was withdrawn
late in 1863. He remained in Europe, spending most of his
time at Paris and holding blank commissions which he was
authorized to fill in at his discretion in case the presence of a
Confederate commissioner should seem desirable at any par-
ticular European court. These commissions, however, he did
not use. After the war he lived for several years in Canada,
but returned in 1869 to Virginia, and on the 28th of April 1871
died at Alexandria.
See The Public Life and Diplomatic Correspondence of James M.
Mason, with some Personal History (Roanoke, Va., 1903), by his
daughter, Virginia Mason ; Sir Theodore Martin, Life of the Prince
Consort.
MASON, SIR JOHN (1503-1566), English diplomatist, was
born of humble parentage at Abingdon in 1503, and was educated
at Oxford, where he became Fellow of All Souls in 1521. He
was ordained before 1531. Most of his early years were spent
on the Continent, where he witnessed the meeting between
Henry VIII. and Francis I. at Calais in 1532, and where he
was employed in collecting information for the English govern-
ment, gaining in this work the reputation of a capable diploma-
tist. By his never-failing caution, moderation and pliancy,
Mason succeeded in keeping himself in favour with four successive
sovereigns of the Tudor monarchy. In 1537 he became secretary
to the English ambassador at Madrid, Sir Thomas Wyat; but
when the latter was put on his trial for treason in 1541 Mason
was unmolested, and soon afterwards was appointed clerk of
the privy council, and procured for himself sundry other posts
and privileges. Mason was knighted and made dean of Win-
chester by Edward VI. He was one of the commissioners to
negotiate the treaty by which Boulogne was restored to France
in 1550, and in the same year he became English ambassador
in Paris, where he helped to arrange the bethrothal of Edward VI.
to the princess Elizabeth of France. He returned to England
at the end of 1551, became clerk of parliament, received extensive
grants of land, and in 1552 was made chancellor of Oxford
University. He was elected member of parliament in the
same year. On the death of Edward VI., he at first joined
the party of Northumberland and the Lady Jane Grey; but
quickly perceiving his mistake he took an active part in procuring
the proclamation of Mary as queen. Mason now received fresh
tokens of royal favour, being confirmed in all his secular,
though not in his ecclesiastical, offices; and in 1553 he was
appointed English ambassador at the court of the emperor
Charles V., of whose abdication at Brussels in October 1555
he wrote a vivid account. He took a prominent share in the
8 4 o
MASON, J. MASON, W.
administrative business of the government in the first years
of Elizabeth's reign, and largely influenced her foreign policy
until his death, which occurred on the 2oth of April 1566. Sir
John Mason married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Isley
of Sundridge, Kent, and widow of Richard Hill. He had no
children, and his heir was Anthony Wyckes, whom he had
adopted, and who assumed the name of Mason and left a large
family.
See J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-
1870) ; Charles Wriothesley, Chronicle of England during the Reigns
of the Tudors, edited by W. D. Hamilton (Camden Soc., 2 vols.,
London, 1875) ; P. F. Tytler, England under the Reigns of Edward VI.
and Mary (2 vols., London, 1839) ; John Strype, Ecclesiastical
Memorials (3 vols., Oxford, 1824) and Memorials of Thomas Cranmer
(3 vols., Oxford, 1848); Acts of the Privy Council of England (new
series), edited by J. R. Dasent, vols. L-vii.
MASON, JOHN (1586-1635), founder of New Hampshire,
U.S.A., was born in King's Lynn, Norfolk, England. In 1610
he commanded a small naval force sent by James I. to assist
in subduing the Hebrides Islands. From 1615 to 1621 he was
governor of the English colony on the north side of Conception
Bay in Newfoundland; he explored the island, made the first
English map of it (published in 1625), and wrote a descriptive
tract entitled A Briefe Discourse of the Newfoundland (Edin-
burgh, 1620) to promote the colonization of the island by Scots-
men. Here he was brought into official relations with Sir
Ferdinando Gorges, then a commissioner to regulate the New-
foundland fisheries. In March 1622 Mason obtained from
the Council for New England, of which Gorges was the most
influential member, a grant of the territory (which he named
Mariana) between the Naumkeag or Salem river and the
Merrimac, and in the following August he and Gorges together
received a grant of the region between the Merrimac and
Kennebec rivers, and extending 60 m. inland. From 1625 to
1629 Mason was engaged as treasurer and paymaster of the
English army in the wars which England was waging against
Spain and France. Towards the close of 1629 Mason and
Gorges agreed upon a division of the territory held jointly
by them, and on the 7th of November 1629 Mason received
from the Council a separate grant of the tract between the
Merrimac and the Piscataqua, which he now named New
Hampshire. Thinking that the Piscataqua river had its source
in Lake Champlain, Mason with Gorges and a few other asso-
ciates secured, on the I7th of November 1629, a grant of a
region which was named Laconia (apparently from the number
of lakes it was supposed to contain), and was described as
bordering on Lake Champlain, extending 10 m. east and
south from it and far to the west and north-west, together
with looo acres to be located along some convenient harbour,
presumably near the mouth of the Piscataqua. In November
1631 Mason and his associates obtained, under the name of
the Pescataway Grant, a tract on both sides of the Piscataqua
river, extending 30 m. inland and including also the Isles
of Shoals. Mason became a member of the Council for New
England in June 1632, and its vice-president in the follow-
ing November; and in 1635, when the members decided to
divide their territory among themselves and surrender their
charter, he was allotted as his share all the region between the
Naumkeag and Piscataqua rivers extending 60 m. inland,
the southern half of the Isles of Shoals, and a ten-thousand acre
tract, called Masonia, on the west side of the 'Kennebec river.
In October 1635 he was appointed vice-admiral of New England,
but he died early in December, before crossing the Atlantic.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Forty-four years
after his death New Hampshire was made a royal province.
See Captain John Mason, (he Founder of New Hampshire (Boston,
1887; published by the Prince Society), which contains a memoir
by C. W. Tuttle and historical papers relating to Mason's career,
edited by J. W. Dean.
MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859), American political
leader and diplomatist, was born in Greenesville county,
Virginia, on the i8th of April 1799. Graduating at the univer-
sity of North Carolina in 1816, he studied law in the famous
Litchfield (Connecticut) law school, and in 1819 was admitt
to practice in Southampton county, Virginia. He served in thi
Virginia house of delegates in 1823-1827, in the state consti
tutional convention of 1820-1830, and from 1831 to 1837 i
the National House of Representatives, being chairman of t
committee on foreign affairs in 1835-1836. He was secreta
of the navy in President Tyler's cabinet (1844-1845), and w,
attorney-general (1845-1846) and secretary of the navy (1841
1849), succeeding George Bancroft, under President Polk. H
was president of the Virginia constitutional convention of 1851
and from 1853 until his death at Paris on the 3rd of Octo
1859, was United States minister to France. In this capacit
he attracted attention by wearing at the court of Napoleon III.
a simple diplomatic uniform (for this he was rebuked by
Secretary of State W. L. Marcy, who had ordered America
ministers to wear a plain civilian costume), and by joining wit
James Buchanan and Pierre Soule, ministers to Great Britai
and Spain respectively, in drawing up (Oct. 1854) the famou:
Ostend Manifesto. Hawthorne called him a " fat-brained,
good-hearted, sensible old man"; and in politics he was a
typical Virginian of the old school, a state's rights Democrat,
upholding slavery and hating abolitionism.
MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881), English pen-manufac
turer, was born in Kidderminster on the 23rd ef February 1795
the son of a carpet-weaver. He began life as a street hawke;
of cakes, fruits and vegetables. After trying his hand in hi
native town at shoemaking, baking, carpentering, blacksmith
ing, house-painting and carpet-weaving, he moved in 1814 t<
Birmingham. Here he found employment in the gilt-toy tradi
In 1824 he set up on his own account as a manufacturer o
split-rings by machinery, to which he subsequently added thi
making of steel pens. Owing to the circumstance of his pe
being supplied through James Perry, the London statione:
whose name they bore, he was less well known than Josep!
Gillott and other makers, although he was really the larges
producer in England. In 1874 the business was convert'
into a limited liability company. Besides his steel-pen trad<
Mason carried on for many years the business of electro-plating,
copper-smelting, and india-rubber ring making, in conjunction
with George R. Elkington. Mason was almost entirely self-
educated, having taught himself to write when a shoemaker's
apprentice, and in later life he felt his deficiencies keenly. It
was this which led him in 1860 to establish his great orphanage
at Erdington, near Birmingham. Upon it he expended about
300,000, and for this munificent endowment he was knighted
in 1872. He had previously given a dispensary to his native
town and an almshouse to Erdington. In 1880 Mason College,
since incorporated in the university of Birmingham, was opened,
the total value of the endowment being about 250,600. Mason
died on the i6th of June 1881.
See J. T. Bunce, Josiah Mason (1882).
MASON, LOWELL (1792-1872), American musician, was
born at Medfield, Massachusetts. For some years he led a
business life, but was always studying music; and in 1827, as
the result of his work in forming the collection of church music
published in 1821 at Boston by the Handel and Haydn Society,
he moved to Boston and there first became president of the
society and then founder of the Boston Academy of Music
(1832). He published some successful educational books, and
was a pioneer of musical instruction in the public schools,
adopted in 1838. He received the degree of doctor of music
from New York University in 1855. He died at Orange, New
Jersey, on the nth of August 1872.
His son William Mason (1829-1908), an accomplished pianist and
composer, published an interesting volume of reminiscences, Memoirs
of a Musical Life, in 1901.
MASON, WILLIAM (1725-1797), English poet, son of William
Mason, vicar of Holy Trinity, Hull, was born on the I2th of
February 1725, was educated at St John's College, Cambridge,
and took holy orders. In 1744 he wrote Musaeus, a lament
for Pope in imitation of Lycidas, and in 1749 through the
MASON AND DIXON LINE MASONRY
841
influence of Thomas Gray he was elected a fellow of Pembroke
College. He became a devoted friend and admirer of Gray,
who addressed him as " Skroddles," and corrected the worst
solecisms in his verses. In 1748 he published Isis, a poem
directed against the supposed Jacobitism of the university of
Oxford, which provoked Thomas Warton's Triumph of Isis.
Mason conceived the ambition of reconciling modern drama
with ancient forms by strict observance of the unities and the
restoration of the chorus. These ideas were exemplified in
Elfrida (1752) and Caraclacus (1759), two frigid performances
no doubt intended to be read rather than acted, but produced
with some alterations at Covent Garden in 1772 and 1776
respectively. Horace Walpole described Caractacus as " la-
boured, uninteresting, and no more resembling the manners
of Britons than of Japanese "; while Gray declared he had read
the manuscript " not with pleasure only, but with emotion."
In 1754 Mason was presented to the rectory of Aston, near
Rotherham, Yorkshire, and in 1757 through the influence of
the duke of Devonshire he became one of the king's chaplains.
He also received the prebend of Holme in York Minster (1756),
was made canon residentiary in 1762, and in 1763 became
precentor and prebendary of Driffield. He married in 1764
Mary Sherman, who died three years later. When Gray died
in 1771 he made Mason his literary executor. In the preparation
of the Life and Letters of Gray, which appeared in 1774, he had
much help from Horace Walpole, with whom he corresponded
regularly until 1784 when Mason opposed Fox's India Bill,
and offended Walpole by thrusting on him political advice
unasked. Twelve years of silence followed, but in the year
before his death the correspondence was renewed on friendly
terms. Mason died at Aston on the 7th of April 1797.
His correspondence with Gray and Walpole shows him to have
been a man of cultivated tastes. He was something of an anti-
quarian, a good musician, and an amateur of painting. He is said
to have invented an instrument called the celestina, a modified
pianoforte. Gray rewarded his faithful admiration with good-
humoured kindness. He warned him against confounding Mona
with the Isle of Man, or the Goths with the Celts, corrected his
grammar, pointed out his plagiarisms, and laughed gently at his
superficial learning. His powers show to better advantage in
the unacknowledged satirical poems which he produced under the
pseudonym of Malcolm Macgregor. In editing Gray's letters he
took considerable liberties with his originals, and did not print all
that related to himself.
Mason's other works included Odes (1756); The English Garden,
a didactic poem in blank verse, the four books of which appeared
in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782; An Heroic Epistle to Sir William
Chambers (1774); an Ode to Mr Pinchbeck (1776) and an Epistle
to Dr Shebbeare (1777) all these by " Malcolm Macgregor " ; Essay,
Historical and Critical, of Church Music (1795), and a lyrical drama,
Sappho (1797).
His poems were collected in 1764 and 1774, and an edition of his
Works appeared in 1811. His poems with a Life are included in
Alexander Chalmers's English Poets. His correspondence with
Walpole was edited by J. Mitford in 1851; and his correspondence
with Gray by the same editor in 1853. See also the standard editions
of the letters of Gray and of Walpole. There is a very pleasant
picture of Mason's character in Southey's Doctor (ch. cxxvi.).
MASON AND DIXON LINE, in America, the boundary line
(lat. 39 43' 26-3* N.) between Maryland and Pennsylvania,
U.S.A.; popularly the line separating " free " states and " slave "
states before the Civil War. The line derives its name from
Charles Mason (1730-1787) and Jeremiah Dixon, two English
astronomers, whose survey of it to a point about 244 m. west
of the Delaware between 1763 and 1767* marked the close of
the protracted boundary dispute (arising upon the grant of
Pennsylvania to William Penn in 1681) between the Balti-
mores and Penns, proprietors respectively of Maryland and
Pennsylvania. The dispute arose from the designation, in the
grant to Penn, of the southern boundary of Pennsylvania mainly
as the parallel marking the " beginning of the fortieth degree
of Northerne Latitude," after the northern boundary of Mary-
land had been defined as a line " which lieth under the fortieth
degree of north latitude from the equinoctial." The eastern
part of the line as far as Sideling Hill in the western part of the
1 These surveyors also surveyed and marked the boundary between
Maryland and Delaware.
present Washington county, was originally marked with mile-
stones brought from England, every fifth of which bore on one
side the arms of Baltimore and on the opposite side those of
Penn; but the difficulties in transporting them to the westward
were so great that many of them were not set up. Owing to the
removal of the stone marking the north-east corner of Maryland,
this point was again determined and marked in 1849-1850 by
Lieut.-Colonel J. D. Graham of the U.S. topographical engineers;
and as the western part of the boundary was not marked by
stones, and local disputes arose, the line was again surveyed
between 1901 and 1003 under the direction of a commission
appointed by Pennsylvania and Maryland.
The use of the term " Mason and Dixon Line " to designate the
boundary between the free and the slave states (and in general
between the North and the South) dates from the debates in Con-
gress over the Missouri Compromise in 1819-1820. As so used it
may be defined as not only the Mason and Dixon Line proper, but
also the line formed by the Ohio River from its intersection with the
Pennsylvania boundary to its mouth, thence the eastern, northern
and western boundaries of Missouri, and thence westward the
parallel 36 30' the line established by the Missouri Compromise
to separate free and slave territory in the " Louisiana Purchase,"
except as regards Missouri. It is to be noted, however, that the
Missouri Compromise did not affect the territory later acquired
from Mexico.
MASON CITY, a city and the county-seat of Cerro Gordo
county, Iowa, U.S.A., on Lime Creek, in the northern part
of the state. Pop. (1905, state census), 8357 (929 foreign-
born); (1910) 11,230. It is served by the Chicago Milwaukee &
St Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago Great
Western, the Iowa Central and the St Paul & Des Moines
railways, and also by the Mason City & Clear Lake (electric)
railway, which connects Mason City with Clear Lake, a pleasure
resort, 10 m. west of the city. At Mason City is Memorial
University (co-educational; founded in 1900 by the National
Encampment of the Sons of Veterans, and opened in 1902),
dedicated to the Grand Army of the Republic, the special
aim of which is to teach American history. The city is
situated in a good agricultural region, and there are valu-
able stone quarries in the vicinity. The manufactures include
lime, Portland cement, brick and tile. Mason City was
settled in 1853, laid out in 1855, incorporated as a town in 1870
and chartered as a city in 1881.
MASONRY, 5 the art of building in stone. The earliest remains
(apart from the primitive work in rude stone see STONE MONU-
MENTS; ARCHAEOLOGY, &c.) are those of the ancient temples of
India and Egypt. Many of these early works were constructed
of stones of huge size, and it still remains a mystery how the
ancients were able to quarry and raise to a considerable height
above the ground blocks seven or eight hundred tons in weight.
Many of the early buildings of the middle ages were entirely
constructed of masses of concrete, often faced with a species of
rough cast. The early masonry seems to have been for the most
part worked with the axe and not with the chisel. A very ex-
cellent example of the contrast between the earlier and later
Norman masonry may be seen in the choir of Canterbury Cathe-
dral. In those times the groining was frequently filled in with a
light tufa stone, said by some to have been brought from Italy,
but more probably from the Rhine. The Normans imported a
great quantity of stone from Caen, it being easily worked, and
particularly fit for carving. The freestones of England were
also much used; and in the first Pointed period, Purbeck and
Bethersden marbles were employed for column shafts, &c. The
methods of working and setting stone were much the same as
at present, except that owing to difficulties of conveyance the
1 The English word " mason " is from the French, which appears
in the two forms, machun and masson (from the last comes the modern
Fr. form mac,on, which means indifferently a bricklayer or mason.
In O. H. Ger. the word is mezzo, which survives in the German for a
stone-mason, Steinmetz. The med. Lat. form, ntachio, was connected
with machina obviously a guess. The Low Lat., macheria or
maceria (see Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. macio), a wall, has been
suggested as showing some connexion. Some popular Lat. form
as macio or mattio is probably the origin. No Teut. word, accord-
ing to the^New English Dictionary, except that which appears in
" mattock," seems to have any bearing on the ultimate origin.
8 4 2
MASONRY
stones were used in much smaller sizes. As time went on the
art of masonry advanced till in England, in point of execution,
it at length rivalled that of any country.
Tools. The mason's tools may be grouped under five heads
hammers and mallets, saws, chisels, setting-out and setting tools,
and hoisting appliances.
There are several different kinds of iron hammers used by the
stone worker; the mash hammer has a short handle and heavy head
Hammers ? or use w ' tn chisels; the iron hammer, used in carving,
aadMallets m sna Pe resembles a carpenter's mallet but is smaller;
the waller's hammer is used for roughly shaping stones
jn rubble work; the spalling hammer for roughly dressing stones
in the quarry; the scabbling-hammer, for the same purpose, has
one end pointed for use on hard stone ; the pick has a long head
pointed at both ends, weighs from 14 to 20 ft. and is used for
rough dressing and splitting; the axe has a double wedge-shaped head
and is used to bring stones to a fairly level face preparatory to their
being worked smooth ; the patent axe, or patent hammer, is formed
with a number of plates with sharpened edges bolted together to
form a head ; the mallet of hard wood is used for the finishing chisel
work and carving ; and the dummy is of similar shape but smaller.
A hand saw similar to that used by the carpenter is used for
cutting small soft stones. Larger blocks are cut with the two-handed
saw worked by two men. For the largest blocks the
frame saw is used, and is slung by a rope and pulleys
fitted with balance weights to relieve the operator of its weight.
The blade is of plain steel, the cutting action being supplied by sand
with water as a lubricant constantly applied.
There are perhaps even more varieties of chisels than of hammers.
The point and the punch have very small cutting edges, a quarter
Chisels * an ' ncfl or ' ess ' n w '^ tn - The former is used on the
harder and the latter on the softer varieties of stone
after the rough hammer dressing. The pitching tool has a wide
thick edge and is used in rough dressing. Jumpers are shafts of steel
having a widened edge, and are used for boring holes in hard stone.
Chisels are made with edges from a quarter-inch to one and a half
inches wide ; those that exceed this width are termed boasters. The
claw chisel has a number of teeth from one-eighth to three-eighths
wide, and is used on the surface of hard stones after the point has been
used. The drag is a semi-circular steel plate, the straight edge having
teeth cut on it. It is used to level down the surfaces of soft stones.
Cockscombs are used for the same purpose on mouldings and are
shaped to various curves. Wedges of various sizes are used in
splitting stones and are inserted either in holes made with the
jumper or in chases cut with the stone-pick.
The implements for setting out the work are similar to those used,
Settlnx-out by the bricklayer and other tradesmen 1 , comprising the
and Setting rule> s <I uare . set square, the bevel capable of being set to
Tools. a "y re quired angle, compasses, spirit level, plumb-rule
and bob and mortar trowels. Gauges and moulds are
required in sinking moulds to the proper section.
Nippers
FIG. I. (i in- = I ft.)
BotT
FlG. 2. (i in. = I ft.)
The nippers (fig. i), or scissors, as they are sometimes termed,
have two hooked arms fitting into notches in the opposite sides of
Hoisting J- ne block to be lifted. These arms are riveted together
Appliances. ' n l h e same wa V as a P air f scissors, the upper ends
having rings attached for the insertion of a rope or
:hain which when pulled tight in the operation of lifting causes the
hooked ends to grip the stone. Lewises (fig. 2.) are wedge-shaped
P'eces of steel which are fitted into a dovetailed mortise in the stone
to be hoisted. They are also used for setting blocks too large to
t by hand, and are made in several forms. These are the usual
ethods of securing the stone to the hoisting rope or chain, the hoist-
ing being effected by a pulley and fall, by a crane, or by other means.
t>ca#olding.For rubble walls single scaffolds, resting partly on
the walls, similar to those used for brickwork (q.v.), are employed-
tor ashlar and other gauged stonework (see below) self-supporting
scattolds are used with a second set of standards and ledgers erected
lose to the wall, the whole standing entirely independent. The
reason for the use of this double scaffold is that otherwise holes for
le putlogs to rest in would have to be left in the wall, and obviously
in an ashlar stone wall it would be impossible properly to maketh
good on the removal of the scaffold (see further SCAFFOLD).
Seasoning Stone. Stone freshly quarried is full of sap, and th
admits of being easily worked. On being exposed to the air the s
dries out, and the stone becomes much harder in consequent
For this reason, and because carriage charges are lessened by ti
smaller bulk of the worked stone as compared with the rough bloc
the stone for a building is often specified to be quarry-worke
Vitruvius recommended that stone should be quarried in summe
when driest, and that it should be seasoned by being allowed to li
two years before being used, so as to allow the natural sap to evac
rate. In the erection of St Paul's Cathedral, Sir Christopher Wn
required that the stone after being quarried should be exposed fi
three years on the sea-beach before its introduction into the buildin
The regular and determined form of bricks makes it to a lar
extent a matter of practice to enable a man to become a good brie
layer, but beyond these a continual exercise of judgment is requin
of the workman in stone, who has for the most part to deal wi
masses of all forms and of all sizes.
Setting Stones. All beds and joints should be truly worked ai
perfectly level. If the surface be convex it will give rise to wide ui
sightly joints; if concave the weight thrown on the stone will rest c
the edges and probably cause them to " flush " or break off and dii
figure the work. Large stones are placed in position with the ai
of hoisting appliances and should be tried in position before beir
finally set. Great care should be taken to avoid fracturing or chi
ping the stone in the process of handling, as it is impossible to ma'
good such damage. All stratified stones and this includes by f
the largest proportion of building stones when set in a level positi
should be laid on their natural bed, i.e. with their laminae horizontal
The greatest strength of a stone is obtained when the laminae li
at right angles to the pressure placed upon it. In the case of arcb
these layers should be parallel with the centre line of the voussoi
and at right angles to the face of the arch. For cornices (except t'
corner-stones) and work of a like nature, the stone is set with t
laminae on edge and perpendicular to the face of the work. Wii
many stones it is easy to determine the bed by moistening with wate
when the laminae will become apparent. Some stones, howev
it is impossible to read in this way, and it is therefore advisable
have them marked in the quarry. A horizontal line in a quar
does not in all cases give the proper bed of the stone, for since t
deposits were made ages ago natural upheavals have possibly occu
to alter the " lie " of the material.
For the shafts of columns especially it is necessary to have ti
layers horizontally placed, and a stone should be selected from
quarry with a bed of the required depth. An example of the omis
sion of this precaution is visible in the arcading of the Royal Court
of Justice, London, where the small shafts of the front arcade 'ii
red sandstone have been turned with the laminae in a vertical posi
tion, with the result that nearly every shaft is flaking away or i
cracked.
Use of Mortar. See BRICKWORK. Of whatever quality the sto
may be of which a wall is built, it should consist as much of stone am
as little of mortar as possible. Only fine mortar is admissible if w
are to obtain as thin joints as possible. The joints should be we
raked out and pointed in Portland cement mortar. This applie
only to some sandstones, as marbles and many limestones are staine
by the use of Portland cement. For these a special cement must '
employed, composed of plaster of Paris", lime, and marble or sto
dust.
Bonding. Bond (see BRICKWORK) is of not less importance in
stone walling than in brickwork. In ashlar-work the work is bonded
uniformly, the joints being kept perpendicularly one over the other;
but in rubble-work, instead of making the joints recur one over th
other in alternate courses they should be carefully made to loc'
so as to give the strength of two or three courses or layers between
joint in one course and the joint that next occurs vertically abov
it in another course. In the through or transverse bonding of
wall a good proportion of header stones running about two-third
of the distance through the width of the wall should be provided t
bind the whole structure together. The use of through stones
i.e. stones running through the whole thickness of the wall from fron
to back, is not to be recommended. Such stones are liable to fractu
and convey damp to the internal face.
Slip Joints. As with brickwork so in masonry great care must ue
exercised to prevent the different parts of a building settling un-
equally. When two portions of a building differing considerably in
height come together, it is usual to employ a slip or housed joint
instead of bonding the walls into each other. This arrangement
allows the heavier work to settle to a greater extent than the low
portion without causing any defect in the stones.
Footings. The footings of stone walls should consist of large stones
of even thickness proportionate to their length; if possible they
should be the full breadth in one piece. Each course should be well
bedded and levelled.
Walling. There are broadly speaking two classes of stone walling:
rubble and ashlar. Rubble walls are built of stones more or less
irregular in shape and size and coarsely jointed. Ashlar walls are
constructed of carefully worked blocks of regular dimensions and ~*
with fine joints.
:
MASONRY
843
Random Rubble (fig. 3) is the roughest form of stonework. It is
built with irregular pieces of stone usually less than 9 in. thick,
l<ni-ely packed without much regard to courses, the interstices
between the Urjje stones being occupied by small ones, the remaining
crevices filled up with mortar. Bond stones or headers should be
used frequently in every course. This form of walling is much used
Elevation Section
RANDOM RUBBLE WALLING
FIG. 3. (i in. = i ft.
in stone districts for boundary walls and is often set dry without
mortar. For this work the mason uses no tool but the trowel to lay
on the mortar, the scabbling hammer to break off the most repulsive
irregularities from the stone, and the plumb-rule to keep his work
perpendicular.
Coursed Rubble (fig. 4) is levelled up in courses 12 or 18 in.
deep, the depth varying in different courses according to the sizes
Elevcrtiorv 5odior\
COURSED RUBBLE
FIG. 4. (i in. = i ft.)
of the stones. The stones are dressed by the workman before
he begins building, to obtain a fairly level bed and perpendicular
face.
Irregularly Coursed Squared Rubble is a development of uncoursed
random rubble, the stones in this case being squared with the
hammer and roughly faced up with the axe. The courses jump
abruptly from one level to another as the sizes of the blocks demand ;
the interstices are filled in with small pieces of stone called "snecks."
For Coursed Squared Rubble the stone is faced in a similar manner
and set in courses, the depth of each course being made up of one
or more stones.
In Regular Coursed Rubble all the stones in one course are of the
same height.
Block-in-course is the name applied to a form of stone walling that
has some of the characteristics of ashlar but the execution of which
is much rougher. The courses are usually less than 12 in. high.
It is much used by engineers for waterside and railway work where a
good appearance is desired.
The Angles or Quoins of nibble- work are always carefully and
precisely worked and serve as a gauge for the rest of the walling.
Frequently the quoins and jambs are executed in ashlar, which
gives a neat and finished appearance and adds strength to the work.
The name Ashlar is given, without regard to the finish of the
face of the stone, to walling composed of stones carefully dressed,
from 12 to 1 8 in. deep, the mortar joints being about an eighth of
an inch or less in thickness. No stone except the hardest should
exceed in length three times its depth when required to resist a
heavy load and its breadth should be from one and a half to three
times its depth. The hardest stone may have a length equal to
four or perhaps five times its depth and a width three times its depth.
The face of ashlar-work may be plain and level, or have rebated,
chamfered, or moulded joints.
The great cost of this form of stonework renders the employment
of a backing of an inferior nature very general. This backing varies
according to the district in which the building operations
[? are being carried on, being rubble stonework in stone
districts and brick or concrete elsewhere, the whole
being thoroughly tied together both transversely and longitudinally
with bondstones. In England a stone much used for backing ashlar
and Kentish rag rubble-work is a soft sandstone called " hassock."
In the districts where it is quarried it is much cheaper than brick-
work. (For brickbacking see BRICKWORK.) Ashlar facing usually
varies from 4 to 9 in. in thickness. The work must not be all of
one thickness, but should vary in order that effective bond with
the backing may be obtained. If the work is in courses of uneven
depth the narrow courses are made of the greater thickness and the
deep courses are narrow. .It is sometimes necessary to secure the
stone facing back with iron ties, but this should be avoided wherever
possible, as they are liable to rust and split the stonework. When it
is necessary to use them they should be covered with some protective
coating. The use of a backing to a stone wall, besides lessening the
cost, gives a more equable temperature inside the building and pre-
vents the transmission of wet by capillary attraction to the interior,
which would take place if single stones were used for the entire
thickness.
AH work of this description must be executed in Portland cement,
mortar of good strength, to avoid as much as possible the unequal
settlement of the deep courses of stone facing and the narrower
courses of the brick or rough stone backing. If the backing is of
brick it should never be less than 9 in. thick, and whether of stone
or brick it should be levelled up in courses of the same thickness as
the ashlar.
There are many different sorts of walling, or modes of structure,
arising from the nature of the materials available in various localities.
That is perhaps of most frequent occurrence in which w*ui
either squared, broken, or round flints are used. This,
when executed with care, has a distinctly decorative- appearance.
To give stability to the structure, lacing courses of tiles, bricks or
dressed stones are introduced, and brick or stone piers are built at
intervals, thus forming a flint panelled wall. The quoins, too, in
this type of wall are formed in dressed stone or brick work.
Uncoursed rubble built with irregular blocks of ragstone, an
unstratified rock quarried in Kent, is in great favour for facing the
external walls of churches and similar works (fig. 5).
i
Roastbrve Walling
a&tslar ^UMnd
Secton
at\d !>trii\O)S.
FIG. 5. (} in. = i ft.)
Pointing. As with brickwork this is generally done when the work
is completed and before the scaffolding is removed. Suitable weather
should be chosen, for if the weather be either frosty or too hot the
pointing will suffer. The joints are raked out to a depth of half an
inch or more, well wetted, and then refilled with a fine mortar com-
posed specially to resist the action of the weather. This is finished
flat or compressed with a special tool to a shaped joint, the usual
forms of which are shown in fig. 6.
Three
of Kyed Joit\1t>
FIG. 6. (| full size).
V- Joirst:
Stonewash. To give a uniform appearance to the 'stonework
and preserve the finished face until a hardened skin has formed, it is
usual to coat the surface of exposed masonry with a protective
compound of ordinary limewhite with a little size mixed in it, or a
special mixture of stone-dust, lime, salt, whiting and size with a little
MASONRY
ochre to tone it down. After six months or more the work is cleaned
down with water and stiff bristle or wire brushes. Sometimes
muriatic acid much diluted with water is used.
1 Technical Terms. Of the following technical terms, many will be
found embodied in the drawing of a gable wall (fig. 7), which shows
the manner and position in which many different members are used.
Apex Stone. The topmost stone of a gable forming a finial for the
two sloping sides; it is sometimes termed a " saddle " (fig. 7).
roncrek- linw
ran forced With
iron bars.
PLAN
FIG. 7. (Scale approximately J in. = I ft.)
MASONRY
845
Blocking Course, a heavy course of stone above a cornice to form a
parapet and weigh down the back of the cornice (fig. 8).
Blockirvo
Cour.se <-*
Elevdtiors .
f 1 . Soddk , ri
Plarv
Soddk
Saddlad
Joint.
FIG. 8. (J in. = i ft.)
Bed. The bed surface upon which a stone is set or bedded should
be worked truly levej in every part. Many workmen to form a neat
thin joint with a minimum amount of labour hollow the bed and
thus when the stone is set all weight is thrown upon the edges with
the frequent result that these are crushed.
Coping. The coping or capping stones are placed on the top of
walls not covered by a roof, spanning their entire width and throwing
off the rain and snow, thus keeping the interior of the wall dry.
The fewer the number of joints the better the security, and for this
reason it is well to form copings with as long stones as possible.
To throw water off clear, and prevent it from running down the face
of the wall, the coping should project an inch or two on each side and
have a throat worked on the under-side of the projections (fig. 7).
Cornice, a projecting course of moulded stone crowning a structure,
forming a cap or finish and serving to throw any wet clear of the walls.
A deep drip should always be worked in the upper members of a
cornice to prevent the rain trickling down and disfiguring the face
of the moulding and the wall below (fig. 8).
Corbel, a stone built into a wall and projecting to form a cantilever,
supporting a load beyond the face of the wall. It is frequently
richly ornamented by carving (fig. 7).
Skew Corbel, a stone placed at the base of the sloping side of a
gable wall to resist any sliding tendency of the sloping coping. Stones
placed for a similar purpose at intervals along the slopi
tailing into the wall, are termed
ling side,
kneelers " and have the section
of the coping worked upon them (fig. 7).
Corbel Table, a line of small corbels placed at short distances apart
supporting a parapet or arcade. This forms an ornamental feature
which was much employed in early Gothic times. It probably
originates from the machicolations of ancient fortresses.
Dressings, the finished stones of window and door jambs and
quoins. For example, a " brick building with stone dressings "
would have brick walls with stone door and window jambs, heads
and sills, and perhaps also stone quoins (fig. 7).
Diaper, a square pattern formed on the face of the stonework by
means of stones of different colours and varieties or by patterns
carved on the surface (fig. 7).
Finial, a finishing ornament applied usually to a gable end (fig. 7).
Cablet, small gable-shaped carved panels frequently used in Gothic
stonework for apex stones, and in spires, &c.
Gargoyle, a detail, not often met with in modern work, which
consists of a waterspout projecting so as to throw the rain-water
from the gutters clear of the walls. In early work it was often
carved into grotesque shapes of animal and other forms.
Galleting. The joints of rubble are sometimes enriched by having
small pebbles or chips of flint pressed into the mortar whilst green.
The joints are then said to be galleted."
Jamb. Window and door jambs should always be of dressed
stone, both on account of the extra strength thus gained and in
order to give a finish to the work. The stones are laid alternately
as stretchers and headers; the former are called outbands, the latter
inbands (fig. 7).
Label Moulding, a projecting course of stone running round an
arch. When not very large it is sometimes cut on the voussoirs,
but is usually made a separate course of stone. Often , and especially
in the case of door openings, a small sinking is worked on the top
surface of the moulding to form a gutter which leads to the sides
any water that trickles down the face of the wall.
Lacing Stone. This is placed as a voussoir in brick arches of
wide span, and serves to bond or lace several courses together (see
BRICKWORK).
Lacing Course, a course of dressed stone, bricks or tiles, run at
intervals in a wall of rubble or flint masonry to impart strength and
tie the whole together (fig. 7).
Long and Short Work, a typical Saxon method of arranging quoin
stones, flat slabs and long narrow vertical stones being placed alter-
nately. Earls Barton church in Northamptonshire is an example
of their use in old work. In modern work 'long and short work,
sometimes termed " block and start," is little used (fig. 7).
Parapet, a fence wall at the top of a wall at the eaves of the roof.
The gutter lies behind, and waterways are formed through the
parapet wall for the escape of the rain-water.
Plinth, a projecting base to a wall serving to give an appearance
of stability to the work.
Quoin, the angle at the junction of two walls. Quoins are often
executed in dressed stone (Fig. 7).
Rag-bolt, the end of an iron bolt when required to be let into
stone is roughed or ragged. A dovetailed
mortise is prepared in the stone and the
ragged end of the bolt placed in this,
and the mortise filled in with molten lead
or sand and sulphur (fig. q).
Sill, the stone which forms a finish to
the wall at the bottom of an opening. Sills
should always be weathered, slightly in
the case of door sills, more sharply for
windows, and throated on the under side
to throw off the wet. The weathering is
not carried through the whole length of the
sill, but a stool is left on at each end to
form a square end for building in (fig. 7).
FIG. 9. (l in. = i ft.)
String Courses, horizontal bands of stone, either projecting beyond
or flush with the face of the wall and often moulded or carved.
They are frequently continuations of the sills or head lines of windows
(figs. 5 and 7).
Scontion. In a thick wall the dressed stones forming the inside
angles of the jamb of a window or door opening are termed scontions.
Spalls, small pieces chipped off whilst working a stone.
Templates, slabs of hard stone set in a wall to take the ends of a
beam or girder so as to distribute the load over a larger area of the
wall.
Tympanum, the triangular filling of masonry in a pediment be-
tween the cornices, or between the horizontal head of a window or
door and the under-side of the relieving arch above it. It is often
panelled or enriched with carved ornament (fig. 7).
Throat, a groove worked on the under-side of projecting external
members to intercept rain-water and cause it to drop off the member
clear of the work beneath (fig. 8).
Weathering. The surface of an exposed stone is weathered when
it is worked to a slope so as to throw off the water. Cornices,
copings, sills and string courses should all be so weathered.
Voussoirs, the wedge-shaped blocks of which an arch is built up.
Methods of finishing Face of Stones. The self face or quarry face
is the natural surface formed when the stone is detached from the
mass in the quarry or when a stone is split.
Saw-face, the surface formed by sawing.
Hammer-dressed, Rock-faced, or Pitch-faced. This face is used for
ashlar-work, usually with a chisel-draughted margin around each
block. It gives a very massive and solid appearance to the lower
storeys of masonry buildings, and is formed with little labour, and is
therefore the cheapest face to adopt for ashlar-work (fig. 7).
Broached and Pointed Work. This face is also generally used with
a chisel-draughted margin. The stone as left from the scabbling
hammer at the quarry has its rocky face worked down to an approxi-
mate level by the point. In broached work the grooves made by the
tool are continuous, often running obliquely across the face of the
block. In pointed work the lines are not continuous; the surface is
rough or fine pointed according as the point is used over every inch
or half-inch of the stone. The point is used more upon hard stones
than soft ones (fig. 7).
Tooth-chiselled Work. The cheapest method of dressing soft stones
is by the toothed chisel which gives a surface very much like the
pointed work of hard stones.
Droved Work. This surface is obtained with a chisel about two
and a half inches wide, no attempt being made to keep the cuts in
continuous lines.
Tooled Work is somewhat similar to droved work and is done with
a flat chisel, the edge of which is about four inches wide, care being
taken to make the cuts in continuous lines across the width of the
stone.
Combed or Dragged Work. For soft stones the steel comb or drag
is often employed to remove all irregularities from the face and thus
form a fine surface. These tools are specially useful for moulded
work, as they are formed to fit a variety of curves.
Rubbed Work. For this finish the surface of the stone is previously
brought with the chisel to a level and approximately smooth face,
and then the surface is rubbed until it is quite smooth with a piece
of grit stone aided by fine sand and water as a lubricant. Marbles
are polished by being rubbed with gritstone, then with pumice, and
lastly with emery powder.
Besides these, the most usual methods of finishing the faces of
stonework, there are several kinds of surface formed with hammers
or axes of various descriptions. These types of hammers are more
used on the continent of Europe and in America perhaps than in
England, but they deserve notice here.
MASONRY
The toothed axe has its edges divided into teeth, fine or coarse
according to the work to be done. It is used to reduce the face of
limestones and sandstones to a condition ready for the chisel. The
bush hammer has a heavy square-shaped double-faced head, upon
which are cut projecting pyramidal points. It is used to form a sur-
face full of little holes, and with it the face of sand and limestones
may be brought to a somewhat ornamental finish. The patent
hammer is used on granite and other hard rocks, which have been
first dressed to a medium surface with the point. The fineness of
the result is determined by the number of blades in the hammer, and
the work is said to be " six," " eight " or " ten-cut " work according
to the number of blades inserted or bolted in the hammer head.
The crandall has an iron handle slotted at one end with a hole f in.
wide and 3 in. long. In this slot are fixed by a key ten or eleven
double-headed points of J in. square steel about 9 in. long. It is
used for finishing sandstone and soft stones after the surface has been
levelled down with the axe or chisel. It gives a fine pebbly sparkling
appearance.
There are several methods of finishing stone which involve a great
deal of labour and are therefore expensive to work, but which result
in imparting a very stiff and unnatural appearance to the masonry.
Vermiculated Work. This is formed by carving a number of curling
worm-like lines over the face of the block, sinking in between the
worms to a depth of a fourth of an inch. The surface of the strings
is worked smooth, and the sinkings are pock-marked with a pointed
tool (fig. 7).
Furrowed Work. In this face the stone is cut with a chisel into a
number of small parallel grooves or furrows (fig. 7).
Reticulated Face is a finish somewhat similar to vermiculated work,
but the divisions are more nearly squares.
Face Joints of Ashlar. The face joints of ashlar stonework are
often sunk or rebated to form what are termed rusticated joints;
sometimes the angles of each block are moulded or chamfered to
give relief to the surface or to show a massive effect (fig. 7).
Joints in Stonework. The joints between one block of stone and
another are formed in many ways by cramps, dowels and joggles
of various descriptions.
Ion.gi1udtn.al
seclforx IrVro.
cerctre
cif
t>.^
FIG. 10. (i in. = i ft.)
The stones of copings, cornices and works of a similar nature, are
often tied together with metal cramps to check any tendency for the
Cram s stones to separate under the force of the wind (figs. 10
and n). Cramps are made of iron (plain or galvanized),
copper or gun-metal, of varying sections and lengths to suit the work.
A typical cramp would be about 9 in. long, I or i J in. wide, and from
ran of oamp.
FIG. n. (| in.
flvo.
centre of
slate, tramp.
i ft.)
i to J in. thick, and turned down about if in. at each end. A dove-
tailed mortise is formed at a suitable point in each of the stones to
be joined and connected by a chase. The cramp is placed in this
channel with its turned-down ends in the mortises, and it is then
fixed with molten lead, sulphur and sand, or Portland cement. Lead
shrinks on cooling, and if used at all should be well caulked when
cpld. Double dovetailed slate cramps bedded in Portland cement
ai^e occasionally used (fig. n).
Dowels are used for connecting stones where the use of cramps
would be impracticable, as in the joints of window mullions, the shafts
Do </ ^ sma " columns, and in similar works (figs. 7, 8 and 20).
Dowels for bed and side joints may be used. They are
of slate, metal, or sometimes of hard wood.
There are many ways of making a joggle joint. The joggle may
be worked on one of the stones so
. . as to fit into a groove
in the adjoining stone,
or grooves may be cut in both the
stones and an independent joggle
of slate, pebbles, or Portland ce-
ment fitted, the joggle being really
a kind of dowel. The pebble
joggle joint is formed with the aid
of pebbles as small dowels fitted
into mortises in the jointing faces
of two stones and set with Port-
land cement; but joggles of slate
have generally taken the place of
pebbles. Portland cement joggles
are formed by pouring cement
grout into a vertical or oblique
mortise formed by cutting a groove
in each of the joining surfaces of the
stones. What is known as a he-
and-she joggle, worked on the edges of the stones themselves,
shown in fig. 13.
Plugs or dowels of lead are formed by pouring molten lead through
FIG. 12. (j in.
FIG. 13. (J in.. = i ft.)
a channel into dovetailed mortises in each stone (figs. 14 and 15).
When cold the metal is caulked to compress it tightly into the
holes.
FIG. 14. (I in. = i ft.)
The saddle joint is used for cornices, and is formed when a portion
of the stone next the joint is left raised so as to guide rain-water
away from the joint (fig. 8).
Two forms of rebated joints for
stone copings and roofs are com-
mon. In one form (shown in fig. 7)
the stones forming the coping are
thicker at their lower and rebated
edge than at the top plain edge,
giving a stepped surface. The other
form has a level surface and the stone
is of the same thickness throughout
and worked to a rebate on top and
bottom edges. In laying stone roofs
the joints are usually lapped over with
an upper slab of stone.
Platv
Lead Jop ?le
FIG. 15. (i in. =
I ft.)
Joints in Spires. Four forms of jointing for the battering stone-
work of spires are shown in fig. 16. A is a plain horizontal joint.
B is a similar joint formed at right angles to the face of the
work. This is the most economical form of joint, the stone being
cut with its sides square with each other; but if the mortar
in the joint decay moisture is allowed to penetrate. With these
MASONRY
847
forms dowelling is frequently necessary for greater stability. The
joints C anc l D are more elaborate and much more expensive on
account of the extra labour involved in working and fitting.
Where a concentrated weight is
carried by piers or columns the bed
joints are in many cases formed with-
out the use of mortar, a thin sheet
of milled lead being placed between
the blocks of stone to fill up any slight
inequalities.
Moulded Work. The working of
mouldings in stone is an important
part of the mason's craft, and forms
a costly item in the erection of a stone
structure. Much skill and care is re-
quired to retain the arrises sharp and
the curved members of accurate and
proportionate outline. As in the case
of wood mouldings, machinery now
plays an important part in the pre-
paration of stor.e moulded work. The
process of working a stone by hand
labour is as follows: The profile of
the moulding is marked on to a zinc
template on opposite ends of the
stone to be worked; a short portion, an inch or two in length
termed a " draught," is at each end worked to the required section.
The remaining portion is then proceeded with, the craftsman con-
tinually checking the accuracy of his work with a straight-edge and
zinc templates. A stone to be moulded by machinery is fixed to a
moving table placed under a shaped tool which is fixed in an immov-
FIG. 1 6. (J in. = I ft.)
able portion of the machine, and is so adjusted as to cut or chip off
a small layer of stone. Each time the stone passes under the cutter
it is automatically moved a trifle nearer, and thus- it gradually
reduces the stone until
the required shape is
attained.
Iron in Stonework.
The use of iron dowels or
cramps in stonework,
unless entirely and per-
manently protected from
oxidation is attended by
the gravest risks; for
upon the expansion of
the iron by rusting the
stone may split, and
perhaps bring about a
more or less serious
failure in that portion
of the building. A case
in point is that of the
church of St Mary-le-
Strand, London, where
the ashlar facing was
secured to the backing
with iron cramps; these
were inefficiently pro-
tected from damp, with
the result that many of the blocks have been split in consequence of
rusting. John Smeaton in his Eddystone Lighthouse used dowels
of Purbeck marble.
FIG. 17. (l in. = l ft.)
DIAGRAM OF CONSTRUCTION
ft'
SECTION
ONC
FIG. 18. ( in. = i ft.)
MASPERO MASS
Stone Arches. Stone arches are very frequently used both in stone
and brick buildings. (For general definitions and terms see BRICK-
WORK.) They may be built in a great variety of styles, either flat,
segmental, circular, elliptical or pointed. Each block or voussoir
should be cut to fit exactly in its appointed place, the joints being
made as fine as possible. The joints should radiate from the centre
from which the soffit or intrados is struck, or in the case of an ellip-
tical arch they should be at right angles to a tangent drawn to the
intrados at that point. The extrados or back of the arch is usually
concentric with the intrados, but is sometimes made thicker in one
portion than in another; thus the arch may be deeper at the crown
than at the sides, or at the sides than in the centre. In some cases
two or more voussoirs are of one stone, having a false joint cut in
the centre; this is economical, and in some cases adds to the stability
of the arch. Generally the arch is divided into an uneven number
of voussoirs so as to give a keystone, the voussoirs being laid from
each side of the keystone and fitting exactly in the centre of the arch.
The keystone is not a necessity, arches being frequently formed with
an even number of voussoirs; some architects hold that the danger
of the voussoirs cracking is thereby lessened. Where lintels are used
in a stone wall over openings of small span it is usual to build a
relieving arch above to take the superincumbent weight of masonry;
or the same purpose may be effected in walls of ashlar by a flat
relieving or " save " arch, formed in the next course of three stones
above the lintel, the tapering keystone resting between the two side
stones which are tailed well into the wall.
In very many cases it is desired to form square heads to openings
of greater span than it is convenient to obtain lintels for in one piece,
and some form of flat arch must therefore be adopted. The vous-
soirs are connected by joggles worked on their joints, as in fig. 17.
The weight of the superimposed wall is taken by a lintel with
relieving arch above at the back of the arch.
Arches built to an elliptical form when used for large spans (if
of flat curve they should bridge over 8 ft. or 10 ft.) are liable if
heavily loaded to fail by the voussoirs at the centre being forced
down, or else to burst up at the haunches. With arches of this
description there is a large amount of outward thrust, and abut-
ments of ample strength must be placed to receive the springers.
Stone Tracery. The designs of Gothic and other tracery stonework
are almost infinite, and there are many methods, ingenious and
otherwise, of setting out such work. Nearly all diagrams of con-
struction are planned on the principle of geometrical intersections.
In the example illustrated in fig. 18 the method of setting out and
finishing the design is very clearly shown, together with the best
positions for the joints of the various parts. The jointing is a
matter which must be carefully considered in order to avoid any
waste of stone and labour. It will be observed that the right-hand
side of the elevation shows the method of setting out the tracery
by the centre lines of the various intersecting branches, the other
half giving the completed design with the cusping drawn in and the
positions of joints. All the upper construction of windows and
doors and of aisle arches should be protected from superincumbent
pressure by strong relieving arches above the labels, as shown in
the figure, which should be worked with the ordinary masonry, and
so set that the weight above should avoid pressure on the fair
work, which would be liable to flush or otherwise destroy the joints
of the tracery.
Carving. Stone carving is a craft quite apart from the work of the
ordinary stonemason, and like carving in wood needs an artistic
feeling and special training. Carving-stone should be of fine grain
and sufficiently soft to admit of easy working. The Bath stones in
England and the Caen stone of France are largely used for internal
work, but if for the exterior they should be treated with some
chemical preservative. Carving is frequently done after the stone
is built into position, the face being left rough " boasted " and
projecting sufficiently for the intended design.
See E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonnt de I' architecture
fran$aise; W. R. Purchase, Practical Masonry; J. O. Baker, A
Treatise on Masonry Construction; C. F. Mitchell, Brickwork and
Masonry; W. Diack, The Art of Masonry in Britain. (J. BT.)
MASPERO, 6ASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846- ),
French Egyptologist, was born in Paris on the 23rd of June
1846, his parents being of Lombard origin. While at school he
showed a special taste for history, and when fourteen years
old was already interested in hieroglyphic writing. It was
not until his second year at the ficole Normale in 1867 that
Maspero met with an Egyptologist in the person of Marietta,
who was then in Paris as commissioner for the Egyptian section
of the exhibition. Mariette gave him two newly discovered
hieroglyphic texts of considerable difficulty to study, and,
self-taught, the young scholar produced translations of them
in less than a fortnight, a great feat in those days when
Egyptology was still almost in its infancy. The publication of
these in the same year established his reputation. A short
time was spent in assisting a gentleman in Peru, who was
seeking to prove an Aryan affinity for the dialects spoken by
the Indians of that country, to publish his researches; but in
1868 Maspero was back in France at more profitable work.
In 1869 he became a teacher (repetiteur) of Egyptian language
and archaeology at the Ecole des Hautes fitudes; in 1874 he
was appointed to the chair of Champollion at the College de
France.
In November 1880 Professor Maspero went to Egypt as head
of an archaeological mission despatched thither by the French
government, which ultimately developed into the well-equipped
Institut Francais de 1'Archeologie Oriental. This was but a
few months before the death of Mariette, whom Maspero then
succeeded as director-general of excavations and of the antiquities
of Egypt. He held this post till June 1886; in these five years
he had organized the mission, and his labours for the Bulak
museum and for archaeology had been early rewarded by the
discovery of the great cache of royal mummies at Deir el-Bahri
in July 1 88 1. Maspero now resumed his professorial duties in
Paris until 1899, when he returned to Egypt in his old capacity
as director-general of the department of antiquities. He found
the collections in the Cairo Museum enormously increased, and
he superintended their removal from Gizeh to the new quarters
at Kasr en-Nil in 1902. The vast catalogue of the collections
made rapid progress under Maspero's direction. Twenty-four
volumes or sections were already published in 1909. The repairs
and clearances at the temple of Karnak, begun in his previous
tenure of office, led to the most remarkable discoveries in later
years (see KARNAK), during which a vast amount of excavation
and exploration has been carried on also by unofficial but
authorized explorers of many nationalities.
Among his best-known publications are the large Histoire ancienne
des peuples de I'Orient classique (3 vols., Paris, 1895-1897, trans-
lated into English by Mrs McClure for the S.P.C.K.), displaying
the history of the whole of the nearer East from the beginnings to
the conquest by Alexander; a smaller Histoire des peuples de
['Orient, i vol., of the same scope, which has passed through six
editions from 1875 to 1904; Etudes de mythologie et d'archeologie
egyptiennes (Paris, 1893, &c.), a collection of reviews and essays
originally published in various journals, and especially important
as contributions to the study of Egyptian religion; L'Archeologie
egyptienne (latest ed., 1907), of which several editions have been
published in English. He also established the journal Recuett de
travaux relatifs a la philologie et a I'arMologie Egyptiennes et
assyriennes; the Bibliotheque egyptologique, in which the scattered
essays of the French Egyptologists are collected, with biographies,
&c. ; and the Annales du service des antiquites de VEgypte, a reposi-
tory for reports on official excavations, &c.
Maspero also wrote: Les Inscriptions des pyramides de Saqqarah
(Paris, 1894); Les Mamies royales de Deir el-Bahari (Paris, 1889);
Les Contes populaires de I'Egypte ancienne (3rd ed., Paris, 1906);
Causeries d'Egypte (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as New Light
on Ancient Egypt (1908).
MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from
eccl. Lat. missa), a name for the Christian eucharistic service,
practically confined since the Reformation to that of the Roman
Catholic Church. The various orders for the celebration of Mass
are dealt with under LITURGY; a detailed account of the Roman
order is given under MISSAL; and the general development of the
eucharistic service, including the Mass, is described in the article
EUCHARIST. The present article is confined (i) to the considera-
tion of certain special meanings which have become attached
to the word Mass and are the subject of somewhat acute con-
troversy, (2) to the Mass in music.
The origin of the word missa, as applied to the Eucharist, is
obscure. The first to discuss the matter is Isidore of Seville
(Etym. vi. 19), who mentions an " evening office " (officium
vespertinum) , a " morning office " (officium matulinum), and an
office called missa. Of the latter he says: " Missa tempore
sacrificii est, quando catechumeni foras mittuntur, clamante
levita ' si quis catechumenus remansit, exeat foras.' Et inde
' missa,' quia sacramentis altaris interesse non possunt, qui non-
dum regenerati sunt " (" The missa is at the time of the sacrifice,
when the catechumens are sent out, the deacon crying, ' If any
catechumen remain, let him go forth.' " Hence missa, because
those who are as yet unregenerate i.e. unbaptized may not
be present at the sacraments of the altar). This derivation of
i by
MASS
849
the word Mass, which would connect it with the special formula
of dismissal still preserved in the Roman liturgy lie, missa est
once generally accepted, is now disputed. It is pointed out that
the word missa long continued to be applied to any church
service, and more particularly to the lections (see Du Cange for
numerous examples), and it is held that such services received
their name of missal from the solemn form of dismissal with which
it was customary to conclude them; thus, in the 4th century
Pilgrimage of Etheria (Silvia) the word missa is used indis-
criminately of the Eucharist, other services, and the ceremony
of dismissal. F. Kattenbusch (Herzog-Hauck, Realencykiop.
s. " Messe ") ingeniously, but with little evidence, suggests that
the word may have had a double origin and meaning: (i) in
the sense of dimissio, "dismissal"; (2) in that of commissio,
" commission," " official duty," i.e. the exact Latin equivalent of
the Greek \fiTOVpyia (see LITURGY), and hence the conflicting
use of the term. It is, however, far more probable that it was a
general term that gradually became crystallized as applying to
thai service in which the dismissal represented a more solemn
function. In the narrower sense of " Mass " it is first found in
St Ambrose (Ep. 20, 4, ed. Ballerini): " Missam facere coepi.
Dum offero. . . " which evidently identifies the missa with the
sacrifice. It continued, how.ever, to be used loosely, though its ten-
dency to become proper only to the principal Christian service
is clear from a passage in the I2th homily of Caesarius, bishop
of Aries (d. 542) : " If you will diligently attend, you will recog-
nize that missae are not celebrated when the divine readings
are recited in the church, but when gifts are offered and the Body
and Blood of the Lord are consecrated." The complete service
(missa ad integrum), the bishop goes on to say, cannot be had at
home by reading and prayer, but only in the house of God,
where, besides the Eucharist, " the divine word is preached and
the blessing is given to the people."
Whatever its origin, the word Mass had by the time of the
Reformation been long applied only to the Eucharist; and,
though in itself a perfectly colourless term, and used as such dur-
ing the earlier stages of the i6th century controversies concerning
the Eucharist, it soon became identified with that sacrificial
aspect of the sacrament of the altar which it was the chief
object of the Reformers to overthrow. In England, so late as
the first Prayer-book of Edward VI., it remained one of the
official designations of the Eucharist, which is there described
as " The Supper of the Lorde and holy Communion, commonly
called the Masse." This, however, like the service itself, repre-
sented a compromise which the more extreme reformers would
not tolerate, and in the second Prayer-book, together with such
language in the canon as might imply the doctrine of transub-
stantiation and of the sacrifice, the word Mass also disappears.
That this abolition of the word Mass, as implying the offering of
Christ's Body and Blood by the priest for the living and the dead
was deliberate is clear from the language of those who were chiefly
responsible for the change. Bishops Ridley and Latimer, the
two most conspicuous champions of " the new religion," de-
nounced " the Mass " with unmeasured violence; Latimer said of
" Mistress Missa " that " the devil hath brought her in again ";
Ridley said: " I do not take the Mass as it is at this day for the
communion of the Church, but for a popish device," &c. (Works,
ed. Parker Soc., pp. 121, 120), and again: " In the stead of the
Lord's holy table they give the people, with much solemn dis-
guising, a thing which they call their mass; but in deed and
in truth it is a very masking and mockery of the true Supper of
the Lord, or rather I may call it a crafty juggling, whereby these
false thieves and jugglers have bewitched the minds of the
simple people . . . unto pernicious idolatory " (ib. p. 409). This
language is reflected in the 3ist of the Articles of Religion of the
Church of England: " Wherefore the sacrifices of Masses, in
which it was commonly said that the Priest did offer Christ
for the quick and the dead, to have remission of pain and guilt,
were blasphemous fables and dangerous deceits." Clearly the
word Mass had ceased to be a colourless term generally applicable
to the eucharistic service; it was, in fact, not only proscribed
officially, but in the common language of English people it passed
entirely out of use except in the sense in which it is defined in
Johnson's Dictionary, i.e. that of the " Service of the Romish
Church at the celebration of the Eucharist." In connexion with
the Catholic reaction in the Church of England, which had its
origin in the " Oxford Movement " of the igth century, efforts
have been made by some of the clergy to reintroduce the term
" Mass " for the Holy Communion in the English Church.
See Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. "Missa"; F. Kattenbusch in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 1903), s.v. " Messe, dogmen-
geschichtlich "; for the facts as to the use of the word " Mass " at
the time of the Reformation see the article by J. H. Round in the
Nineteenth Century for May 1897. (W. A. P.)
MASS, IN Music: i. Polyphonic Masses. The composition
of musical settings of the Mass plays a part in the history of
music which is of special importance up to and including the
i6th century. As an art-form the musical Mass is governed to a
peculiar degree by the structure of its text. It so happens that
the supremely important parts of the Mass are those which have
the smallest number of words, namely the Kyrie, important as
being the opening prayer; the Sanctus and Benediclus, embody-
ing the central acts and ideas of the service; and the Agnus Dei,
the prayer with which it concludes. The 16th-century methods
were specially fitted for highly developed music when words
were few and embodied ideas of such important emotional
significance or finality that they could be constantly repeated
without losing force. Now the texts of the Gloria and Credo
were more voluminous than any others which 16th-century
composers attempted to handle in a continuous scheme. The
practical limits of the church service made it impossible to break
them up by setting each clause to a separate movement, a method
by which 16th-century music composers contrived to set psalms
and other long texts to compositions lasting an hour or longer.
Accordingly, Palestrina and his great contemporaries and pre-
decessors treated the Gloria and Credo in a style midway in
polyphonic organization and rhythmic breadth between that of
the elaborate motet (adopted in the Sanctus) and the homophonic
reciting style of the Litany. The various ways in which this
special style could be modified by the scale of the work, and con-
trasted with the broader and more elaborate parts, gave the Mass
(even in its merely technical aspects) a range which made it to the
16th-century composer what the symphony is to the great instru-
mental classics. Moreover, as being inseparably associated with
the highest act of worship, it inspired composers in direct propor-
tion to their piety and depth of mind. Of course there were many
false methods of attacking the art-problem, and many other rela-
tionships, true and false, between the complexity of the settings
of the various parts of the Mass and of motets. The story of the
action of the council of Trent on the subject of corruption of
church music is told elsewhere (see Music and PALESTRINA);
and it has been recently paralleled by a decree of Pope Pius X.,
which has restored the 16th-century polyphonic Mass to a perma-
nent place in the Roman Catholic Church music.
2. Instrumental Masses in the Neapolitan Form. The next
definite stage in the musical history of the Mass was attained
by the Neapolitan composers who were first to reach musical
coherence after the monodic revolution at the beginning of the
1 7th century. The fruit of their efforts came to maturity in the
Masses of Mozart and Haydn. By this time the resources of
music were such that the long and varied text of the Gloria and
Credo inevitably either overbalanced the scheme or met with an
obviously perfunctory treatment. It is almost impossible,
without asceticism of a radically inartistic kind, to treat with
the resources of instrumental music and free harmony such
passages as that from the Crucifixus to the Resurrexii, without
an emotional contrast which inevitably throws any natural
treatment of the Sanctus into the background, and makes the
Agnus Dei an inadequate conclusion to the musical scheme. So
unfavourable were the conditions of 18th-century music for the
formation of a good ecclesiastical style that only a very small
proportion of Mozart's and Haydn's Mass music may be said
to represent their ideas of religious music at all. The best fea-
tures of their Masses are those that combine faithfulness to the
Neapolitan forms with a contrapuntal richness such as no Neapo-
850
MASSA MASSACHUSETTS
litan composer ever achieved. Thus Mozart's most perfect as well
as most ecclesiastical example is his extremely terse Mass in F,
written at the age of seventeen, which is scored simply for four-
part chorus and solo voices accompanied by the organ with a
largely independent bass and by two violins mostly in indepen-
dent real parts. This scheme, with the addition of a pair of
trumpets and drums and, occasionally, oboes, forms the normal
orchestra of iSth-century Masses developed or degenerated from
this model. Trombones often played with the three lower
Voices, a practice of high antiquity surviving from a time when
there were soprano trombones or cornelti (Zincken, a sort of
treble serpent) to play with the sopranos.
3. Symphonic Masses. The enormous dramatic development
in the symphonic music of Beethoven made the problem of the
Mass with orchestral accompaniment almost insoluble. This
makes it all the more remarkable that Beethoven's second and
only important Mass (in D, Op. 123) is not only the most
dramatic ever penned but is, perhaps, the last classical Mass that
is thoughtfully based upon the liturgy, and is not a mere musical
setting of what happens to be a liturgic text. It was intended
for the installation of Beethoven's friend, the archduke Rudolph,
as archbishop of Olmiitz; and, though not ready until two years
after that occasion, it shows the most careful consideration of
the meaning of a church service, no doubt of altogether excep-
tional length and pomp, but by no means impossible for its
unique occasion. Immense as was Beethoven's dramatic force,
it was equalled by his power of sublime repose; and he was
accordingly able once more to put the supreme moment of the
music where the service requires it to be, viz. in the Sanctus and
Benedictus. In the Agnus Dei the circumstances of the time
gave him something special to say which has never so impera-
tively demanded utterance since. Europe had been shattered
by the Napoleonic wars. Beethoven read the final prayer of
the Mass as a " prayer for inward and outward peace," and,
giving it that title, organized it on the basis of a contrast between
terrible martial sounds and the triumph of peaceful themes, in a
scheme none the less spiritual and sublime because those who
first heard it had derived their notions of the horror of war from
living in Vienna during its bombardment. Critics who have
lived in London during the relief of Mafeking have blamed
Beethoven for his realism.
Schubert's Masses show rather the influence of Beethoven's
not very impressive first Mass, which they easily surpass in
interest, though they rather pathetically show an ignorance of
the meaning of the Latin words. The last two Masses are later
than Beethoven's Mass in D and contain many remarkable
passages. It is evident from them that a dramatic treatment of
the Agnus Dei was " in the air"; all the more so, since Schubert
does not imitate Beethoven's realism.
4. Lutheran Masses. Music with Latin words is not excluded
from the Lutheran Church, and the Kyrie and Gloria are fre-
quently sung in succession and entitled a Mass. Thus the Four
Short Masses of Bach are called short, not because they are on a
small scale, which is far from being the case, but because they
consist only of the Kyrie and Gloria. Bach's method is to treat
each clause of his text as a separate movement, alternating
choruses with groups of arias; a method which was indepen-
dently adopted by Mozart in those larger masses in which he
transcends the Neapolitan type, such as the great unfinished Mass
in C minor. This method, in the case of an entire Mass, results in
a length far too great for a Roman Catholic service; and Bach's
B minor Mass, which is such a setting of the entire test, must be
regarded as a kind of oratorio. It thus has obviously nothing
to do with the Roman liturgy; but as an independent setting
of the text it is one of the most sublime and profoundly reli-
gious works in all art; and its singular perfection as a design is
nowhere more evident than in its numerous adaptations of
earlier works.
The most interesting of all these adaptations is the setting
of the words: " Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam
venturi saeculi. AMEN." Obviously the greatest difficulty in
any elaborate instrumental setting of the Credo is the inevitable
anti-climax after the Resurrexit. Bach contrives to give this
anti-climax a definite artistic value; all the more from the fact
that his Crucifixus and Resurrexit, and the contrast between
them, are among the most sublime and directly impressive things
in all music. To the end of his Resurrexit chorus he appends
an orchestral ritornello, summing up the material of the chorus
in the most formal possible way, and thereby utterly destroying
all sense of finality as a member of a large group, while at the
same time not in the least impairing the force and contrast of
the whole that contrast having ineffaceably asserted itself at
the moment when it occurred. After this the aria " Et in
spiritum sanctum," in which the next dogmatic clauses are
enshrined like relics in a casket, furnishes a beautiful decorative
design on which the listener can repose his mind; and then comes
[he voluminous ecclesiastical fugue, Confiteor unum baplisma,
leading, as through the door and world-wide spaces of the Catho-
lic Church, to that veil which is not all darkness to the eye of
faith. At the words " Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum "
the music plunges suddenly into a slow series of some of the most
sublime and mysterious modulations ever written, until it breaks
out as suddenly into a vivace e allegro of broad but terse design,
which comes to its climax very rapidly and ends as abruptly as
possible, the last chord being carefully written as a short note
without a pause. This gives the utmost possible effect of finality
to the whole Credo, and contrasts admirably with the coldly
formal instrumental end of the Resurrexit three movements
further back. Now, such subtleties seem as if they must be un-
conscious on the part of the composer; yet here Bach is so far
aware of his reasons that his vivace e allegro is an arrangement
of the second chorus of a church cantata, Colt man lobet dich in
der Slille; and in the cantata the chorus has introductory and
final symphonies and a middle section with a da capo I
5. The Requiem. The Missa pro defunctis or Requiem Mass
has a far less definite musical history than the ordinary Mass;
and such special musical forms as it has produced have little in
common with each other. The text of the Dies Irae so impera-
tively demands either a very dramatic elaboration or none at all,
that even in the i6th century it could not possibly be set to
continuous music on the lines of the Gloria and Credo. Fortu-
nately, however, the Gregorian canto fermo associated with it is
of exceptional beauty and symmetry; and the great i6th century
masters either, like Palestrina, left it to be sung as plain-chant,
or obviated all occasion for dramatic expression by setting it in
versicles (like their settings of the Magnificat and other canticles)
for two groups of voices alternatively, or for the choir in
alternation with the plain chant of the priests.
With modern orchestral conditions the text seems positively
to demand an unecclesiastical, not to say sensational, style, and
probably the only instrumental Requiem Masses which can be
said to be great church music are the sublime unfinished work of
Mozart (the antecedents of which would be a very interesting
subject) and the two beautiful works by Cherubini. These latter,
however, tend to be funereal rather than uplifting. The only other
artistic solution of the problem is to follow Berlioz, Verdi and
Dvorak in the complete renunciation of all ecclesiastical style.
Brahms's Deutsches requiem has nothing to do with the Mass
for the dead, being simply a large choral work on a text compiled
from the Bible by the composer. (D. F. T.)
MASSA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, the joint capital with
Carrara of the province of Massa and Carrara, and sharing with
it the episcopal see, 20 m. S.E. of Spezia by rail, 246 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,559 (town); 26,118 (commune).
The Palazzo Ducale (now the prefecture) was erected in 1701, and
was a summer residence of Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi,
princess of Lucca, who caused the ancient cathedral opposite to
be destroyed. The hills round the town yield marble, and there
is a narrow-gauge railway to the Marina d'Avenza, where the
marble is shipped.
MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a
tribe of Indians), one of the original thirteen states of the
American Union, bounded on the N. by Vermont and New
Hampshire, on the E. by the Atlantic, on the S. by Rhode Island
MASSACHUSETTS
851
and Connecticut, and on the W. by New York. It lies approxi-
mately between 41 15' and 42 50' N. lat. and 69 55' and 73
30' W. long. The bulk of its area which is about 8266 sq. m.
(of which 227 are water) forms a parallelogram of 130 m. E. and
W., 46 m. N. and S., the additional area lying in a projection at
the S.E. and a lesser one at the N.E., which give the mainland
a breadth of 90 m. where it borders upon the ocean, while the
general irregularity of the coast-line gives a sea frontage of about
250 m.
Physical Features. The east and south-east portions are in general
undulating or level, the central hilly and broken, and the west
rugged and mountainous. (For geological details see UNITED
STATES: Geology, ad fin.) The Hoosac Hills (1200-1600 ft.
high), separating the valleys of the Housatonic and Connecticut,
are a range of the Berkshires, a part of the Appalachian system,
and a continuation of the Green Mountains of Vermont, and with
the Taconic range on the west side of the Housatonic Valley of
which the highest peaks are Greylock, or " Saddleback " (3535 ft.),
and Mt Williams (3040 ft.) in the extreme north-west corner of
the state, form the only considerable elevated land. 1 Bordering
on the lowlands of the Connecticut, Mt Tom (1214 ft.) and a few
other hills (Mt Holyoke, 954 ft.; Mt Toby, 1275) form conspicuous
landmarks. East of this valley the country continues more or
less hilly and rocky, but the elevations eastward become increasingly
slight and of little consequence. Mt Lincoln (1246 ft.) and especi-
ally Mt Wachusett (2108 ft.), to the east in a level country, are
very exceptional. The Blue Hills in Milton are the nearest eleva-
tions to the coast, and are conspicuous to navigators approaching
Boston. The south-east corner of the state is a sandy lowland,
generally level with a slightly elevated ridge (Manomet) south of
Plymouth, and well watered by ponds.
With the exception of this corner, Massachusetts is a part of the
slanting upland that includes all of southern New England. This
upland is an uplifted peneplain of subaerial denudation, 2 now so
far advanced in a " second ' cycle of weathering and so thoroughly
dissected that to an untrained eye it appears to be only a country
of hills confusedly arranged. The general contour of the upland,
marked by a remarkably even sky-line, is evident at almost every
locality in the state. In the nature and position of the upland
rocks mainly crystalline schists and gneisses, excessively compli-
cated and disordered in mass, and also internally deformed there
is found abundant proof that the peneplain is a degraded mountain
region. The upland is interrupted by the rivers, and on the coast
by great lowlands, and is everywhere marked by hills somewhat sur-
mounting the generally even skyline. Monadnock (in New Hamp-
shire, nearN.E. Massachusetts), the Blue Hills near Boston, Greylock,
in the north-west, and Wachusett in the centre, are the most com-
manding remnant-summits (known generically as " Monadnocks ")
of the original mountain system. But in the derivant valley
peneplains developed in the present cycle of denudation, and there
are residual summits also; in the Connecticut Valley trap ridges,
of which Mt Tom and Mt Holyoke are the best examples; at
Mt Holyoke, lava necks; occasionally in the lowlands, ridges of
resistant sandstone, like Deerfield Mountain near Northampton;
in the Berkshire Valley, summits of resistant schists, like Greylock,
the highest summit in the state. The larger streams have cut
their channels to very moderate gradients, but the smaller ones
are steeper. The Housatonic anal Millers (and the Connecticut
also, but not in its course within Massachusetts alone) afford beauti-
ful examples of the dependence of valley breadth upon the strike
of soft or harder rocks across the stream. The Connecticut low-
land is cut from 5 to 1 8 m. wide in soft sandstones and shales. The
glacial era has left abundant evidences in the topography of
the state. The ice covered even the Monadnocks. Till drumlins,
notably abundant on the lowland about Boston and the highland
near Spencer; morainic hills, extending, e.g. all along Cape Cod;
eskers, kames and river terraces afford the plainest evidences of
the extent of the glacial sheet. The Berkshire country Berkshire,
Hampden, Hampshire and Franklin counties is among the most
beautiful regions of the United States. It is a rolling highland
dominated by long, wooded hill-ridges, remarkably even-topped in
general elevation, intersected and broken by deep valleys. Scores
of charming lakes lie in the hollows. The district is often called
the Lake Region of America, partly front the comparableness of
its scenic beauties with the English Lake Country (Matthew Arnold,
however, wrote: " The country is pleasing but not to be compared
with Westmoreland. It is wider and opener, and neither hills
nor lakes are so effective."), and partly from the parallelism of
literary associations. It has become since 1850, and especially
in much more recent years, a favoured resort of summer residents.
Owing to topography, and also to the manner in which Massachusetts
1 At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this quarter, have an
elevation of 1500 ft. (twenty-four above 2000 ft.).
* In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in
detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and rock structure that
proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted sub-
marine platform; but the general proof is very clear.
was settled, the western counties were long connected commercially
more closely with New York than with Massachusetts, and this
territory was long in dispute between these two states.
The Connecticut is the most considerable stream, and is navigable
by small craft. Its valley, much the richest portion of the state
agriculturally, is celebrated for the quiet variety and beauty of
its scenery. The Housatonic, in portions placid, in others wild and
rapid, winding along the deflecting barrier of the Hoosac Hills,
is the most beautiful river of the state, despite the mercantile use
of its water-power. The Merrimac, the second stream of the state
in volume, runs in a charming valley through the extreme north-
east corner, and affords immensely valuable water-power at Lowell,
Lawrence and Haverhill.
South of Cohasset the shore is sandy, with a few isolated rocky
ledges and boulders. About Boston, and to the north of it, the
shore is rocky and picturesque. Cape Cod, like a human arm
doubled at the elbow, 40 m. from shoulder to elbow and 30 from
elbow to hand, is nowhere more than a few miles broad. It is a
sandy ridge, dotted with summer resorts and cottages. Cape Ann
has a rugged interior and a ragged, rocky coast. It, too, is a
summer recreation ground, with much beautiful scenery. Boston
Harbor (originally known as Massachusetts Bay, a name which
now has a much broader signification) is the finest roadstead on
the coast. The extreme hook of the Cape Cod Peninsula forms
Provincetown Harbor, which is an excellent and capacious port
of refuge for vessels approaching Boston. Salem Harbor is the
most considerable other haven on Massachusetts Bay; on Buzzard's
Bay New Bedford has a good harbour, and on the Atlantic coast
are the excellent harbours of Gloucester and Marblehead, both fre-
quented by summer residents. Gloucester has the largest fishery
interests of any place in the country, and is one of the chief fishing
ports of the world. Buzzard's Bay is also a popular yachting
ground, and all about its shores are towns of summer residence.
Wood's Hole is a station of the United States Bureau of Fisheries,
and a marine biological laboratory is there.
The principal islands lie off the south coast. The largest is
Martha s Vineyard, about 20 m. long, with an extreme breadth
of about 9i m. It has in Vineyard Haven (Holmes's Hole) a
spacious harbour, much frequented by wind-bound vessels seeking
a passage round Cape Cod. The island is covered with stunted
trees. Its population was formerly dependent wholly upon the
sea, but _its climate has made it a popular summer resort. Oak
Bluffs being one of the chief resorts of the Atlantic coast. Farther
east, Nantucket, a smaller island of triangular shape, is likewise
the home of a seafaring folk who still retain in some degree primitive
habits, though summer visitors are more and more affecting its
life.
Flora and Fauna. Massachusetts lies entirely in the humid
area of the Transition life-zone, with the exception of the extreme
north-western corner of the state, which lies in the Boreal zone.
Thus the original native trees and plants were those common to
New Englandf and northern New York. The presence of a dense
population has driven out some, and brought in others, including
some noxious weeds. The larger wild animals have disappeared,
excepting an occasional black bear or deer. Of the smaller fur-
bearing animals, the beaver was long ago exterminated, the otter
is seen very rarely, and the mink only in the most isolated districts;
but foxes, skunks, weasels, musk-rats, rabbits, and grey and red
squirrels are not uncommon. Copperhead snakes and rattlesnakes
are occasionally seen, and there are several species of harmless
serpents. Of game birds the most characteristic is the partridge
(ruffed grouse), exclusively a woodland bird ; the Wilson's snipe
and the woodcock are not uncommon in favourable localities, and
several species of ducks are found especially in the bays and marshes
near the coast during the seasons of migration. A stray eagle is
sometimes seen. Very interesting to ornithologists are the few
heath hens, the eastern representative of the prairie hen (pinnated
grouse), which are found on the island of Martha's Vineyard, and
are the sole survivors in the eastern states of one of the finest of
American game birds, now practically exterminated even on the
western plains. There are many insectivorous birds; among the
song birds are the hermit thrush, the wood thrush, the Wilson's
thrush, the brown thrasher, the bobolink, the catbird, the oven
bird, the house wren, the song sparrow, the fox sparrow, the vesper
sparrow, the white-throated sparrow (Peabody bird), the gold-
finch and the robin. Brook trout are found, especially in the streams
in the western part of the state, and bass, pickerel, perch and smaller
fish occur in the rivers and other inland waters. Fish are so abun-
dant on the coast that the cod is sometimes used as an emblem of
the state; thus a figure of one hangs in the representatives' chamber
at the State House. The artificial propagation and preservation
of salmon and other edible fresh-water fish have been carried on
successfully under the supervision of a state commission. The
commonwealth has expended large sums since 1890 in a vain attempt
to exterminate the gipsy moth (Ocneria, or more exactly Porthetna,
dispar), accidentally allowed to escape in 1869 by a French
naturalist.
Climate. The climate is trying, showing great extremes of temper-
ature (20 F. below zero to 100 above) and marked local variations.
The south-eastern coast and islands are mildest. The mean average
852
MASSACHUSETTS
temperature of Boston is 48 F. In the interior it is slightly lower.
The mean summer temperature generally over the state is about
70 F. Changes are often sudden, and the passage from winter to
summer is through a rapid spring. The ocean tempers the climate
considerably on the seaboard. Boston Harbor has been frozen over
in the past, but steamtugs plying constantly now prevent the occur-
rence of such obstruction. In the elevated region in the west the
winters are decidedly severe, and the springs and summers often
late and cold. Williamstpwn has a winter mean of about 23 F.
The yearly precipitation is about 39 to 45 in., decreasing inland,
and is evenly distributed throughout the year. Fogs are common
on the coast, and east wind drizzles; the north-east winds being
the weather bane of spring and late autumn. In the summer and
the autumn the weather is commonly fine, and often most beautiful ;
and especially in the Berkshires a cool, pure and elastic atmosphere
prevails, relatively dry, and altogether delightful.
Agriculture. The soil, except in some of the valleys, is not
naturally fertile; and sandy wastes are common in the south-east
parts. High cultivation, however, has produced valuable market-
gardens about Boston and the larger towns; and industry has
made tillage remunerative in most other parts. The gross value
of agricultural products is not great compared with that of other
industries, but they are of great importance in the economy of the
state. The total value of farm property in 1900 was $182,646,704,
including livestock valued at $15,798,464. Of the increase in
the total value of farm property between 1850 and 1900 more than
half was in the decade 1890-1900; this increase being due partly
to the rising value of suburban realty, but also to a development
of intensive farming that has been very marked since 1880. The
total value of farm products in 1899 was $42,298,274 (expenditure
for fertilizers $1,320,600); crops representing 54-7 and animal
products 45'3%. of this total. The leading crops and their per-
centages of the 'total crop value were hay and forage (39 - l%),
vegetables (23-9%), fruits and nuts (11-770), forest products
(8-4%), and flowers and plants (7-1%). Of the animal products
67-3% were dairy products, and 20-8% poultry and eggs. Cereals 1
have been for many years declining, although Indian corn is a
valuable subsidiary to the dairy interest, which is the most thriving
farm industry. The value of farms on which dairying was the
chief source of income in 1900 was 46% of the total farm value of
the state; the corresponding percentages for livestock, vegetables,
hay and grain, flowers and plants, fruit and tobacco, being respec-
tively I4'6, 10-2, 8-0, 4-2, 3-2, and 1-8%. The shrinkage of cereal
crops has been mainly responsible for the idea that Massachusetts
is agriculturally decadent. Parallel to this shrinkage was the
decrease in ranging sheep (82-0% from 18501900; 34-2% from
1890-1900), and cattle, once numerous in the hill counties of the
west, and in the Connecticut Valley; Boston, then ranking after
London as the second wool market of the world, and being at
one time the chief packing centre of the country. Dairy cows in-
creased, however, from 1850 to 1900 by 41-9% (1890-1900, 7-3%).
The amount of improved farmland decreased in the same period
39-4%, decreasing even more since 1880 than earlier, and amount-
ing in 1900 to no more than 25-1 % of the area of the state; but
this decrease has been compensated by increased value of products,
especially since the beginning of intensive agriculture. An unusual
density of urban settlement, furnishing excellent home markets
and transportation facilities, are the main props of this new interest.
Worcester and Middlesex counties are agriculturally foremost.
Tobacco, which has been cultivated since colonial times, especially
since the Civil War, is grown exclusively in the Connecticut Valley
or on its borders. In the swamps and bogs of the south-east coast
cranberry culture is practised, this district producing in 1900
three-fifths of the entire yield of the United States. " Abandoned
farms" (aggregating, in 1890, 3-4% of the total farm area, and
6-85% in Hampshire county) are common, especially in the west
and south-east.
Mines and Mining. Granite is the chief mineral, and granite
quarrying is the principal mineral industry of the state. In 1900
the value of manufactures based primarily upon the products of
mines and quarries was $196,930,979, or 19% of the state's total
manufactured product. In 1906 Massachusetts led all states in
the value of its granite output, but in 1907 and 1908 it was second to
Vermont. The value of the product (including a small output
of igneous rocks) was in 1903, $2,351,027; 1904, $2,554,748; 1905,
$2,251,319; 1906, $3,327,416; 1907, $2,328,777; 1908, $2,027,463.
Granite boulders were used for construction in Massachusetts
as early as 1650. Systematic quarrying of siliceous crystalline
rocks in New England began at Quincy in about 1820. The
Gloucester quarries, opened in 1824, were probably the next to be
worked regularly. The principal granite quarries are in Milford,
1 The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are
recorded in the Yearbook of the United States Department of
Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats,
245,000 bushels; barley, 64,000 bushels; buckwheat, 42,000 bushels;
potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500
lb. In the same year, according to the same authority, there
were in the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle,
45,000 sheep and 70,000 swine.
(Worcester county), Quincy and Milton (Norfolk county), Rockport
(Essex county) and Becket (Berkshire county). Of the fourteen
quarries of " Milford granite," twelve are in the township of that
name, and two in Hopkinton township, Middlesex county. B. K.
Emerson and J. H. Perry classify this granite as post-Cambrian.
They describe it 2 as " a compact, massive rock, somewhat above
medium grain, and of light colour. The light flesh colour of the
feldspar, and the blue of the quartz give it in some places a slight
pinkish tint, and it is now much used as a building-stone under
the name of ' pink granite." "
The Quincy granite district lies around the north-east end of the
Blue Hill region, about n m. south of Boston. For monumental
purposes this granite is classified as " medium," " dark," and
" extra dark." Quincy granite takes a very high polish, owing to
the absence of mica and to the coarser cleavage of its hornblende
and augite. The lightest of the monumental stone quarried at
Quincy is called gold-leaf; it is bluish-green gray, speckled with
black and light yellow brown. Another variety has small, rather
widely separated cherry-red dots.
The Rockport granite is found along or near the seashore, between
Rockport and Bay View, and within about three-quarters of a mile of
Cape Ann. The granite is of two kinds, known commercially as
" grey granite " and " green granite." Both varieties are hard and
take a very high polish.
The Becker granite (known as " Chester dark " and " Chester
light ") is a muscovite-biotite granite varying from medium grey
to medium bluish grey colour, and fine in texture. It is used
principally for monuments.
In 1907 Massachusetts ranked sixth among the states in the
value of its trap rock product ($432,604), and eighth in sandstone
($243,328). The value of the marble produced in the same year
was $212,438, the state ranking fifth in the value of the total
product and fourth in building-marble. Other minerals are
emery, limestone and quartz. The state ranked fifth in 1906 in
the total value of stone quarried ($4,333,616), and eighth in 1908
($2,955, !95)- The output ot lime in 1908 was 107,813 tons, valued
at $566,022. Second in value to the various stones were the clay
products of the state, which were valued in 1906 at $2,172,733
(of which $1,415,864 was the value of common brick) and in 1908
at $1,647,362 (of which $950,921 was the value of common brick).
There are many mineral springs in the state, more than half being
in Essex and Middlesex counties. The total amount of mineral
waters sold in 1908 was valued at $227,907. In that year the total
value of the minerals and mining products of the state was
$5,925,949. Gold has been found in small quantities in Middlesex,
Norfolk and Plymouth counties.
Manufactures. Though only four states of the Union are smaller,
only three exceeded Massachusetts in 1905 in the value of manufac-
tured products (six exceeding it in population) ; and this despite very
scant native resources of raw materials and a very limited home
market. Historical priority of development, exceptionally extensive
and well utilized water-power, and good transportation facilities are
largely responsible for the exceptional rank of Massachusetts as
a manufacturing state. Vast water-power is developed on the
Merrimac at Lawrence and Lowell, and on the Connecticut at
South Hadley, and to a less extent at scores of other cities on
many streams and artificial ponds; many of the machines that
have revolutionized industrial conditions since the beginning of
the factory system have been invented by Massachusetts men;
and the state contains various technical schools of great impor-
tance. In 1900 the value of manufactures was $1,035,198,989, an
increase from 1890 of 16-6%; that from 1880 to 1890 having been
40-7%. In textiles cottons, worsteds, woollens and carpets in
boots and shoes, in rubber foot-wear, in fine writing paper, and
in other minor products, it is the leading state of the country.
The textile industries (the making of carpets and rugs, cotton goods,
cotton smallwares, dyeing and finishing textiles, felt goods, felt
hats, hosiery and knit goods, shoddy, silk and silk goods, woollen
goods, and worsted goods), employed 32-5% of all manufacturing
wage earners in 1905, and their product ($271,369,816) was 24-1%
of the total, and of this nearly one-half ($129,171,449) was in cotton
goods, being 28-9% of the total output of the country, as compared
with ii % for South Carolina, the nearest competitor of Massa-
chusetts. There is a steadily increasing product of fine grade fabrics.
The output of worsted goods in 1905 ($51,973,944) was more than
three-tenths that of the tntire country, Rhode Island being second
with $44,477,596; in Massachusetts the increase in the value of
this product was 28-2 % between 1900 and 1905. The value of
woollen goods in 1905 ($44,653,940) was more than three-tenths
of the entire product for the country; and it was 44'6% more than
that of 1900. The value of boots and shoes and cut stock in 1905
was $173,612,660, being 23% greater than in 1900; the value of
boots and shoes in 1905 ($144,291,426) was 45-1 % of the country's
output, that of New York, the second state, being only 10-7%.
In this industry, as in the manufacture of cotton goods, Massa-
chusetts has long been without serious rivalry; Brockton, Lynn,
2 The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of
Rhode Island, Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, No. 311, 1907.
73 JO
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MASSACHUSETTS
853
Haverhill, Marlboro and Boston, in the order named, being the
principal centres. The third industry in 1905 was that of foundry
and machine-shop products ($58,508,793), of which Boston and
\\ '.in -ester are the principal centres. Lesser interests, in the order
of importance, with the product value of each in 1905, were:
rubber goods ($53,133,020), tanned, curried and finished leather
($33,352,999), in the manufacture of which Massachusetts ranked
ul among the states; paper and wood pulp 1 ($32,012,247),
in the production of which the state ranked second among the
s of the Union; slaughtering and meat packing ($30,253,838);
printing and publishing ($33,900,748, of which $21,020,237 was
the value of newspapers and periodicals); clothing ($21,724,056);
deal machinery, apparatus and supplies ($15,882,216); lumber
1136,329); iron and steel, steel works and rolling-mills products
(#11,947,731; less than in 1900); cordage and twine ($11,173,521),
in the manufacture of which Massachusetts was second only to
Nt-w York; furniture ($11,092,581); malt liquors ($11,080,944);
jewelry ($10,073,595), Massachusetts ranking second to Rhode
Island ; confectionery ($9,317,996), in which Massachusetts was third
among the states.
Many of these industries have a history going back far into colonial
times, some even dating from the first half of the 1 7th century.
Text ile products were really varied and of considerable importance
before 1700. The policy of the British government towards such
industries in the colonial period was in general repressive. The
non-importation sentiment preceding the War of Independence
fostered home manufactures considerably, and the Embargo and
Non- Intercourse Acts before the war of 1812, as well as that war
itself (despite the subsequent glut of British goods) had a much
greater effort ; for they mark the introduction of the factory system,
which by 1830 was firmly established in the textile industry and
was rapidly transforming other industries. Improvements were
introduced much more slowly than in England, the cost of cotton
machinery as late as 1826 being 50-60.% greater in America. The
first successful power loom in America was set up at Waltham in
1814. Carding, roving and spinning machines were constructed
at Bridgewater in 1786. The first cotton mill had been established
in Beverly in 1788, and the first real woollen factory at Byfield
in 1794. Woolcard machinery destined to revolutionize the in-
dustry was devised by Amos Whittemore (1759-1828) in 1797;
spinning jennies were in operation under water-power before 1815.
Carpet-weaving was begun at Worcester in 1804. " Not a yard
of fancy wool fabric had ever been woven by the power-loom in
any country till done by William Crompton at the Middlesex Mills,
Lowell, in 1840 " (Samuel Lawrence). 2 The introduction of the
remarkably complete machinery of the shoe industry was practically
complete by 1865, this being the last of the great industries to come
under the full dominance of machinery. At Pittsfield and at
Dalton is centred the manufacture of fine writing papers, including
that of paper used by the national government for bonds and
paper money. Four-fifths of all loft-dried paper produced in the
country from 1860-1897 was made within 15 m. of Springfield;
Holyoke and South Hadley being the greatest producers. Vulcan-
ized rubber is a Massachusetts invention. Most of the imitation
jewelry of the United States is produced at Attleboro and North
Attleboro, and in Providence, Rhode Island. In 1905 Boston
produced i6'4% of all the manufactures of the state, and Lynn,
the second city, which had been fifth in 1900, 4-9%. Some
industries which have since become dead or of relatively slight
magnitude were once of much greater significance, economically or
socially : such as the rum-distilling connected with the colonial
slave trade, and various interests concerned with shipbuilding and
navigation. The packing of pork and beef formerly centred in
Boston; but, while the volume of this business has not diminished,
it has been greatly exceeded in the west. For many years Massa-
chusetts controlled a vast lumber trade, drawing upon the forests
of Maine, but the growth of the west changed the old channels
of trade, and Boston carpenters came to make use of western
timber. It was between 1840 and 1850 that the cotton manu-
factures of Massachusetts began to assume large proportions; and
about the same time the manufacture of boots and shoes centred
there. Medford ships began to be famous shortly after the beginning
of the igth century, and by 1845 that town employed one quarter
of all the shipwrights in the state.
Fishing is an important industry. Drift whales were utilized
in the earliest years of the colony, and shore boating for the baleen
(or " right ") whale rich in bone and in blubber yielding common
oil was an industry already regulated by various towns before
1650; but the pursuit of the sperm whale did not begin until about
1713. The former industry had died out before the War of In-
dependence; the latter is not yet quite extinct. Nantucket and
New Bedford were the centres of the whaling trade, which, for the
1 In 1905 Massachusetts produced 6o - 7% of the writing paper
manufactured in the country. Besides writing paper, book paper
and building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper.
1 It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction
of cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the Arlcwright
principle was by S. Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790.
energy and skill required and the length (three to five years when
sailing vessels were employed) of the ever-widening voyages which
finally took the fishermen into every quarter of the globe, con-
tributes the most romantic chapters in the history of American
commerce. At one time it gave occupation to a thousand ships,
but the introduction of petroleum gradually diminished this resource
of the lesser ports. The Newfoundland Bank fisheries were of
greater economic importance and are still very important. Glou-
cester is the chief centre of the trade. The value of fishery products
in 1895 was $5,703,143, and in 1905 $7,025,249; and 15,694 persons
were engaged in the fisheries. Though cod is much the most
important fish (in 1905 fresh cod were valued at $991,679, and
salted cod at $696,928), haddock (fresh, $1,051,910; salted, $17,194),
mackerel (value in 1905, including horse mackerel, $970,876),
herring (fresh, $266,699; salted, $114,997), pollock ($267,927),
hake ($258,438), halibut ($218,232), and many other varieties are
taken in great quantities. The shell fisheries are less important
than those of Maine.
Commerce. Already by 1660 New England products were an
" important element in the commerce and industries of the mother
country " (Weeden). Codfish was perhaps the truest basis of her
commerce, which soon came to include the West Indies, Africa and
southern Europe. Of fundamental importance was the trade with
the French West Indies, licit and illicit, particularly after the Peace
of Utrecht (1713). Provisions taken to Newfoundland, poor fish
to the West Indies, molasses to New England, rum to Africa and
good cod to France and Spain, [were the commonest ventures of
foreign trade. The English Navigation Acts were generally evaded,
and were economically of little effect ; politically they were of great
importance in Massachusetts as a force that worked for indepen-
dence. Privateering, piracy and slave-trading which though of
less extent than in Rhode Island became early of importance, and
declined but little before the American War of Independence give
colour to the history of colonial trade.
Trade with China and India from Salem was begun in 1785 (first
voyage from New York, 1784), and was first controlled there, and
afterwards in Boston till the trade was lost to New York. The
Boston trade to the Canadian north-west coast was begun in 1788.
The first regular steamship line from Boston to other American
Atlantic ports was established in 1824. In commercial relations the
chief port of Massachusetts attained its greatest importance about
1840, when it was selected as the American terminus of the first
steamship line (Cunard) connecting Great Britain with the United
States; but Boston lost the commercial prestige then won by the
failure of the state to promote railway communication with the west,
so as to equal the development effected by other cities. The decline
of commerce, however, had already begun, manufacturing sup-
planting it in importance; and this decline was rapid by 1850. From
1840 to 1860 Massachusetts-built ships competed successfully in the
carrying trade of the world. Before 1840 a ship of 500 tons was
a large ship, but after the discovery of gold in California the size
of vessels increased rapidly and their lines were more and more
adapted to speed. The limit of size was reached in an immense
clipper of 4555 tons, and the greatest speed was attained in a passage
from San Francisco to Boston in seventy-five days, and from San
Francisco to Cork in ninety-three days. The development of steam
navigation for the carrying of large cargoes has driven this fleet
from the sea. Only a small part of the exports and imports of
Massachusetts is now carried in American bottoms.* The first
grain elevator built in' Boston, and one of the first in the world, was
erected in 1843, when Massachusetts sent Indian corn to Ireland.
When the Civil War and steam navigation put an end to the supre-
macy of Massachusetts wooden sailing ships, much of the capital
which had been employed in navigation was turned into developing
railway facilities and coasting steamship lines. In 1872 the great
fire in Boston made large drains upon the capital of the state, and
several years of depression followed. But in 1907 Boston was the
second port of the United States in the magnitude of its foreign
commerce. In that year the value of imports at the Boston-Charles-
town customs district was $123,41 1,168, and the value of exports was
$104,610,908; for 1909 the corresponding figures were $127,025,654
and $72,936,869. Other ports of entry in the state in 1909
were Newburyport, Gloucester, Salem, Marblehead, Plymouth,
Barnstable, Nantucket, Edgartown, New Bedford and Fall River.
A protective tariff was imposed in early colonial times and protec-
tion was generally approved in the state until toward the close of
the igth century, when a strong demand became apparent for
reciprocity with Canada and for tariff reductions on the raw materials
(notably hides) of Massachusetts manufactures.
At the end of 1908 the length of railway lines within the state
was 2,iO9'33 miles. The Hoosac Tunnel, 5! m. long, pierces the
Hoosac Mountain in the north-west corner of the state, affording
a communication with western lines. It cost about $20,000,000,
the state lending its credit, and was built between 1855 and 1874.
The inter-urban electric railways are of very great importance in
the state; in 1908 the total mileage of street and inter-urban electric
* The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered
between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768.
MASSACHUSETTS
railways was 2841-59 m. (2233-85 m. being first main track). The
Cape Cod canal, 12 m. long, from Sandwich on Barnstable Bay to
Buzzard's Bay, was begun in June 1909, with a view to shortening
the distance by water from Boston to New York and eliminating the
danger of the voyage round Cape Cod.
Population. The population of the state in 1910 was
3,366,416, the increases in successive decades after 1790 being
respectively n-6, n-6, 10-9, 16-6, 20-9, 34-8, 23-8, 18-4, 22-4,
2 5'6, 25-3 and 20%.' With the exception of Rhode Island, it is
the most densely populated state in the Union, the average
number to the square mile in 1900 being 349 (in 1910, 418-8), and
the urban population, i.e. the population of places having above
8000 or more inhabitants, being 69-9 % in 1890 and in 1900
76-0% of the total population (in places above 2500, 91-5%;
in places above 25,000, 58-3 %). The female population is
greater (and has been since 1765, at least) than the male, the
percentage being in 1900 greater than in any other state of the
Union (51-3 %; District of Columbia, owing to clerks in govern-
ment service 52-6%). In 1900 less than 1-3% of the popu-
lation was coloured; 30-2 % were foreign-born (this element
having almost continuously risen from 16-49% m I ^SS)i
and 62-3% of ah 1 inhabitants and 46-5% of those native-
born had one or both parents of foreign birth. Ireland con-
tributed the largest proportion of the foreign-born (29-5 %),
although since 1875 the proportion of Irish in the total popula-
tion has considerably fallen. After the Irish the leading foreign
elements are Canadian English (18-7 %), Canadian French
(15-8%) and English (9-7%), these four constituting three-
fourths of the foreign population. Since 1885 the natives of
southern Italy have greatly increased in number. Of the in-
crease in total population from 1856-1895 only a third could be at-
tributed to the excess of births over deaths; two- thirds being due
to immigration from other states or from abroad. Boston is the
second immigrant port of the country. A large part of the trans-
atlantic immigrants pass speedily to permanent homes in the west,
but by far the greater part of the Canadian influx remains.
According to the census of 1910 there were 32 incorporated cities 2
in Massachusetts, of which 6 had between 12,000 and 20,000 in-
habitants; 3 between 20,000 and 25,000 (Gloucester, Medford and
North Adams); n between 25,000 and 50,000 (Maiden, Haverhill,
Salem, Newton, Fitchburg, Taunton, Everett, Quincy, Pittsfield,
Waltham, Chicopee); 7 between 50,000 and 100,000 (New Bedford,
Lynn, Springfield, Lawrence, Somerville, Holyoke, Brockton); and
5 more than 100,000 (Boston, 670,585; Worcester, 145,986; Fall
River, 119,295; Lowell, 106,294; Cambridge, 104,839).
Taking quinquennial periods from 1856-1905 the birth-rates were
29-5, 25-3, 26-0, 27-6, 24-2, 25-0, 25-8, 27-6, 27-0 and 24-2 per 1,000,
and the death-rates 17-7,20-7, 18-2,20-8, 18-8,19-8, 19-4, 19-8, l8-oand
16-4.* Pneumonia and consumption, approximately of equal fatality
(15 to 1 8 per 10,000 each), exceed more than twofold the diseases
of next lower fatality, cancer and cholera infantum.
Of males (1,097, 5& 1 ) engaged in 1900 in gainful occupations 47-1 %
were engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits (77-9 in
every 100 m 1870 and 73 in 1900), 27-1 in trade and transportation,
14-2 in domestic and personal service, 7-4 in agricultural pursuits
and 4-2 in professional service. The corresponding percentages for
females (1,169,467) were 46-4 in manufacturing (in 1890, 52 %),
32-3 in domestic and personal service, 13-6 in trade and transporta-
tion, 7-1 in professional service and 0-6 in agriculture. Formerly
farmers' daughters of native stock were much employed in factories ;
but since operatives of foreign birth or parentage have in great part
The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in
1800; 472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in
1 840 1994,51 4 in 1850; 1,231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085
jn 1880; 2,238,943 in 1890; and 2,805,346 in 1900. In 1905, accord-
ing to the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about
7-7% more than in 1900.
2 In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more
than 15,000: Revere, Leominster, Westfield, Attleborough, Peabody,
Hyde Park.
The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for
natives from 14-48 to 19-49; f r . foreigners from 45-87 to 66-68.
The marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19-6,
18-6, 21-0, 19-8, 15-6, 18-6, 18-6, 18-6, 17-4 and 17-4; the ratio of
marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16
years) 61-5, for females (above 14) 46-0; the fecundity of marriages
seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners
as for natives. See Annual Report of the Board of Health (1896),
by S. W. Abbott ; and Sixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and
Deaths in Massachusetts (1906).
taken their places, they have sought other occupations, largely in the
manufacture of small wares in the cities, and particularly in depart-
ments of trade where skilled labour is essential. Household service
is seldom now done, as it formerly was, by women of native stock.
The federal census of 1900 showed that of every 100 persons employed
for gain only 37-5 % were of native descent (that is, had a native-
born father). Natives heavily predominated in agriculture and the
professions, slightly in trade, and held barely more than half of all
governmental positions; but in transportation, personal service,
manufactures, labour and domestic service, the predominance of
the foreign element warranted the assertion of the state Bureau
of Statistics of Labour that " the strong industrial condition of
Massachusetts has been secured and is held not by the labour of
what is called the 'native stock,' but by that of the immigrants."
After the original and exclusively English immigration from 1620 to
1640 there was nothing like regular foreign immigration until the
igth century; and it was a favourite assertion of Dr Palfrey that
the blood of the fishing folk on Cape Cod was more purely English
through two centuries than that of the inhabitants of any English
county.
With foreign immigration the strength of the Roman Catholic
Church has greatly increased: in 1906 of every 1000 of estimated
population 355 were members of the Roman Catholic Church (a
proportion exceeded only in New Mexico and in Rhode Island; 310
was the number per 1000 in Louisiana), and only 148 were com-
municants of Protestant bodies; in 1906 there were 1,080,706
Roman Catholics (out of a total of 1,562,621 communicants of all
denominations), 119,196 Congregationalists, 80,894 Baptists, 65,498
Methodists and 51,636 Protestant Episcopalians.
Reference has been made to " abandoned farms " in Massachusetts.
The desertion of farms was an inevitable result of the opening of
the great cereal regions of the west, but it is by no means character-
istic of Massachusetts alone. The Berkshire district affords an
excellent example of the interrelations of topography, soil and
population. Many hill towns once thriving have long since become
abandoned, desolate and comparatively inaccessible; though with
the development of the summer resident's interests many will
probably eventually regain prosperity. Almost half of the high-
land towns reached their maximum population before the opening
of the igth century, although Berkshire was scarcely settled till after
1760, and three-fourths of them before 1850. On the other hand
three-fourths of the lowland towns reached their maximum since
that date, and half of them since 1880. The lowland population
increased six and a half times in the century, the upland diminished
by an eighth. Socially and educationally the upland has furnished
an interesting example of decadence. Since 1865 (at least) various
parts of Cape Cod have shrunk greatly in population, agriculture
and manufactures, and even in fishing interests; this reconstruction
of industrial and social interests being, apparently, simply part of
the general urban movement a movement toward better oppor-
tunities. What prosperity or stability remains in various Cape Cod
communities is largely due to foreign immigrants especially British-
Americans and Portuguese from the Azores; although the popula-
tion remains, to a degree exceptional in northern states, of native
stock.
Government. Representative government goes back to 1634,
and the bicameral legislature to 1644. The constitution of 1780,
which still endures (the only remaining state constitution of the
i8th century), was framed in the main by Samuel Adams, and as
an embodiment of colonial experience and revolutionary prin-
ciples, and as a model of constitution-making in the early years
of independence, is of very great historical interest. It has been
amended with considerable freedom (37 amendments up to 1907),
but with more conservatism than has often prevailed in the con-
stitutional reform of other states; so that the constitution of
Massachusetts is not so completely in harmony with modern
democratic sentiment as are the public opinion and statute law
of the state. The commonwealth, for example, is still denomi-
nated " sovereign," and education is not declared a constitutional
duty of the commonwealth. One unique feature is the duty of
the supreme court to give legal advice, on request, to the governor
and council. Another almost equally exceptional feature is the
persistence of the colonial executive council, consisting of mem-
bers chosen to represent divisions of the state, who assist the
governor in his executive functions. Massachusetts is also one
of the few states in which the legislature meets in annual session. 4
Townships were represented as such in this body (called the
General Court) until 1856. Religious qualifications for suffrage
and office-holding were somewhat relaxed, except in the case of
4 The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240
to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 186
none of under 100 days), with an almost continual increase in both
respects.
MASSACHUSETTS
Roman Catholics, after 1691.' Real toleration in public opinion
grew slowly through the i8th century, removing the religious
tests of voters; and a constitutional amendment in 1821 explicitly
forbade such tests in the case of office-holders. Property quali-
fications for the suffrage and for office-holding universal through
colonial times were abolished in the main in 1780. From 1821
to 1891 the payment of at least a poll-tax was a condition pre-
cedent to the exercise of the suffrage. An educational test
(dating from 1857) is exacted for the privilege of voting, every
voter being required to be able to read the constitution of the
commonwealth in the English language, and to write his name.
The property qualification of the governor was not abolished until
1892. In the presidential election of 1896, when an unprece-
dentedly large vote was cast, the number of voters registered
was nearly 20 % of the population, and of these nearly 82 %
actually voted. Massachusetts is one of the only two states in
the Union in which elections for state officers are held annually.
In 1888 an act was passed providing for the use in state elections
of a blanket ballot, on which the names of all candidates for
each office are arranged alphabetically under the heading of
that office, and there is no arrangement in party columns. This
was the first state law of the kind in the country. The same
method of voting has been adopted in about two-thirds of the
townships of the state. A limited suffrage was conferred upon
women in 1879. Every female citizen having the qualifications
of a male voter may vote in the city and town elections for
members of the school committee.
A householder with a family may, by recording the proper declara-
tion in a registry of deeds, hold exempt from attachment, levy on
execution, and sale for the payment of debts thereafter contracted
an estate of homestead, not exceeding $800 in value, in a farm or
lot with buildings thereon which he lawfully possesses by lease or
otherwise and occupies as his residence. The exemption does not
extend, however, to the prohibition of sale for taxes, and in case
the householder's buildings are on land which he has leased those
buildings are not exempt from sale or levy for the ground rent. If
the householder has a wife he can mortgage or convey his estate
of homestead only with her consent, and if he dies leaving a widow
or minor children the homestead exemption survives until the
youngest child is twenty-one years of age, or until the death or
marriage of the widow, provided the widow or a child continues to
occupy it.
The scope of state activity has become somewhat remarkable.
In addition to the usual state boards of education (1837), agriculture
(1852), railroad commissioners (1869), health (1869), statistics of
labour, fisheries and game, charity (1879), the dairy bureau (1891),
of insanity (1898), prison, highways, insurance and banking com-
missions, there are also commissions on ballot-law, voting machines,
civil service (1884), uniformity of legislation, gas and electric lighting
corporations, conciliation and arbitration in labour disputes (1886),
&c. There are efficient state boards of registration in pharmacy,
dentistry and medicine. Foods and drugs have been inspected
since 1882. In general it may be said that the excellence of
administrative results is noteworthy. The work of the Bureau
of Statistics of Labor, of the Bureau of Health, of the Board of
Railroad Commissioners, and of the Board of Conciliation and
Arbitration, and the progress of civil service, have been remarkable
for value and efficiency. Almost all state employees are under civil
service rules; the same is true of the city of Boston; and of the
clerical, stenographic, prison, police, civil engineering, fire, labour-
foreman, inspection and bridge tender services of all cities; and
under a law (1894) by which cities and towns may on petition enlarge
the application of their civil service rules. Various other public
services, including even common labourers of the larger towns, are
rapidly passing under civil service regulation. Veterans of the Civil
War have privileges in the administration of the state service. In
the settlement of labour disputes conciliatory methods were suc-
cessful in the formative period, when the parties to disputes adopted
customary attitudes of hostility and fought to the end unless they
were reconciled by the Board to a final agreement or to an agreement
to arbitrate. 2 In this earlier period (before 1900), thanks to the
1 However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be,
required to take (though this was not a condition of the franchise)
the oaths enjoined by parliament in the first year of the reign of
William and Mary as a substitute for the oaths of Allegiance and
Supremacy; and the same still applies to the signing of the
Declaration.
* From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal
arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the
Board, 100 were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending,
and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred
hostilities.
'fforts of the board there was an increase in the frequency of appeal
to arbitration, and settlements by compromise were often made.
Afterwards the number of arbitrations by the board increased in
number: from 1900 to 1908 (inclusive), of 568 controversies sub-
mitted to the board, 525 were settled by an award and 43 by an
induced agreement. In the same period the mediation of the Board
settled disputes affecting 5560 establishments; and in the latter
half of this period labour disputes involving hostilities and of the
magnitude contemplated by the statute governing the Board of
Conciliation and Arbitration had almost disappeared. The laws
relating to labour are full, but, as compared with those of other
states, present few features calling for comment.' In 1899 eight
hours were made to constitute a day s work for all labourers employed
by or for any city or town adopting the act at an annual election.
Acts have been passed extending the common-law liability of
employers, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of sweat-shop
clothing, and authorizing cities and towns to provide free lectures
and to maintain public baths, gymnasia and playgrounds. Boston
has been a leader in the establishment of municipal baths. The
state controls and largely maintains two beaches magnificently
equipped near the city. The Massachusetts railroad commission,
though preceded in point of time by that of New Hampshire of 1844,
was the real beginning of modern state commissions. Its powers
do not extend to direct and mandatory regulation, being supervisory
and advisory only, but it can make recommendations at its dis-
cretion, appealing if necessary to the General Court ; and it has had
great influence and excellent results. The Torrens system of land
registration was adopted in 1898, and a court created for its admini-
stration. In the case of all quasi-public corporations rigid laws
exist prohibiting the issue of stock or bonds unless the par value
is first paid in; prohibiting the declaration of any stock or scrip
dividend, and requiring that new stock shall be offered to stock-
holders at not less than its market value, to be determined by the
E roper state officials, any shares not so subscribed for to be sold
y public auction. These laws are to prevent fictitious capitaliza-
tion and " stock-watering." In the twenty years preceding 1880
60 % of all sentences for crime were found traceable to liquor. In
1881 a local option law was passed, by which the granting of licences
for the sale of liquor was confined to cities and towns voting at the
annual election to authorize their issue. In 1888 the number of
licences to be granted in municipalities voting in favour of their
issue was limited to one for each 1000 inhabitants, except in Boston,
where one licence may be issued for every 500 inhabitants. The
vote varies from year to year, and it is not unusual for a certain
number of municipalities to change from " licence " to " no licence,"
and vice versa. The general result has been that centres of population,
especially where the foreign element is large, usually vote for licence,
while those in which native population predominates, as well as the
smaller towns, usually vote for prohibition. Through a growing
acquiescence in the operation of the local option law, the relative
importance of the vote of the Prohibition Party has diminished.
Since 1895 indeterminate sentences have been imposed on all con-
victs sentenced to the state prison otherwise than for life or as
habitual criminals; i.e. maximum and minimum terms are estab-
lished by law and on the expiration of the latter a revocable permit
of liberty may be issued. Execution by electricity has been the
death penalty since 1898. Stringent legislation controls prison
labour.
The extension of state activity presents some surprising features
in view of the strength of local self-sufficiency nurtured by the old
system of township government. But this form of pure democracy
was in various cases long since inevitably abandoned : by Boston
reluctantly in 1822, and subsequently by many other townships
or cities, as growing population made action in town meeting un-
bearably cumbersome. In modern times state activity has encroached
on the cities. Especially has the commonwealth undertaken certain
noteworthy enterprises as the agent of the several municipalities
in the immediate vicinity of Boston, constituting what is known as
the Metropolitan District ; as, for example, in bringing water thither
from the Nashua River at Clinton, 40 m. from Boston, and in the
development of a magnificent park system of woods, fells, river-banks
and seashore, unrivalled elsewhere in the country. The common-
wealth joined the city of Boston in the construction of a subway
beneath the most congested portion of the city for the passage of
electric cars. For the better accommodation of the increasing
commerce of the port of Boston, the commonwealth bought a con-
siderable frontage upon the harbour lines and constructed a dock
capable of receiving the largest vessels, and has supplemented the
work of the United States government in deepening the approaches
to the wharves. It has secured as public reservations the summit
and sides of Greylock (3535 ft.) in the north-west corner of the
state, and of Wachusett (2108 ft.) near the centre. Since 1885
a large expenditure has been incurred in the abolition of grade
* For a summary statement of state labour laws in the United
States in 1903 see Bulletin 54 of the United States Bureau of Labor,
September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at the
end of 1907 see 22nd Annual Report (for 1907) of the U.S. Com-
missioner of Labor (Washington, 1908).
8 5 6
MASSACHUSETTS
crossings of railways and highways, 1 and in 1894 the commonwealth
began the construction and maintenance of state highways. 2
Since 1885, in Boston, and since 1894, in Fall River, the admini-
stration of the city police departments, including the granting of
liquor licences, has been in the hands of state commissioners (one
commissioner in Boston, a board in Fall River) appointed by the
governor. But though in each case the result has been an improved
administration, it has been generally conceded that only most
exceptional circumstances can justify such interference with local
sejf-government, and later attempts to extend the practice have
failed. The referendum has been sparingly used in matters of local
concern. Beginning in 1892 various townships and cities, numbering
18 in 1903, adopted municipal ownership and operation of lighting
works. The gasworks have been notably more successful than the
electric plants.
In Massachusetts, as in New England generally, the word " town "
is used, officially and colloquially, to designate a township, and
during the colonial era the New England town-meeting was a notable
school for education in self-government. The members of the first
group of settlers in these colonies were mostly small farmers, be-
longed to the same church, and dwelt in a village for protection
from the Indians. They adapted to these conditions some of the
methods for managing local affairs with which they had been familiar
in England, and called the resultant institution a town. The
territorial extent of each town was determined by its grant or grants
from the general court, which the towns served as agents in the
management of land. A settlement or " plantation was some-
times incorporated first as a " district " and later as a town, the
difference being that the latter had the right of corporate representa-
tion in the general court, while the former had no such right. The
towns elected (until 1856) the deputies to the general court, and
were the administrative units for the assessment and collection of
taxes, maintaining churches and schools, organizing and training
the militia, preserving the peace, caring for the poor, building and
repairing roads and bridges, and recording deeds, births, deaths
and marriages; and to discuss questions relating to these matters
as well as other matters of peculiarly local concern, to determine
the amount of taxes for town purposes, and to elect officers. All the
citizens were expected to attend the annual town-meeting, and such
male inhabitants as were not citizens were privileged to attend and
to propose and discuss measures, although they had no right to vote.
Generally several villages have grown up in the same " town,"
and some of the more populous towns," usually those in which
manufacturing has become more important than farming, have been
incorporated as " cities "; thus either a town or a city may now
include a farming country and various small villages. Although
the tendency in Massachusetts is towards chartering as cities
" towns " which have a population of 12,000 or more, the democratic
institution of the town-meeting persists in many large municipalities
which are still technically towns. 3 Most " towns " hold their annual
meeting in March, but some hold them in February and others in
April. In the larger " towns " the officers elected at this meeting
may consist of five, seven or nine selectmen, a clerk, a treasurer,
three or more assessors, three or more overseers of the poor, one
or more collectors of taxes, one or more auditors, one or more
surveyors of highways, a road commissioner, a sewer commis-
sioner, a board of health, one or more constables, two or more
field drivers, two or more fence viewers, and a tree warden; but
in the smaller " towns " the number of selectmen may be limited
to three, the selectmen may assess the taxes, be overseers of
the poor, and act as a board of health, and the treasurer or
constable may collect the taxes. The term of all these officers
may be limited to one year, or the selectmen, clerk, assessors and
overseers of the poor may be elected for a term of three years, in
which case a part only of the selectmen, assessors and overseers
of the poor are elected each year. The selectmen have the general
management of a " town's " affairs during the interval between
town-meetings. They may call special town-meetings; they ap-
point election officers and may appoint additional constables or
1 The usual allotment of the cost of this work is as follows:
65 % is paid by the railway company, 25 % by the commonwealth
and 10 % by the municipality in which the crossing is located.
2 The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the
local government in the proportion of 3 to I.
3 Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until
1822, when it had a population of some 47,000! The government
of Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the
adaptation of the township system to urban conditions. The town
is frequently referred to as a model residential suburb ; its budgets
are very large, its schools. are excellent, and, among other things,
it has established a township gymnasium. The town hall is not
large enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the
attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there
has been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure
passed by a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be
referred, upon petition of loo legal voters, to a regular vote at the
polls. Much of the work of the town-meetings is done through
special committees.
public officers, and such minor officials as inspectors of milk, in
spectors of buildings, gauger of measures, cullers of staves and hoops.,
fish warden and forester. >A school committee consisting of any
number of members divisible by three is chosen, one-third each
year, at the annual town-meeting or at a special meeting which is held
in the same month. Any " town " having a village or district within
its limits that contains 1000 inhabitants or more may authorize that
village or district to establish a separate organization for lighting
its streets, building and maintaining sidewalks, and employing a
watchman or policeman, the officers of such organization to include
at least a prudential committee and a clerk. All laws relative to
"towns " are applied to " cities " in so far as they are not incon-
sistent with general or special laws relative to the latter, and the
powers of the selectmen are vested in the mayor and aldermen.
Education. For cities of above 8000 inhabitants (for which
alone comparative statistics are annually available), in 1902-
1903 the ratio of average attendance to school enrolment, the
average number of days' attendance of each pupil enrolled, and
the value of school property per capita of pupils in average
attendance were higher than in any other state; the average
length of the school term was slightly exceeded in eight states;
and the total cost of the schools per capita of pupils in average
attendance ($39-05) was exceeded in six other states. In 1905-
1906 the percentage of average attendance in the public schools
to the number of children (between 5 and 1 5 years) in the state
was 80; in Barnstable county it was 95, and in Plymouth 92;
and the lowest rate of any county was 68, that of Bristol. In
the same year the amount of the various school taxes and other
contributions was $30-53 for each child in the average member-
ship of the public schools, and the highest amount for each child
in any county was $35-77 in Suffolk county, and in any township
or city $68-01 in Lincoln. The school system is not one of
marked state centralization as contrasted, e.g. with New
York. A state board of education has general control, its
secretary acting as superintendent of the state system in
conjunction with local superintendents and committees. Women
are eligible for these positions, and among the teachers in the
schools they are greatly in excess over men (more than 10 to i),
especially in lower grades. No recognition exists in the schools
of race, colour or religion. The proportion of the child popula-
tion that attends schools is equalled in but two or three states
east of the Mississippi river. The services of Horace Mann (q.v.)
as secretary of the state board (1837-1848) were productive of
almost revolutionary benefits not only to Massachusetts but to
the entire country. His reforms, which reached every part of the
school system, were fortunately introduced just at the beginning
of railway and city growth. Since 1850 truant and compulsory
attendance laws (the first compulsory education law was passed
in 1642) have been enforced in conjunction with laws against
child labour. In 1900 the average period of schooling per inhabi-
tant for the United States was 4-3 years, for Massachusetts 7
years. (The same year the ratio of wealth productivity was as
66 to 37.) Massachusetts stands " foremost in the Union in
the universality of its provision for secondary' education." 4
The laws practically offer such education free to every child of
the commonwealth. Illiterate persons not less than ten years
of age constituted in 1900 5-9 % of the population; and 0-8,
14-6, 10-7 % respectively of native whites, foreign-born whites
and negroes. More patents are issued, relatively, to citizens of
Massachusetts than to those of any other state except Connecti-
cut. Post office statistics indicate a similarly high average of
intelligence.
The public school system includes common, high and normal
schools, and various evening, industrial and truant schools. Many
townships and cities maintain free evening schools. In 1894 manual
training was made a part of the curriculum in all municipalities
having 20,000 inhabitants. There are also many private business
colleges, academic schools and college-preparatory schools. The
high schools enjoy an exceptional reputation. An unusual pro-
portion of teachers in the public schools are graduates of the state
normal schools, of which the first were founded in 1839 at Lexington
and Barre, the former being the first normal school of the United
' E. G. Brown, in Monographs on Education in the United States
prepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N. M.
Butler.
MASSACHUSETTS
857
States. 1 These two schools were removed subsequently to Framing-
ham (1853) and Westfield (1844), where they are still active; while
others flourish at Bridgewater (1840), Salem (1854), Worcester
(1874), Fitchburg (1895), North Adams (1897), Hyannis (1897) and
Lowell (1897), that at Framingham being open to women only.
There is also a state normal art school at Boston (1873) for both
sexes.
The commonwealth contributes to the support of textile schools
in cities in which 450,000 spindles are in operation. Such schools
exist (1909) in Lowell, Fall River and New Bedford. The common-
wealth also maintains aboard a national ship a nautical training
school (1891) for instruction in the science and practice of -naviga-
tion. During the Spanish-American War of 1898 more than half
of the graduates and cadets of the school enlisted in the United
States service.
There are several hundred private schools, whose pupils con-
stituted in 1905-1906 15-7 % of the total school-enrolment of the
state. Of higher academies and college-preparatory schools there
are scores. Among those for boys Phillips Academy, at Andover,
the Groton school, and the Mount Hermon school are well-known
examples. For girls the largest school is the Northfield Seminary
at East Northfield. In Boston and in the towns in its environs
are various famous schools, among them the boys' classical school
in Boston, founded in 1635, one of the oldest secondary schools in
the country. The leading educational institution of the state, as it
is the oldest and most famous of the country, is Harvard University
(founded 1636) at Cambridge. In the extreme north-west of the
state, at Williamstown, is Williams College (1793), and in the Con-
necticut Valley is Amherst College (1821), both of these unsectarian.
Boston University (Methodist Episcopal, 1867) ; Tufts College
(1852), a few miles from Boston in Medford, originally a Universalist
school; Clark University (1889, devoted wholly to graduate in-
struction until 1902, when Clark College was added), at Worcester,
are important institutions. Two Roman Catholic schools are
maintained Boston College (1863) and the College of the Holy
Cross (1843), at Worcester. Of various institutions for the educa-
tion of women, Mount Holyoke (1837) at South Hadley, Smith College
(1875) at Northampton, Wellesley College (1875) at Wellesley near
Boston, Radcliffe College (1879) in connexion with Harvard at
Cambridge and Simmons College (1899) at Boston, are of national
repute. The last emphasizes scientific instruction in domestic
economy.
For agricultural students the state supports a school at Amherst
(1867), and Harvard University the Bussey Institution. In techno-
logical science special instruction is given in addition to the scientific
departments of the schools already mentioned in the Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (1865), and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (opened in 1865). There are schools of theology at
Cambridge (Protestant Episcopal), Newton (Baptist) and Waltham
(New Church), as well as in connexion with Boston University
(Methodist), Tufts College (Universalist) and Harvard (non-sectarian,
and the affiliated Congregational Andover Theological Seminary
at Cambridge). Law and medical schools are maintained in Boston
and Harvard universities.
Public Institutions. Massachusetts was in 1903, in proportion
to the population, more richly provided with public collections of
books than any other state: in that year she had nearly a
seventh of all books in public, society and school libraries in
the country, and a much larger supply of books per capita (2-56)
than any other state. The rate for New York, the only state
having a larger number of books in such libraries, being only 1-19.
The Boston public library, exceeded in size in the United States
by the library of Congress at Washington and probably first,
because of the large number of duplicates in the library of Con-
gress and the largest free municipal library in the world; the
library of Harvard, extremely well chosen and valuable for
research; the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society
(1791); the Boston Athenaeum (1807); the State Library (1826);
the New England Historic Genealogical Society (1845); the Con-
gregational Library; the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
(1780); and the Boston Society of Natural History (1830), all in
Boston, leave it easily unrivalled, unless by Washington, as the
best research centre of the country. The collections of the
American Antiquarian Society (1812) at Worcester are also
notable. Massachusetts led, about 1850, in the founding of
town and city libraries supported by public taxes, and by 1880
had established more of such institutions than existed in all
other states combined. In 1900 out of 353 towns and cities
1 This is an especially honourable distinction, for William T.
Harris has said that " The history of education since the time of
Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive modifica-
tions introduced into elementary schools through the direct or
indirect influence of the normal school."
only five, representing less than half of i %, were without free
library facilities, and three of these five had association libraries
charging only a small fee.
The state is very well supplied with charitable and reformatory
institutions, in which noteworthy methods have been employed
with success. The state institutions, each governed by a board
of trustees, and all under the supervision of the state board of
charity, include a state hospital at Tewksbury, for paupers (1866);
a state farm at Bridgewater (1887) for paupers and petty criminals;
the Lyman school for boys at Westboro, a reformatory for male
criminals under fifteen years of age sentenced to imprisonment for
terms less than life in connexion with which a very successful farm
is maintained for the younger boys at Berlin; an industrial school
for girls at Lancaster, also a reformatory school a third reformatory
school for boys was planned in 1909; a state sanatorium at Rutland
for tuberculous patients (the first public hospital for such in the
United States) and a hospital school at Canton for the care and
instruction of crippled and deformed children. Three more hospitals
for consumptives were planned in 1909. Under the supervision
of the state board of insanity, and each under the government of
a board of seven trustees (of whom two are women) are state hospitals
for the insane at Worcester (1833), Taunton, Northampton, Danvers,
Westboro and Medford, a state colony for the insane at Gardner,
a state hospital for epileptics at Palmer, a state school for the feeble-
minded at Waltham (governed by six trustees), a state school at
Wrentham, state " hospital cottages for children " (1882) at Baldwin-
ville (governed by five trustees), and the Foxboro state hospital for
dipsomaniacs and insane. There are also semi-state institutions
for the insane at Wayerley, Barre, Wrentham and Baldwinyille,
and nineteen small private institutions, all under the supervision
of the state board of insanity. Under the supervision of a board
of prison commissioners, which appoints the superintendent and
warden of each, are a reformatory prison for women at Sherborn
(1877), a state reformatory for men at Concord (1884), a state prison
at Boston (Charlestown), and a prison camp and hospital at Rutland
(1905). There is a prison department at the state farm which
receives misdemeanants. Other institutions receiving state aid,
each governed by trustees appointed by the governor, are the
Massachusetts general hospital at Boston, the Massachusetts charit-
able eye and ear infirmary at Boston, the Massachusetts homoeo-
pathic hospital at Boston, the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts
school for the blind at South Boston and the soldiers' home in
Massachusetts at Boston. The Horace Mann school in Boston,
a public day school for the deaf, the New England industrial school
for deaf mutes at Beverly and the Clarke school for the deaf at
Northampton are maintained in part by the state. Finally, many
private charitable corporations (about 500 in 1905) report to the
state board of charity, and town and city almshouses (205 in 1904)
are subject to visitation. The Perkins Institution is memorable
for its association with the fame of S. G. Howe (q.v.), whose reforms
in charity methods were felt through all the charitable interests
of the state. The net yearly cost of support and relief from 1884
to 1904 averaged $2,136,653, exclusive of vagrancy cases (average
$31,714). The whole number of paupers, besides vagrants, in 1908
was 23-02 per 1000 of state population, and the cost of relief
($5,104,255) was $1-699 f r each inhabitant of the state. The
number of sane paupers declined steadily and markedly from 1863
to 1904.
Finance. Massachusetts is a very rich state, and Boston
a very wealthy city. The debt of the state (especially the con-
tingent debt, secured by sinking funds) has been steadily rising
since 1888, and especially since 1896, chiefly owing to the erec-
tion of important public buildings, the construction of state
highways and metropolitan park roadways, the improvement
of Boston harbour, the abolition of grade crossings on railways,
and the expenses incurred for the Spanish-American War of
1898.
The net direct funded debt (also secured by accumulating sinking
funds) in December 1908 was $17,669,372 (3-61 millions in 1893).
The average interest on this and the contingent debt ($60,428,223
in December 1908) combined was only 3-35 %. The net debts of
towns and cities rose in the years 1885-1908 from $63,306,213 to
$163,558,325. The county debts in 1908 aggregated $6,076,867. The
assessed valuation of realty in the state in 1908 was $2,799,062,707
and of personalty $1,775,073,438. No other state has given so
vigorous a test of the ordinary American general-property tax, and
the results have been as discouraging as elsewhere. The " doom-
ing " process (i.e. estimation by assessors, without relief for over-
valuation except for excess more than 50% above the proper
valuation) was introduced in 1868 as a method of securing returns
of personalty. But the most rigorous application of the doomage
law has only proved its complete futility as an effort to reach un-
ascertained corporate and personal property. 1 Various special
1 In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60 % that of realty; but
it steadily fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32 %. From 1874-
8 5 8
MASSACHUSETTS
methods are used for the taxation of banks, insurance companies,
railways, tramways, trust companies and corporations, some of
them noteworthy. In the case of corporations realty and machinery
are taxed generally by the local authorities, and stock values by
the commonwealth. The Boston stock exchange is the second of
the country in the extent of the securities in which it deals. The
proportion of holders of U.S. bonds among the total population is
higher than that in any other state.
History. It is possible that the coasts of Massachusetts were
visited by the Northmen, and by the earliest navigators who
followed Cabot, but this is only conjecture. In 1602 Bartholo-
mew Gosnold landed at and named Cape Cod and coasted as far
south as the. present No-Man's Land, which he named Martin's
or Martha's Vineyard, a name later transferred to a neighbouring
larger island. Pring and Champlain at a later date coasted
along what is now Massachusetts, but the map of Champlain is
hardly recognizable. The first sufficient explorations for carto-
graphical record were made by John Smith in 1614, and his map
was long the basis particularly in its nomenclature of later
maps. Permanency of occupation, however, dates from the
voyage of the " Mayflower," which brought about a hundred
men, women and children who had mostly belonged to an English
sect of Separatists, originating in Yorkshire, but who had passed
a period of exile for religion's sake in Holland. In the early
winter of 1620 they made the coast of Cape Cod; they had
intended to make their landing farther south, within the juris-
diction of the Virginia Company, which had granted them a
patent; but stress of weather prevented their doing so. Finding
. themselves without warrant in a region beyond their patent,
and threatened with the desertion of disaffected members of their
company (probably all servants or men of the " lesser " sort)
unless concessions were made to these, they drew up and signed
before landing a democratic compact of government which is
accounted the earliest written constitution in history. 1 After
some exploration of the coast they made a permanent land-
ing on the zist of December 1620 (N.S.) at Plymouth, a
harbour which had already been so named by John Smith in
his maps of 1614 and 1616. During the first winter nearly one-
half their number died from exposure, and the relations of the
survivors with their partners of the London Company, who had
insisted that for seven years the plantation should be managed
as a joint stock company, were unsatisfactory. However,
about thirty-five new colonists arrived in 1622 and ninety-six
more in 1623. The abandonment of the communal system /was
begun in the latter year, and with the dissolution of the partner-
ship with the adventurers of the London Company in 1627
Plymouth became a corporate colony with its chief authority
vested in the whole body of freemen convened in the General
Court. Upon the death of the first governor, John Carver, in
the spring of 1621, the General Court chose William Bradford
as his successor, and with him was chosen one assistant. The
subsequent elections were annual, and within a few years the
number of assistants was increased to seven. The General
Court was the legislature and the electorate; the governor and
assistants were the executive and the judiciary. The whole
body of freemen composed the General Court until other towns
than Plymouth had been organized, the first of which were
Scituate in 1636 and Duxbury in 1637, and then the representa-
tive form of government was adopted and there was a gradual
differentiation between Plymouth the town and Plymouth the
1882 the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as
much as personalty. In the intervening period the assessed valua-
tion of realty in Boston increased more than 100%, while that of
personalty slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the
entire United States from 1860 to 1890 being 172% and 12%), yet
the most competent business and expert opinions regarded the true
value of personalty as at least equal to and most likely twice as
great as that of realty.
1 In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of differ-
ences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts Bay,
the signatories " solemnly and mutually . . . covenant and combine
ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering
and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by
virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame ;[laws] unto which
we promise all due submission and obedience." This was signed
11/21 of November 1620 by 41 persons.
colony. When it had become known that the colony was within
the territory of the New England Council, John Pierce, in 1621,
procured from that body a grant which made the colonists its
;enants. A year later Pierce surrendered this and procured
another, which in effect made him proprietor of the colony, but
was twice shipwrecked and was forced to assign to the adven-
turers his second patent. In 1629 Governor Bradford procured
irom the same council a definite grant of the tract which corre-
sponds to the south-eastern portion of the present state. But
all attempts to procure a royal charter for Plymouth Colony were
unsuccessful, and in 1691 it was annexed to the Colony of Massa-
chusetts Bay under what is termed the Provincial Charter.
King James having by patent in 1620 created a Council for
New England to whom he made a large grant of territory, the
council in 1628 made a sub-grant, confirmed by a royal charter
that passed the seals on the 4th of March 1629, to the "Governor
and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in Newe England."
There had been various minor expeditions during the few years
since Smith was on the coast before this company, in the Puritan
interests, had sent over John Endecott with a party in 1628 to
what is now Salem. In 1630 the government of the company,
with questionable right (for the charter seems evidently to have
contemplated the residence of the company in England), trans-
ferred itself to their territory, and under the leadership of John
Winthrop laid the foundations anew of the Massachusetts colony
when they first settled Boston in the autumn of that year.
Winthrop served repeatedly, though not continuously, as gover-
nor of the colony till his death in 1649, his rejection in 1636 being
due to a party of theological revolt which chose Henry Vane
(afterwards Sir Henry) to the office. This was an incident in a
famous episode, important rather as a symptom than in itself,
namely, the Antinomian controversy, " New England's earliest
protest against formulas," in which Vane and Ann Hutchinson
took the lead in criticizing the official orthodoxy of the colony.
The magistrates successfully asserted themselves to the dis-
comfiture of their critics (Ann Hutchinson being banished),
and this was characteristic of the colony's early history. The
charter gave the company control over the admission of " free-
men " (co-partners in the enterprise, and voters), "full and
absolute power and authority to correct, punish and rule "
subjects settling in the territory comprised in their grant, and
power to " resist ... by all fitting ways and means whatever "
all persons attempting the " destruction, invasion, detriment or
annoyance " of the plantation. Some writers deny the company's
right under this instrument to rule as they proceeded to do;
but at any rate what they did was to make the suffrage depen-
dent on stringent religious tests, and to repress with determined
zeal all theological " vagaries " and " whimsies." Criticism of
church or magistrates was not tolerated. Laws were modelled
closely on the Bible. The clergy were a ruling class,
government was frankly theocratic. Said Winthrop (1637):
" We see not that any should have authority to set up any other
exercises besides what authority hath already set up "; and a
synod at Cambridge in 1637 catalogued eighty-two " opinions,
some blasphemous, others erroneous and all unsafe," besides
nine " unwholesome expressions," all of which were consigned
" to the devil of hell from whence they came." Another synod
at Cambridge in 1647 more formally established the principle
of state control. The legislation against Baptists (about 1644-
1678) and the persecution of the Quakers (especially 1656-1662)
partook of the brutality of the time, including scourging, boring
of tongues, cutting of ears and in rare cases capital punishment,
cannot be denied that men like Roger Williams and some of the
persecuted Quakers, though undeniably contentious and aggres-
sive in their conscientious dissent, showed a spirit which to-day
seems sweeter in tolerance and humanity than that of the Puri-
tans. And it seems necessary to emphasize these facts because
until about 1870 it was almost unchallenged tradition to regard
the men of Massachusetts Bay as seekers and champions of
" religious liberty." They left, England, indeed, for liberty
to discard the " poperies " of the English Church, and once
in Massachusetts they even discarded far more than those
MASSACHUSETTS
859
" poperies." But religious liberty in our modern sense they did
not seek for themselves, nor accord to others; they abhorred it,
they trampled on it, and their own lives they subjected to all the
rigid restrictions to which they subjected others. They were
narrow but strong; no better example can be imagined of what the
French call " the defects of one's qualities." Their failures were
small compared with those of their contemporaries in England
and elsewhere in Europe, and public opinion did not long sustain
violent persecution of opinion. More than once mobs freed
Quaker prisoners. Also it is to be said that with the single
exception of religious toleration the record of the state in devo-
tion to human rights has been from the first a splendid one,
whether in human principles of criminal law, or in the defence
of the civil rights commonly declared in American constitutions.
It was 'once generally assumed that the repression practised
attained its end of securing harmony of opinion. The fact
seems to be that intellectual speculation was as strong in America
as in Puritan England; the assumption that the inhibition of its
expression was good seems wholly gratuitous, and contrary to
general convictions underlying modern freedom of speech. A
safer opinion is probably that " the spiritual growth of Massa-
chusetts withered under the shadow of dominant orthodoxy;
the colony was only saved from mental atrophy by its vigorous
political life " (J. A. Doyle). In literature the second half of
the lyth century is a sterile waste of forbidding theology; and
its life, judged by the present day, singularly sombre.
In addition to the few persons banished to Rhode Island,
theological and political differences led many to emigrate thither.
Others, discontented with Massachusetts autocracy and wishing,
too, " to secure more room," went to Connecticut (q.v.) where
they established a bulwark against the Dutch of New York.
A witchcraft scare (at its worst in 1691-1697, though the
earliest Connecticut case was in 1646-1647 and the earliest in
Boston in 1648) led to another tragedy of ignorance. In all
thirty-two persons were executed (according to W. F. Poole,
about a thousandth part of those executed for witchcraft in the
British Isles in the i6th and i7th centuries). Salem was the
scene of the greatest excitement in 1691-1692.
Exceptionally honourable to the early colonists was their
devotion to education (see HARVARD UNIVERSITY and BOSTON).
Massachusetts Bay had a large learned element; it is supposed
that about 1640 there was an Oxford or Cambridge graduate
to every 250 persons in the colony. The earliest printing
in the British-American colonies was done at Cambridge in
1639; it was not until 1674 that the authorities of the colony
permitted printing, except at Cambridge. Boston and Cam-
bridge remain leading publishing centres to-day. The first
regular newspaper of Boston, the Boston Newsletter, was the
pioneer of the American newspaper press.
The early history was rendered unquiet at times by wars
with the Indians, the chief of which were the Pequot War
in 1637, and King Philip's War in 1675-76; and for better
combining against these enemies, Massachusetts, with Con-
necticut, New Haven and New Plymouth, formed a confederacy
in 1643, considered the prototype of the larger union of the
colonies which conducted the War of American Independence
(1775-83). The struggle with the Crown, which ended in
independence, began at the foundation of the colony, with
assumptions of power under the charter which the colonial
government was always trying to maintain, and the crown
was as assiduously endeavouring to counteract. After more
than half a century of struggle, the crown finally annulled
the charter of the colony in 1684, though not until 1686 was
the old government actually supplanted on the arrival of Joseph
Dudley, a native of the colony, as president of a provisional
council; later, Sir Edmund Andros was sent over with a com-
mission to unite New York and New England under his rule.
The colonists had been for many years almost independent ;
they made their own laws, the Crown appointed natives as
officials, and the colonial interpretation of the old charter
had in general been allowed to stand. Massachusetts had
excluded the English Book of Common Prayer, she had restricted
the franchise, laid the death penalty .on religious opinions,
and passed various other laws repugnant to the Crown, notably
to Charles II. and James II.; she had caused laws and writs
to run in her own name, she had neglected to exact the oath
of allegiance to the sovereign, though carefully exacting an
oath of fidelity to her own government, she had protected
the regicides, she had coined money with her own seal, she
had blocked legal appeals to the English courts, she had not
compelled the observance of the navigation acts. The revo-
cation of the charter aroused the strongest fears of the colonists
Andros speedily met determined opposition by measures under-
taken relative to taxation and land titles, by efforts to secure
a church for Episcopal service, and an attempt to curb the
town meetings. His government was supported by a small
party (largely an Anglican Church party), but was intensely
unpopular with the bulk of the people; and it is a disputed
question, whether before or after news arrived of the landing
in England of William of Orange in April 1689 the citizens
of Boston rose in revolution, deposed Andros, imprisoned him
and re-established their old colonial form of government. Then
came a struggle, carried on in England by Increase Mather as
agent (1688-1692) of the colony, to secure such a form of govern-
ment under a new charter as would preserve as many as possible
of their old liberties. Plymouth Colony, acting through its
agent in London, endeavoured to secure a separate existence
by royal charter, but accepted finally union with Massachusetts
when association with New York became the probable alter-
native. The province of Maine was also united in the new
provincial charter of 1691, and Sir William Phips came over
with it, commissioned as the first royal governor. As has been
mentioned already, the new charter softened religious tests
for office and the suffrage, and accorded " liberty of conscience "
except to Roman Catholics. The old religious exclusiveness
had already been greatly lessened: the clergy were less powerful,
heresy had thrived under repression, Anglican churchmen had
come to the colony and were borne with perforce, devotion to
trade and commerce had weakened theological tests in favour
of ideals of mere good order and prosperity, and a spirit of
toleration had grown.
Throughout the continuance of the" government under the
provincial charter, there was a constant struggle between a
prerogative party, headed by the royal governor, and a popular
party who cherished recollections of their practical independence
under the colonial charter, and who were nursing the sentiments
which finally took the form of resistance in 1775. The inter-
charter period, 1686-1691, is of great importance in this con-
nexion. The popular majority kept up the feeling of hostility to
the royal authority in recurrent combats in the legislative
assembly over the salary to be voted to the governor; though
these antagonisms were from time to time forgotten in the wars
with the French and Indians. During the earl of Bellomont's
administration, New York was again united with Massachusetts
under the same executive (1697-1701). The scenes of the
recurrent wars were mostly distant from Massachusetts proper,
either in Maine or on Canadian or Acadian territory, although
some savage inroads of the Indians were now and then made on
the exposed frontier towns, as, for instance, upon Deerfield
in 1704 and upon Haverhill in 1708. Phips, who had succeeded
in an attack on Port Royal, had ignominiously failed when
he led the Massachusetts fleet against Quebec in 1690; and the
later expedition of 1711 was no less a failure. The most note-
worthy administration was that of William Shirley (1741-1749
and 1753-1756), who at one time was the commanding officer
of the British forces in North America. He made a brilliant
success of the expedition against Louisburg in 1745, William
Pepperell, a Maine officer, being in immediate command.
Shirley with Massachusetts troops also took part in the Oswego
expedition of 1755; and Massachusetts proposed, and lent the
chief assistance in the expedition of Nova Scotia in 1755
which ended in the removal of the Acadians. Her officers and
troops also played an important part in the Crown Point and
second Louisburg expedition (1758).
86o
MASSACHUSETTS
The first decided protests against the exercise of sovereign
power by the crown, the first general moral and political revolt
that marked the approach of the American War of Independence,
took place in Massachusetts; so that the most striking events
in the general history of the colonies as a whole from 1760
to 1775 are an intimate part of her annals. The beginning
of the active opposition to the crown may be placed in the
resistance, led by James Otis, to the issuing of writs (after
1752, Otis's famous argument against them being made in 1760-
1761) to compel citizens to assist the revenue officers; followed
later by the outburst of feeling at the imposition of the Stamp
Act (1765), when Massachusetts took the lead in confronting
the royal power. The governors put in office at this time
by the crown were not of conciliatory temperaments, and the
measures instituted in parliament (see UNITED STATES) served
to increase bitterness of feeling. Royal troops sent to Boston
(several regiments, 1768) irritated the populace, who were highly
excited at the time, until in an outbreak on the 5th of March
1770 a file of garrison troops shot down in self-defence a few
citizens in a crowd which assailed them. This is known as
the " Boston Massacre." The merchants combined to prevent
the importation of goods which by law would yield the crown
a revenue; and the patriots as the anti-prerogative party
called themselves under the lead of Samuel Adams, instituted
regular communication between the different towns, and after-
wards, following the initiative of Virginia, with the other colonies,
through " committees of correspondence "; a method of the
utmost advantage thereafter in forcing on the revolution
by intensifying and unifying the resistance of the colony, and
by inducing the co-operation of other colonies. In 1773
(Dec. 16) a party of citizens, disguised as Indians and
instigated by popular meetings, boarded some tea-ships
in the harbour of Boston, and to prevent the landing of their
taxable cargoes threw them into the sea; this incident is known
in history as the " Boston tea-party." Parliament in retalia-
tion closed the port of Boston (1774), a proceeding which only
aroused more bitter feeling in the country towns and enlisted
the sympathy of the other colonies. The governorship was
now given to General Thomas Gage, who commanded the
troops which had been -sent to Boston. Everything foreboded
an outbreak. Most of the families of the highest social position
were averse to extreme measures; a large number were not won
over and became expatriated loyalists. The popular agitators,
headed by Samuel Adams with whom John Hancock, an
opulent merchant and one of the few of the richer people who
deserted the crown, leagued himself forced on the movement,
which became war in April 1775, when Gage sent an expedition
to Concord and Lexington to destroy military stores accumulated
by the patriots and to capture Adams and Hancock, temporarily
staying at Lexington. This detachment, commanded by
Lord Percy, was assaulted, and returned with heavy loss.
The country towns now poured their militia into Cambridge,
opposite Boston; troops came from neighbouring colonies,
and Artemas Ward, a Massachusetts general, was placed in
command of the irregular force, which with superior numbers
at once shut the royal army up in Boston. An attempt of
the provincials to seize and hold a commanding hill in Charles-
town brought on the battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775),
in which the provincials were driven from the ground,
although they lost much less heavily than the royal troops.
Washington, chosen by the Continental Congress to command
the army, arrived in Cambridge in July 1775, and stretching
his lines around Boston, forced its evacuation in March 1776.
The state was not again the scene of any conflict during the
war. Generals Henry Knox and Benjamin Lincoln were the
most distinguished officers contributed by the state to the
revolutionary army. Out of an assessment at one time upon
the states of $5,000,000 for the expenses of the war, Massachu-
setts was charged with $820,000, the next highest being $800,000
for Virginia. Of the 231,791 troops sent by all the colonies
into the field, reckoning by annual terms, Massachusetts
sent 67,907, the next highest being 31,939 from Connecticut,
Virginia furnishing only 26,678; and her proportion of sailo:
was very much greater still. In every campaign in evi
colony save in 1779-80 her soldiery were in absolute, and still
more in relative, number greater than those of any other colony.
After the outbreak of the war a somewhat indefinite, hetero-
geneous provisional government was in power till a constitution
was adopted in 1780, when John Hancock became the first
governor. Governor James Bowdoin in 1786-1787 put down
with clemency an almost bloodless insurrection in the western
counties (there was strong disaffection, however, as far east
as Middlesex), known as the Shays Rebellion, significant of
the rife ideas of popular power, the economic distress, and the
unsettled poh'tical conditions of the years of the Confederation.
Daniel Shays (1747-1825), the leader, was a brave Revolutionary
captain of no special personal importance. The state debt
was large, taxation was heavy, and industry was unsettled;
worthless paper money was in circulation, yet some men d*
manded more; debtors were made desperate by prosecution
the state government seemed weak, the Federal government
contemptibly so; the local courts would not, or from intimidation
feared to, punish the turbulent, and demagogues encouraged
ideas of popular power. A convention of delegates representing
the malcontents of numerous towns in Worcester county met
at Worcester on the isth of August 1786 to consider grievances,
and a week later a similar convention assembled at Hatfield,
Hampshire county. Encouraged by these and other conventions
in order to obstruct the collection of debts and taxes, a mob
prevented a session of the Court of Common Pleas and General
Sessions of the Peace at Northampton on the 29th of August,
and in September other mobs prevented the same court from
sitting in Worcester, Middlesex and Berkshire counties. About
1000 insurgents under Shays assembled at Springfield on the
26th of September to prevent the sitting there of the Supreme
Court, from which they feared indictments. To protect the
court and the national arsenal at Springfield, for which the
Federal government was powerless to provide a guard, Major-
General William Shepard (1737-1817) ordered out the militia,
called for volunteers, and supplied them with arms from the
arsenal, and the court sat for three days. The Federal govern-
ment now attempted to enlist recruits, ostensibly to protect
the western frontier from the Indians, but actually for the
suppression of the insurrection; but the plan failed from lack
of funds, and the insurgents continued to interrupt the pro-
cedure of the courts. In January 1787, however, Governor
Bowdoin raised an army of 4400 men and placed it under
the command of Major-General Benjamin Lincoln (1733-1810).
While Lincoln was at Worcester Shays planned to capture
the arsenal at Springfield, but on the 25th of January Shepard's
men fired upon Shays's followers, killing four and putting the
rest to flight. Lincoln pursued them to Petersham, Worcester
county, where on the 4th of February he routed them and
took 150 prisoners. Subsequently the insurgents gathered
in small bands in Berkshire county; but here, a league having
been formed to assist the government, 84 insurgents were
captured at West Stockbridge, and the insurrection practically
terminated in an action at Sheffield on the 27th of February,
in which the insurgents lost 2 killed and 30 wounded and the
militia 2 killed and i wounded. Two of the insurgent leaders,
Daniel Shays and Eli Parsons, escaped to Vermont soon after
the rout at Petersham. Fourteen other insurgents who were
tried by the Supreme Court in the spring of 1787 were found
guilty of treason and sentenced to death. They were, however,
held rather as hostages for the good behaviour of worse offenders
who had escaped, and were pardoned in September. In Feb-
ruary 1788 Shays and Parsons petitioned for pardon, and this
was granted by the legislature in the following June. The
outcome of the uprising was an encouraging test of loyalty
to the commonwealth; and the insurrection is regarded as
having been very potent in preparing public opinion throughout
the country for the adoption of a stronger national government.
The Federal Constitution was ratified by Massachusetts by
only a small majority on the 6th of February 1788, after its
MASSACHUSETTS
86!
rejection had been at one time imminent; but Massachusetts
became a strong Federalist state. Indeed, the general interest
of her history in the quarter-century after the adoption of
the Constitution lies mainly in her connexion with the fortunes
of that great political party. Her leading politicians were
out of sympathy with the conduct of national affairs (in the
conduct of foreign relations, the distribution of political patron-
age, naval policy, the question of public debt) from 1804
when Jefferson's party showed its complete supremacy
onward; and particularly after the passage of the Embargo
Act of 1807, which caused great losses to Massachusetts com-
merce, and, so far from being accepted by her leaders as a
proper diplomatic weapon, seemed to them designed in the
interests of the Democratic party. The Federalist preference
for England over France was strong in Massachusetts, and her
sentiment was against the war with England of 1812-15. New
England's discontent culminated in the Hartford Convention
(Dec. 1814), in which Massachusetts men predominated. The
state, however, bore her full part in the war, and much of its
naval success was due to her sailors.
During the interval till the outbreak of the Civil War in
1861, Massachusetts held a distinguished place in national
life and politics. As a state she may justly be said to have
been foremost in the struggle against slavery. 1 She opposed
the policy that led to the Mexican War in 1846, although a
regiment was raised in Massachusetts by the personal exertions
of Caleb Gushing. The leaders of the ultra non-political aboli-
tionists (who opposed the formation of the Liberty party)
were mainly Massachusetts men, notably W. L. Garrison and
Wendell Phillips. The Federalist domination had been suc-
ceeded by Whig rule in the state ; but after the death of the
great Whig, Daniel Webster, in 1852, all parties disintegrated,
re-aligning themselves gradually in an aggressive anti-slavery
party and the temporizing Democratic party. First, for many
years the Free-Soilers gained strength; then in 1855 in an
extraordinary party upheaval the Know-Nothings quite broke
up Democratic, Free-Soil and Whig organizations; the Free-
Soilers however captured the Know-Nothing organization and
directed it to their own ends; and by their junction with the
anti-slavery Whigs there was formed the Republican party.
To this the original Free-Soilers contributed as leaders Charles
Sumner and C. F. Adams; the Know-Nothings, Henry Wilson
and N. P. Banks; and later, the War Democrats, B. F. Butler
all men of mark in the history of the state. Charles Sumner,
the most eminent exponent of the new party, was the
state's senator in Congress (1851-1874). The feelings which
grew up, and the movements that were fostered till they rendered
the Civil War inevitable, received something of the same impulse
from Massachusetts which she had given a century before to
the feelings and movements forerunning the War of American
Independence. When the war broke out it was her troops
who first received hostile fire in Baltimore, and turning their
mechanical training to account opened the obstructed railroad
to Washington. In the war thus begun she built, equipped
and manned many vessels for the Federal navy, and furnished
from 1861 to 1865 26,163 (or, including final credits, probably
more than 30,000) men for the navy. During the war all but
twelve small townships raised troops in excess of every call, the
excess throughout the state amounting in all to more than
15,000 men; while the total recruits to the Federal army (in-
cluding re-enlistments) numbered, according to the adjutant-
general of the state, 159,165 men, of which less than 7000 were
raised by draft. 2 The state, as such, and the townships spent
1 Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years, and
legally after 1641 ; but it was never profitable, and was virtually
abolished long before the War of American Independence; still it
was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the slave
trade was prohibited in 1788, and though a number of negroes were
declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on
the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that
instrument.
J According to the final report of the U.S. Adjutant-General in
1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in
$42,605,517.19 in the war; and private contributions of citizens
are reckoned in addition at about $9,000,000, exclusive of
the aid to families of soldiers, paid then and later by the
state.
Since the close of the war Massachusetts has remained gener-
ally steadfast in adherence to the principles of the Republican
party, and has continued to develop its resources. Navigation,
which was formerly the distinctive feature of its business
prosperity, has under the pressure of laws and circumstances
given place to manufactures, and the development of carrying
facilities on the land rather than on the sea.
In the Spanish-American War of 1898 Massachusetts furnished
11,780 soldiers and sailors, though her quota was but 7388;
supplementing from her own treasury the pay accorded them
by the national government.
No statement of the influence which Massachusetts has
exerted upon the American people, through intellectual activity,
and even through vagary, is complete without an enumeration
of the names which, to Americans at least, are the signs of this
influence and activity. In science the state can boast of John
Winthrop, the most eminent of colonial scientists; Benjamin
Thompson (Count Rumford); Nathaniel Bowditch, the trans-
lator of Laplace; Benjamin Peirce and Morse the electrician;
not to include an adopted citizen in Louis Agassiz. In history,
Winthrop and Bradford laid the foundations of her story in
the very beginning; but the best example of the colonial period
is Thomas Hutchinson, and in later days Bancroft, Sparks,
Palfrey, Prescott, Motley and Parkman. In poetry, a pioneer
of the modern spirit in American verse was Richard Henry
Dana; and later came Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell
and Holmes. In philosophy and the science of living, Jonathan
Edwards, Franklin, Channing, Emerson and Theodore Parker.
In education, Horace Mann; in philanthropy, S. G. Howe.
In oratory, James Otis, Fisher Ames, Josiah Quincy, junr.,
Webster, Choate, Everett, Sumner, Winthrop and Wendell
Phillips; and, in addition, in statesmanship, Samuel Adams,
John Adams and John Quincy Adams. In fiction, Hawthorne
and Mrs Stowe. In law, Story, Parsons and Shaw. In scholar-
ship, Ticknor, William M. Hunt, Horatio Greenough, W. W.
Story and Thomas Ball. The " transcendental movement,"
which sprang out of German affiliations and produced as one
of its results the well-known community of Brook Farm (1841-
1847), under the leadership of Dr George Ripley, was a Massa-
chusetts growth, and in passing away it left, instead of traces
of an organization, a sentiment and an aspiration for higher
thinking which gave Emerson his following. When Massa-
chusetts was called upon to select for Statuary Hall in the
capitol at Washington two figures from the long line of her
worthies, she chose as her fittest representatives John Winthrop,
the type of Puritanism and state-builder, and Samuel Adams
(though here the choice was difficult between Samuel Adams
and John Adams) as her greatest leader in the heroic period
of the War of Independence.
Governors of Plymouth Colony
John Carver
* i~*-
***/
1620-1621
William Bradford,
1621-1633
Edward Winslow
1633-1634
Thomas Prence (or Prince)
1634-1635
William Bradford
1635-1636
Edward Winslow
1636-1637
William Bradford
1637-1638
Thomas Prence (or Prince)
1638-1639
William Bradford
1639-1644
Edward Winslow
1644-1645
William Bradford
1645-1657
Thomas Prence (or Prince)
1657-1673
Josiah Winslow ....
1673-1680
Thomas Hinckley
1680-1686
Sir Edmund Andros .
1686-1689
Thomas Hinckley
1689-1692
war. These figures are probably 1
ess a
ccur
ate I
han
those of the
state.
862
MASSACHUSETTS
Governors of Massachusetts
(Under the First Charter chosen annually).
John Endecott l 1629-1630
John Winthrop 1630-1634
Thomas Dudley 1634-1635
John Haynes 1635-163
Henry Vane 1636-163
John Winthrop 1637-164
Thomas Dudley 1640-164
Richard Bellingham 1641-164
John Winthrop 1642-164!
John Endecott 1644-164
Thomas Dudley 1645-164'
John Winthrop 1646-164
John Endecott 1649-1651
Thomas Dudley 1650-165
John Endecott 1651-165,
Richard Bellingham 1654-165'
John Endecott . . . 1655-166'
Richard Bellingham 1665-167;
John Leverett (acting, 1672-1673) 1672-1679
Simon Bradstreet i67o-i68(
Sir Edmund Andros 16861689
Simon Bradstreet 1689-169:
Under Second Charter appointed by the Crown. 2
Sir William Phips 1692-169.,.
William Stoughton (acting) 1694-169^
Richard Coote, earl of Bellomont 1699-1700
William Stoughton (acting) 1700-1701
Joseph Dudley 1702-1715
William Tailer (acting) I7i5-I7i<:
Samuel Shute 1716-1722
William Dummer (acting) 1722-1726
William Burnet 1728-1725
William Dummer (acting) 1729-1730
William Tailer (acting) . . 1730
Jonathan Belcher 1730-1741
William Shirley . . . 1741-1749
?-1r Cei " Iu-f (aCtlng) 1749-1753
William Shirley 1 753-1756
Spencer Phips (acting) 1756-1757
Thomas Pownal 1757-1760
Thomas Hutchinson (acting) 1760
Sir Francis Bernard, Bart 1760-1769
Thomas Hutchinson (acting) 1769-1771
Thomas Hutchinson '77 I- I774
Thomas Gage * 1 774-1775
Under the Constitution.
John Hancock 1780-1785
James Bowdoin 1785-1787
John Hancock . _ 1787-1793
Samuel Adams (acting) i?93~ 1794
Samuel Adams 17941797
Increase Sumner .... Federalist 1 797-1799
Moses Gill (lieu t. -governor; acting) . 1799-1800
Caleb Strong .... ,, 1800-1807
Jas. Sullivan .... Democratic-Republican 1807-1808
Levi Lincoln (acting) ... ,, 1808-1809
Christopher Gore .... Federalist 1809-1810
Elbridge Gerry .... Democratic-Republican 1810-1812
Caleb Strong .... Federalist 1812-1816
John Brooks .... ,, 1816-1823
William Eustis .... Democratic-Republican 1823-1825
Levi Lincoln 1825-1834
John Davis . . ' . . . Whig 1834-1835
Edward Everett .... 1836-1840
Marcus Morton .... Democrat 1840-1841
John Davis Whig 1841-1843
Marcus Morton .... Democrat 1843-1844
George N. Briggs . . . Whig 1844-1851
George S. Boutwell . . . Free-Soil Democrat 1851-1853
John H. Clifford .... Whig 1853-1854
Emory Washburn ... 1854-1855
Henry J. Gardner . . . Know-Nothin~ 1855-1858
Nathaniel P. Banks . . . Republican 1858-1861
1 Endecott, by commission dated the 3Oth of April 1629, was
made " governor of London's plantation in the Massachusetts Bay."
Matthew Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of
March 1629 to the 2Oth of October 1629, was succeeded on the latter
date by John Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the I2th of
June 1630 with the charter, superseded Endecott.
'During three periods, 1701-1702, in February 1715, and from
April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered
by the Executive Council.
1 General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining
nominally civil governor.
John A. Andrew .
Alexander H. Bullock .
William Claflin
William B. Washburn
Thomas Talbot (acting)
William Gaston .
Alexander H. Rice
Thomas Talbot
John Davis Long
Benjamin F. Butler
George D. Robinson .
Oliver Ames
John Q. A. Brackett .
William E. Russell
Frederic T. Greenhalge
Rogei Wolcott
Roger Wolcott
W. Murray Crane
John L. Bates
William L. Douglas
Curtis L. Guild
Eben S. Draper
Eugene N. Foss
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
1861-1866
1866-1869
1869-1872
1872-1874
1874-1875
1875-1876
1876-1879
1879-1880
1880-1883
1883-1884
1884-1887
1887-1890
1890-1891
1891-1894
1894-1896
1896-1897
1897-1900
1900-1903
1903-1905
1905-1906
1906-1909
1909-1911
1911-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For Topography: W. M. Davis, Physical Geo-
graphy of Southern New England (New York, 1895), and for the
western counties, R. D. Mallary, Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands
(New York-London, 1902) ; also Inland Massachusetts, Illustrated. . .
(Springfield, 1890) ; C. F. Warner, Picturesque Berkshire (also Frank-
lin, Hampden, Hampshire, Northampton, 1890-1893); U. S. Geologi-
cal Survey, Bulletin 116, H. Gannett, " Geographic Dictionary of
Massachusetts." On Minerals: U.S. Census, 1900, and U.S. Geolo-
gical Survey, annual volume on Mineral Resources. On Agricul-
ture: U.S. Census and reports of Mass. Census (alternating with
Federal census), and reports and bulletins of the Board of
Agriculture (1852) and the Agricultural College (1867), and Ex-
periment Station (1883) at Amherst. On Manufactures, &c.:
See Reports of state and Federal censuses; also Annual Reports
(1869) of the state Bureau of Statistics of Labor, which con-
tain a wealth of valuable material (e.g. 1903, " Race in Industry ";
1902, "Sex in Industry"; 1885, "Wages and Prices, 1752-1863,"
&c.); W. R. Bagnall, The Textile Industries of the United States
(vol. i., 1639-^1810, Cambridge, 1893); J. L. Hayes, "American
Textile Machinery: its Early History, &c." (Cambridge, 1870;
Bulletin of National Association of Wool Manufacturers), and
literature therein referred to. On Commerce and Communications:
U.S. Census, 1902 (vol. on " Electric Railways"); U.S. Interstate
Commerce Commission, annual Statistics of Railways; publications
of the State Board of Trade; W. Hill on " First Stages of the Tariff
Policy of the United States " in American Economic Association
Publications, vol. viii., no. 6 (1893). On Population: Census
reports, state and Federal, publications of Bureau of Statistics of
Labor, Board of Health (1869;-; the Annual Report of 1896 contains
an exhaustive analysis of vital statistics, 1856-1895); Board of
Charity (1878- ), &c. On Administration: G. H. Haynes,
Representation and Suffrage in Massachusetts, 1620-1691, in Johns
Hopkins University, Studies in History, xii.; Manual for the General
Court (Annual) ; R. H. Whitten, Public Administration in Massachu-
setts, in Columbia University, Studies in History, vol. viii. (1898);
!i. R. Spencer, Constitutional Conflict in Provincial Massachusetts
[Columbus, Q., 1905) ; and the annual Public Documents of Massachu-
setts, embracing the reports of all state officers and institutions.
On Taxation: See especially the official " Report of the Commission
Appointed to Inquire into the Expediency of Revising and Amending
the Laws . . . Relating to Taxation " (1897), and vol. xi. of the
Report of the United States Industrial Commission (Wash., 1901);
-I. G. Friedman, The Taxation of Corporations in Massachusetts
(New York, 1907) ; and C. J. Bullock, Historical Sketch of the Finances
and Financial Policy of Massachusetts (1907). On Education:
See Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education;
j. G. Bush, History of Higher Education in Massachusetts (Washing-
ton, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1891) ; article on HARVARD UNIVER-
SITY. On History: Elaborate bibliography is given in J. Winsor's
Narrative and Critical History of America and in his Memorial
iistory of Boston. The colonial historical classics are \\ illiam
Bradford, History of Plimoth Plantation (pub. by the commonwealth,
898; also edited by Charles Deane, in Collections of the Massachu-
etts Historical Society, 1856, series 4, vol. iii.) ; J. Winthrop, History
rf New England 1630-1649, edited by J. Savage (Boston, 2 vols.
825-1826, new ed., 1853); S. E. Sewall, Diary, 1674-1729 (3 vols.,
Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vols.
.-vii., 1878-1882), a fascinating and microscopic picture of colonial
ife; T. Hutchinson, History of ... Massachusetts (3 vols., respec-
ively Boston, 1764, 1767, London, 1828); also the very valuable
lutchinson Papers (2 vols., Prince Society, Boston, 1865). For the
>eriod 16621666, when Massachusetts was investigated by royal
ommissioners, see Collections of the Massachusetts Historical
rociety, series 2, vol. viii., 1819; on the Andros period. 1689-1691,
e the Andros Tracts (3 vols., Prince Society Publications,
.-vii., Boston, 1868-1874), ed. by J. H. Whitmore. The one-time-
MASSACRE MASSAGE
863
standard general history was that of J. G. Palfrey, History of New
England (5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890), to the War of Independence.
It is generally accurate in facts but written in an unsatisfactorily
eulogistic vein. Of importance in more modern views is a volume
of Lectures Delivered . . . before the Lowell Institute . . .by Members
of the Massachusetts Historical Society on Subjects Relating to the
Early History of Massachusetts (Boston, 1869), perhaps especially
the- lectures of G. E. Ellis, later expanded, and in the process some-
what weakened, into his Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the
Massachusetts Bay, 1629-1685 (Boston, 1888; 3rd ed., 1891). See
C. F. Adams, Massachusetts: its Historians and its History (Boston,
1893), for a critique of the " filiopietistic " traditions of Massachu-
setts writers; also his Three Episodes of Massachusetts History,
n inicly, Settlement of the Colony, Antinomianism, and church
and town government in Quincy from 1634-1888 (2 vols., Boston,
i>s<;_>). On town government see further E. Channing in Johns
Hopkins University, Studies in History vol. ii. (1884); P. E. Aldrich
in American Antiquarian Society, Proceedings, new series, vol. 3, pp.
111-124; an{ l C. F. Adams and others in Massachusetts Historical
Si>rii'ty, Proceedings, 2nd series, vol. vii (1892). On the Pilgrims and
Puritans: See article PLYMOUTH; also E. H. Byington, The Puritan
in England and America (Boston, 1896) and The Puritan as Colonist
and Reformer (Boston, 1899). On the Quaker Persecution:
R. P. Hallowell, The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (Boston,
1883; rev. ed., 1887). On Witchcraft: See C. W. Upham, Witch-
craft in Salem (2 vols., Boston, 1867); S. G. Drake, Annals of Witch-
craft (Boston, 1869) and The Witchcraft Delusion in New England
(3 vols., Roxbury, 1866), this last a reprint of accounts of the time
by Cotton Mather and R. Calef; W. F. Poole, " Cotton Mather
and Salem Witchcraft" (North American Review, April 1869);
and controversy of A. C. Goodell and G. H. Moore in Massachusetts
Historical Society, Proceedings. On Slavery: G. H. Moore,
Notes on the History of Slavery (New York, 1866); E. Washburn in
Collections, Massachusetts Historical Society, series 4, iv., 333-346;
C. Deane in same, pp. 375-442, and in Proceedings, American
Antiquarian Society, new series, iv., 191222. In the essays of
I. R. Lowell are two on " New England two Centuries Ago ' and
Witchcraft." For economic history, W. B. Weeden, Economic and
Social History of New England, 1620-1780 (2 vols., Boston, 1890);
C. H. J. Douglas, The Financial History of Massachusetts . . . to
the American Revolution (in Columbia University Studies, vol i.,
1892). On the revolutionary epoch, Mellen Chamberlain, John
Adams . . . with other Essays and Addresses (Boston, 1898) ;
T. Hutchinson, Diary and Letters (2 yols., Boston, 1884-1886);
H. A. Gushing, Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Govern-
ment in Massachusetts (Columbia University Studies in History, vol.
iii., 1896); S. B. Harding, Contest over the Ratification of the Federal
Constitution in Massachusetts (Harvard University Studies, New York,
1896) ; and on the Shays Rebellion compare J. P. Warren in American
Historical Review (Oct., 1905). On New England discontent preced-
ing 1812, Henry Adams, Documents Relating to New England
Federalism, 1780-1815 (Boston, 1877); T. W. Higginson, Massachu-
setts in the Army and Navy during the War of 1861-65 (Official,
Boston, 2 vols., 1896). For a list of the historical societies of the
state consult A. M. Davis in Publications of the Colonial Society of
Massachusetts, vol. i. ; the most important are the Massachusetts His-
torical Society, established 1791, publishing Collections and Proceed-
ings (Boston) and the American Antiquarian Society, established
1812, publishing Proceedings (Worcester). In many cases the most
valuable material on various periods is indicated under the biographies
(or autobiographies in some cases) of the public men named in the
above article, to which add Timothy Pickering, George Cabot,
Joseph Warren, Elbridge Gerry, Benjamin F. Butler, G. S. Boutwell
and George F. Hoar. Many townships have published their local re-
cords, and many township and county histories contain valuable
matter of general interest (e.g. as showing in detail township action
before the War of Independence), though generally weighted heavily
with genealogy and matters of merely local interest. In American
works of fiction, particularly of New England authors, the reader
will find a wealth of description of Massachusetts and New England
life, past and present, as in the writings of William D. Howells, Sarah
O. Jewctt, Mary E. Wilkins-Freeman, Harriet B. Stowe and others.
MASSACRE, a wholesale indiscriminate killing of persons,
and also, in a transferred sense, of animals. The word is adopted
from the French; but its origin is obscure. The meaning and
the old form macecle seem to point to it being a corruption
of the Lat. macellum, butcher's shop or shambles, hence meat
market; this is probably from the root mac-, seen in naxtaQai,
to fight, na.xa.Lpa, sword, and Lat. mactare, to sacrifice. Another
derivation connects with the Old Low Ger. matsken, to cut in
pieces; cf. mod. Ger. melzeln, to massacre.
MASSAGE. The word massage has of late years come into
general use to signify the method of treating disease or other
physical conditions by manipulating the muscles and joints.
According to Littre the word is derived from the Arabic mass,
and has the specific meaning of " pressing the muscular parts
of the body with the hands, and exercising traction on the
joints in order to give suppleness and stimulate vitality."
It was probably adopted from the Arabian physicians by the
French, who have played a leading part in reviving this method
of treatment, which has been practised from time immemorial,
and by the most primitive people, but has from time to time
fallen into disuse among Western nations. In the Odyssey
the women are described as rubbing and kneading the heroes
on their return from battle. In India, under the name " sham-
poo " (tshampua), the same process has formed part of the
native system of medicine from the most remote times; pro-
fessional massers were employed there by Alexander the Great
in 327 B.C. In China the method is also of great antiquity,
and practised by a professional class; the Swedish gymnastic
system instituted by Pehr Henrik Ling is derived from the
book of Cong-Fou, the bonze of Tao-Sse. Hippocrates describes
and enjoins the use of manipulation, especially in cases of
stiff joints, and he was followed by other Greek physicians.
Oribasius gives an account of the application of friction with
the bare hands, which exactly corresponds with the modern
practice of massage. It is worthy of note that the treatment,
after being held in high esteem by the leading Greek physicians,
fell into disrepute with the profession, apparently on account
of its association with vicious abuses. The same drawback
has made itself felt in the present day, and can only be met
by the most scrupulous care in the choice of agents and the
manner of their employment. Among the Greeks, Romans,
Egyptians, and later the Turks, massage came to be part
of the ordinary procedure of the bath without any special
therapeutic intention, and the usage has survived until to-day;
but that mode of application was no doubt a refinement of
civilized life. Medical rubbing is older and more elementary
than bathing, as we see from its entployment by savages. Pro-
bably it was evolved independently among different races
from the natural instinct shared by the lower animals which
teaches to rub, press or lick any part of the body in which
uneasiness is felt, and is therefore the oldest of all therapeutic
means.
According to Weiss, the therapeutic use of massage was
revived in Europe by Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente
(1537-1619), who applied it to stiff joints and similar conditions.
Paracelsus in his De medicina Aegyptiorum (1591), gives a
description of methodical massage as practised by the Egyptians
quite on modern lines. Thereafter it appears to have been
adopted here and there by individual practitioners, and various
references are made to it, especially by French writers. The
word " massage " occurs in an essay written by Pierre Adolphe
Piorry (1794-1879) for a large encyclopaedia which appeared
in 1818, but it was probably used before. The practice was
gradually advocated by an increasing number of medical men.
In Great Britain it was called " medical rubbing," and at
Edinburgh Beveridge had a staff of eight trained male rubbers.
A book published by Estradere in 1863 attracted much attention,
but the man who contributed most to the modern popularity
of massage was Metzger of Amsterdam, who began to use it
tentatively in 1853, and then proceeded to study and apply it
methodically. He published an essay on the subject in 1868.
The modern refinements of the treatment are chiefly due to him.
At the same time, its application by Dr Silas Weir Mitchell
to hysterical and other nervous conditions, in conjunction
with the " rest cure," has done much to make it known.
Massage, as now practised, includes several processes, some
of which are passive and others active. The former are carried
out by an operator, and consist of rubbing and kneading
the skin and deeper tissues with the hands, and exercising
the joints by bending the patient's limbs. The active move-
ments consist of a special form of gymnastics, designed to
exercise particular muscles or groups of muscles. In what is
called " Swedish massage " the operator moves the limbs while
the patient resists, thus bringing the opposing muscles into play.
Some writers insist on confining the word " massage " to the
rubbing processes, and use the general term " manipulation "
864
MASSAGETAE MASSAWA
to cover all the movements mentioned; but this is a verbal
subtlety of no importance. It is evident that alike among the
Greeks, the Orientals, and savage races, the two processes have
always been applied as part of the same treatment, and the
definition quoted above from Littre goes to show that the word
" massage " is properly applied to both.
Rubbing has been subdivided into several processes, namely (i)
stroking, (2) kneading, (3) rubbing, and (4) tapping, and some
practitioners attach great importance to the application of a
particular process in a particular way. As a rule, oils and other
lubricants are not used. But, however it may be applied, the treat-
ment acts essentially by increasing circulation and improving
nutrition. It has been shown by Lauder Brunton that more blood
actually flows through the tissues during and after rubbing. The
number of red corpuscles, and, to some extent, their haemoglobin
value, are also said to be increased (Mitchell). At the same time the
movement of the lymph stream is accelerated. In order to assist
the flow of blood and lymph, stroking is applied centripetally,
that is to say, upwards along the limbs and the lower part of the
body, downwards from the head. The effects of the increased
physiological activity set up are numerous. Functional ability is
restored to exhausted muscles by the removal of fatigue products
and the induction of a fresh blood supply; congestion is relieved;
collections of serous fluid are dispersed ; secretion and excretion are
stimulated; local and general nutrition are improved. These
effects indicate the conditions in which massage may be usefully
applied. Such are various forms of paralysis and muscular wasting,
chronic and subacute affections of the joints, muscular rheumatism,
sciatica and other neuralgias, local congestions, sprains, contractions,
insomnia and some forms of headache, in which downward stroking
from the head relieves cerebral congestion. It has also been used
in anaemia, hysteria and " neurasthenia," disorders of the female
organs, melancholia and other forms of insanity, morphinism,
obesity, constipation, inflammatory and other affections of the eye,
including even cataract. General massage is sometimes applied,
as a form of passive exercise, to indolent persons whose tissues are
overloaded with the products of incomplete metabolism.
As with other methods of treatment, there has been a tendency
on the part of some practitioners to exalt it into a cure-all, and of
others to ignore it altogether. Of its therapeutic value, when
judiciously used, there is no doubt, but it is for the physician or
surgeon to say when and how it should be applied. Affections
to which it is not applicable are fevers, pregnancy, collections of
pus, acute inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries,
wounds of the skin and, generally speaking, those conditions in which
it is not desirable to increase the circulation, or in which the patient
cannot bear handling. In such conditions it may have a very in-
jurious and even dangerous effect, and therefore should not be used
in a haphazard manner without competent advice.
The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into
existence a considerable number of professional operators, both
male and female, who may be regarded as forming a branch of the
nursing profession. Some of these are trained in hospitals or other
institutions, some by private practitioners and some not at all.
Similarly some are attached to organized societies or institutions
while others pursue their calling independently. Several things are
required for a good operator. One is physical strength. Deep
massage is very laborious work, and cannot be carried on for an
hour, or even half an hour, without unusual muscular power. Feeble
persons cannot practise it effectively at all. The duration of a sitting
may vary from five or ten minutes to an hour. For general massage
at least half an hour is required. A masser should have strength
enough to do the work without too obvious exhaustion, which gives
the patient an unpleasant impression. A second requirement is
tactile and muscular sensibility. A person not endowed with a fine
sense of touch and resistance is liable to exert too great or too little
pressure; the one hurts the patient, the other is ineffective. Then
skill and knowledge, which can only be acquired by a course of
instruction, are necessary. Finally, some guarantee of cleanliness
and character is almost indispensable. Independent massers may
possess all these qualifications in a higher degree than those con-
nected with an institution, but they may also be totally devoid of
them, whereas connexion with a recognized hospital or society is a
guarantee for a certain standard of efficiency. In London there are
several such institutions, which train and send out both male and
female massers. The fee is 53. an hour, or from two to four guineas
a week. On the European continent, where trained massers are
much employed by some practitioners, the fee is considerably lower ;
in the United States it is higher. For reasons mentioned above,
it is most desirable that patients should be attended by operators
of their own sex. If this is not insisted upon, a valuable therapeutic
means will be in danger of falling into disrepute both with the medical
profession and the general public. (A. SL.)
MASSAGETAE, an ancient warlike people described by
Herodotus (i. 203-216; iv. 22, 172) as dwelling beyond the
Araxes (i.e. the Oxus) in what is now Balkh and Bokhara.
It was against their queen Tomyris that Cyrus undertook the
expedition* in which according to one story he met his end.
In their usages some tribes were nomads like the people of
Scythia (<?..), others with their community of wives and habit
of killing and eating their parents recalled the Issedones (?.*.);
while the dwellers in the islands of the river were fish-eating
savages. Probably the name denoted no ethnic unity, but
included all the barbarous north-eastern neighbours of the
Persians. Herodotus says they only used gold and copper
(or bronze), not silver or iron. Their lavish use of gold has
caused certain massive ornaments from southern Siberia,
now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, to be referred to the
Massagetae. (E. H. M.)
MASSA MARITTIMA, a town and episcopal see of the province
of Grosseto, Tuscany, Italy, 24 m. N.N.W. of Grosseto direct
and 16 m. by rail N.E. of Follonica (which is 28 m. N.VV. of
Grosseto on the main coast railway), 1444 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1001), (town) 9219; (commune) 17,519. It has a cathe-
dral of the I3th century containing a Romanesque font (1267
with a cover of 1447) and a Gothic reliquary (1324) of the
saint Cerbone, to whom the cathedral is dedicated. The battle-
mented municipal palace of the i3th century is picturesque.
There are mineral springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and
copper, with foundries, ironworks and olive-oil mills. At
Follonica on the coast, but in this commune, are the furnaces
in which are smelted the iron ore of Elba.
MASSAWA, or MASSOWAH, a fortified town on the African
coast of the Red Sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea,
in 15 36' N. and 39 28' E. Pop. about 10,000. The town
stands at the north end of the bay of Massawa and is built
partly on a coral island of the same name where was the
original settlement and partly on the islets of Tautlub and
Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. Massawa Island is
from 20 to 25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed \ m.
and its breadth is about j m. The harbour is formed by
the channel between the island and the mainland. It affords
good anchorage in from 5 to 9 fathoms. The town pos-
sesses several good public buildings, chiefly built of coral,
as are the houses of the principal European and Arab merchants.
Landward the town is guarded by forts erected by the Italians
since 1885. Water was formerly scarce; but in 1872 an ancient
aqueduct from Mokullu (5 m. distant westward) was restored
and continued by an embankment to the town. A railway
connects Massawa with Asmara, the capital of the colony.
Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigre dialect corrupted
with Arabic, the inhabitants comprise Italian officials and
traders, Greeks, Indians, Arabs from Yemen and Hadramut,
Gallas and Somalis. Massawa is the natural port for northern
Abyssinia but commerce is undeveloped owing to the lack of
rapid means of communication. The trade done consists
mainly in exporting hides, butter, Abyssinian coffee and civet,
and importing European and Indian cotton goods and silks.
It increased in value from about 65,000 per annum in 1865
(the last year of Turkish control) to from 240,000 to 280,000
between 1879 and 1881, when under the administration of
Egypt. Under the Italians trade greatly developed. The
returns for the five years 1901-1905 showed an average annual
value of 1,800,000, about two-thirds being imports.
The island of Massawa has probably been inhabited from
a very early date. It appears to have formed part of the
Abyssinian dominions for many centuries. It was at Massawa
(Matzua, as it is called by the Portuguese chroniclers) that
Christopher da Gama and his comrades landed in July 1541 on
their way to aid the Abyssinians against the Moslem invaders.
Captured by the Turks in 1557, the island remained a Turkish
possession over two hundred years. A military colony of
Bosnians settled at Arkiko (a port on the bay 4 m. south of
Massawa Island) was appointed not only to defend it in case
of attack from the mainland, but to keep it supplied with water
in return for $1400 per month from the town's customs. For
some time at the close of the i8th century Massawa was held
by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mehemet AH
MASSENA
865
of Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865
they handed the island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of
2\ million piastres. In February 1885 Massawa was occupied
by an Italian force, the Egyptian garrison stationed there
being withdrawn in the November following (see EGYPT; ITALY;
ABYSSINIA). The port was the capital of the Italian colony
until 1900 when the seat of administration was removed to
Asmara (see ERITREA).
For a description of the town in 1769 see the Travels of James
Bruce. At that time the governor, though appointed by the Turks,
paid one half of the customs receipts to the negus of Abyssinia in
return for the protection of that monarch.
MASSENA, ANDR&, or ANDREA, duke of Rivoli, prince of
Essling (1756-1817), the greatest of Napoleon's marshals,
SOB of a small wine merchant, it is said of Jewish origin, was
born at Nice on the 6th of May 1756. His parents were very
poor, and he began life as a cabin boy, but he did not care
much for the sea, and in 1775 he enlisted in the Royal-Italien
regiment. He quickly rose to be under-officer-adjutant; but,
finding his birth would prevent his ever getting a com-
mission, he left the army in 1789, retired to his native city,
and married. At the sound of war, however, and the word
republic, his desire to see service increased, and he once more
left Italy, and joined the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the
Var in 1791. In those days when men elected their officers,
and many of the old commissioned officers had emigrated,
promotion to a man with a knowledge of his drill was rapid,
and by February 1792 Massena was a lieutenant-colonel. His
regiment was one of those in the army which occupied Nice,
and in the advance to the Apennines which followed, his know-
ledge of the country, of the language, and of the people was
so useful that in December 1793 he was already a general of
division. In command of the advanced guard he won the
battle of Saorgio in August 1794, capturing ninety guns, and
after many successes he at last, on the 23rd of November 1795,
with the right wing of the army of Italy, had the greatest share
in the victory of Loano, won by Scherer over the Austrians
and Sardinians. In Bonaparte's great campaign of 1796-97
Massena was his most trusted general of division; in each battle
he won fresh laurels, up to the crowning victory of Rivoli,
from which he afterwards took his title. It was during this
campaign that Bonaparte gave him the title of enfant gdt de
la victoire, which he was to justify till he met the English in
1810. In 1798 he commanded the army of Rome for a short
time, but was displaced by the intrigues of his subordinate
Berthier. Mass6na's next important service was in command
of the army in Switzerland, which united the army in Germany
under Moreau, and that in Italy under Joubert. There he
proved himself a great captain, as he had already proved him-
self a great lieutenant; the archduke Charles and Suvarov had
each been successful in Germany and in Italy, and now turned
upon Massena in Switzerland. That general held his ground
well against the archduke, and then suddenly, leaving Soult to
face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zurich, where,
on the 26th of September 1799, he entirely defeated Korsakov,
taking 200 guns and 5000 prisoners. This campaign and
battle placed his reputation on a level with that of his com-
patriot Bonaparte, and he might have made the revolution
of Brumaire, but he was sincerely attached to the republic,
and had no ambition beyond a desire to live well and to have
plenty of money to spend. Bonaparte, now First Consul, sent
him to Genoa to command the debris of the army of Italy,
and he nobly defended Genoa from February to June to the
very last extremity, giving time for Bonaparte to strike his
great blow at Marengo. He now went to Paris, where he sat
in the Corps Legislatif in 1803, and actually defended Moreau
without drawing upon himself the ill-will of Napoleon, who
well knew his honesty and lack of ambition.
In 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France of
the new regime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle
of the Legion of Honour. In that year Napoleon needed an able
general to keep in check the archduke Charles in Italy, while he
xvn. 28
advanced through Germany with the grand army. Massena was
chosen; he kept the archduke occupied till he received news of
the surrender of tllm, and then on the 3Oth of October defeated
him in the battle of Caldiero. After the peace of Pressburg had
been signed, Massena was ordered to take possession of the
kingdom of Naples, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne.
This task done, Napoleon summoned Mass6na to Poland, where
he as usual distinguished himself, and where he for the time gave
up his republican principles. In 1808 he was made duke of
Rivoli. In 1808 he was accidentally wounded by his old enemy
Berthier when both were in attendance on the emperor at a
shooting party, and he lost the sight of one eye. In the campaign
in 1809 he covered himself with glory at Landshut and at
Eckmiihl, and finally at the battle of Aspern-Essling his magnifi-
cent leadership made what would without him have been an
appalling disaster into a mere reverse of which the enemy could
make no use. On the field of Wagram Massena, though too ill
to ride, directed from his carriage the movements of the right
wing. For his great services he was created prince of Essling,
and given the princely castle of Thouars. He was then ordered
to Spain to " drive the English into the sea." (For the campaigns
of 1810 and 1811, the advance to and the retreat from Torres
Vedras see PENINSULAR WAR.) Mass6na himself, with some
justice, ascribed his failure to the frequent disobedience of his
subordinates Ney, Reynier and Junot, and public opinion
attributed this disobedience to the presence with the army of
Mass6na's mistress, and to the resentment thereat felt by the
wives of the three generals. Still, unsuccessful as he was,
Mass6na displayed the determination of the defence of Genoa
and the fertility in expedients of the campaign of Zurich, and
kept his army for five weary months close up to Wellington's
impregnable position before retiring. His retreat through a
devastated country was terrible, but his force of character kept
his men together, and Ney having shown the worst side of his
character now showed the best in the frequent and brilliant rear-
guard actions, until a new act of insubordination at last made the
old marshal dismiss Ney from his command. Soon Massena
was once again ready to try his fortune, and he nearly defeated
Wellington at Fuentes d'Ofioro, though much hampered by
Bessieres. But his recall soon followed this and he returned
home to find his prestige gone. The old marshal felt he had a
right to complain of Ney and of Napoleon himself, and, it is said,
opened communications with Fouche and the remnant of the
republican party. Whether this be true or not, Napoleon gave
his greatest marshal no more employment in the field, but made
him merely a territorial commandant at Marseilles. This com-
mand he still held at the restoration, when Louis XVIII. con-
firmed him in it, and with true Bourbon stupidity gave him letters
of naturalization, as if the great leader of the French armies had
not ceased to be an Italian. When Napoleon returned from
Elba, Massena, probably by the advice of Fouch6, kept Marseilles
quiet to await events, the greatest service he could do the royal-
ists, but afterwards imputed to him as a fault. After the second
restoration Massena was summoned to sit on the court-martial
which tried Marshal Ney, but, though he had been on bad terms
with that general, and attributed his own disgrace to him, the
old soldier would not be his comrade's judge. This refusal was
used by the royalists to attack the marshal, against whom they
raked up every offence they could think of. This annoyance
shortened his life, and on the 4th of April 1817 the old hero died.
He was buried in Pere-la-Chaise, with only the word " Massena "
upon his tombstone.
In private life indolent, greedy, rapacious, ill-educated and
morose, in war Massena was, like Napoleon, the incarnation of
battle. Only his indolence and his consequent lack of far-
ranging imagination prevented him being as great in strategy as
in tactics. His genius needed the presence of the enemy to stimu-
late it, but once it sprang to life Massena became an ideal leader,
absolutely brave, resourceful, unrelenting and indefatigable.
He was as great a master of the strategy of forces in immediate
contact of gathering up as it were the threads of the fugue into
a " stretto." For the planning of a whole perfect campaign he
866
MASSENBACH MASSEREENE, VISCOUNT
had neither knowledge nor inclination, and he falls short there-
fore of the highest rank amongst great generals; but his place
amongst the greatest of soldiers is beyond challenge.
See Thi6bault's tloge funkbre, and Koch's Memoires de Massena
(4 vols., 1849), a valuable work, carefully compiled. In more modern
times E. Gachot has produced several important works dealing with
Mass6na's campaigns.
MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST LUDWIG VON
(1758-1827), Prussian soldier, was born at Schmalkalden on
the i6th of April 1758, and educated at Heilbronn and Stuttgart,
devoting himself chiefly to mathematics. He became an officer
of the Wiirttemberg army in 1778, and left this for the service of
Frederick the Great in 1782. The pay of his rank was small, and
his appointment on the quartermaster-general's staff made it
necessary to keep two horses, so that he had to write mathe-
matical school-books in his spare time to eke out his resources.
He was far however from neglecting the science and art of war,
for thus early he had begun to make his name as a theorist as
well as a mathematician. After serving as instructor in mathe-
matics to the young prince Louis, he took part with credit in the
expedition into Holland, and was given the order Pour le mtrite.
On returning to Prussia he became mathematical instructor at
the school of military engineering, leaving this post in 1792 to
take part as a general staff officer in the war against France.
He was awarded a prebend at Minden for his services as a topo-
graphical engineer on the day of Valmy, and after serving through
the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 he published a number of
memoirs on the military history of these years. He was chiefly
occupied however with framing schemes for the reorganization of
the then neglected general staff of the Prussian army, and many
of his proposals were accepted. Bronsart von Schellendorf in
his Duties of the General Staff says of Massenbach's work in this
connexion, " the organization which he proposed and in the
main carried out survived even the catastrophes of 1806-1807,
and exists even at the present moment in its original
outline." This must be accounted as high praise when it is
remembered how much of the responsibility for these very
disasters must be laid to Massenbach's account. The permanent
gain to the service due to his exertions was far more than formal,
for it is to him that the general staff owes its tradition of thorough
and patient individual effort. But the actual doctrine taught
by Massenbach, who was now a colonel, may be summarized as
the doctrine of positions carried to a ludicrous excess; the claims
put forward for the general staff, that it was to prepare cut-and-
dried plans of operations in peace which were to be imposed on
the troop leaders in war, were derided by the responsible generals ;
and the memoirs on proposed plans of campaign to suit certain
political combinations were worked out in quite unnecessary
detail. It was noteworthy that none of the proposed plans of
campaign considered France as an enemy.
In 1805 came threats of the war with Napoleon which Massen-
bach had strongly opposed. He was made quartermaster-
general (chief of staff) to Prince Hohenlohe, over whom he soon
obtained a fatal ascendancy. War was averted for a moment
by the result of the battle of Austerlitz, but it broke out in earnest
in October 1806. Massenbach's influence clouded all the
Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstadt were
lost, and the capitulation of Prince Hohenlohe's army was
negotiated. Even suggestions of disloyalty were not wanting;
an attempt to try him by court-martial was only frustrated by
Prince Hohenlohe's action in taking upon himself, as commander-
in-chief, the whole responsibility for Massenbach's actions. He
then retired to his estate in the Posen province, and occupied
himself in writing pamphlets, memoirs, &c. When his estates
passed into the grand duchy of Warsaw, he chose to remain a
Prussian subject, and on the outbreak of the war of liberation he
asked in vain for a post on the Prussian staff. After the fall of
Napoleon he took part in Wiirttemberg politics, was expelled
from Stuttgart and Heidelberg, and soon afterwards arrested at
Frankfurt, delivered over to the Prussian authorities and con-
demned to fourteen years' fortress imprisonment for his alleged
publication of state secrets in his memoirs. He was kept in
prison till 1826, when Frederick William III., having recovei
from an accident, pardoned those whom he considered to have
wronged him most deeply. He died on the 2ist of November
1827, at his estate of Bialokoscz, Posen.
The obituary in Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen, pt. ii. (Ilmenau,
1827) is founded on a memoir (Der Oberst C. v. Massenbach) which
was published at the beginning of his imprisonment.
MASSENET, JULES EMILE FREDERIC (1842- ), French
composer, was born at Montaud, on the i2th of May 1842.
studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he obtained the Gri
Prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata David Rizzio. Masses
became one of the most prolific composers of his time. His
operas include the following: La Grande tante, one act, opera
comique (1867); Don Cesar de Bazan, three acts, opera comique
(1872); Le Roi de Lahore, five acts, opera (1877); Herodiade, five
acts (Brussels, 1881); Manon, five acts, opera comique (1884);
Le Cid, four acts, opera (1885); Esclarmonde, four acts, opera
comique (1889); Le Mage, five acts, opera (1891); Werther, four
:ncn
jnet
acts (Vienna, 1892); Thais, three acts, opera (1894); Le Portrait
de Manon, one act, opera comique (1894); La Navarraise,
two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); Sapho, opera comique (1897);
Cendrillon, opera comique (1900) ; Griselidis, opera comique
(1901) ; Le Jongleur de Notre Dame (Mentone, 1902). Of these the
most popular is Manon. Massenet's other works include Marie
Madeleine, sacred drama (1873); Eve, a. mystery (1875); La Vierge,
sacred legend (1880); six orchestral suites entitled Scenes h
groises, Scenes pittoresques, Scenes dramatiques, Scenes nap
taines, Scenes de faerie, Scenes alsaciennes; music to the tragi
Les Erynnies, to Thlodora, Le Crocodile, L'Hetman; a requie:
Narcisse; an idyll, Biblis; a Scene antique; several sets of
songs, entitled Poeme d'avril, Poeme d'amour, Poeme d' hirer,
Poeme d'octobre, Poeme pastoral, Poeme du souvenir; also a
large number of detached songs. He was professor of compositi
at the Conservatoire from 1878 to 1896, among his pupils
Hillemacher, Marty, Bruneau, Vidal, Pierne, Leroux and Ch
pentier. Massenet undoubtedly possesses a style of his own.
is at his best in music descriptive of the tender passion,
many of the love scenes in his operas are very beautiful.
MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY, IST VISCOUNT
1665), Anglo-Irish politician, was a son of Sir Hugh Clotworth;
sheriff of county Antrim. He was elected to the Irish parliament
as member for county Antrim in 1634, and was a member both
of the Short and of the Long Parliament in England. Clotworthy
was a vehement opponent of the earl of Stafford, in who:
impeachment he took an active share. He also took part in
prosecution of Archbishop Laud. Having unsuccessfully ne;
tiated with Ormond for the surrender of Dublin to the Parlia-
mentary forces in 1646, he was accused in the following year of
having betrayed his cause, and also of embezzlement; in con-
sequence of these charges he fled to the Continent, but returned
to parliament in June 1648. On the i2th of December in that
year he was arrested, and remained in prison for nearly three
years. Having taken an active part in forwarding the Restor-
ation, he was employed in Ireland in arranging the affairs of the
soldiers and other adventurers who had settled in Irelan
Clotworthy in no way abated his old animosity against " papists
and high Anglicans, and he championed the cause of the Iri:
Presbyterians; but being personally agreeable to Charles II.,
his ecclesiastical views were overlooked, and on the 2ist of
November 1660 he was created Baron Loughneagh and Viscount
Massereene in the Irish peerage, with remainder in default of
male heirs to his son-in-law, Sir John Skeffington. Massereene
died without male issue in September 1665, and the title devolved
on Skeffington, whose great-grandson, the fifth viscount, was
created earl of Massereene in 1756. . The earldom became
extinct on the death of the fourth earl without male issue in
1816, the viscounty and barony of Loughneagh descending to
his daughter Harriet, whose husband, Thomas Foster, took the
name of Skeffington, and inherited from his mother in 1824 the
titles of Viscount Ferrard and Baron Oriel of Collon in the Irish
peerage, and from his father in 1828 that of Baron Oriel of
Ferrard in the peerage of the United Kingdom.
DC
;
MASSEY, SIR EDWARD MASSILLON, J. B.
867
MASSEY, SIR EDWARD (c. i6io-c. 1674), English soldier
in the Great Rebellion, was the son of John Massey of Coddington,
Cheshire. Little is known of his early life, but it is said that he
served in the Dutch army against the Spaniards. In 1639 he
appears as a captain of pioneers in the army raised by Charles I.
to tight against the Scots. At the outbreak of the Great Rebel-
lion he was with the king at York, but he soon joined the Parlia-
mentary army. As lieutenant-colonel under the earl of Stamford
he became deputy governor of Gloucester, where he remained
till towards the end of the first Civil War, becoming governor
early in 1643. He conducted minor operations against numerous
small bodies of Royalists, and conducted the defence of Glou-
cester against the king's main army in August 1643, with great
steadiness and ability, receiving the thanks of parliament and a
grant of 1000 for his services. In 1644 Massey continued to
keep the field and to disperse the local Royalists, and on several
occasions he measured swords with Prince Rupert. In May 1644
he was made general of the forces of the Western Association.
In 1645 he took the offensive against Lord Goring and the
western Royalists, advanced to the relief of Taunton, and in the
autumn co-operated effectively with Sir Thomas Fairfax and the
New Model army in the Langport campaign. After taking part
in the desultory operations which closed the first war, he took
his seat in the House of Commons as member for Gloucester.
He then began to take an active part in politics on the Presby-
terian side, and was one of the generals who was impeached by
the army on the ground that they were attempting to revive
the Civil War in the Presbyterian interests. Massey fled from
England in June 1647, an( i though he resumed his seat in the
house in 1648 he was again excluded by Pride's Purge, and after
a short imprisonment escaped to Holland. Thence, taking the
side of the king openly and definitely like many other Presby-
terians, he accompanied Charles II. to Scotland. He fought
against Cromwell at the bridge of Stirling and Inverkeithing,
and commanded the advanced guard of the Royalist army in the
invasion of England in 1651. It was hoped that Massey 's
influence would win over the towns of the Severn valley to the
cause of the king, and the march of the army on Worcester was
partly inspired by this expectation. However, he effected little,
and after riding with the king for some distance from the field
of Worcester, fell into the hands of his former comrades and was
lodged in the Tower. He again managed to escape to Holland.
While negotiating with the English Presbyterians for the restor-
ation of Charles, he visited England twice, in 1654 and 1656. In
1660 he was active in preparing for Charles's return, and was
rewarded by a knighthood and a grant of 3000. The rest of
his life was spent in political, and occasionally in military and
administrative business, and he is said to have died in Ireland in
1674 or 1675.
MASSEY, GERALD (1828-1907), English poet, was born near
Tring, Hertfordshire, on the zgth of May 1828. His parents were
in humble circumstances, and Massey was little more than a
child when he was set to hard work in a silk factory, which he
afterwards deserted for the equally laborious occupation of straw-
plaiting. These early years were rendered gloomy by much
distress and deprivation, against which the young man strove
with increasing spirit and virility, educating himself in his spare
time, and gradually cultivating his innate taste for literary
work. He was attracted by the movement known as Christian
Socialism, into which he threw himself with whole-hearted vigour,
and so became associated with Maurice and Kingsley. His first
public appearance as a writer was in connexion with a journal
called the Spirit of Freedom, of which he became editor, and he
was only twenty-two when he published his first volume of poems,
Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of Love. These he followed in rapid
succession by The Ballad of Babe Christabel (1854), War Waits
(1855), Havelock's March (1860), and A Tale of Eternity (1869).
Many years afterwards in 1889, he collected the best of the
contents of these volumes, with additions, into a two-volume
edition of his poems called My Lyrical Life. He also published
works dealing with spiritualism, the study of Shakespeare's
sonnets (1872 and 1890), and theological speculation. It is
generally understood that he was the original of George Eliot's
Felix Holt. Massey 's poetry has a certain rough and vigorous
element of sincerity and strength which easily accounts for its
popularity at the time of its production. He treated the theme
of Sir Richard Grenville before Tennyson thought of using it,
with much force and vitality. Indeed, Tennyson's own praise
of Massey's work is still its best eulogy, for the Laureate found
in him " a poet of fine lyrical impulse, and of a rich half-Oriental
imagination." The inspiration of his poetry is essentially
British; he was a patriot to the core. It is, however, as an
Egyptologist that Gerald Massey is best known in the world
of letters. He first published The Book of the Beginnings,
followed by The Natural Genesis; but by far his most important
work is Ancient Egypt: The Light of the World, published
shortly before his death. He died on the 2gth of October
1907.
See an article by J. Churton Collins in the Contemporary Review
(May 1904).
MASSICUS, MONS, a mountain ridge of ancient Italy, in the
territory of the Aurunci, and on the border of Campania and
Latium adjectum attributed by most authors to the latter.
It projects south-west from the volcanic system of Rocca Monfina
(see SUESSA AURUNCA) as far as the sea, and separates the lower
course of the Liris from the plain of Campania. It consists
of limestone, with a superstratum of pliocenic and volcanic
masses, and was once an island; its highest point is 2661 ft. above
sea-level.
It was very famous for its wine in ancient times. There was just
room along the coast for the road to pass through; the pass was
guarded by the Auruncan town of Vescia (probably on the mountain
side), which ceased to exist in 314 B.C. after the defeat of the Ausones,
but left its name to the spot. Its successor, Sinuessa, on the coast,
a station on the Via Appia, was constructed in 312 B.C., and a colony
was founded there in 295 B.C. It is not infrequently mentioned by
classical writers as a place in which travellers halted. Here Virgil
joined Horace on the famous journey to Brundusium. Domitian
considerably increased its importance by the construction of the
Via Domitiana, which left the Via Appia here and ran to Cumae
and Puteoli, and it was he, no doubt, who raised it to the position of
colonia Flavia. The town was destroyed by the Saracens, but some
ruins of it are still visible two miles north-west of the modern
village of Mondragone. The mineral springs which still rise here
were frequented in antiquity.
MASSIF, a French term, adopted in geology and physical
geography for a mountainous mass or group of connected heights,
whether isolated or forming part of a larger mountain system. A
" massif " is more or less clearly marked off by valleys.
MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE (1663-1742), French bishop
and preacher, was born at Hyeres on the 24th of June 1663, his
father being a royal notary of that town. At the age of eighteen
he joined the Congregation of the Oratory and taught for a time
in the colleges of his order at Pezenas, and Montbrison and at
the Seminary of Vienne. On the death of Henri de Villars,
archbishop of Vienne, in 1693, he was commissioned to deliver
a funeral oration, and this was the beginning of his fame. In
obedience to Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, he left
the Cistercian abbey of Sept-Fonds, to which he had retired, and
settled in Paris, where he was placed at the head of the famous
seminary of Saint Magloire. He soon gained a wide reputation
as a preacher and was selected to be the Advent preacher at the
court of Versailles in 1699. He was made bishop of Clermont in
1717, and two years later was elected a member of the French
Academy. The last years of his life were spent in the faithful
discharge of his episcopal duties; his death took place at Clermont
on the i8th of September 1742. Massillon enjoyed in the iSth
century a reputation equal to that of Bossuet and of Bourdaloue,
and has been much praised by Voltaire, D'Alembert and kindred
spirits among the Encyclopaedists. His popularity was probably
due to the fact that in his sermons he lays little stress on dog-
matic questions, but treats generally of moral subjects, in which
the secrets of the human heart and the processes of man's reason
are described with poetical feeling. He has usually been con-
trasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having the
credit of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle per-
suasiveness. Besides the Petit Carcme, a sermon which he
868
MASSILLON MASSINGER
delivered before the young king Louis XV. in 1718, his sermons
on the Prodigal Son, on the small number of the elect, on death,
for Christmas Day, and for the Fourth Sunday in Advent, may
be perhaps cited as his masterpieces. His funeral oration on
Louis XIV. is only noted now for the opening sentence: " Dieu
seul est grand." But in truth Massillon is singularly free from
inequality. His great literary power, his reputation for
benevolence, and his known toleration and dislike of doctrinal
disputes caused him to be much more favourably regarded
than most churchmen by the philosophes of the i8th century.
The first edition of Massillon's complete works was published by
his nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745-1748), and upon this,
in the absence of MSS., succeeding reprints were based. The best
modern edition is that of the Abb? Blampignon (Paris, 1865-1868,
4 vols. ; new ed. 1886).
See Abb6 Blampignon, Massillon, d'apr&s des documents inedits
(Paris, 1879) ; and L'Upiscopat de Massillon d'apres des documents
inedits, smvi de sa correspondence (Paris, 1884); F. Brunetiere
" L'Eloquence de Massillon " in tudes critiques (Paris, 1882); Pere
Ingold, L'Oratoire et le jansenisme au temps de Massillon (Paris,
1880); and Louis Petit de Julleville's Histoire de la langue et
de la litterature franc,aise, v. 372-385 (Paris, 1898).
MASSILLON, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the
Tuscarawas river and the Ohio canal, 8 m. W. of Canton, and
about 50 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 11,944 (1693
foreign-born); (1910), 13,879. It is served by the Pennsylvania
(Pittsburg, Ft Wayne & Chicago Division), the Baltimore & Ohio
and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. Massillon is built
among hills in a part of the state noted for its large produc-
tion of coal and wheat and abounding in white sandstone, iron
ore and potter's clay. The city has various manufactures,
including iron, engines, furnaces, reapers, threshers and bottles.
The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,707,013,
an increase of 34-8% over that of 1900. The first settlement
was made in 1825; in 1826 the town was laid out and named
in honour of Jean Baptiste Massillon; it was incorporated a
village in 1853, and became a city in 1868.
MASSIMO, or MASSIMI, a Roman princely family of great
antiquity, said to be descended from the ancient Maximi of
republican Rome. The name is first mentioned in 1012 in the
person of Leo de Maximis, and the family played a considerable
part in the history of the city in the middle ages. The brothers
Pietro and Francesco Massimi acquired fame by protecting and
encouraging the German printer Ulrich Hahn, who came to
Rome in 1467. In the i6th century the Massimi were the richest
of the Roman nobles. A marquisate was conferred on them in
1544, and the lordship of Arsoli in 1574. To-day there are two
branches of the Massimi, viz. the Principi Massimo, descended
from Camillo Massimiliano (1770-1840), and the dukes of
Rignano, descended from Francesco Massimo (1773-1844).
One of the sons of the present Prince Camillo Carlo Alberto, Don
Fabrizio, married Princess Beatrice, daughter of Don Carlos of
Bourbon (duke of Madrid), the pretender to the Spanish throne.
The Palazzo Massimo in Rome was built by Baldassare Peruzzi
by order of Pietro Massimo, on the ruins of an earlier palace
destroyed in the sack of Rome in 1527.
See F. Gregorovius, Geschichle der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1880);
A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868) ; Almanack
de Gotha; J. H. Douglas, The Principal Noble Families of Rome
(Rome, 1905).
MASSINGER, PHILIP (1583-1640), English dramatist, son of
Arthur Massinger or Messanger, was baptized at St Thomas's,
Salisbury, on the 24th of November 1583. He apparently
belonged to an old Salisbury family, for the name occurs in the
city records as early as 1415. He is described in his matricu-
lation entry at St Alban Hall, Oxford (1602), as the son of a
gentleman. His father, who had also been educated at St Alban
Hall, was a member of parliament, and was attached to the house-
hold of Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, who recommended
him in 1587 for the office of examiner in the court of the marches.
The 3rd earl of Pembroke, the William ,Herbert whose name has
been ^ connected with Shakespeare's sonnets, succeeded to the
title in 1601. It has been suggested that he supported the poet
at Oxford, but the significant omission of any reference to him
in any of Massinger's prefaces points to the contrary. Massinger
left Oxford without a degree in 1606. His father had died in
1603, and he was perhaps dependent on his own exertions. The
lack of a degree and the want of patronage from Lord Pembroke
may both be explained on the supposition that he had become
a Roman Catholic. On leaving the university he went to London
to make his living as a dramatist, but his name cannot be de-
finitely affixed to any play until fifteen years later, when The Virgin
Martyr (ent. at Stationers' Hall, Dec. 7, 1621) appeared as the
work of Massinger and Dekker. During these years he worked
in collaboration with other dramatists. A joint letter, from
Nathaniel Field, Robert Daborne and Philip Massinger, to
Philip Henslowe, begs for an immediate loan of five pounds to
release them from their " unfortunate extremitie," the money
to be taken from the balance due for the " play of Mr Fletcher's
and ours." A second document shows that Massinger and Daborne
owed Henslowe 3 on the 4th of July 1615. The earlier note pro-
bably dates from 1613, and from this time Massinger apparently
worked regularly with John Fletcher, although in editions of
Beaumont and Fletcher's works his co-operation is usually
unrecognized. Sir Aston Cokayne, Massinger's constant friend
and patron, refers in explicit terms to this collaboration in a
sonnet addressed to Humphrey Moseley on the publication of his
folio edition of Beaumont and Fletcher (Small Poems of Divers
Sorts, 1658), and in an epitaph on the two poets he says:
" Plays they did write together, were great friends,
And now one grave includes them in their ends."
After Philip Henslowe's death in 1616 Massinger and Fletcher
began to write for the King's Men. Between 1623 and 1626
Massinger produced unaided for the Lady Elizabeth's Men then
playing at the Cockpit three pieces, The Parliament of Love, The
Bondman and The Renegade. With the exception of these plays
and The Great Duke of Florence, produced in 1627 by the Queen's
servants, Massinger continued to write regularly for the King's
Men until his death. The tone of the dedications of his la
plays affords evidence of his continued poverty. Thus in t
preface to The Maid of Honour (1632) he wrote, addressing Sir
Francis Foljambe and Sir Thomas Bland: " I had not to thi:
time subsisted, but that I was supported by your frequi
courtesies and favours." The prologue to The Guardi
(licensed 1633) refers to two unsuccessful plays and two years of
silence, when the author feared he had lost the popular favo
S. R. Gardiner, in an essay on "The Political Element
Massinger " (Contemp. Review, Aug. 1876), maintained that
Massinger's dramas are before all else political, that the events
of his day were as openly criticized in his plays as current
politics are in the cartoons of Punch. It is probable that this
break in his production was owing to his free handling of public
matters. In 1631 Sir Henry Herbert, the master of the revels,
refused to license an unnamed play by Massinger because of
" dangerous matter as the deposing of Sebastian, King of
Portugal," calculated presumably to endanger good relations
between England and Spain. There is little doubt that this was
the same piece as Believe as You List, in which time and place
are changed, Antiochus being substituted for Sebastian, and
Rome for Spain. In the prologue Massinger ironically apologizes
for his ignorance of history, and professes that his accuracy is at
fault if his picture comes near " a late and sad example." The
obvious " late and sad example " of a wandering prince could be
no other than Charles I.'s brother-in-law, the elector palatine.
An allusion to the same subject may be traced in The Maid of
Honour. In another play by Massinger, not extant, Charles I.
is reported to have himself struck out a passage put into the
mouth of Don Pedro, king of Spain, as " too insolent." The
poet seems to have adhered closely to the politics of his patron,
Philip Herbert, earl of Montgomery, and afterwards 4th earl of
Pembroke, who had leanings to democracy and was a personal
enemy of the duke of Buckingham. In The Bondman, dealing
with the history of Timoleon, Buckingham is satirized as Cisco.
The servility towards the Crown displayed in Beaumont and
Fletcher's plays reflected the temper of the court of James I.
The attitude of Massinger's heroes and heroines towards kings
MASSINISSA
869
is very different. Camiola's remarks on the limitations of the
royal prerogative (Maid of Honour, act iv. sc. v.) could hardly be
acceptable at court.
Massinger died suddenly at his house near the Globe theatre,
and was buried in the churchyard of St Saviour's, Southwark, on
the i8th of March 1640. In the entry in the parish register he is
described as a " stranger," which, however, implies nothing more
than that he belonged to another parish.
The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests
upon three of his plays, The Virgin Martyr (licensed 1620), The
Renegado (licensed 1624) and The Maid of Honour (c. 1621).
The religious sentiment is certainly such as would obviously
best appeal to an audience sympathetic to Roman Catholic
doctrine. The Virgin Martyr, in which Dekker probably had a
large share, is really a miracle play, dealing with the martyrdom
of Dorothea in the time of Diocletian, and the supernatural
element is freely used. Little stress can be laid on this per-
formance as elucidating Massinger's views. It is not entirely
his work, and the story is early Christian, not Roman Catholic.
In The Renegado, however, the action is dominated by the
beneficent influence of a Jesuit priest, Francisco, and the doctrine
of baptismal regeneration is enforced. In The Maid of Honour
a complicated situation is solved by the decision of the heroine,
Camio'a, to take the veil. For this she is held up " to all pos-
terity a fair example for noble maids to imitate." Among all
Massinger's heroines Camiola is distinguished by genuine purity
and heroism.
His plays have generally an obvious moral intention. He sets
himself to work out a series of ethical problems through a succes-
sion of ingenious and effective plots. In the art of construction
he has, indeed, few rivals. But the virtue of his heroes and
heroines is rather morbid than natural, and often singularly
divorced from common-sense. His dramatis personae are in
general types rather than living persons, and their actions do not
appear to spring inevitably from their characters, but rather
from the exigencies of the plot. The heroes are too good, and the
villains too wicked to be quite convincing. Moreover their
respective goodness and villainy are too often represented as
extraneous to themselves. This defect of characterization shows
that English drama had already begun to decline.
It seems doubtful whether Massinger was ever a popular play-
wright, for the best qualities of his plays would appeal rather
to politicians and moralists than to the ordinary playgoer. He
contributed, however, at least one great and popular character
to the English stage. Sir Giles Overreach, in A New Way to Pay
Old Debts, is a sort of commercial Richard III., a compound of
the lion and the fox, and the part provides many opportunities
for a great actor. He made another considerable contribution
to the comedy of manners in The City Madam. In Massinger's
own judgment The Roman Actor was " the most perfect birth of
his Minerva." It is a study of the tyrant Domitian, and of the
results of despotic rule on the despot himself and his court.
Other favourable examples of his grave and restrained art are
The Duke of Milan, The Bondman and The Great Duke of
i'lorcnce.
Massinger was a student and follower of Shakespeare. The
form of his verse, especially in the number of run-on lines,
approximates in some respects to Shakespeare's later manner.
He is rhetorical and picturesque, but rarely rises to extraordinary
felicity. His verse is never mean, but it sometimes comes peri-
lously near to prose, and in dealing with passionate situations it
lacks fire and directness.
The plays attributed to Massinger alone are: The Duke of Milan,
a Tragedy (c. 1618, pr. 1623 and 1638); The Unnatural Combat, a
Tragedy (c. 1619, pr. 1639); The Bondman, an Antient Storie
(licensed 1623, pr. 1624); The Renegado, a Tragaecomedie (lie. 1624,
pr. 1630); The Parliament of Love (lie. 1624; ascribed, no doubt
erroneously, in the Stationers' Register, 1660, to W. Rowley; first
printed by Gifford from an imperfect MS. in 1805) ; A New Way to
Pay Old Debts, a Comoedie (c. 1625, pr. 1632); The Roman Actor.
A Tragaedie (lie. 1626, pr. 1629) ; The Maid of Honour (dating perhaps
from 1621, pr. 1632); The Picture, a Tragecomedie (lie. 1629, pr.
1630); The Great Duke of Florence, a Comicall Historic (lie. 1627,
pr. 1635); The Emperor of the East, a Tragaecomoedie (lie. and pr.
1631), founded on the story of Theodosius the Younger; Believe as
You List (rejected by the censor in January, but licensed in May,
1631; pr. 1848-1849 for the Percy Society); The City Madam, a
Comedie (lie. 1632, pr. 1658), which Mr Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Eng.
Drama, i. 226), however, considers to be a rifactamenlo of an older
play, probibly by Jonson; The Guardian (lie. 1633, pr. 1655); and
The Bashful Lover (lie. 1636, pr. 1655). A Very Woman, or The
Prince of Tarent, licensed in 1634 as the work of Massinger alone, is
generally referred to his collaboration with Fletcher. The " exquisite
temperance and justice " of this piece are, according to Swinburne,
foreign to Fletcher's genius, and afford a striking example of
Massinger's artistic skill and moderation.
Twelve plays of Massinger are said to be lost, but the titles of
some of these may be duplicates of those of existing plays. Five of
these lost plays were MSS. used by John Warburton s cook for pie-
covers. The numerous plays in which Massinger's co-operation with
John Fletcher is generally assumed are dealt with under BEAUMONT
and FLETCHER. But it may be here noted that Mr R. Boyle has
constructed an ingenious case for the joint authorship by Fletcher
and Massinger of the two " Shakespearian " plays, Henry VIII. and
Two Noble Kinsmen (see the New Shakspere Society's Transac-
tions, 1884 and 1882). Mr Boyle sees the touch of Massinger in the
first two acts of the Second Maiden's Tragedy (Lansdowne MS.,
lie. 1611), a play with which the names of Fletcher and Tourneur
are also associated by different critics. The Fatatt Dowry, a Tragedy
(c. 1619; pr. 1632), which was adapted without acknowledgment by
Nicholas Rowe in his Fair Penitent, was written in conjunction with
Nathaniel Field; and The Virgin Martir, a Tragedie (lie. 1620, pr.
1621), with Thomas Dekker.
Massinger's independent works were collected by Coxeter (4 vols.,
J 759. revised edition with introduction by Thomas Davies, 1779),
by J. Monck Mason (4 vols., 1779), by William Gifford (4 vpfs.,
1805, 1813), by Hartley Coleridge (1840), by Lieut.-Colonel Cunning-
ham (1867), and selections by Mr Arthur Symons in the Mermaid
Series (1887-1889). Gifford s remains the standard edition, and
formed the basis of Cunningham's text. It contains " An Essay
on the Dramatic Writings of Massinger " by Dr John Ferriar.
Massinger has been the object of a good deal of criticism. A
metrical examination of the plays in which Massinger was concerned
is given in Englische Studien (Halle, v. 74, vii. 66, viii. 39, ix. 209
and x. 383), by Mr R. Boyle, who also contributed the life of the
poet in the Dictionary of National Biography. The sources of his
plays are dealt with by E. Koeppel in Quellen Studien zu den Dramen
Chapman's, Massinger's und Ford's (Strassburg, 1897). For detailed
criticism, beside the introductions to the editions quoted, see A. W..
Ward, Hist, of Eng. Dram. Lit. (1899), iii. 1-47, and F. G. Fleay,
Biog. Chron. of the Eng. Drama (1891), under Fletcher; a general
estimate of Massinger, dealing especially with his moral standpoint,
is given in Sir Leslie Stephen's Hours in a Library (3rd series, 1879) ;
Swinburne, in the Fortnightly Review (Ju\y 1889), while acknowledg-
ing the justice of Sir L. Stephen's main strictures, found much to
say in praise of the poet.
MASSINISSA (c. 238-149 B.C.), king of Massylian or eastern
Numidia. He was educated, like many of the Numidian chiefs,
at Carthage, learnt Latin and Greek, and was an accomplished
as well as a naturally clever man. Although his kingdom was
nominally independent of Carthage, it really stood to it in a
relation of vassalage; it was directly under Carthaginian influ-
ences, and was imbued to a very considerable extent with Cartha-
ginian civilization. It was to this that Massinissa owed his fame
and success; he was a barbarian at heart, but he had a varnish
of culture, and to this he added the craft and cunning in which
Carthaginian statesmen were supposed to excel. While yet a
young man (212) he forced his neighbour Syphax, prince of
western Numidia, who had recently entered into an alliance
with Rome, to fly to the Moors in the extreme west of Africa.
Soon afterwards he appeared in Spain, fighting for Carthage
with a large force of Numidian cavalry against the Romans
under the two Scipios. The defeat of the Carthaginian army in
206 led him to cast in his lot with Rome. Scipio Africanus is
said to have cultivated his friendship. Massinissa now quitted
Spain for a while for Africa, and was again engaged in a war
with Syphax in which he was decidedly worsted. Scipio's arrival
in Africa in 204 gave him another chance, and no sooner had
he joined the Roman general than he crushed his old enemy
Syphax, and captured his capital Cirta (Constantine). Here
occurs the romantic story of Sophonisba, daughter of the
Carthaginian Hasdrubal, who had been promised in marriage to
Massinissa, but had subsequently become the wife of Syphax.
Massinissa, according to the story, married Sophonisba immedi-
ately after his victory, but was required by Scipio to dismiss
her as a Carthaginian, and consequently an enemy to Rome.
870
MASSON, DAVID MAST
To save her from such humiliation he sent her poison, with which
she destroyed herself. Massinissa was now accepted as a loyal
ally of Rome, and was confirmed by Scipio in the possession of
his kingdom. In the battle of Zama (202) (see PUNIC WARS), he
commanded the cavalry on Scipio's right wing, and materially
assisted the Roman victory. For his services he received the
kingdom of Syphax, and thus under Roman protection he
became master of the whole of Numidia, and his dominions
completely enclosed the Carthaginian territories, now straitened
and reduced at the close of the Second Punic War. It would
seem that he had thoughts of annexing Carthage itself with the
connivance of Rome. In a war which soon followed he was
successful; the remonstrances of Carthage with Rome on the
behaviour of her ally were answered by the appointment of
Scipio as arbitrator; but, as though intentionally on the part
of Rome, no definite settlement was arrived at, and thus the
relations between Massinissa and the Carthaginians continued
strained. Rome, it is certain, deliberately favoured her ally's
unjust claims with the view of keeping Carthage weak, and
Massinissa on his part was cunning enough to retain the friend-
ship of the Roman people by helping them with liberal supplies
in their wars against Perseus of Macedon and Antiochus. As
soon as Carthage seemed to be recovering herself, and some of
Massinissa's partisans were driven from the city into exile, his
policy was to excite the fears of Rome, till at last in 149 war
was declared the Third Punic War, which ended in the final
overthrow of Carthage. The king took some part in the negotia-
tions which preceded the war, but died soon after its com-
mencement in the ninetieth year of his age and the sixtieth of
his reign.
Massinissa was an able ruler and a decided benefactor to
Numidia. He converted a plundering tribe into a settled and
civilized population, and out of robbers and marauders made
efficient and disciplined soldiers. To his sons he bequeathed
a well-stored treasury, a formidable army, and even a fleet.
Cirta (q.v.), his capital, became a famous centre of Phoenician
civilization. In fact Massinissa changed for the better the whole
aspect of a great part of northern Africa. He had much of
the Arab nature, was singularly temperate, and equal to any
amount of fatigue. His fidelity to Rome was merely that of
temporary expediency. He espoused now one side, and now
the other, but on the whole supported Rome, so that orators
and historians could speak of him as " a most faithful ally of
the Roman people."
See Livy xxiy. 49, xxviii. II, 35, 42, xxix. 27, xxx. 3, 12, 28, 37,
xlii. 23, 29, xliii. 3; Polybius iii. 5, ix. 42, xiv. I, xxxii. 2, xxxvii. 3;
Appian, Hisp. 37, Punica, ll, 27, 105; Justin xxxiii. I ; A. H. J.
Greenidge, Hist, of Rome (London, 1904).
MASSON, DAVID (1822-1007), Scottish man of letters, was
born at Aberdeen on the 2nd of December 1822, and educated
at the grammar school there and at Marischal College. Intending
to enter the Church, he proceeded to Edinburgh University,
where he studied theology under Dr Chalmers, whose friendship
he enjoyed until the divine's death in 1847. However, abandon-
ing his project of the ministry, he returned to his native city
to undertake the editorship of the Banner, a weekly paper
devoted to the advocacy of Free Kirk principles. After two
years he resigned this post and went back to the capital, bent
upon pursuing a purely literary career. There he wrote a great
deal, contributing to Fraser's Magazine, Dublin University
Magazine (in which appeared his essays on Chatterton) and
other periodicals. In 1847 he went to London, where he found
wider scope for his energy and knowledge. He was secretary
(1851-1852) of the " Society of the Friends of Italy." In a
famous interview with Mrs Browning at Florence he contested
her admiration for Napoleon III. He had known De Quincey,
whose biography he contributed in 1878 to the " English Men
of Letters " series, and he was an enthusiastic friend and admirer
of Carlyle. In 1852 he was appointed professor of English
literature at University College, London, in succession to
A. H. Clough, and from 1858 to 1865 he edited the newly
established Macmillan's Magazine. In 1865 he was selected
for the chair of rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh,
and during the early years of his professorship actively pro-
moted the movement for the university education of women.
In 1879 he became editor of the Register of the Scottish Privy
Council, and in 1893 was appointed Historiographer Royal for
Scotland. Two years later he resigned his professorship. His
magnum opus in his Life of Milton in Connexion with the History
of His Own Time in six volumes, the first of which appeared
in 1858 and the last in 1880. He also edited the library edition
of Milton's Poetical Works (3 vols., 1874), and De Quincey's
Collected Works (14 vols., 1889-1890). Among his other publi-
cations are Essays, Biographical and Critical (1856, reprinted
with additions, 3 vols., 1874), British Novelists and their Styles
(1859), Drummond of Hawthornden (1873), Chatterton (1873) and
Edinburgh Sketches (1892). He died on the 6th of October 1907.
A bust of Masson was presented to the senate of the university
of Edinburgh in 1897. Professor Masson had married Rosaline
Orme. His son Orme Masson became professor of chemistry
in the university of Melbourne, and his daughter Rosaline is
known as a writer and novelist.
MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRSD&IIC (1847- ), French
historian, was born at Paris on the 8th of March 1847. His
father, Francis Masson, a solicitor, was killed on the 23rd of
June 1848, when major in the garde nalionale. Young Masson
was educated at the college of Sainte Barbe, and at the lycee
Louis-le-Grand, and then travelled in Germany and in England;
from 1869 to 1880 he was librarian at the Foreign Office. At
first he devoted himself to the history of diplomacy, and pub-
lished between 1877 and 1884 several volumes connected with
that subject. Later he published a number of more or less
curious memoirs illustrating the history of the Revolution and
of the empire. But he is best known for his books connected
with Napoleon. In Napoleon inconnu (1895), Masson, together
with M. Guido Biagi, brought out the unpublished writin
(1786-1793) of the future emperor. These were notes, extr;
from historical, philosophical and literary books, and perso:
reflections in which one can watch the growth of the ideas lai
carried out by the emperor with modifications necessitated
the force of circumstances and his own genius. But this
only one in a remarkable series: Josephine de Beauharna
1763-1796 (1898); Josephine, imperatrice et reine (i
Josephine repudiee 1809-1814 (1901); L 'Imperatrice Marie Lou,
(1902); Napoleon et les femmes (1894); Napoleon et sa famu
(9 vols., 1897-1907); Napoleon et son fils (1904); and Autour
I'tle d'Elbe (1908). These works abound in details and amusi
anecdotes, which throw much light on the events and men
the time, laying stress on the personal, romantic and dramai
aspects of history. The author was made a member of the
Academic francaise in 1903. From 1886 to 1889 he edited t
review Arts and Letters, published in London and New York.
A bibliography of his works, including anonymous ones and thoi
under an assumed name, has been published by G. Vicaire (Manuel
de I'amateur des livres du XIX" siecle, tome v., 1904). Napoleon et
les femmes has been translated into English as Napoleon and the
Fair Sex (1894).
MAST (i) (0. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate
with Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mastus comes
Fr. mat), in nautical language, the name of the spar, or straight
piece of timber, or combination of spars, on which are hung the
yards and sails of a vessel of any size. It has been ingeniously
supposed that man himself was the first mast. He discovered
by standing up in his prehistoric " dugout," or canoe, that the
wind blowing on him would carry his craft along. But the
origin of the mast, like that of the ship, is lost in times anterior to
all record. The earliest form of mast which prevailed till the
close of the middle ages, and is still in use for small vessels, was
and is a single spar made of some tough and elastic wood; the
conifers supply the best timber for the purpose. In sketching
the history of the development of the mast, we must distinguish
between the increase in the number erected, and the improve-
ments made in the mast itself. The earliest ships had only one,
carrying a single sail. So little is known of the rigging
MASTABA MASTER
871
classical ships that nothing can be affirmed of them with absolute
confidence. The Norse vessels carried one mast placed in the
middle. The number gradually increased till it reached four or
five. All were at first upright, but the mast which stood nearest
the bow was by degrees lowered forward till it became the
bow-sprit of modern times, and lost the name of mast. The
next from the bows became the foremast called in Mediterra-
nean sea language mizzana, in French misaine. Then came
the main-mast in French grand mdt; and then the mizen in
French, which follows the Mediterranean usage, the artimon,
:.<. " next the rudder," limon. A small mast was sometimes
erected in the very end of the ship, and called in English a
" bonaventure mizen." It had a close resemblance to the jigger
of yawl-rigged yachts. By the close of the i6th century it had
become the established rule that a ship proper had three masts
fore, main and mizen. The third takes its name not as the other
two do, from its place, but from the lateen sail originally hoisted
on it (see RIGGING), which was placed fore and aft in the middle
(Italian, mizzo) of the ship, and did not lie across like the courses
and topsails. With the development of very large sailing
clippers in the middle of the igth century a return was made
to the practice of carrying more than three masts. Ships and
barques are built with four or five. Some of the large schooners
employed in the American coast trade have six or seven, and
some steamers have had as many.
The mast was for long made out of a single spar. Thence the
Mediterranean name of " palo " (spar) and the Spanish " arbol "
(tree). The typical Mediterranean mast of " lateen ' (Latin) vessels
is short and bends forward. In other classes it is upright, or bends
slightly backwards with what is called a " rake.' The mast is
grounded, or in technical language " stepped," on the kelson (or
keelson), the solid timber or metal beam lying parallel with, and
above the keel. As the 1 5th century advanced the growth of the
ship made it difficult, or even impossible, to find spars large enough
to make a mast. The practice of dividing it into lower, and upper
or topmast, was introduced. At first the two were fastened firmly,
and the topmast could not be lowered. In the l6th century the top-
mast became movable. No date can be given for the change, which
was gradual, and was not simultaneously adopted. When the
masting of sailing ships was fully developed, the division was into
lower or standing mast, topmast, topgallant mast, and topgallant
royal. The topgallant royal is a small spar which is often a continua-
tion of the topgallant mast, and is fixed. Increase of size also made
it impossible to construct each of these subdivisions out of single
timbers. A distinction' was made between " whole " or single-spar
masts and " armed " and " made masts." The first were used for
the lighter spars, for small vessels and the Mediterranean craft called
" polacras." Armed masts were composed of two single timbers.
Made masts were built of many pieces, bolted and " coaked," i.e.
dovetailed and fitted together, fastened round by iron hoops, and
between them by twelve or thirteen close turns of rope, firmly
secured. " Made masts " are stronger than those made of a single
tree and less liable to be sprung. The general principle of construc-
tion is that it is built round a central shaft, called in English the
" spindle " or " upper tree," and in French the meche or wick.
The other pieces side trees," " keel pieces," " side fishes," " cant
pieces " and " fillings " are " coaked," i.e. dovetailed and bolted on
to and around the " spindle," which itself is made of two pieces,
coaked and bolted. The whole is bound by iron bands, and between
the bands, by rope firmly " woulded " or turned round, and nailed
tight. The art of constructing made masts, like that of building
wooden ships, is in process of dying out. In sailing men-of-war
the mizen-mast often did not reach to the kelson, but was stepped
on the orlop deck. Hollow metal cylinders are now used as masts.
In the case of a masted screw steamer the masts abaft the engines
could not be stepped on the kelson because they would interfere
with the shaft of the screw. It is therefore necessary to step them
on the lower deck, where they are supported by stanchions, or on a
horseshoe covering the screw shaft. The size of masts naturally
varies very much. In a Iio-gun ship of 2164 tons the proportions
of the mainmast were: for the lower mast, length 117 ft., diameter
3 ft. 3 in.; topmast, 70 ft., and 20$ in.; topgallant mast, 35 ft., and
1 1 s in., 222 ft. in all. At the other end of the scale, a cutter of 200
tons had a lower mast of 88 ft., of 22 in. diameter, and a topgallant
mast (there was no topmast between them) of 44 ft., of 9! in. in
diameter, 132 ft. in all; topgallant mast of 44 ft., and gj in. in diam-
eter. The masts of a warship were more lofty than those of a
merchant ship of the same tonnage. At present masts are only
used by warships for signalling and military purposes. In sailing
merchant ships, the masts are more lofty than they were about
a century ago. A merchant ship of 1300 tons, in 1830, had a main-
mast 1 79 ft. in height ; a vessel of the same size would have a mast
of 198 ft. to-day.
A " jury mast " is a temporary mast put up by the crew when
the spars have been carried away in a storm or in action, or have been
cut away to relieve pressure in a storm. The word has been supposed
without any foundation to be short for " injury " mast; it may be
a mere fanciful sailor adaptation of " jury " in some connexion now
lost. Skeat suggests that it is short for O. Fr. ajourie, Lat. adjutare,
to aid. There is no reason to connect with jour, day.
See L. Jal, Glossaire Nautique (Paris, 1848); Sir Henry Man way-
ring, The Seaman's Dictionary (London, 1644); N. Hutchinson,
Treatise on Naval Architecture and Practical Seamanship (Liverpool,
J777); David Steel, Elements and Practice of Rigging, Seamanship
and Naval Tactics (London, 1800); William Burney's Falconers
Dictionary (London, 1830); Sir Gervais Nares's Seamanship (Ports-
mouth, 1882); and John Fincham, On Masting Ships and Mast
Making (London, 1829). (D. H.)
MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic
languages, and ultimately connected with "meat"), the fruit of
the beech, oak, and other forest trees, used as food for swine.
MASTABA (Arab, for " bench "), in Egyptian architecture,
the term given to the rectangular tombs in stone with raking
sides and a flat roof. There were three chambers inside. In
one the walls were sometimes richly decorated with paintings
and had a low bench of stone in them on which incense was burnt.
The second chamber was either closed, with holes pierced in
the wall separating it from the first chamber, or entered through
a narrow passage through which the fumes of the incense passed ;
this chamber contained the serdab or figure of the deceased. A
vertical well-hole cut in the rock descended to a third chamber
in which the mummy was laid.
MASTER (Lat. magister, related to magis, more, as the
corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is
due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre,
mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro), one
holding a position of authority, disposition or control over
persons or things. The various applications of the word fall
roughly into the following main divisions; as the title of the
holder of a position of command or authority; as that of the
holder of certain public or private offices, and hence a title of
address; and as implying the relationship of a teacher to his
pupils or of an employer to the persons he employs. As a title
of the holder of an office, the use of the Lat. magister is very
ancient. Magister equitum, master of the horse, goes back to
the early history of the Roman Republic (see DICTATOR; and
for the British office, MASTER OF THE HORSE). In medieval
times the title was of great frequency. In Du Cange (Glossarium)
the article magister contains over 120 sub-headings. In the
British royal household most of the offices bearing this title are
now obsolete. Of the greater offices, that of master of the
buckhounds was abolished by the Civil List Act 1901. The
master of the household, master of the ceremonies, master of
the lung's music still survive. Since 1870 the office of master
of the mint has been held by the chancellor of the exchequer,
all the administrative and other duties being exercised by the
deputy master.
At sea, a " master " is more properly styled " master mariner."
In the merchant service he is the commander of a ship, and is
by courtesy known as the captain. In the British navy he was
the officer entrusted with the navigation under the captain.
He had no royal commission, but a warrant from the Navy
Board. Very often he had been a merchant captain. His
duties are now performed by the staff commander or navigating
lieutenant. The master-at-arms is the head of the internal
police of a ship; the same title is borne by a senior gymnastic
instructor in the army. In the United States navy, the master
is a commissioned officer below the rank of lieutenant.
" Master " appears as the title of many legal functionaries
(for the masters of the supreme court see CHANCERY; and KING'S
BENCH, COURT OF; for masters in lunacy see INSANITY:
Law, see also MASTER OF THE ROLLS, below). The " master
of the faculties " is the chief officer of the archbishop of Canter-
bury in his court of faculties. His duties are concerned with
the appointment of notaries and the granting of special licences
of marriage. The duties are performed ex officio by the judge
of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York, who is also
dean of Arches, in accordance with 7 of the Public Worship
872 MASTER AND SERVANT MASTER OF THE HORSE
Regulation Act 1874. The " master of the Temple " is the
title of the priest-in-charge of the Temple Church in London.
It was formerly the title of the grand master of the Knights
Templars. The priest-in-charge of the Templars' Church was
properly styled the cuslos, and this was preserved by the Knights
Hospitallers when they were granted the property of the
Templars at the dissolution of that order. The act of 1540
(32 Henry VIII.), which dissolved the order of the Hospitallers,
wrongly styled the custos master of the Temple, and the mistake
has been continued. The proper title of a bencher of the Inns
of Court is " master of the Bench " (see INNS OF COURT). The
title of " Master-General of the Ordnance " was revived in 1904
for the head of the Ordnance Department in the British military
administration.
" Master " is the ordinary word for a teacher, very generally
used in the compound " schoolmaster." The word also is
used in a sense transferred from this to express the relation
between the founder of a school of religion, philosophy, science,
art, &c., and his disciples. It is partly in this sense and partly
in that of one whose work serves as a model or type of superlative
excellence that such terms as " old masters " are used. In
medieval universities magister was particularly applied to one
who had been granted a degree carrying with it the licentia
docendi, the licence to teach. In English usage this survives
in the faculty of arts. The degree is that of artium magister,
master of arts, abbreviated M.A. In the other faculties the
corresponding degree is doctor. Some British universities give
a master's degree in surgery, magister chirurgiae, C.M. or M.Ch.,
and also in science, magister scientiae, M.Sc. The academic
use of " master " as the title of the head of certain colleges at
the universities of Oxford and Cambridge is to be referred to
the frequent application of the term to the holder of a presiding
office in an institution.
Master was the usual prefix of address to a man's name,
though originally confined to people of some social standing.
Probably under the influence of " mistress," it was corrupted
in sound to " mister," and was abbreviated to " Mr." In the
case of the puisne judges of the High Court " Mr Justice " is
still used as the proper official form of written address. The
Speaker of the House of Commons is also formally addressed
as " Mr Speaker." In some Scottish peerages below the rank
of earl, " master " is used in the courtesy title of the heir, e.g.
the " Master of Ruthven."
MASTER AND SERVANT. These are scarcely to be con-
sidered as technical terms in English law. The relationship
which they imply is created when one man hires the labour
of another for a term. Thus it is not constituted by merely
contracting with another for the performance of a definite work,
or by sending an article to an artificer to be repaired, or engaging
a builder to construct a house. Nor would the employment
of a man for one definite act of personal service e.g. the engage-
ment of a messenger for a single occasion generally make the one
master and the other servant. It was held, however, in relation
to the offence of embezzlement, that a drover employed on one
occasion to drive cattle home from market was a servant within
the statute. On the other hand, there are many decisions
limiting the meaning of " servants " under wills giving legacies
to the class of servants generally. Thus " a person who was
not- obliged to give his whole time to the master, but was yet
in some sense a servant," was held not entitled to share in a
legacy to the servants. These cases are, however, interpreta-
tions of wills where the intention obviously is to benefit domestic
servants only. And so in other connexions questions may arise
as to the exact nature of the relations between the parties
whether they are master and servant) or principal and agent,
or landlord and tenant, or partners, &c.
The terms of the contract of service are for the most part
such as the parties choose to make them, but in the absence
of express stipulations terms will be implied by the law. Thus,
" where no time is limited either expressly or by implication for
the duration of a contract of hiring and service, the hiring is
considered as a general hiring, and in point of law a hiring for
a year." But " in the case of domestic and menial servants
there is a well-known rule, founded solely on custom, that their
contract of service may be determined at any time by giving a
month's warning or paying a month's wages, but a domestic or
other yearly servant, wrongfully quitting his master's service,
forfeits all claim to wages for that part of the current year
during which he has served, and cannot claim the sum to which
his wages would have amounted had he kept his contract,
merely deducting therefrom one month's wages. Domestic
servants have a right by custom to leave their situations at
any time on payment of a calendar month's wages in advance,
just as a master may discharge them in a similar manner "
(Manley Smith's Law of Master and Servant, chs. ii. and iii.).
The following are sufficient grounds for discharging a servant:
(i) wilful disobedience of any lawful order; (2) gross moral mis-
conduct; (3) habitual negligence; (4) incompetence or permanent
disability caused by illness. A master has a right of action
against any person who deprives him of the services of his
servant, by enticing him away, harbouring or detaining him after
notice, confining or disabling him, or by seducing his female
servant. Indeed, the ordinary and only available action for
seduction in English law is in form of a claim by a parent for the
loss of his daughter's services. The death of either master or
servant in general puts an end to the contract. A servant
wrongfully discharged may either treat the contract as rescinded
and sue for services actually rendered, or he may bring a special
action for damages for the breach. The common law liabilities
of a master towards his servants have been further regulated
by the Workmen's Compensation Acts (see EMPLOYER'S LIA-
BILITY). A master is bound to provide food for a servant
living under his roof, and wilful breach of duty in that respec
is a misdemeanour under the Offences against the Person Ac
1861.
A servant has no right to demand " a character " from an
employer, and if a character be given it will be deemed a privi-
leged communication, so that the master will not be liable
thereon to the servant unless it be false and malicious. A master
by knowingly giving a false character of a servant to an intending
employer may render himself liable should the servant for
example rob or injure his new master.
Reference may be made to the articles on LABOUR LEGISLATION
for the cases in which special terms have been introduced into con
tracts of service by statute (e.g. Truck Acts).
MASTER OF THE HORSE, in England, an important official
of the sovereign's household. The master of the horse is the
third dignitary of the court, and is always a member of the
ministry (before 1782 the office was of cabinet rank), a peer
and a privy councillor. All matters connected with the horses
and hounds of the sovereign, as well as the stables and coach-
houses, the stud, mews and kennels, are within his jurisdiction.
The practical management of the royal stables and stud devolves
on the chief or crown equerry, formerly called the gentleman
of the horse, who is never in personal attendance on the sovereign
and whose appointment is permanent. The clerk marshal has
the supervision of the accounts of the department before they
are submitted to the Board of Green Cloth, and is in waiting on
the sovereign on state occasions only. Exclusive of the crown
equerry there are seven regular equerries, besides extra and
honorary equerries, one of whom is always in attendance on
the sovereign and rides at the side of the royal carriage. They
are always officers of the army, and each of them is " on duty "
for about the same time as the lords and grooms in waiting.
There are also several pages of honour in the master of the
horse's department, who must not be confounded with the pages
of various kinds who are in the department of the lord chamber-
lain. They are youths aged from twelve to sixteen, selected
by the sovereign in person, to attend on him at state ceremonies,
when two of them, arrayed in an antique costume, assist the
groom of the stole in carrying the royal train.
In France the master of the horse (" Grand Ecuyer," or more
usually " Monsieur le grand ") was one of the seven great officers
of the crown from 1617. As well as the superintendence of the r
for
:
on-
,-!
MASTER OF THE ROLLS MASTODON
stables, he had that of the retinue of the sovereign, also the charge
of the funds set aside for the religious functions of the court, corona-
tions, &c. On the death of a sovereign he had the right to all the
horses and their equipment in the royal stables. Distinct from this
officer and independent of him, was the first equerry (" Premier
Ecuyer "), who had charge of the horses which the sovereign used
personally (" la petite ecurie "), and who attended on him when he
rode out. The office of master of the horse existed down to the reign
of Louis XVI. Under Louis XVIII. and Charles X. the duties
were discharged by the first equerry, but under Napokkm I. and
Napol6on III. the office was revived with much of its old importance.
In Germany the master of the horse (Oberststallmeister) is a high
court dignitary ; but his office is merely titular, the superintendence
of the king's stables being carried out by the Oberstallmeister, an
official corresponding to the crown equerry in England.
MASTER OF THE ROLLS, the third member of the Supreme
Court of Judicature in England, the lord chancellor, president
of the chancery division, being the first, and the lord chief
justice, president of the king's bench division, being the second.
At first he was the principal clerk of the chancery, and as such
had charge of the records of the court, especially of the register
of original writs and of all patents and grants under the Great
Seal. Until the end of the i sth century he was called either the
clerk or the keeper of the rolls, and he is still formally designated
as the master or keeper of the rolls. The earliest mention of
him as master of the rolls is in an act of 1495; and in another
act of the same year he is again described as clerk of the rolls,
showing that his official designation still remained unsettled.
About the same period, however, the chief clerks of the chancery
came to be called masters in chancery, and the clerk, master or
keeper of the rolls was always the first among them, whichever
name they bore. In course of time, from causes which are not
very easy to trace, his original functions as keeper of the records
passed away from him and he gradually assumed a jurisdiction
in the court of chancery second only to that of the lord chan-
cellor himself. In the beginning he only heard causes in con-
junction with the other masters in chancery, and his decrees
were invalid until they had been approved and signed by the
lord chancellor. Sitting in the Rolls chapel or in the court in
Rolls yard, he heard causes without assistance, and his decrees
held good until they were reversed on petition either to the
lord chancellor or afterwards to the lords justices of appeal.
Before any judge with the formal title of vice-chancellor was
appointed the master of the rolls was often spoken of as vice-
chancellor, and in theory acted as such, sitting only when the
lord chancellor was not sitting and holding his court in the
evening from six o'clock to ten. Only since 1827 has the master
of the rolls sat in the morning hours. By the Public Record
Office Act 1838 the custody of the records was restored to him,
and he is chairman of the State Papers and Historical Manu-
scripts Commissions. Under the Judicature Act 1875, and the
Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, he now always sits with the
lords justices in the court of appeal (which usually sits in two
divisions of three judges, the master of the rolls presiding over
one division), whose decisions can be questioned only in the
House of Lords. The master of the rolls was formerly eligible
to a seat in the House of Commons a privilege enjoyed by
no other member of the judicial bench; 1 but he was deprived of
it by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, which provides
that all judges of the High Court of Justice and the court of
appeal shall be incapable of being elected to or sitting in the
House of Commons. The master of the rolls is always sworn
of the privy council. His salary is 6000 a year.
See Lord Hardwicke, Office of the Master of the Rolls.
MASTIC, or MASTICH (Gr. /ICKTTIX'?, probably connected with
juao-acrfcu, to chew, since mastic is used in the East as a chewing
gum), a resinous exudation obtained from the lentisk, Pistacia
lentiscus, an evergreen shrub of the natural order Anacardiaceae.
The lentisk or mastic plant is indigenous to the Mediterranean
coast region from Syria to Spain, but grows also in Portugal,
Morocco and the Canaries. Although experiments have proved
that excellent mastic might be obtained in other islands in the
1 Sir John Romilly, M.P_. for Devonport, 1847 to 1852, was the last
master of the rolls to sit in Parliament. He was appointed master
of the rolls in 1851.
archipelago, the production of the substance has been, since
the time of Dioscorides, almost exclusively confined to the
island of Chios. The mastic districts of that island are for the
most part flat and stony, with little hills and few streams. The
shrubs are about 6 ft. high. The resin is contained in the bark
and not in the wood, and in order to obtain it numerous vertical
incisions are made, during June, July and August, in the stem
and chief branches. The resin speedily exudes and hardens into
roundish or oval tears, which are collected, after about fifteen
days, by women and children in little baskets lined with white
paper -or cotton wool. The ground around the trees is kept
hard and clean, and flat pieces of stone are often laid beneath
them to prevent any droppings of resin from becoming con-
taminated with dirt. The collection is repeated three or four
times between June and September, a fine tree being found to
yield about 8 or 10 Ib of mastic during the season. Besides
that obtained from the incisions, mastic of very fine quality
spontaneously exudes from the small branches. The harvest
is affected by showers of rain during the period of collection,
and the trees are much injured by frost, which is, however, of
rare occurrence in the districts where they grow. Mastic occurs
in commerce in the form of roundish tears about the size of
peas. They are transparent, with a glassy fracture, of a pale
yellow or faint greenish tinge, which darkens slowly by age.
During the isth, i6th and i7th centuries mastic enjoyed a high
reputation as a medicine, and formed an ingredient in a large
number of medical compounds; but its use in medicine is now
obsolete, and it is chiefly employed for making varnish.
Pistacia Khinjuk and P. cabulica, trees growing throughout
Sindh, Baluchistan and Cabul, yield a kind of mastic which is met
with in the Indian bazaars under the name of Mustagirumi, i.e.
Roman mastic. This when occurring in the ' European market is
known as East Indian or Bombay mastic. In Algeria P. Atlantica
yields a solid resin, which is collected and used by the Arabs as a
masticatory. Cape mastic is the produce of Euryops multifidus,
the resin bush, or harpuis bosch of the Boers a plant of the compo-
site order growing abundantly in the Clanwilliam district. Dammar
resin is sometimes sold under the name of mastic. The West
Indian mastic tree is the Bursera gummifera and the Peruvian
mastic is Schinus molle; but neither of these furnishes commercial
resins. The name mastic tree is also applied to a timber tree, Sider
oxylon mastichodendron, nat. ord. Sapotaceae, which grows in the
West Indies and on the coast of Florida.
MASTIGOPHORA, a group of Protozoa, moving and ingesting
food by long flagella (Gr. pidcml, whip), usually few in number,,
and multiplying by fission, usually longitudinal, in the active
condition. They were separated off from the rest of the old
" Infusoria " by K. Busing, and subdivided by O. Butschli and
E. R. Lankester into (i) Flagellata (q.v.), including Haemo-
flagellata (q.v.), (2) Dinoflagellata (q.v.) and Rhyncho = Cysto-
flagellata E. Haeckel (?..) = Rhynchoflagellata E. R. Lan-
kester. The Mastigophora are frequently termed Flagellata or
Flagellates.
MASTODON (Gr. piaffrfo, breast, 6Soi>s, tooth), a name given
by Cuvier to the Pliocene and Miocene forerunners of the
elephants, on account of the nipple-like prominences on the
molar teeth of some of the species (fig. 2), which are of a much
simpler type than those of true elephants. Mastodons, like
elephants, always have a pair of upper tusks, while the earlier
ones likewise have a short pair in the lower jaw, which is
prilonged into a snout-like symphysis for their support. These
long-chinned mastodons are now regarded as forming a genus
by themselves (Tetrabelodon), well-known examples of this
group being Tetrabelodon angustidens from the Miocene and
T. longirostris (fig. i C.) from the Lower Pliocene of the Conti-
nent. In the former the upper tusks are bent down so as to
cross the tips of the short and chisel-like lower pair. These
long-chinned mastodons must have had an extremely elongated
muzzle, formed by the upper lip and nose above and the lower
lip below, with which they were able to reach the ground, the
neck being probably rather longer than in elephants. On the
other hand, in the short-chinned mastodons, as represented by
the Pleistocene North American Mastodon americanus and the
Pliocene European M. turicensis (fig. i), the chin had shrunk
8 74
MAS'UDl
to the dimensions characteristic of elephants, with the loss of
the lower incisors (or with temporary retention of rudimentary
ones), while at the same time a true elephant-like trunk must
have been developed by the shortening of the lower lip and the
prolongation of the combined upper lip and nose.
Mastodons are found in almost all parts of the world. In
Asia they gave rise to the elephants, while they themselves
originated in Africa from ungulates of more normal type. (See
PROBOSCIDEA.)
The upper tusks of the early mastodons differ from those of ele-
phants in retaining longitudinal bands of enamel. The molar teeth
species the summits of the ridges are divided into conical cusps, and
may have accessory cusps clustering around them (as in M. arvernensis,
fig. 2). When the summits of these are worn by mastication their
surfaces present circles of dentine surrounded by a border of enamel,
and as attrition proceeds different patterns are produced by the
union of the bases of the cusps, a trefoil form being characteristic
of some species.
Certain of the molar teeth of the middle of the series in both
elephants and mastodons have the same number of principal ridges;
those in front having fewer, and those behind a greater number.'
These teeth are distinguished as " intermediate " molars. In ele-
phants there are only two, the last milk-molar and the first true
molar (or the third and fourth of the whole series), which are alike
in the number of ridges; whereas in mastodons there are three such
teeth, the last milk-molar and
the first and second molars
(or the third, fourth and
fifth of the whole series).
In elephants the number of
ridges on the intermediate
molars always exceeds five,
but in mastodons it is nearly
always three or four, and the
tooth in front has usually
one fewer and that behind
one more, so that the ridge-
formula (i.e. a formula ex-
pressing the number of ridges
on each of the six molar teeth)
of most mastodons can be
reduced either to 1,2, 3, 3, 3,
,3.;
Th
FIG. i. Mastcdon turicensis (Pliocene).
A, B, Skull and Lower Jaw of Mastodon americanus, C, Lower Jaw of Tetrabelodon longirostris.
are six in number on each side, increasing in size from before back-
wards, and, as in the elephants, with a horizontal succession, the
anterior teeth being lost before the full development of the posterior
ones, which gradually move forward, taking the place of those that
are destroyed by wear. This process is, however, less fully developed
than in elephants, and as many as three teeth may be in place in
each jaw at one time. There is, moreover, in many species a vertical
succession, affecting either the third, or the third and second, or (in
one American species, Tetrabelodon prodnctus) the first, second and
third of the six molar teeth. These three are therefore reckoned
as milk-molars, and their successors as premolars, while the last three
correspond to the true molars of other mammals. The mode of
succession of the teeth in the mastodons exhibits so many stages of
the process by which the dentition of elephants has been derived
from that of more ordinary mammals. It also shows that the an-
terior molars of elephants do not correspond to the premolars of
other ungulates, but to the milk-molars, the early loss of which in
consequence of the peculiar process of horizontal forward-moving
(From Owen.)
FIG. 2. Upper Molar of Mastodon arvernensis, viewed from below.
succession does not require their replacement by premolars. Special-
ized! species like Mastodon americanus have completely lost the
rudimentary premolars.
Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than elephants ;
the ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, with a thicker enamel
covering, and scarcely any cement filling the space between them.
Sometimes (as in M. americanus) the ridges are simple transverse
wedge-shaped elevations, with straight or concave edges. In other
4, or 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5. Three-
ridged and four-ridged types
occur both in Mastodon and
Tetrabelodon. (R. L.*)
MAS'UDl (ABU-L EASAN
'ALT IBN IIUSAIN IBN "Alj
TJL-MAS'fjDl] (d. C. 956),
Arabian historian, was born
at Bagdad towards th<
close of the gth century
Much of his life was spent
in travel. After he had
been in Persia and Kerman,
he visited Istakhr in 915,
and went in the following year to Multan and Mansura,
thence to Cambay, Saimur and Ceylon, to Madagascar and
back to Oman. He seems -about this time to have been
as far as China. After a visit to the shores of the Caspian Sea
he visited Tiberias in Palestine, examined the Christian church
there, and described its relics. In 943 he was in Antioch,
studying the ruins, and two years later in Damascus. The last
ten years of his life he spent in Syria and Egypt. His great
object in life had been to study with his own eyes the peculiarities
of every land and to collect whatever was of interest for
archaeology, history and manners. Himself a Mo'tazilite (see
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: Sects), he was singularly free from
bigotry, and took his information, when necessary, from Persians,
Jews, Indians, and even the chronicle of a Christian bishop.
His most extensive work was the Kitab akhbar uz-Zaman or
Annals, in 30 volumes with a supplement, the Kitab ul-Ausat,
a chronological sketch of general history. Of these the first part
only of the former is extant in MS. in Vienna, while the latter seems
to be in the Bodleian Library, also in MS. The substance of the two
was united by him in the work by which he is now best known, the
Muruj udh-Dhahab wa Ma'adin ul-Jawahir (" Meadows of Gold and
Mines of Precious Stones "), an historical work which he completed
in 947. In 956 he finished a second edition of this and made it
double its former size, but no copy of this seems to be extant. The
original edition has been published at Bulaq and Cairo, and with
French translation by C. Barbier de Meynard and Pa vet de Courteille
(9 vols., Paris, 1861-1877). Another work of Mas'udi, written in the
last year of his life, is the Kitab ut-TanKh wal Ishraf (the " Book
of Indication and Revision"), in which he summarizes the work of
his life and corrects and completes his former writings. It has been
edited by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1894), and a French translation
has been made by Carra de Vaux (Paris, 1896); cf. also the memoir
of S. de Sacy published in Meynard's edition of the Muruj.
An account of Mas'udi's works is to be found in de Sacy's
memoir and in Goeje's preface to his edition of the Tanbih, and of the
works extant in C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der Arabischen Litteratur,
i. 144-145 (Weimar, 1898). C. Field's Tales of the Caliphs (1909) is
based on Mas'udi. (G. W. T.)
g-
MASULIPATAM MATANZAS
7S
MASULIPATAM, or BANDAR, a seaport of British India,
administrative headquarters of the Kistna district of Madras,
on one of the mouths of the river Kistna, 215 m. N. of Madras
city. Pop. (1901), 39,507. Masulipatam was the earliest
English settlement on the Coromandel coast, its importance
being due to the fact that it was the bandar or port of Golconda.
An agency was established there in 1611. During the wars of
the Carnatic, the English were temporarily expelled the town,
which was held by the French for some years. In 1759 the
town and fort were carried by storm by Colonel Forde, an
achievement followed by the acquisition of the Northern
Circars (<?.i>.). In 1864 a great storm-wave swept over the entire
town and is said to have destroyed 30,000 lives. Weavers form
a large portion of the inhabitants, though their trade has greatly
declined since the beginning of the I9th century. Their opera-
tions, besides weaving, include printing, bleaching washing and
dressing. In former days the chintzes of Masulipatam had a
great reputation abroad for the freshness and permanency of
their dyes. Masulipatam is a station of the Church Missionary
Society. The port is only a roadstead, where vessels anchor
5 m. out. A branch line from Bezwada on the Southern
Mahratta railway was opened in 1908. The chief educational
institution is the Noble College of the C.M.S.
MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. malta, whence Ital. malta,
Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.), an article of various sizes
and shapes, according to the purpose for which it is intended,
and made of plaited or woven materials, such as coir, hemp,
coco-nut fibre, straw, rushes, &c., or of rope or coarse twine.
The finer fabrics are known as " matting " (q.v.). Mats are
mainly used for covering floors, or in horticulture as a protection
against cold or exposure for plants and trees. When used near
the entrance to a house for people to wipe their boots on " door
mats " are usually made of coarse coco-nut fibre, or india-rubber,
cork, or of thickly coiled wire. Bags, rolls or sacks made of
matting are used to hold coffee, flax, rice and other produce,
and the term is often used with reference to the specific quantities
of such produce, e.g. so many " mats " of coffee, rice, &c.
To be distinguished from the above is the term " mat " in glass-
painting or gilding, meaning dull, unpolished or unburnished. This
is the same as Ger. malt, dead, dull, cf. mait-blau, Med. Lat. mattus,
adapted from Persian mat, dazed, astonished, at a loss, helpless, and
seen in " mate " in chess, from Pers. shah mat the king is dead.
MATABELE ("vanishing" or "hidden" people, so called
from their appearance in battle, hidden behind enormous oxhide
shields), a people of Zulu origin who began national life under
the chief Mosilikatze. Driven out of the Transvaal by the
Boers in 1837, Mosilikatze crossed the Limpopo with a military
host which had been recruited from every tribe conquered by
him during his ten years' predominance in the Transvaal. In
their new territories the Matabele absorbed into their ranks
many members of the conquered Mashona tribes and established
a military despotism. Their sole occupation was war, for which
their laws and organization were designed to fit them. This
system of constant warfare is, since the conquest of Matabeleland
by the British in 1893, a thing of the past. The Matabele are
now herdsmen and agriculturists. (See RHODESIA.)
MATACHINES (Span, matachin, down, or masked dancer),
bands of mummers or itinerant players in Mexico, especially
popular around the Rio Grande, who wander from village
to village during Lent, playing in rough-and-ready style a set
drama based on the history of Montezuma. Dressed in fan-
tastic Indian costumes and carrying rattles as their orchestra,
the chief characters are El Monarca " the monarch " (Monte-
zuma); Malinche, or Malintzin, the Indian mistress of Hernando
Cortes; El Toro, " the bull," the malevolent " comic man " of
the play, dressed in buffalo skin with the animal's horns on his
head; Agudo, the " grandfather," and Aguela, " grandmother."
With the help of a chorus of dancers they portray the desertion
of his people by Montezuma, the luring of him back by the wiles
and smiles of Malinche, the final reunion of king and people,
and the killing of El Toro, who is supposed to have made all
the mischief.
MATADOR, a Spanish word meaning literally " killer," from
malar, Lat. maclare, especially applied to the principal performer
in a bull-fight, whose function it is to slay the bull (see BULL-
FIGHTING). The word is also used of certain important cards
in such games as quadrille, ombre, &c., and more particularly of
a special form of the game of dominoes.
MATAMOROS, a town and port of the state of Tamaulipas,
Mexico, on the S. bank of the Rio Grande, 28 m. from its
mouth, opposite Brownsville, Texas. Pop. (1900), 8347.
Matamoros stands in an open plain, the commercial centre for a
large district, but its import trade is prejudiced by the bar at
the mouth of the Rio Grande, which permits the entrance of
small vessels only. The exports include hides, wool and live
stock. The importance of the town m the foreign trade of
northern Mexico, however, has been largely diminished by the
great railways. Formerly it was the centre of a large contra-
band trade with Brownsville, Texas. Matamoros was founded
early in the igth century, and was named in honour of the
Mexican patriot Mariano Matamoros (c. 1770-1814). In the war
between the United States and Mexico, Matamoros was easily
taken by the Americans on the i8th of May 1846, following
General Zachary Taylor's victories at Palo Alto and Resaca
de la Palma. Matamoros was occupied by the Mexican im-
perialists under Mejia in 1864, and by the French in 1866.
MATANZAS, an important city of Cuba, capital of Matanzas
Province, situated on a large deep bay on the N. coast, about
54 m. (by rail) E. of Havana. Pop. (1907), 36,009. There are
railway outlets W., S. and E., and Matanzas is served by steam-
ships to New York and by the coast steamers of the Herrera
Line. The bay, unlike all the other better harbours of the island,
has a broad mouth, 2 m. across, but there is good shelter
against all winds except from the N.E. A coral reef lies
across the entrance. Three rivers emptying into the bay the
San Juan, Canimar and Yumuri have deposited much silt,
necessitating the use of lighters in loading and unloading large
ships. The city is finely placed at the head of the bay, on a low,
sloping plain backed by wooded hills, over some of which the
city itself has spread. The conical Pan de Matanzas (1277 ft.)
is a striking land-mark for sailors. The San Juan and Yumuri
rivers divide Matanzas into three districts. The Teatro Esteban,
Casino Espanol and Government House are noteworthy among
the buildings. The broad Paseo de Marti (Alameda de Versalles,
Paseo de Santa Cristina) extends along the edge of the harbour,
and is perhaps the handsomest parkway and boulevard in Cuba.
At one end is a statue of Ferdinand VII., at the other a monument
to 63 Cubans executed by the Spanish Government as traitors
for bearing arms in the cause of independence. A splendid
military road continues the Paseo to the Castillo de San Serverino
(built in 1694-1695, reconstructed in 1773 and following years).
There are two smaller forts, established in the i8th century. Near
Matanzas are two of the most noted natural resorts of Cuba:
the valley of the Yumuri, and the caves of Bellamar. Com-
manding the Yumuri Valley is the hill called Cumbre, on which
is the Hermitage of Monteserrate (1870), with a famous shrine.
Matanzas is the second port of the island in commerce. Sugar
and molasses are the chief exports. The city is the chief outlet
for the sugar product of the province, which, with the province
of Santa Clara, produces two-thirds of the crop of the island.
There are many large warehouses, rum distilleries, sugar-mills
and railway machine-shops. Matanzas is frequently mentioned
in the annals of the i6th and I7th centuries, when its bay was
frequented by buccaneers; but the city was not laid out until
1693. In the next year it received an ayuntamienlo (council).
Its prosperity rapidly increased after the establishment of free
commerce early in the igth century. In 1815 it was made a
department capital. The mulatto poet, Gabriel de la Concepci6n
Valdes, known as Placido (1800-1844), was born in Matanzas, and
was executed there for participation in the supposed conspiracy
of negroes in 1844, which is one of the most famous episodes in
Cuban history. The hurricanes of 1844 and 1846 are the only
other prominent local events. American commercial influence
has always been particularly strong.
8 7 6
MATARO MATCH
MATAR6 (anc. Euro), a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in
the province of Barcelona, on the Mediterranean Sea and the
Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop. (1900), 19,704. The streets
of the new town, lying next the sea, are wide and regularly
built; those of the old town, farther up the hill, still preserve
much of their ancient character. The parish church of Santa
Maria has some good pictures and wood carvings. The wine of
the neighbourhood, which resembles port, is shipped in large
quantities from Barcelona; and the district furnishes fine roses
and strawberries for the Barcelona market. The leading indus-
tries are manufactures of linen and cotton goods, especially
canvas and tarpaulin, and of soap, paper, chemicals, starch,
glass, leather, spirits and flour. The railway to Barcelona,
opened in October 1848, was the first to be constructed in Spain.
Outside the town is the much-frequented carbonated mineral
spring of Argentona.
MATCH: i. O. Eng. gemaecca, a cognate form of " make,"
meaning originally " fit '.' or " suitable "; a pair, or one of a pair
of objects, persons or animals. As particularly applied to a
husband and wife, and hence to a marriage, the word is especially
used of two persons or things which correspond exactly to each
other. The verb " to match " has also the meaning to " pit
one against each other," and so is applied in sport to an arranged
contest between individuals or sides.
2. O. Fr. mesche; apparently from a latinized form of Gr.
fiua, mucus from the nose, applied to the nozzle of a lamp;
primarily the wick which conveys oil or molten wax to the flame
of a lamp or candle (this use is now obsolete), the word being then
applied to various objects having the property of carrying fire.
With early firearms a match, consisting of a cord of hemp or
similar material treated with nitre and other substances so that
it continued to smoulder after it had been ignited, was used for
firing the charge, being either held in the gunner's hand or at-
tached to the cock of the musket or arquebus and brought down
by the action of the trigger on the powder priming (" match-
lock ") ; and more or less similar preparations, made to burn more
or less rapidly as required (" quick-match " and " slow-match "),
are employed as fuses in blasting and demolition work in military
operations. The word " match " was further used of a splint of
wood, tipped with sulphur so that it would readily ignite, but
it now most commonly means a slip of wood or other combustible
material, having its end covered with a composition which takes
fire when rubbed either on any rough surface or on another
specially prepared composition.
The first attempt to make matches in the modern sense may
probably be ascribed to Godfrey Haukwitz, who, in 1680, acting
under the direction of Robert Boyle, who at that time had just
discovered how to prepare phosphorus, employed small pieces
of that element, ignited by friction, to light splints of wood
dipped in sulphur. This device, however, did not come into
extensive use owing to its danger and inconvenience and to the
cost of the phosphorus, and till the beginning of the igth century
flint and steel with tinder-box and sulphur-tipped splints of
wood " spunks " or matches were the common means of
obtaining fire for domestic and other purposes. The sparks
struck off by the percussion of flint and steel were made to fall
among the tinder, which consisted of carbonized fragments of
cotton and linen; the entire mass of the tinder was set into a glow,
developing sufficient heat to ignite the sulphur with which the
matches were tipped, and thereby the splints themselves were
set on fire. In 1805 one Chancel, assistant to Professor L. J.
Thenard of Paris, introduced an apparatus consisting of a small
bottle containing asbestos, saturated with strong sulphuric acid,
with splints or matches coated with sulphur, and tipped with a
mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar. The matches so pre-
pared, when brought into contact with the sulphuric acid in the
bottle, ignited, and thus, by chemical action, fire was produced.
In 1823 a decided impetus was given to the artificial production
of fire by the introduction of the Dobereiner lamp, so called after
its inventor, J. W. Dobereiner of Jena. The first really practical
friction matches were made in England in 1827, by John Walker,
a druggist of Stockton-on-Tees. These were known as
" Congreves " after Sir William Congreve, the inventor of the
Congreve rocket, and consisted of wooden splints or sticks of
cardboard coated with sulphur and tipped with a mixture of
sulphide of antimony, chlorate of potash and gum. With each
box which was retailed at a shilling, there was supplied a folded
piece of glass paper, the folds of which were to be tightly pressed
together, while the match was drawn through between them.
The same idea occurred to Sir Isaac Holden independently two
and a half years later. The so-called " Prometheans," patented
by S. Jones of London in 1830, consisted of a short roll of paper
with a small quantity of a mixture of chlorate of potash and
sugar at one end, a thin glass globule of strong sulphuric acid
being attached at the same point. When the sulphuric acid was
liberated by pinching the glass globule, it acted on the mixed
chlorate and sugar, producing fire. The phosphorus friction-
match of the present day was first introduced on a commercial
scale in 1833. It appears to have been made almost simultaneously
in several distinct centres. The name most prominently connected
with the early stages of the invention is that of J. Preschel of
Vienna, who in 1833 had a factory in operation for making phos-
phorus matches, fusees, and amadou slips tipped with igniting
composition. At the same time also matches were being made by
F. Moldenhauer in Darmstadt; and for a long series of years
Austria and the South-German states were the principal centres
of the new industry.
But the use of ordinary white or yellow phosphorus as a princi-
pal ingredient in the igniting mixture of matches was found to
be accompanied with very serious disadvantages. It is a deadly
poison, and its free dissemination has led to many accidental
deaths, and to numerous cases of wilful murder and suicide.
Workers also who are exposed to phosphoric vapours are subject
to a peculiarly distressing disease which attacks the jaw, and
ultimately produces necrosis of the jaw-bone (" phossy jaw "),
though with scrupulous attention to ventilation and cleanliness
much of the risk of the disease may be avoided. The most
serious objections to the use of phosphorus, however, were
overcome by the discovery of the modified form of that body
known as red or amorphous phosphorus. That substance was
utilized for the manufacture of the well-known " safety matches"
by J. E. Lundstrom, of Jonkoping, Sweden, in 1852; its employ-
ment for this purpose had been patented eight years previously
by another Swede, G. E. Pasch, who, however, regarded it as an
oxide of phosphorus. Red phosphorus is in itself a perfectly
innocuous substance, and no evil effects arise from freely working
the compositions of which it fbrms an ingredient. The fact again
that safety matches ignite only in exceptional circumstances
on any other than the prepared surfaces which accompany the
box which surfaces and not the matches themselves contain
the phosphorus required for ignition makes them much less
liable to cause accidental fires than other kinds.
The processes carried out in a match factory include preparing
the splints, dipping them first in molten paraffin wax and then
in the igniting composition, and filling the matches into boxes.
All these operations are performed by complicated automatic
machinery, in the development of which the Diamond Match
Company of America has taken a leading part, with the
minimum of manual intervention.
The chief element in the igniting mixture of ordinary or " strike
anywhere " matches used to be common yellow phosphorus, com-
bined with one or more other bodies which readily part with oxygen
under the influence of heat. Chief among these latter substances
is chlorate of potash, others being red lead, nitrate of lead, bichro-
mate of potash and peroxide of manganese. But at the beginning
of the 2Oth century many countries took steps to stop the use of
yellow phosphorus owing to the danger to health attending its
manipulation. In Swedeni matches made with it have been pro-
hibited for home consumption, but not for export, since 1901. In
1905 and 1906 two conferences, attended by representatives of
most of the governments of Europe, were held at Berne to consider
the question of prohibiting yellow phosphorus, but no general agree-
ment was reached owing to the objections entertained by Sweden,
Norway, Spain and Portugal, and also Japan. Germany, France,
Italy, Denmark, Holland, Switzerland and Luxemburg, however,
agreed to a convention whereby yellow phosphorus was prohibited
as from 1912, and to this Great Britain expressed her adherence
MATE MATE
877
after the passing of the White Matches Prohibition Act 1908, which
forbade the manufacture and importation of such matches from the
1st of January 1910; though to avoid hardship to retailers and others
holding large stocks it permitted their sale for a year longer. Phos-
phorous sulphide (sesquisulphide of phosphorus) is one of the sub-
M.nices widely employed as a substitute for yellow phosphorus in
matches which will strike anywhere without the need of a specially
prepared surface.
Safety matches contain no phosphorus in the heads; according to
one formula that has been published the mixture with which they are
tipped consists of chlorate of potash, 32 parts; bichromate of potash,
12; red lead, 32; sulphide of antimony, 24; while the ingredients of
a suitable rubbing surface are eight parts of amorphous phosphorus
to nine of sulphide of antimony. There is no doubt, however,
that there is considerable diversity in the composition of the mixtures
actually employed.
" Vestas " are matches in which short pieces of thin " wax taper "
are used in place of wooden splints. Fusees or vesuvians consist
of large oval heads fixed on a round splint. These heads consist of
a porous mixture of charcoal, saltpetre, cascarilla or other scented
bark, glass and gum, tipped with common igniting composition.
When lighted they form a glowing mass, without flame.
It is calculated that in the principal European countries from six
to ten matches are used for each inhabitant daily, and the world's
annual output must reach a total which requires twelve or thirteen
figures for its expression. In the United States the manufacture
is under the control of the Diamond Match Company, formed in
1881; which company also has an important share in the industry
in Great Britain, where it has established large works. Similarly
the manufacture of safety matches in Sweden is largely controlled
by one big combination. In France matches are a government
monopoly, and are both dear in price and inferior in quality, as
compared with other countries where the industry is left to private
enterprise. The French government formerly leased the manufac-
ture to a company (Societe generate des allumeltes chimiques), but since
1890 it has been undertaken directly by the state.
MATt (a corruption of make, from O. Eng. gemaca, a " com-
rade "), a companion. In the language of the sea, the mate is
the companion or assistant of the master, or of any officer at
the head of a division of the crew. In the merchant service the
mates are the officers who serve under the master, commonly
called the captain, navigate the vessel under his direction, and
replace him if he dies, or is disabled. In a war-ship mates
serve under the gunner, boatswain, carpenter, &c. They are
officers told off to attend to a particular part of the ship, as for
example mate of the upper deck, whose duty is to see that it is
kept clean, or mate of the hold, who is employed to serve out
the water and other stores, and to keep the weights adjusted
so as to preserve the trim or balance of the ship. (For
" mate " in chess, see CHESS.)
MATfi, or PARAGUAY TEA, the dried leaves of Ilex paraguari-
ensis, 1 an evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to the same
genus as the common holly, a plant to which it bears some
resemblance in size and habit. The leaves are from 6 to 8 in.
long, shortly stalked, with a somewhat acute tip and finely
toothed at the margin. The small white flowers grow in forked
clusters in the axils of the leaves; the sepals, petals and stamens
are four in number, or occasionally five; and the berry is 4-seeded.
The plant grows abundantly in Paraguay, and the south of
Brazil, forming woods called yerbales. One of the principal
centres of the mate industry is the Villa Real, a small town above
Asuncion on the Paraguay river; another is the Villa de San
Xavier, in the district between the rivers Uruguay and Parana.
Although mate appears to have been used from time immemorial
by the Indians, the Jesuits were the first toattemptits cultivation.
This was begun at their branch missions in Paraguay and the province
of Rio Grande de San Pedro, where some plantations still exist, and
yield the best tea that is made. From this circumstance the names
Jesuits' tea, tea of the Missions, St Bartholomew's tea, &c., are
sometimes applied to mate. Under cultivation the quality of the
tea improves, but the plant remains a small shrub with numerous
s.tems, instead of forming, as in the wild state, a tree with a rounded
head. From cultivated plants the leaves are gathered every
two or three years, that interval being necessary for restoration to
vigorous growth. The collection of mate is, however, chiefly
effected by Indians employed for that purpose by merchants, who
pay a money consideration to government for the privilege.
When a yerbal or mate wood is found, the Indians, who usually
travel in companies of about twenty-five in number, build wigwams
1 /. gigantea, I. ovalifotia, I. Humtoldtiana, and I. nigropunctata,
besides several varieties of these species, are also used for preparing
mate.
and settle down to the work for about six months. Their first
operation is to prepare an open space, called a talacua, about 6 ft.
square, in which the surface of the soil is beaten hard and smooth
with mallets. The leafy branches of the mate are then cut down and
placed on the tatacua, where they undergo a preliminary roasting
from a fire kindled around it. An arch of poles, or of hurdles, is
then erected above it, on which the mate is placed, a fire being lighted
underneath. This part of the process demands some care, since
by it the leaves have to be rendered brittle enough to be easily
pulverized, and the aroma has to be developed, the necessary
amount of heat being only learned by experience. After drying,
the leaves are reduced to coarse powder in mortars formed of pits in
the earth well rammed. Mate so prepared is called caa gazu or yerva
do polos, and is chiefly used in Brazil. In Paraguay and the
vicinity of Parana in the Argentine Republic, the leaves are deprived
of the midrib before roasting; this is called caa-miri. A very superior
quality, or caa-cuys, is also prepared in Paraguay from the scarcely
expanded buds. Another method of drying mate has been adopted,
the leaves being heated in large cast-iron pans set in brickwork, in
the same way that tea is dried in China ; it is afterwards powdered
by machinery.
Mate (Ilex paraguariensis).
Portion of plant, half natural size. Flower, drupe and nuts, twice
natural size. Part of under-side of leaf showing minute glands,
natural size.
The different methods of preparation influence to a certain extent
the value of the product, the mate prepared in Paraguay being
considered the best, that of Oran and Paranagua very inferior. The
leaves when dried are packed tightly in serons or oblong packages
made of raw hides, which are then carefully sewed up. These shrink
by exposure to the sun, and in a couple of days form compact parcels
each containing about 200 Ib of tea; in this form it keeps well.
The tea is generally prepared for use in a small silver-mounted
calabash, made of the fruit of Crescentia cujete (Cuca) or of Lagen-
aria (Cabaco), usually about the size of a large orange, the tapering
end of the latter serving for a handle. In the top of the calabash,
or malt? a circular hole about the size of a florin is made, and through
this opening the tea is sucked by means of a bombilla. This instru-
ment consists of a small tube 6 or 7 in. long, formed either of metal
or a reed, which has at one end a bulb made either of extremely fine
basket-work or of metal perforated with minute holes, so as to
prevent the particles of the tea-leaves from being drawn up into
the mouth. Some sugar and a little hot water are first placed in the
gourd, the yerya is then added, and finally the vessel is filled to the
brim with boiling water, or milk previously heated by a spirit lamp.
1 The word caa signified the plant in the native Indian language.
The Spaniards gave it a similar name, yerba. Mate comes from the
language of the Incus, and originally means a calabash. The
Paraguay tea was called at first yerva do matt, and then, the yerva
being dropped, the name malt came to signify the same thing.
MATERA MATHEMATICS
A little burnt sugar or lemon juice is sometimes added instead of
milk. The beverage is then handed round to the company, each
person being furnished with a bombilla. The leaves will bear steep-
ing about three times. The infusion, if not drunk soon after it is
made, rapidly turns black. Persons who are fond of mate drink
it before every meal, and consume about I oz. of the leaves per day.
In the neighbourhood of Parana it is prepared and drunk like
Chinese tea. Matd is generally considered disagreeable by those
unaccustomed to it, having a somewhat bitter taste ; moreover, it
is the custom to drink it so hot as to be unpleasant. But in the
south-eastern republics it is a much-prized article of luxury, and is
the first thing offered to visitors. The gaucho of the plains will
travel on horseback for weeks asking no better fare than dried beef
washed down with copious draughts of matd, and for it he will forego
any other luxury, such as sugar, rice or biscuit. Mat6 acts as a
restorative after great fatigue in the same manner as tea. Since
it does not lose its flavour so quickly as tea by exposure to the air
and damp it is more valuable to travellers.
Since the beginning of the I7th century mate has been drunk by
all classes in Paraguay, and it is now used throughout Brazil and the
neighbouring countries.
The virtues of this substance are due to the occurrence in it of
caffeine, of which a given quantity of mat6, as prepared for drink-
ing, contains definitely less than a similar quantity of tea or coffee.
It is less astringent than either of these, and thus is, on all scores,
less open to objection.
See Scully, Brazil (London, 1866); Mansfield, Brazil (London,
1856); Christy, New Commercial Plants, No. 3 (London, 1880);
Kew Bulletin (1892), p. 132.
MATERA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of
Potenza, from which it is 68 m. E. by road (13 m. S. of the station
of Altamura), 1312 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 17,801.
Part of it is built on a level plateau and part in deep valleys
adjoining, the tops of the campaniles of the lower portions being
on a level with the streets of the upper. The principal building
is the cathedral of the archbishopric of Acerenza and Matera,
formed in 1 203 by the union of the two bishoprics, dating respec-
tively from 300 and 398. The western facade of the cathedral
is plain, while the utmost richness of decoration is lavished on
the south front which faces the piazza. Almost in the centre
of this south facade is an exquisitely sculptured window, from
which letters from the Greek patriarch at Constantinople used
to be read. The campanile is 175 ft. high. In the vicinity are
the troglodyte caverns of Monte Scaglioso, still inhabited by
some of the lower classes, and other caves with 13th-century
frescoes.
Neolithic pottery has been found here, but the origin of the town
is uncertain. Under the Normans Matera was a countship for
William Bras de Fer and his successors. It was the chief town of
the Basilicata from 1664 till 1811, when the French transferred
the administration to Potenza.
MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter), in philosophy,
the theory which regards all the facts of the universe as
explainable in terms of matter and motion, and in particular
explains all psychical processes by physical and chemical changes
in the nervous system. It is thus opposed both to natural
realism and to idealism. For the natural realist stands upon the
common-sense position that minds and material objects have
equally effective existence; while the idealist explains matter by
mind and denies that mind can be explained by matter. The
various forms into which materialism may be classified correspond
to the various causes which induce men to take up materialistic
views. Naive materialism is due to a cause which still, perhaps,
has no small power, the natural difficulty which persons who have
had no philosophic training experience in observing and appre-
ciating the importance of the immaterial facts of consciousness.
The pre-Socratics may be classed as na'ive materialists in this
sense; though, as at that early period the contrast between
matter and spirit had not been fully realized and matter was
credited with properties that belong to life, it is usual to apply
the term hylozoism (q.v.) to the earliest stage of Greek
metaphysical theory. It is not difficult to discern the influence of
naive materialism in contemporary thinking. We see it in Huxley,
and still more in Haeckel, whose materialism (which he chooses
to term " monism ") is evidently conditioned by ignorance
of the history and present position of speculation. Cosmological
materialism is that form of the doctrine in which the dominant
motive is the formation of a comprehensive world-scheme:
e Stoics and Epicureans were cosmological materialists.
anti-religious materialism the motive is hostility to established
dogmas which are connected, in the Christian system especially,
with certain forms of spiritual doctrine. Such a motive weighed
much with Hobbes and with the French materialists of the
i8th century, such as La Mettrie and d'Holbach. The cause
of medical materialism is the natural bias of physicians towards
explaining the health and disease of mind by the health and
disease of body. It has received its greatest support from the
study of insanity, which is now fully recognized as conditioned
by disease of the brain. To this school belong Drs Maudsley
and Mercier. The highest form of the doctrine is scientific
materialism, by which term is meant the doctrine so commonly
adopted by the physicist, zoologist and biologist.
It may perhaps be fairly said that materialism is at present a
necessary methodological postulate of natural-scientific inquiry.
The business of the scientist is to explain everything by the
physical causes which are comparatively well understood and to
exclude the interference of spiritual causes. It was the great
work of Descartes to exclude rigorously from science all explana-
tions which were not scientifically verifiable; and the prevalence
of materialism at certain epochs, as in the enlightenment of
the i8th century and in the German philosophy of the middle
th, were occasioned by special need to vindicate the scientific
position, in the former case against the Church, in the latter
against the pseudo-science of the Hegelian dialectic. The chie
definite periods of materialism are the pre-Socratic and t
post-Aristotelian in Greece, the i8th century in France, and i
Germany the igth century from about 1850 to 1880. I
England materialism has been endemic, so to speak, fro:
Hobbes to the present time, and English materialism is mo:
important perhaps than that of any other country. But, froi
the national distrust of system, it has not been elaborated int
a consistent metaphysic, but is rather traceable as a tendem
harmonizing with the spirit of natural science. Hobbes, Locki
Hume, Mill and Herbert Spencer are not systematic materialisi
but show tendencies towards materialism.
See METAPHYSICS; and Lange's History of Materialism.
MATER MATUTA (connected with Lat. mane, matutinus
" morning "), an old Italian goddess of dawn. The idea of lighi
being closely connected with childbirth, whereby the infant is
brought into the light of the world, she came to be regarded as a
double of Juno, and was identified by the Greeks with Eilithyia.
Matuta had a temple in Rome in the Forum Boarium, where the
festival of Matralia was celebrated on the nth of June. Only
married women were admitted, and none who had been married
more than once were allowed to crown her image with garlands.
Under hellenizing influences, she became a goddess of sea an
harbours, the Ino-Leucothea of the Greeks. In this connexion
it is noticeable that, as Ino tended her nephew Dionysus, so at
the Matralia the participants prayed for the welfare of theii
nephews and nieces before that of their own children. The trans
formation was complete in 174 B.C., when Tiberius Semproni
Gracchus, after the conquest of Sardinia, placed in the temple
of Matuta a map commemorative of the campaign, containing a
plan of the island and the various engagements. The progn
of navigation and the association of divinities of the sky wit
maritime affairs probably also assisted to bring about the change,
although the memory of her earlier function as a goddess of
childbirth survived till imperial times.
Ovid, Fasti, vi. 475; Livy xli. 28; Plutarch, Quaestiones romanae,
16, 17.
MATHEMATICS (Gr. juaflij/uaTiKiy, sc. rexi"? or wriaTifr"?;
from naOrifta, "learning" or "science"), the general term for the
various applications of mathematical thought, the traditional
field of which is number and quantity. It has been usual to
define mathematics as " the science of discrete and continuous
magnitude." Even Leibnitz, 1 who initiated a more modern point
of view, follows the tradition in thus confining the scope of
mathematics properly so called, while apparently conceiving it
as a department of a yet wider science of reasoning. A short
1 Cf. La Logique de Leibnitz, ch. vii., by L. Couturat (Paris, 1901).
MATHEMATICS
879
consideration of some leading topics of the science will exemplify
both the plausibility and inadequacy of the above definition.
Arithmetic, algebra, and the infinitesimal calculus, are sciences
directly concerned with integral numbers, rational (or fractional)
numbers, and real numbers generally, which include incom-
mensurable numbers. It would seem that " the general theory
of discrete and continuous quantity " is the exact description of
the topics of these sciences. Furthermore, can we not complete
the circle of the mathematical sciences by adding geometry?
Now geometry deals with points, lines, planes and cubic contents.
Of these all except points are quantities: lines involve lengths,
planes involve areas, and cubic contents involve volumes. Also,
as the Cartesian geometry shows, all the relations between
points are expressible in terms of geometric quantities. Accord-
ingly, at first sight it seems reasonable to define geometry in
some such way as " the science of dimensional quantity."
Thus every subdivision of mathematical science would appear
to deal with quantity, and the definition of mathematics as
" the science of quantity " would appear to be justified. We
have now to consider the reasons for rejecting this definition
as inadequate.
Types of Critical Questions. What are numbers? We can
talk of five apples and ten pears. But what are " five " and
" ten " apart from the apples and pears? Also in addition to
the cardinal numbers there are the ordinal numbers: the fifth
apple and the tenth pear claim thought. What is the relation
of "the fifth" and "the tenth " to "five" and "ten"?
" The first rose of summer " and " the last rose of summer "
are parallel phrases, yet one explicitly introduces an ordinal
number and the other does not. Again, " half a foot " and
" half a pound " are easily defined. But in what sense is there
" a half," which is the same for " half a foot " as " half a
pound " ? Furthermore, incommensurable numbers are defined
as the limits arrived at as the result of certain procedures with
rational numbers. But how do we know that there is anything
to reach ? We must know that V2 exists before we can prove
that any procedure will reach it. An expedition to the North
Pole has nothing to reach unless the earth rotates.
Also in geometry, what is a point? The straightness of a
straight line and the planeness of a plane require consideration.
Furthermore, " congruence " is a difficulty. For when a triangle
" moves," the points do not move with it. So what is it that
keeps unaltered in the moving triangle ? Thus the whole
method of measurement in geometry as described in the elemen-
tary textbooks and the older treatises is obscure to the last
degree. Lastly, what are " dimensions " ? All these topics
require thorough discussion before we can rest content with the
definition of mathematics as the general science of magnitude;
and by the time they are discussed the definition has evaporated.
An outline of the modern answers to questions such as the above
will now be given. A critical defence of them would require a
volume. 1
Cardinal Numbers. A one-one relation between the members of
two classes a and ft is any method of correlating all the members
of a to all the members of ft, so that any member of o has one and
only one correlate in ft, and any member of ft has one and only one
correlate in a. Two classes between which a one-one relation exists
have the same cardinal number and are called cardinally similar;
and the cardinal number of the class a is a certain class whose
members are themselves classes namely, it is the class composed
of all those classes for which a one-one correlation with a exists.
Thus the cardinal number of a is itself a class, and furthermore a
is a member of it. For a one-one relation can be established between
the members of a and a by the simple process of correlating each
member of a with itself. Thus the cardinal number one is the class
of unit classes, the cardinal number two is the class of doublets,
and so on. Also a unit class is any class with the property that it
possesses a member x such that, if y is any member of the class,
then x and y are identical. A doublet is any class which possesses
a member x such that the modified class formed by all the other
members except x is a unit class. And so on for all the finite
cardinals, which are thus defined successively. The cardinal
number zero is the class of classes with no members; but there is
only one such class, namely the null class. Thus this cardinal
1 Cf. The Principles of Mathematics, by Bertrand Russell (Cam-
bridge, 1903).
number has only one member. The operations of addition and
multiplication of two given cardinal numbers can be defined by
taking two classes a and ft, satisfying the conditions (l) that their
cardinal numbers are respectively the given numbers, and (2) that
they contain no member in common, and then by denning by refer-
ence to a and ft two other suitable classes whose cardinal numbers
are defined to be respectively the required sum and product of
the. cardinal numbers in question. We need not here consider the
details of this process.
With these definitions it is now possible to prove the following
six premisses applying to finite cardinal numbers, from which
Peano* has shown that all arithmetic can be deduced:
|. Cardinal numbers form a class.
ii. Zero is a cardinal number.
iii. If a is a cardinal number, o + i is a cardinal number.
iv. If i is any class and zero is a member of it, also if when x is
a cardinal number and a member of s, also x+i is a member of s,
then the whole class of cardinal numbers is contained in s.
v. If a and b are cardinal numbers, and + 1=6 + 1, then = 6.
vi. If a is a cardinal number, then a+i =0.
It may be noticed that (iv) is the familar principle of mathe-
matical induction. Peano in an historical note refers its first
explicit employment, although without a general enunciation, to
Maurolycus in his work, Arithmeticorum libri duo (Venice, 1575).
But now the difficulty of confining mathematics to being the
science of number and quantity is immediately apparent. For
there is no self-contained science of cardinal numbers. The proof
of the six premisses requires an elaborate investigation into the
general properties of classes and relations which can be deduced
by the strictest reasoning from our ultimate logical principles.
Also it is purely arbitrary to erect the consequences of these six
principles into a separate science. They are excellent principles
of the highest value, but they are in no sense the necessary pre-
misses which must be proved before any other propositions of
cardinal numbers can be established. On the contrary, the pre-
misses of arithmetic can be put in other forms, and, furthermore,
an indefinite number of propositions of arithmetic can be proved
directly from logical principles without mentioning them. Thus,
while arithmetic may be defined as that branch of deductive reason-
ing concerning classes and relations which is concerned with the
establishment of propositions concerning cardinal numbers, it must
be added that the introduction of cardinal numbers makes no great
break in this general science. It is no more than an interesting
subdivision in a general theory.
Ordinal Numbers. We must first understand what is meant by
" order," that is, by " serial arrangement." An order of a set of
things is to be sought in that relation holding between members
of the set which constitutes that order. The set viewed as a class
has many orders. Thus the telegraph posts along a certain road
have a space-order very obvious to our senses ; but they have also
a time-order according to dates of erection, perhaps more important
to the postal authorities who replace them after fixed intervals.
A set of cardinal numbers have an order of magnitude, often called
the order of the set because of its insistent obviousness to us; but,
if they are the numbers drawn in a lottery, their time-order of
occurrence in that drawing also ranges them in an order of some
importance. Thus the order is defined by the " serial " relation.
A relation (R) is serial' when (l) it implies diversity, so that, if
x has the relation R to y, x is diverse from y; (2) it is transitive, so
that if x has the relation R to y, and y to z, then x has the relation
R to 2 ; (3) it has the property of connexity, so that if * and y are
things to which any things bear the relation R, or which bear the
relation R to any things, then either x is identical with y, or x has
the relation R to y, ory has the relation R to x. These conditions
are necessary and sufficient to secure that our ordinary ideas of
" preceding " and " succeeding " hold in respect to the relation R.
The " field " of the relation R is the class of things ranged in order
by it. Two relations R and R' are said to be ordinally similar, if
a one-one relation holds between the members of the two fields
of R and R', such that if x and y are any two members of the field
of R, such that x has the relation R to y, and if x' and y' are the
correlates in the field of R' of x and y, then in all such cases x' has
the relation R' to y', and conversely, interchanging the dashes on
the letters, i.e. R and R', x and x', &c. It is evident that the ordinal
similarity of two relations implies the cardinal similarity of their
fields, but not conversely. Also, two relations need not be serial
in order to be ordinally similar; but if one is serial, so is the other.
The relation-number of a relation is the class whose members are
all those relations which are ordinally similar to it. This class will
include the original relation itself. The relation-number of a relation
should be compared with the cardinal number of a class. When a
relation is serial its relation-number is often called its serial type.
The addition and multiplication of two relation-numbers is denned
by taking two relations R and S, such that (l) their fields have no
J Cf. Formulaire mathematique (Turin, ed. of 1903) ; earlier formu-
lations of the bases of arithmetic are given by him in the editions
of 1898 and of 1901. The variations are only trivial.
3 Cf. Russell, loc. cit., pp. 199-256.
88o
MATHEMATICS
terms in common; (2) their relation-numbers are the two relation-
numbers in question, and then by defining by reference to R and
S two other suitable relations whose relation-numbers are denned
to be respectively the sum and product of the relation-numbers in
question. We need not consider the details of this process. Now
if n be any finite cardinal number, it can be proved that the class
of those serial relations, which have a field whose cardinal number
is n, is a relation-number. This relation-number is the ordinal
number corresponding to n; let it be symbolized by n. Thus,
corresponding to the cardinal numbers 2, 3, 4 . . . there are the
ordinal numbers 5, 3, 4 . . . The definition of the ordinal number I
requires some little ingenuity owing to ; the fact that no serial
relation can have a field whose cardinal number is I ; but we must
omit here the explanation of the process. The ordinal number 6
is the class whose sole member is the null relation that is, the
relation which never holds between any pair of entities. The defini-
tions of the finite ordinals can be expressed without use of the
corresponding cardinals, so there is no essential priority of cardinals
to ordinals. Here also it can be seen that the science of the finite
ordinals is a particular subdivision of the general theory of classes
and relations. Thus the illusory nature of the traditional definition
of mathematics is again illustrated.
Cantor's Infinite Numbers. Owing to the correspondence between
the finite cardinals and the finite ordinals, the propositions of
cardinal, arithmetic and ordinal arithmetic correspond point by
point. But the definition of the cardinal number of a class applies
when the class is not finite, and it can be proved that there are
different infinite cardinal numbers, and that there is a least infinite
cardinal, now usually denoted by K O , where n is the Hebrew
letter aleph. Similarly, a class of serial relations, called well-ordered
serial relations, can be defined, such that their corresponding
relation-numbers include the ordinary finite ordinals, but also
include relation-numbers which have many properties like those
of the finite ordinals, though the fields of the relations belonging
to them are not finite. These relation-numbers are the infinite ordinal
numbers. The arithmetic of the infinite cardinals does not corre-
spond to that of the infinite ordinals. The theory of these extensions
of the ideas of number is dealt with in the article NUMBER. It will
suffice to mention here that Peano's fourth premiss of arithmetic
does not hold for infinite cardinals or for infinite ordinals. Con-
trasting the above definitions of number, cardinal and ordinals, with
the alternative theory that number is an ultimate idea incapable of
definition, we notice that our procedure exacts a greater attention,
combined with a smaller credulity; for every idea, assumed as
ultimate, demands a separate act of faith.
The Data of Analysis. Rational numbers and real numbers in
general can now be defined according to the same general method.
If m and n are finite cardinal numbers, the rational number m/n is
the relation which any finite cardinal number x bears to any finite
cardinal number y when nX* = Xy. Thus the rational number
one, which we will denote by i r , is not the cardinal number I ;
for i, is the relation i/l as defined above, and is thus a relation
holding between certain pairs of cardinals. Similarly, the other
rational integers must be distinguished from the corresponding
cardinals. The arithmetic of rational numbers is now established
by means of appropriate definitions, which indicate the entities
meant by the operations of addition and multiplication. But
the desire to obtain general enunciations of theorems without
exceptional cases has led mathematicians to employ entities of
ever-ascending types of elaboration. These entities are not created
by mathematicians, they are employed by them, and their definitions
should point out the construction of the new entities in terms of
those already on hand. The real numbers, which include irrational
numbers, have now to be defined. Consider the serial arrangement
of the rationals in their order of magnitude. A real number is a
class (a, say) of rational numbers which satisfies the condition that
it is the same as the class of those rationals each of which precedes
at least one member of a. Thus, consider the class of rationals less
than 2 r ; any member of this class precedes some other members
of the class thus 1/2 precedes 4/3, 3/2 and so on; also the class of
predecessors of predecessors of 2, is itself the class of predecessors
of 2 r . Accordingly this class is a real number; it will be called the
real number 2 R . Note that the class of rationals less than or equal
to 2 r is not a real number. For 2 r is not a predecessor of some
member of the class. In the above example 2 R is an integral real
number, which is distinct from a rational integer, and from a
cardinal number. Similarly, any rational real number is distinct
from the corresponding rational number. But now the irrational
real numbers have all made their appearance. For example, the
class of rationals whose squares are less than 2 r satisfies the definition
of a real number; it is the real number 1/2. The arithmetic of real
numbers follows from appropriate definitions of the operations of
addition and multiplication. Except for the immediate purposes
of an explanation, such as the above, it is unnecessary for mathe-
maticians to have separate symbols, such as 2, 2, and 2 R , or 2/3
and (2/3) R . Real numbers with signs (+or ) are now defined.
If a is a real number, +a is defined to be the relation which any
real number of the form x+a bears to the real number x, and a is
the relation which any real number x bears to the real number
*+o. The addition and multiplication of these " signed " real
numbers is suitably defined, and it is proved that the usual arith-
metic of such numbers follows. Finally, we reach a complex
number of the nth order. Such a number is a " one-many " relation
which relates n signed real numbers (or algebraic complex numbers
when they are already defined by this procedure) to the n cardinal
numbers I, 2 . . . n respectively. If such a complex number is
written (as usual) in the form Xiei+Xtei+ . . . +x n e n , then this par-
ticular complex number relates x\ to I, Xt to 2, . . . x to n. Also
the " unit e\ (or e,) considered as a number of the system is merely
a shortened form for the complex number (+l) i+oe2+. . . +op n .
This last number exemplifies the fact that one signed real number,
such as o, may be correlated to many of the n cardinals, such as
2 . . . n in the example, but that each cardinal is only correlated
with one signed number. Hence the relation has been called above
" one-many." The sum of two complex numbers Xiei+xte 2 + . . . -\-x n e*
and yiei+ytfi-t- . . ,+y n e, is always defined to be the complex
number (xi+yi)ei+(x 2 +y2)e 2 + . . .+(x+y n )e n . But an in-
definite number of definitions of the product of two complex
numbers yield interesting results. Each definition gives rise
to a corresponding algebra of higher complex numbers. We
will confine ourselves here to algebraic complex numbers
that is, to complex numbers of the second order taken in
connexion with that definition of multiplication which leads to
ordinary algebra. The product of two complex numbers of the
second order namely, x\ei+x?fz and yiei+y&i, is in this case
defined to mean the complex (x\yi Xiyt)ei-}-(x,yi+x i yi)e2. Thus
eiXei = ei, eiXei = ei, e\ X ez =2 X i=2- With this defi-
nition it is usual to omit the first symbol e\, and to write i or V i
instead of 3. Accordingly, the typical form for such a complex
number is x+yi, and then with this notation the above-mentioned
definition of multiplication is invariably adopted. The importance
of this algebra arises from the fact that in terms of such complex
numbers with this definition of multiplication the utmost generality
of expression, to the exclusion of exceptional cases, can be obtained
for theorems which occur in analogous forms, but complicated with
exceptional cases, in the algebras of real numbers and of signed real
numbers. This is exactly the same reason as that which has led
mathematicians to work with signed real numbers in preference to
real numbers, and with real numbers in preference to rational
numbers. The evolution of mathematical thought in the invention
of the data of analysis has thus been completely traced in outline.
Definition of Mathematics. It has now become apparent that
the traditional field of mathematics in the province of discrei
and continuous number can only be separated from the gener;
abstract theory of classes and relations by a wavering and inde-
terminate line. Of course a discussion as to the mere application
of a word easily degenerates into the most fruitless logomachy.
It is open to any one to use any word in any sense. But on the
assumption that " mathematics " is to denote a science well
marked out by its subject matter and its methods from other
topics of thought, and that at least it is to include all topics
habitually assigned to it, there is now no option but to employ
" mathematics " in the general sense 1 of the " science concerned
with the logical deduction of consequences from the general
premisses of all reasoning."
Geometry. The typical mathematical proposition is: " If
x,y,z... satisfy such and such conditions, then such and such
other conditions hold with respect to them." By taking fixed
conditions for the hypothesis of such a proposition a definite
department of mathematics is marked out. For example,
geometry is such a department. The " axioms " of geometry
are the fixed conditions which occur in the hypotheses of the
geometrical propositions. The special nature of the " axioms "
which constitute geometry is considered in the article GEOMETRY
( A xioms) . It is sufficient to observe here that they are concerned
with special types of classes of classes and of classes of relations,
and that the connexion of geometry with number and magnitude
is in no way an essential part of the foundation of the science. In
fact, the whole theory of measurement in geometry arises at a
comparatively late stage as the result of a variety of complicated
considerations.
Classes and Relations. The foregoing account of the nature of
mathematics necessitates a strict deduction of the general properties
1 The first unqualified explicit statement of part of this definition
seems to be by B. Peirce, " Mathematics is the science which draws
necessary conclusions " (Linear Associative Algebra, i. (1870), re-
published in the Amer. Journ. of Math., vol. iy. (1881) ). But it will
be noticed that the second half of the definition in the text " from
the general premisses of all reasoning " is left unexpressed. The
full expression of the idea and its development into a philosophy of
mathematics is due to Russell, loc. cit.
te
t
MATHEMATICS
881
of classes and relations from the ultimate logical premisses. In the
course of this process, undertaken for the first time with the rigour
of mathematicians, some contradictions have become apparent.
That first discovered is known as Burali-Forti's contradiction, 1 and
consists in the proof that there both is and is not a greatest infinite
ordinal number. But these contradictions do not depend upon
any theory of number, for Russell's contradiction* does not involve
number in any form. This contradiction arises from considering
the class possessing as members all classes which are not members
of themselves. Call this class v>; then to say that * is a w is
equivalent to saying that x is not an *. Accordingly, to say that w
is a w is equivalent to saying that w is not a w. An analogous
contradiction can be found for relations. It follows that a careful
scrutiny of the very idea of classes and relations is required.
Note that classes are here required in extension, so that the class of
human beings and the class of rational featherless bipeds are
identical ; similarly for relations, which are to be determined by the
entities related. Now a class in respect to its components is many.
In what sense then can it be one? This problem of the one and the
many " has been discussed continuously by the philosophers.* All
the contradictions can be avoided, and yet the use of classes and
relations can be preserved as required by mathematics, and indeed
by common sense, by a theory which denies to a class or relation
existence or being in any sense in which the entities composing it
or related by it exist. Thus, to say that a pen is an entity and the
class of pens is an entity is merely a play upon the word " entity ";
the second sense of " entity " (if any) is indeed derived from the
first, but has a more complex signification. Consider an incomplete
proposition, incomplete in the sense that some entity which ought
to be involved in it is represented by an undetermined x, which may
stand for any entity. .Call it a prepositional function; and, if <px
be a prepositional function, the undetermined variable x is the
argument. Two prepositional functions <t>x and \l/x are " exten-
sionally identical if any determination of x in <t>x which converts
<t>x into a true proposition also converts <l/x into a true proposition,
and conversely for \j/ and <t>. Now consider a prepositional function
Fx in which the variable argument x is itself a prepositional function.
If FX is true when, and only when, x is determined to be either $ or
some other prepositional function extensionally equivalent to <,
then the proposition F<f> is of the form which is ordinarily recognized
as being about the class determined by cfx taken in extension that
is, the class of entities for which <j>x is a true proposition when x is
determined to be any one of them. A similar theory holds for relations
which arise from the consideration of prepositional functions with
two or more variable arguments. It is then possible to 4 e fi ne
by a parallel elaboration what is meant by classes of classes,
classes of relations, relations between classes, and so on. Accord-
ingly, the number of a class of relations can be defined, or of a class
of classes, and so on. This theory* is in effect a theory of the use
of classes and relations, and does not decide the philosophic question
as to the sense (if any) in which a class in extension is one entity.
It does indeed deny that it is an entity in the sense in which one of
its members is an entity. Accordingly, it is a fallacy for any
determination of x to consider " x is an x " or " * is not an x " as
having the meaning of propositions. Note that for any deter-
mination of x, " x is an x ' and " x is not an x," are neither of them
fallacies but are both meaningless, according to this theory. Thus
Russell's contradiction vanishes, and an examination of the other
contradictions shows that they vanish also.
Applied Mathematics. The selection of the topics of mathe-
matical inquiry among the infinite variety open to it has been
guided by the useful applications, and indeed the abstract theory
has only recently been disentangled from the empirical elements
connected with these applications. For example, the application
of the theory of cardinal numbers to classes of physical entities
involves in practice some process of counting. It is only recently
that the succession of processes which is involved in any act of
counting has been seen to be irrelevant to the idea of number.
Indeed, it is only by experience that we can know that any
definite process of counting will give the true cardinal number
of some class of entities. It is perfectly possible to imagine a
universe in which any act of counting by a being in it annihilated
some members of the class counted during the time and only
during the time of its continuance. A legend of the Council of
Nicea 5 illustrates this point: " When the Bishops took their
1 " Una questione sui numeri transfiniti," Rend, del circolo mat. di
Palermo, vol. xi. (1897); and Russell, toe. cit., ch. xxxviii.
*Cf. Russell, foe. ci/.,ch. x.
* Cf. Pragmatism: a New Name for some Old Ways of Thinking
(1907)-
' Due to Bertrand Russell, cf. " Mathematical Logic as based on
the Theory of Types," Amer. Journ. of Math. vol. xxx. (1908). It is
more fully explained by him, with later simplifications, in Principia
' mathematica (Cambridge).
6 Cf. Stanley's Eastern Church, Lecture v.
places on their thrones, they were 318; when they rose up to be
called over, it appeared that they were 319; so that they never
could make the number come right, and whenever they approached
the last of the series, he immediately turned into the likeness of
his next neighbour." Whatever be the historical worth of this
story, it may safely be said that it cannot be disproved by deduc-
tive reasoning from the premisses of abstract logic. The most
we can do is to assert that a universe in which such things are
liable to happen on a large scale is unfitted for the practical
application of the theory of cardinal numbers. The application
of the theory of real numbers to physical quantities involves
analogous considerations. In the first place, some physical
process of addition is presupposed, involving some inductively
inferred law of permanence during that process. Thus in the
theory of masses we must know that two pounds of lead when
put together will counterbalance in the scales two pounds of
sugar, or a pound of lead and a pound of sugar. Furthermore,
the sort of continuity of the series (in order of magnitude) of
rational numbers is known to be different from that of the series
of real numbers. Indeed, mathematicians now reserve " con-
tinuity " as the term for the latter kind of continuity; the mere
property of having an infinite number of terms between any two
terms is called " compactness." The compactness of the series
of rational numbers is consistent with quasi-gaps in it that is,
with the possible absence of limits to classes in it. Thus the
class of rational numbers whose squares are less than 2 has no
upper limit among the rational numbers. But among the
real numbers all classes have limits. Now, owing to the neces-
sary inexactness of measurement, it is impossible to discriminate
directly whether any kind of continuous physical quantity
possesses the compactness of the series of rationals or the conti-
nuity of the series of real numbers. In calculations the latter
hypothesis is made because of its mathematical simplicity. But,
the assumption has certainly no a priori grounds in its favour,
and it is not very easy to see how to base it upon experience.
For example, if it should turn out that the mass of a body is to
be estimated by counting the number of corpuscles (whatever
they may be) which go to form it, then a body with an irrational
measure of mass is intrinsically impossible. Similarly, the
continuity of space apparently rests upon sheer assumption
unsupported by any a priori or experimental grounds. Thus
the current applications of mathematics to the analysis of
phenomena can be justified by no a priori necessity.
In one sense there is no science of applied mathematics.
When once the fixed conditions which any hypothetical group
of entities are to satisfy have been precisely formulated, the
deduction of the further propositions, which also will hold respec-
ting them, can proceed in complete independence of the question
as to whether or no any such group of entities can be found in
the world of phenomena. Thus rational mechanics, based on
the Newtonian Laws, viewed as mathematics is independent of
its supposed application, and hydrodynamics remains a coherent
and respected science though it is extremely improbable that
any perfect fluid exists in the physical world. But this unbend-
ingly logical point of view cannot be the last word upon the
matter. For no one can doubt the essential difference between
characteristic treatises upon " pure " and " applied " mathematics.
The difference is a difference in method. In pure mathematics
the hypotheses which a set of entities are to satisfy are given, and
a group of interesting deductions are sought. In " applied
mathematics " the " deductions " are given in the shape of the
experimental evidence of natural science, and the hypotheses
from which the " deductions " can be deduced are sought.
Accordingly, every treatise on applied mathematics, properly
so-called, is directed to the criticism of the " laws " from which
the reasoning starts, or to a suggestion of results which experi-
ment may hope to find. Thus if it calculates the result of some
experiment, it is not the experimentalist's well-attested results
which are on their trial, but the basis of the calculation.
Newton's Hypotheses non fingo was a proud boast, but it rests
upon an entire misconception of the capacities of the mind of
man in dealing with external nature.
882
MATHEMATICS
Synopsis of Existing Developments of Pure Mathematics. A com-
plete classification of mathematical sciences, as they at present exist,
is to be found in the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature
promoted by the Royal Society. The classification in question
was drawn up by an international committee of eminent mathe-
maticians, and thus has the highest authority. It would be unfair
to criticize it from an exacting philosophical point of view. The
practical object of the enterprise required that the proportionate
quantity of yearly output in the various branches, and that the
liability of various topics as a matter of fact to occur in connexion
with each other, should modify the classification.
Section A deals with pure mathematics. Under the general
heading " Fundamental Notions " occur the subheadings " Founda-
tions of Arithmetic," with the topics rational, irrational and trans-
cendental numbers, and aggregates; " Universal Algebra," with the
topics complex numbers, quaternions, ausdehnungslehre, vector
analysis, matrices, and algebra of logic; and " Theory of Groups,"
with the topics finite and continuous groups. For the subjects of
this general heading see the articles ALGEBRA, UNIVERSAL; GROUPS,
THEORY OF; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; NUMBER; QUATERNIONS;
VECTOR ANALYSIS. Under the general heading " Algebra and
Theory of Numbers " occur the subheadings " Elements of Algebra,"
with the topics rational polynomials, permutations, &c., partitions,
probabilities; " Linear Substitutions," with the topics determinants,
&c., linear substitutions, general theory of quantics; " Theory
of Algebraic Equations," with the topics existence of roots, separa-
tion of and approximation to, theory of Galois, &c. " Theory of
Numbers," with the topics congruences, quadratic residues, prime
numbers, particular irrational and transcendental numbers. For the
subjects of this general heading see the articles ALGEBRA ; ALGEBRAIC
FORMS; ARITHMETIC; COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS; DETERMINANTS;
EQUATION ; FRACTION, CONTINUED ; INTERPOLATION ; LOGARITHMS ;
MAGIC SQUARE; PROBABILITY. Under the general heading
" Analysis " occur the subheadings "Foundations of Analysis,"
with the topics theory of functions of real variables, series and other
infinite processes, principles and elements of the differential and of
the integral calculus, definite integrals, and calculus of variations;
" Theory of Functions of Complex Variables," with the topics
functions of one variable and of several variables; " Algebraic
Functions and their Integrals," with the topics algebraic functions
of one and of several variables, elliptic functions and single theta
functions, Abelian integrals; " Other Special Functions," with the
topics Euler's, Legendre's, Bessel's and automorphic functions;
" Differential Equations," with the topics existence theorems,
methods of solution, general theory; "Differential Forms and
Differential Invariants" with the topics differential forms, including
Pfamans, transformation of differential forms, including tangential
(or contact) transformations, differential invariants; "Analytical
Methods connected with Physical Subjects," with the topics harmonic
analysis, Fourier's series, the differential equations of applied
mathematics, Dirichlet's problem; "Difference Equations and
Functional Equations," with the topics recurring series, solution
of equations of finite differences and functional equations. For
the subjects of this heading see the articles DIFFERENTIAL EQUA-
TIONS; FOURIER'S SERIES; CONTINUED FRACTIONS; FUNCTION;
FUNCTION OF REAL VARIABLES; FUNCTION COMPLEX; GROUPS,
THEORY OF; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; MAXIMA AND MINIMA;
SERIES; SPHERICAL HARMONICS; TRIGONOMETRY; VARIATIONS,
CALCULUS OF. Under the general heading " Geometry " occur the
subheadings " Foundations,' with the topics principles of geometry,
non-Euclidean geometries, hyperspace, methods of analytical
geometry; "Elementary Geometry," with the topics planimetry,
stereometry, trigonometry, descriptive geometry ; " Geometry of
Conies and Quadrics," with the implied topics; "Algebraic Curves
and_ Surfaces of Degree higlier than the Second," with the implied
topics; " Transformations and General Methods for Algebraic Con-
figurations," with the topics collineation, duality, transformations,
correspondence, groups of points on algebraic curves and surfaces,
genus of curves and surfaces, enumerative geometry, connexes,
complexes, congruences, higher elements in space, algebraic con-
figurations in hyperspace; " Infinitesimal Geometry: applications
of Differential and Integral Calculus to Geometry," with the topics
kinematic geometry, curvature, rectification and quadrature,
special transcendental curves and surfaces; ".Differential Geometry:
applications of Differential Equations to Geometry," with the topics
curves on surfaces, minimal surfaces, surfaces determined by differ-
ential properties, conformal and other representation of surfaces
on others, deformation of surfaces, orthogonal and isothermic
surfaces. For the subjects under this heading see the articles
CONIC SECTIONS; CIRCLE; CURVE; GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY;
GEOMETRY, Axioms of; GEOMETRY, Euclidean; GEOMETRY, Pro-
jective; GEOMETRY, Analytical; GEOMETRY, Line; KNOTS,
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF; MENSURATION; MODELS; PRO-
JECTION; SURFACE; TRIGONOMETRY.
This survey of the existing developments of pure mathematics
confirms the conclusions arrived at from the previous survey of
the theoretical principles of the subject. Functions, operations,
transformations, substitutions, correspondences, are but names for
various types of relations. A group is a class of relations possessing
a special property. Thus the modern ideas, which have so power-
fully extended and unified the subject, have loosened its connexion
with " number " and " quantity," while bringing ideas of form
and structure into increasing prominence. Number must indeed
ever remain the great topic of mathematical interest, because it is
in reality the great topic of applied mathematics. All the world,
including savages who cannot count beyond five, daily " apply "
theorems of number. But the complexity of the idea of number
is practically illustrated by the fact that it is best studied as a
department of a science wider than itself.
Synopsis of Existing Developments of Applied Mathematics.
Section B of the International Catalogue deals with mechanics.
The heading " Measurement of Dynamical Quantities " includes the
topics units, measurements, and the constant of gravitation. The
topics of the other headings do not require express mention. These
headings are: "Geometry and Kinematics of Particles and Solid
Bodies " ; " Principles of Rational Mechanics " ; " Statics of Particles,
Rigid Bodies, &c."; Kinetics of Particles, Rigid Bodies, &c." ;
" General Analytical Mechanics "; "Statics and Dynamics of Fluids";
"Hydraulics and Fluid Resistances"; "Elasticity." For the
subjects of this general heading see the articles MECHANICS;
DYNAMICS, ANALYTICAL; GYROSCOPE; HARMONIC ANALYSIS;
WAVE; HYDROMECHANICS ; ELASTICITY; MOTION, LAWS OF; ENERGY ;
ENERGETICS; ASTRONOMY (Celestial Mechanics); TIDE. Mechanics
(including dynamical astronomy) is that subject among those
traditionally classed as " applied " which has been most completely
transfused by mathematics that is to say, which is studied with
the deductive spirit of the pure mathematician, and not with the
covert inductive intention overlaid with the superficial forms of
deduction, characteristic of the applied mathematician.
Every branch of physics gives rise to an application of mathe-
matics. A prophecy may be hazarded that in the future these
applications will unify themselves into a mathematical theory of
a hypothetical substructure of the universe, uniform under all the
diverse phenomena. This reflection is suggested by the following
articles: AETHER; MOLECULE; CAPILLARY ACTION; DIFFUSION;
RADIATION, THEORY OF; and others.
The applications of mathematics to statistics (see STATISTICS
and PROBABILITY) should not be lost sight of; the leading fields for
these applications are insurance, sociology, variation in zoology and
economics.
The History of Mathematics. The history of mathematics
is in the main the history of its various branches. A short
account of the history of each branch will be found in connexion
with the article which deals with it. Viewing the subject as a
whole, and apart from remote developments which have not in
fact seriously influenced the great structure of the mathematics
of the European races, it may be said to have had its origin with
the Greeks, working on pre-existing fragmentary lines of thought
derived from the Egyptians and Phoenicians. The Greeks
created the sciences of geometry and of number as applied to the
measurement of continuous quantities. The great abstract ideas
(considered directly and not merely in tacit use) which have
dominated the science were due to them namely, ratio, irra-
tionality, continuity, the point, the straight line, the plane. This
period lasted 1 from the time of Thales, c. 600 B.C., to the capture
of Alexandria by the Mahommedans, A.D. 641. The medieval
Arabians invented our system of numeration and developed
algebra. The next period of advance stretches from the Renais-
sance to Newton and Leibnitz at the end of the zyth century.
During this period logarithms were invented, trigonometry and
algebra developed, analytical geometry invented, dynamics
put upon a sound basis, and the period closed with the magnifi-
cent invention of (or at least the perfecting of) the differential
calculus by Newton and Leibnitz and the discovery of gravita-
tion. The 1 8th century witnessed a rapid development of analy-
sis, and the period culminated with the genius of Lagrange and
Laplace. This period may be conceived as continuing throughout
the first quarter of the ipth century. It was remarkable both
for the brilliance of its achievements and for the large number
of French mathematicians of the first rank who flourished during
it. The next period was inaugurated in analysis by K. F. Gauss,
N. H. Abel and A. L. Cauchy. Between them the general
theory of the complex variable, and of the various " infinite"
processes of mathematical analysis, was established, while other
mathematicians, such as Poncelet, Steiner, Lobatschewsky and
von Staudt, were founding modern geometry, and Gauss in-
augurated the differential geometry of surfaces. The applied
mathematical sciences of light, electricity and electromagnetism,
1 Cf. A Short History of Mathematics, by W. W. R. Ball.
MATHER, COTTON
883
and of heat, were now largely developed. This school of mathe-
matical thought lasted beyond the middle of the century, after
which a change and further development can be traced. In the
next and last period the progress of pure mathematics has been
dominated by the critical spirit introduced by the German
mathematicians under the guidance of Weierstrass, though fore-
shadowed by earlier analysts, such as Abel. Also such ideas as
those of invariants, groups and of form, have modified the
entire science. But the progress in all directions has been too
rapid to admit of any one adequate characterization. During
the same period a brilliant group of mathematical physicists,
notably Lord Kelvin (W. Thomson), H. V. Helmholtz, J. C.
Maxwell, H. Hertz, have transformed applied mathematics by
systematically basing their deductions upon the Law of the
conservation of energy, and the hypothesis of an ether pervading
space.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. References to the works containing expositions
of the various branches of mathematics are given in the appropriate
articles. It must suffice here to refer to sources in which the subject
is considered as one whole. Most philosophers refer in their works
to mathematics more or less cursorily, either in the treatment of
the ideas of number and magnitude, or in their consideration of the
alleged a priori and necessary truths. A bibliography of such
references would be in effect a bibliography of metaphysics, or
rather of epistcmology. The founder of the modern point of view,
explained in this article, was Leibnitz, who, however, was so far
in advance of contemporary thought that his ideas remained
neglected and undeveloped until recently; cf. Opuscules e't fragments
inedits de Leibnitz. Exlraits des manuscrits de la bibliothkque
royale de Hanavre, by Louis Couturat (Paris, 1903), especially
PP- 356-399, "Generates inquisitiones de analysi notionum et
veritatum " (written in 1686) ; also cf. La Logique de Leibnitz, already
referred to. For the modern authors who have rediscovered and
improved upon the position of Leibnitz, cf. Grundgesetze der Arith-
metik, begriffsschriftlich abgeleitet von Dr G. Frege, a.o. Professor
an der Univ. Jena (Bd. i., 1893; Bd. ii., 1903, Jena); also cf. Frege's
earlier works, Begrifsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildele
Formelsprache des reinen Denkens (Hallej 1879), and Die Grundlagen
der Artthmetik (Breslau, 1884); also cf. Bertrand Russell, The
Principles of Mathematics (Cambridge, 1903), and his article on
" Mathematical Logic " in Amer. Quart. Journ. of Math. (vol. xxx.,
1908). Also the following works are of importance, though not all
expressly expounding the Leibnitzian point of view : cf . G. Cantor,
" Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre," Math.
A nnal. , vol. xxi. ( 1 883) and subsequent articles in vols. xlvi. and xlix. ;
also R. Dedekind, Stetigkeit und irrationales Zahlen (ist ed., 1872),
and Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen? (ist ed., 1887), both tracts
translated into English under the title Essays on the Theory of
Numbers (Chicago, 1901). These works of G. Cantor and Dedekind
were of the greatest importance in the progress of the subject.
Also cf. G. Peano (with various collaborators of the Italian school),
Formulaire de mathematiques (Turin, various editions, 1894-1908;
the earlier editions are the more interesting philosophically);
Felix Klein, Lectures on Mathematics (New York, 1894); W. K.
Clifford, The Common Sense of the exact Sciences (London, 1885) ;
H. Poincare, La Science et I'hypothese (Paris, ist ed., 1902), English
translation under the title, Science and Hypothesis (London, 1905) ;
L. Couturat, Les Principes des mathematiques (Paris, 1905) ; E. Mach,
Dte Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung (Prague, 1883), English trans-
lation under the title. The Science' of Mechanics (London, 1893);
K. Pearson, The Grammar of Science (London, 1st ed., 1892 ; 2nd ed.,
1900, enlarged) ; A. Cayley, Presidential Address (Brit. Assoc., 1883) ;
3. Russell and A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica (Cambridge,
191 1). For the history of mathematics the one modern and complete
source of information is M. Cantor's Vorlesungen iiber Geschichte der
Mathsmatik (Leipzig, 1st Bd., 1880; 2nd Bd., 1892; 3rd Bd., 1898;
4th Bd., 1908; ist Bd., von den dltesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre izoo,
n. Cltr. 2nd Bd., von 1200-1668; 3rd Bd., von 1668-1758 ; ^th Bd., von
1795 bis 1790) ; W. W. R. Ball, A Short History of Mathematics (London
1st ed., 1888, three subsequent editions, enlarged and revised, and
translations into French and Italian). (A. N. W.)
MATHER, COTTON (1663-1728), American Congregational
clergyman and author, was born in Boston, Massachusetts,
on the 1 2th of February 1663. He was the grandson of Richard
Mai her, and the eldest child of Increase Mather (<?..), and
Maria, daughter of John Cotton. After studying under the
famous Ezekiel Cheever (i6'i4-i7o8), he entered Harvard
College at twelve, and graduated in 1678. While teaching
(1678-1685), he began the study of theology, but soon, on account
of an impediment in his speech, discontinued it and took up medi-
cine. Later, however, he conquered the difficulty and finished his
preparation for the ministry. He was elected assistant pastor
in his father's church, the North, or Second, Church of Boston,
in 1681 and was ordained as his father's colleague in 1685.
In 1688, when his father went to England as agent for the colony,
he was left at twenty-five in charge of the largest congregation
in New England, and he ministered to it for the rest of his life.
He soon became one of the most influential men in the colonies.
He had much to do with the witchcraft persecution of his day;
in 1692 when the magistrates appealed to the Boston clergy
for advice in regard to the witchcraft cases in Salem he drafted
their reply, upon which the prosecutions were based; in 1689
he had written Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcraft
and Possessions, and even his earlier diaries have many entries
showing his belief in diabolical possession and his fear and hatred
of it. Thinking as he did that the New World had been the
undisturbed realm of Satan before the settlements were made
in Massachusetts, he considered it natural that the Devil should
make a peculiar effort to bring moral destruction on these
godly invaders. He used prayer and fasting to deliver himself
from evil enchantment; and when he saw ecstatic and mystical
visions promising him the Lord's help and great usefulness
in the Lord's work, he feared that these revelations might be of
diabolic origin. He used his great influence to bring the suspected
persons to trial and punishment. He attended the trials,
investigated many of the cases himself, and wrote sermons on
witchcraft, the Memorable Providences and The Wonders of the
Invisible World (1693), which increased the excitement of
the people. Accordingly, when the persecutions ceased and the
reaction set in, much of the blame was laid upon him; the
influence of Judge Samuel Sewall, after he had come to think
his part in the Salem delusion a great mistake, was turned
against the Mathers; and the liberal leaders of Congregationalism
in Boston, notably the Brattles, found this a vulnerable point
in Cotton Mather's armour and used their knowledge to much
effect, notably by assisting Robert Calef (d. c. 1723) in the
preparation of More Wonders of tlte Invisible World (1700) a
powerful criticism of Cotton Mather's part in the delusion at
Salem.
Mather took some part as adviser in the Revolution of 1689
in Massachusetts. In 1690 he became a member ot the Corpora-
tion (probably the youngest ever chosen as Fellow) of Harvard
College, and in 1707 he was greatly disappointed at his failure
to be chosen president of that institution. He received the
degree of D.D. from the University of Glasgow in 1710, and
in 1713 was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. Like his
father he was deeply grieved by the liberal theology and Church
polity of the new Brattle Street Congregation, and conscientiously
opposed its pastor Benjamin Colman, who had been irregularly
ordained in England and by a Presbyterian body; but with
his father he took part in 1700 in services in Colman's church.
Harvard College was now controlled by the Liberals of the Brattle
Street Church, and as it grew farther and farther away from Cal-
vinism, Mather looked with increasing favour upon the college in
Connecticut; before September 1701 he had drawn up a " scheme
for a college," the oldest document now in the Yale archives;
and finally (Jan. 1718) he wrote to a London merchant, Elihu
Yale, and persuaded him to make a liberal gift to the college,
which was named in his honour. During the smallpox epidemic
of 1721 he attempted in vain to have treatment by inoculation
employed, for the first time in America; and for this he was
bitterly attacked on all sides, and his life was at one time in
danger; but, nevertheless, he used the treatment on his son,
who recovered, and he wrote An Account of the Method and
further Success of Inoculating for the Small Pox in London (1721).
In addition he advocated temperance, missions, Bible societies,
and the education of the negro; favoured the establishing of
libraries for working men and of religious organizations for
young people, and organized societies for other branches of
philanthropic work. His later years were clouded with many
sorrows and disappointments; his relations with Governor
Joseph Dudley were unfriendly; he lost much of his former
prestige in the Church his own congregation dwindled and
in the college; his uncle John Cotton was expelled from his
88 4
MATHER, INCREASE
charge in the Plymouth Church; his son Increase turned out
a ne'er-do-well; four of his children and his second wife died
in November 1713; his wife's brothers and the husbands of his
sisters were ungodly and violent men; his favourite daughter
Katherine, who " understood Latin and read Hebrew fluently,"
died in 1716; his third wife went mad in 1719; his personal
enemies circulated incredible scandals about him; and in 1724-
1725 he saw a Liberal once more preferred to him as a new
president of Harvard. He died in Boston on the i3th of February
1728 and is buried in the Copps Hill burial-ground, Boston.
He was thrice married to Abigail Phillips (d. 1702) in 1686,
to Mrs Elizabeth Hubbard (d. 1713) in 1703, and in 1715 to
Mrs Lydia George (d. 1734). Of his fifteen children only two
survived him.
Though self-conscious and vain, Cotton Mather had on the
whole a noble character. He believed strongly in the power
of prayer and repeatedly had assurances that his prayers were
heard; and when he was disappointed by non-fulfilment his
grief and depression were terrible. His spiritual nature was
high-strung and delicate; and this condition was aggravated
by his constant study, his long fasts and his frequent vigils in
one year, according to his diary, he kept sixty fasts and twenty
vigils. In his later years his diaries have less and less of personal
detail, and repeated entries prefaced by the letters " G.D."
meaning Good Device, embodying precepts of kindliness and
practical Christianity. He was remarkable for his godliness,
his enthusiasm for knowledge, and his prodigious memory.
He became a skilled linguist, a widely read scholar though
much of his learning was more curious than useful a powerful
preacher, a valued citizen, and a voluminous writer, and did
a vast deal for the intellectual and spiritual quickening of New
England. He worked with might and main for the continuation
of the old theocracy, but before he died it had given way before
an increasing Liberalism even Yale was infected with the
Episcopalianism that he hated.
Among his four hundred or more published works, many of which
are sermons, tracts and letters, the most notable is his Magnolia.
Chris ti Americana: or the Ecclesiastical History of New England,
from Its First Planting in the Year 1620 unto the Year of Our Lord,
1698. Begun in 1693 and finished in 1697, this work was published
in London, in 1702, in one volume, and was republished in Hartford
in 1820 and in 1853-1855, in two volumes. It is in seven books
and concerns itself mainly with the settlement and religious history
of New England. It is often inaccurate, and it abounds in far-
fetched conceits and odd and pedantic features. Its style, though
in the main rather unnatural and declamatory, is at its best spon-
taneous, dignified and rhythmical ; the book is valuable for occasional
facts and for its picture of the times, and it did much to make
Mather the most eminent American writer of his day. His other
writings include A Poem Dedicated to the Memory of the Reverend
and Excellent Mr Urian Oakes (1682); The Present State of New
England (1690); The Life of the Renowned John Eliot (1691), later
included in Book III. of the Magnolia; The Short History of New
England (1694) ; Bonifacius, usually known as Essays To Do Good
(Boston, 1710; Glasgow, 1825; Boston, 1845), one of his principal
books and one which had a shaping influence on the life of Benjamin
Franklin; Psalterium Americanum (1718), a blank verse translation
of the Psalms from the original Hebrew; The Christian Philosopher:
A Collection of the Best Discoveries in Nature, with Religious Im-
provements (1721); Parentator (1724), a memoir of his father; Ratio
Disciplinae (1726), an account of the discipline in New England
churches; Manuductio ad Ministerium: Directions for a Candidate
of the Ministry (1726), one of the most readable of his books. He
also left a number of works in manuscript, including diaries, a
medical treatise and a huge commentary on the Bible, entitled
" Biblia Americana."
See The Life of Cotton Mather (Boston, 1729), by his son, Samuel
Mather; William B. O. Peabody, The Life of Cotton Mather (J836)
(in Jared Sparks's "Library of American Biography," vol. vi.);
Enoch Pond, The Mather Family (Boston, 1844) ; John L. Sibley,
Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University, vol. iii.
(Cambridge, 1885); Barrett Wendell, Cotton Mather, the Puritan
Priest- (New York, 1891), a remarkably sympathetic study and
particularly valuable for its insight into (and its defence of) Mather's
attitude toward witchcraft ; Abijah P. Marvin, The Life and Times
of Cotton Mather (Boston, 1892) ; M. C. Tyler, A History of American
Literature during the Colonial Period, vol. ii. (New York, 1878);
and Barrett Wendell, A Literary History of America (New York,
1900).
Cotton Mather's son, SAMUEL MATHER (1706-1785), also
a clergyman, graduated at Harvard in 1723, was pastor of the
North Church, Boston, from 1732 to 1742, when, owing to a
dispute among his congregation over revivals, he resigned
to take charge of a church established for him in North Bennett
Street.
Among his works are The Life of Cotton Mather (1729) ; An Apology
for the Liberties of the Churches in New England (1738), and America
Known to the Ancients (1773). (W. L. C.*)
MATHER, INCREASE (1639-1723), American Congregational
minister, was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 2ist
of June 1639, the youngest son of Richard Mather. 1 He
entered Harvard in 1651, and graduated in 1656. In 1657, on
his eighteenth birthday, he preached his first sermon; in the
same year he went to visit his eldest brother in Dublin, and
studied there at Trinity College, where he graduated M.A. in
1658. He was chaplain to the English garrison at Guernsey
in April-December 1659 and again in 1661; and in the latter
year, refusing valuable livings in England offered on condition
of conformity, he returned to America. In the winter of 1661-
1662 he began to preach to the Second (or North) Church of
Boston, and was ordained there on the 27th of May 1664. As
a delegate from Dorchester, his father's church, to the Synod
of 1662, he opposed the Half-Way Covenant adopted by the
Synod and defended by Richard Mather and by Jonathan
Mitchell (1624-1668) of Cambridge; but soon afterwards he
" surrendered a glad captive " to " the truth so victoriously
cleared by Mr Mitchell," and like his father and his son became
one of the chief exponents of the Half-Way Covenant. He was
bitterly opposed, however, to the liberal practices that followed
the Half-Way Covenant and (after 1677) in particular to
" Stoddardeanism," the doctrine of Solomon Stoddard (1643-
1729) that all " such Persons as have a good Conversation and
a Competent Knowledge may. come to the Lord's Supper,"
only those of openly immoral life being excluded. In May
1679 Mather was a petitioner to the General Court for the ca"
of a Synod to consider the reformation in New England of " th
Evils that have Provoked the Lord to bring his Judgments," '
and when the " Reforming Synod " met in September it appointe
him one of a committee to draft a creed; this committee reported
in May 1680, at the Synod's second session, of which Mathe
was moderator, the Savoy Declaration (slightly modified
notably in ch. xxiv., " Of the Civil Magistrate "), which wa
approved but was not made mandatory on the churches
the General Court, and in 1708 was reaffirmed at Saybrook
Connecticut. With the Cambridge Platform of 1646, drafted by
his father, the Confession of 1680, for which Increase Mathe
was largely responsible, was printed as a book of doctrine an
government for the churches of Massachusetts.
After the threat of a Quo Warranto writ in 1683 for
surrender of the Massachusetts charter, Mather used all
tremendous influence to persuade the colonists not to give
up the charter; and the Boston freemen unanimously voted
against submission. The royal agents immediately afterwards
sent to London a treasonable letter, falsely attributed to Mather;
but its spuriousness seems to have been suspected in England and
Mather was not " fetch'd over and made a Sacrifice." He
became a leader in the opposition to Sir Edmund Andros, to
his secretary Edward Randolph, and to Governor Joseph
Dudley. He was chosen by the General Court to represent
the colony's interests in England, eluded officers sent to arrest
him, 3 and in disguise boarded a ship on which he reached
Weymouth on the 6th of May 1688. In London he acted
with Sir Henry Ashurst, the resident agent, and had two or
1 He was so christened " because of the never-to-be-forgotten
increase, of every sort, wherewith God favoured the country about
the time of his nativity." He often latinized his name, spelh
it Crescentius Matherus.
2 That is, King Philip's War, the Boston fires of 1676, wl
Mather's church and home were burned, and 1679, the threaten!
introduction of Episcopacy, and the general spiritual decay of t
country.
3 He had previously been arrested and acquitted on a charge o
having attributed the forged letter to Randolph.
)OUl
ling
hen
:ned
MATHER, RICHARD
885
three fruitless audiences with James II. His first audience
with William III. was on the pth of January 1689; he was active
in influencing the Commons to vote (1689) that the New England
charters should be restored; and he published A Narrative
of the Miseries of New-England, By Reason of an Arbitrary
Government Erected there Under Sir Edmund Andros (1688),
A Brief Relation for the Confirmation of Charter Privileges (1691),
and other pamphlets. In 1690 he was joined by Elisha Cooke
(1638-1715) and Thomas Oakes (1644-1719), additional agents,
who were uncompromisingly for the renewal of the old charter.
Mather, however, was instrumental in securing a new charter
(signed on Oct. 7, 1691), and prevented the annexation of the
Plymouth Colony to New York. The nomination of officers
left to the Crown was reserved to the agents. Mather had
expressed strong dissatisfaction with the clause giving the
governor the right of veto, and regretted the less theocratic
tone of the charter which made all freemen (and not merely
church members) electors. With Sir William Phips, the new
governor, a member of Mather's church, he arrived in Boston
on the i4th of May 1692. The value of his services to the
colony at this time is not easily over-estimated. In England
he won the friendship of divines like Baxter, Tillotson and
Burnet, and effectively promoted the union in 1691 of English
Presbyterians and Congregationalists. He was at heavy
expense throughout his stay, and even greater than his financial
loss was his loss of authority and control in the church and in
Harvard College because of his absence.
Mather had been acting president of Harvard College in
1681-1682, and in June 1685 he again became acting president
(or rector), but still preached every Sunday in Boston and would
not comply with an order of the General Court that he should
reside in Cambridge. In 1701 after a short residence there
he returned to Boston and wrote to the General Court to " think
of another President for the Colledge." The opposition to him
had been increasing in strength, his resignation was accepted,
and Samuel Willard took charge of the college as vice-president,
although he also refused to reside in Cambridge. That Mather's
administration of the college was excellent is admitted even
by his harsh critic, Josiah Quincy, in his History of Harvard
University. 1 The Liberal party, which now came into control
in the college repeatedly disappointed the hopes of Cotton
Mather (q.v.) that he might be chosen president, and by its
ecclesiastical laxness and its broader views of Church polity
forced the Mathers to turn from Harvard to Yale as a truer
school of the prophets.
The Liberal leaders, John Leverett (1662-1724), William
Brattle (1662-1713) who graduated > with Leverett in 1680,
and with him as tutor controlled the college during Increase
Mather's absence in England William Brattle's eldest brother,
Thomas Brattle (1658-1713), and Ebenezer Pemberton (1671-
1717), pastor of the Old South Church, desired an " enrichment
of the service," and greater liberality in the matter of baptism.
In 1697 the Second Boston Church, in which Cotton Mather
had been his father's colleague since 1685, upbraided the Charles-
town Church " for betraying the liberties of the churches in
their late putting into the hands of the whole inhabitants
the choice of a minister." In 1699 Increase Mather published
The Order of the Gospel, which severely (although indirectly,
criticized the methods of the " Liberals " in establishing the
Brattle Street Church and especially the ordination of their
minister Benjamin Colman by a Presbyterian body in London;
the Liberals replied with The Gospel Order Revived, which was
printed in New York to lend colour to the (partly ^rue) charge
of its authors that the printers of Massachusetts would print
1 Mather led the resistance to the royal demand instigated by
Edward Randolph in 1683, for the annulment of the college charter,
and after its vacation in 1684 strove for the grant of a new charter;
King James promised him a confirmation of the former charter;
the new provincial charter granted by William and Mary confirmed
all gifts and grants to colleges; in 1692 Mather drafted an act
incorporating the college, which was signed by Phips but was
disallowed in England; and in 1696, 1697, 1699, and 1700, Mather
repeated his efforts for a college charter.
nothing hostile to Increase Mather.* The autocracy of the
Mathers in church, college, colony and press, had slipped from
them. The later years of Mather's life were spent almost entirely
in the work of the ministry, now beginning to be a less varied
career than when he entered on it. He died on the 23rd of
August 1723. He married in 1662 Maria, daughter of Sarah
and John Cotton. His first wife died in 1714; and in 1715 he
married Ann Lake, widow of John Cotton, of Hampton, N.H.,
a grandson of John Cotton of Boston.
Increase Mather was a great preacher with a simple style
and a splendid voice, which had a " Tonitruous Cogency,"
to quote his son's phrase. His style was much simpler and
more vernacular than his son's. He was an assiduous student,
commonly spending sixteen hours a day among his books; but
his learning (to quote Justin Winsor's contrast between Increase
and Cotton Mather) " usually left his natural ability and his
education free from entanglements." He was not so much
self-seeking and personally ambitious as eager to advance the
cause of the church in which he so implicitly believed. That
it is a mistake to consider him a narrow churchman is shown
by his assisting in 1718 at the ordination of Elisha Callender
in the First Baptist Church of Boston. Like the most learned
men of his time he was superstitious and a firm beljever in
" praesagious impressions "; his Essay for the Recording of
Illustrious Providences: Wherein an Account is Given of many
Remarkable and very Memorable Events which have Hapned
in this Last Age, Especially in New England (1684) shows that
he believed only less thoroughly than his son in witchcraft,
though in his Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits (1693)
he considered some current proofs of witchcraft inadequate. The
revulsion of feeling after the witchcraft delusion undermined
his authority greatly, and Robert's Calef's More Wonders of the
Spiritual World (1700) was a personal blow to him as well as
to his son. With Jonathan Edwards, than whom he was much
more of a man of affairs, and with Benjamin Franklin, whose
mission in England somewhat resembled Mather's, he may be
ranked among the greatest Americans of the period before the
War of Independence.
The first authority for the life of Increase Mather is the work of
his son Cotton Mather, Parentator: Memoirs of Remarkables in the
Life and Death of the Ever Memorable Dr Increase Mather (Boston,
1724); there are also a memoir and constant references in Cotton
Mather's Magnolia (London, 1702) especially vol. iv. ; there is an
excellent sketch in the first volume of J. L. Sibley's Biographical
Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University (Cambridge, 1873), with
an exhaustive list of Mather's works (about 150 titles) ; there is
much valuable matter in Williston Walker's Ten New England
Leaders (New York, 1901) and in his Creeds and Platforms of Congre-
gationalism (New York, 1893); for literary criticism of the Mathers
see ch. xii. of M. C. Tyler's History of American Literature,
1607-1676 (New York, 1878), and Barrett Wendell's Cotton Mather
(New York, 1891). Mather's worth has been under-estimated by
Josiah Quincy, Justin Winsor and other historians out of sympathy
with his ecclesiastical spirit, who represent him as only an ambitious
narrow-minded schemer. (R. WE.)
MATHER, RICHARD (1596-1669), American Congregational
clergyman, was born in Lowton, in the parish of Winwick,
near Liverpool, England, of a family which was in reduced cir-
cumstances but entitled to bear a coat-of-arms. He studied at
Winwick grammar school, of which he was appointed a master in
his fifteenth year, and left it in 1612 to become master of a newly
established school at Toxteth Park, Liverpool. After a few
months at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began in November
1618 to preach at Toxteth, and was ordained there, possibly only
as deacon, early in 1619. In August-November 1633 he was
suspended for nonconformity in matters of ceremony; and in
1634 was again suspended by the visitors of Richard Neile,
archbishop of York, who, hearing that he had never worn a
surplice during the fifteen years of his ministry, refused to
reinstate him and said that " it had been better for him that
he had gotten Seven Bastards." He had a great reputation
as a preacher in and about Liverpool; but, advised by letters
of John Cotton and Thomas Hooker, and persuaded by his
* Mather was made a licenser of the Press in 1674 when the
General Court abolished the monopoly of the Cambridge Press.
886
MATHERAN MATHEWS, CHARLES
own elaborate formal " Arguments tending to prove the Remov-
ing from Old-England to New ... to be not only lawful,
but also necessary for them that are not otherwise tyed, but
free," he left England and on the iyth of August 1635, and
landed in Boston after an " extraordinary and miraculous
deliverance " from a terrible storm. As a famous preacher
" he was desired at Plimouth, Dorchester, and Roxbury." He
went to Dorchester, where the Church had been greatly depleted
by migrations to Windsor, Connecticut; and where, after a delay
of several months, in August 1636 there was constituted by
the consent of magistrates and clergy a church of which he was
" teacher " until his death in Dorchester on the 22nd of April
1669.
He was an able preacher, " aiming," said his biographer, " to shoot
his arrows not over his people's heads, but into their Hearts and
Consciences " ; and he was a leader of New England Congre-
gationalism, whose policy he defended and described in the tract
Church Government and Church Covenant Discussed, in an Answer
of tlte Elders of the Severall Churches of New England to Two and
Thirty Questions (written 1639; printed 1643), and in his Reply to
Mr Rutherford (1647), a polemic against the Presbyterianism to which
the English Congregationalists were then tending. He drafted
the Cambridge Platform, an ecclesiastical constitution in seventeen
chapters, adopted (with the omission of Mather's paragraph favour-
ing the " Half-way Covenant," of which he strongly approved) by
the general synod in August 1646. In 1657 he drafted the declara-
tion of the Ministerial Convention on the meaning and force of the
Half-way Covenant; this was published in 1659 under the title:
A Disputation concerning Church Members and their Children in
Answer to XXI. Questions. With Thomas Welde and John Eliot
he wrote the " Bay Psalm Book," or, more accurately, The Whole
Booke of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre (1640),
probably the first book printed in the English colonies.
He married in 1624 Katherine Hoult or Holt (d. 1655), and
secondly in 1656 Sarah Hankredge (d. 1676), the widow of John
Cotton. Of six sons, all by his first wife, four were ministers:
SAMUEL (1626-1671), the first fellow of Harvard College who
was a graduate, chaplain of Magdalen College, Oxford, in
1650-1653, and pastor (1656-1671, excepting suspension in
1660-1662) of St Nicholas's in Dublin; NATHANIEL (1630-1697),
who graduated at Harvard in 1647, was vicar of Barnstaple,
Devon, in 1656-1662, pastor of the English Church in Rotterdam,
his brother's successor in Dublin in 1671-1688, and then until
his death pastor of a church in London; ELEAZAR (1637-1669),
who graduated at Harvard in 1656 and after preaching in
Northampton, Massachusetts, for three years, became in 1661
pastor of the church there; and INCREASE MATHER (q.v.). Horace
E. Mather, in his Lineage of Richard Mather (Hartford, Con-
necticut, 1890), gives a list of 80 clergymen descended from
Richard Mather, of whom 29 bore the name Mather and 51 other
names, the more famous being Storrs and SchaufHer.
See The Life and Death of That Reverend Man of God, Mr Richard
Mather (Cambridge, 1670; reprinted 1850, with his Journal for
'635, by the Dorchester Antiquarian and Historical Society), with
an introduction by Increase Mather, who may have been the author;
W. B. Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit, vol. i. (New York,
1857); Cotton Mather's Magnolia (London, 1702); an essay on
Richard Mather in Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaders
(New York, 1901); and the works referred to in the article on
Increase Mather. (R. WE.)
MATHERAN, a hill sanatorium in India, in the Kolaba
district of Bombay, 2460 ft. above the sea, and about 30 m.
E. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), 3060. It consists of several
thickly wooded ridges, on a spur of the Western Ghats, with
a magnificent outlook over the plain below and the distant
sea. First explored in 1850, it has since become the favourite
resort of the middle classes of Bombay (especially the Parsis)
during the spring and autumn months. It has recently been
connected by a 2 ft. gauge mountain line with Neral station on
the Great Indian Peninsula railway, 54 m. from Bombay.
MATHESON, GEORGE (1842-1906), Scottish theologian
and preacher, was born in Glasgow in 1842, the son of George
Matheson, a merchant. He was educated at the university
of Glasgow, where he graduated first in classics, logic and
philosophy. In his twentieth year he became totally blind
but he held to his resolve to enter the ministry, and gave himseli
Ul
a
ich
ive
ice
led
=
:o theological and historical study. His first ministry began
in 1868 at Innellan, on the Argyllshire coast between Dunoon
and Toward. His books on Aids to the Study of German Theology,
'an the Old Faith live with the New? The Growth of the Spirit of
Christianity from the First Century to the Dawn of the Lutheran
Era, established his reputation as a liberal and spiritually
minded theologian; and Queen Victoria invited him to preach
at Balmoral. In 1886 he removed to Edinburgh, where he
became minister of St Bernard's Parish Church. Here his
chief work as a preacher was done. In 1879 the university
of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D.,
and the same year he declined an invitation to the pastorate
of Crown Court, London, in succession to Dr John Gumming
(1807-1881). In 1881 he was chosen as Baird lecturer, and
took for his subject " Natural Elements of Revealed Theology,"
and in 1882 he was the St Giles lecturer, his subject being
Confucianism." In 1890 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Aberdeen gave him its honorary LL.D.,
and in 1899 he was appointed Gifford lecturer by that university,
but declined on grounds of health. In the same year he severed
his active connexion with St Bernard's. One of his hymns,
O love that will not let me go," has passed into the popular
hymnology of the Christian Church. He died suddenly of
apoplexy on the 28th of August 1906. His exegesis owes
interest to his subjective resources rather than to breadth
learning; his power lay in spiritual vision rather than balano
judgment, and in the vivid apprehension of the factors which
make the Christian personality, rather than in constructive
doctrinal statement.
MATHEW, THEOBALD (1790-1856), Irish temperance
reformer, popularly known as Father Mathew, was descended
from a branch of the Llandaff family, and was born at Thorn
town, Tipperary, on the loth of October 1790. He receivi
his school education at Kilkenny, whence he passed for a short
time to Maynooth; from 1808 to 1814 he studied at Dublin, whe:
in the latter year he was ordained to the priesthood. Havi
entered the Capuchin order, he, after a brief time of servi
at Kilkenny, joined the mission in Cork, which was the scene of
religious and benevolent labours for many years. The moveme:
with which his name is most intimately associated began
1838 with the establishment of a total abstinence association,
which in less than nine months, thanks to his moral influence
and eloquence, enrolled no fewer than 150,000 names. It
rapidly spread to Limerick and elsewhere, and some idea of
its popularity may be formed from the fact that at Nenagh
20,000 persons are said to have taken the pledge in one day,
100,000 at Galway in two days, and 70,000 in Dublin in five days.
In 1844 he visited Liverpool, Manchester and London with
almost equal success. Meanwhile the expenses of his enterprise
had involved him in heavy liabilities, and led on one occasion
to his arrest for debt; from this embarrassment he was only
partially relieved by a pension of 300 granted by Queen Victoria
in 1847. In 1849 he paid a visit to the United States, returning
in 1851. He died at Queenstown on the 8th of December,
1856.
See Father Mathew, a Biography, by J. F. Maguire, M.P. (1863).
MATHEWS, CHARLES (1776-1835), English actor, was
born in London on the 28th of June 1776. His father was
" a serious bookseller," who also officiated as minister in one
of Lady Huntingdon's chapels. Mathews was educated at
Merchant Taylors' School. His love for the stage was formed
in his boyhood, when he was apprentice to his father, and the
latter in 1794 unwillingly permitted him to enter on a theatrical
engagement in Dublin. For several years Mathews had not
only to content himself with thankless parts at a low salary,
but in May 1803 he made his first London appearance at the
Haymarket as Jabel in Cumberland's The Jew and as Lingo
in The Agreeable Surprise. From this time his professional
career was an uninterrupted triumph. He had a wonderful
gift of mimicry, and could completely disguise his personality
without the smallest change of dress. The versatility and
originality of his powers were admirably displayed in his " At
MATHEWS, T.
887
Homes," begun in the Lyceum theatre in 1818, which, according
to Leigh Hunt, " for the richness and variety of his humour,
were as good as half a dozen plays distilled." Off the stage his
simple and kind-hearted disposition won him affection and
esteem. In 1822 Mathews visited America, his observation on
his experiences there forming for the reader a most entertain-
ing portion of his biography. From infancy his health had
been uncertain, and the toils of his profession gradually under-
mined it. In 1834 he paid a second visit to America. His
last appearance in New York was on the nth of February
1835, when he played Samuel Coddle in Married Life and
Andrew Steward in The Lone House. He died at Plymouth on
the 28th of June 1835. In 1797 he had married Eliza Kirkham
Strong (d. 1802), and in 1803 Anne Jackson, an actress, the
author of the popular and diverting Memoirs, by Mrs Mathews
(4 vols., 1838-1839).
His son CHARLES JAMES MATHEWS (1803-1878), who was
born at Liverpool on the 26th of December 1803, became even
better known as an actor. After attending Merchant Taylors'
School he was articled as pupil to an architect, and continued
for some years nominally to follow this profession. His first
public appearance on the stage was made on the 7th of December
1835, at the Olympic, London, as George Rattleton in his own
play The Humpbacked Lover, and as Tim Topple the Tiger
in Leman Rode's Old and Young Stager. In 1838 he married
Madame Vestris, then lessee of the Olympic, but neither his
management of this theatre, nor subsequently of Covent Garden,
nor of the Lyceum, resulted in pecuniary success, although
the introduction of scenery more realistic and careful in detail
than had hitherto been employed was due to his enterprise. In
the year of his marriage he visited America, but without receiving
a very cordial welcome. As an actor he held in England an
unrivalled place in his peculiar vein of light eccentric comedy.
The easy grace of his manner, and the imperturbable solemnity
with which he perpetrated his absurdities, never failed to charm
and amuse; his humour was never broad, but always measured
and restrained. It was as the leading character in such plays
as the Game of Speculation, My Awful Dad, Cool as a Cucumber,
Patter versus Clatter, and Little Toddlekins, that he specially
excelled. In 1856 Mme Vestris died, and in the following
year Mathews again visited the United States, where in 1858
he married Mrs A. H. Davenport. In 1861 they gave a series
of " At Homes " at the Haymarket theatre, which were almost
as popular as had been those of the elder Mathews. Charles
James Mathews was one of the few English actors who played
in French successfully, his appearance in Paris in 1863 in a
French version of Cool as a Cucumber, written by himself, being
received with great approbation. He also played there again
in 1865 as Sir Charles Coldcream in the original play L'Homme
blase ( English version by Boucicault, Used up). After reaching
his sixty-sixth year, Mathews set out on a tour round the world,
in which was included a third visit to America, and on his return
in 1872 he continued to act without interruption till within
a few weeks of his death on the 24th of June 1878. He made
his last appearance in New York at Wallack's theatre on the
7th of June 1872, in H. J. Byron's Not such a Fool as he Looks.
His last appearance in London was at the Opera Comique on
the 2nd of June 1877, in The Liar and The Cosy Couple. At
Stalybridge he gave his last performance on the 8th of June
1878, when he played Adonis Evergreen in his own comedy
My Awful Dad.
See the Life of Charles James Mathews, edited by Charles Dickens
(2 vols., 1879); H. G. Paine in Actors and Actresses of Great Britain
and the United States (New York, 1886).
MATHEWS, THOMAS (1676-1751), British admiral, son of
Colonel Edward Mathews (d. 170x3), and grandson on his mother's
side of Sir Thomas Armstrong (1624-1684), who was executed
for the Rye House Plot, was born at Llandaff Court, Llandaff.
He entered the navy and became lieutenant in 1699, being
promoted captain in 1703. During the short war with Spain
(1718-20) he commanded the "Kent" in the fleet of Sir
George Byng (Lord Torrington), and from 1722 to 1724 he had
the command of a small squadron sent to the East Indies to
repress the pirates of the coast of Malabar. He saw no further
service till March 1741, when he was appointed to the command
in the Mediterranean, and plenipotentiary to the king of Sardinia
and the other courts of Italy. It is impossible to understand
upon what grounds he was selected. As an admiral he was
not distinguished; he was quite destitute of the experience
and the tact required for his diplomatic duties; and he was
on the worst possible terms with his second in command,
Richard Lestock (i679?-i746). Yet the purpose for which
he was sent out in his double capacity was not altogether ill
performed. In 1742 Mathews sent a small squadron to Naples
to compel King Charles III., afterwards king of Spain, to remain
neutral. It was commanded by commodore, afterwards admiral,
William Martin (i696?-i756), who refused to enter into negotia-
tions, and gave the king half an hour in which to return an
answer. In June of the same year a squadron of Spanish
galleys, which had taken refuge in the Bay of Saint Tropez,
was burnt by the fireships of Mathews' fleet. In the meantime
a Spanish squadron of line-of-battleships had taken refuge in
Toulon, and was watched by the British fleet from its anchorage
at Hyeres. In February 1744 the Spaniards put to sea in
company with a French force. Mathews, who had now returned
to his flagship, followed, and an engagement took place on the
nth of February. The battle was highly discreditable to the
British fleet, and not very honourable to their opponents,
but it is of the highest historical importance in the history of the
navy. It marked the lowest pitch reached in discipline and
fighting and efficiency by the fleet in the i8th century, and it
had a very bad effect in confirming the pedantic system of tactics
set up by the old Fighting Instructions. The British fleet
followed the enemy in light winds on the loth of February,
and became scattered. Mathews hoisted the signal to form
the line, and then when night fell, to lie to. At that moment
Lestock, who commanded in the rear, was at a considerable
distance from the body of the fleet, and he ought undoubtedly
to have joined his admiral before lying to, but he obeyed the
second order, with the result, which it is impossible not to feel
that he foresaw and desired, that when morning came he was
a long way off the flag of Mathews. The enemy were within
striking distance of the van and centre of the British fleet,
and Mathews attacked their rear. The battle was ill fought,
as it had been ill prepared. Lestock never came into action
at ah 1 . One Spanish line-of -battleship, the " Poder " (74),
was taken, but afterwards burnt. Several of the British
captains behaved very badly, and Mathews in a heat
of confused anger bore down on the enemy out of his line,
while the signal to keep the line was still flying at his mast
head. The French and Spaniards got away, and were not
pursued by Mathews, though they were of inferior strength.
Deep indignation was aroused at home by this naval mis-
carriage, and the battle led to more than twenty courts-martial
and a parliamentary inquiry. The evils which had overrun
the navy were clearly displayed, and in so far some good was done.
It was shown for instance that one of the captains whose ship
behaved worst was a man of extreme age who was nearly blind
and deaf. One of the captains was so frightened at the prospect
of a trial that he deserted on his way home and disappeared
into Spain. Mathews resigned anfl returned home after the
battle. In consequence of the parliamentary motion for
inquiry, Lestock was brought to trial, and acquitted on the
ground that he had obeyed orders. Then Mathews was tried
in 1746, and was condemned to be dismissed the service on
the ground that he had not only failed to pursue the enemy
but had taken his fleet into action in a confused manner.
He had in fact not waited till he had his fleet in a line with the
enemy before bearing down on them, and he had disordered
his own line. To the country at large it appeared strange that
the admiral who had actually fought should be condemned,
while the admiral who had kept at a distance was acquitted.
Mathews looked upon his condemnation as the result of mere
party spirit. Sheer pedantry on the part of the officers forming
888
MATHY MATILDA
the court-martial affords a more satisfactory explanation. They
judged that a naval officer was bound not to go beyond the
Fighting Instructions as Mathews had undoubtedly done,
and therefore condemned him. Their decision had a serious
effect in fixing the rule that all battles, at any rate against
enemies of equal or nearly equal numbers, were to be fought
on one pattern. Mathews died on the 2nd of October 1751 in
London. There is a portrait of him in the Painted Hall at
Greenwich.
In Beatson's Naval and Military Memoirs, vol. i., will be found a
fair account of the battle of February 1744. It is fully dealt with
by Montagu Burrows in his Life of Hawke. The French account
may be found in Tronde's Batailles Navales de la France. The
Spanish view is in the Vida de Don Josef Navarro by Don Josef de
Vargas. The battle led to a violent pamphlet controversy. The
charges and findings at the courts-martial on both Lestock and
Mathews were published at the time. The minor trials arising out of
the action are collected in a folio under the title " Copies of all the
Minutes and Proceedings taken at and upon the several Tryals of
Captain George Burrish " (1746). A " Narrative " was published
by, or for, Lestock in 1744, and answered by, or on behalf of, Mathews
under the title " Ad 1 M w's Conduct in the late Engagement
Vindicated " in 1745. (D. H.)
MATHY, KARL (1807-1868), Badenese statesman, was born
at Mannheim on the I7th of March 1807. He studied law
and politics at Heidelberg, and entered the Baden government
department of finance in 1829. His sympathy with the revolu-
tionary ideas of 1830, expressed in his paper the Zeitgeist, cost
him his appointment in 1834, and he made his way to Switzer-
land, where he contributed to the Jeune Suisse directed by
Mazzini. On his return to Baden in 1840 he edited the Landtags-
zeilung at Carlsruhe, and in 1842 he entered the estates for the
town of Constance. He became one of the opposition leaders
and in 1847 helped to found the Deutsche Zeilung, a paper
which eventually did much to further the cause of German
unity. He took part in the preliminary parliament and in
the assembly of Frankfort in 1848-1849, where he supported
the policy of H. W. A. von Gagern, and after the refusal of
Frederick William IV. to accept the imperial crown he still
worked for the cause of unity. He was made finance minister in
Baden in May 1849, but was dismissed after a few days of office.
He then applied his financial knowledge to banking business in
Cologne, Berlin, Gotha and Leipzig. He was recalled to Baden
in 1862, and in 1864 became president of the new ministry
of commerce. He sought to bring Baden institutions into
line with those of northern Germany with a view to ultimate
union, and when in 1866 Baden took sides with Austria against
Prussia he sent in his resignation. After the war he became
president of a new cabinet, but he did not live to see the realiza-
tion of the policy for which he had striven. He died at
Carlsruhe on the 3rd of February 1868.
His letters during the years 1846-1848 were edited by Ludwig
Mathy (Leipzig, 1899), and his life was written by G. Freytag
(Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1872).
MATILDA (1102-1164), queen of England and empress,
daughter of Henry I. of England, by Matilda, his first wife,
was born in 1102. In 1109 she was betrothed to the emperor-
elect, Henry V., and was sent to Germany, but the marriage
was delayed till 1114. Her husband died after eleven years
of wedlock, leaving her childless; and, since both her brothers
were now dead, she was recalled to her father's court in order
that she might be recognized as his successor in England and
Normandy. The Great Council of England did homage to her
under considerable pressure. Their reluctance to acknowledge
a female sovereign was increased when Henry gave her in
marriage to Geoffrey Plantagenet, the heir of Anjou and
Maine (1129); nor was it removed by the birth of the future
Henry II. in 1133. On the old king's death both England
and Normandy accepted his nephew, Stephen, of Mortain and
Boulogne. Matilda and her husband were in Anjou at the
time. They wasted the next few years in the attempt to win
Normandy; but Eari Robert of Gloucester, the half-brother
of the empress, at length induced her to visit England and
raise her standard in the western shires, where his influence
was supreme. Though on her first landing Matilda only escaped
capture through the misplaced chivalry of her opponent, she
soon turned the tables upon him with the help of the Church
and the barons of the west. Stephen was defeated and captured
at Lincoln (1141); the empress was acclaimed lady or queen of
England (she used both titles indifferently) and crowned
at London. But the arrogance which she displayed in her
prosperity alienated the Londoners and the papal legate,
Bishop Henry of Winchester. Routed at the siege of Winches-
ter, she was compelled to release Stephen in exchange for Earl
Robert, and thenceforward her cause steadily declined in
England. In 1148, having lost by the earl's death her principal
supporter, she retired to Normandy, of which her husband
had in the meantime gained possession. Henceforward she
remained in the background, leaving her eldest son Henry
to pursue the struggle with Stephen. She outlived Henry's
coronation by ten years; her husband had died in 1151. As
queen-mother she played the part of a mediator between her
sons and political parties. Age mellowed her temper, and she
turned more and more from secular ambitions to charity a
religious works. She died on the 3oth of January 1164.
See O. Rossler, Kai^tnn Mathilde (Berlin, 1897); J. H. Rou
Geoffrey de Mandeville (London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.)
MATILDA (1046-1115), countess or margravine of Tuscan;
popularly known as the Great Countess, was descended fro:
a noble Lombard family. Her great-grandfather, Athene o:
Canossa, had been made count of Modena and Reggio by the
emperor Otto I., and her grandfather had, in addition, acquired
Mantua, Ferrara and Brescia. Her own father, Boniface II.,
the Pious, secured Tuscany, the duchy of Spoleto, the county of
Parma, and probably that of Cremona; and was loyal to the
emperor until Henry plotted against him. Through the murder
of Count Boniface in 1052 and the death of her older brother
and sister three years later, Matilda was left, at the age of
nine, sole heiress to the richest estate in Italy. She received
an excellent education under the care of her mother, Beatrice
of Bar, the daughter of Frederick of Lorraine and aunt
Henry III., who, after a brief detention in Germany by t
emperor, married Godfrey IV. of Lorraine, brother of Pope
Stephen IX. (1057-1058). Thenceforth Matilda's lot was cast
against the emperor in the great struggle over investiture,
and for over thirty years she maintained the cause of thi
successive pontiffs, Gregory VII., Victor III., Urban I
Paschal II., with varying fortune, but with undaunted resol
tion. She aided the pope against the Normans in 1074,
in 1075 attended the synod at which Guibert was condemn
and deprived of the archbishopric of Ravenna. Her heredi-
tary fief of Canossa was the scene (Jan. 28, 1077) of the
celebrated penance of Henry IV. before Gregory VII. She
provided an asylum for Henry's second wife, Praxides, and
urged his son Conrad to revolt against his father. In the
course of the protracted struggle her villages were plundered,
her fortresses demolished, and Pisa and Lucca temporarily lost,
but she remained steadfast in her allegiance, and, before her
death, had, by means of a league of Lombard cities which she
formed, recovered all her possessions. The donation of her
estates to the Holy See, originally made in 1077 and renewed
on the 1 7th of November 1102, though never fully consummated
on account of imperial opposition, constituted the greater part
of the temporal dominion of the papacy. Matilda was twice
married, first to Godfrey V. of Lorraine, surnamed the Hump-
backed, who was the son of her step-father and was murdered
on the 26th of February 1076; and secondly to the 1 7-year-old
W.elf V. of Bavaria, from whom she finally separated in 1095
both marriages of policy, which counted for little in her life.
Matilda was an eager student: she spoke Italian, French and
German fluently, and wrote many Latin letters; she collected
a considerable library; she supervised an edition of the Pandects
of Justinian; and Anselm of Canterbury sent her his Meditations.
She combined her devotion to the papacy and her learning with
very deep personal piety. She died after a long illness at
Bodeno, near Modena, on the 24th of July 1115, and was buried
MATINS MATRIX
in the Benedictine church at Polirone, whence her remains
were taken to Rome by order of Urban VIII. in 1635 and
interred in St Peter's.
The contemporary record of Matilda's life in rude Latin verse,
by her chaplain Domnizone (Donizo or Domenico), is preserved in
the Vatican Library. The best edition is that of Bethmann in the
Monumenta germ. hist, scriptores, xii. 348-409. The text, with
an Italian translation, was published by F. Davoli under the title
Vita della granda contessa Matilda di Canossa (Reggio nell' Emilia
1888 seq.).
See A. Overmann, Grdfin Mathilde von Tuscien; ihre Besitzungen
. . . u. ihre Regesten (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Colombo, Una Nuova
vita della contessa Matilda in R. accad. d. sci. Atti, vol. 39 (Turin,
1904); L. Tosti, La Contessa Matilda ed i romani pontefici (Florence,
1859); A. Pannenbprg, Studien zur Geschichte der Herzogin Matilde
von Canossa (Gottingen, 1872); F. M. Fiorentini, Memorie della
Matilda (Lucca, 1756); and Nora Duff, Matilda of Tuscany (1910).
(C. H. HA.)
MATINS (Fr. matines, med. Lat. matutinae, sc. possibly
vigil iae, morning watches; from malutinus, " belonging to the
morning "), a word now only used in an ecclesiastical sense for
one of the canonical hours in the Roman Breviary, originally
intended to be said at midnight, but sometimes said at dawn,
after which " lauds " were recited or sung. In the modern
Roman Catholic Church, outside monastic services, the office
is usually said on the preceding afternoon or evening. The
word is also used* in the Roman Catholic Church for the public
service held on Sunday mornings before the mass (see BREVIARY;
and HOURS, CANONICAL). In the Church of England since
the Reformation matins is used for the order of public morning
prayer.
MATLOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, on the river Derwent, 17 m.
N. by W. of Derby on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), of
urban district of Matlock, 5979; of Matlock Bath and Scarthin
Nick, 1819. The entire township includes the old village
of Matlock, the commercial and manufacturing district of
Matlock Bridge, and the fashionable health resorts of Matlock
Bath and Matlock Bank. The town possesses cotton, corn and
paper mills, while in the vicinity there are stone-quarries
and lead mines. A peculiar local industry is the manufacture
of so-called " petrified " birds' nests, plants, and other objects.
These are steeped in water from the mineral springs until they
become encrusted with a calcareous deposit which gives them
the appearance of fossils. Ornaments fashioned out of spar
and stalactites have also a considerable sale.
MATLOCK BATH, one and a half miles south of Matlock, having
a separate railway station, overlooks the narrow and preci-
pitous gorge of the Derwent, and stands in the midst of woods
and cliffs, deriving its name from three medicinal springs,
which first became celebrated towards the close of the I7th
century. They were not known to the Romans, although
lead-mining was carried on extensively in the district in the
ist and 2nd centuries A.D. The mean temperature of the
springs is 68 F. Extensive grounds have been laid out for
public use; and in the neighbourhood there are several fine
stalactite caverns.
Sheltered under the high moorlands of Darley, MATLOCK
BANK has grown up about a mile north-east of the old village, and
has become celebrated for the number and excellence of its
hydropathic establishments. A tramway, worked by a single
cable, over a gradient said to be the steepest in the*world,
affords easy communication with Matlock Bridge.
MATOS FRAGOSO, JUAN DE (i6i4?-i689), Spanish drama-
tist, of Portuguese descent, was born about 1614 at Alsito
(Alemtejo). After taking his degree in law at the university
of Evora, he proceeded to Madrid, where he made acquaintance
with Perez de Montalban, and thus obtained an introduction
to the stage. He quickly displayed great cleverness in hitting
the public taste, and many contemporaries of superior talent
eagerly sought his aid as a collaborator. The earliest of his
printed plays is La Defensa de la ff y prlncipe prodigioso (1651),
and twelve more pieces were published in 1658. But though
his popularity continued long after his death (January 4, 1689),
Matos Fragoso's dramas do not stand the test of reading.
His emphatic preciosity and sophistical insistence on the " point
of honour " are tedious and unconvincing; in La Venganza
en el despeno, in A lo que obliga un agravio, and in other plays,
he merely recasts, very adroitly, works by Lope de Vega.
MATRASS (mod. Lat. malracium), a glass vessel with a round
or oval body and a long narrow neck, used in chemistry, &c.,
as a digester or distiller. The Florence flask of commerce
is frequently used for this purpose. The word is possibly
identical with an old name " matrass " (Fr. maleras, matelas)
for the bolt or quarrel of a cross-bow. If so, some identity
of shape is the reason for the application of the word; " bolt-
head " is also used as a name for the vessel. Another connexion
is suggested with the Arabic matra, a leather bottle.
MATRIARCHATE ("rule of the mother"), a term used
to express a supposed earliest and lowest form of family life,
typical of primitive societies, in which the promiscuous relations
of the sexes result in the child's father being unknown (see
FAMILY). In such communities the mother took precedence
of the father in certain important respects, especially in line
of descent and inheritance. Matriarchate is assumed on this
theory to have been universal in prehistoric times. The promi-
nent position then naturally assigned women did not, however,
imply any personal power, since they were in the position of
mere chattels: it simply constituted them the sole relatives
of their children and the only centre of any such family life
as existed. The custom of tracing descent through the female
is still observed among certain savage tribes. In Fiji father
and son are not regarded as relatives. Among the Bechuanas
the chieftainship passes to a brother, not to a son. In Senegal,
Loango, Congo and Guinea, relationship is traced through the
female. Among the Tuareg Berbers a child takes rank, freeman's
or slave's, from its mother.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. F. McLennan, Patriarchal Theory (London,
1885); T. T. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht (Stuttgart, 1861); E.
VVestermarck, History of Human Marriage (1894); A. Giraud-
Teulon, La Mkre chez certains peuples de I'antiquite (Paris, 1867);
Les Origines du mariage et de la famille (Geneva and Paris, 1884);
C. S. Wake, The Development of Marriage and Kinship (London,
1889); Ch. Letourneau, L'volution du mariage et de la famille
(Paris, 1888); L. H. Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity
of Human Family, " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,
vol. xvii. (Washington, 1871); C. N. Starcke, The Primitive Family
(London, 1889).
MATRIMONY (Lat. matrimonium, marriage, which is the
ordinary English sense), a game at cards played with a full
whist pack upon a table divided into three compartments
labelled " Matrimony," " Intrigue " and " Confederacy," and
two smaller spaces, " Pair " and " Best." These names indi-
cate combinations of two cards, any king and queen being
" Matrimony," any queen and knave " Intrigue," any king
and knave " Confederacy"; while any .two cards of the same
denomination form a " Pair " and the diamond ace is " Best."
The dealer distributes a number of counters, to which an agreed
value has been given, upon the compartments, and the other
players do likewise. The dealer then gives one card to each
player, face down, and a second, face up. If any turned-up
card is the diamond ace, the player holding it takes everything
on the space and the deal passes. If not turned, the diamond
ace has only the value of the other three aces. If it is not
turned, the players, beginning with the eldest hand, expose
their second cards, and the resulting combinations, if among
the five successful ones, win the counters of the corresponding
spaces. If the counters on a space are not won, they remain
until the next deal.
MATRIX, a word of somewhat wide application, chiefly
used in the sense of a bed or enclosing mass in which something
is shaped or formed (Late Lat. matrix, womb; in classical
Latin matrix was only applied to an animal kept for breeding).
Matrix is thus used of a mould of metal or other substance
in which a design or pattern is made in intaglio, and from
which an impression in relief is taken. In die-sinking and
coining, the matrix is the hardened steel mould from which
890
MATROSS MATSYS
the die-punches are taken. The term " seal " should strictly
be applied to the impression only on wax of the design of the
matrix, but is often used both of the matrix and of the impres-
sion (see SEALS). In mineralogy, the matrix is the mass in
which a crystal mineral or fossil is embedded. In mathematics,
the name " matrix " is used of an arrangement of numbers or
symbols in a rectangular or square figure. (See ALGEBRAIC
FORMS.)
In med. Latin matrix and the diminutive matricula had the
meaning of a roll or register, particularly one containing the names
of the members of an institution, as of the clergy belonging to a
cathedral, collegiate or other church, or of the members of a univer-
sity. From this use is derived " matriculation," the admission to
membership of a university, also the name of the examination for
such admission. Matricula was also the name of the contribu-
tions in men and money made by the various states of the Holy
Roman Empire, and in the modern German Empire the contri-
butions made by the federal states to the imperial finances are
called Matrikularbeitrdge, matricular contributions. (See GERMANY :
Finance.)
MATROSS, the name (now obsolete) for a soldier of artillery,
who ranked next below a gunner. The duty of a matross was
to assist the gunners in loading, firing and sponging the guns.
They were provided with firelocks, and marched with the store-
wagons, acting as guards. In the American army a matross
ranked as a private of artillery. The word is probably derived
from Fr. matelot, a sailor.
MATSUKATA, MARQUIS (1835- ), Japanese statesman,
was born at Kagoshima in 1835, being a son of a samurai of
the Satsuma clan. On the completion of the feudal revolution
of 1868 he was appointed governor of the province of Tosa,
and having served six years in this office, was transferred to
Tokyo as assistant minister of finance. As representative of
Japan at the Paris Exhibition of 1878, he took the opportunity
afforded by his mission to study the financial systems of the
great European powers. On his return home, he held for a
short time in 1880 the portfolio of home affairs, and was in
1 88 1 appointed minister of finance. The condition of the
currency of Japan was at that time deplorable, and national
bankruptcy threatened. The coinage had not only been
seriously debased during the closing years of the Tokugawa
regime, but large quantities of paper currency had been issued
and circulated, both by many of the feudal lords, and by the
central government itself, as a temporary expedient for filling
an impoverished, exchequer. In 1878 depreciation had set in,
and the inconvertible paper had by the close of 1881 grown to
such an extent that it was then at a discount of 80% as com-
pared with silver. Matsukata showed the government the
danger of the situation, and urged that the issue of further
paper currency should be stopped at once, the expenses of
administration curtailed, and the resulting surplus of revenue
used in the redemption of the paper currency and in the creation
of a specie reserve. These proposals were acted upon: the
Bank of Japan was established, and the right of issuing con-
vertible notes given to it; and within three years of the initia-
tion of these financial reforms, the paper currency, largely
reduced in quantity, was restored to its full par value with
silver, and the currency as a whole placed on a solvent basis.
From this time forward Japan's commercial and military
advancement continued to make uninterrupted progress.
But pari passu with the extraordinary impetus given to its
trade by the successful conclusion of the war with China, the
national expenditure enormously increased, rising within a
few years from 80 to 250 million yen. The task of providing
for this expenditure fell entirely on Matsukata, who had to
face strong opposition on the part of the diet. But he distri-
buted the increased taxation so equally, and chose its subjects
so wisely, that the ordinary administrative expenditure and
the interest on the national debt were fully provided for, while
the extraordinary expenditure for military purposes was met
from the Chinese indemnity. As far back as 1878 Matsukata
perceived the advantages of a gold standard, but it was not
until 1897 that his scheme could be realized. In this year
the bill authorizing it was under his auspices submitted to the
=
diet and passed; and with this financial achievement Matsukata
saw the fulfilment of his ideas of financial reform, which were
conceived during his first visit to Europe. Matsukata, who
in 1884 was created Count, twice held the office of prime minister
(1891-1892, 1896-1898), and during both his administrations
he combined the portfolio of finance with the premiership;
from October 1898 to October 1900 he was minister of finance
only. His name in Japanese history is indissolubly connected
with the financial progress of his country at the end of the
1 9th century. In 1902 he visited England and America,
and he was created G.C.M.G., and given the Oxford degree
of D.C.L. In September 1907 he was advanced to the rank of
Marquis.
MATSYS (MASSYS or METZYS), QUINTIN (1466-1530),
Flemish artist, was born at Louvain, where he first learned
a mechanical art. During the greater part of the isth century
the centres in which the painters of the Low Countries most
congregated were Bruges, Ghent and Brussels. Towards the
close of the same period Louvain took a prominent part in
giving employment to workmen of every craft. It was not
till the opening of the i6th century that Antwerp usurped
the lead which it afterwards maintained against Bruges and
Ghent, Brussels, Mechlin and Louvain. Quintin Matsys
was one of the first men of any note who gave repute to the
gild of Antwerp. A legend relates how the smith of Louvain
was induced by affection for the daughter of an artist to change
his trade and acquire proficiency in painting. A less poetic
but perhaps more real version of the story tells that Quintin
had a brother with v/hom he was brought up by his father Josse
Matsys, a smith, who held the lucrative offices of clockmaker
and architect to the municipality of Louvain. It came to be
a question which of the sons should follow the paternal busin
and which carve out a new profession for himself. Josse
son elected to succeed his father, and Quintin then gave himself
to the study of painting. We are not told expressly by whom
Quintin was taught, but his style seems necessarily derived
from the lessons of Dierick Bouts, who took to Louvain the
mixed art of Memlinc and Van der Weyden. When he settled
at Antwerp, at the age of twenty-five, he probably had a style
with an impress of its own, which certainly contributed most im-
portantly to the revival of Flemish art on the lines of Van Eyck
and Van der Weyden. What particularly characterizes Quintin
Matsys is the strong religious feeling which he inherited from
earlier schools. But that again was permeated by realism which
frequently degenerated into the grotesque. Nor would it be
too much to say that the facial peculiarities of the boors of
Van Steen or Ostade have their counterparts in the pictures of
Matsys, who was not, however, trained to use them in the
same homely way. From Van der Weyden's example we may
trace the dryness of outline and shadeless modelling and the
pitiless finish even of trivial detail, from the Van Eycks and
Memlinc through Dierick Bouts the superior glow and richness
of transparent pigments, which mark the pictures of Matsys.
The date of his retirement from Louvain is 1491, when he
became a master in the gild of painters at Antwerp. His most
celebrated picture is that which he executed in 1508 for the
joiners' company in the cathedral of his adopted city. Next
in importance to that is the Marys of Scripture round the
Virgin and Child, which was ordered for a chapel in the cathedral
of Loilvain. Both altar-pieces are now in public museums,
one at Antwerp, the other at Brussels. They display great
earnestness in expression, great minuteness of finish, and a
general absence of effect by light or shade. As in early Flemish
pictures, so in those of Matsys, superfluous care is lavished
on jewelry, edgings and ornament. To the great defect of
want of atmosphere such faults may be added as affectation,
the result of excessive straining after tenderness in women,
or common gesture and grimace suggested by a wish to render
pictorially the brutality of gaolers and executioners. Yet
in every instance an effort is manifest to develop and express
individual character. This tendency in Matsys is chiefly
illustrated in his pictures of male and female market bankers
MATTEA WAN MATTER
891
(Louvre and Windsor), in which an attempt is made to display
concentrated cupidity and avarice. The other tendency to
excessive emphasis of tenderness may be seen in two replicas
of the " Virgin and Child " at Berlin and Amsterdam, where the
ecstatic kiss of the mother is quite unreal. But in these examples
there is a remarkable glow of colour which makes up for many
defects. Expression of despair is strongly exaggerated in a
Lucretia at the museum of Vienna. On the whole the best
pictures of Matsys are the quietest; his " Virgin and Christ "
or " Ecce Homo " and " Mater Dolorosa " (London and Antwerp)
display as much serenity and dignity as seems consistent with
the master's art. He had considerable skill as a portrait
painter. Egidius at Longford, which drew from Sir Thomas
More a eulogy in Latin verse, is but one of a numerous class,
to which we may add the portrait of Maximilian of Austria
in the gallery of Amsterdam. Matsys in this branch of practice
was much under the influence of his contemporaries Lucas
of Leiden and Mabuse. His tendency to polish and smoothness
excluded to some extent the subtlety of modulation remarkable
in Holbein and Diirer. There is reason to think that he was
well acquainted with both these German masters. He probably
met Holbein more than once on his way to England. He
saw Diirer at Antwerp in 1520. Quintin died at Antwerp
in 1530. The puritan feeling which slumbered in him was
fatal to some of his relatives. His sister Catherine and her
husband suffered at Louvain in 1 543 for the then capital offence
of reading the Bible, he being decapitated, she buried alive
in the square fronting the cathedral.
Quintin's son, Jan Matsys, inherited the art but not the skill of
his parent. The earliest of his works, a " St Jerome," dated 1537, in
the gallery of Vienna, the latest, a " Healing of Tobias," of 1564, in
the museum of Antwerp, are sufficient evidence of his tendency to
substitute imitation for original thought.
MATTEAWAN, a village of Fishkill township, Dutchess
county, New York, U.S.A., on the eastern bank of the Hudson
river, opposite Newburgh and 15 m. S. of Poughkeepsie. Pop.
(1890), 4278; (1900), 5807 (1044 foreign-born); (1905, state
census), 5584; (1910), 6727. The village is served by the Central
New England railway, and is the seat of the Matteawan state
hospital for the criminal insane, the Highland hospital, and the
Sargeant industrial school. The Teller House dates back to
the beginning of the i8th century. Near Matteawan is Beacon
Hill, the highest of the highlands, which has an electric railway
to its summit. There are manufactures of hats, rubber goods,
machinery (notably " fuel-economizers "), &c., water-power
being furnished by Fishkill Creek. The village owns its
water-works, the supply for which is derived from Beacon
Hill. Matteawan was incorporated as a village in 1886.
MATTER. Our conceptions of the nature and structure of
matter have been profoundly influenced in recent years by
investigations on the Conduction of Electricity through Gases
(see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC) and on Radio-activity (q.v.),
These researches and the ideas which they have suggested have
already thrown much light on some of the most fundamental
questions connected with matter; they have, too, furnished us
with far more powerful methods for investigating many problems
connected with the structure of matter than those hitherto
available. There is thus every reason to believe that our
knowledge of the structure of matter will soon become far
more precise and complete than it is at present, for now we have
the means of settling by testing directly many points which
are still doubtful, but which formerly seemed far beyond the
reach of experiment.
The Molecular Theory of Matter the only theory ever
seriously advocated supposes that all visible forms of matter
are collocations of simpler and smaller portions. There has
been a continuous tendency as science has advanced to reduce
further and further the number of the different kinds of things
of which all matter is supposed to be built up. First came
the molecular theory teaching us to regard matter as made
up of an enormous number of small particles, each kind of
matter having its characteristic particle, thus the particles
of water were supposed to be different from those of air and
indeed from those of any other substance. Then came Dalton's
Atomic Theory which taught that these molecules, in spite of
their almost infinite variety, were all built up of still smaller
bodies, the atoms of the chemical elements, and that the number
of different types of these smaller bodies was limited to the
sixty or seventy types which represent the atoms of the
substance regarded by chemists as elements.
In 1815 Prout suggested that the atoms of the heavier chemi-
cal elements were themselves composite and that they were
all built up of atoms of the lightest element, hydrogen, so
that all the different forms of matter are edifices built of the
same material the atom of hydrogen. If the atoms of hydro-
gen do not alter in weight when they combine to form atoms
of other elements the atomic weights of all elements would be
multiples of that of hydrogen; though the number of elements
whose atomic weights are multiples or very nearly so of hydrogen
is very striking, there are several which are universally admitted
to have atomic weights differing largely from whole numbers.
We do not know enough about gravity to say whether this is
due to the change of weight of the hydrogen atoms when they
combine to form other atoms, or whether the primordial form
from which all matter is built up is something other than the hy-
drogen atom. Whatever may be the nature of this primordial
form, the tendency of all recent discoveries has been to empha-
size the truth of the conception of a common basis of matter
of all kinds. That the atoms of the different elements have
a common basis, that they behave as if they consisted of different
numbers of small particles of the same kind, is proved to most
minds by the Periodic Law of Mendeleeff and Newlands (see
ELEMENT). This law shows that the physical and chemical
properties of the different elements are determined by their
atomic weights, or to use the language of mathematics, the
properties of an element are functions of its atomic weight.
Now if we constructed models of the atoms out of different
materials, the atomic weight would be but one factor out of
many which would influence the physical and chemical proper-
ties of the model, we should require to know more than the
atomic weight to fix its behaviour. If we were to plot a curve
representing the variation of some property of the substance
with the atomic weight we should not expect the curve to be
a smooth one, for instance two atoms might have the same
atomic weight and yet if they were made of different materials
have no other property in common. The influence of the
atomic weight on the properties of the elements is nowhere
more strikingly shown than in the recent developments of
physics connected with the discharge of electricity through
gases and with radio-activity. The transparency of bodies
to Rontgen rays, to cathode rays, to the rays emitted by radio-
active substances, the quality of the secondary radiation
emitted by the different elements are all determined by the
atomic weight of the element. So much is this the case that
the behaviour of the element with respect to these rays has
been used to determine its atomic weight, when as in the case
of Indium, uncertainty as to the valency of the element makes
the result of ordinary chemical methods ambiguous.
The radio-active elements indeed furnish us with direct evi-
dence of this unity of composition of matter, for not only does
one element uranium, produce another, radium, but all the
radio-active substances give rise to helium, so that the substance
of the atoms of this gas must be contained in the atoms of the
radio-active elements.
It is not radio-active atoms alone that contain a common
constituent, for it has been found that all bodies can by suitable
treatment, such as raising them to incandescence or exposing
them to ultra-violet light, be made to emit negatively electri-
fied particles, and that these particles are the same from whatever
source they may be derived. These particles all carry the
same charge of negative electricity and all have the same mass,
this mass is exceedingly small even when compared with the
mass of an atom of hydrogen, which until the discovery of these
particles was the smallest mass known to science. These
MATTER
particles are called corpuscles or electrons; their mass according
to the most recent determinations is only about T^ITS f that
of an atom of hydrogen, and their radius is only about one
hundred-thousandth part of the radius of the hydrogen atom.
As corpuscles of this kind can be obtained from all substances,
we infer that they form a constituent of the atoms of all bodies.
The atoms of the different elements do not all contain the
same number of corpuscles there are more corpuscles in the
atoms of the heavier elements than in the atoms of the lighter
ones; in fact, many different considerations point to the con-
clusion that the number of corpuscles in the atom of any element
is proportional to the atomic weight of the element. Different
methods of estimating the exact number of corpuscles in the
atom have all led to the conclusion that this number is of the
same order as the atomic weight; that, for instance, the number
of corpuscles in the atom of oxygen is not a large multiple
of 16. Some methods indicate that the number of corpuscles in
the atom is equal to the atomic weight, while the maximum
value obtained by any method is only about four times the
atomic weight. This is one of the points on which further
experiments will enable us to speak with greater precision. Thus
one of the constituents of all atoms is the negatively charged
corpuscle; since the atoms are electrically neutral, this negative
charge must be accompanied by an equal positive one, so that
on this view the atoms must contain a charge of positive elec-
tricity proportional to the atomic weight; the way in which
this positive electricity is arranged is a matter of great import-
ance in the consideration of the constitution of matter. The
question naturally arises, is the positive electricity done up
into definite units like the negative, or does it merely indicate
a property acquired by an atom when one or more corpuscles
leave it? It is very remarkable that we have up to the present
(1910), in spite of many investigations on this point, no direct
evidence of the existence of positively charged particles with
a mass comparable with that of a corpuscle; the smallest positive
particle of which we have any direct indication has a mass
equal to the mass of an atom of hydrogen, and it is a most
remarkable fact that we get positively charged particles having
this mass when we send the electric discharge through gases
at low pressures, whatever be the kind of gas. It is no doubt
exceedingly difficult to get rid of traces of hydrogen in vessels
containing gases at low pressures through which an electric
discharge is passing, but the circumstances under which the
positively electrified particles just alluded to appear, and the
way in which they remain unaltered in spite of all efforts to
clear out any traces of hydrogen, all seem to indicate that
these positively electrified particles, whose mass is equal to that
of an atom of hydrogen, do not come from minute traces of
hydrogen present as an impurity but from the oxygen, nitrogen,
or helium, or whatever may be the gas through which the dis-
charge passes. If this is so, then the most natural conclusion
we can come to is that these positively electrified particles
with the mass of the atom of hydrogen are the natural
units of positive electricity, just as the corpuscles are those of
negative, and that these positive particles form a part of all
atoms.
Thus in this way we are led to an electrical view of the con-
stitution of the atom. We regard the atom as built up of units
of negative electricity and of an equal number of units of positive
electricity; these two units are of very different mass, the mass
of the negative unit being only T*hr$ of that of the positive.
The number of units of either kind is proportional to the atomic
weight of the element and of the same order as this quantity.
Whether this is anything besides the positive and negative
electricity in the atom we do not know. In the present state
of our knowledge of the properties of matter it is unnecessary
to postulate the existence of anything besides these positive
and negative units.
The atom of a chemical element on this view of the con-
stitution of matter is a system formed by n corpuscles and n
units of positive electricity which is in equilibrium or in a
state of steady motion under the ekctrical forces wh.ich the
charged 2 constituents exert upon each other. Sir J. J. Thomson
(Phil. Mag., March 1904, " Corpuscular Theory of Matter ")
has investigated the systems in steady motion which can be
formed by various numbers of negatively electrified particles
immersed in a sphere of uniform positive electrification, a
case, which in consequence of the enormous volume of the
units of positive electricity in comparison with that of the
negative has much in common with the problem under considera-
tion, and has shown that some of the properties of systems
of corpuscles vary in a periodic way suggestive of the Periodic
Law in Chemistry as n is continually increased.
Mass on the Electrical Theory of Matter. One of the most
characteristic things about matter is the possession of mass.
When we take the electrical theory of matter the idea of mass
takes new and interesting forms. This point may be illustrate
by the case of a single electrified particle; when this moves it
produces in the region around it a magnetic field, the magnetic
force being proportional to the velocity of the electrified par-
ticle. 1 In a magnetic field, however, there is energy, and the
amount of energy per unit volume at any place is proportional
to the square of the magnetic force at that place. Thus there
will be energy distributed through the space around the moving
particle, and when the velocity of the particle is small compared
with that of light we can easily show that the energy in the
region around the charged particle is ,when v is the velocity
of the particle, e its charge, a its radius, and n the magnetic
permeability of the region round the particle. If m is the
ordinary mass of the particle, the part of the kinetic energ
due to the motion of this mass is 5 rm?, thus the total kinetic
energy is %\m + f / . Thus the electric charge on the partii
makes it behave as if its mass were increased by f . Sine
a
this increase in mass is due to the energy in the region outside
the charged particle, it is natural to look to that region for
this additional mass. This region is traversed by the tube
of force which start from the electrified body and move with
it, and a very simple calculation shows that we should
the increase in the mass which is due to the electrification
if we suppose that these tubes of force as they move carry with
them a certain amount of the ether, and that this ether had
mass. The mass of ether thus carried along must be sue
that the amount of it in unit volume at any part of the field
is such that if this were to move with the velocity of light its
kinetic energy would be equal to the potential energy of the
electric field in the unit volume under consideration. When
a tube moves this mass of ether only participates in th
motion at right angles to the tube, it is not set in motion by
a movement of the tube along its length. We may compare
the mass which a charged body acquires in virtue of its charge
with the additional mass which a ball apparently acquires when it
is placed in water; a ball placed in water behaves as if its mass
were greater than its mass when moving in vacuo; we can easily
understand why this should be the case, because when the ball in
the water moves the water around it must move as well; so
that when a force acting on the ball sets it in motion it has
to move some of the water as well as the ball, and thus the
ball behaves as if its mass were increased. Similarly in the
case of the electrified particle, which when it moves carries
with it its lines of force, which grip the ether and carry some
of it along with them. When the electrified particle is moved
a mass of ether has to be moved too, and thus the apparent
mass of the particle is increased. The mass of the electrified
particle is thus resident in every part of space reached by its
lines of force; in this sense an electrified body may be said to
extend to an infinite distance; the amount of the mass of the
ether attached to the particle diminishes so rapidly as we recede
from it that the contributions of regions remote from the particle
1 We may measure this velocity with reference to any axes, pro-
vided we refer the motion of all the bodies which come into considera-
tion to the same axes.
MATTER
893
are quite insignificant, and in the case of a particle as small
as a corpuscle not one millionth part of its mass will be farther
away from it than the radius of an atom.
The increase in the mass of a particle due to given charges
varies as we have seen inversely as the radius of the particle;
thus the smaller the particle the greater the increase in the
mass. For bodies of appreciable size or even for those as
small as ordinary atoms the effect of any realizable electric
charge is quite insignificant, on the other hand for the smallest
bodies known, the corpuscle, there is evidence that the whole
of the mass is due to the electric charge. This result has
been deduced by the help of an extremely interesting
property of the mass due to a charge of electricity, which is
that this mass is not constant but varies with the velocity.
This comes about in the following way. When the charged
particle, which for simplicity we shall suppose to be spherical, is
at rest or moving very slowly the lines of electric force are
distributed uniformly around it in all directions; when the
sphere moves, however, magnetic forces are produced in the
region around it, while these, in consequence of electro-magnetic
induction in a moving magnetic field, give rise to electric forces
which displace the tubes of electric force in such a way as to
make them set themselves so as to be more at right angles to
the direction in which they are moving than they were before.
Thus if the charged sphere were moving along the line AB, the
tubes of force would, when the sphere was in motion, tend to
leave the region near AB and crowd towards a plane through
the centre of the sphere and at right angles to AB, where they
would be moving more nearly at right angles to themselves.
This crowding of the lines of force, increases, however, the
potential energy of the electric field, and since the mass of the
ether carried along by the lines of force is proportional to the
potential energy, the mass of the charged particle will also be
increased. The amount of variation of the mass with the
velocity depends to some extent on the assumptions we make
as to the shape of the corpuscle and the way in which it is
electrified. The simplest expression connecting the mass with
the velocity is that when the velocity is 11 the mass is equal
to itfl , i where c is the velocity of light. We see from
* a \ 2 (
1'-?!
this that the variation of mass with velocity is very small unless
the velocity of the body approaches that of light, but when, as
in the case of the /3 particles emitted by radium, the velocity is
only a few per cent, less than that of light, the effect of velocity
on the mass becomes very considerable; the formula indicates
that if the particles were moving with a velocity equal to that
of light they would behave as if their mass were infinite. By
observing the variation in the mass of a corpuscle as its velocity
changes we can determine how much of the mass depends upon
the electric charge and how much is independent of it. For since
the latter part of the mass is independent of the velocity, if it
predominates the variation with velocity of the mass of a
corpuscle will be small; if on the other hand it is negligible the
variation in mass with velocity will be that indicated by theory
given above. The experiment of Kaufmann (Gottingen Nach.,
Nov. 8, 1901), Bucherer (Ann. der Physik., xxviii. 513, 1909) on
the masses of the /3 particles shot out by radium, as well as those
by Hupka (Berichte der deutsch. physik. Gesell., 1909, p. 249)
on the masses of the corpuscle in cathode rays are in agreement
with the view that the whole of the mass of these particles is
due to their electric charge.
The alteration in the mass of a moving charge with its velocity
is primarily due to the increase in the potential energy which
accompanies the increase in velocity. The connexion between
potential energy and mass is general and holds for any arrange-
ment of electrified particles; thus if we assume the electrical
constitution of matter, there will be a part of the mass of any
system dependent upon the potential energy and in fact propor-
tional to it. Thus every change in potential energy, such for
example as occurs when two elements combine with evolution
or absorption of heat, must be attended by a change in mass.
The amount of this change can be calculated by the rule that if a
mass equal to the change in mass were to move with the velocity
of light its kinetic energy would equal the change in the potential
energy. If we apply this result to the case of the combination
of hydrogen and oxygen, where the evolution of heat, about
i-6X 10" ergs per gramme of water, is greater than in any other
known case of chemical combination, we see that the change in
mass would only amount to one part in 300x3 million, which is
far beyond the reach of experiment. The evolution of energy
by radio-active substances is enormously larger than in ordinary
chemical transformations; thus one gramme of radium emits per
day about as much energy as is evolved in the formation of one
gramme of water, and goes on doing this for thousands of years.
We see, however, that even in this case it would require hundreds
of years before the changes in mass became appreciable.
The evolution of energy from the gaseous emanation given
off by radium is more rapid than that from radium itself, since
according to the experiments of Rutherford (Rutherford, Radio-
activity, p. 432) a gramme of the emanation would evolve about
2-iXio 16 ergs in four days; this by the rule given above would
diminish the mass by about one part in 20,000; but since only
very small quantities of the emanation could be used the
detection of the change of mass does not seem feasible even
in this case.
On the view we have been discussing the existence of potential
energy due to an electric field is always associated with mass;
wherever there is potential energy there is mass. On the
electro-magnetic theory of light, however, a wave of light is
accompanied by electric forces, and therefore by potential energy;
thus waves of light must behave as if they possessed mass.
It may be shown that it follows from the same principles that
they must also possess momentum, the direction of the momentum
being the direction along which the light is travelling; when the
light is absorbed by an opaque substance the momentum in the
light is communicated to the substance, which therefore behaves
as if the light pressed upon it. The pressure exerted by light was
shown by Maxwell (Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., p. 440)
to be a consequence of his electro-magnetic theory, its existence
has been established by the experiment of Lebedew, of Nichols
and Hull, and of Poynting.
We have hitherto been considering mass from the point of
view that the constitution of matter is electrical ; we shall proceed
to consider the question of weight from the same w .. L
point of view. The relation between mass and weight
is, while the simplest in expression, perhaps the most fundamental
and mysterious property possessed by matter. The weight of a
body is proportional to its mass, that is if the weights of a number
of substances are equal the masses will be equal, whatever the
substances may be. This result was verified to a considerable
degree of approximation by Newton by means of experiments
with pendulums; later, in 1830 Bessel by a very extensive and
accurate series of experiments, also made on pendulums, showed
that the ratio of mass to weight was certainly to one part in
60,000 the same for all the substances examined by him, these
included brass, silver, iron, lead, copper, ivory, water.
The constancy of this ratio acquires new interest when looked
at from the point of view of the electrical constitution of matter.
We have seen that the atoms of all bodies contain corpuscles,
that the mass of a corpuscle is only TjVff of the mass of ah
atom of hydrogen, that it carries a constant charge of negative
electricity, and that its mass is entirely due to this charge, and
can be regarded as arising from ether gripped by the lines of
force starting from the electrical charge. The question at once
suggests itself, Is this kind of mass ponderable? does it add to the
weight of the body? and, if so, is the proportion between mass and
weight the same as for ordinary bodies? Let us suppose for a
moment that this mass is not ponderable, so that the corpuscles
increase the mass but not the weight of an atom. Then, since
the mass of a corpuscle is T^JTS of that of an atom of hydrogen,
the addition or removal of one corpuscle would in the case of an
atom of atomic weight x alter the mass by one part in 1700 x,
without altering the weight, this would produce an effect of the
894
MATTER
same magnitude on the ratio of mass to weight and would in the
case of the atoms of the lighter elements be easily measurable
in experiments of the same order of accuracy as those made by
Bessel. If the number of corpuscles in the atom were proportional
to the atomic weight, then the ratio of mass to weight would be
constant whether the corpuscles were ponderable or not. If
the number were not proportional there would be greater dis-
crepancies in the ratio of mass to weight than is consistent with
Bessel's experiments if the corpuscles had no weight. We have
seen there are other grounds for concluding that the number of
corpuscles in an atom is proportional to the atom weight, so
that the constancy of the ratio of mass to weight for a large
number of substances does not enable us to determine whether
or not mass due to charges of electricity is ponderable or not.
There seems some hope that the determination of this ratio
for radio-active substances may throw some light on this
point. The enormous amount of heat evolved by these bodies
may indicate that they possess much greater stores of potential
energy than other substances. If we suppose that the heat
developed by one gramme of a radio-active substance in the
transformations which it undergoes before it reaches the non-
radio-active stage is a measure of the excess of the potential
energy in a gramme of this substance above that in a gramme of
non-radio-active substance, it would follow that a larger part
of the mass was due to electric charges in radio-active than in
non-radio-active substances; in the case of uranium this difference
would amount to at least one part in 20,000 of the total mass.
If this extra mass had no weight the ratio of mass to weight for
uranium would differ from the normal amount by more than one
part in 20,000, a quantity quite within the range of pendulum
experiments. It thus appears very desirable to make experiments
on the ratio of mass to weight for radio-active substances. Sir
J. J. Thomson, by swinging a small pendulum whose bob was
made of radium bromide, has shown that this ratio for radium
does not differ from the normal by one part in 2000. The small
quantity of radium available prevented the attainment of greater
accuracy. Experiments just completed (1910) by Southerns at
the Cavendish Laboratory on this ratio for uranium show that
it is normal to an accuracy of one part in 200,000; indicating
that in non-radio-active, as in radio-active, substances the
electrical mass is proportional to the atomic weight.
Though but few experiments have been made in recent years
on the value of the ratio of mass to weight, many important
investigations have been made on the effect of alterations in
the chemical and physical conditions on the weight of bodies.
These have all led to the conclusion that no change which can
be detected by our present means of investigation occurs in the
weight of a body in consequence of any physical or chemical
changes yet investigated. Thus Landolt, who devoted a great
number of years to the question whether any change in weight
occurs during chemical combination, came finally to the con-
clusion that in no case out of the many he investigated did any
measurable change of weight occur during chemical combi-
nation. Poynting and Phillips (Proc. Roy. Soc., 76, p. 445), as
well as Southerns (78, p. 392), have shown that change in tempera-
ture produces no change in the weight of a body; and Poynting
has also shown that neither the weight of a crystal nor the
attraction between two crystals depends at all upon the direction
in which the axis of the crystal points. The result of these
laborious and very carefully made experiments has been to
strengthen the conviction that the weight of a given portion
of matter is absolutely independent of its physical condition
or state of chemical combinations. It should, however, be
noticed that we have as yet no accurate investigation as to
whether or not any changes of weight occur during radio-active
transformations, such for example as the emanation from
radium undergoes when the atoms themselves of the substance
are disrupted.
It is a matter of some interest in connexion with a discussion
of any views of the constitution of matter to consider the theories
of gravitation which have been put forward to explain that
apparently invariable property of matter its weight. It would
be impossible to consider in detail the numerous theories which
have been put forward to account for gravitation; a concise
summary of many of these has been given by Drude (VVied. Ann.
62, p. i): 1 there is no dearth of theories as to the cause of gravi-
tation, what is lacking is the means of putting any of them to a
decisive test.
There are, however, two theories of gravitation, both old,
which seem to be especially closely connected with the idea of
the electrical constitution of matter. The first of these is the
theory, associated with the two fluid theory of electricity,
that gravity is a kind of residual electrical effect, due to the
attraction between the units of positive and negative electricity
being a little greater than the repulsion between the units of
electricity of the same kind. Thus on this view two charges of
equal magnitude, but of opposite sign, would exert an attraction
varying inversely as the square of the distance on a charge of
electricity of either sign, and therefore an attraction on a system
consisting of two charges equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
forming an electrically neutral system. Thus if we had two
neutral systems, A and B, A consisting of m positive units of
electricity and an equal number of negative, while B has n units
of each kind, then the gravitational attraction between A and B
would be inversely proportional to the square of the distance
and proportional to n m. The connexion between this yiew of
gravity and that of the electrical constitution of matter is
evidently very close, for if gravity arose in this way the weight
of a body would only depend upon the number of units of elec-
tricity in the body. On the view that the constitution of matter
is electrical, the fundamental units which build up matter are the
units of electric charge, and as the magnitude of these charges
does not change, whatever chemical or physical vicissitudes
matter, the weight of matter ought not to be affected by such
changes. There is one result of this theory which might possibly
afford a means of testing it: since the charge on a corpuscle is
equal to that on a positive unit, the weights of the two are equal;
but the mass of the corpuscle is only i VBT of that of the positive
unit, so that the acceleration of the corpuscle under gravity will
be 1700 times that of the positive unit, which we should expect
to be the same as that for ponderable matter or 981.
The acceleration of the corpuscle under gravity on this view
would be i-6Xio 6 . It does not seem altogether impossible that
with methods slightly more powerful than those we now possess
we might measure the effect of gravity on a corpuscle if the
acceleration were as large as this.
The other theory of gravitation to which we call attention is
that due to Le Sage of Geneva and published in 1818. Le
Sage supposed that the universe was thronged with exceedingly
small particles moving with very great velocities. These
particles he called ultra-mundane corpuscles, because they
came to us from regions far beyond the solar system. He
assumed that these were so penetrating that they could pass
through masses as large as the sun or the earth without being
absorbed to more than a very small extent. There is, however,
some absorption, and if bodies are made up of the same kind of
atoms, whose dimensions are small compared with the distances
between them, the absorption will be proportional to the mass
of the body. So that as the ultra-mundane corpuscles stream
through the body a small fraction, proportional to the mass
of the body, of their momentum is communicated to it. If
the direction of the ultra-mundane corpuscles passing through
the body were uniformly distributed, the momentum communi-
cated by them to the body would not tend to move it in one
direction rather than in another, so that a body, A, alone in the
universe and exposed to bombardment by the ultra-mundane
corpuscles would remain at rest. If, however, there were a
second body, B, in the neighbourhood of A, B will shield A from
some of the corpuscles moving in the direction BA; thus A will
not receive as much momentum in this direction as when it
was alone; but in this case it only received just enough to
1 A theory published after Drude's paper in that of Professor
Osborne Reynolds, given in his Rede lecture " On an Inversion of
Ideas as to the Structure of the Universe."
MATTERHORN MATTHEW, ST
895
keep it in equilibrium, so that when B is present the momentum
in the opposite direction will get the upper hand and A will
move in the direction AB, and will thus be attracted by B.
Similarly, we see that B will be attracted by A. Le Sage proved
that the rate at which momentum was being communicated
to A or B by the passage through them of his corpuscles was
proportional to the product of the masses of A and B, and if the
distance between A and B was large compared with their
dimensions, inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them; in fact, that the forces acting on them would
obey the same laws as the gravitational attraction between them.
Clerk Maxwell (article " ATOM," Ency. Brit., gth ed.) pointed
out that this transference of momentum from the ultra-mundane
corpuscles to the body through which they passed involved the
loss of kinetic energy by the corpuscles, and if the loss of momen-
tum were large enough to account for the gravitational attraction,
the loss of kinetic energy would be so large that if converted into
heat it would be sufficient to keep the body white hot. We need
not, however, suppose that this energy is converted into heat; it
might, as in the case where Rontgen rays are produced by the
passage of electrified corpuscles through matter, be transformed
into the energy of a still more penetrating form of radiation,
which might escape from the gravitating body without heating
it. It is a very interesting result of recent discoveries that the
machinery which Le Sage introduced for the purpose of his
theory has a very close analogy with things for which we have
now direct experimental evidence. We know that small particles
moving with very high speeds do exist, that they possess con-
siderable powers of penetrating solids, though not, as far as we
know at present, to an extent comparable with that postulated
by Le Sage; and we know that the energy lost by them as they
pass through a solid is to a large extent converted into a still
more penetrating form of radiation, Rontgen rays. In Le Sage's
theory the only function of the corpuscles is to act as carriers
of momentum, any systems which possessed momentum, moved
with a high velocity and had the power of penetrating solids,
might be substituted for them ; now waves of electric and magnetic
force, such as light waves or Rontgen rays, possess momentum,
move with a high velocity, and the latter at any rate possess
considerable powers of penetration; so that we might formulate
a theory in which penetrating Rontgen rays replaced Le Sage's
corpuscles. Rontgen rays, however, when absorbed do not,
as far as we know, give rise to more penetrating Rontgen rays
as they should to explain attraction, but either to less penetrating
rays or to rays of the same kind.
We have confined our attention in this article to the view
that the constitution of matter is electrical; we have done so
because this view is more closely in touch with experiment
than any other yet advanced. The units of which matter is
built up on this theory have been isolated and detected in the
laboratory, and we may hope to discover more and more of their
properties. By seeing whether the properties of matter are or
are not such as would arise from a collection of units having these
properties, we can apply to this theory tests of a much more
definite and rigorous character than we can apply to any other
theory of matter. (J. J. T.)
MATTERHORN, one of the best known mountains (14,782 ft.)
in the Alps. It rises S.W. of the village of Zermatt, and on the
frontier between Switzerland (canton of the Valais) and Italy.
Though on the Swiss side it appears to be an isolated obelisk,
it is really but the butt end of a ridge, while the Swiss slope is not
nearly as steep or difficult as the grand terraced walls of the
Italian slope. It was first conquered, after a number of attempts
chiefly on the Italian side, on the i4th of July 1865, by Mr E.
Whymper's party, three members of which (Lord Francis
Douglas, the Rev. C. Hudson and Mr Hadow) with the guide,
Michel Croz, perished by a slip on the descent. Three days later
it was scaled from the Italian side by a party of men from Val
Tournanche. Nowadays it is frequently ascended in summer,
especially from Zermatt.
MATTEUCCI, CARLO (1811-1868), Italian physicist, was born
at Forfi on the 2oth of June 1811. After attending the Ecole
Polytechnique at Paris, he became professor of physics succes-
sively at Bologna (1832), Ravenna (1837) and Pisa (1840). From
1847 he took an active part in politics, and in 1860 was chosen
an Italian senator, at the same time becoming inspector-general
of the Italian telegraph lines. Two years later he was minister
of education. He died near Leghorn on the 25th of June
1868.
He was the author of four scientific treatises: Lezioni di fisica
(2 vols:, Pisa, 1841), Lezioni sui fenomeni fisicochimici dei corpi
viventi (Pisa, 1844), Manuale di telegrafia elettrica (Pisa, 1850) and
Cours special sur I'induction, le magnetisme de rotation, &c. (Paris,
1854). His numerous papers were published in the Annales de
chimie et de physique (1829-1858); and most of them also appeared
at the time in the Italian scientific journals. They relate almost
entirely to electrical phenomena, such as the magnetic rotation of
light, the action of gas batteries, the effects of torsion on magnetism,
the polarization of electrodes, &c., sufficiently complete accounts
of which are given in Wiedemann's Galvanismus. Nine memoirs,
entitled " Electro-Physiological Researches," were published in
the Philosophical Transactions, 1845-1860. See Bianchi's Carlo
Matteucci e Vltalia del suo tempo (Rome, 1874).
MATTHEW, ST (Mo00alos or MaT0euoj, probably a
shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus), one
of the twelve apostles, and the traditional author of the First
Gospel, where he is described as having been a tax-gatherer or
customs-officer (reXtbi'Tft, x. 3), in the service of the tetrarch
Herod. The circumstances of his call to become a follower of
Jesus, received as he sat in the " customs house " in one of the
towns by the Sea of Galilee apparently Capernaum (Mark ii. i,
13), are briefly related in ix. 9. We should gather from the
parallel narrative in Mark ii. 14, Luke v. 27, that he was at the
time known as " Levi the son of Alphaeus " (compare Simon
Cephas, Joseph Barnabas): if so, " James the son of Alphaeus "
may have been his brother. Possibly " Matthew " (Yahweh's
gift) was his Christian surname, since two native names, neither
being a patronymic, is contrary to Jewish usage. It must
be noted, however, that Matthew and Levi were sometimes
distinguished in early times, as by Heracleon (c. 170 A.D.), and
more dubiously by Origen (c. Celsum, i. 62), also apparently
in the Syriac Didascalia (sec. iii.), V. xiv. 14. It has generally
been supposed, on the strength of Luke's account (v. 29), that
Matthew gave a feast in Jesus' honour (like Zacchaeus, Luke xix.
6 seq.). But Mark (ii. 15), followed by Matthew (ix. 10), may
mean that the meal in question was one in Jesus' own home at
Capernaum (cf. v. i). In the lists of the Apostles given in the
Synoptic Gospels and in Acts, Matthew ranks third or fourth in
the second group of four a fair index of his relative importance
in the apostolic age. The only other facts related of Matthew on
good authority concern him as Evangelist. Eusebius (H.E. iii.
24) says that he, like John, wrote only at the spur of necessity.
" For Matthew, after preaching to Hebrews, when about to go
also to others, committed to writing in his native tongue the
Gospel that bears his name; and so by his writing supplied, for
those whom he was leaving, the loss of his presence." The value
of this tradition, which may be based on Papias, who certainly
reported that " Matthew compiled the Oracles (of the Lord) in
Hebrew," can be estimated only in connexion with the study
of the Gospel itself (see below). No historical use can be made
of the artificial story, in Sanhedrin 433, that Matthew was
condemned to death by a Jewish court (see Laible, Christ in the
Talmud, 71 seq.). According to the Gnostic Heracleon, quoted by
Clement of Alexandria (Strom, iv. 9), Matthew died a natural
death. The tradition as to his ascetic diet (in Clem. Alex.
Paedag. ii. 16) maybe due to confusion with Matthias (cf. Mart.
Matlhaei, i.). The earliest legend as to his later labours, one
of Syrian origin, places them in the Parthian kingdom, where
it represents him as dying a natural death at Hierapolis ( = Mabog
on the Euphrates). This agrees with his legend as known to
Ambrose and Paulinus of Nola, and is the most probable in itself.
The legends which make him work with Andrew among the
Anthropophagi near the Black Sea, or again in Ethiopia (Rufinus,
and Socrates, H.E. i. 19), are due to confusion with Matthias,
who from the first was associated in his Acts with Andrew (see
M. Bonnet, Acla Apost. apocr., 1898, II. i. 65). Another
8 9 6
MATTHEW, T. MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
legend, his Martyrium, makes him labour and suffer in Mysore.
He is commemorated as a martyr by the Greek Church on
the 1 6th of November, and by the Roman on the 2ist of Sep-
tember, the scene of his martyrdom being placed in Ethiopia.
The Latin Breviary also affirms that his body was afterwards
translated to Salerno, where it is said to lie in the church built by
Robert Guiscard. In Christian art (following Jerome) the
Evangelist Matthew is generally symbolized by the " man " in the
imagery of Ezek. i. 10, Rev. iv. 7.
For the historical Matthew, see Ency. Bill, and Zahn, Inlrod.
to New Test., ii. 506 sea., 522 sea. For his legends, as under MARK.
a- v. BO
MATTHEW, TOBIAS, or TOBIE (1546-1628), archbishop of
York, was the son of Sir John Matthew of Ross in Herefordshire,
and of his wife Eleanor Crofton of Ludlow. He was born at
Bristol in 1546. He was educated at Wells, and then in suc-
cession at University College and Christ Church, Oxford. He
proceeded B.A. in 1564, and M.A. in 1566. He attracted the
favourable notice of Queen Elizabeth, and his rise was steady
though not very rapid. He was public orator in 1569, president
of St John's College, Oxford, in 1572, dean of Christ Church in
1576, vice-chancellor of the university in 1579, dean of Durham
in 1583, bishop of Durham in 1595, and archbishop of York in
1606. In 1581 he had a controversy with the Jesuit Edmund
Campion, and published at Oxford his arguments in 1638 under
the title, Piissimi et eminentissimi viri Tobiae Matthew, archi-
episcopi olim Eboracencis concio apologelica adversus Campianam.
While in the north he was active in forcing the recusants to
conform to the Church of England, preaching hundreds of
sermons and carrying out thorough visitations. During his later
years he was to some extent in opposition to the administration
of James I. He was exempted from attendance in the parliament
of 1625 on the ground of age and infirmities, and died on the
29th of March 1628. His wife, Frances, was the daughter of
William Barlow, bishop of Chichester.
His son, SIR TOBIAS, or TOBIE, MATTHEW (1577-1655), is
remembered as the correspondent and friend of Francis Bacon.
He was educated at Christ Church, and was early attached to the
court, serving in the embassy at Paris. His debts and dissipa-
tions were a great source of sorrow to his father, from whom he
is known to have received at different times 14,000, the modern
equivalent of which is much larger. He was chosen member for
Newport in Cornwall in the parliament of 1601, and member for
St Albans in 1604. Before this time he had become the intimate
friend of Bacon, whom he replaced as member for St Albans.
When peace was made with Spain, on the accession of James I.,
he wished to travel abroad. His family, who feared his con-
version to Roman Catholicism, opposed his wish, but he promised
not to go beyond France. When once safe out of England he
broke his word and went to Italy. The persuasion of some of his
countrymen in Florence, one of whom is said to have been the
Jesuit Robert Parsons, and a story he heard of the miraculous
liquefaction of the blood of San Januarius at Naples, led to his
conversion in 1606. When he returned to England he was
imprisoned, and many efforts were made to obtain his reconver-
sion without success. He would not take the oath of allegiance
to the king. In 1608 he was exiled, and remained out of England
for ten years, mostly in Flanders and Spain. He returned in 1617,
but went abroad again in 1619. His friends obtained his leave
to return in 1621. At home he was known as the intimate friend
of Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador. In 1623 he was sent
to join Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., at Madrid, and was
knighted on the 23rd of October of that year. He remained in
England till 1640, when he was finally driven abroad by the
parliament, which looked upon him as an agent of the pope.
He died in the English college in Ghent on the i3th of October
1655. In 1618 he published an Italian translation of Bacon's
essays. The " Essay on Friendship " was written for him. He
was also the author of a translation of The Confessions of the
Incomparable Doctor St Augustine, which led him into con-
troversy. His correspondence was published in London in
1660.
For the father, see John Le Neve's Fasti ecclesiae anglicanae
(London, 1716), and Anthony Wood's Athenae oxonienses. For
the son, the notice in Athenae oxonienses, an abridgment of his
autobiographical Historical Relation of his own life, published by
Alban Butler in 1795, and A. H. Matthew and A. Calthrop, Life of
Sir Tobie Matthew (London, 1907).
MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST, the first of the four canonical
Gospels of the Christian Church. The indications of the use of
this Gospel in the two or three generations following the Apostolic
Age (see GOSPEL) are more plentiful than of any of the others.
Throughout the history of the Church, also, it has held a place
second to none of the Gospels alike in public instruction and in
the private reading of Christians. The reasons for its having
impressed itself in this way and become thus familiar are in large
part to be found in the characteristics noticed below. But in
addition there has been from an early time the belief that it was
the work of one of those publicans whose heart Jesus touched
and of whose call to follow Him the three Synoptics contain an
interesting account, but who is identified as Matthew (q.v.) only in
this one (Matt. ix. 9-13 = Mark ii. 13-17 = Luke v. 27-32).
i. The Connexion of our Greek Gospel of Matthew with the
Apostle whose name it bears. The earliest reference to a writing
by Matthew occurs in a fragment taken by Eusebius from the
same work of Papias from which he has given an account of the
composition of a record by Mark (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. iii. 39; see
MARK, GOSPEL OF ST). The statement about Matthew is much
briefer and is harder to interpret. In spite of much controversy,
the same measure of agreement as to its meaning cannot be said
to have been attained. This is the fragment: "Matthew,
however, put together and wrote down the Oracles (ra \oyia
avviy pail/ev) in the Hebrew language, and each man interpreted
them as he was able." Whether " the elder " referred to in the
passage on Mark, or some other like authority, was the source
of this statement also does not appear; but it is probable that
this was the case from the context in which Eusebius gives it.
Conservative writers on the Gospels have frequently maintained
that the writing here referred to was virtually the Hebrew original
of our Greek Gospel which bears his name. And it is indeed
likely that Papias himself closely associated the latter with the
Hebrew (or Aramaic) work by Matthew, of which he had been
told, since the traditional connexion of this Greek Gospel with
Matthew can hardly have begun later than this time. It is
reasonable also to suppose that there was some ground for it.
The description, however, of what Matthew did suits better the
making of a collection of Christ's discourses and sayings than the
composition of a work corresponding in form and character to our
Gospel of Matthew.
The next reference in Christian literature to a Gospel-record
by Matthew is that of Irenaeus in his famous passage on the four
Gospels (Adv. haer. iii. i. i). He says that it was written in
Hebrew; but in all probability he regarded the Greek Gospel,
which stood first in his, as it does in our, enumeration, as in the
strict sense a translation of the Apostle's work; and this was the
view of it universally taken till the i6th century, when some
of the scholars of the Reformation maintained that the Greek
Gospel itself was by Matthew.
The actual phenomena, however, of this Gospel, and of its
relation to sources that have been used in it, cannot be explained
consistently with either of the two views just mentioned. It is
a composite work in which two chief sources, known in Greek to
the author of our present Gospel, have, together with some other
matter, been combined. It is inconceivable that one of the
Twelve should have proceeded in this way in giving an account
of Christ's ministry. One of the chief documents, however, here
referred to seems to correspond in character with the description
given in Papias' fragment of a record of the compilation of " the
divine utterances " made by Matthew; and the use made of it
in our first Gospel may explain the connexion of this Apostle's
name with it. In the Gospel of Luke also, it is true, this same
source has been used for the teaching of Jesus. But the original
Aramaic Logian document may have been more largely repro-
duced in our Greek Matthew. Indeed, in the case of one impor-
tant passage (v. 17-48) this is suggested by a comparison with
MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
897
Luke itself, and there are one or two others where from the
character of the matter it seems not improbable, especially
vi. 1-18 and xxiii. 1-5, 70-10, 15-22. On the whole, as will be
seen below, what appears to be a Palestinian form of the Gospel-
tradition is most fully represented in this Gospel; but in many
instances at least this may well be due to some other cause than
the use of the original Logian document.
2. The Plan on which the Contents is arranged. In two
respects the arrangement of the book itself is significant.
(a) As to the general outline in the first half of the account of the
Galilean ministry (iv. 23~xi. 30). Immediately after relating the
call of the first four disciples (iv. 18-22) the evangelist gives in iv. 23
a comprehensive summary of Christ's work in Galilee under its
two chief aspects, teaching and healing. In the sequel both these
are illustrated. First, he gives in the Sermon on the Mount (y.-vii.)
a considerable body of teaching, of the kind required by the disciples
of Jesus generally, and a large portion of which probably also stood
not far from the beginning of the Logian document. After this he turns
to the other aspect. Up to this point he has mentioned no miracle.
He now describes a number in succession, introducing all but the first
of those told between Mark i. 23 and ii. 12, and also four specially
remarkable ones, which occurred a good deal later according to
Mark's order (Matt. viii. 23-3,1 = Mark iv. 35-v. 20; Matt. ix. 18-26
= Mark v. 21-43); and he also adds some derived from another
source, or other sources (viii. 5-13; ix. 27-34). Then, after another
general description at ix. 35, similar to that at iv. 23, he brings
strikingly before us the needs of the masses of the people and Christ's
compassion for them, and so introduces the mission of the Twelve
(which again occurs later according to Mark's order, viz. at vi. 7 seq.),
whereby the ministry both of teaching and of healing was further
extended (ix. 36-x. 42). Finally, the message of John the Baptist,
and the reply of Jesus, and the reflections that follow (xi.), bring
out the significance of the preceding narrative. It should be observed
that examples have been given of every kind of mighty work referred
to in the reply of Jesus to the messengers of the Baptist; and that
in the discourse which follows their departure the perversity and
unbelief of the people generally are condemned, and the faith of the
humble-minded is contrasted therewith. The greater part of the
matter from ix. 37 to end of xi. is taken from the Logian document.
After this point, i.e. from xii. I onwards, the first evangelist follows
M ark al most step by step down to the point (Mark xvi. 8) , after which
Mark's Gospel breaks off, and another ending has been supplied;
and gives in substance almost the whole of Mark's contents, with
the exception that he passes over the few narratives that he has
(as we have seen) placed earlier. At the same time he brings in
additional matter in connexion with most of the Marcan sections.
(6) With the accounts of the words of Jesus spoken on certain
occasions, which our first evangelist found given in one or another
of his sources, he has combined other pieces, taken from other parts
of the same source or from different sources, which seemed to him
connected in subject, e^. into the discourse spoken on a mountain,
when crowds from all parts were present, given in the Logian docu-
ment, he has introduced some pieces which, as we infer from Luke,
stood separately in that document (cf. Matt. vi. 19-21 with Luke
*" 33. 34; Matt. vi. 22, 23 with Luke xi. 34-36; Matt. vi. 24 with
Luke xvi. 13 ; Matt. vi. 25-34 with Luke xii. 22-32 ; Matt. vii. 7-1 1 with
Luke xi. 9-13). Again, the address to the Twelve in Mark vi. 7-11,
which in Matthew is combined with an address to disciples, from the
Logian document, is connected by Luke with the sending out of
seventy disciples (Luke x. 1-16). Our first evangelist has also added
here various other sayings (Matt. x. 17-39, 42). Again, with the
Marcan account of the charge of collusion with Satan and Christ's
reply (Mark iii. 22-30), the first evangelist (xii. 24-45) combines
the parallel account in the Logian document and adds Christ's reply
to another attack (Luke xi. 14-16, 17-26, 29-32). These are some
examples. He has in all in this manner constructed eight discourses
or collections of sayings, into which the greater part of Christ's
teaching is gathered: (i) On the character of the heirs of the
kingdom (y.-vii.); (2) The Mission address (x.); (3) Teaching
suggested by the message of John the Baptist (xi.); (4) The reply
to an accusation and a challenge (xii. 22-45); (5) The teaching
by parables (xiii.) ; (6) On offences (xviii.); (7) Concerning
the Scribes and Pharisees (xxiii.); (8) On the Last Things (xxiv.,
xxv.). In this arrangement of h's material the writer has in
many instances disregarded chronological considerations. But his
documents also gave only very imperfect indications of the occasions
of many of the utterances; and the result of his method of procedure
has been to give us an exceedingly effective representation of the
teaching of Jesus.
In the concluding verses of the Gospel, where the original Marcan
parallel is wanting, the evangelist may still have followed in part
that document while making additions as before. The account
of the silencing of the Roman guard by the chief priests is the sequel
to the setting of this guard and their presence at the Resurrection,
which at an earlier point are peculiar to Matthew (xxvii. 62-66,
xxvui. 4). And, further, this matter seems to belong to the same
cycle of tradition as the story of Pilate's wife and his throwing the
guilt of the Crucifixion of Jesus upon the Jews, and the testimony
XVII. 29
borne by the Roman guard (as well as the centurion) who kept watch
by the cross (xxvii. 15-26, 54), all which also are peculiar to this
Gospel. It cannot but seem probable that these are legendary
additions which had arisen through the desire to commend the Gospel
to the Romans.
On the other hand, the meeting of Jesus with the disciples in
Galilee (Matt, xxviii. 16 seq.) is the natural sequel to the message to
them related in Mark xvi. 7, as well as in Matt, xxviii. 7. Again,
the commission to them to preach throughout the world is supported
by Luke xxiv. 47, and by the present ending of Mark (xvi. 15),
though neither of these mention Galilee as the place where it
was given. The baptismal formula in Matt, xxviii. 19, is, how-
ever, peculiar, and in view of its non-occurrence in the Acts and
Epistjes of the New Testament must be regarded as probably an
addition in accordance with Church usage at the time the Gospel
was written.
3. The Palestinian Element. Teaching is preserved in this
Gospel which would have peculiar interest and be specially
required in the home of Judaism. The best examples of this
are the passages already referred to near end of i, as probably
derived from the Logian document. There are, besides, a good
many turns of expression and sayings peculiar to this Gospel
which have a Semitic cast, or which suggest a point of view that
would be natural to Palestinian Christians, e.g. " kingdom of
heaven " frequently for " kingdom of God "; xiii. 52 (" every
scribe"); xxiv. 20 ("neither on a Sabbath"). See also v. 35
and xix. 9; x. 5, 23. Again, several of the quotations which are
peculiar to this Gospel are not taken from the LXX., as those in
the other Gospels and in the corresponding contexts in this
Gospel commonly are, but are wholly or partly independent
renderings from the Hebrew (ii. 6, 15, 18; viii. 17, xii. 17-21, &c.).
Once more, there is somewhat more parallelism between the
fragments of the Gospel according to the Hebrews and this
Gospel than is the case with Luke, not to say Mark.
4. Doctrinal Character. In this Gospel, more decidedly than
in either of the other two Synoptics, there is a doctrinal point of
view from which the whole history is regarded. Certain aspects
which are of profound significance are dwelt upon, and this
without there being any great difference between this Gospel
and the two other Synoptics in respect to the facts recorded or
the beliefs implied. The effect is produced partly by the com-
ments of the evangelist, which especially take the form of
citations from the Old Testament; partly by the frequency with
which certain expressions are used, and the prominence that
is given in this and other ways to particular traits and
topics.
He sets forth the restriction of the mission of Jesus during His
life on earth to the people of Israel in a way which suggests at
first sight a spirit of Jewish exclusiveness. But there are various
indications that this is not the true explanation. In particular
the evangelist brings out more strongly than either Mark or
Luke the national rejection of Jesus, while the Gospel ends with
the commission of Jesus to His disciples after His resurrection
to " make disciples of all the peoples." One may divine in all
this an intention to " justify the ways of God " to the Jew, by
proving that God in His faithfulness to His ancient people had
given them the first opportunity of salvation through Christ,
but that now their national privilege had been rightly forfeited.
He was also specially concerned to show that prophecy is fulfilled
in the life and work of Jesus, but the conception of this fulfilment
which is presented to us is a large one; it is to be seen not merely
in particular events or features of Christ's ministry, but in the
whole new dispensation, new relations between God and men,
and new rules of conduct which Christ has introduced. The
divine meaning of the work of Jesus is thus made apparent, while
of the majesty and glory of His person a peculiarly strong
impression is conveyed.
Some illustrations in detail of these points are subjoined.
Where there are parallels in the other Gospels they should be
compared and the words in Matthew noted which in many
instances serve to emphasize the points in question.
(a) The Ministry of Jesus among the Jewish People as their promised
Messiah, their rejection of Him, and the extension of the Gospel to the
Gentiles. The mission to Israel: Matt. i. 21; iv. 23 (note in these
passages the use of 6 XoA?, which here, as generally in Matthew,
denotes the chosen nation), ix. 33, 35, xv. 31. For the rule limiting
898 MATTHEW CANT ACUZENUS MATTHEW OF PARIS
the work of Jesus while on earth see xv. 24 (and note it\0ou<ra in
verse 22, which implies that Jesus had not himself entered the
heathen borders), and for a similar rule prescribed to the disciples,
x. 5, 6 and 23.
The rejection of Jesus by the people in Galilee, xi. 21 ; xiii. 13-15,
and by the heads of " the nation," xxvi. 3, 47 and by " the whole
nation," xxvii. 25 ; their condemnation xxiii. 38.
Mercy to the Gentiles and the punishment of " the sons of the
kingdom " is foretold yiii. II, 12. The commission to go and convert
Gentile peoples (^nj) is given after Christ's resurrection (xxviii. 19).
(b) The Fulfilment of Prophecy. In the birth and childhood of
Jesus, i. 23; ii. 6, 15, 18, 23. By these citations attention is drawn
to the lowliness of the beginnings of the Saviour's life, the unexpected
and secret manner of His appearing, the dangers to which from the
first He was exposed and from which He escaped.
The ministry of Christ's forerunner, iii. 3. (The same prophecy,
Isa. xl. 3, is also quoted in the other Gospels.)
The ministry of Jesus. The quotations serve to bring out the
significance of important events, especially such as were turning-
points, and also to mark the broad features of Christ's life and work,
iv. 15, 16; viii. 17; xii. 18 seq.; xiii. 35; xxi. 5; xxvii. 9.
(c) The Teaching on the Kingdom of God. Note the collection
of parables " of the Kingdom " in xiii. ; also the use of i) 0ao-iXla
(" the Kingdom ") without further definition asa term the reference of
which could not be misunderstood, especially in the following phrases
peculiar to this Gospel : T& eliayyeXtov rijs ftaai\elas (" the Gospel of
the Kingdom ") iv. 23, ix. 35, ^v. 14; and & XAyos rijs /SoaiXffas
(" the word of the kingdom ') xiii. 19. The following descriptions
of the kingdom, peculiar to this Gospel, are also interesting i) ftaai\tla
rov varpiK abrwv (" the kingdom of their father ") xiii. 43 and
rov jrarp<is iiov (" of my father ") xxvi. 29.
(d) The Relation of the New Law to the Old. Verses 17-48, cf. also,
addition at xxii. 40 and xix. igb. Further, his use of Sucauxrvt^i
(" righteousness ") and Sixatm (" righteous ") (specially frequent
in this Gospel) is such as to connect the New with the Old; the
standard in mind is the law which " fulfilled " that previously
given.
(e) The Christian Ecclesia. Chap. xvi. 18, xviii. 17.
(f) The Messianic Dignity and Glory of Jesus. The narrative in
i. and ii. show the royalty of the new-born child. The title " Son
of David " occurs with special frequency in this Gospel % The follow-
ing instances are without parallels in the other Gospels: ix. 27;
xii. 23; xv. 22; xxi. 9; xxi. IS. The title " Son of God " is also
used with somewhat greater frequency than in Mark and Luke:
ii. 15; xiv. 33; xvi. 16; xxii. 2 seq. (where it is implied); xxvii.
40. 43-
The thought of the future coming of Christ, and in particular of
the judgment to be executed by Him then, is much more prominent
in this Gospel than in the others. Some of the following predic-
tions are peculiar to it, while in several others there are additional
touches: vii. 22, 23; x. 23, 32, 33; xiii. 30-43; xvi. 27, 28; xix. 28;
xxiv. 3, 27, 30, 31, 37, 39; xxv. 31-46; xxvi. 64.
The majesty of Christ is also impressed upon us by the signs at
His crucifixion, some of which are related only in this Gospel, xxvii.
S'-SS. an d by the sublime vision of the Risen Christ at the close,
xxviii. 1620.
(5) Time of Composition and Readers addressed. The signs of
dogmatic reflection in this Gospel point to its having been com-
posed somewhat late in the ist century, probably after Luke's
Gospel, and this is in accord with the conclusion that some inser-
tions had been made in the Marcan document used by this
evangelist which were not in that used by Luke (see LUKE,
GOSPEL OF ST). We may assign A.D. 80-100 as a probable time
for the composition.
The author was in all probability a Jew by race, and he
would seem to have addressed himself especially to Jewish
readers; but they were Jews of the Dispersion. For although
he was in specially close touch with Palestine, either personally
or through the sources at his command, or both, his book was
composed in Greek by the aid of Greek documents.
See commentaries by Th. Zahn (1903) and W. C. Allen (in the
series of International Critical Commentaries, 1907); also books
on the Four Gospels or the Synoptic Gospels cited at the end of
GOSPEL. (V. H. S.)
MATTHEW CANTACUZENUS, Byzantine emperor, was the
son of John VI. Cantacuzenus (q.v.). In return for the support
he gave to his father during his struggle with John V. he was
allowed to annex part of Thrace under his own dominion and
in 1353 was proclaimed joint emperor. From his Thracian
principality he levied several wars against the Servians. An
attack which he prepared in 1350 was frustrated by the defection
of his Turkish auxiliaries. In 1357 he was captured by his
enemies, who delivered him to the rival emperor, John V.
Compelled to abdicate, he withdrew to a monastery, where he
busied himself with writing commentaries on the Scriptures.
MATTHEW OF PARIS (d. 1259), English monk and chronicler
known to us only through his voluminous writings. In spite of
his surname, and of his knowledge of the French language, his
attitude towards foreigners attests that he was of English birth.
He may have studied at Paris in his youth, but the earliest
fact which he records of himself is his admission as a monk at
St Albans in the year 1217. His life was mainly spent in this
religious house. In 1248, however, he was sent to Norway as
the bearer of a message from Louis IX. of France to Haakon VI.;
he made himself so agreeable to the Norwegian sovereign that
he was invited, a little later, to superintend the reformation of
the Benedictine monastery of St Benet Holme at Trondhjem.
Apart from these missions, his activities were devoted to the com-
position of history, a pursuit for which the monks of St Albans
had long been famous. Matthew edited anew the works of
Abbot John de Cella and Roger of Wendover, which in their
altered form constitute the first part of his most important work,
the Chronica majora. From 1235, the point at which Wendover
dropped his pen, Matthew continued the history on the plan
which his predecessors had followed. He derived much of his
information from the letters of important personages, which he
sometimes inserts, but much more from conversation with the
eye-witnesses of events. Among his informants were Earl
Richard of Cornwall and Henry III. With the latter he appears
to have been on terms of intimacy. The king knew that Matthew
was writing a history, and showed some anxiety that it should be
as exact as possible. In 1257, in the course of a week's visit to
St Albans, Hervry kept the chronicler beside him night and day,
" and guided my pen," says Paris, "with much good will and
diligence." It is therefore curious that the Chronica majora
should give so unfavourable an account of the king's polii
Luard supposes that Matthew never intended his work to
the light in its present form, and many passages of the autograph
have against them the note offendiculum, which shows that
the writer understood the danger which he ran. On the other
hand, unexpurgated copies were made in Matthew's lifetime;
though the offending passages are duly omitted or softened in
his abridgment of his longer work, the Historia Anglorum
(written about 1 253), the real sentiments of the author must have
been an open secret. In any case there is no ground for the
theory that he was an official historiographer.
Matthew Paris was unfortunate in living at a time when Engli:
politics were peculiarly involved and tedious. His talent is f
narrative and description. Though he took a keen interest in t
personal side of politics he has no claim to be considered a judge
of character. His appreciations of his contemporaries throw more
light on his own prejudices than on their aims and ideas. His work
is always vigorous, but he imputes motives in the spirit of a partisan
who never pauses to weigh the evidence or to take a comprehensive
view of the situation. His redeeming feature is his generous admira-
tion for strength of character, even when it goes along with a policy
of which he disapproves. Thus he praises Grosseteste, while he
denounces Grosseteste's scheme of monastic reform. Matthew
is a vehement supporter of the monastic orders against their rivals,
the secular clergy and the mendicant friars. He is violently opposed
to the court and the foreign favourites. He despises the king as a
statesman, though for the man he has some kindly feeling. The
frankness with which he attacks the court of Rome for its exactions
is remarkable; so, too, is the intense nationalism which he displays
in dealing with this topic. His faults of presentment are more often
due to carelessness and narrow views than to deliberate purpose.
But he is sometimes guilty of inserting rhetorical speeches which
are not only fictitious, but also misleading as an account of the
speaker's sentiments. In other cases he tampers with the docu-
ments which he inserts (as, for instance, with the text of Magna
Carta). His chronology is, for a contemporary, inexact; and he
occasionally inserts duplicate versions of the same incident in differ-
ent places. Hence he must always be rigorously checked where
other authorities exist and used with caution where he is our sole
informant. None the less, he gives a more vivid impression of his
age than any other English chronicler ; and it is a matter for regret
that his great history breaks off in 1259, on the eve of the cro
struggle between Henry III and the baronage.
AUTHORITIES. The relation of Matthew Paris's work to
of John de Cella and Roger of Wendover may best be studied
in H. R. Luard's edition of the Chronica majora (7 vols., Rol
series, 1872-1883). which contains valuable prefaces. The Hist
regiet
owning
) those
MATTHEW OF WESTMINSTER MATTHIAS
899
Anglorum sive historia minor (1067-1253) has been edited by F.
Madden (3 vols., Rolls series, 1866-1869). Matthew Paris is often
confused with " Matthew of Westminster," the reputed author of
the Flares historiarum edited by H. R. Luard (3 vols., Rolls series,
1890). This work, compiled by various hands, is an edition of
Matthew Paris, with continuations extending to 1326. Matthew
Paris also wrote a life of Edmund Rich (q.v.), which is probably
the work printed in W. Wallace's St Edmund of Canterbury (London,
1893) pp. 543-588, though this is attributed by the editor to the
monk Eustace; Vitae abbatum S Albani (up to 1225) which have
been edited by W. Watts (1640, &c.); and (possibly) the Abbreviatio
chronicorum (1000-1255), edited by F. Madden, in the third volume
... Jessopp's .
Politische Character Matheus Parisiensis (Leipzig, 1897).
(H. W. C. D.)
MATTHEW OF WESTMINSTER, the name of an imaginary
person who was long regarded as the author of the Flares
Historiarum. The error was first discovered in 1826 by Sir F.
Palgrave, who said that Matthew was " a phantom who never
existed," and later the truth of this statement was completely
proved by H. R. Luard. The name appears to have been taken
from that of Matthew of Paris, from whose Chronica majora
the earlier part of the work was mainly copied, and from West-
minster, the abbey in which the work was partially written.
The Flares historiarum is a Latin chronicle dealing with English
history from the creation to 1326, although some of the earlier
manuscripts end at 1306; it was compiled by various persons, and
written partly at St Albans and partly at Westminster. The part
from 1306 to 1326 was written by Robert of Reading (d. 1325) and
another Westminster monk. Except for parts dealing with the
reign of Edward I. its value is not great. It was first printed by
Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1567, and the best
edition is the one edited with introduction by H. R. Luard for the
Rolls series (London, 1890). It has been translated into English
by C. D. Yonge (London, 1853). See Luard's introduction, and C.
Bemont in the Revue critique dfhistoire (Paris, 1891).
MATTHEWS, STANLEY (1824-1889), American jurist, was
born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 2ist of July 1824. He gradu-
ated from Kenyon College in 1840, studied law, and in 1842
was admitted to the bar of Maury county, Tennessee. In 1844
he became assistant prosecuting attorney of Hamilton county,
Ohio; and in 1846-1849 edited a short-lived anti-slavery paper,
the Cincinnati Herald. He was clerk of the Ohio House of
Representatives in 1848-1849, a judge of common pleas of Hamil-
ton county in 1850-1853, state senator in 1856-1858, and U.S.
district-attorney for the southern district of Ohio in 1858-1861.
First a Whig and then a Free-Soiler, he joined the Republican
party in 1861. After the outbreak of the Civil War he was
commissioned a lieutenant of the 23rd Ohio, of which Ruther-
ford B. Hayes was major; but saw service only with the 5 7th
Ohio, of which he was colonel, and with a brigade which he com-
manded in the Army of the Cumberland. He resigned from the
army in 1863, and was judge of the Cincinnati superior court in
1863-1864. He was a Republican presidential elector in 1864
and 1868. In 1872 he joined the Liberal Republican movement,
and was temporary chairman of the Cincinnati convention
which nominated Horace Greeley for the presidency, but in the
campaign he supported Grant. In 1877, as counsel before the
Electoral Commission, he opened the argument for the Repub-
lican electors of Florida and made the principal argument for the
Republican electors of Oregon. In March of the same year he
succeeded John Sherman as senator from Ohio, and served until
March 1879. In 1881 President Hayes nominated him as asso-
ciate justice of the Supreme Court, to succeed Noah H. Swayne;
there was much opposition, especially in the press, to this ap-
pointment, because Matthews had been a prominent railway and
corporation lawyer and had been one of the Republican " visiting
statesmen " who witnessed the canvass of the vote of Louisiana 1
in 1876; and the nomination had not been approved when the
session of Congress expired. Matthews was renominated by
President Garfield on the isth of March, and the nomination
was confirmed by the Senate (22 for, 21 against) on the i2th of
1 It seems certain that Matthews and Charles Foster of Ohio gave
their written promise that Hayes, if elected, would recognize the
Democratic governors in Louisiana and South Carolina.
May. He was an honest, impartial and conscientious judge.
He died in Washington, on the 22nd of March 1889.
MATTHIAE, AUGUST HEINRICH (1760-1835), German
classical scholar, was born at Gb'ttingen, on the 25th of December
1769, and educated at the university. He then spent some years
as a tutor in Amsterdam. In 1798 he returned to Germany, and
in 1802 was appointed director of the Friedrichsgymnasium at
Altenburg, which post he held till his death, on the 6th of January
1835. Of his numerous important works the best-known are
his Greek Grammar (3rd ed., 1835), translated into English by
E. V. Blomfield (sth ed., by J. Kenrick, 1832), his edition of
Euripides (9 vols., 1813-1829), Grundriss der Geschichte der
griechischen und romischen Litteratur (3rd ed., 1834, Eng. trans.,
Oxford, 1841) Lehrbuch fur den ersten Unterricht in der Philo-
sophic (3rd ed., 1833), Encyklopiidie und Methodologie der Philo-
logie (1835). His Life was written by his son Const an tin (1845).
His brother, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN MATTHIAE (1763-1822),
rector of the Frankfort gymnasium, published valuable editions
of Seneca's Letters, Aratus, and Dionysius Periegetes.
MATTHIAS, the disciple elected by the primitive Christian
community to fill the place in the Twelve vacated by Judas
Iscariot (Acts i. 21-26). Nothing further is recorded of him in
the New Testament. Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., I. xii.) says he
was, like his competitor, Barsabas Justus, one of the seventy,
and the Syriac version of Eusebius calls him throughout not
Matthias but Tolmai, i.e. Bartholomew, without confusing him
with the Bartholomew who was originally one of the Twelve,
and is often identified with the Nathanael mentioned in the
Fourth Gospel (Expository Times, ix. 566). Clement of Alex-
andria says some identified him with Zacchaeus, the Clementine
Recognitions identify him with Barnabas, Hilgenfeld thinks he
is the same as Nathanael.
Various works -a. Gospel, Traditions and Apocryphal Words
were ascribed to him; and there is also extant The Acts of Andrew
and Matthias, which places his activity in " the city of the cannibals "
in Ethiopia. Clement of Alexandria quotes two sayings from the
Traditions: (i) Wonder at the things before you (suggesting, like
Plato, that wonder is the first step to new knowledge); (2) If an
elect man's neighbour sin, the elect man has sinned.
MATTHIAS (1557-1619), Roman emperor, son of the emperor
Maximilian II. and Maria, daughter of the emperor Charles V.,
was born in Vienna, on the 24th of February 1557. Educated
by the diplomatist 0. G. de Busbecq, he began his public life in
1577, soon after his father's death, when he was invited to assume
the governorship of the Netherlands, then in the midst of the
long struggle with Spain. He eagerly accepted this invitation,
although it involved a definite breach with his Spanish kinsman,
Philip II., and entering Brussels in January 1578 was named
governor-general; but he was merely a cipher, and only held the
position for about three years, returning to Germany in October
1581. Matthias was appointed governor of Austria in 1593 by
his brother, the emperor Rudolph II.; and two years later, when
another brother, the archduke Ernest, died, he became a person
of more importance as the eldest surviving brother of the un-
married emperor. As governor of Austria Matthias continued
the policy of crushing the Protestants, although personally he
appears to have been inclined to religious tolerance; and he
dealt with the rising of the peasants in 1595, in addition to repre-
senting Rudolph at the imperial diets, and gaining some fame as
a soldier during the Turkish War. A few years later the discon-
tent felt by the members of the Habsburg family at the incom-
petence of the emperor became very acute, and the lead was
taken by Matthias. Obtaining in May 1605 a reluctant consent
from his brother, he took over the conduct of affairs in Hungary,
where a revolt had broken out, and was formally recognized by
the Habsburgs as their head in April 1606, and was promised the
succession to the Empire. In June 1606 he concluded the peace
of Vienna with the rebellious Hungarians, and was thus in a
better position to treat with the sultan, with whom peace was
made in November. This pacific policy was displeasing to
Rudolph, who prepared to renew the Turkish War; but having
secured the support of the national party in Hungary and gath-
ered an army, Matthias forced his brother to cede to him this
goo
MATTHIAS I.
kingdom, together with Austria and Moravia, both of which had
thrown in their lot with Hungary (1608). The king of Hungary,
as Matthias now became, was reluctantly compelled to grant
religious liberty to the inhabitants of Austria. The strained
relations which had arisen between Rudolph and Matthias as
a result of these proceedings were temporarily improved, and a
formal reconciliation took place in 1610; but affairs in Bohemia
soon destroyed this fraternal peace. In spite of the letter of
majesty (Majestalsbrief) which the Bohemians had extorted
from Rudolph, they were very dissatisfied with their ruler, whose
troops were ravaging their land; and in 1611 they invited
Matthias to come to their aid. Accepting this invitation, he
inflicted another humiliation upon his brother, and was crowned
king of Bohemia in May 1611. Rudolph, however, was success-
ful in preventing the election of Matthias as German king, or
king of the Romans, and when he died, in January 1612, no pro-
vision had been made for a successor. Already king of Hungary
and Bohemia, however, Matthias obtained the remaining heredi-
tary dominions of the Habsburgs, and in June 1612 was
crowned emperor, although the ecclesiastical electors favoured
his younger brother, the archduke Albert (1559-1621).
The short reign of the new emperor was troubled by the
religious dissensions of Germany. His health became impaired
and his indolence increased, and he fell completely under the
influence of Melchior Klesl (q.v.), who practically conducted
the imperial business. By Klesl's advice he took up an attitude
of moderation and sought to reconcile the contending religious
parties; but the proceedings at the diet of Regensburg in 1613
proved the hopelessness of these attempts, while their author was
regarded with general distrust. Meanwhile the younger Habs-
burgs, led by the emperor's brother, the archduke Maximilian,
and his cousin, Ferdinand, archduke of Styria, afterwards the
emperor Ferdinand II., disliking the peaceful policy of Klesl,
had allied themselves with the unyielding Roman Catholics,
while the question of the imperial succession was forcing its
way to the front. In 1611 Matthias had married his cousin
Anna (d. 1618), daughter of the archduke Ferdinand (d. 1595),
but he was old and childless and the Habsburgs were anxious to
retain his extensive possessions in the family. Klesl, on the one
hand, wished the settlement of the religious difficulties to precede
any arrangement about the imperial succession; the Habsburgs,
on the other, regarded the question of the succession as urgent
and vital. Meanwhile the disputed succession to the duchies of
Cleves and Jtilich again threatened a European war; the imperial
commands were flouted in Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle, and the
Bohemians were again becoming troublesome. Having decided
that Ferdinand should succeed Matthias as emperor, the Habs-
burgs had secured his election as king of Bohemia in June 1617,
but were unable to stem the rising tide of disorder in that country.
Matthias and Klesl were in favour of concessions, but Ferdinand
and Maximilian met this move by seizing and imprisoning Klesl.
Ferdinand had just secured his coronation as king of Hungary
when there broke out in Bohemia those struggles which heralded
the Thirty Years' War; and on the zoth of March 1619 the
emperor died at Vienna.
For the life and reign of Matthias the following works may be
consulted: J. Heling, Die WaU des romischen Konigs Matthias
(Belgrade, 1892); A. Gindely, Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (Prague,
1862-1868) ; F. Stieve, Die Verhandlungen uber die Nachfolge Kaisers
Rudolf II. (Munich, 1880); P. von Chlumecky, Karl von Zierolin
und seine Zeit (Brtinn, 1862-1879); A. Kerschbaumer, Kardinal
Klesel (Vienna, 1865) ; M. Ritter, Quellenbeitrdge zur Geschichte des
Kaisers Rudolf II. (Munich, 1872); Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter
der Gegenreformalion und des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Stuttgart,
1887, seq.); and the article on Matthias in the Allgemeine deutscke
Btographie, Bd. XX. (Leipzig, 1884); L. von Ranke, Zur deutschen
Geschichte vom Religionsfrieden bis zum jo-jdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig,
1888) ; and J. Janssen, Geschichte des deutschen Volks seit dem Ausgang
des Mtttelalters (Freiburg, 1878 seq.), Eng. trans, by M. A. Mitchell
and A. M. Christie (London, 1896, seq.).
MATTHIAS I., HUNYADI (1440-1490), king of Hungary, also '
known as Matthias Corvinus, a surname which he received from
the raven (conius] on his escutcheon, second son of Janos Hun-
yadi and Elizabeth Szilagyi, was born at Kolozsvar, probably on
the 23rd of February 1440. His tutors were the learned Janos
Vitez, bishop of Nagyvarad, whom he subsequently raised to
the primacy, and the Polish humanist Gregory Sanocki. The
precocious lad quickly mastered the German, Latin and principal
Slavonic languages, frequently acting as his father's interpreter
at the reception of ambassadors. His military training proceeded
under the eye of his father, whom he began to follow on his
campaigns when only twelve years of age. In 1453 he was
created count of Bistercze, and was knighted at the siege of Bel-
grade in 1454. The same care for his welfare led his father to
choose him a bride in the powerful Cilli family, but the young
Elizabeth died before the marriage was consummated, leaving
Matthias a widower at the age of fifteen. On the death of his
father he was inveigled to Buda by the enemies of his house, and,
on the pretext of being concerned in a purely imaginary con-
spiracy against Ladislaus V., was condemned to decapitation, but
was spared on account of his youth, and on the king's death fell
into the hands of George Podebrad, governor of Bohemia, the
friend of the Hunyadis, in whose interests it was that a national
king should sit on the Magyar throne. Podebrad treated
Matthias hospitably and affianced him with his daughter
Catherine, but still detained him, for safety's sake, in Prague,
even after a Magyar deputation had hastened thither to offer
the youth the crown. Matthias was the elect of the Hungarian
people, gratefully mindful of his father's services to the state
and inimical to all foreign candidates; and though an influen-
tial section of the magnates, headed by the palatine Laszlo
Garai and the voivode of Transylvania, Miklos Ujlaki, who had
been concerned in the judicial murder of Matthias's brother
Laszl6, and hated the Hunyadis as semi-foreign upstarts, were
fiercely opposed to Matthias's election, they were not strong
enough to resist the manifest wish of the nation, supported as it
was by Matthias's uncle Mihaly Szilagyi at the head of 15,000
veterans. On the 24th of January 1458, 40,000 Hungarian noble-
men, assembled on the ice of the frozen Danube, unanimously
elected Matthias Hunyadi king of Hungary, and on the I4th
of February the new king made his state entry into Buda.
The realm at this time was environed by perils. The Turks
and the Venetians threatened it from the south, the emperor
Frederick III. from the west, and Casimir IV. of Poland from
the north, both Frederick and Casimir claiming the throne.
The Czech mercenaries under Giszkra held the northern counties
and from thence plundered those in the centre. Meanwhile
Matthias's friends had only pacified the hostile dignitaries by
engaging to marry the daughter of the palatine Garai to their
nominee, whereas Matthias not unnaturally refused to marry
into the family of one of his brother's murderers, and on the gth
of February confirmed his previous nuptial contract with the
daughter of George Podebrad, who shortly afterwards was
elected king of Bohemia (March 2, 1458). Throughout 1458 the
struggle between the young king and the magnates, reinforced
by Matthias's own uncle and guardian Szilagyi, was acute.
But Matthias, who began by deposing Garai and dismissing
Szilagyi, and then proceeded to levy a tax, without the con-
sent of the Diet, in order to hire mercenaries, easily prevailed.
Nor did these complications .prevent him from recovering the
fortress of Galamboc from the Turks, successfully invading
Servia, and reasserting the suzerainty of the Hungarian crown
over Bosnia. In the following year there was a fresh rebellion,
when the emperor Frederick was actually crowned king by the
malcontents at Vienna-Neustadt (March 4, 1459) ; but Matthias
drove him out, and Pope Pius II. intervened so as to leave Mat-
thias free to engage in a projected crusade against the Turks,
which subsequent political complications, however, rendered im-
possible. From 1461 to 1465 the career of Matthias was a per-
petual struggle punctuated by truces. Having come to an under-
standing with his father-in-law Podebrad, he was able to turn his
arms against the emperor Frederick, and in April 1462 Frederick
restored the holy crown for 60,000 ducats and was allowed to
retain certain Hungarian counties with the title of king; in return
:or which concessions, extorted from Matthias by the necessity
of coping with a simultaneous rebellion of the Magyar nob"
MATTHISSON
901
in league with Podfibrad's son Victorinus, the emperor recog-
nized Matthias as the actual sovereign of Hungary. Only now
was Matthias able to turn against the Turks, who were again
threatening the southern provinces. He began by defeating
Ali Pasha, and then penetrated into Bosnia, and captured the
newly built fortress of Jajce after a long and obstinate defence
(Dec. 1463). On returning home he was crowned with the holy
crown on the zgth of March 1464, and, after driving the Czechs
out of his northern counties, turned southwards again, this time
recovering all the parts of Bosnia which still remained in Turkish
hands.
A political event of the first importance now riveted his atten-
tion upon the north. PodSbrad, who had gained the throne
of Bohemia with the aid of the Hussites and Utraquists, had long
been in ill odour at Rome, and in 1465 Pope Paul II. determined
to depose the semi-Catholic monarch. All the neighbouring
princes, the emperor, Casimir IV. of Poland and Matthias, were
commanded in turn to execute the papal decree of deposition,
and Matthias gladly placed his army at the disposal of the Holy
See. The war began on the 3ist of May 1468, but, as early as
the 27th of February 1469, Matthias anticipated an alliance be-
tween George and Frederick by himself concluding an armistice
with the former. On the 3rd of May the Czech Catholics elected
Matthias king of Bohemia, but this was contrary to the wishes of
both pope and emperor, who preferred to partition Bohemia.
But now George discomfited all his enemies by suddenly exclud-
ing his own son from the throne in favour of Ladislaus, the
eldest son of Casimir IV., thus skilfully enlisting Poland on his
side. The sudden death of Podebrad on the 2 and of March
1471 led to fresh complications. At the very moment when
Matthias was about to profit by the disappearance of his most
capable rival, another dangerous rebellion, headed by the
primate and the chief dignitaries of the state, with the object
of placing Casimir, son of Casimir IV., on the throne, paralysed
Matthias's foreign policy during the critical years 1470-1471.
He suppressed this domestic rebellion indeed, but in the mean-
time the Poles had invaded the Bohemian domains with 60,000
men, and when in 1474 Matthias was at last able to take the field
against them in order to raise the siege of Breslau, he was obliged
to fortify himself in an entrenched camp, whence he so
skilfully harried the enemy that the Poles, impatient to return
to their own country, made peace at Breslau (Feb. 1475) on an
uti possidctis basis, a peace subsequently confirmed by the con-
gress of Olmiitz (July 1479). During the interval between these
peaces, Matthias, in self-defence, again made war on the emperor,
reducing Frederick to such extremities that he was glad to accept
peace on any terms. By the final arrangement made between
the contending princes, Matthias recognized Ladislaus as
king of Bohemia proper in return for the surrender of Moravia,
Silesia and Upper and Lower Lusatia, hitherto component
parts of the Czech monarchy, till he should have redeemed them
for 400,000 florins. The emperor promised to pay Matthias
100,000 florins as a war indemnity, and recognized him as the
legitimate king of Hungary on the understanding that he should
succeed him if he died without male issue, a contingency at this
time somewhat improbable, as Matthias, only three years pre-
viously (Dec. 15, 1476), had married his third wife, Beatrice of
Naples, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon.
The endless tergiversations and depredations of the emperor
speedily induced Matthias to declare war against him for the
third time (1481), the Magyar king conquering all the fortresses
in Frederick's hereditary domains. Finally, on the ist of June
1485, at the head of 8000 veterans, he made his triumphal entry
into Vienna, which he henceforth made his capital. Styria,
Carinthia and Carniola were next subdued, and Trieste was only
saved by the intervention of the Venetians. Matthias consoli-
dated his position by alliances with the dukes of Saxony and
Bavaria, with the Swiss Confederation, and the archbishop of
Salzburg, and was henceforth the greatest potentate in central
Europe. His far-reaching hand even extended to Italy. Thus,
in 1480, when a Turkish fleet seized Otranto, Matthias, at the
earnest solicitation of the pope, sent Balasz Magyar to recover
the fortress, which surrendered to him on the icth of May 1481.
Again in 1488, Matthias took Ancona under his protection for a
time and occupied it with a Hungarian garrison.
Though Matthias's policy was so predominantly occidental
that he soon abandoned his youthful idea of driving the Turks
out of Europe, he at least succeeded in making them respect
Hungarian territory. Thus in 1479 a huge Turkish army, on
its return home from ravaging Transylvania, was annihilated
at Sziszvaros (Oct. 13), and in 1480 Matthias recaptured Jajce,
drove the Turks from Servia and erected two new military
banates, Jajce and Srebernik, out of reconquered Bosnian terri-
tory. On the death of Mahommed II. in 1481, a unique oppor-
tunity for the intervention of Europe in Turkish affairs presented
itself. A civil war ensued in Turkey between his sons Bayezid
and Jem, and the latter, being worsted, fled to the knights
of Rhodes, by whom he was kept in custody in France (see
BAYEZID II.). Matthias, as the next-door neighbour of the
Turks, claimed the custody of so valuable a hostage, and would
have used him as a means of extorting concessions from Bayezid.
But neither the pope nor the Venetians would hear of such a
transfer, and the negotiations on this subject greatly embittered
Matthias against the Curia. The last days of Matthias -were
occupied in endeavouring to secure the succession to the throne
for his illegitimate son J&nos (see CORVINUS, JANOS) ; but Queen
Beatrice, though childless, fiercely and openly opposed the idea
and the matter was still pending when Matthias, who had long
been crippled by gout, expired very suddenly on Palm Sunday,
the 4th of April 1490.
Matthias Hunyadi was indisputably the greatest man of his
day, and one of the greatest monarchs who ever reigned. The
precocity and universality of his genius impress one the most.
Like Napoleon, with whom he has often been compared, he was
equally illustrious as a soldier, a statesman, an orator, a legislator
and an administrator. But in all moral qualities the brilliant
adventurer of the isth was infinitely superior to the brilliant
adventurer of the igth century. Though naturally passionate,
Matthias's self-control was almost superhuman, and throughout
his stormy life, with his innumerable experiences of ingratitude
and treachery, he never was guilty of a single cruel or vindictive
action. His capacity for work was inexhaustible. Frequently
half his nights were spent in reading, after the labour of his most
strenuous days. There was no branch of knowledge in which he
did not take an absorbing interest, no polite art which he did not
cultivate and encourage. His camp was a school of chivalry,
his court a nursery of poets and artists. Matthias was a middle-
sized, broad-shouldered man of martial bearing, with a large
fleshy nose, hair reaching to his heels, and the clean-shaven,
heavy chinned face of an early Roman emperor.
See Vilm6s Fraknoi, King Matthias Hunyadi (Hung., Budapest,
1890, German ed., Freiburg, 1891); Ignacz Acsady History of the
Hungarian Realm (Hung. vol. i., Budapest, 1904); J6zsef Teleki,
The Age of the Hunyadis in Hungary (Hung., vols. 3-5, Budapest,
1852-1890); V. Fraknci Life of Jdnos Vitez (Hung. Budapest
1879); Karl Schober, Die Eroberung Niederosterreichs durch Matthias
Corvinus (Vienna, 1879); Jinos Huszar, Matthias's Black Army
(Hung. Budapest, 1890); Antonio Bonfini, Rerun hungaricarum
decades (7th ed., Leipzig, 1771); Aeneas Sylvius, Opera (Frankfort,
1707); The Correspondence of King Matthias (Hung, and Lat.,
Budapest, 1893); V. Fraknoi, The Embassies of Cardinal Carvajal
to Hungary (Hung., Budapest', 1889); Marzio Galeotti, De egregie
sapienter et jocose dictis acfaclis Matthiae regis (Script, reg. hung. I.)
(Vienna, 1746). Of the above the first is the best general sketch
and is rich in notes; the second somewhat chauvinistic but excellently
written; the third the best work for scholars; the seventh, eighth
and eleventh are valuable as being by contemporaries.
(R. N. B.)
MATTHISSON, FRIEDRICH VON (1761-1831), German poet,
was born at Hohendodeleben near Magdeburg, the son of the
village pastor, on the 23rd of January 1761. After studying
theology and philology at the university of Halle, he was
appointed in 1781 master at the classical school Philanthropin
in Dessau. This once famous seminary was, however, then
rapidly decaying in public favour, and in 1784 Matthisson was
glad to accept a travelling tutorship. He lived for two years
with the Swiss author Bonstetten at Nyon on the lake of Geneva.
902
MATTING MATTOON
In 1794 he was appointed reader and travelling companion to the
princess Louisa of Anhalt-Dessau. In 1812 he entered the service
of the king of Wiirttemberg, was ennobled, created counsellor
of legation, appointed intendant of the court theatre and chief
librarian of the royal library at Stuttgart. In 1828 he retired
and settled at Worlitz near Dessau, where he died on the i2th
of March 1 83 1 . Matthisson enjoyed for a time a great popularity
on account of his poems, Gedichte (1787; isth ed., 1851; new ed.,
1876), which Schiller extravagantly praised for their melancholy
sweetness and their fine descriptions of scenery. The verse is
melodious and the language musical, but the thought and senti-
ments they express are too often artificial and insincere. His
Adelaide has been rendered famous owing to Beethoven's setting
of the song. Of his elegies, Die Elegie in den Ruinen eines alien
Bergschlosses is still a favourite. His reminiscences, Erinner-
ungen (5 vols., 1810-1816), contain interesting accounts of his
travels.
Matthisson's Schriften appeared in eight volumes (1825-1829),
of which the first contains his poems, the remainder his Erinnerungen ;
a ninth volume was added in 1833 containing his biography by
H. Doring. His Literarischer NacUass, with a selection from his cor-
respondence, was published in four volumes by F. R. Schoch in 1832.
HATTING, a general term embracing many coarse woven or
plaited fibrous materials used for covering floors or furniture,
for hanging as screens, for wrapping up heavy merchandise and
for other miscellaneous purposes. In the United Kingdom,
under the name of " coir " matting, a large amount of a coarse
kind of carpet is made from coco-nut fibre; and the same material,
as well as strips of cane, Manila hemp, various grasses and rushes,
is largely employed in various forms for making door mats.
Large quantities of the coco-nut fibre are woven in heavy looms,
then cut up into various sizes, and finally bound round the edges
by a kind of rope made from the same material. The mats may
be of one colour only, or they may be made of different colours
and in different designs. Sometimes the names of institutions
are introduced into the mats. Another type of mat is made
exclusively from the above-mentioned rope by arranging
alternate layers in sinuous and straight paths, and then stitching
the parts together. It is also largely used for the outer covering
of ships' fenders. Perforated and otherwise prepared rubber,
as well as wire-woven material, are also largely utilized for door
and floor mats. Matting of various kinds is very extensively
employed throughout India for floor coverings, the bottoms of
bedsteads, fans and fly-flaps, &c. ; and a considerable export trade
in such manufactures is carried on. The materials used are
numerous; but the principal substances are straw, the bulrushes
Typha elephantina and T. angustifolia, leaves of the date palm
(Phoenix sylvestris), of the dwarf palm (Chamaerops Ritchiana),
of the Palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis) , of the coco-nut
palm (Cocos w/era)andof the screw pine (Pandanus odora-
tissimus) , the munja or munj grass (Saccharum Munja) and allied
grasses, and the mat grasses Cyperus textttis and C. Pangorei,
from the last of which the well-known Palghat mats of the Madras
Presidency are made. Many of these Indian grass-mats are
admirable examples of elegant design, and the colours in which
they are woven are rich, harmonious and effective in the highest
degree. Several useful household articles are made from the
different kinds of grasses. The grasses are dyed in all shades
and plaited to form attractive designs suitable for the purposes
to which they are to be applied. This class of work obtains
in India, Japan and other Eastern countries. Vast quantities
of coarse matting used for packing furniture, heavy and coarse
goods, flax and other plants, &c., are made in Russia from the
bast or inner bark of the lime tree. This industry centres in
the great forest governments of Viatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod,
Kostroma, Kazan, Perm and Simbirsk.
MATTOCK (O.E. maltuc, of uncertain origin), a tool having a
double iron head, of which one end is shaped like an adze, and
the other like a pickaxe. The head has a socket in the centre
in which the handle is inserted transversely to the blades. It
is used chiefly for grubbing and rooting among tree stumps in
plantations and copses, where the roots are too close for the use
of a spade, or for loosening hard soil.
MATTO GROSSO, an inland state of Brazil, bounded N. by
Amazonas and Para, E. by Goyaz, Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo and
Parana, S. by Paraguay and S.W. and W. by Bolivia. It ranks
next to Amazonas in size, its area, which is largely unsettled and
unexplored, being 532,370 sq. m., and its population only 92,827
in 1890 and 118,025 in 1900- No satisfactory estimate of its
Indian population can be made. The greater part of the state
belongs to the western extension of the Brazilian plateau, across
which, between the i4th and i6th parallels, runs the water-shed
which separates the drainage basins of the Amazon and La Plata.
This elevated region is known as the plateau of Matto Grosso,
and its elevations so far as known rarely exceed 3000 ft. The
northern slope of this great plateau is drained by the Araguaya-
Tocantins, Xingu, Tapajos and Guapore-Mamore-Madeira,
which flow northward, and, except the first, empty into the
Amazon; the southern slope drains southward through a multi-
tude of streams flowing into the Parana and Paraguay. The
general elevation in the south part of the state is much lower,
and large areas bordering the Paraguay are swampy, partially
submerged plains which the sluggish rivers are unable to drain.
The lowland elevations in this part of the state range from 300
to 400 ft. above sea-level, the climate is hot, humid and unhealthy,
and the conditions for permanent settlement are apparently
unfavourable. On the highlands, however, which contain
extensive open campos, the climate, though dry and hot, is
considered healthy. The basins of the Parana and Paraguay
are separated by low mountain ranges extending north from
the sierras of Paraguay. In the north, however, the ranges
which separate the river valleys are apparently the remains of
the table-land through which deep valleys have been eroded.
The resources of Matto Grosso are practically undeveloped,
owing to the isolated situation of the state, the costs of
transportation and the small population.
The first industry was that of mining, gold having been dis-
covered in the river valleys on the southern slopes of the plateau,
and diamonds on the head-waters of the Paraguay, about
Diamantino and in two or three other districts. Gold is found
chiefly in placers, and in colonial times the output was large,
but the deposits were long ago exhausted and the industry is
now comparatively unimportant. As to other minerals little
is definitely known. Agriculture exists only for the supply of
local needs, though tobacco of a superior quality is grown.
Cattle-raising, however, has received some attention and is the
principal industry of the landowners. The forest products
of the state include fine woods, rubber, ipecacuanha, sarsapa-
rilla, jaborandi, vanilla and copaiba. There is little export,
however, the only means of communication being down the
Paraguay and Parana rivers by means of subsidized steamers.
The capital of the state is Cuyaba, and the chief commercial
town is Corumba at the head of navigation for the larger river
boats, and 1986 m. from the mouth of the La Plata. Com-
munication between these two towns is maintained by a line of
smaller boats, the distance being 517 m.
The first permanent settlements in Matto Grosso seem to
have been made in 1718 and 1719, in the first year at Forquilha
and in the second at or near the site of Cuyaba, where rich
placer mines had been found. At this time all this inland
region was considered a part of Sao Paulo, but in 1748 it was
made a separate capitania and was named Matto Grosso ("great
woods "). In 1752 its capital was situated on the right bank of
the Guapore river and was named Villa Bella da Santissima
Trindade de Matto Grosso, but in 1820 the seat of government
was removed to Cuyaba and Villa Bella has fallen into decay.
In 1822 Matto Grosso became a province of the empire and in
1889 a republican state. It was invaded by the Paraguayans
in the war of 1860-65.
MATTOON, a city of Coles county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the east
central part of the state, about 1 2 m. south-east of Peoria. Pop.
(1890), 6833; (1900), 9622, of whom 430 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 11,456. It is served by the Illinois Central
and Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, which
have repair shops here, and by inter-urban electric lines. The
MATTRESS MAUCH CHUNK
903
city has a public library, a Methodist Episcopal Hospital, and
an Old Folks' Home, the last supported by the Independent
Order of Odd Fellows. Mattoon is an important shipping point
for Indian corn and broom corn, extensively grown in the vici-
nity, and for fruit and livestock. Among its manufactures are
foundry and machine shop products, stoves and bricks; in 1905
the factory product was valued at $1,308,781, an increase of
71-2% over that in 1900. The municipality owns the water-
works and an electric lighting plant. Mattoon was first settled
about 1855, was named in honour of William Mattoon, an early
landowner, was first chartered as a city in 1857, and was re-
organized under a general state law in 1879.
MATTRESS (O.Fr. materas, mod. matelas; the origin is the
Arab, al-materah, cushion, whence Span, and Port, almadraque,
Ital. materasso), the padded foundation of a bed, formed of
canvas or other stout material stuffed with wool, hair, flock or
straw; in the last case it is properly known as a " palliasse "
(Fr. paille, straw; Lat. palea); but this term is often applied to
an under-mattress stuffed with substances other than straw. The
padded mattress on which lay the feather-bed has been replaced
by the " wire-mattress," a network of wire stretched on a light
wooden or iron frame, which is either a separate structure or a
component part of the bedstead itself. The "wire-mattress"
has taken the place of the " spring mattress," in which spiral
springs support the stuffing. The term " mattress " is used in
engineering for a mat of brushwood, faggots, &c., corded to-
gether and used as a foundation or as surface in the construction
of dams, jetties, dikes, &c.
MATURIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1782-1824), Irish novelist
and dramatist, was born in Dublin in 1782. His grandfather,
Gabriel Jasper Maturin, had been Swift's successor in the
deanery of St Patrick. Charles Maturin was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, and became curate of Loughrea and then of
St Peter's, Dublin. His first novels, The Fatal Revenge; or, the
Family of Montorio (1807), The Wild Irish Boy (1808), The
Milesian Chief (1812), were issued under the pseudonym of
" Dennis Jasper Murphy." All these were mercilessly ridiculed,
but the irregular power displayed in them attracted the notice
of Sir Walter Scott, who recommended the author to Byron.
Through their influence Maturin's tragedy of Bertram was pro-
duced at Drury Lane in 1816, with Kean and Miss Kelly in the
leading parts. A French version by Charles Nodier and Baron
Taylor was produced in Paris at the Theatre Favart. Two more
tragedies, Manuel (1817) and Fredolfo (1819), were failures, and
his poem The Universe (1821) fell flat. He wrote three more
novels, Women (1818), Melmoth, the Wanderer (1820), and The
Albigenses (1824). Melmoth, which forms its author's title to
remembrance, is the best of them, and has for hero a kind of
" Wandering Jew." Honore de Balzac wrote a sequel to it under
the title of Melmoth recondite a Vtglise (1835). Maturin died in
Dublin on the 3Oth of October 1824.
MATVYEEV, ARTAMON SERQYEEVICH ( -1682),
Russian statesman and reformer, was one of the greatest of the
precursors of Peter the Great. His parentage and the date of his
birth are uncertain. Apparently his birth was humble, but when
the obscure figure of the young Artamon emerges into the light
of history we find him equipped at all points with the newest
ideas, absolutely free from the worst prejudices of his age, a ripe
scholar, and even an author of some distinction. In 1671 the
tsar Alexius and Artamon were already on intimate terms, and
on the retirement of Orduin-Nashchokin Matvyeev became the
tsar's chief counsellor. It was at his house, full of all the
wondrous, half-forbidden novelties of the west, that Alexius,
after the death of his first consort, Martha, met Matvyeev's
favourite pupil, the beautiful Natalia Naruishkina, whom he
married on the 2ist of January 1672. At the end of the year
Matvyeev was raised to the rank of okolnichy, and on the ist of
September 1674 attained the still higher dignity of boyar.
Matvyeev remained paramount to the end of the reign and
introduced play-acting and all sorts of refining western novelties
into Muscovy. The deplorable physical condition of Alexius's
immediate successor, Theodore III. suggested to Matvyeev the
desirability of elevating to the throne the sturdy little tsarevich
Peter, then in his fourth year. He purchased the allegiance of
the stryeltsi, or musketeers, and then, summoning the boyars
of the council, earnestly represented to them that Theodore,
scarce able to live, was surely unable to reign, and urged the
substitution of little Peter. But the reactionary boyars, among
whom were the near kinsmen of Theodore, proclaimed him tsar
and Matvyeev was banished to Pustozersk, in northern Russia,
where he remained till Theodore's death (April 27, 1682).
Immediately afterwards Peter was proclaimed, tsar by the
patriarch, and the first ukaz issued in Peter's name summoned
Matvyeev to return to the capital and act as chief adviser to the
tsaritsa Natalia. He reached Moscow on the isth of May,
prepared " to lay down his life for the tsar," and at once pro-
ceeded to the head of the Red Staircase to meet and argue with
the assembled stryeltsi, who had been instigated to rebel by the
anti-Petrine faction. He had already succeeded in partially
pacifying them, when one of their colonels began to abuse the
still hesitating and suspicious musketeers. Infuriated, they
seized and flung Matvyeev into the square below, where he was
hacked to pieces by their comrades.
See R. Nisbet Bam, The First Romanovs (London, 1905); M. P.
Pogodin, The First Seventeen Years of the Life of Peter the Great (Rus.),
(Moscow, l875);S. M.Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), (vols. 12, 13,
(St Petersburg, 1895, &c.) ; L. Shchepotev, A.S. Matvyeev as an Educa-
tional and Political Reformer (Rus.), (St Petersburg, 1906). (R. N. B.)
MAUBEUGE, a town of northern France, in the department
of Nord, situated on both banks of the Sambre, here canalized,
23^ m. by rail E. by S. of Valenciennes, and about 2 m. from the
Belgian frontier. Pop. (1906), town 13,569, commune' 21,520.
As a fortress Maubeuge has an old enceinte of bastion trace which
serves as the centre of an important entrenched camp of 18 m.
perimeter, constructed for the most part after the war of 1870,
but since modernized and augmented. The town has a board
of trade arbitration, a communal college, a commercial and in-
dustrial school; and there are important foundries, forges and
blast-furnaces, together with manufactures of machine-tools,
porcelain, &c. It is united by electric tramway with Haut-
mont (pop. 12,473), also an important metallurgical centre.
Maubeuge (Malbodium) owes its origin to a double monastery,
for men and women, founded in the 7th century by St Aldegonde
relics of whom are preserved in the church. It subsequently
belonged to the territory of Hainault. It was burnt by Louis
XL, by Francis I., and by Henry II., and was finally assigned
to France by the Treaty of Nijmwegen. It was fortified at
Vauban by the command of Louis XIV., who under Turenne
first saw military service there. Besieged in 1793 by Prince
Josias of Coburg, it was relieved by the victory of Wattignies,
which is commemorated by a monument in the town. It was
unsuccessfully besieged in 1814, but was compelled to capitulate,
after a vigorous resistance, in the Hundred Days.
MAUCH CHUNK, a borough and the county-seat of Carbon
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Lehigh
river and on the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company's
Canal, 46 m. by rail W.N.W. of Easton. Pop. (1890), 4101;
(1900), 4029 (571 foreign-born); (1910), 3952. Mauch Chunk
is served by the Central of New Jersey railway and, at East
Mauch Chunk, across the river, connected by electric railway,
by the Lehigh Valley railway. The borough lies in the valley
of the Lehigh river, along which runs one of its few streets
and in another deeply cut valley at right angles to the river;
through this second valley east and west runs the main street,
on which is an electric railway; parallel to it on the south is High
Street, formerly an Irish settlement; half way up the steep hill,
and on the north at the top of the opposite hill is the ward of
Upper Mauch Chunk, reached by the electric railway. An
incline railway, originally used to transport coal from the mines
to the river and named the " Switch-Back," now carries tourists
up the steep slopes of Mount Pisgah and Mount Jefferson, to
Summit Hill, a rich anthracite coal region, with a famous
" burning mine," which has been on fire since 1832, and then
back. An electric railway to the top of Flagstaff Mountain,
built in 1900, was completed in 1901 to Lehighton, 4 m. south-
94
MAUCHLINE MAUNDY THURSDAY
east of Mauch Chunk, where coal is mined and silk and stoves
are manufactured, and which had a population in 1900 of 4629,
and in 1910 of 5316. Immediately above Mauch Chunk the
river forms a horseshoe; on the opposite side, connected by a
bridge, is the borough of East Mauch Chunk (pop. 1900, 3458;
1910, 3548); and 2 m. up the river is Glen Onoko, with fine falls
and cascades. The principal buildings in Mauch Chunk are the
county court house, a county gaol, a Young Men's Christian
Association building, and the Dimmick Memorial Library (1890).
The borough was long a famous shipping point for coal. It now
has ironworks and foundries, and in East Mauch Chunk there
are silk mills. The name is Indian and means " Bear Mountain,"
this English name being used for a mountain on the east side of
the river. The borough was founded by the Lehigh Coal and
Navigation Company in 1818. This company began in 1827
the operation of the " Switch-Back, " probably the first railway
in the country to be used for transporting coal. In 1831 the
town was opened to individual enterprise, and in 1850 it was
incorporated as a borough. Mauch Chunk was for many years
the home of Asa Packer, the projector and builder of the
Lehigh Valley railroad from Mauch Chunk to Easton.
MAUCHLINE, a town in the division of Kyle, Ayrshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901), 1767. It lies 8 m. E.S.E. of Kilmarnock
and ii m. E. by N. of Ayr by the Glasgow and South- Western
railway. It is situated on a gentle slope about i m. from the
river Ayr, which flows through the south of the parish of Mauch-
line. It is noted for its manufacture of snuff-boxes and knick-
knacks in wood, and of curling-stones. There is also some
cabinet-making, besides spinning and weaving, and its horse
fairs and cattle markets have more than local celebrity. The
parish church, dating from 1829, stands in the middle of the
village, and on the green a monument, erected in 1830, marks
the spot where five Covenanters were killed in 1685. Robert
Burns lived with his brother Gilbert on the farm of Mossgiel,
about a mile to the north, from 1784 to 1788. Mauchline
kirkyard was the sceneof the "Holy Fair "; at " Poosie Nansie's"
(Agnes Gibson's) still, though much altered, a popular inn the
" Jolly Beggars " held their high jinks; near the church (in the
poet's day an old, barn-like structure) was the Whiteford Arms
inn, where on a pane of glass Burns wrote the epitaph on John
Dove, the landlord; " auld Nanse Tinnock's " house, with the
date of 1744 above the door, nearly faces the entrance to the
churchyard; the Rev. William Auld was minister of Mauchline,
and " Holy Willie," whom the poet scourged in the celebrated
" Prayer," was one of " Daddy Auld's " elders; behind the
kirkyard stands the house of Gavin Hamilton, the lawyer and
firm friend of Burns, in which the poet was married. The
braes of Ballochmyle, where he met the heroine of his song,
" The Lass o" Ballochmyle," lie about a mile to the south-east.
Adjoining them is the considerable manufacturing town of
CATRINE (pop. 2340), with cotton factories, bleach fields and
brewery, where Dr Matthew Stewart (1717-1785), the father
of Dugald Stewart had a mansion, and where there is a big
water-wheel said to be inferior in size only to that of Laxey in the
Isle of Man. Barskimming House, 2 m. south by west of Mauch-
line, the seat of Lord-President Miller (1717-1789), was burned
down in 1882. Near the confluence of the Fail and the Ayr was
the scene of Burns's parting with Highland Mary.
MAUDE, CYRIL (1862- ), English actor, was born in
London and educated at Charterhouse. He began his career
as an actor in 1883 in America, and from 1896 to 1905 was
co-manager with F. Harrison of the Haymarket Theatre, London.
There he became distinguished for his quietly humorous acting
in many parts. In 1906 he went into management on his own
account, and in 1907 opened his new theatre The Playhouse.
In 1888 he married the actress Winifred Emery (b. 1862), who
had made her London debut as a child in 1875, and acted with
Irving at the Lyceum between 1881 and 1887. She was a
daughter of Samuel Anderson Emery (1817-1881) and grand-
daughter of John Emery (1777-1822), both well-known actors in
their day.
MAULE, a coast province of central Chile, bounded N. by
. d
:
Talca, E. by Linares and Nuble, and S. by Conception, and lying
between the rivers Maule and Itata, which form its northern
and southern boundaries. Pop. (1895), 119,791; area, 2475
sq. m. Maule is traversed from north to south by the coast
range and its surfaces are much broken. The Buchupureo
river flows westward across the province. The climate is mild
and healthy. Agriculture and stock-raising are the principal
occupations, and hides, cattle, wheat and timber are exported.
Transport facilities are afforded by the Maule and the Itata,
which are navigable, and by a branch of the government railway
from Cauquenes to Parral, an important town of southern
Linares. The provincial capital, Cauquenes (pop., in 1895,
8574; 1902 estimate, 9895), is centrally situated on the Buchu-
pureo river, on the eastern slopes of the coast Cordilleras. The
town and port of Constitution (pop., in 1900, about 7000) on
the south bank of the Maule, one mile above its mouth, was
formerly the capital of the province. The port suffers from a
dangerous bar at the mouth of the river, but is connected witi
Talca by rail and has a considerable trade.
The Maule river, from which the province takes its name, is
historic interest because it is said to have marked the southern
limits of the Inca Empire. It rises in the Laguna del Maule, an
Andean lake near the Argentine frontier, 7218 ft. above sea-level,
and flows westward about 140 m. to the Pacific, into which it
discharges in 35 18' S. The upper part of its drainage basin, to
which the Anuario Hydrografico gives an area of 8000 sq. m.,
contains the volcanoes of San Pedro (n,8ooft.), the Descabezado
(12,795 ft.), and others of the same group of lower elevations.
The upper course and tributaries of the Maule, principally in t
province of Linares, are largely used for irrigation.
MAULEON, SAVARI DE (d. 1236), French soldier, was the soi
of Raoul de Mauleon, vicomte de Thouars and lord of Mauleon
(now Chatillon-sur-Sevre) . Having espoused the cause of Arthur
of Brittany, he was captured at Mirebeau (1202), and imprisoned
in the chateau of Corfe. But John set him at liberty in 1204,
gained him to his side and named him seneschal of Poitou (1205).
In 121 1 Savari de Mauleon assisted Raymond VI. count of
Toulouse, and with him besieged Simon de Montfort in Castel-
naudary. Philip Augustus bought his services in 1212 and gave
him command of a fleet which was destroyed in the Flemish port
of Damme. Then Mauleon returned to John, whom he aided in his
struggle with the barons in 1215. He was one of those whom
John designated on his deathbed for a council of regency (1216).
Then he went to Egypt (1219), and was present at the taking of
Damietta. Returning to Poitou he was a second time seneschal
for the king of England. He defended Saintonge against Louis
VIII. in 1224, but was accused of having given La Rochelle
up to the king of France, and the suspicions of the English again
threw him back upon the French. Louis VIII. then turned over
to him the defence of La Rochelle and the coast of Saintonge.
In 1227 he took part in the rising of the barons of Poitiers and
Anjou against the young Louis IX. He enjoyed a certain
reputation for his poems in the langue d'oc.
See Chilhaud-Dumaine, " Savari de Maul&m," in Positions des
Theses des Sieves de I'&cole des Charles (1877); Histoire litterairt
de la France, xviii. 671-682.
MAULSTICK, or MAHLSTICK, a stick with a soft leather or
padded head, used by painters to support the hand that holds the
brush. The word is an adaptation of the Dutch maalstok, i.e. the
painter's stick, from malen, to paint. .
MAUNDY THURSDAY (through O. Fr. mande from Lat.
mandatum, commandment, in allusion to Christ's words: " A new
commandment give I unto you,!' after he had washed the disciples'
feet at the Last Supper), the Thursday before Easter. Maundy
Thursday is sometimes known as Sheer or Chare Thursday,
either in allusion, it is thought, to the " shearing " of heads and
beards in preparation for Easter, or more probably in the word's
Middle English sense of " pure," in allusion to the ablutions of the
day. The chief ceremony, as kept from the early middle ages
onwards the washing of the feet of twelve or more poor men or
beggars was in the early Church almost unknown. Of Chry-
sostom and St Augustine, who both speak of Maundy Thursday
MAUPASSANT
905
as being marked by a solemn celebration of the Sacrament, the
former does not mention the foot-washing, and the latter merely
alludes to it. Perhaps an indication of it may be discerned as
early as the 4th century in a custom, current in Spain, northern
Italy and elsewhere, of washing the feet of the catechumens
towards the end of Lent before their baptism. It was not,
however, universal, and in the 48th canon of the synod of Elvira
(A.D. 306) it is expressly prohibited (cf. Corp. Jur. Can., c. 104,
caus. i. qu. i). From the 4th century ceremonial foot-washing
became yearly more common, till it was regarded as a necessary
rite, to be performed by the pope, all Catholic sovereigns,
prelates, priests and nobles. In England the king washed the
feet of as many poor men as he was years old, and then distributed
to them meat, money and clothes. At Durham Cathedral, until
the i6th century, every charity-boy had a monk to wash his feet.
At Peterborough Abbey, in 1530, Wolsey made " his maund in
Our Lady's Chapel, having fifty-nine poor men whose feet he
washed and kissed; and after he had wiped them he gave every
of the said poor men twelve pence in money, three ells of good
canvas to make them shirts, a pair of new shoes, a cast of red
herrings and three white herrings." Queen Elizabeth performed
the ceremony, the paupers' feet, however, being first washed by
the yeomen of the laundry with warm water and sweet herbs.
James II. was the last English monarch to perform the rite.
William III. delegated the washing to his almoner, and this was
usual until the middle of the i8th century. Since 1754 the foot-
washing has been abandoned, and the ceremony now consists
of the presentation of Maundy money, officially called Maundy
Pennies. These were first coined in the reign of Charles II.
They come straight from the Mint, and have their edges unmilled.
The service which formerly took place in the Chapel Royal,
Whitehall, is now held in Westminster Abbey. A procession
is formed in the nave, consisting of the lord high almoner repre-
senting the sovereign, the clergy and the yeomen of the guard,
the latter carrying white and red purses in baskets. The
clothes formerly given are now commuted for in cash. The full
ritual is gone through by the Roman Catholic archbishop of
Westminster, and abroad it survives in all Catholic countries, a
notable example being that of the Austrian emperor. In the
Greek Church the rite survives notably at Moscow, St Petersburg
and Constantinople. It is on Maundy Thursday that in the
Church of Rome the sacred oil is blessed , and the chrism prepared
according to an elaborate ritual which is given in the Pontificate.
MAUPASSANT, HENRI REN6 ALBERT GUY DE (1850-1803),
French novelist and poet, was born at the Chateau of Miromesnil
in the department of Seine-Inferieure on the 5th August 1850.
His grandfather, a landed proprietor of a good Lorraine family,
owned an estate at Neuville-Champ-d'Oisel near Rouen, and
bequeathed a moderate fortune to his son, a Paris stockbroker,
who married Mademoiselle Laure Lepoitevin. Maupassant was
educated at Yvetot and at the Rouen Iyc6e. A copy of verses
entitled Le Dieu criateur, written during his year of philosophy,
has been preserved and printed. He entered the ministry of
marine, and was promoted by M. Bardoux to the Cabinet de
1'Instruction publique. A pleasant legend says that, in a report
by his official chief, Maupassant is mentioned as not reaching the
standard of the department in the matter of style. He may very
well have been an unsatisfactory clerk, as he divided his time
between rowing expeditions and attending the literary gatherings
at the house of Gustave Flaubert, who was not, as he is often
alleged to be, connected with Maupassant by any blood tie.
Flaubert was not his uncle, nor his cousin, nor even his godfather,
but merely an old friend of Madame de Maupassant, whom he
had known from childhood. At the literary meetings Maupas-
sant seldom shared in the conversation. Upon those who met
him Tourgenieff, Alphonse Daudet, Catulle Mendes, Jose-
Maria de Heredia and Emile Zola he left the impression of a
simple young athlete. Even Flaubert, to whom Maupassant
submitted some sketches, was not greatly struck by their talent,
though he encouraged the youth to persevere. Maupassant's
first essay was a dramatic piece twice given at fitretat in 1873
before an audience which included Tourgenieff, Flaubert and
Meilhac. In this indecorous performance, of which nothing
more is heard, Maupassant played the part of a woman. During
the next seven years he served a severe apprenticeship to Flau-
bert, who by this time realized his pupil's exceptional gifts. In
1880 Maupassant published a volume of poems, Des Vers, against
which the public prosecutor of Etampes took proceedings that
were finally withdrawn through the influence of the senator
Cordier. From Flaubert, who had himself been prosecuted for
his first book, Madame Bovary, there came a letter congratulating
the poet on the similarity between their first literary experiences.
Des Vers is an extremely interesting experiment, which shows
Maupassant to us still hesitating in his choice of a medium ; but
he recognized that it was not wholly satisfactory, and that its
chief deficiency the absence of verbal melody was fatal.
Later in the same year he contributed to the Soirees de Medan, a
collection of short stories by MM. Zola, J.-K. Huysmans, Henry
Ceard, Leon Hennique and Paul Alexis; and in Bottle de suif the
young unknown author revealed himself to his amazed colla-
borators and to the public as an admirable writer of prose and a
consummate master of the conte. There is perhaps no other
instance in modern literary history of a writer beginning, as a
fully equipped artist, with a genuine masterpiece. This early
success was quickly followed by another. The volume entitled
La Maison Tellier (1881) confirmed the first impression, and
vanquished even those who were repelled by the author's
choice of subjects. In Mademoiselle Fifi(i&&3)be repeated his
previous triumphs as a conteur, and in this same year he, for the
first time, attempted to write on a larger scale. Choosing to
portray the life of a blameless girl, unfortunate in her marriage,
unfortunate in her son, consistently unfortunate in every
circumstance of existence, he leaves her, ruined and prematurely
old, clinging to the tragic hope, which time, as one feels, will belie,
that she may find happiness in her grandson. This picture of an
average woman undergoing the constant agony of disillusion
Maupassant calls Une Vie (1883), and as in modern literature
there is no finer example of cruel observation, so there is no
sadder book than this, while the effect of extreme truthfulness
which it conveys justifies its sub-title L'Humble veritl. Certain
passages of Une Vie are of such a character that the sale of the
volume at railway bookstalls was forbidden throughout France.
The matter was brought before the chamber of deputies, with
the result of drawing still more attention to the book, and of
advertising the Contes de la becasse (1883), a collection of stories
as improper as they are clever. Au soleil (1884), a book of
travels which has the eminent qualities of lucid observation and
exact description, was less read than Clair de lune, Miss Harriet,
Les Soeurs Rondoli and Yvette, all published in 1883-1884 when
Maupassant's powers were at their highest level. Three further
collections of short tales, entitled Contes el nouveUes, Monsieur
Parent, and Contes du jour et de la nuit, issued in 1885, proved
that while the author's vision was as incomparable as ever, his
fecundity had not improved his impeccable form. To 1885 also
belongs an elaborate novel, Bel-ami, the cynical history of a
particularly detestable, brutal scoundrel who makes his way in
the world by means of his handsome face. Maupassant is here
no less vivid in realizing his literary men, financiers and frivolous
women than in dealing with his favourite peasants, boors and
servants, to whom he returned in Toine (1886) and in La Petite
roque (1886). About this time appeared the first symptoms of
the malady which destroyed him; he wrote less, and though the
novel Mont-Oriol (1887) shows him apparently in undiminished
possession of his faculty, Le Horla (1887) suggests that he was
already subject to alarming hallucinations. Restored to some
extent by a sea-voyage, recorded in Sur I'eau (1888), he went
back to short stories in Le Rosier de Madame Husson(i&S8), a
burst of Rabelaisian humour equal to anything he had ever
written. His novels Pierre et Jean (1888), Fort comme la mart
(1889), and Notre cceur (1890) are penetrating studies touched
with a profounder sympathy than had hitherto distinguished
him ; and this softening into pity for the tragedy of life is deepened
in some of the tales included in Inutile beautt (1890). One
of these, Le Champ d'Oliviers, is an unsurpassable example of
906
MAUPEOU
poignant, emotional narrative. With La Vie err ante (1890), a
volume of travels, Maupassant's career practically closed.
Musotte, a theatrical piece written in collaboration with M.
Jacques Normand, was published in 1 89 1 . By this time inherited
nervous maladies, aggravated by excessive physical exercises
and by the imprudent use of drugs, had undermined his con-
stitution. He began to take an interest in religious problems,
and for a while made the Imitation his handbook; but his
misanthropy deepened, and he suffered from curious delusions
as to his wealth and rank. A victim of general paralysis, of
which La Folie des grandeurs was one of the symptoms, he drank
the waters at Aix-les-Bains during the summer of 1891, and re-
tired to Cannes, where he purposed passing the winter. The
singularities of conduct which had been observed at Aix-les-
Bains grew more and more marked. Maupassant's reason slowly
gave way. On the 6th of January 1892 he attempted suicide,
and was removed to Paris, where he died in the most painful
circumstances on the 6th of July 1893. He is buried in the
cemetery of Montparnasse. The opening chapters of two
projected novels, L'Angelus and L'Ame etrangere, were found
among his papers; these, with La Paix du menage, a comedy in
two acts, and two collections of tales, Le Pere Milan (1898)
and Le Colporteur (1899), have been published posthumously.
A correspondence, called Amilie amoureitse (1897), and dedi-
cated to his mother, is probably unauthentic. Among the
prefaces which he wrote for the works of others, only one an
introduction to a French prose version of Mr Swinburne's
Poems and Ballads is likely to interest English readers.
Maupassant began as a follower of Flaubert and of M. Zola,
but, whatever the masters may have called themselves, they both
remained essentially romantiques. The pupil is the last of the
" naturalists ": he even destroyed naturalism, since he did all
that can be done in that direction. He had no psychology, no
theories of art, no moral or strong social prejudices, no disturbing
imagination, no wealth of perplexing ideas. It is no paradox to
say that his marked limitations made him the incomparable
artist that he was. Undisturbed by any external influence, his
marvellous vision enabled him to become a supreme observer,
and, given his literary sense, the rest was simple. He prided
himself in having no invention; he described nothing that he
had not seen. The peasants whom he had known as a boy figure
in a score of tales; what he saw" in Government offices is set down
in L'Heritage; from Algiers he gathers the material for Maroca;
he drinks the waters and builds up Mont-Oriol; he enters
journalism, constructs Bel-ami, and, for the sake of precision,
makes his brother, Herve de Maupassant, sit for the infamous
hero's portrait; he sees fashionable society, and, though it wearied
him intensely, he transcribes its life in Fort comme la mort and
Notre casur. Fundamentally he finds all men alike. In every
grade he finds the same ferocious, cunning, animal instincts at
work: it is not a gay world, but he knows no other; he is pos-
sessed by the dread of growing old, of ceasing to enjoy; the
horror of death haunts him like a spectre. It is an extremely
simple outlook. Maupassant does not prefer good to bad, one
man to another; he never pauses to argue about the meaning
of life, a senseless thing which has the one advantage of yielding
materials for art; his one aim is to discover the hidden aspect of
visible things, to relate what he has observed, to give an objective
rendering of it, and he has seen so intensely and so serenely that
he is the most exact transcriber in literature. And as the
substance is, so is the form: his style is exceedingly simple and
exceedingly strong; he uses no rare or superfluous word, and is
content to use the humblest word if only it conveys the exact
picture of the thing seen. In ten years he produced some thirty
volumes. With the exception of Pierre et Jean, his novels,
excellent as they are, scarcely represent him at his best, and of
over two hundred conies a proportion must be rejected. But
enough will remain to vindicate his claim to a permanent place
in literature as an unmatched observer and the most perfect
master of the short story.
See also F. Brunetiere, Le Roman naturaliste (1883); T. Lemaitre,
Les Contemporains (vols. i. v. vi.) ; R. Doumic, Ecrivains d'aujourd'hui
(1894); an introduction by Henry James to The Odd Number . . .
(1891); a critical preface by the earl of Crewe to Pierre and Jean
(1902); A. Symons, Studies in Prose and Verse (1904). There are
many references to Maupassant in the Journal des Goncourt, and
some correspondence with Marie Bashkirtseff was printed with
Further Memoirs of that lady in 1901. (J. F.-K.)
MAUPEOU, REN6 NICOLAS CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1714-
1792), chancellor of France, was born on the 25th of February
1714, being the eldest son of Rene Charles de Maupeou (1688-
1775), who was president of the parlement of Paris from 1743 to
1757. He married in 1744 a rich heiress, Anne de Roncherolles,
a cousin of Madame d'Epinay. Entering public life, he was his
father's right hand in the conflicts between the parlement and
Christophe de Beaumont, archbishop of Paris, who was sup-
ported by the court. Between 1763 and 1768, dates which cover
the revision of the case of Jean Galas and the trial of the comte de
Lally, Maupeou was himself president of the parlement. In
1768, through the protection of Choiseul, whose fall two years
later was in large measure his work, he became chancellor in
succession to his father, who had held the office for a few days
only. He determined to support the royal authority against
the parlement, which in league with the provincial magistratures
was seeking to arrogate to itself the functions of the states-general.
He allied himself with the due d'Aiguillon and Madame du Barry,
and secured for a creature of his own, the Abbe Terrai, the office
of comptroller-general. The struggle came over the trial of the
case of the due d'Aiguillon, ex-governor of Brittany, and of La
Chalotais, procureur-general of the province, who had been
imprisoned by the governor for accusations against his admini-
stration. When the parlement showed signs of hostility against
Aiguillon, Maupeou read letters patent from Louis XV. annulling
the proceedings. Louis replied to remonstrances from the parle-
ment by a lit de justice, in which he demanded the surrender of the
minutes of procedure. On the 27th of November 1770 appeared
the dit de reglement et de discipline, which was promulgated by
the chancellor, forbidding the union of the various branches of
the parlement and correspondence with the provincial magis-
tratures. It also made a strike on the part of the parlement
punishable by confiscation of goods, and forbade further obstruc-
tion to the registration of royal decrees after the royal reply had
been given to a first remonstrance. This edict the magistrates
refused to register, and it was registered in a lit de justice held
at Versailles on the 7th of December, whereupon the parlement
suspended its functions. After five summonses to return to
their duties, the magistrates were surprised individually on the
night of the igth of January 1771 by musketeers, who required
them to sign yes or no to a further request to return. Thirty-
eight magistrates gave an affirmative answer, but on the exile
of their former colleagues by lettres de cachet they retracted, and
were also exiled. Maupeou installed the council of state to
administer justice pending the establishment of six superior
courts in the provinces, and of a new parlement in Paris. The
cour des aides was next suppressed.
Voltaire praised this revolution, applauding the suppression
of the old hereditary magistrature, but in general Maupeou's
policy was regarded as the triumph of tyranny. The remon-
strances of the princes, of the nobles, and of the minor courts,
were met by exile and suppression, but by the end of 1771 the
new system was established, and the Bar, which had offered a
passive resistance, recommenced to plead. But the death of
Louis XV. in May 1774 ruined the chancellor. The restoration of
the parlements was followed by a renewal of the quarrels between
the new king and the magistrature. Maupeou and Terrai were
replaced by Malesherbes and Turgot. Maupeou lived in retreat
until his death at Thuit on the 29th of July 1792, having lived
to see the overthrow of the ancien regime. His work, in so far
as it was directed towards the separation of the judicial and
political functions and to the reform of the abuses attaching to
a hereditary magistrature, was subsequently endorsed by the
Revolution ; but no justification of his violent methods or defence
of his intriguing and avaricious character is possible. He aimed
at securing absolute power for Louis XV., but his action was in
reality a serious blow to the monarchy.
MAUPERTUIS MAURER
907
The chief authority for the administration of Maupeou is the
compte rendu in his own justification presented by him to Louis
XVI. in 1789, which included a dossier of his speeches and edicts,
and is preserved in the Bibliotheque nationale. These documents,
in the hands of his former secretary, C. F. Lebrun, due de Plaisance,
formed the basis of the judicial system of France as established
under the consulate (cf. C. F. Lebrun, Opinions, rapports et choix
d'ecrits politiques, published posthumously in 1829). See further
Mav.peoua.na (6 vols., Paris, 1775), which contains the pamphlets
directed against him; Journal hist, de la revolution operee . . . par
M. de Maupeou (7 vols., 1775) ; the official correspondence of Mercy-
the letters of Mme d'Epinay; and Jules Flammermont,
Le Chancelier Maupeou et les parlements (1883).
MAUPERTUIS, PIERRE LOUIS MOREAU DE (1698-1759),
French mathematician and astronomer, was born at St Malo on
the 1 7th of July 1698. When twenty years of age he entered
the army, becoming lieutenant in a regiment of cavalry, and
employing his leisure on mathematical studies. After five years
he quitted the army and was admitted in 1723 a member of the
Academy of Sciences. In 1728 he visited London, and was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1736 he acted as chief
of the expedition sent by Louis XV. into Lapland to measure the
length of a degree of the meridian (see EARTH, FIGURE or), and
on his return home he became a member of almost all the
scientific societies of Europe. In 1740 Maupertuis went to
Berlin on the invitation of the king of Prussia, and took part in
the battle of Mollwitz, where he was taken prisoner by the
Austrians. On his release he returned to Berlin, and thence to
Paris, where he was elected director of the Academy of Sciences
in 1 742, and in the following year was admitted into the Academy.
Returning to Berlin in 1744, at the desire of Frederick II., he
was chosen president of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1746.
Finding his health declining, he repaired in 1757 to the south of
France, but went in 1758 to Basel, where he died on the 27th of
July 1759. Maupertuis was unquestionably a man of consider-
able ability as a mathematician, but his restless, gloomy dis-
position involved him in constant quarrels, of which his con-
troversies with Konig and Voltaire during the latter part of his
life furnish examples.
The following are his most important works: Sur la figure de la
terre (Paris, 1 738) ; Discours sur la parallaxe de la lune (Paris, 1741);
Discours sur la figure des astres (Pans, 1742) ; Elements de la g&ographie
(Paris, 1742); Lettre sur la comete de 1742 (Paris, 174^2); Astronomie
nautique (Paris, 1745 and 1746); Venus physique (Paris, 1745); Essai
de cosmologie (Amsterdam, 1750). His (Euvres were published in
1752 at Dresden and in 1756 at Lyons.
MAU RANIPUR, a town of British India in Jahnsi district, in
the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 17,231. It contains a
large community of wealthy merchants and bankers. A special
variety of red cotton cloth, known as kharua, is manufactured
and exported to all parts of India. Trees line many of the streets,
and handsome temples ornament the town.
MAUREL, ABDIAS (d. 1705), Camisard leader, became a
cavalry officer in the French army and gained distinction in
Italy; here he served under Marshal Catinat, and on this account
he himself is sometimes known as Catinat. In 1702, when the
revolt in the Cevennes broke out, he became one of the Camisard
leaders, and in this capacity his name was soon known and
feared. He refused to accept the peace made by Jean Cavalier in
1704, and after passing a few weeks in Switzerland he returned
to France and became one of the chiefs of those Camisards who
were still in arms. He was deeply concerned in a plot to capture
some French towns, a scheme which, it was hoped, would be
helped by England and Holland. But it failed; Maurel was
betrayed, and with -three other leaders of the movement was
burned to death at Nimes on the 22nd of April 1705. He was a
man of great physical strength; but he was very cruel, and
boasted he had killed 200 Roman Catholics with his own hands.
MAUREL, VICTOR (1848- ), French singer, was born at
Marseilles, and educated in music at the Paris Conservatoire.
He made his d6but in opera at Paris in 1868, and in London in
1873, and from that time onwards his admirable acting and
vocal method established his reputation as one of the finest
of operatic baritones. He created the leading part in Verdi's
Otello, and was equally fine in Wagnerian and Italian opera.
MAURENBRECHER, KARL PETER WILHELM (1838-1892),
German historian, was born at Bonn on the 2ist of December,
1838, and studied in Berlin and Munich under Ranke and Von
Sybel, being especially influenced by the latter historian. After
doing some research work at Simancas in Spain, he became
professor of history at the university of Dorpat in 1867; and was
then in turn professor at Konigsberg, Bonn and Leipzig. He died
at Leipzig on the 6th of November, 1892.
Many of Maurenbrecher's works are concerned with the Reforma-
tion, among them being England im Reformationszeitalter (Dusseldorf,
1866); Karl V. und die deutschen Protestanten (Dusseldorf, 1865);
Studien und Skizzen zur Geschichte der Reformationszeit (Leipzig,
1874); and the incomplete Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation
(Nordlingen, 1880). He also wrote Don Karlps (Berlin, 1876);
Griindung des deutschen Retches 1859-1871 (Leipzig, 1892, and again
1902); and Geschichte der deutschen Konieswahlen (Leipzig, 1889).
See G. Wolf, Wilhelm Maurenbrecher (Berlin, 1893).
MAUREPAS, JEAN FREDERIC PHELYPEAUX, COMTE DE
(1701-1781), French statesman, was born on the gth of July 1701
at Versailles, being the son of Jer6me de Pontchartrain, secretary
of state for the marine and the royal household. Maurepas
succeeded to his father's charge at fourteen, and began his
functions in the royal household at seventeen, while in 1725 he
undertook the actual administration of the navy. Although
essentially light and frivolous in character, Maurepas was
seriously interested in scientific matters, and he used the best
brains of France to apply science to questions of navigation and
of naval construction. He was disgraced in 1749, and exiled
from Paris for an epigram against Madame de Pompadour. On
the accession of Louis XVI., twenty-five years later, he became
a minister of state and Louis XVI. 's chief adviser. He gave
Turgot the direction of finance, placed Lamoignon-Malesherbes
over the royal household and made Vergennes minister for foreign
affairs. At the outset of his new career he showed his weakness
by recalling to their functions, in deference to popular clamour,
the members of the old parlement ousted by Maupeou, thus re-
constituting the most dangerous enemy of the royal power.
This step, and his intervention on behalf of the American states,
helped to pave the way for the French revolution. Jealous of his
personal ascendancy over Louis XVI., he intrigued against
Turgot, whose disgrace in 1776 was followed after six months of
disorder by the appointment of Necker. In 1781 Maurepas
deserted Necker as he had done Turgot, and he died at
Versailles on the 2ist of November 1781.
Maurepas is credited with contributions to the collection of
facetiae known as the Etrennes de la Saint Jean (2nd ed., 1742).
Four volumes of Memoires de Maurepas, purporting to be collected
by his secretary and edited by J. L. G. Soulavie in 1792, must be
regarded as apocryphal. Some of his letters were published in
1896 by the Soc. de I' hist, de Paris. His eloge in the Academy of
Sciences was pronounced by Condorcet.
MAURER, GEORQ LUDWIG VON (1700-1872), German
statesman and historian, son of a Protestant pastor, was born
at Erpolzheim, near Durkheim, in the Rhenish Palatinate, on
the 2nd of November 1790. Educated at Heidelberg, he went
in 1812 to reside in Paris, where he entered upon a systematic
study of the ancient legal institutions of the Germans. Return-
ing to Germany in 1814, he received an appointment under the
Bavarian government, and afterwards filled several important
official positions. In 1824 he published at Heidelberg his
Geschichte des altgermanischen und namentlich altbayrischen
ojfentlichmundlichen Gerichisverfahrens, which obtained the first
prize of the academy of Munich, and in 1826 he became professor
in the university of Munich. In 1829 he returned to official life,
and was soon offered an important post. In 1832, when Otto
(Otho), son of Louis I., king of Bavaria, was chosen to fill the
throne of Greece, a council of regency was nominated during
his minority, and Maurer was appointed a member. He applied
himself energetically to the task of creating institutions adapted
to the requirements of a modern civilized community ; but grave
difficulties soon arose and Maurer was recalled in 1834, when he
returned to Munich. This loss was a serious one for Greece.
Maurer was the ablest, most energetic and most liberal-minded
member of the council, and it was through his enlightened
MAURETANIA MAURICE, ST
efforts that Greece obtained a revised penal code, regular tri-
bunals and an improved system of civil procedure. Soon after
his recall he published Das griechische Volk in offenllicher,
kirMicher, und privalrechtlicher Beziehung wr und nach dent
Freiheitskampje bis zum 31 Juli 1834 (Heidelberg, 1835-1836),
a useful source of information for the history of Greece before
Otto ascended the throne, and also for the labours of the council
of regency to the time of the author's recall. After the fall of
the ministry of Karl von Abel (1788-1859) in 1847, he became
chief Bavarian minister and head of the departments of foreign
affairs and of justice, but was overthrown in the same year. He
died at Munich on the pth of May 1872. His only son, Conrad
von Maurer (1823-1902), was a Scandinavian scholar of some
repute, and like his father was a professor at the university of
Munich.
Maurer's most important contribution to history is a series of
books on the early institutions of the Germans. These are: Ein-
leitung zur Geschichte der Mark-, Hof-, Dorf-, und Stadtverfassung
und der offentlichen Gewalt (Munich, 1854); Geschichte der Marken-
verfassung in DeutsMand (Erlangen, 1856); Geschichte der
Fronhofe, der Bauernhofe, und der Hofverfassung in Deutschland
(Erlangen, 1862-1863); Geschichte der Dorfverfassung in Deutsch-
land (Erlangen, 1865-1866); and Geschichte der Stddteverfassung in
Deutschland (Erlangen, 1869-1871). These works are still impor-
tant authorities for the early history of the Germans. Among other
works are, Das Stadt- und Landrechtsbuch Ruprechts von Freising,
ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Schwabenspiegels (Stuttgart, 1839);
Uber die Freipflege (plegium liberale), und die Entstehung der grossen
und kleinen Jury in England (Munich, 1848); and Uber die deutsche
Reichsterritorial- und Rechtsgeschichte (1830).
See K. T. von Heigel, Denkwurdigkeiten des bayrischen Staatsrats
G. L. von Maurer (Munich, 1903).
MAURETANIA, the ancient name of the north-western angle
of the African continent, and under the Roman Empire also of
a large territory eastward of that angle. The name had different
significations at different times; but before the Roman occupation,
Mauretania comprised a considerable part of the modern Morocco
i.e. the northern portion bounded on the east by Algiers. Towards
the south we may suppose it bounded by the Atlas range, and
it seems to have been regarded by geographers as extending
along the coast to the Atlantic as far as the point where that
chain descends to the sea, in about 30 N. lat. (Strabo, p. 825).
The magnificent plateau in which the city of Morocco is situated
seems to have been unknown to ancient geographers, and was
certainly never included in the Roman Empire. On the other
hand, the Gaetulians to the south of the Atlas range, on the
date-producing slopes towards the Sahara, seem to have
owned a precarious subjection to the kings of Mauretania, as
afterwards to the Roman government. A large part of the
country is of great natural fertility, and in ancient times
produced large quantities of corn, while the slopes of Atlas
were clothed with forests, which, besides other kinds of timber,
produced the celebrated ornamental wood called citrum (Plin.
Hist. Nat. 13-96), for tables of which the Romans gave fabulous
prices. (For physical geography, see MOROCCO.)
Mauretania, or Maurusia as it was called by Greek writers, signified
the land of the Mauri, a term still retained in the modern name of
Moors (?..)._ The origin and ethnical affinities of the race are un-
certain; but it is probable that all the inhabitants of this northern
tract of Africa were kindred races belonging to the great Berber
family, possibly with an intermingled fair-skinned race from Europe
(see Tissot, Geographic comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique,
i. 400 seq. ; also BERBERS). They first appear in history at the time
of the Jugurthine War (110-106 B.C:), when Mauretania was under
the government of Bocchus and seems to have been recognized
as organized state (Sallust, Jugurtha, 19). To this Bocchus was
given, after the war, the western part of Jugurtha's kingdom of
Numidia, perhaps as far east as Saldae (Bougie). Sixty years later,
at the time of the dictator Caesar, we find two Mauretanian king-
doms, one to the west of the river Mulucha under Bogud, and the
other to the east under a Bocchus; as to the date or cause of the
division we are ignorant. Both these kings took Caesar's part in
the civil wars, and had their territory enlarged by him (Appian,
B.C. 4, 54). In 25 B.C., after their deaths, Augustus gave the two
kingdoms to Juba II. of Numidia (see under JUBA), with the river
Ampsaga as the eastern frontier (Plin. 5. 22; Ptol. 4. 3. i). Juba
and his son Ptolemaeus after him reigned till A.D. 40, when the latter
was put to death by Caligula, and shortly afterwards Claudius
incorporated the kingdom into the Roman state as two provinces,
viz. Mauretania Tingitana to the west of the Mulucha and M.
Caesariensis to the east of that river, the latter taking its name froni
the city Caesarea (formerly lol), which Juba had thus named and
adopted as his capital. Thus the dividing line between the two
provinces was the same as that which had originally separated
Mauretania from Numidia (q.v.). These provinces were governed
until the time of Diocletian by imperial procurators, and were
occasionally united for military purposes. Under and after Dio-
cletian M. Tingitana was attached administratively to the dioicesis
of Spain, with which it was in all respects closely connected ; while
M. Caesariensis was divided by making its eastern part into a separate
government, which was called M. Sitifensis from the Roman colony
Sitifis.
In the two provinces of Mauretania there were at the time of Pliny
a number of towns, including seven (possibly eight) Roman colonies
in M. Tingitana and eleven in M. Caesariensis; others were added
later. These were mostly military foundations, and served the
purpose of securing civilization against the inroads of the natives,
who were not in a condition to be used as material for town-life
as in Gaul and Spain, but were under the immediate government of
the procurators, retaining their own clan organization. Of these
colonies the most important, beginning from the west, were Lixus
on the Atlantic, Tingis (Tangier), Rusaddir (Melila, Melilla),
Cartenna (Tenes), lol or Caesarea (Cherchel), Icosium (Algiers),
Saldae (Bougie), Igilgili (Jijelli) and Sitifis (Setif). All these were
on the coast but the last, which was some distance inland. Besides
these there were many municipia or oppida civium romanorum
(Plin. 5. 19 seq.), but, as has been made clear by French archaeolo-
gists who have explored these regions, Roman settlements are less
frequent the farther we go west, and M. Tingitana has as yet yielded
but scanty evidence of Roman civilization. On the whole Mauretania
was in a flourishing condition down to the irruption of the Vandals
in A.D. 429; in the Notitia nearly -a hundred and seventy episcopal
sees are enumerated here, but we must remember that numbers of
these were mere villages.
In 1904 the term Mauretania was revived as an official designation
by the French government, and applied to the territory north of
the lower Senegal under French protection (see SENEGAL).
To the authorities quoted under AFRICA, ROMAN, may be added
here Gobel, Die West-kuste Afrikas im Alterthum. (W. W. F. *)
MAURIAC, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Cantal, 39 m. N.N.W. of Aurillac by
rail. Pop. (1906), 2558. Mauriac, built on the slope of a
volcanic hill, has a church of the i2th century, and the buildings
of an old abbey now used as public offices and dwellings; the
town owes its- origin to the abbey, founded during the 6th
century. It is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of
first instance and a communal college. There are marble
quarries in the vicinity.
MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286), an early Christian
martyr, who, with his companions, is commemorated by the
Roman Catholic Church on the 22nd of September. The oldest
form of his story is found in the Passio ascribed to Eucherius,
bishop of Lyons, c. 450, who relates how the " Theban " legion
commanded by Mauritius was sent to north Italy to reinforce
the army of Maximinian. Maximinian wished to use them in
persecuting the Christians, but as they themselves were of this
faith, they refused, and for this, after having been twice deci-
mated, the legion was exterminated at Octodurum (Martigny)
near Geneva. In late versions this legend was expanded and
varied, the martyrdom was connected with a refusal to take
part in a great sacrifice ordered at Octodurum and the name of
Exsuperius was added to that of Mauritius. Gregory of Tours
(c- 539-593) speaks of a company of the same' legion which
suffered at Cologne.
The Magdeburg Centuries, in spite of Mauritius being the patron
saint of Magdeburg, declared the whole legend fictitious; J. A. du
Bordien La Legion thebeenne (Amsterdam, 1705); J. J. Hottinger
in Helvetische Kirchengeschichte (Zurich, 1708); and F. W. Rettberg,
Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (Gottingen, 1845-1848) have also
demonstrated its untrustworthiness, while the Bollandists, De
Rivaz and Joh. Friedrich uphold it. Apart from the a priori
improbability of a whole legion being martyred, the difficulties are
that in 286 Christians everywhere throughout the empire were
not.' molested, that at no later date have we evidence of the
presence of Maximinian in the Valais, and that none of the writers
nearest to the event (Eusebius, Lactantius, Orosius, Sulpicius
Severus) know anything of it. It is of course quite possible that
isolated cases of officers being put to death for their faith occurred
during Maximinian's reign, and on some such cases the legend may
have grown up during the century and a half between Maximinian
and Eucherius. The cult of St Maurice and the Theban legion
is found in Switzerland (where two places bear the name in Valais,
MAURICE MAURICE OF SAXONY
909
besides St Moritz in Grisons), along the Rhine, and in north Italy.
The foundation of the abbey of St Maurice (Agaunum) in the Valais
is usually ascribed to Sigismund of Burgundy (515)- Relics of the
saint are preserved here and at Brieg and Turin.
MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539-602),
East Roman emperor from 582 to 602, was of Roman descent,
but a native of Arabissus in Cappadocia. He spent his youth at
the court of Justin II., and, having joined the army, fought with
distinction in the Persian War (578-581). At the age of forty-
three he was declared Caesar by the dying emperor Tiberius II.,
who bestowed upon him the hand of his daughter Constantina.
Maurice brought the Persian War to a successful close by the
restoration of Chosroes II. to the throne (591). On the northern
frontier he at first bought off the Avars by payments which
compelled him to exercise strict economy in his general adminis-
tration, but after 595 inflicted several defeats upon them through
his general Crispus. By his strict discipline and his refusal to
ransom a captive corps he provoked to mutiny the army on the
Danube. The revolt spread to the popular factions in Constanti-
nople, and Maurice consented to abdicate. He withdrew to
Chalcedon, but was hunted down and put to death after witness-
ing the slaughter of his five sons.
The work on military art (<rrpoTj-yocA) ascribed to him is a con-
temporary work of unknown authorship (ed. Scheffer, Arriani
tactica et Mauricii ars militaris, Upsala, 1664; see Max Jahns,
Gesch. d. Kriegswissensch., i. 152156).
See Theophylactus Simocatta, Vita Mauricii (ed. de Boor, 1887);
E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
London, 1896, v. 19-21, 57); J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire
(London, 1889, ii. 83-94); G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877,
Oxford, i. 299-306).
MAURICE (1521-1553), elector of Saxony, elder son of Henry,
duke of Saxony, belonging to the Albertine branch of the
Wettin family, was born at Freiberg on the 2ist of March 1521.
In January 1541 he married Agnes, daughter of Philip, landgrave
of Hesse. In that year he became duke of Saxony by his father's
death, and he continued Henry's work in forwarding the progress
of the Reformation. Duke Henry had decreed that his lands
should be divided between his two sons, but as a partition was
regarded as undesirable the whole of the duchy came to his
elder son. Maurice, however, made generous provision for his
brother Augustus, and the desire to compensate him still further
was one of the minor threads of his subsequent policy. In
1542 he assisted the emperor Charles V. against the Turks, in
1543 against William, duke of Cleves, and in 1544 against the
French; but his ambition soon took a wider range. The har-
monious relations which subsisted between the two branches of
the Wettins were disturbed by the interference of Maurice in
Cleves, a proceeding distasteful to the Saxon elector, John
Frederick; and a dispute over the bishopric of Meissen having
widened the breach, war was only averted by the mediation of
Philip of Hesse and Luther. About this time Maurice seized
the idea of securing for himself the electoral dignity held by
John Frederick, and his opportunity came when Charles was
preparing to attack the league of Schmalkalden. Although
educated as a Lutheran, religious questions had never seriously
appealed to Maurice. As a youth he had joined the league of
Schmalkalden, but this adhesion, as well as his subsequent
declaration to stand by the confession of Augsburg, cannot be
regarded as the decision of his maturer years. In June 1546 he
took a decided step by making a secret agreement with Charles
at Regensburg. Maurice was promised some rights over the
archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of Halberstadt;
immunity, in part at least, for his subjects from the Tridentine
decrees; and the question of transferring the electoral dignity
was discussed. In return the duke probably agreed to aid
Charles in his proposed attack on the league as soon as he could
gain the consent of the Saxon estates, or at all events to remain
neutral during the impending war. The struggle began in July
1 546, and in October Maurice declared war against John Frede-
rick. He secured the formal consent of Charles to the transfer
of the electoral dignity and took the field in November. He
had gained a few successes when John Frederick hastened from
south Germany to defend his dominions. Maurice's ally, Albert
Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth, was taken prisoner at Rochlitz;
and the duke,- driven from electoral Saxony, was unable to prevent
his own lands from being overrun. Salvation, however, was at
hand. Marching against John Frederick, Charles V., aided by
Maurice, gained a decisive victory at Mtihlberg in April 1547,
after which by the capitulation of Wittenberg John Frederick
renounced the electoral dignity in favour of Maurice, who also
obtained a large part of his kinsman's lands. The formal inves-
titure of the new elector took place at Augsburg in February
1548.
The plans of Maurice soon took a form less agreeable to the
emperor. The continued imprisonment of his father-in-law,
Philip of Hesse, whom he had induced to surrender to Charles and
whose freedom he had guaranteed, was neither his greatest nor
his only cause of complaint. The emperor had refused to
complete the humiliation of the family of John Frederick; he
had embarked upon a course of action which 'boded danger to
the elector's Lutheran subjects, and his increased power was a
menace to the position of' Maurice. Assuring Charles of his
continued loyalty, the elector entered into negotiations with the
discontented Protestant princes. An event happened which
gave him a base of operations, and enabled him to mask his
schemes against the emperor. In 1550 he had been entrusted
with the execution of the imperial ban against the city of
Magdeburg, and under cover of these operations he was able to
collect troops and to concert measures with his allies. Favour-
able terms were granted to Magdeburg, which surrendered and
remained in the power of Maurice, and in January 15523 treaty
was concluded with Henry II. of France at Chambord. Mean-
while Maurice had refused to recognize the Interim issued from
Augsburg in May 1 548 as binding on Saxony ; but a compromise
was arranged on the basis of which the Leipzig Interim was drawn
up for his lands. It is uncertain how far Charles was ignorant
of the elector's preparations, but certainly he was unprepared
for the attack made by Maurice and his allies in March 1552.
Augsburg was taken, the pass of Ehrenberg was forced, and in
a few days the emperor left Innsbruck as a fugitive. Ferdinand
undertook to make peace, and the Treaty of Passau, signed in
August 1552, was the result. Maurice obtained a general
amnesty and freedom for Philip of Hesse, but was unable to
obtain a perpetual religious peace for the Lutherans. Charles
stubbornly insisted that this question must be referred to the
Diet, and Maurice was obliged to give way. He then fought
against the Turks, and renewed his communications with Henry
of France. Returning from Hungary the elector placed himself
at the head of the princes who were seeking to check the career
of his former ally, Albert Alcibiades, whose depredations were
making him a curse to Germany. The rival armies met at
Sievershausen on the gth of July 1553, where after a fierce
encounter Albert was defeated. The victor, however, was
wounded during the fight and died two days later.
Maurice was a friend to learning, and devoted some of the
secularized church property to the advancement of education.
Very different estimates have been formed of his character. He
has been represented as the saviour of German Protestantism on
the one hand, and on the other as a traitor to his faith and
country. In all probability he was neither the one nor the other,
but a man of great ambition who, indifferent to religious con-
siderations, made good use of the exigencies of the time. He
was generous and enb'ghtened, a good soldier and a clever
diplomatist. He left an only daughter Anna (d. 1577), who
became the second wife of William the Silent, prince of Orange.
The elector's Politische Korrespondenz has been edited by E.
Brandenburg (Leipzig, 1900-1904); and a sketch of him is given
by Roger Ascham in A Report and Discourse of the Affairs and State
of Germany (London, 1864-1865). See also F. A. von Langenn,
Moritz Herzog und Churfurst zu Sachsen (Leipzig, 1841); G. Voigt,
Moritz von Sachsen (Leipzig, 1876); E. Brandenburg, Moritz von
Sachsen (Leipzig, 1898); S. Issleib, Moritz von Sachsen als protestan-
tischer Ftirst (Hamburg, 1898); j. Witter, Die Beziehung und der
Verkehr des Kurfursten Moritz mil Konig Ferdinand (Jena, 1886);
L. von Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation,
Bde. IV. and V. (Leipzig, 1882); and W. Maurenbrecher in the
AUgemeine deutsche Btographie, Bd. XXII. (Leipzig, 1885). For
MAURICE, J. F. D. MAURICE OF NASSAU
910
bibliography see Maurenbrecher ; and The Cambridge Modern
History, vol. ii. (Cambridge, 1903).
MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872),
English theologian, was born at Normanston, Suffolk, on the
29th of August, 1805. He was the son of a Unitarian minister,
and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1823, though it was
then impossible for any but members of the Established Church
to obtain a degree. Together with John Sterling (with whom
he founded the Apostles' Club) he migrated to Trinity Hall,
whence he obtained a first class in civil law in 1827; he then
came to London, and gave himself to literary work, writing a
novel, Eustace Conyers, and editing the London Literary
Chronicle until 1830, and also for a short time the Athenaeum.
At this time he was much perplexed as to his religious opinions,
and he ultimately found relief in a decision to take a further
university course and to seek Anglican orders. Entering Exeter
College, Oxford, he took a second class in classics in 1831. He
was ordained in 1834, and after a short curacy at Bubbenhall
in Warwickshire was appointed chaplain of Guy's Hospital, and
became thenceforward a sensible factor in the intellectual and
social life of London. From 1839 to 1841 Maurice was editor of
the Education Magazine. In 1840 he was appointed professor
of English history and literature in King's College, and to this
post in 1846 was added the chair of divinity. In 1845 he was
Boyle lecturer and Warburton lecturer. These chairs he held
till 1853. In that year he published Theological Essays, wherein
were stated opinions which savoured to the principal, Dr R. W.
Jelf, and to the council, of unsound theology in regard to eternal
punishment. He had previously been called on to clear himself
from charges of heterodoxy brought against him in the Quarterly
Review (1851), and had been acquitted by a committee of inquiry.
Now again he maintained with great warmth of conviction that
his views were in close accordance with Scripture and the
Anglican standards, but the council, without specifying any
distinct " heresy " and declining to submit the case to the judg-
ment of competent theologians, ruled otherwise, and he was
deprived of his professorships. He held at the same time the
chaplaincy of Lincoln's Inn, for which he had resigned Guy's
(1846-1860), but when he offered to resign this the benchers
refused. Nor was he assailed in the incumbency of St. Peter's,
Vere Street, which he held for nine years (1860-1869), an d
where he drew round him a circle of thoughtful people. During
the early years of this period he was engaged in a hot and bitter
controversy with H. L. Mansel (afterwards dean of St Paul's),
arising out of the latter's Bampton lecture upon reason and
revelation.
During his residence in London Maurice was specially identified
with two important movements for education. He helped to
found Queen's College for the education of women (1848), and
the Working Men's College (1854), of which he was the first
principal. He strongly advocated the abolition of university
tests (1853), and threw himself with great energy into all that
affected the social life of the people. Certain abortive attempts
at co-operation among working men, and the movement known
as Christian Socialism, were the immediate outcome of his
teaching. In 1866 Maurice was appointed professor of moral
philosophy at Cambridge, and from 1870 to 1872 was incumbent
of St Edward's in that city. He died on the ist of April 1872.
He was twice married, first to Anna Barton, a sister of John
Sterling's wife, secondly to a half-sister of his friend Archdeacon
Hare. His son Major-General Sir J. Frederick Maurice (b. 1841),
became a distinguished soldier and one of the most prominent
military writers of his time.
Those who knew Maurice best were deeply impressed with the
spirituality of his character. " Whenever he woke in the night,"
says his wife, " he was always praying." Charles Kingsley called
him " the most beautiful human soul whom God has ever allowed
me to meet with." As regards his intellectual attainments we
may set Julius Hare's verdict " the greatest mind since Plato "
over against Ruskin's " by nature puzzle-headed and indeed
wrong-headed." Such contradictory impressions bespeak a life
made up of contradictory elements. Maurice was a man of
peace, yet his life was spent in a series of conflicts; of deep
humility, yet so polemical that he often seemed biased; of large
charity, yet bitter in his attack upon the religious press of his
time; a loyal churchman who detested the label " Broad," yet
poured out criticism upon the leaders of the Church. With an
intense capacity for visualizing the unseen, and a kindly dignity,
he combined a large sense of humour. While most of the
" Broad Churchmen " were influenced by ethical and emotional
considerations in their repudiation of the dogma of everlasting
torment, he was swayed by purely intellectual and theological
arguments, and in questions of a more general liberty he often
opposed the proposed Liberal theologians, though he as often
took their side if he saw them hard pressed. He had a wide
metaphysical and philosophical knowledge which he applied to
the history of theology. He was a strenuous advocate of
ecclesiastical control in elementary education, and an opponent
of the new school of higher biblical criticism, though so far an
evolutionist as to believe in growth and development as applied
to the history of nations.
As a preacher, his message was apparently simple ; his two great
convictions were the fatherhood of God, and that all religious sys-
tems which had any stability lasted because of a portion of truth
which had to be disentangled from the error differentiating them from
the doctrines of the Church of England as understood by himself.
His love to God as his Father was a passionate adoration which filled
his whole heart. The prophetic, even apocalyptic, note of his preach-
ing was particularly impressive. He prophesied in London as
Isaiah prophesied to the little towns of Palestine and Syria, " often
with dark foreboding, but seeing through all unrest and convulsion
the working out of a sure divine purpose." Both at King's College
and at Cambridge Maurice gathered round him a band of earnest
students, to whom he directly taught much that was valuable drawn
from wide stores of his own reading, wide rather than deep, for
he never was, strictly speaking, a learned man. Still more did he
encourage the habit of inquiry and research, more valuable than his
direct teaching. In his Socratic power of convincing his pupijs
of their ignorance he did more than perhaps any other man of his
time to awaken in those who came under his sway the desire for
knowledge and the process of independent thought.
As a social reformer, Maurice was before his time, and gave his
eager support to schemes for which the world was not ready. From
an early period of his life in London the condition of the poor
pressed upon him with consuming force; the enormous magnitude
of the social questions involved was a burden which he could hardly
bear. For many years he was the clergyman whom working men
of all opinions seemed to trust even if their faith in other religious
men and all religious systems had faded, and he had a marvellous
power of attracting the zealot and the outcast.
His works cover nearly 40 volumes, often obscure, often tauto-
logical, and with no great distinction of style. But their high pur-
pose and philosophical outlook give his writings a permanent place
in the history of the thought of his time. The following are the more
important works some of them were rewritten and in a measure
recast, and the date given is not necessarily that of the first appear-
ance of the book, but of its more complete and abiding form:
Eustace Conway, or the Brother and Sister, a novel (1834) ; The King-
dom of Christ (1842); Christmas Day and Other Sermons (1843); The
Unity of the New Testament (1844); The Epistle to the Hebrews (1846);
The Religions of the World (1847) ; Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy
(at first an article in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, 1848) ; The
Church a Family (1850); The Old Testament (1851); Theological
Essays (1853); The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament (1853);
Lectures on Ecclesiastical History (1854); The Doctrine of Sacrifice
(1854); The Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament (1855);
The Epistles of St John (1857); The Commandments as Instruments
of National Reformation (1866); On the Gospel of St Luke (1868);
The Conscience: Lectures on Casuistry (1868); The Lord's Prayer,
a Manual (1870). The greater part of these works were first deli-
vered as sermons or lectures. Maurice also contributed many pre-
faces and introductions to the works of friends, as to Archdeacon
Hare's Charges, Kingsley's Saint's Tragedy, &c.
See Life by his son (2 vols., London, 1884), and a monograph by
C. F. G. Masterman (1907) in "Leader of the Church" series;
W. E. Collins in Typical English Churchmen, pp. 327-360 (1902), and
T. Hughes in The Friendship of Books (1873).
MAURICE OF NASSAU, prince of Orange (1567-1625), the
second son of William the Silent, by Anna, only daughter of the
famous Maurice, elector of Saxony, was born at Dillenburg. At
the time of his father's assassination in 1584 he was being
educated at the university of Leiden, at the expense of the states
of Holland and Zeeland. Despite his youth he was made stadt-
holder of those two provinces and president of the council of
MAURISTS
911
state. During the period of Leicester's governorship he remained
in the background, engaged in acquiring a thorough knowledge
of the military art, and in 1586 the States of Holland conferred
upon him the title of prince. On the withdrawal of Leicester
from the Netherlands in August 1587, Johan van Oldenbarne-
veldt, the advocate of Holland, became the leading statesman
of the country, a position which he retained for upwards of
thirty years. He had been a devoted adherent of William the
Silent and he now used his influence to forward the interests of
Maurice. In 1588 he was appointed by the States-General
captain and admiral-general of the Union, in 1590 he was elected
stadtholder of Utrecht and Overysel, and in 1591 of Gelderland.
From this time forward, Oldenbarneveldt at the head of the
civil government and Maurice in command of the armed forces
of the republic worked together in the task of rescuing the
United Netherlands from Spanish domination (for details see
HOLLAND). Maurice soon showed himself to be a general second
in skill to none of his contemporaries. He was especially famed
for his consummate knowledge of the science of sieges. The
twelve years' truce on the 9th of April 1609 brought to an end
the cordial relations between Maurice and Oldenbarneveldt.
Maurice was opposed to the truce, but the advocate's policy
triumphed and henceforward there was enmity between them.
The theological disputes between the Remonstrants and contra-
Remonstrants found them on different sides; and the theological
quarrel soon became a political one. Oldenbarneveldt, supported
by the states of Holland, came forward as the champion of pro-
vincial sovereignty against that of the states-general; Maurice
threw the weight of his sword on the side of the union. The
struggle was a short one, for the army obeyed the general who
had so often led them to victory. Oldenbarneveldt perished
on the scaffold, and the share which Maurice had in securing the
illegal condemnation by a packed court of judges of the aged
patriot must ever remain a stain upon his memory.
Maurice, who had on the death of his elder brother Philip
William, in February 1618, become prince of Orange, was now
supreme in the state, but during the remainder of his life he
sorely missed the wise counsels of the experienced Oldenbarne-
veldt. War broke out again in 1621, but success had ceased
to accompany him on his campaigns. His health gave way,
and he died, a prematurely aged man, at the Hague on the
4th of April 1625. He was buried by his father's side at
Delft.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Commelin, Wilhelm en Maurits v. Nassau,
pr. v. Orangien, haer leven en bedrijf (Amsterdam, 1651); G. Groen
van Prinsterer, Archives ou correspondance de la maison d' Orange-
Nassau, i e seVie, 9 vols. (Leiden, 1841-1861); G. Groen van Pnn-
sterer, Maurice el Barneveldt (Utrecht, 1875); J. L. Motley, Life and
Deathof John of Barneveldt (2 vols., The Hague, 1894); C.M.Kemp,
v.d. Maurits v. Nassau, prins v. Oranje in zijn leven en verdiensten
(4 vols., Rotterdam, 1843); M. O. Nutting, The Days of Prince
Maurice (Boston and Chicago, 1894).
HAURISTS, a congregation of French Benedictines called
after St Maurus (d. 565), a disciple of St Benedict and the
legendary introducer of the Benedictine rule and life into Gaul. 1
At the end of the i6th century the Benedictine monasteries of
France had fallen into a state of disorganization and relaxation.
In the abbey of St Vaune near Verdun a reform was initiated by
Dom Didier de la Cour, which spread to other houses in Lorraine,
and in 1604 the reformed congregation of St Vaune was estab-
lished, the most distinguished members of which were Ceillier
and Calmet. A number of French houses joined the new con-
gregation; but as Lorraine was still independent of the French
crown, it was considered desirable to form on the same lines a
separate congregation for France. Thus in 1621 was established
the famous French congregation of St Maur. Most of the
Benedictine monasteries of France, except those belonging to
Cluny, gradually joined the new congregation, which eventually
embraced nearly two hundred houses. The chief house was
Saint-Germain-des-Pr6s, Paris, the residence of the superior-
general and centre of the literary activity of the congregation.
1 His festival is kept on the 15th of January. He founded the
monastery of Glanfeuil or St Maur-sur-Loire.
The primary idea of the movement was not the undertaking of
literary and historical work, but the return to a strict monastic
regime and the faithful carrying out of Benedictine life; and
throughout the most glorious period of Maurist history the
literary work was not allowed to interfere with the due per-
formance of the choral office and the other duties of the monastic
life. Towards the end of the i8th century a tendency crept in,
in some quarters, to relax the monastic observances in favour of
study; but the constitutions of 1770 show that a strict monastic
regime was maintained until the end. The course of Maurist
history and work was checkered by the ecclesiastical controversies
that distracted the French Church during the I7th and i8th
centuries. Some of the members identified themselves with
the Jansenist cause; but the bulk, including nearly all the
greatest names, pursued a middle path, opposing the lax moral
theology condemned in 1679 by Pope Innocent XI., and adhering
to those strong views on grace and predestination associated
with the Augustinian and Thomist schools of Catholic theology;
and like all the theological faculties and schools on French soil,
they were bound to teach the four Galilean articles. It seems
that towards the end of the i8th century a rationalistic and free-
thinking spirit invaded some of the houses. The congregation
was suppressed and the monks scattered at the revolution, the
last superior-general with forty of his monks dying on the scaffold
in Paris. The present French congregation of Benedictines
initiated by Dom Gueranger in 1833 is a new creation and has
no continuity with the congregation of St Maur.
The great claim of the Maurists to the gratitude and admira-
tion of posterity is their historical and critical school, which
stands quite alone in history, and produced an extraordinary
number of colossal works of erudition which still are of per-
manent value. The foundations of this school were laid by Dom
Tarisse, the first superior-general, who in 1632 issued instructions
to the superiors of the monasteries to train the young monks in
the habits of research and of organized work. The pioneers in
production were Menard and d'Achery.
The following tables give, divided into groups, the most important
Maurist works, along with such information as may be useful to
students. All works are folio when not otherwise noted:
I. THE EDITIONS OF THE FATHERS
Epistle of Barnabas M4nard 1645 I in4 w
(editio princeps)
Lanfranc d'Achery 1648 I
Guibert of Nogent d'Achery 1651 I
Robert Pulleyn and Peter
of Poitiers Mathou 1655 I
Bernard Mabillon 1667 2
Anselm Gerberon 1675 I
Cassiodorus Caret 1679 I
Augustine (see Kukula, Delfau, Blampin.
Die Mauriner-Ausgabe Coustant, Guesnie 1681-1700 n
des Augustinus, 1898)
Ambrose du Frische 1686-1690 2
Acta martyrum sincera Ruinart 1689 I
Hilary Coustant 1693 I
Jerome Martianay 1693-1706 5
Athanasius Loppin and Mont-
faucon 1698 3
Gregory of Tours Ruinart 1699 I
Gregory the Great Sainte-Marthe 1705 4
Hildebert of Tours Beaugendre 1708 i
Irenaeus Massuet 1710 I
Chrysostom Montfaucon 1718-1738 13
Cyril of Jerusalem Touttee and Maran 1720 I
Epistolae romanorum Coustant 1721 I
pontificum *
Basil Gamier and Maran 1721-1730 3
Cyprian (Baluze, not a
Maurist) finished
by Maran 1726 I
Origen Ch. de la Rue (l,
2,3)V.delaRue(4)l733-i759 4
Justin and the Apolo- Maran 1742 I
gists
Gregory Nazianzen * Maran and Cl^men-
cet i 778 I
1 14 vols. of materials collected for the continuation are at Paris.
1 The printing of vol. ii. was impeded by the Revolution.
912
St Jerome's Latin Bible
Origen's Hexapla
Old Latin versions
MAURITIUS
II. BIBLICAL WORKS
Martianay
Montfaucon
Sabbathier
1693
1713
1743-1749
III. GREAT COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
Spicilegium d'Achery
Veterae analecta Mabillon
Musaeum italicum Mabillon
Co'.lectio nova patrum Montfaucon
graecorum
Thesaurus novus anecdo- Martene and Dur-
torum and
Veterum scriptorum col- Martene and Dur-
lectio and
De antiquis ecclesiae- Martene
ritibus (Final form)
IV. MONASTIC HISTORY
1655-1677 13 in 4*
1675-1685 4 in S*
1687-1689
1706
2 in
2
1717
1724-1733
1690-1706
i736-!738
Acta of the Benedictine
Saints
Benedictine Annals (to
1157)
d'Achery, Mabillon
and Ruinart 1668-1701 9
Mabillon (1-4), Mas-
suet (5), Martene
(6) i703-739 6
V. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF FRANCE
A. General.
Sainte-Marthe
(1,2,3)
Gallia Christiana (3 other
vols. were published
1856-1865)
Monuments de la mon-
archic francaise
Histoire litteiaire de la
France (16 other vols.
were published 1814-
1881)
Recueil des historiens de Bouquet (l-8), Brial
la France (4 other vols.
were published 1840-
1876)
Concilia Galliae (the
printing of vol. ii. was
interrupted by the Re-
volution ; there were
to have been 8 vols.
B. Histories of the Provinces.
Bretagne Lobineau 1707
Paris Felibien and Lobi-
neau 1725
Languedoc Vaissette and de Vic 1730-1745
Bourgogne Plancher (1-3), Merle 1739-1748,
(4) 1781
Bretagne Monce 1742-1756
Montfaucon
Rivet, C16mencet,
Clement
(12-19)
Labbat
I7I5-J785 13
1729-1733 5
1733-1763
1738-1833 19
1789
VI. MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF TECHNICAL ERUDITION
De re diplomatica
Ditto Supplement
Nouveau trait6 de dip-
lomatique
Paleographia graeca
Bibliotheca coisliniana
Bibliotheca bibliotheca-
rum manuscriptorum
nova
L'Antiquit6 expliqu6
New ed. of Du Cange's
glossarium
Ditto Supplement
Apparatus ad biblio-
thecam maximam
patrum
L'Art de verifier les
dates
Ed. 2
Ed. 3
Mabillon 1681
Mabillon 1704
ToustainandTassin 1750-1765
Montfaucon
Montfaucon
Montfaucon
1708
1715
1739
Montfaucon
Dantine and Car-
pentier
Carpentier
le Nourry
1719-1724
1733-1736
1766
1703
15
6
4
2
Dantine, Durand,
Cl^mencet
C16ment
C16ment
1750
1770
1783-1787 3
The 58 works in the above list comprise 199 great folio volumes
and 39 in 4' or 8. The full Maurist bibliography contains the names
of some 220 writers and more than 700 works. The lesser works
in large measure cover the same fields as those in the list, but the
number of works of purely religious character, of piety, devotion
and edification, is very striking. Perhaps the most wonderful pheno-
menon of Maurist work is that what was produced was only a portion
of what was contemplated and prepared for. The French Revolution
cut short many gigantic undertakings, the collected materials for which
fill hundreds of manuscript volumes in the Bibliotheque nationale of
Paris and other libraries of France. There are at Paris 31 volumes
of Berthereau's materials for the Historians of the Crusades, not only
tn Latin and Greek, but in the oriental tongues; from them have
been taken in great measure the Recueil des historiens des croisades,
whereof 15 folio volumes have been published by the Academic
des Inscriptions. There exist also the preparations for an edition
of Rufinus and one of Eusebius, and for the continuation of the Papal
Letters and of the Concilia Galliae. Dom Caffiaux and Dom Vitle-
vielle left 236 volumes of materials for a Tresor genealogique. There
are Benedictine Antiquities (37 vols.), a Monasticon Gallicanum and
a Monasticon Benedictinum (54 vols.). Of the Histories of the
Provinces of France barely half a dozen were printed, but all were
in hand, and the collections for the others fill 800 volumes of MSS.
The materials for a geography of Gaul and France in 50 volumes
perished in a fire during the Revolution.
When these figures were considered, and when one contemplates
the vastness of the works in progress during any decade of the cen-
tury 1680-1780; and still more, when not only the quantity but the
quality of the work, and the abiding value of most of it is realized,
it will be recognized that the output was prodigious and unique
in the history of letters, as coming from a single society. The quali-
ties that have made Maurist work proverbial for sound learning are
its fine critical tact and its thoroughness.
The chief source of information on the Maurists and their work
is Dom Tassin's Histoire litteraire de la. congregation de Saint-Maur
(1770); it has been reduced to a bare bibliography and completed
by de Lama, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la congr. de S.-M. (1882).
The two works of de Broglie, Mabillon (2 vols., 1888) and Montfaucon
(2 vols., 1891), give a charming picture of the inner life of the great
Maurists of the earlier generation in the midst of their work and their
friends. Sketches of the lives of a few of the chief Maurists will be
found in McCarthy's Principal Writers of the Congr. of S. M. (1868).
Useful information about their literary undertakings will be found
in De Lisle's Cabinet des MSS. de la Bibl. Nat. Fonds St Germain-des-
Pres. General information will be found in the standard authori-
ties: Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1718), vi. c. 37; Heimbucher,
Orden and Kongregationen (1907) i. 36; Wetzer und Welte, Kirchen-
lexicon (ed. 2) and Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (ed. 3), the
latter an interesting appreciation by the Protestant historian Otto
Zockler of the spirit and the merits of the work of the Maurists.
(E. C. B.)
MAURITIUS, an island and British colony in the Indian Ocean
(known whilst a French possession as the lie de France). It
lies between 57 18' and 57 49' E., and 19 58' and 20 32' S.,
550 m. E. of Madagascar, 2300 m. from the Cape of Good Hope,
and 9500 m. from England via Suez. The island is irregulaily
elliptical somewhat triangular in shape, and is 36 m. long
from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and about 23 m. broad. It is 130 m.
in circumference, and its total area is about 710 sq. m. (For
map see MADAGASCAR.) The island is surrounded by coral
reefs, so that the ports are difficult of access.
From its mountainous character Mauritius is a most pic-
turesque island, and its scenery is very varied and beautiful.
It has been admirably described by Bernardin de St Pierre, who
lived in the island towards the close of the i8th century, in
Paul el Virginie. The most level portions of the coast districts
are the north and north-east, all the rest being broken by hills,
which vary from 500 to 2700 ft. in height. The principal
mountain masses are the north-western or Pouce range, in the
district of Port Louis; the south-western, in the districts of
Riviere Noire and Savanne; and the south-eastern range, in the
Grand Port district. In the first of these, which consists of one
principal ridge with several lateral spurs, overlooking Port
Louis, are the singular peak of the Pouce (2650 ft.), so called
from its supposed resemblance to the human thumb; and the
still loftier Pieter Botte (2685 ft.), a tall obelisk of bare rock,
crowned with a globular mass of stone. The highest summit in
the island is in the south-western mass of hills, the Piton de la
Riviere Noire, which is 2711 ft. above the sea. The south-
eastern group of hills consists of the Montagne du Bambou, with
several spurs running down to the sea. In the interior are
extensive fertile plains, some 1200 ft. in height, forming the
districts of Moka, Vacois, and Plaines Wilhelms; and from nearly
the centre of the island an abrupt peak, the Piton du Milieu de
1'lle rises to a height of 1932 ft. Other prominent summits are
the Trois Mamelles, the Montagne du Corps de Garde, the Signal
Mountain, near Port Louis, and the Morne Brabant, at the south-
west corner of the island.
The rivers are small, and none is navigable beyond a few
hundred yards from the sea. In the dry season little more
than brooks, they become raging torrents in the wet season.
The principal stream is the Grande Riviere, with a course of
about 10 m. There is a remarkable and very deep lake, called
MAURITIUS
Grand Bassin, in the south of the island, it is probably the
extinct crater of an ancient volcano; similar lakes are the Mare
aux Vacois and the Mare aux Jones, and there are other deep
hollows which have a like origin.
Geology. The island is of volcanic origin, but has ceased to show
signs of volcanic activity. All the rocks are of basalt and greyish-
tinted lavas, excepting some beds of upraised coral. Columnar
basalt is seen in several places. The remains of ancient craters can
be distinguished, but their outlines have been greatly destroyed by
denudation. There are many caverns and steep ravines, and from
the character of the rocks the ascents are rugged and precipitous.
The island has few minerals, although iron, lead and copper in very
small quantities have in former times been obtained. The greater
part of the surface is composed of a volcanic breccia, with here and
there lava-streams exposed in ravines, and sometimes on the surface.
The commonest lavas are dolerites. In at least two places sedimen-
tary rocks are found at considerable elevations. In the Black River
Mountains, at a height of about 1200 ft., there is a clay-slate; and
near Midlands, in the Grand Port group of mountains, a chloritic
schist occurs about 1700 ft. above the sea, forming the hill of La
Selle. This schist is much contorted, but seems to have a general
dip to the south or south-east. Evidence of recent elevation of the
island is furnished by masses of coral reef and beach coral rock
standing at heights of 40 ft. above sea-level in the south, 12 ft. in
the north and 7 ft. on the islands situated on the bank extending
to the north-east. 1
Climate. The climate is pleasant during the cool season of the
year, but oppressively hot in summer (December to April), except
in the elevated plains of the interior, where the thermometer ranges
from 70 to 80 F., while in Port Louis and on the coast generally
it ranges from 90 to 96. The mean temperature for the year at
Port Louis is 78-6. There are two seasons, the cool and compara-
tively dry season, from April to November, and the hotter season,
during the rest of the year. The climate is now less healthy than it
was, severe epidemics of malarial fever having frequently occurred,
so that malaria now appears to be endemic among the non-European
population. The rainfall varies greatly in different parts of the
island. Cluny in the Grand Port (south-eastern) district has a mean
annual rainfall of 145 in.; Albion on the west coast is the driest
station, with a mean annual rainfall of 31 in. The mean monthly
rainfall for the whole island varies from 12 in. in March to 2-6 in:
in September and October. The Royal Alfred Observatory is situ-
ated at Pamplemousses, on the north-west or dry side of the island.
From January to the middle of April, Mauritius, in common with
the neighbouring islands and the surrounding ocean from 8 to 30 of
southern latitude is subject to severe cyclones, accompanied by
torrents of rain, which often cause great destruction to houses and
plantations. These hurricanes generally last about eight hours, but
they appear to be less frequent and violent than in former times,
owing, it is thought, to the destruction of the ancient forests and the
consequent drier condition of the atmosphere.
Fauna and Flora. Mauritius being an oceanic island of small
size, its present fauna is very limited in extent. When first seen by
Europeans it contained no mammals except a large fruit-eating bat
(Pteropus vulgans), which is plentiful in the woods; but several mam-
mals have been introduced, and are now numerous in the uncultivated
region. Among these are two monkeys of the genera Macacus and
Cercopithectis, a stag (Cervus hippelaphus), a small hare, a shrew-
mouse, and the ubiquitous rat. A lemur and one of the curious
hedgehog-like Insectvuora of Madagascar (Centetes ecaudatus) have
probably both been brought from the larger island. The avifauna
resembles that of Madagascar; there are species of a peculiar genus
of caterpillar shrikes (Campephagidae) , as well as of the genera
Pratincola, Hypsipetes, Phedina, Tchitrea, Zoslerops, Foudia, Collo-
calia and Coracopsis, and peculiar forms of doves and parakeets.
The living reptiles are small and few in number. The surrounding
seas contain great numbers of fish ; the coral reefs abound with a great
variety of molluscs; and there are numerous land-shells. The ex-
tinct fauna of Mauritius has considerable interest. In common with
the other Mascarene islands, it was the home of the dodo (Didus
ineptus) ; there were also A phanapteryx, a species of rail, and a short-
winged heron (Ardea megacephala), which probably seldom flew.
The defenceless condition of these birds led to their extinction after
the island was colonized. Considerable quantities of the bones of the
dodo and other extinct birds a rail (A phanapteryx), and a short-
winged heron have been discovered in the beds of some of the
ancient lakes (see DODO). Several species of large fossil tortoises
have also been discovered; they are quite different from the living
ones of Aldabra, in the same zoological region.
Owing to the destruction of the primeval forests for the formation
of sugar plantations, the indigenous flora is only seen in parts of the
interior plains, in the river valleys and on the hills; and it is not
now easy to distinguish between what is native and what has come
from abroad. The principal timber tree is the ebony (Diospyros
cbeneum), which grows to a considerable size. Besides this there
are bois de cannelle, olive-tree, benzoin (Crolon Benzoe), colophane
(Colophonia), and iron-wood, all of which arc useful in carpentry;
1 See Geog. Journ. (June 1895), p. 597.
the coco-nut palm, an importation, but a tree which has been so
extensively planted during the last hundred years that it is extremely
plentiful; the palmiste (Palma dactylifera latifolia), the latanier
(Corypha umbraculifera) and the date-palm. The vacoa or vacois,
(Pandanus utilis) is largely grown, the long tough leaves being
manufactured into bags for the export of sugar, and the roots being
also made of use; and in the few remnants of the original forests
the traveller's tree (Urania speciosa), grows abundantly. A species
of bamboo is very plentiful in the river valleys and in marshy situa-
tions. A large variety of fruit is produced, including the tamarind,
mango, banana, pine-apple, guava, shaddock, fig, avocado-pear,
litchi, custard-apple and the mabolo (Diospyros discolor), a fruit
of exquisite flavour, but very disagreeable odour. Many of the
roots and vegetables of Europe have been introduced, as well as
some of those peculiar to the tropics, including maize, millet, yams,
manioc, dhol, gram, &c. Small quantities of tea, rice and sago,
have been grown, as well as many of the spices (cloves, nutmeg,
ginger, pepper and allspice), and also cotton, indigo, betel, camphor,
turmeric and vanilla. The Royal Botanical Gardens at Pample-
mousses, which date from the French occupation of the island,
contain a rich collection of tropical and extra-tropical species.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants consist of two great divisions,
those of European blood, chiefly French and British, together
with numerous half-caste people, and those of Asiatic or African
blood. The population of European blood, which calls itself
Creole, is greater than that of any other tropical colony; many
of the inhabitants trace their descent from ancient French
families, and the higher and middle classes are distinguished for
their intellectual culture. French is more commonly spoken
than English. The Creole class is, however, diminishing, though
slowly, and the most numerous section of the population is of
Indian blood.
The introduction of Indian coolies to work the sugar plantations
dates from the period of the emancipation of the slaves in 1834-
1839. At that time the negroes who showed great unwillingness
to work on their late masters' estates, numbered about 66,000.
Immigration from India began in 1834, and at a census taken in
1846, when the total population was 158,462, there were already
56,245 Indians in the island. In 1851 the total population had
increased to 180,823, while in 1861 it was 310,050. This great
increase was almost entirely due to Indian immigration, the Indian
population, 77,996 in 1851, being 192,634 in 1861. From that year
the increase in the Indian population has been more gradual but
steady, while the non-Indian population has decreased. From 102,827
in 1851 it rose to 117,416 in 1861 to sink to 99,784 in 1871. The
figures for the three following census years were:
Indians
Others
Total
1881. 1891. 1901.
248,993 255,920 259,086'
110,881 114,668 iii,937
359-874 370,588 371-023
Including the military and crews of ships in harbour, the total
population in 1901 was 373,336.* This total included 198,958
Indo-Mauritians, i.e. persons of Indian descent born in Mauritius, and
62,022 other Indians. There were 3,509 Chinese, while the remaining
108,847 included persons of European, African or mixed descent,
Malagasy, Malays and Sinhalese. The Indian female population
increased from 51,019 in 1861 to 115,986 in 1901. In the same period
the non-Indian female population but slightly varied, being 56,070
in 1861 and 55,485 in 1901. The Indo-Mauritians are now dominant
in commercial, agricultural and domestic callings, and much town
and agricultural land has been transferred from the Creole planters
to Indians and Chinese. The tendency to an Indian peasant
proprietorship is marked. Since 1864 real property to the value of
over 1,250,000 has been acquired by Asiatics. Between 1881 and
1901 the number of sugar estates decreased from 171 to 1 15, those sold
being held in small parcels by I ndians. The average death-rate for the
period 1873-1901 was 32-6 per 1000. The average birth-rate in
the Indian community is 37 per 1000; in the non-Indian community
34 per 1000. Many Mauritian Creoles have emigrated to South
Africa. The great increase in the population since 1851 has made
Mauritius one of the most densely peopled regions of the world,
having over 520 persons per square mile.
Chief Towns. The capital and seat of government, the city of
Port Louis, is on the north-western side of the island, in 20 10' S.,
57 30' E. at the head of an excellent harbour, a deep inlet about a
mile long, available for ships of the deepest draught. This is
protected by Fort William and Fort George, as well as by the citadel
(Fort Adelaide), and it has three graving-docks connected with the
inner harbour, the depths alongside quays and berths being from
12 to 28 ft. The trade of the island passes almost entirely through the
port. Government House is a three-storeyed structure with broad
1 The total population of the colony (including dependencies)
on the 1st of January 1907 was estimated at 383,206.
914
MAURITIUS
verandas, of no particular style of architecture, while the Protestant
cathedral was formerly a powder magazine, to which a tower and
spire have been added. The Roman Catholic cathedral is more
pretentious in style, but is tawdry in its interior. There are, besides
the town-hall, Royal College, public offices and theatre, large barracks
and military stores. Port Louis, which is governed by an elective
municipal council, is surrounded by lofty hills and its unhealthy
situation is aggravated by the difficulty of effective drainage owing
to the small amount of tide in the harbour. Though much has
been done to make the town sanitary, including the provision of a
good water-supply, the death-rate is generally over 44 per 1000.
Consequently all those who can make their homes in the cooler up-
lands ot the interior. As a result the population of the city decreased
from about 70,000 in 1891 to 53,000 in 1901. The favourite resi-
dential town is Curepipe, where the climate resembles that of the
south of France. It is built on the central plateau about 20 m.
distant from Port Louis by rail and 1800 ft. above the sea. Curepipe
was incorporated in 1888 and had a population (1901) of 13,000
On the railway between Port Louis and Curepipe are other residential
towns Beau Bassin, Rose Hill and Quatre Bornes. Mahebourg,
pop. (1901), 4810, is a town on the shores of Grand Port on the
south-east side of the island, Souillac a small town on the south
coast.
Industries. The Sugar Plantations: The soil of the island is of
considerable fertility; it is a ferruginous red clay, but so largely
mingled with stones of all sizes that no plough can be used, and the
hoe has to be employed to prepare the ground for cultivation. The
greater portion of the plains is now a vast sugar plantation. The
bright green of the sugar fields is a striking feature in a view of
Mauritius from the sea, and gives a peculiar beauty and freshness to
the prospect. The soil is suitable for the cultivation of almost all
kinds of tropical produce, and it is to be regretted that the prosperity
of the colony depends almost entirely on one article of production,
for the consequences are serious when there is a failure, more or less,
of the sugar crop. Guano is extensively imported as a manure, and
by its use the natural fertility of the soil has been increased to a
wonderful extent. Since the beginning of the aoth century some
attention has been paid to the cultivation of tea and cotton, with
encouraging results. Of the exports, sugar amounts on an average
to about 95 % of the total. The quantity of sugar exported rose
from 102,000 tons in 1854 to 189,164 tons in 1877. The competition
of beet-sugar and the effect of bounties granted by various countries
then began to tell on the production in Mauritius, the average crop
lot the seven years ending 1900-1901 being only 150,449 tons. The
Brussels Sugar Convention of 1902 led to an increase in production,
the average annual weight of sugar exported for the three years
1904-1906 being 182,000 tons. The value of the crop was likewise
seriously affected by the causes mentioned, and by various diseases
which attacked the canes. Thus in 1878 the value of the sugar
exported was 3,408,000; in 1888 it had sunk to 1,911,000, and in
1898 to 1,632,000. In 1900 the value was 1,922,000, and in 1905
t had risen to 2,172,000. India and the South African colonies
between them take some two-thirds of the total produce. The
remainder is taken chiefly by Great Britain, Canada and Hong- Kong.
Next to sugar, aloe-fibre is the most important export, the average
annual export for the five years ending 1906 being 1840 tons. In
addition, a considerable quantity of molasses and smaller quantities
of rum, vanilla and coco-nut oil are exported. The imports are
mainly nee, wheat, cotton goods, wine, coal, hardware and haber-
dashery, and guano. The rice comes principally from India and
Madagascar; cattle are imported from Madagascar, sheep from South
Africa and Australia, and frozen meat from Australia. The average
annual value of the exports for the ten years 1896-1905 was
2 - 1 53. '59; the average annual value of the imports for the same
period 1,453,089. These figures when compared with those in
years before the beet and bounty-fed sugar had entered into severe
competition with cane sugar, show how greatly the island had
thereby suffered. In 1864 the exports were valued at 2,249,000; in
1868 at 2,339000; in 1877 at 4,201,000 and in 1880 at 3,634,000.
And in each of the years named the imports exceeded 2,000,000 in
value. Nearly all the aloe-fibre exported is taken by Great Britain
and France, while the molasses goes to India. Among the minor
exports is that of bambara or sea-slugs, which are sent to Hong-Kong
and Singapore. This industry is chiefly in Chinese hands. The
great majority of the imports are from Great Britain or British
possessions.
The currency of Mauritius is rupees and cents of a rupee, the Indian
rupee ( = i6<2.) being the standard unit. The metric system of
weights and measures has been in force since 1878
Communications.--There is a regular fortnightly steamship ser-
vice between Marseilles and Port Louis by the Messageries Maritimes,
a four-weekly service with Southampton via Cape Town by the
Union Castle, and a four- weekly service with Colombo direct by the
v j Co - I, j 303 * 3 - There is als frequent communication
with Madagascar, Reunion and Natal. The average annual tonnage
| h !P. s entering Port Louis is about 750,000 of which five-sevenths
is British. Cable communication with Europe, via the Seychelles,
^fonfth r" den i was .established in 1893, and the Mauritius
section of the Cape-Australian cable, via Rodriguez, was completed
Railways connect all the principal places and sugar estates on the
island, that known as the Midland line, 36 miles long, beginning al
Port Louis crosses the island to Mahebourg, passing through
Curepipe, where it is 1822 ft. above the sea. There are in all over
120 miles of railway, all owned and worked by the government
1 he first railway was opened in 1864. The roads are well kept and
there is an extensive system of tramways for bringing produce
from the sugar estates to the railway lines. Traction engines are
also largely used. There is a complete telegraphic and telephonic
service.
Government and Revenue. Mauritius is a crown colony. The
governor is assisted by an executive council of five official and
two elected members, and a legislative council of 27 members,
8 sitting ex officio, 9 being nominated by the governor and 10
elected on a moderate franchise. Two of the elected members
represent St Louis, the 8 rural districts into which the island is
divided electing each one member. At least one-third of the
nominated members must be persons not holding any public
office. The number of registered electors in 1908 was 6186.
The legislative session usually lasts from April to December.
Members may speak either in French or English. The average
annual revenue of the colony for the ten years 1896-1005, was
608,245, the average annual expenditure during the same
period 663,606. Up to 1854 there was a surplus in hand, but
since that time expenditure has on many occasions exceeded
income, and the public debt in 1908 was 1,305,000, mainly
incurred however on reproductive works.
The island has largely retained the old French laws, the codes
civil, de procedure, du commerce, and d'instruction criminelle
being still in force, except so far as altered by colonial ordinances.
A supreme court of civil and criminal justice was established in
1831 under a chief judge and three puisne judges.
Religion and Education. The majority of the European inhabi-
tants belong to the Roman Catholic faith. They numbered at the
1901 census 117,102, and the Protestants 6644. Anglicans, Roman
Catholics and the Church of Scotland are helped by state grants.
At the head of the Anglican community is the bishop of Mauritius;
the chief Romanist dignitary is styled bishop of Port Louis. The
Mahommedans number over 30,000, but the majority of the Indian
coolies are Hindus.
The educational system, as brought into force in 1900, is under
a director of public instruction assisted by an advisory committee,
and consists of two branches (i) superior or secondary instruction,
(2) primary instruction. For primary instruction there are govern-
ment schools and schools maintained by the Roman Catholics, Pro-
testants and other faiths, to which the government gives grants in
aid. In 1908 there were 67 government schools with 8400 scholars
and 90 grant schools with 10,200 scholars, besides Hindu schools
receiving no grant. The Roman Catholic scholars number 67-72 %
the Protestants 3-80%; Mahommedans 8-37%; and Hindus and
others 20- 1 1 %. Secondary and higher education is given in the
Royal College and associated schools at Port Louis and Curepipe.
Defence. Mauritius occupies an important strategic position
on the route between South Africa and India and in relation to
Madagascar and East Africa, while in Port Louis it possesses one of
the finest harbours in the Indian Ocean. A permanent garrison
of some 3000 men is maintained in the island at a cost of about
180,000 per annum. To the cost of the troops Mauritius contributes
5t % of its annual revenue about 30,000.
History. Mauritius appears to have been unknown to Euro-
pean nations, if not to all other peoples, until the year 1505, when
it was discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese navigator. It
had then no inhabitants, and there seem to be no traces of a pre-
vious occupation by any people. The island was retained for most
of the 1 6th century by its discoverers, but they made no settle-
ments in it. In 1598 the Dutch took possession, and named the
island " Mauritius," in honour of their stallholder, Count
Maurice of Nassau. It had been previously called by the Portu-
guese " Ilha do Cerne," from the belief that it was the island
so named by Pliny. But though the Dutch built a fort at
Grand Port and introduced a number of slaves and convicts,
they made no permanent settlement in Mauritius, finally aban-
doning the island in 1710. From 1715 to 1767 (when the French
government assumed direct control) the island was held by agents
of the French East India Company, by whom its name was again
_1 1 j. _ II 9l __ J _ T^ _ > ml j-f f . .
changed to " lie de France." The Company was fortunate in
having several able men as governors of its colony, especially
the celebrated Mah6 de Labourdonnais (q.v.), who made sugar
MAURY, J. S.
planting the main industry of the inhabitants. 1 Under his
direction roads were made, forts built, and considerable portions
of the forest were cleared, and the present capital, Port Louis,
was founded. Labourdonnais also promoted the planting of
cotton and indigo, and is remembered as the most enlightened
and best of all the French governors. He also put down the
maroons or runaway slaves who had long been the pest of the
island. The colony continued to rise in value during the time
it was held by the French crown, and to one of the intendants, 2
Pierre Poivre, was due the introduction of the clove, nutmeg
and other spices. Another governor was D'Entrecasteaux,
whose name is kept in remembrance by a group of islands
east of New Guinea.
During the long war between France and England, at the
commencement of the igth century, Mauritius was a continual
source of much mischief to English Indiamen and other merchant
vessels; and at length the British government determined upon
an expedition for its capture. This was effected in 1810; and
upon the restoration of peace in 1814 the possession of the
island was confirmed to Britain by the Treaty of Paris. By
the eighth article of capitulation it was agreed that the inhabi-
tants should retain their own laws, customs, and religion; and
thus the island is still largely French in language, habits, and
predilections; but its name has again been changed to that given
by the Dutch. One of the most distinguished of the British
governors was Sir Robert Farquhar (1810-1823), who did much
to abolish the Malagasy slave trade and to establish friendly
relations with the rising power of the Hova sovereign of Mada-
gascar. Later governors of note were Sir Henry Barkly (1863-
1871), and Sir J. Pope Hennessy (1883-1886 and 1888).
The history of the colony since its acquisition by Great Britain
has been one of social and political evolution. At first all
power was concentrated in the hands of the governor, but in
1832 a legislative council was constituted on which non-official
nominated members served. In 1884-1885 this council was
transformed into a partly elected body. Of more importance
than the constitutional changes were the economic results which
followed the freeing of the slaves (1834-1839) for the loss
of whose labour the planters received over 2,000,000 compen-
sation. Coolies were introduced to supply the place of the
negroes, immigration being definitely sanctioned by the govern-
ment of India in 1842. Though under government control the
system of coolie labour led to many abuses. A royal commis-
sion investigated the matter in 1871 and since that time the
evils which were attendant on the system have been gradually
remedied. One result of the introduction of free labour has
been to reduce the descendants of the slave population to a
small and unimportant class Mauritius in this respect offering
a striking contrast to the British colonies in the West Indies.
The last half of the igth century was, however, chiefly notable
in Mauritius for the number of calamities which overtook the
island. In 1854 cholera caused the death of 17,000 persons;
in 1867 over 30,000 people died of malarial fever; in 1892 a
hurricane of terrific violence caused immense destruction oi
property and serious loss of life; in 1893 great part of Port Louis
was destroyed by fire. There were in addition several epidemics
of small-pox and plague, and from about 1880 onward the
continual decline in the price of sugar seriously affected the
islanders, especially the Creole population. During 1902-1905
an outbreak of surra, which caused great mortality among
draught animals, further tried the sugar planters and neces-
sitated government help. Notwithstanding all these calamities
the Mauritians, especially the Indo-Mauritians, have succeedec
in maintaining the position of the colony as an important sugar
producing country.
Dependencies. Dependent upon Mauritius and forming part o
the colony are a number of small islands scattered over a larg<
1 Labourdonnais is credited by several writers with the introduc
tion of the sugar cane into the island. Leguat, however, mention
it as being cultivated during the Dutch occupation.
The regime introduced in 1767 divided the administration
between a governor, primarily charged with military matters, am"
an intendant.
9*5
xtent of the Indian Ocean. Of these the chief is Rodriguez Oj.r.),
75 m. east of Mauritius. Considerably north-east of Rodriguez
ie the Oil Islands or Chagos archipelago, of which the chief is
)iego Garcia (see CHAGOS). The Cargados, Carayos or St Brandon
slets, deeps and shoals, lie at the south end of the Nazareth Bank
about 250 m. N.N.E. of Mauritius. Until 1903 the Seychelles,
Amirantes, Aldabra and other islands lying north of Madagascar
were also part of the colony of Mauritius. In the year named
hey were formed into a separate colony (see SEYCHELLES). Two
stands, Farquhar and Coetivy, though geographically within the
Seychelles area, remained dependent on Mauritius, being owned by
residents in that island. In 1908, however, Coetivy was transferred
o the Seychelles administration. Amsterdam and St Paul, un-
nhabited islands in the South Indian Ocean, included in an official
ist of the dependencies of Mauritius drawn up in 1 880, were in
1893 annexed by France. The total population of the dependencies
of Mauritius was estimated in 1905 at 5400.
AUTHORITIES. F. Leguat, Voyages et aventures en deux isles desertes
des Indes orientates (Eng. trans., A New Voyage to the East Indies;
Condon, 1708); Prudham, "England's Colonial Empire," vol. i.,
The Mauritius and its Dependencies (1846) ; C. P. Lucas, A Historical
Geography of the British Colonies, vol. i. (Oxford, 1888); Ch. Grant,
\tistory of Mauritius, or the Isle of France and Neighbouring Islands
[1801); J. Milbert, Voyage pittoresque a l'Ile-de- France, &c., 4 vols.
[1812); Aug. Billiard, Voyage aux colonies orientales (1822); P.
Beaton, Creoles and Coolies, or Five Years in Mauritius (1859);
Paul Chasteau, Histoire et description de I'tle Maurice (1860);
h". P. Flemyng, Mauritius, or the Isle of France (1862); Ch. J. Boyle,
Far Away, or Sketches of Scenery and Society in Mauritius (1867);
L. Simonin, Les Pays lointains, notes de voyage (Maurice, &c.)
(1867); N. Pike, Sub-Tropical Rambles in the Land of the Aphan-
apteryx (1873); A. R. Wallace. " The Mascarene Islands," in ch. xi.
vol. i. of The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) ; K. Mobius,
F. Richter and E. von Martens, Beitrage zur Meeresfauna der Insel
Mauritius und der Seychellen (Berlin, 1880); G. Clark, A Brief
Notice of the Fauna of Mauritius (1881) ; A. d'Epinay, Renseignements
pour servir a Ihistoire de I'lle de France jusqu'a 1810 (Mauritius,
1890); N. Decotter, Geography of Mauritius and its Dependencies
(Mauritius, 1892) ; H. de Haga Haig, " The Physical Features and
Geology of Mauritius " in vol. li., Q. J. Geol. Soc. (1895) ; the Annual
Reports on Mauritius issued by the Colonial Office, London; The
Mauritius Almanack published yearly at Port Louis. A map
of the island in six sheets on the scale of one inch to a mile was
issued by the War Office in 1905. (J. Si.*)
MAURY, JEAN SIFFREIN (1746-1817), French cardinal and
archbishop of Paris, the son of a poor cobbler, was born on the
26th of June 1746 at Valreas in the Comtat-Venaissin, the dis-
trict in France which belonged to the pope. His acuteness was
observed by the priests of the seminary at Avignon, where he
was educated and took orders. He tried his fortune by writing
floges of famous persons, then a favourite practice; and in 1771
his eloge on Fenelon was pronounced next best to Laharpe's by the
Academy. The real foundation of his fortunes was the success
of a panegyric on St Louis delivered before the Academy in 1772,
which caused him to be recommended for an abbacy. In 1777
he published under the title of Discours choisis his panegyrics
on Saint Louis, Saint Augustine and Fenelon, his remarks on
Bossuet and his Essai sur I'ttoquence de la chaire, a volume which
contains much good criticism, and remains a French classic.
The book was often reprinted as Principes de I'iloquence. He
became a favourite preacher in Paris, and was Lent preacher at
court in 1781, when King Louis XVI. said of his sermon: " If the
abbe had only said a few words on religion he would have dis-
cussed every possible subject." In 1781 he obtained the rich
priory of Lyons, near P6ronne, and in 1785 he was elected to
the Academy, as successor of Lefranc de Pompignan. His
morals were as loose as those of his great rival Mirabeau, but
he was famed in Paris for his wit and gaiety. In 1789 he was
elected a member of the states-general by the clergy of the
bailliage of P6ronne, and from the first proved to be the most able
and persevering defender of the ancien regime, although he had
drawn up the greater part of the cahier of the clergy of P6ronne,
which contained a considerable programme of reform. It is
said that he attempted to emigrate both in July and in October
1789; but after that time he held firmly to his place, when almost
universally deserted by his friends. In the Constituent Assembly
he took an active part in every important debate, combating
with especial vigour the alienation of the property of the clergy.
His life was often in danger, but his ready wit always saved it,
and it was said that one ban mot would preserve him for a month.
916
MAURY, L. F. A. MAURY, M. F.
When he did emigrate in 1792 he found himself regarded as a
martyr to the church and the king, and was at once named
archbishop in parlibus, and extra nuncio to the diet at Frankfort,
and in 1794 cardinal. He was finally made bishop of Monte-
fiascone, and settled down in that little Italian town but not
for long, for in 1798 the French drove him from his retreat,
and he sought refuge in Venice and St Petersburg. Next year
he returned to Rome as ambassador of the exiled Louis XVIII.
at the papal court. In 1804 he began to prepare his return to
France by a well-turned letter to Napoleon, congratulating him
on restoring religion to France once more. In 1806 he did return;
in 1807 he was again received into the Academy; and in 1810, on
the refusal of Cardinal Fesch, was made archbishop of Paris.
He was presently ordered by the pope to surrender his functions
as archbishop of Paris. This he refused to do. On the restora-
tion of the Bourbons he was summarily expelled from the Aca-
demy and from the archiepiscopal palace. He retired to Rome,
where he was imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo for six months
for his disobedience to the papal orders, and died in 1817, a year
or two after his release, of disease contracted in prison and of
chagrin. As a critic he was a very able writer, and Sainte-Beuve
gives him the credit of discovering Father Jacques Bridayne,
and of giving Bossuet his rightful place as a preacher
above Massillon; as a politician, his wit and eloquence make him
a worthy rival of Mirabeau. He sacrificed too much to personal
ambition, yet it would have been a graceful act if Louis XVIII.
had remembered the courageous supporter of Louis XVI., and
the pope the one intrepid defender of the Church in the states-
general.
The (Enures choisies du Cardinal Maury (5 vols., 1827) contain
what is worth preserving. Mgr Ricard has published Maury's
Correspondance diplomatique (2 vols., Lille, 1891). For his life and
character see Vie du Cardinal Maury, by Louis Siffrein Maury, his
nephew (1828); J. J. F. Poujoulat, Cardinal Maury, sa vie el ses
csuvres (1855); Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. iv.); Mgr
Ricard, L'Abbe Maury (1746-1791), L'Abbe Maury avant 1789,
L'Abbe Maury el Mirabeau (1887); G. Bonet-Maury, Le Cardinal
Maury d'apres ses memoires el sa correspondance inedits (Paris,
1892); A. Aulard, I^es Orateurs de la constituante (Paris, 1882).
Of the many libels written against him during the Revolution the
most noteworthy are the Petit cartme de I'abbf. Maury, with a supple-
ment called the Seconde annee (1790), and the Vie privee de I abbe
Maury (1790), claimed by J. R. Hebert, but attributed by some
writers to Restif de la Bretonne. For further bibliographical details
see J. M. Qudrard, La France litleraire, vol. v. (1833).
MAURY, LOUIS FERDINAND ALFRED (1817-1892), French
scholar, was born at Meaux on the 23rd of March 1817. In
1836, having completed his education, he entered the Biblio-
theque Nationale, and afterwards the Bibliotheque de 1'Institut
(1844), where he devoted himself to the study of archaeology,
ancient and modern languages, medicine and law. Gifted with
a great capacity for work, a remarkable memory and an unbiassed
and critical mind, he produced without great effort a number ol
learned pamphlets and books on the most varied subjects. He
rendered great service to the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles
Lettres, of which he had been elected a member in 1857. Napo-
leon III. employed him in research work connected with the
Hisloire de Cisar, and he was rewarded, proportionately to his
active, if modest, part in this work, with the positions of librarian
of the Tuileries (1860), professor at the College of France (1862]
and director-general of the Archives (1868). It was not, however
to the imperial favour that he owed these high positions. He
used his influence for the advancement of science and higher
education, and with Victor Duruy was one of the founders of the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes. He died at Paris four years after
his retirement from the last post, on the nth of February 1892.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. His works are numerous: Les Fees au moyen
and Hisloire des legendes pieuses au moyen Age; two books filled wit!
ingenious ideas, which were published in 1843, and reprinted afte
the death of the author, with numerous additions under the till
Croyances et legendes du moyen Age (1896); Hisloire des grande
fotets de la Gaule et de I'ancienne France (1850, a 3rd ed. revisec
appeared in 1867 under the title Les Forets de la Gaule et de Vancienn
France) ; La Terre et I'homme, a general historical sketch of geology
geography and ethnology, being the introduction to the Histoir
universelle, by Victor Duruy (1854); Histoire des religions de I
Irece antique, (3 vols., 1857-1859); La Magie et I'astrologie
'antiquM et dans le moyen age (1863); Histoire del' 'ancienne academie
es sciences (1864); Histoire de I' Academie des Inscriptions et Belles
Retires (1865) ; a learned paper on the reports of French archaeology,
written on the occasion of the universal exhibition (1867) ; a number
of articles in the Encyclopedie moderne (1846-1851), in Michaud's
iiographie universelle (1858 and seq.), in the Journal des savants
n the Revue des deux mondes (1873, 1877, 1879-1880, &c.). A
letailed bibliography of his works has been placed by Auguste
^ongnon at the beginning of the volume Les Croyances et legendes
',u moyen age.
MAURY, MATTHEW FONTAINE (1806-1873), American
naval officer and hydrographer, was born near Fredericksburg
n Spottsylvania county, Virginia, on the 24th of January 1806.
le was educated at Harpeth academy, and in 1825 entered the
navy as midshipman, circumnavigating the globe in the
Vincennes," during a cruise of four years (1826-1830). In 1831
ic was appointed master of the sloop " Falmouth " on the Pacific
station, and subsequently served in other Vessels before returning
wme in 1834, when he married his cousin, Ann Herndon. In
835-1836 he was actively engaged in producing for publication
a treatise on navigation, a remarkable achievement at so early
stage in his career; he was at this time made lieutenant, and
gazetted astronomer to a South Sea exploring expedition, but
resigned this position and was appointed to the survey of south-
ern harbours. In 1839 he met with an accident which resulted
in permanent lameness, and unfitted him for active service. In
the same year, however, he began to write a series of articles on
naval reform and other subjects, under the title of Scraps from
the Lucky- Bag, which attracted much attention; and in 1841 he
was placed in charge of the Depot of Charts and Instruments,
out of which grew the United States Naval Observatory and the
Hydrographic Office. He laboured assiduously to obtain obser-
vations as to the winds and currents by distributing to captains
of vessels specially prepared log-books; and in the course of nine
years he had collected a sufficient number of logs to make two
hundred manuscript volumes, each with about two thousand
five hundred days' observations. One result was to show the
necessity for combined action on the part of maritime nations
in regard to ocean meteorology. This led to an international
conference at Brussels in 1853, which produced the greatest
benefit to navigation as well as indirectly to meteorology.
Maury attempted to organize co-operative meteorological work
on land, but the government did not at this time take any steps
in this direction. His oceanographical work, however, received
recognition in all parts of the civilized world, and in 1855 it was
proposed in the senate to remunerate him, but in the same year
the Naval Retiring Board, erected under an act to promote the
efficiency of the navy, placed him on the retired list. This
action aroused wide opposition, and in 1858 he was reinstated
with the rank of commander as from 1855. In 1853 Maury had
published his Letters on the Amazon and Atlantic Slopes of South
America, and the most widely popular of his works, the Physical
Geography of the Sea, was published in London in 1855, and in
New York in 1856; it was translated into several European
languages. On the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861,
Maury threw in his lot with the South, and became head of coast,
harbour and river defences. He invented an electric torpedo for
harbour defence, and in 1862 was ordered to England to purchase
torpedo material, &c. Here he took active part in organizing
a petition for peace to the American people, which was unsuc-
cessful. Afterwards he became imperial commissioner of emi-
gration to the emperor Maximilian of Mexico, and attempted to
form a Virginian colony in that country. Incidentally he
introduced there the cultivation of cinchona. The scheme of
colonization was abandoned by the emperor (1866), and Maury,
who had lost nearly his all during the war, settled for a while in
England, where he was presented with a testimonial raised by
public subscription, and among other honours received the degree
of LL.D. of Cambridge University (1868). In the same year, a
general amnesty admitting of his return to America, he accepted
the professorship of meteorology in the Virginia Military Insti-
tute, and settled at Lexington, Virginia, where he died on the ist
of February 1873.
MAUSOLEUM MAVROCORDATO
917
Among works published by Maury, in addition to those mentioned,
are the papers contributed by him to the Astronomical Observations
of the United States Observatory, Letter concerning Lanes for
Steamers crossing the Atlantic (1855); Physical Geography (1864)
and Manual of Geography (1871). In 1859 he began the publication
of a series of Nautical Monographs.
See Diana Fontaine Maury Corbin (his daughter), Life of Matthew
Fontaine Maury (London, 1888).
MAUSOLEUM, the term given to a monument erected to
receive the remains of a deceased person, which may sometimes
take the form of a sepulchral chapel. The term cenotaph (Gr.
ntvos, empty,' T&.<fx>s, tomb) is employed for a similar monu-
ment where the body is not buried in the structure. The term
" mausoleum " originated with the magnificent monument
erected by Queen Artemisia in 353 B.C. in memory of her husband
King Mausolus, of which the remains were brought to England
in 1859 by Sir Charles Newton and placed in the British Museum.
The tombs of Augustus and of Hadrian in Rome are perhaps
the largest monuments of the kind ever erected.
MAUSOLUS (more correctly MAUSSOLLUS), satrap and practi-
cally ruler of Caria (377-353 B.C.). The part he took in the
revolt against Artaxerxes Mnemon, his conquest of a great part
of Lycia, Ionia and of several of the Greek islands, his co-opera-
tion with the Rhodians and their allies in the war against Athens,
and the removal of his capital from Mylasa, the ancient seat of
the Carian kings, to Halicarnassus are the leading facts of his
history. He is best known from the tomb erected for him by his
widow Artemisia. The architects Satyrus and Pythis, and the
sculptors Scopas, Leochares, Bryaxis and Timotheus, finished
the work after her death. (See HALICARNASSUS.) An inscription
discovered at Mylasa (Bockh, Inscr. gr. ii. 2691 c.) details the
punishment of certain conspirators who had made an attempt
upon his life at a festival in a temple at Labranda in 353.
See Diod. Sic. xv. 90, 3, xyi. 7, 4, 36, 2; Demosthenes, De Rhodi-
orum libertate; J. B. Bury, Hist, of Greece (1902), ii. 271 ; W. Judeich,
Kleinasiatische Studien (Marburg, 1892), pp. 226-256, and authorities
under HALICARNASSUS.
MAUVE, ANTON (1838-1888), Dutch landscape painter, was
born at Zaandam, the son of a Baptist minister. Much against
the wish of his parents he took up the study of art and entered
the studio of Van Os, whose dry academic manner had, however,
but little attraction for him. He benefited far more by his
intimacy with his friends Jozef Israels and W. Maris. Encour-
aged by their example he abandoned his early tight and highly
finished manner for a freer, looser method of painting, and the
brilliant palette of his youthful work for a tender lyric harmony
which is generally restricted to delicate greys, greens, and light
blue. He excelled in rendering the soft hazy atmosphere that
lingers over the green meadows of Holland, and devoted himself
almost exclusively to depicting the peaceful rural life of the
fields and country lanes of Holland especially of the districts
near Oosterbeek and Wolfhezen, the sand dunes of the coast
at Scheveningen, and the country near Laren, where he spent
the last years of his life. A little sad and melancholy, his pas-
toral scenes are nevertheless conceived in a peaceful soothing
lyrical mood, which is in marked contrast to the epic power and
almost tragic intensity of J. F. Millet. There are fourteen of
Mauve's pictures at the Mesdag Museum at the Hague, and two
(" Milking Time " and " A Fishing Boat putting to Sea ") at
the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam. The Glasgow Corporation
Gallery owns his painting of " A Flock of Sheep." The finest
and most representative private collection of pictures by Mauve
was made by Mr J. C. J. Drucker, London.
MAVROCORDATO, MAVROCORDAT or MAVROGORDATO, the
name of a family of Phanariot Greeks, distinguished in the
history of Turkey, Rumania and modern Greece. The family
was founded by a merchant of Chios, whose son Alexander
Mavrocordato (c. 1636-1709), a doctor of philosophy and medi-
cine of Bologna, became dragoman to the sultan in 1673, an d
was much employed in negotiations with Austria. It was he
who drew up the treaty of Karlowitz (1699). He became a
secretary of state, and was created a count of the Holy Roman
Empire. His authority, with that of Hussein Kupruli and Rami
Pasha, was supreme at the court of Mustapha II., and he did
much to ameliorate the condition of the Christians in Turkey.
He was disgraced in 1703, but was recalled to court by Sultan
Ahmed III. He left some historical, grammatical, &c. treatises
of little value.
His son NICHOLAS MAVROCORDATO (1670-1730) was grand
dragoman to the Divan (1697), and in 1708 was appointed
hosppdar (prince) of Moldavia. Deposed, owing to the sultan's
suspicions, in favour of Demetrius Cantacuzene, he was restored
in 1711, and soon afterwards became hospodar of Walachia. In
1716 he was deposed by the Austrians, but was restored after
the peace of Passarowitz. He was the first Greek set to rule
the Danubian principalities, and was responsible for establishing
the system which for a hundred years was to make the name of
Greek hateful to the Rumanians. He introduced Greek manners,
the Greek language and Greek costume, and set up a splendid
court on the Byzantine model. For the rest he was a man of
enlightenment, founded libraries and was himself the author of a
curious work entitled Yltpl KaBriKovrtav (Bucharest, 1719). He was
succeeded as grand dragoman (1709) by his son John (loannes),
who was for a short while hospodar of Moldavia, and died in 1720.
Nicholas Mavrocordato was succeeded as prince of Walachia
in 1730 by his son Constantine. He was deprived in the same
year, but again ruled the principality from 1735 to 1741 and from
I744'to 1748; he was prince of Moldavia from 1741 to 1744 and
from 1748 to 1749. His rule was distinguished by numerous
tentative reforms in the fiscal and administrative systems. He
was wounded and taken prisoner in the affair of Galati during
the Russo-Turkish War, on the 5th of November 1769, and died
in captivity.
PRINCE ALEXANDER MAVROCORDATO (1791-1865), Greek
statesman, a descendant of the hospodars, was born at Constan-
tinople on the nth of February 1791. In 1812 he went to the
court of his uncle loannes Caradja, hospodar of Walachia, with
whom he passed into exile in Russia and Italy (1817). He was
a member of the Hetairia Philike and was among the Phanariot
Greeks who hastened to the Morea on the outbreak of the War
of Independence in 1821. He was active in endeavouring to
establish a regular government, and in January 1822 presided
over the first Greek national assembly at Epidaurus. He com-
manded the advance of the Greeks into western Hellas the same
year, and suffered a defeat at Peta on the i6th of July, but
retrieved this disaster somewhat by his successful resistance to
the first siege of Missolonghi (Nov. 1822 to Jan. 1823). His
English sympathies brought him, in the subsequent strife of
factions, into opposition to the " Russian " party headed by
Demetrius Ypsilanti and Kolokotrones; and though he held the
portfolio of foreign affairs for a short while under the presidency
of Petrobey (Petros Mavromichales), he was compelled to with-
draw from affairs until February 1825, when he again became a
secretary of state. The landing of Ibrahim Pasha followed, and
Mavrocordato again joined the army, only escaping capture in
the disaster at Sphagia (Spakteria), on the 9th of May 1815, by
swimming to Navarino. After the fall of Missolonghi (April 22,
1826) he went into retirement, until President Capo d'Istria
made him a member of the committee for the administration of
war material, a position he resigned in 1828. After Capo d'ls-
tria's murder (Oct. 9, 1831) and the resignation of his brother
and successor, Agostino Capo d'Istria (April 13, 1832), Mavro-
cordato became minister of finance. He was vice-president of
the National Assembly at Argos (July, 1832), and was appointed
ay King Otto minister of finance, and in 1833 premier. From
1834 onwards he was Greek envoy at Munich, Berlin, London
and after a short interlude as premier in Greece in 1841
Constantinople. In 1843, after the revolution of September, he
returned to Athens as minister without portfolio in the Metaxas
cabinet, and from April to August 1844 was head of the govern-
ment formed after the fall of the " Russian " party. Going into
opposition, he distinguished himself by his violent attacks on
the Kolettis government. In 1854-1855 he was again head of
;he government for a few months. He died in Aegina on the
i8th of August 1865.
See E. Legrand, Genealogie des Mavrocordato (Paris, 1886).
9 i8
MAWKMAI MAXIMA AND MINIMA
HAWKMAI (Burmese Maukme), one of the largest states in
the eastern division of the southern Shan States of Burma. It
lies approximately between 19 30' and 20 30' N. and 97 30'
and 98 15' E., and has an area of 2,787 sq. m. The central
portion of the state consists of a wide plain well watered and
under rice cultivation. The rest is chiefly hills in ranges running
north and south. There is a good deal of teak in the state, but
it has been ruinously worked. The sawbwa now works as con-
tractor for government, which takes one-third of the net profits.
Rice is the chief crop, but much tobacco of good quality is grown
in the Langko district on the Teng river. There is also a great
deal of cattle-breeding. The population in 1901 was 29,454,
over two-thirds of whom were Shans and the remainder
Taungthu, Burmese, Yangsek and Red Karens. The capital,
MAWKMAI, stands in a fine rice plain in 20 9' N. and 97 25' E.
It had about 150 houses when it first submitted in 1887, but
was burnt out by the Red Karens in the following year. It has
since recovered. There are very fine orange groves a few miles
south of the town at Kantu-awn, called Kadugate by the
Burmese.
MAXENTIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS VALERIUS, Roman
emperor from A.D. 306 to 312, was the son of Maximianus
Herculius, and the son-in-law of Galerius. Owing to his vices
and incapacity he was left out of account in the division of the
empire which took place in 305. A variety of causes, however,
had produced strong dissatisfaction at Rome with many of the
arrangements established by Diocletian, and on the 28th of
October 306, the public discontent found expression in the
massacre of those magistrates who remained loyal to Flavius
Valerius Severus and in the election of Maxentius to the imperial
dignity. With the help of his father, Maxentius was enabled
to put Severus to death and to repel the invasion of Galerius;
his next steps were first to banish Maximianus, and then, after
achieving a military success in Africa against the rebellious
governor, L. Domitius Alexander, to declare war against
Constantine as having brought about the death of his father
Maximianus. His intention of carrying the war into Gaul was
anticipated by Constantine, who marched into Italy. Maxentius
was defeated at Saxa Rubra near Rome and drowned in the
Tiber while attempting to make his way across the Milvian
bridge into Rome. He was a man of brutal and worthless
character; but although Gibbon's statement that he was " just,
humane and even partial towards the afflicted Christians "
may be exaggerated, it is probable that he never exhibited
any special hostility towards them.
See De Broglie, L'glise et I'empire Remain au quatrieme sikcle
(1856-1866), and on the attitude of the Romans towards Christian-
ity generally, app. 8 in vol. ii. of J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon
(Zosimus ii. 9-18; Zonaras xii. 33, xiii. i; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 40;
Eutropius, x. 2).
MAXIM, SIR HIRAM STEVENS (1840- ), Anglo-American
engineer and inventor, was born at Sangerville, Maine, U.S.A.,
on the sth of February 1840. After serving an apprenticeship
with a coachbuilder, he entered the machine works of his uncle,
Levi Stevens, at Fitchburg, Massachusetts, in 1864, and four
years later he became a draughtsman in the Novelty Iron Works
and Shipbuilding Company in New York City. About this period
he produced several inventions connected with illumination by
gas; and from 1877 he was one of the numerous inventors who
were trying to solve the problem of making an efficient and
durable incandescent electric lamp, in this connexion introducing
the widely-used process of treating the carbon filaments by heat-
ing them in an atmosphere of hydrocarbon vapour. In 1880 he
came to Europe, and soon began to devote himself to the con-
struction of a machine-gun which should be automatically loaded
and fired by the energy of the recoil (see MACHINE-GUN). In
order to realize the full usefulness of the weapon, which was first
exhibited in an underground range at Hatton Garden, London,
in 1884, he felt the necessity of employing a smokeless powder,
and accordingly he devised maximite, a mixture of trinitro-
cellulose, nitroglycerine and castor oil, which was patented in
1889. He also undertook to make a flying machine, and after
numerous preliminary experiments constructed an apparatus
which was tried at Bexley Heath, Kent, in 1894. (See FLIGHT.)
Having been naturalized as a British subject, he was knighted
in 1901. His younger brother, Hudson Maxim (b. 1853), took
out numerous patents in connexion with explosives.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA, in mathematics. By the maximum
or minimum value of an expression or quantity is meant primarily
the " greatest " or " least " value that it can receive. In general,
however, there are points at which its value ceases to increase and
begins to decrease; its value at such a point is called a maximum.
So there are points at which its value ceases to decrease and
begins to increase; such a value is called a minimum. There
may be several maxima or minima, and a minimum is not
necessarily less than a maximum. For instance, the expression
(x* + x + 2)l(x i) can take all values from oo to i and
from + 7 to + , but has, so long as x is real, no value between
i and + 7. Here i is a maximum value, and + 7 is a
minimum value of the expression, though it can be made
greater or less than any assignable quantity.
The first general method of investigating maxima and minima
seems to have been published in A.D. 1629 by Pierre Fermat.
Particular cases had been discussed. Thus Euclid in book III.
of the Elements finds the greatest and least straight lines that can
be drawn from a point to the circumference of a circle, and in
book VI. (in a proposition generally omitted from editions of his
works) finds the parallelogram of greatest area with a given
perimeter. Apollonius investigated the greatest and least
distances of a point from the perimeter of a conic section, and
discovered them to be the normals, and that their feet were the
intersections of the conic with a rectangular hyperbola. Some
remarkable theorems on maximum areas are attributed to
Zenodorus, and preserved by Pappus and Theon of Alexandria.
The most noteworthy of them are the following:
1. Of polygons of n sides with a given perimeter the regular
polygon encloses the greatest area.
2. Of two regular polygons of the same perimeter, that with the
greater number of sides encloses the greater area.
3. The circle encloses a greater area than any polygon of the
same perimeter.
4. The sum of the areas of two isosceles triangles on given bases,
the sum of whose perimeters is given, is greatest when the triangles
are similar.
5. Of segments of a circle of given perimeter, the semicircle
encloses the greatest area.
6. The sphere is the surface of given area which encloses the
greatest volume.
Serenus of Antissa investigated the somewhat trifling problem
of finding the triangle of greatest area whose sides are formed by
the intersections with the base and curved surface of a right
circular cone of a plane drawn through its vertex.
The next problem on maxima and minima of which there
appears to be any record occurs in a letter from Regiomontanus
to Roder (July 4, 1471), and is a particular numerical example
of the problem of finding the point on a given straight line at
which two given points subtend a maximum angle. N. Tartaglia
in his General trattato de numeri et mesuri (c. 1556) gives, with-
out proof, a rule for dividing a number into two parts such that
the continued product of the numbers and their difference is a
maximum.
Fermat investigated maxima and minima by means of the
principle that in the neighbourhood of a maximum or minimum
the differences of the values of a function are insensible, a method
virtually the same as that of the differential calculus, and of
great use in dealing with geometrical maxima and minima. His
method was developed by Huygens, Leibnitz, Newton and others,
and in particular by John Hudde, who investigated maxima and
minima of functions of more than one independent variable, and
made some attempt to discriminate between maxima and minima,
a question first definitely settled, so far as one variable is con-
cerned, by Colin Maclaurin in his Treatise on Fluxions (1742)-
The method of the differential calculus was perfected by Euler
and Lagrange.
John Bernoulli's famous problem of the " brachistochrone,"
or curve of quickest descent from one point to another under
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
919
the action of gravity, proposed in 1696, gave rise to a new kind
of maximum and minimum problem in which we have to find
a curve and not points on a given curve. From these problems
arose the " Calculus of Variations." (See VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
OF.)
The only general methods of attacking problems on maxima
and minima are those of the differential calculus or, in geo-
metrical problems, what is practically Fermat's method. Some
problems may be solved by algebra; thus if y=f (x)-$-<t> (x),
where / (x) and <f> (*) are polynomials in x, the limits to the
values of y may be found from the consideration that the
equation y<f> (x) f (x) = o must have real roots. This is a
useful method in the case in which </> (*) and / (x) are quad-
ratics, but scarcely ever in any other case. The problem of
finding the maximum product of positive quantities whose
sum is given may also be found, algebraically, thus. If a and b
are any two real unequal quantities whatever \%(a+b)]*>ab,
so that we can increase the product leaving the sum un-
altered by replacing any two terms by half their sum, and
so long as any two of the quantities are unequal we can increase
the product. Now, the quantities being all positive, the product
cannot be increased without limit and must somewhere attain a
maximum, and no other form of the product than that in which
they are all equal can be the maximum, so that the product is
a maximum ' when they are all equal. Its minimum value
is obviously zero. If the restriction that all the quantities
shall be positive is removed, the product can be made equal
to any quantity, positive or negative. So other theorems
of algebra, which are stated as theorems on inequalities, may
be regarded as algebraic solutions of problems on maxima and
minima.
For purely geometrical questions the only general method
available is practically that employed by Fermat. If a quantity
depends on the position of some point P on a curve, and if its
valuers equal at two neighbouring points P and P', then at some
position between P and P' it attains a maximum or minimum, and
this position may be found by making P and P' approach each
other indefinitely. Take for instance the problem of Regio-
montanus " to find a point on a given straight line which subtends
a maximum angle at two given points A and B." Let P and P'
be two near points on the given straight line such that the angles
APB and AP'B are equal. Then ABPP' lie on a circle. By
making P and P' approach each other we see that for a maximum
or minimum value of the angle APB, P is a point in which a circle
drawn through AB touches the given straight line. There are
two such points, and unless the given straight line is at right
angles to AB the two angles obtained are not the same. It is
easily seen that both angles are maxima, one for points on the
given straight line on one side of its intersection with AB, the
other for points on the other side. For further examples of this
method together with most other geometrical problems on
maxima and minima of any interest or importance the reader may
consult such a book as J. W. Russell's A Sequel to Elementary
Geometry (Oxford, 1907).
The method of the differential calculus is theoretically very
simple. Let be a function of several variables x\, Xt, xt, . . . x,
supposed for the present independent; if u is a maximum or
minimum for the set of values xi, xt, x ..... x,, and u becomes
u+&u, when xi, x s , x t , . . . x, receive [small increments Jxi,
Sxt, . . . iXn ; then du must have the same sign for all possible
values of Sxi, Sxt, . . . ix n .
to-jfr+il&e+a&f**.. (+..
The sign of this expression in general is that of 2(8u/4xi)Jxi,
which cannot be one-signed when xi, x, . . . x* can take all
possible values, for a set of increments Sxi, 4x t , . . . Sx, will give an
opposite sign to the set-x,,-8x ..... -8x n . Hence (M/XI)XI
must vanish for all sets of increments Sxi, . . . dx n , and since
these are independent, we must have SM/XI=O, /xj=o, ...
iu/to n =o. A value of u given by a set of solutions of these equa-
tions is called a " critical value " of u. The value of Su now becomes
for u to be a maximum or minimum this must have always the same
sign. For the case of a single variable x, corresponding to a value
of x given by the equation du/dx = o, u is a maximum or minimum
as (Pu/dx 1 is negative or positive. If iPu/dx* vanishes, then there
is no maximum or minimun unless d'u/dx* vanishes, and there is
a maximum or minimum according as d^ujdx 4 is negative or positive.
Generally, if the first differential coefficient which does not vanish
is even, there is a maximum or minimum according as this is negative
or positive. If it is odd, there is no maximum or minimum.
In the case of several variables, the quadratic
+...
must be one-signed. The condition for this is that the series of
discriminants
<Jn
flu
flu
111
On
ai
where a n denotes J l /ia p a, should be all positive, if the quadratic
is always positive, and alternately negative and positive, if the
quadratic is always negative. If the first condition is satisfied the
critical value is a minimum, if the second it is a maximum. For
the case of two variables the conditions are
ffa $*u I &u \ '
8 ' 2>
for a maximum or minimum at all and &iilfa? and 5*/ixi l both
negative for a maximum, and both positive for a minimum. It is
important to notice that by the quadratic being one-signed is meant
that it cannot be made to vanish except when Jxi, xj, . . . ix all
vanish. If, in the case of two variables,
&u 8>u _ I &u \*
' Sxt'~
then the quadratic is one-signed unless it vanishes, but the value
of u is not necessarily a maximum or minimum, and the terms of
the third and possibly fourth order must be taken account of.
Take for instance the function umx i xy'+y l . Here the values
x=o, y = o satisfy the equations /x = o, /y = o, so that zero
is a critical value of u, but it is neither a maximum nor a minimum
although the terms of the second order are (4x) J , and are never
negative. Here 6 = x s txty'+fy*, and by putting x=o or an
infinitesimal of the same order as */, we can make the sign of
depend on that of Sy l , and so be positive or negative as we please.
On the other hand, if we take the function m^x t xy t +y t , x = o,y = o
make zero a critical value of , and here =5x 5 ixSy'+iy 4 , which
is always positive, because we can write it as the sum of two squares,
viz. (x- J8/) 2 +ty 4 ; so that in this case zero is a minimum value
of it.
A critical value usually gives a maximum or minimum in the
case of a function of one variable, and often in the case of several
independent variables, but all maxima and minima, particularly
absolutely greatest and least values, are not necessarily critical
values. If, for example, x is restricted to lie between the values
o and b and </>'(*) =o has no roots in this interval, it follows that
4>'(x) is one-signed as x increases from a to b, so that <t>(x) is increas-
ing or diminishing all the time, and the greatest and least values of
<t>(x) are <t>(a) and <f>(b), though neither of them is a critical value.
Consider the following example: A person in a boat a miles from
the nearest point of the beach wishes to reach as quickly as possible
a point b miles from that point along the shore. The ratio of his
rate of walking to his rate of rowing is cosec a. Where should
he land?
Here let AB be the direction of the beach, A the nearest point
to the boat O, and B the point he wishes to reach. Clearly he
must land, if at all, between A and B. Suppose he lands at P.
Let the angle AOP be 9, so that OP = a sec 8, and PB=ft-a tan B.
If his rate of rowing is V miles an hour his time will be a sec 8/V+
(6-0 tan 9) sin a/V hours. Call this T. Then to the first power
of S0, ST = (o/V) sec*9 (sin 8 -sin o)9, so that if AOB > o, T and SB
have opposite signs from 6 = to = o, and the same signs from
= o to 9 = AOB. So that when AOB is > a, T decreases from B = o
to = a, and then increases, so that he should land at a point distant
a tan o from A, unless a tan a >6. When this is the case, ST and SB
have opposite signs throughout the whole range of 8, so that T
decreases as increases, and he should row direct to B. In the
first case the minimum value of T is also a critical value ; in the second
case it is not.
The greatest and least values of the bending moments of loaded
rods are often at the extremities of the divisions of the rods and
not at points given by critical values.
In_ the case of a function of several variables, Xi, x, . . . x.,
not independent but connected by m functional relations i=o,
j = o, ..., u m =o, we might proceed to eliminate m of the
variables; but Lagrange's " Method of undetermined Multipliers "
is more elegant and generally more useful.
We have Kt=o, ,=o, . . . , Su m =o. Consider instead of
*, what is the same thing, viz., K + X,tti-fX,, + . . . + X.itt,,
where X lt X t , . . . \ m , are arbitrary multipliers. The terms of the
first order in this expression are
920
We can choose Xi, . . . X m , to make the coefficients of bx\, Sxi,
. . . iXm, vanish, and the remaining Sx m+ i to Sx n may be regarded
as ' independent, so that, when u has a critical value, their co-
efficients must also vanish. So that we put
for all values of r. These equations with the equations i=o, . . .,
=<) are exactly enough to determine Xi, . . . ,Xm, *i *i, . . ., *,
so that we find critical values of u, and examine the terms of the
second order to decide whether we obtain a maximum or minimum.
To take a very simple illustration ; consider the problem of deter-
mining the maximum and minimum radii vectors of the ellipsoid
* 2 /a 2 +j> 2 /6 2 -r;Z 2 /e 2 = i, where a 2 >6 2 >c 2 . Here we require the maxi-
mum and minimum values of x*-\-y*-\-z* where x*/a?+y 1 /b*+z ! /c 2 = i.
We have &u = 2xSx (i +^) + 2ySy (i + ^ + 2282 (i +
MAXIMIANUS MAXIMILIAN I. OF BAVARIA
Severus a captive to Rome, and also compelled Galerius to retreat,
but in 308 he was himself driven by Maxentius from Italy into
Illyricum, whence again he was compelled to seek refuge at
Arelate (Aries), the court of his son-in-law, Constantine. Here
a false report was received, or invented, of the death of Constan-
tine, at that time absent on the Rhine. Maximianus at once
grasped at the succession, but was soon driven to Massilia
(Marseilles), where, having been delivered up to his pursuers, he
strangled himself.
See Zosimus ii. 7-11; Zonaras xii. 31-33; Eutrorjius ix. 20,
x. 2, 3; Aurelius Victor p. 39. For the emperor Galerius Valerius
Maximianus see GALERIUS.
MAXIMILIAN I. (1573-1651), called "the Great," elector
and duke of Bavaria, eldest son of William V. of Bavaria, was
born at Munich on the i7th of April 1573. He was educated by
the Jesuits at the university of Ingolstadt, and began to take
part in the government in 1591. He married in 1595 his cousin,
Elizabeth, daughter of Charles II., duke of Lorraine, and became
duke of Bavaria upon his father's abdication in 1597. He
refrained from any interference in German politics until 1607,
when he was entrusted with the duty of executing the imperial
ban against the free city of Donauworth, a Protestant stronghold.
In December 1607 his troops occupied the city, and vigorous
steps were taken to restore the supremacy of the older faith.
Some Protestant princes, alarmed at this action, formed a union
to defend their interests, which was atiswered in 1609 by the
establishment of a league, in the formation of which Maximilian
took an important part. Under his leadership an army was set
on foot, but his policy was strictly defensive and he refused to
allow the league to become a tool in the hands of the house of
Habsburg. Dissensions among his colleagues led the duke to
resign his office in 1616, but the approach of trouble brought
about his return to the league about two years later.
Having refused to become a candidate for the imperial throne
in 1619, Maximilian was faced with the complications arising
from the outbreak of war in Bohemia. After some delay he
made a treaty with the emperor Ferdinand II. in October 1619,
and in return for large concessions placed the forces of the league
at the emperor's service. Anxious to curtail the area of the
struggle, he made a treaty of neutrality with the Protestant
Union, and occupied Upper Austria as security for the expenses
of the campaign. On the 8th of November 1620 his troops under
Count Tilly defeated the forces of Frederick, king of Bohemia
and count palatine of the Rhine, at the White Hill near Prague.
In spite of the arrangement with the union Tilly then devastated
the Rhenish Palatinate, and in February 1623 Maximilian was
formally invested with the electoral dignity and the attendant
office of imperial steward, which had been enjoyed since 1356
by the counts palatine of the Rhine. After receiving the
Upper Palatinate and restoring Upper Austria to Ferdinand,
Maximilian became leader of the party which sought to bring
about Wallenstein's dismissal from the imperial service. At
the diet of Regensburg in 1630 Ferdinand was compelled to
assent to this demand, but the sequel was disastrous both for
Bavaria and its ruler. Early in 1632 the Swedes marched into
the duchy and occupied Munich, and Maximilian could only
obtain the assistance of the imperialists by placing himself under
the orders of Wallenstein, now restored to the command of the
emperor's forces. The ravages of the Swedes and their French
allies induced the elector to enter into negotiations for peace
with Gustavus Adolphus and Cardinal Richelieu. He also pro-
posed to disarm the Protestants by modifying the Restitution
edict of 1629; but these efforts were abortive. In March 1647
he concluded an armistice with France and Sweden at Ulm, bnt
the entreaties of the emperor Ferdinand III. led him to disregard
his undertaking. Bavaria was again ravaged, and the elector's
forces defeated in May 1648 at Zusmarshausen. But the peace
of Westphalia soon put an end to the straggle. By this treaty
it was agreed that Maximilian should retain the electoral dignity,
which was made hereditary in his family; and the Upper Palati-
nate was incorporated with Bavaria. The elector died at
Ingolstadt on the 27th of September 1651. By his second wife,
To make the terms of the first order disappear, we have the three
equations :
x(i +X/o 2 ) =o, y(i +X/6 2 ) =o, 2(1 +X/c 2 ) =o.
These have three sets of solutions consistent with the conditions
i 2 /a 2 +y 2 /6 2 +z 2 /c 2 = i , o 2 > & 2 > c 2 , viz. :
(i) y=o, z = o, X= o*; (2) 2 = 0, *=o, X = 6 1 ;
(3) * = o, y=o, X=-c l .
In the case of (i) &u = &y* (i-aVfc 2 ) + && (i o 2 /c l ), which is
always negative, so that w=o 2 gives a maximum.
In the case of (3) iu = Sx 1 (i c'/a^+Sy* (i c'jV), which is
always positive, so that w = e 2 gives a minimum.
In the case of (2) 6u<=&x*(i -6 2 /a 2 )-2 2 (& 2 /c-i), which can be
made either positive or negative, or even zero if we move in the
planes * 2 (i tPja?) =2 2 (& 2 /c 2 i), which are well known to be the
central planes of circular section. So that u V, though a critical
value, is neither a maximum nor minimum, and the central planes
of circular section divide the ellipsoid into four portions in two of
which a 2 > r 2 > V, and in the other two b 2 > r ! > c 2 .
(A. E. J.)
MAXIMIANUS, a Latin elegiac poet who flourished during
the 6th century A.D. He was an Etruscan by birth, and spent
his youth at Rome, where he enjoyed a great reputation as an
orator. At an advanced age he was sent on an important
mission to the East, perhaps by Theodoric, if he is the Maxim-
ianus to whom that monarch addressed a letter preserved in
Cassiodorus (Variarum, i. 21). The six elegies extant under
his name, written in old age, in which he laments the loss of his
youth, contain descriptions of various amours. They show the
author's familiarity with the best writers of the Augustan age.
Editions by J. C. Wernsdorf, Poetae latini minores, vi. ; E. Bahrens,
Poetae latini minores, v. ; M. Petschenig (1890), in C. F. Ascherson's
Berliner Studien, xi. ; R. Webster (Princeton, 1901; see Classical
Review, Oct. 1901), with introduction and commentary; see also
Robinson Ellis in American Journal of Philology, v. (1884) and
Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), 490. There
is an English version (as from Cornelius Gallus) , by Hovenden Walker
(1689), under the title of The Impotent Lover.
MAXIMIANUS, MARCUS AURELIUS VALERIUS, surnamed
HERCULIUS, Roman emperor from A.D. 286 to 305, was born of
humble parents at Sirmium in Pannonia. He achieved distinc-
tion during long service in the army, and having been made
Caesar by Diocletian in 285, received the title of Augustus in the
following year (April i, 286). In 287 he suppressed the rising of
the peasants (Bagaudae) in Gaul, but in 289, after a three years'
struggle, his colleague and he were compelled to acquiesce in
the assumption by his lieutenant Carausius (who had crossed
over to Britain) of the title of Augustus. After 293 Maximianus
left the care of the Rhine frontier to Constantius Chlorus, who
had been designated Caesar in that year, but in 297 his arms
achieved a rapid and decisive victory over the barbarians of
Mauretania, and in 302 he shared at Rome the triumph of
Diocletian, the last pageant of the kind ever witnessed by that
city. On the ist of May 305, the day of Diocletian's abdication,
he also, but without his colleague's sincerity, divested himself
of the imperial dignity at Mediolanum (Milan), which had been
his capital, and retired to a villa in Lucania; in the following
year, however, he was induced by his son Maxentius to reassume
the purple. In 307 he brought the emperor Flavius Valerius
MAXIMILIAN I., II. OF BAVARIA
921
Maria Anne, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand II., he left two
sons, Ferdinand Maria, who succeeded him, and Maximilian
Philip. In 1839 a statue was erected to his memory at Munich
by Louis I., king of Bavaria. Weak in health and feeble in
frame, Maximilian had high ambitions both for himself and his
duchy, and was tenacious and resourceful in prosecuting his
designs. As the ablest prince of his age he sought to prevent
Germany from becoming the battleground of Europe, and
although a rigid adherent of the Catholic faith, was not always
subservient to the priest.
See P. P. Wolf, Geschichte Kurfurst Maximilians I. und seiner
Zeit (Munich, 1807-1809); C. M. Freiherr von Aretin, Geschichte
ties bayerschen Herzogs und Kurfursten Maximilian des Ersten
(Passau, 1842); M. Lossen, Die Reichstadt Donauworth ur.d Herzog
Maximilian (Munich, 1866); F. Stieve, Kurfurst Maximilian I. von
Bayern (Munich, 1882); F. A. W. Schreiber, Maximilian I. der
Katholische Kurfurst von Bayern, und der dreissigjahrige Krieg
(Munich, 1868) ; M. Hogl, Die Bekehrung der Oberpfalzdurch Kurfurst
Maximilian I. (Regensburg, 1903).
MAXIMILIAN I. (MAXIMILIAN JOSEPH) (1756-1825), king of
Bavaria, was the son of the count palatine Frederick of Zwei-
briicken-Birkenfeld, and was born on the 27th of May 1756.
He was carefully educated under the supervision of his uncle,
Duke Christian IV. of Zweibriicken, took service in 1777 as a
colonel in the French army, and rose rapidly to the rank of
major-general. From 1782 to 1789 he was stationed at Strass-
burg, but at the outbreak of the revolution he exchanged the
French for the Austrian service, taking part in the opening
campaigns of the revolutionary wars. On the ist of April 1795
he succeeded his brother, Charles II., as duke of Zweibriicken,
and on the i6th of February 1799 became elector of Bavaria
on the extinction of the Sulzbach line with the death of the
elector Charles Theodore.
The sympathy with France and with French ideas of en-
lightenment which characterized his reign was at once manifested.
In the newly organized ministry Count Max Josef von Montgelas
(?..), who, after falling into disfavour with Charles Theodore,
had acted for a time as Maximilian Joseph's private secretary,
was the most potent influence, an influence wholly " enlightened "
and French. Agriculture and commerce were fostered, the laws
were ameliorated, a new criminal code drawn up, taxes and
imposts equalized without regard to traditional privileges, while
a number of religious houses were suppressed and their revenues
used for educational and other useful purposes. In foreign
politics Maximilian Joseph's attitude was from the German point
of view less commendable. With the growing sentiment of
German nationality he had from first to last no sympathy, and
his attitude throughout was dictated by wholly dynastic, or at
least Bavarian, considerations. Until 1813 he was the most
faithful of Napoleon's German allies, the relation being cemented
by the marriage of his daughter to Eugene Beauharnais. His
reward came with the treaty of Pressburg (Dec. 26, 1805),
by the terms of which he was to receive the royal title and
important territorial acquisitions in Swabia and Franconia to
round off his kingdom. The style of king he actually assumed
on the ist of January 1806.
The new king of Bavaria was the most important of the princes
belonging to the Confederation of the Rhine, and remained
Napoleon's ally until the eve of the battle of Leipzig, when by
the convention of Ried (Oct. 8, 1813) he made the guarantee
of the integrity of his kingdom the price of his joining the Allies.
By the first treaty of Paris (June 3, 1814), however, he ceded
Tirol to Austria in exchange for the former duchy of Wiirzburg.
At the congress of Vienna, too, which he attended in person,
Maximilian had to make further concessions to Austria, ceding
the quarters of the Inn and Hausruck in return for a part of
the old Palatinate. The king fought hard to maintain the
contiguity of the Bavarian territories as guaranteed at Ried;
but the most he could obtain was an assurance from Metternich
in the matter of the Baden succession, in which he was also
doomed to be disappointed (see BADEN: History, iii. 506).
At Vienna and afterwards Maximilian sturdily opposed any
reconstitution of Germany which should endanger the indepen-
dence of Bavaria, and it was his insistence on the principle
of full sovereignty being left to the German reigning princes that
largely contributed to the loose and weak organization of the new
German Confederation. The Federal Act of the Vienna congress
was proclaimed in Bavaria, not as a law but as an international
treaty. It was partly to secure popular support in his resistance
to any interference of the federal diet in the internal affairs of
Bavaria, partly to give unity to his somewhat heterogeneous
territories, that Maximilian on the 26th of May 1818 granted a
liberal constitution to his people. Montgelas, who had opposed
this concession, had fallen in the previous year, and Maximilian
had also reversed his ecclesiastical policy, signing on the 24th of
October 1817 a concordat with Rome by which the powers of
the clergy, largely curtailed under Montgelas's administration,
were restored. The new parliament proved so intractable that
in 1819 Maximilian was driven to appeal to the powers against
his own creation; but his Bavarian " particularism " and his
genuine popular sympathies prevented him from allowing the
Carlsbad decrees to be strictly enforced within his dominions.
The suspects arrested by order of the Mainz Commission he was
accustomed to examine himself, with the result that in many
cases the whole proceedings were quashed, and in not a few the
accused dismissed with a present of money. Maximilian died
on the I3th of October 1825 and was succeeded by his son
Louis I.
In private life Maximilian was kindly and simple. He loved
to play the part of Landesvaler, walking about the streets of his
capital en bourgeois and entering into conversation with all ranks
of his subjects, by whom he was regarded with great affection.
He was twice married: (i) in 1785 to Princess Wilhelmine Auguste
of Hesse-Darmstadt, (2) in 1797 to Princess Caroline Friederikeof
Baden.
See G. Freiherr von Lerchenfeld, Gesch. Bayerns unter Konig
Maximilian Joseph I. (Berlin, 1854); J- M. Soltl, Max Joseph,
Konig von Bayern (Stuttgart, 1837) ; L. von Kpbell, Unter den vier
ersten Konigen Bayerns. Nach Briefen und eigenen Erinnerungen
(Munich, 1894).
MAXIMILIAN II. (1811-1864), king of Bavaria, son of king
Louis I. and of his consort Theresa of Saxe-Hildburghausen, was
born on the 28th of November 1811. After studying at Gottin-
gen and Berlin and travelling in Germany, Italy and Greece, he
was introduced by his father into the council of state (1836).
From the first he showed a studious disposition,declaring on one
occasion that had he not been born in a royal cradle his choice
would have been to become a professor. As crown prince, in
the chateau of Hohenschwangau near Fiissen, which he had
rebuilt with excellent taste, he gathered about him an intimate
society of artists and men of learning, and devoted his time to
scientific and historical study. When the abdication of Louis I.
(March 28, 1848) called him suddenly to the throne, his choice
of ministers promised a liberal regime. The progress of the
revolution, however, gave him pause. He strenuously opposed
the unionist plans of the Frankfort parliament, refused to recog-
nize the imperial constitution devised by it, and assisted Austria
in restoring the federal diet and in carrying out the federal exe-
cution in Hesse and Holstein. Although, however, from 1850
onwards his government tended in the direction of absolutism,
he refused to become the tool of the clerical reaction, and even
incurred the bitter criticism of the Ultramontanes by inviting
a number of celebrated men of learning and science (e.g. Liebig
and Sybel) to Munich, regardless of their religious views. Finally,
in 1859, he dismissed the reactionary ministry of von der Pford-
ten, and met the wishes of his people for a moderate constitu-
tional government. In his German policy he was guided by the
desire to maintain the union of the princes, and hoped to attain
this as against the perilous rivalry of Austria and Prussia by
the creation of a league of the "middle " and small states the
so-called Trias. In 1863, however, seeing what he thought to
be a better way, he supported the project of reform proposed by
Austria at the Fiirstentag of Frankfort. The failure of this
proposal, and the attitude of Austria towards the Confederation
and in the Schlcswig-Holstein question, undeceived him; but
922
MAXIMILIAN I.
before he could deal with the new situation created by the
outbreak of the war with Denmark he died suddenly at Munich,
on the loth of March 1864.
Maximilian was a man of amiable qualities and of intellectual
attainments far above the average, but as a king he was hampered
by constant ill-health, which compelled him to be often abroad,
and when at home to live much in the country. By his wife,
Maria Hedwig, daughter of Prince William of Prussia, whom he
married in 1842, he had two sons, Louis II., king of Bavaria, and
Otto, king of Bavaria, both of whom lost their reason.
See J. M. Soltl, Max der Zweite, Konig von Bayern (Munich,
1865); biography by G. K. Heigel in Allgem. Deutsche Biographic,
vol. xxi. (Leipzig, 1885). Maximilian's correspondence with
Schlegel was published at Stuttgart in 1890.
MAXIMILIAN I. (1459-1519), Roman emperor, son of the
emperor Frederick III. and Leonora, daughter of Edward, king
of Portugal, was born at Vienna Neustadt on the 22nd of March
1459. On the i8th of August 1477, by his marriage at Ghent
to Mary, who had just inherited Burgundy and the Netherlands
from her father Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, he effected
a union of great importance in the history of the house of Habs-
burg. He at once undertook the defence of his wife's dominions
from an attack by Louis XI., king of France, and defeated the
French forces at Guinegatte, the modern Enguinegatte, on the
7th of August 1479. But Maximilian was regarded with
suspicion by the states of Netherlands, and after suppressing
a rising in Gelderland his position was further weakened by the
death of his wife on the 2'7th of March 1482. He claimed to be
recognized as guardian of his young son Philip and as regent of
the Netherlands, but some of the states refused to agree to his
demands and disorder was general. Maximilian was compelled
to assent to the treaty of Arras in 1482 between the states of
the Netherlands and Louis XI. This treaty provided that
Maximilian's daughter Margaret should marry Charles, the
dauphin of France, and have for her dowry Artois and Franche-
Comte, two of the provinces in dispute, while the claim of Louis
on the duchy of Burgundy was tacitly admitted. Maximilian did
not, however, abandon the struggle in the Netherlands. Having
crushed a rebellion at Utrecht, he compelled the burghers of
Ghent to restore Philip to him in 1485, and returning to Germany
was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Frankfort
on the i6th of February 1486, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
on the 9th of the following April. Again in the Netherlands, he
made a treaty with Francis II., duke of Brittany, whose indepen-
dence was threatened by the French regent, Anne of Beaujeu,
and the struggle with France was soon renewed. This war was
very unpopular with the trading cities of the Netherlands, and
early in 1488 Maximilian, having entered Bruges, was detained
there as a prisoner for nearly three months, and only set at
liberty on the approach of his father with a large force. On
his release he had promised he would maintain the treaty of
Arras and withdraw from the Netherlands; but he delayed his
departure for nearly a year and took part in a punitive campaign
against his captors and their allies. On his return to Germany
he made peace with France at Frankfort in July 1489, and in
October several of the states of the Netherlands recognized him
as their ruler and as guardian of his son. In March 1490
the county of Tirol was added to his possessions through the
abdication of his kinsman, Count Sigismund, and this district
soon became his favourite residence.
Meanwhile the king had formed an alliance with Henry VII.
king of England, and Ferdinand II., king of Aragon, to defend
the possessions of the duchess Anne, daughter and successor
of Francis, duke of Brittany. Early in 1490 he took a further
step and was betrothed to the duchess, and later in the same
year the marriage was celebrated by proxy; but Brittany was
still occupied by French troops, and Maximilian was unable to
go to the assistance of his bride. The sequel was startling. In
December 1491 Anne was married to Charles VIII., king of
France, and Maximilian's daughter Margaret, who had resided
in France since her betrothal, was sent back to her father.
The inaction of Maximilian at this time is explained by the
condition of affairs in Hungary, where the death of king Matthias
Corvinus had brought about a struggle for this throne. The
Roman king, who was an unsuccessful candidate, took up arms,
drove the Hungarians from Austria, and regained Vienna, which
had been in the possession of Matthias since 1485; but he was
compelled by want of money to retreat, and on the 7th of Novem-
ber 1491 signed the treaty of Pressburg with Ladislaus, king of
Bohemia, who had obtained the Hungarian throne. By this
treaty it was agreed that Maximilian should succeed to the crown
in case Ladislaus left no legitimate male issue. Having defeated
the invading Turks at Villach in 1492, the king was eager to take
revenge upon the king of France; but the states of the Nether-
lands would afford him no assistance. The German diet was
indifferent, and in May 1493 ne agreed to the peace of Senlis
and regained Artois and Franche-Comte.
In August 1493 the death of the emperor left Maximilian sole
ruler of Germany and head of the house of Habsburg; and on
the i6th of March 1494 he married at Innsbruck Bianca Maria
Sforza, daughter of Galeazzo Sforza, duke of Milan (d. 1476).
At this time Bianca's uncle, Ludovico Sforza, was invested
with the duchy of Milan in return for the substantial dowry
which his niece brought to the king. Maximilian harboured the
idea of driving the Turks from Europe; but his appeal to all
Christian sovereigns was ineffectual. In 1494 he was again in
the Netherlands, where he led an expedition against the rebels
of Gelderland, assisted Perkin Warbeck to make a descent upon
England, and formally handed over the government of the Low
Countries to Philip. His attention was next turned to Italy,
and, alarmed at the progress of Charles VIII. in the peninsula,
he signed the league of Venice in March 1495, an d about
the same time arranged a marriage between his son Philip and
Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of
Castile and Aragon. The need for help to prosecute the war in
Italy caused the king to call the diet to Worms in March 1495,
when he urged the necessity of checking the progress of Charles.
As during his father's lifetime Maximilian had favoured the
reforming party among the princes, proposals for the better
government of the empire were brought forward at Worms as a
necessary preliminary to financial and military support. Some
reforms were adopted, the public peace was proclaimed without
any limitation of time and a general tax was levied. The three
succeeding years were mainly occupied with quarrels with the
diet, with two invasions of France, and a war in Gelderland
against Charles, count of Egmont, who claimed that duchy, and
was supported by French troops. The reforms of 1495 were
rendered abortive by the refusal of Maximilian to attend the diets
or to take any part in the working of the new constitution, and
in 1497 he strengthened his own authority by establishing an
Aulic Council (Reichshofrath) , which he declared was competent
to deal with all business of the empire, and about the same time
set up a court to centralize the financial administration of
Germany.
In February 1499 the king became involved in a war with the
Swiss, who had refused to pay the imperial taxes or to furnish
a contribution for the Italian expedition. Aided by France
they defeated the German troops, and the peace of Basel in
September 1499 recognized them as virtually independent of
the empire. About this time Maximilian's ally, Ludovico of
Milan, was taken prisoner by Louis XII., king of France, and
Maximilian was again compelled to ask the diet for help. An
elaborate scheme for raising an army was agreed to, and in
return a council of regency (Reichsregiment) was established,
which amounted, in the words of a Venetian envoy, to a depo-
sition of the king. The relations were now very strained
between the reforming princes and Maximilian, who, unable to
raise an army, refused to attend the meetings of the council at
Nuremberg, while both parties treated for peace with France.
The hostility of the king rendered the council impotent. He
was successful in winning the support of many of the younger
princes, and in establishing a new court of justice, the members
of which were named by himself. The negotiations with France
ended in the treaty of Blois, signed in September 1504, when
MAXIMILIAN II.
923
Maximilian's grandson Charles was betrothed to Claude, daughter
of Louis XII., and Louis, invested with the duchy of Milan,
agreed to aid the king of the Romans to secure the imperial
crown. A succession difficulty in Bavaria-Landshut was only
decided after Maximilian had taken up arms and narrowly
escaped with his life at Regensburg. In the settlement of this
question, made in 1505, he secured a considerable increase of
territory, and when the king met the diet at Cologne in 1 505 he
was at the height of his power. His enemies at home were
crushed, and their leader, Berthold, elector of Mainz, was dead;
while the outlook abroad was more favourable than it had been
since his accession.
It is at this period that Ranke believes Maximilian to have
entertained the idea of a universal monarchy; but whatever
hopes he may have had were shattered by the death of his son
Philip and the rupture of the treaty of Blois. The diet of
Cologne discussed the question of reform in a halting fashion,
but afforded the king supplies for an expedition into Hungary,
to aid his ally Ladislaus, and to uphold his own influence in the
East. Having established his daughter Margaret as regent for
Charles in the Netherlands, Maximilian met the diet at Constance
in 1507, when the imperial chamber (Reichskammergericht) was
revised and took a more permanent form, and help was granted
for an expedition to Italy. The king set out for Rome to secure
his coronation, but Venice refused to let him pass through her
territories; and at Trant, on the 4th of February 1508, he took the
important step of assuming the title of Roman Emperor Elect,
to which he soon received the assent of pope Julius II. He
attacked the Venetians, but finding the war unpopular with the
trading cities of southern Germany, made a truce with the
republic for three years. The treaty of Blois had contained a
secret article providing for an attack on Venice, and this ripened
into the league of Cambray, which was joined by the emperor in
December 1509. He soon took the field, but after his failure
to capture Padua the league broke up; and his sole ally, the
French king, joined him in calling a general council at Pisa to
discuss the question of Church reform. A breach with pope
Julius followed, and at this time Maximilian appears to have
entertained, perhaps quite seriously, the idea of seating himself
in the chair of St Peter. After a period of vacillation he deserted
Louis and joined the Holy League, which had been formed to
expel the French from Italy; but unable to raise troops, he served
with the English forces as a volunteer and shared in the victory
gained over the French at the battle of the Spurs near Therou-
anne on the i6th of August 1513. In 1500 the diet had divided
Germany into six circles, for the maintenance of peace, to which
the emperor at the diet of Cologne in 1312 added four others.
Having made an alliance with Christian II., king of Denmark, and
interfered to protect the Teutonic Order against Sigismund I.,
king of Poland, Maximilian was again in Italy early in 1516
fighting the French who had overrun Milan. His want of success
compelled him on the 4th of December 1516 to sign the treaty of
Brussels, which left Milan in the hands of the French king,
while Verona was soon afterwards transferred to Venice. He
attempted in vain to secure the election of his grandson Charles
as king of the Romans, and in spite of increasing infirmity was
eager to lead the imperial troops against the Turks. At the diet
of Augsburg in 1518 the emperor heard warnings of the Refor-
mation in the shape of complaints against papal exactions, and
a repetition of the complaints preferred at the diet of Mainz
in 1517 about the administration of Germany. Leaving the diet,
he travelled to Wels in Upper Austria, where he died on the I2th
of January 1519. He was buried in the church of St George
in Vienna Neustadt, and a superb monument, which may still
be seen, was raised to his memory at Innsbruck.
Maximilian had many excellent personal qualities. He was not
handsome, but of a robust and well-proportioned frame. Simple
in his habits, conciliatory in his bearing, and catholic in his tastes,
he enjoyed great popularity and rarely made a personal enemy.
He was a skilled knight and a daring huntsman, and although not
a great general, was intrepid on the field of battle. His mental
interests were extensive. He knew something of six languages,
and could discuss art, music, literature or theology. He reorganized
the university of Vienna and encouraged the development of the
universities of Ingolstadt and Freiburg. He was the friend and
patron of scholars, caused manuscripts to be copied and medieval
poems to be collected. He was the author of military reforms,
which included the establishment of standing troops, called Lands-
knechte, the improvement of artillery by making cannon portable,
and some changes in the equipment of the cavalry. He was
continually devising plans for the better government of Austria,
and although they ended in failure, he established the unity of the
Austrian dominions. Maximilian has been called the second
founder of the house of Habsburg, and certainly by bringing about
marriages between Charles and Joanna and between his grandson
Ferdinand and Anna, daughter of Ladislaus, king of Hungary and
Bohemia, he paved the way for the vast empire of Charles V. and
for the influence of the Habsburgs in eastern Europe. But he
had many qualities less desirable. He was reckless and unstable,
resorting often to lying and deceit, and never pausing to count
the cost of an enterprise or troubling to adapt means to ends.
For absurd and impracticable schemes in Italy and elsewhere he
neglected Germany, and sought to involve its princes in wars under-
taken solely for private aggrandizement or personal jealousy.
Ignoring his responsibilities as ruler of Germany, he only considered
the question of its government when in need of money and support
from the princes. As the " last of the knights " he could not see
that the old order of society was passing away and a new order
arising, while he was fascinated by the glitter of the medieval
empire and spent the better part of his life in vague schemes for
its revival. As " a gifted amateur in politics " he increased the
disorder of Germany and Italy and exposed himself and the empire
to the jeers of Europe.
Maximilian was also a writer of books, and his writings display his
inordinate vanity. His Geheimes Jagdbuch, containing about 2500
words, is a treatise purporting to teach his grandsons the art of
hunting. He inspired the production of The Dangers and Adven-
tures of the Famous Hero and Knight Sir Teuerdank, an allegorical
poem describing his adventures on his journey to marry Mary of
Burgundy. The emperor's share in the work is not clear, but it
seems certain that the general scheme and many of the incidents
are due to him. It was first published at Nuremberg by Melchior
Pfintzing in 1517, and was adorned with woodcuts by Hans Leonhard
Schaufelein. The Weisskunig was long regarded as the work of
the emperor's secretary, Marx Treitzsaurwein, but it is now believed
that the greater part of the book at least is the work of the emperor
himself. It is an unfinished autobiography containing an account
of the achievements of Maximilian, who is called '.' the young white
king." It was first published at Vienna in 1775. He also is re-
sponsible for Freydal, an allegorical account of the tournaments in
which he took part during his wooing of Mary of Burgundy;
Ehrenpforten, Triumphwagen and Der weisen konige Stammbaum,
books concerning his own history and that of the house of Habsburg,
and works on various subjects, as Das Stahlbuch, Die Baumeisterei
and Die Gdrtnerei. These works are all profusely illustrated,
some by Albrecht Durer, and in the preparation of the woodcuts
Maximilian himself took the liveliest interest. A facsimile of the
original editions of Maximilian's autobiographical and semi-auto-
biographical works has been published in nine volumes in the
Jahrbticher der kunsthislorischen Sammlungen des Kaiserhauses
(Vienna, 1880-1888). For this edition S. Laschitzer wrote an
introduction to Sir Teuerdank, Q. von Leitner to Freydal, and N. A.
von Schultz to Der Weisskunig. The Holbein society issued a
facsimile of Sir Teuerdank (London, 1884) and Triumphwagen
(London, 1883).
See Correspondence de I'empereur Maximilien /. et de Marguerite
d'Autriche, 7507-75/9, edited by A. G. le Glay (Paris, 1839) ; Maxi-
milians /. vertraulicher Briefwechsel mit Sigmund Pruschenk, edited
by V. von Kraus (Innsbruck, 1875) ; J. Chmel, Urkunden, Briefe und
Aktenstucke zur Geschichte Maximilians /. und seiner Zeit. (Stuttgart,
1845) and Aktenstucke und Briefe zur Geschichte des Houses Habsburg
im Zeitalter Maximilians /. (Vienna, 1854-1858); K. Klupfef,
Kaiser Maximilian /. (Berlin, 1854); H. Ulmann, Kaiser Maxi-
milian I. (Stuttgart, 1884) ; L. P. Gachard, Leltres inedites de Maxi-
milien 7. sur les affaires des Pays Bos (Brussels, 1851-1852); L. von
Ranke, Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Volker, 1404
1514 (Leipzig, 1874); R. W. S. Watson, Maximilian I. (London,
1902) ; A. Jager, Uber Kaiser Maximilians I. Verhdltnis zum Papst-
thum (Vienna, 1854); H. Ulmann, Kaiser Maximilians I. Absichtfn
auf das Papstthum (Stuttgart, 1888), and A. Schulte, Kaiser Maxi-
milian I. als Kandidat fur den pdpstlichen Stuhl (Leipzig, 1006).
(A. W. H.*)
MAXIMILIAN II. (1527-1576), Roman emperor, was the
eldest son of the emperor Ferdinand I. by his wife Anne, daughter
of Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and was born in
Vienna on the 3ist of July 1527. Educated principally in Spain,
he gained some experience of warfare during the campaign
of Charles V. against France in 1544, and also during the war
of the league of Schmalkalden, and soon began to take part in
imperial business. Having in September 1548 married his
924
MAXIMILIAN
cousin Maria, daughter of Charles V., he acted as the emperor's
representative in Spain from 1548 to 1550, returning to Germany
in December 1550 in order to take part in the discussion over
the imperial succession. Charles V. wished his son Philip
(afterwards king of Spain) to succeed him as emperor, but
his brother Ferdinand, who had already been designated as
the next occupant of the imperial throne, and Maximilian
objected to this proposal. At length a compromise was reached.
Philip was to succeed Ferdinand, but during the former's reign
Maximilian, as king of the Romans, was to govern Germany.
This arrangement was not carried out, and is only important
because the insistence of the emperor seriously disturbed the
harmonious relations which had hitherto existed between the
two branches of the Habsburg family; and the estrangement
went so far that an illness which befell Maximilian in 1552 was
attributed to poison given to him in the interests of his cousin
and brother-in-law, Philip of Spain. About this time he took
up his residence in Vienna, and was engaged mainly in the
government of the Austrian dominions and in defending them
against the Turks. The religious views of the king of Bohemia,
as Maximilian had been called since his recognition as the
future ruler of that country in 1549, had always been somewhat
uncertain, and he had probably learned something of Luther-
anism in his youth; but his amicable relations with several
Protestant princes, which began about the time of the discussion
over the succession, were probably due more to political than
to religious considerations. However, in Vienna he became
very intimate with Sebastian Pfauser (1520-1569), a court
preacher with strong leanings towards Lutheranism, and his
religious attitude caused some uneasiness to his father. Fears
were freely expressed that he would definitely leave the Catholic
Church, and when Ferdinand became emperor in 1558 he was
prepared to assure Pope Paul IV. that his son should not succeed
him if he took this step. Eventually Maximilian remained
nominally an adherent of the older faith, although his views
were tinged with Lutheranism until the end of his life. After
several refusals he consented in 1560 to the banishment of
Pfauser, and began again to attend the services of the Catholic
Church. This uneasiness having been dispelled, in November
1562 Maximilian was chosen king of the .Romans, or German
king, at Frankfort, where he was crowned a few days later,
after assuring the Catholic electors of his fidelity to their faith,
and promising the Protestant electors that he would publicly
accept the confession of Augsburg when he became emperor.
He also took the usual oath to protect the Church, and his
election was afterwards confirmed by the papacy. In September
1563 he was crowned king of Hungary, and on his father's death,
in July 1564, succeeded to the empire and to the kingdoms
of Hungary and Bohemia.
The new emperor had already shown that he believed in the
necessity for a thorough reform of the Church. He was unable,
however, to obtain the consent of Pope Pius IV. to the marriage
of the clergy, and in 1568 the concession of communion in both
kinds to the laity was withdrawn. On his part Maximilian
granted religious liberty to the Lutheran nobles and knights
in Austria, and refused to allow the publication of the decrees
of the council of Trent. Amid general expectations on the
part of the Protestants he met his first Diet at Augsburg in
March 1566. He refused to accede to the demands of the
Lutheran princes; on the other hand, although the increase
of sectarianism was discussed, no decisive steps were taken to
suppress it, and the only result of the meeting was a grant of
assistance for the Turkish War, which had just been renewed.
Collecting a large and splendid army Maximilian marched to
defend his territories; but no decisive engagement had taken
place when a truce was made in 1568, and the emperor continued
to pay tribute to the sultan for Hungary. Meanwhile the rela-
tions between Maximilian and Philip of Spain had improved;
and the emperor's increasingly cautious and moderate attitude
in religious matters was doubtless due to the fact that the
death of Philip's son, Don Carlos, had opened the way for the
succession of Maximilian, or of one of his sons, to the Spanish
throne. Evidence of this friendly feeling was given in 1570,
when the emperor's daughter, Anne, became the fourth wife
of Philip; but Maximilian was unable to moderate the harsh
proceedings of the Spanish king against the revolting inhabitants
of the Netherlands. In 1570 the emperor met the diet at
Spires and asked for aid to place his eastern borders in a state
of defence, and also for power to repress the disorder caused
by troops in the service of foreign powers passing through
Germany. He proposed that his consent should be necessary
before any soldiers for foreign service were recruited in the
empire; but the estates were unwilling to strengthen the im-
perial authority, the Protestant princes regarded the suggestion
as an attempt to prevent them from assisting their coreligionists
in France and the Netherlands, and nothing was done in this
direction, although some assistance was voted for the defence
of Austria. The religious demands of the Protestants were
still unsatisfied, while the policy of toleration had failed to give
peace to Austria. Maximilian's power was very limited; it
was inability rather than unwillingness that prevented him from
yielding to the entreaties of Pope Pius V. to join in an attack
on the Turks both before and after the victory of Lepanto in
1571; and he remained inert while the authority of the empire in
north-eastern Europe was threatened. His last important act
was to make a bid for the throne of Poland, either for himself
or for his son Ernest. In December 1575 he was elected by a
powerful faction, but the diet which met at Regensburg was
loath to assist; and on the i2th of October 1576 the emperor
died, refusing on his deathbed to receive the last sacraments
of the Church.
By his wife Maria he had a family of nine sons and six daugh-
ters. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Rudolph,
who had been chosen king of the Romans in October 1575.
Another of his sons, Matthias, also became emperor; three
others, Ernest, Albert and Maximilian, took some part in the
government of the Habsburg territories or of the Netherlands,
and a daughter, Elizabeth, married Charles IX. king of France.
The religious attitude of Maximilian has given rise to much
discussion, and on this subject the writings of W. Maurenbrecher,
W. Goetz and E. Reimann in the Historische Zeitschrift, Bande VII.,
XV..XXXII. and LXXVII. (Munich, 1870 fol.) should be consulted,
and also O. H. Hopfen, Maximilian II. und der Kompromiss-
katholizismus (Munich, 1895); C. Haupt. Melanchthons und seiner
Lehrer Einfluss auf Maximilian II. (Wittenberg, 1897); F. Walter,
Die Wahl Maximilians II. (Heidelberg, 1892); W. Goetz, Maxi-
milians II. Wahl zum romischen Konige (Wilrzburg, 1891), and
T. J. Scherg, Vber die religiose Enlwickelung Kaiser Maximilians II.
bis zu seiner Wahl zum romischen Konige (Wiirzburg, 1903). For
a more general account of his life and work see Brief e und Akten zur
Geschichte Maximilians II., edited by W. E. Schwarz (Paderborn,
1889-1891); M. Koch, Quellcn zur Geschichte des Kaisers Maxi-
milian II. in Archiven gesammelt (Leipzig, 1857-1861); R. Holtz-
mann, Kaiser Maximilian II. bis zu seiner Thronbesteigung (Berlin,
1903); E. Wertheimer, Zur Geschichte der Tiirkenkriege Maxi-
milians II. (Vienna, 1875); L. von Ranke, Uber die Zeiten Fer-
dinands I. und Maximilians II. in Band VII. of his Sammtliche
Wcrke (Leipzig, 1874), and J. Janssen, Geschichte des deutschen
Volkes seit demAusgang des Mittelalters, Bande IV. to VIII. (Freiburg,
1885-1894), English translation by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie
(London, 1896 fol.).
MAXIMILIAN (1832-1867), emperor of Mexico, second son
of the archduke Francis Charles of Austria, was born in the
palace of Schonbrunn, on the 6th of July 1832. He was a
particularly clever boy, showed considerable taste for the arts,
and early displayed an interest in science, especially botany.
He was trained for the navy, and threw himself into this career
with so much zeal that he quickly rose to high command,
and was mainly instrumental in creating the naval port of
Trieste and the fleet with which Tegethoff won his victories
in the Italian War. He had some reputation as a Liberal, and
this led, in February 1857, to his appointment as viceroy of
the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom; in the same year he married
the Princess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of the
Belgians. On the outbreak of the war of 1859 he retired into
private life, chiefly at Trieste, near which he built the beautiful
chateau of Miramar. In this same year he was first approached
by Mexican exiles with the proposal to become the candidate
MAXIMINUS MAXIMS, LEGAL
925
for the throne of Mexico. He did not at first accept, but sought
to satisfy his restless desire for adventure by a botanical expedi-
tion to the tropical forests of Brazil. In 1863, however, under
pressure from Napoleon III., and after General Forey's capture
of the city of Mexico and the plebiscite which confirmed his
proclamation of the empire, he consented to accept the crown.
This decision was contrary to the advice of his brother, the
emperor Francis Joseph, and involved the loss of all his rights
in Austria. Maximilian landed at Vera Cruz on the 28th of
May 1864; but from the very outset he found himself involved
in difficulties of the most serious kind, which in 1866 made
apparent to almost every one outside of Mexico the necessity
for his abdicating. Though urged to this course by Napoleon
himself, whose withdrawal from Mexico was the final blow to
his cause, Maximilian refused to desert his followers. With-
drawing, in February 1867, to Queretaro, he there sustained
a siege for several weeks, but on the isth of May resolved to
attempt an escape through the enemy's lines. He was, however,
arrested before he could carry out this resolution, and after
trial by court-martial was condemned to death. The sentence
was carried out on the igth of June 1867. His remains were
conveyed to Vienna, where they were buried in the imperial
vault early in the following year. (See MEXICO.)
Maximilian's papers were published at Leipzig in 1867, in seven
volumes, under the title Aus meinem Leben, Reiseskizzen, Aphoris-
men, Gedichte. See Pierre de la Gorce, Hist, du Second Empire,
IV., liv. xxy. ii. (Paris, 1904) ; article by von Hoffinger in Allgemeine
Deutsche Biographie, xxi. 70, where authorities are cited.
MAXIMINUS, GAIUS JULIUS VERUS, Roman emperor
from A.D. 235 to 238, was born in a village on the confines
of Thrace. He was of barbarian parentage and was brought
up as a shepherd. His immense stature and enormous feats
of strength attracted the attention of the emperor Septimius
Severus. He entered the army, and under Caracalla rose to
the rank of centurion. He carefully absented himself from
court during the reign of Heliogabalus, but under his successor
Alexander Severus, was appointed supreme commander of the
Roman armies. After the murder of Alexander in Gaul,
hastened, it is said, by his instigation, Maximinus was pro-
claimed emperor by the soldiers on the iQth of March 235.
The three years of his reign, which were spent wholly in the
camp, were marked by great cruelty and oppression; the wide-
spread discontent thus produced culminated in a revolt in
Africa and the assumption of the purple by Gordian (q.v.).
Maximinus, who was in Pannonia at the time, marched against
Rome, and passing over the Julian Alps descended on Aquileia;
while detained before that city he and his son were murdered
in their tent by a body of praetorians. Their heads were cut
off and despatched to Rome, where they were burnt on the
Campus Martius by the exultant crowd.
Capitolinus, Maximini duo; Herodian vi. 8, vii., viii. 1-5;
Zosimus i. 13-15).
MAXIMINUS [MAXIMIN], GALERIUS VALERIUS, Roman
emperor from A.D. 308 to 314, was originally an Illyrian shepherd
named Daia. He rose to high distinction after he had joined
the army, and in 305 he was raised by his uncle, Galerius, to
the rank of Caesar, with the government of Syria and Egypt.
In 308, after the elevation of Licinius, he insisted on receiving the
title of Augustus; on the death of Galerius, in 311, he succeeded
to the supreme command of the provinces of Asia, and when
Licinius and Constantine began to make common cause with
one another Maximinus entered into a secret alliance with
Maxentius. He came to an open rupture with Licinius in 313,
sustained a crushing defeat in the neighbourhood of Heraclea
Pontica on the 3oth of April, and fled, first to Nicomedia and
afterwards to Tarsus, where he died in August following. His
death was variously ascribed " to despair, to poison, and to
the divine justice." Maximinus has a bad name in Christian
annals, as having renewed persecution after the publication
of the toleration edict of Galerius, but it is probable that he
has been judged too harshly.
See MAXENTIUS; Zosimus ii. 8; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 40.
MAXIMS, LEGAL. A maxim is an established principle
or proposition. The Latin term maxima is not to be found
in Roman law with any meaning exactly analogous to that
of a legal maxim in the modern sense of the word, but the
treatises of many of the Roman jurists on Regulae definitiones,
and Sentenliae juris are, in some measure, collections of maxims
(see an article on " Latin Maxims in English Law " in Law Mag.
and Rev. xx. 285); Fortescue (De laudibus, c. 8) and Du Cange
treat maxima and regula as identical. The attitude of early
English commentators towards the maxims of the law was one
of unmingled adulation. In Doctor and Student (p. 26) they
are described as " of the same strength and effect in the law as
statutes be." Coke (Co. LiU. n A) says that a maxim is so
called " Quia maxima est ejus dignitas et certissima auctoritas,
atque quod maxime omnibus probetur." " Not only," observes
Bacon in the Preface to his Collection of Maxims, " will the
use of maxims be in deciding doubt and helping soundness
of judgment, but, further, in gracing argument, in correcting
unprofitable subtlety, and reducing the same to a more sound
and substantial sense of law, in reclaiming vulgar errors, and,
generally, in the amendment in some measure of the very
nature and complexion of the whole law." A similar note
was sounded in Scotland; and it has been well observed that
" a glance at the pages of Morrison's Dictionary or at other
early reports will show how frequently in the older Scots law
questions respecting the rights, remedies and liabilities of
individuals were determined by an immediate reference to
legal maxims " (J. M. Irving, Encyclo. Scots Law, s.v.
" Maxims "). In later times less value has been attached
to the maxims of the law, as the development of civilization
and the increasing complexity of business relations have shown
the necessity of qualifying the propositions which they enun-
ciate (see Stephen, Hist. Crim. Law, ii. 94 n: Yarmouth v.
France, 1887, 19 Q.B.D., per Lord Esher, at p. 653, and Ameri-
can authorities collected in Bouvier's Law Diet. s.v. " Maxim ").
But both historically and practically they must always possess
interest and value.
A brief reference need only be made here, with examples by way
of illustration, to the field which the maxims of the law cover.
Commencing with rules founded on public policy, we may note
the famous principle Solus populi suprema lex (xii. Tables; Bacon,
Maxims, reg. 12) " the public welfare is the highest law." It is
on this maxim that the coercive action of the State towards individual
liberty in a hundred matters is based. To the same category belong
the maxims Summa ratio est quae pro religione facit (Co. LiU.
341 a) " the best rule is that which advances religion " a maxim
which finds its application when the enforcement of foreign laws or
judgments supposed to violate our own laws or the principles of
natural justice is in question; and Dies dominicus non est juridicus,
which exempts Sunday from the lawful days for juridical acts.
Among the maxims relating to the crown, the most important are
Rex non potest peccare (2 Rolle R. 304) " The King can do no
wrong " which enshrines the principle of ministerial responsibility,
and Nullum tempus occurrit regi (2 Co. Inst. 273) " lapse of time
does not bar the crown," a maxim qualified by various enactments
in modern times. Passing to the judicial office and the administra-
tion of justice, we may refer to the rules Audi alteram partem a
proposition too familiar to need either translation or comment;
NemodebetessejudexinpropridsuAcausd (12 Co. Rep. 114) " no man
ought to be judge in his own cause " a maxim which French law.
and the legal systems based upon or allied to it, have embodied in
an elaborate network of rules for judicial challenge; and the maxim
which defines the relative functions of judge and jury, Ad quaeslionem
facti non respondent judices, ad quaeslionem legis non respondent
juralores (8 Co. Rep. 155). The maxim Boni judicis est ampliare
jurisdictionem (Ch. Prec. 329) is certainly erroneous as it stands, as
a judge has no right to extend his jurisdiction." If justitiam is
substituted for jurisdictionem, as Lord Mansfield said it should be
(i Burr. 304), the maxim is near the truth. A group of maxims
supposed to embody certain fundamental principles of legal right
and obligations may next be referred to: (a) Ubi jus ibi remedium
(see Co. LiU. 197 b) a maxim to which the evolution of the flexible
" action on the case," by which wrongs unknown to the " original
writs " were dealt with, was historically due, but which must be
taken with the gloss Damnum absatie injuria " there are forms of
actual damage which do not constitute legal injury " for which the
law supplies no remedy; (b) Actus Dei nemini facit injuriam (2
Blackstone, 122) and its allied maxim, Lex non cogit ad impossibilia
(Co. LiU. 231 b) on which the whole doctrine of vis major (force
majeure) and impossible conditions in the law of contract has been
926 MAXIMUS (ROMAN EMPERORS) MAXIMUS, ST
built up. In this category may also be classed Volenti non fit injuria
(Wingate, Maxims), out of which sprang the theory now pro-
foundly modified by statute of " common employment " in the
law of employers' liability; see Smith v. Baker, 1891, A.C. 325. Other
maxims deal with rights of property Qui prior est tempore, potior
est jure (Co. Lilt. 14 a), which consecrates the position of the beati
possidentes alike in municipal and in international law; Sic utere
tuo ut alienum non laedas (9 Co. Rep. 59), which has played its part
in the determination of the rights of adjacent owners; and Domus
sua cuique est tutissimum refugium (5 Co. Rep. 92) " a man's house
is his castle," a doctrine which has imposed limitations on the rights
of execution creditors (see EXECUTION). In the laws of family
relations there are the maxims Consensus non [concubitus facit
matrimonium (Co. Lilt. 33 a) the canon law of Europe prior to the
council of Trent, and still law in Scotland, though modified by
legislation in England; and Pater is est quern nuptiae Remonstrant
(see Co. Litt. 7 b), on which, in most civilized countries, the pre-
sumption of legitimacy depends. In the interpretation of written
instruments, the maxim Noscitur a sociis (3 Term Reports, 87),
which proclaims the importance of the context, stilj applies. So
do the rules Expressio unius est exclusio alterius (Co. Lilt. 210 a), and
Contemporanea expositio est optima etfortissima in lege(2 Co. Inst. 1 1),
which lets in evidence of contemporaneous user as an aid to the in-
terpretation of statutes or documents; see Van Diemen's Land Co. v.
Table Cape Marine Board, 1906, A.C. 92, 98. We may conclude this
sketch with a miscellaneous summary: Caveat emptor (Hob. 99)
"let the purchaser beware"; Qui facit per alium facile per se.
subveniunt (2 Co. Inst. 690), one of the maxims in accordance with
which courts of equity administer relief. Among other " maxims of
equity " come the rules that " he that seeks equity must do equity,"
i.e. must act fairly, and that " equity looks upon that as done which
ought to be done " a principle from which the " conversion " into
money of land directed to be sold, and of money directed to be
invested in the purchase of land, is derived.
The principal collections of legal maxims are: English Law:
Bacon, Collection of Some Principal Rules and Maxims of the Common
Law (1630); Noy, Treatise of the principal Grounds and Maxims of
the Law of England (1641, 8th ed., 1824) ; Wingate, Maxims of Reason
(1728) ; Francis, Grounds and Rudiments of Law and Equity (2nd ed.
1751); Lofft (annexed to his Reports, 1776); Broom, Legal Maxims
(7th ed. London, 1900). Scots Law: Lord Trayner, Latin Maxims
and Phrases (2nd ed., 1876) ; Stair, Institutions of the Law of Scotland,
with Index by More (Edinburgh, 1832). American Treatises:
A. I. Morgan, English Version of Legal Maxims (Cincinnati, 1878);
S. S. Peloubet, Legal Maxims in Law and Equity (New York,
1880). (A. W. R.)
MAXIMUS, the name of four Roman emperors.
I. M. CLODIUS PUPIENUS MAXIMUS, joint emperor with
D. Caelius Calvinus Balbinus during a few months of the
year A.D. 238. Pupienus was a distinguished soldier, who had
been proconsul of Bithynia, Achaea, and Gallia Narbonensis.
At the advanced age of seventy-four, he was chosen by the
senate with Balbinus to resist the barbarian Maximinus. Their
complete equality is shown by the fact that each assumed
the titles of pontifex maximus and princeps senatus. It was
arranged that Pupienus should take the field against Maximinus,
while Balbinus remained at Rome to maintain order, a task in
which he signally failed. A revolt of the praetorians was not
repressed till much blood had been shed and a considerable
part of the city reduced to ashes. On his march, Pupienus,
having received the news that Maximinus had been assassinated
by his own troops, returned in triumph to Rome. Shortly
afterwards, when both emperors were on the point of leaving
the city on an expedition Pupienus against the Persians
and Balbinus against the Goths the praetorians, who had
always resented the appointment of the senatorial emperors
and cherished the memory of the soldier-emperor Maximinus,
seized the opportunity of revenge. When most of the people
were at the Capitoline games, they forced their way into the
palace, dragged Balbinus and Pupienus through the streets,
and put them to death.
See Capitolinus, Life of Maximus and Balbinus; Herodian vii. 10,
viii. 6; Zonaras xii. 16; Orosius vii. 19; Eutropius ix. 2; Zosimus
i. 14; Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 26, epit. 26; H. Schiller, Geschichte
der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. 2 ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 7 and
(for the chronology) appendix 12 (Bury's edition).
II. MAGNUS MAXIMUS, a native of Spain, who had accom-
panied Theodosius on several expeditions and from 368 held
high military rank in Britain. The disaffected troops having
proclaimed Maximus emperor, he crossed over to Gaul, attacked
Gratian (?..), and drove him from Paris to Lyons, where he
was murdered by a partisan of Maximus. Theodosius being
unable to avenge the death of his colleague, an agreement
was made (384 or 385) by which Maximus was recognized as
Augustus and sole emperor in Gaul, Spain and Britain, while
Valentinian II. was to remain unmolested in Italy and Illyricum,
Theodosius retaining his sovereignty in the East. In 387
Maximus crossed the Alps, Valentinian was speedily put to
flight, while the invader established himself in Milan and for the
time became master of Italy. Theodosius now took vigorous
measures. Advancing with a powerful army, he twice defeated
the troops of Maximus at Siscia on the Save, and at Poetovio
on the Danube. He then hurried on to Aquileia, where Maximus
had shut himself up, and had him beheaded. Under the name
of Maxen Wledig, Maximus appears in the list of Welsh royal
heroes (see R. Williams , Biog. Diet, of Eminent Welshmen, 1852;
" The Dream of Maxen Wledig," in the Mabinogion).
Full account with classical references in H. Richter, Das west-
romische Reich, besonders unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II.
und Maximus (1865); see also H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen
Kaiserzeit, ii. (1887); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 27; Tillemont,
Hist, des empereurs, v.
III. MAXIMUS TYRANNUS, made emperor in Spain by the
Roman general, Gerontius, who had rebelled against the usurper
Constantine in 408. After the defeat of Gerontius at Arelate
(Aries) and his death in 411 Maximus renounced the imperial
title and was permitted by Constantine to retire into private
life. About 418 he rebelled again, but, failing in his attempt,
was seized, carried into Italy, and put to death at Ravenna
in 422.
See Orosius vii. 42; Zosimus vi. 5; Sozomen ix. 3; E. A. Freeman,
" The Tyrants of Britain, Gaul and Spain, A.D. 406-411," in English
Historical Review, i. (1886).
IV. PETRONIUS MAXIMUS, a member of the higher Roman
nobility, had held several court and public offices, including
those of praefeclus Romae (420) and Italiae (439-441 and 445),
and consul (433, 443). He was one of the intimate associates
of Valentinian III., whom he assisted in the palace intrigues
which led to the death of Aetius in 454; but an outrage
committed on the wife of Maximus by the emperor turned
his friendship into hatred. Maximus was proclaimed emperor
immediately after Valentinian's murder (March 16, 455), but
after reigning less than three months, he was murdered by
some Burgundian mercenaries as he was fleeing before the
troops of Genseric, who, invited by Eudoxia, the widow of
Valentinian, had landed at the mouth of the Tiber (May or
June 45 5).
See Procopius, Vand. i. 4; Sidonius Apollinaris, Panegyr. Aviti,
ep. ii. 13; the various Chronicles; Gibbon, Decline and Fall,
ens. 35, 36; Tillemont, Hist, des empereurs, vi.
^ MAXIMUS, ST (c. 580-662), abbot of Chrysopolis, known as
" the Confessor " from his orthodox zeal in the Monothelite
(q.v.) controversy, or as " the monk," was born of noble paren-
tage at Constantinople about the year 580. Educated with
great care, he early became distinguished by his talents and
acquirements, and some time after the accession of the emperor
Heraclius in 610 was made his private secretary. In 630 he
abandoned the secular life and entered the monastery of Chryso-
polis (Scutari), actuated, it was believed, less by any longing
for the life of a recluse than by the dissatisfaction he felt
with the Monothelite leanings of his master. The date of his
promotion to the abbacy is uncertain. In 633 he was one of
the party of Sophronius of Jerusalem (the chief original opponent
of the Monothelites) at the council of Alexandria; and in 645
he was again in Africa, when he held in presence of the governor
and a number of bishops the disputation with Pyrrhus, the
deposed and banished patriarch of Constantinople, which
resulted in the (temporary) conversion of his interlocutor to
the Dyothelite view. In the following year several African
synods, held under the influence of Maximus, declared for
orthodoxy. In 649, after the accession of Martin I., he went
to Rome, and did much to fan the zeal of the new pope, who in
MAXIMUS OF SMYRNA MAX MULLER
927
October of that year held the (first) Lateran synod, by which
not only the Monothelite doctrine but also the moderating
ecthesis of Heraclius and typus of Constans II. were anathema-
tized. About 653 Maximus, for the part he had taken against
the latter document especially, was apprehended (together
with the pope) by order of Constans and carried a prisoner
to Constantinople. In 655, after repeated examinations,
in which he maintained his theological opinions with memorable
constancy, he was banished to Byzia in Thrace, and afterwards
to Perberis. In 662 he was again brought to Constantinople
and was condemned by a synod to be scourged, to have his
tongue cut out by the root, and to have his right hand chopped
off. After this sentence had been carried out he was again
banished to Lazica, where he died on the I3th of August 662.
He is venerated as a saint both in the Greek and in the Latin
Churches. Maximus was not only a leader in the Monothelite
struggle but a mystic who zealously followed and advocated
the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, while adding to it an ethical
element in the conception of the freedom of the will. His
works had considerable influence in shaping the system of
John Scotus Erigena.
The most important of the works of Maximus will be found in
Migne, Patrologia graeca, xc. xci., together with an anonymous life;
an exhaustive list in Wagenmann's article in vol. xii. (1903) of Hauck-
Herzog's Realencyklopadie where the following classification is
adopted: (a) exegetical, (6) scholia on the Fathers, (c) dogmatic
and controversial, (d) ethical and ascetic, (e) miscellaneous. The
details of the disputation with Pyrrhus and of the martyrdom are
given very fully and clearly in Hefele's Conciliengeschichte, iii. For
further literature see H. Gelzer in C. Krumbacher's Geschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
MAXIMUS OF SMYRNA, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-
platonist school, who lived towards the end of the 4th century A.D.
He was perhaps the most important of the followers of lambli-
chus. He is said to have been of a rich and noble family, and
exercised great influence over the emperor Julian, who was
commended to him by Aedesius. He pandered to the emperor's
love of magic and theurgy, and by judicious administration
of the omens won a high position at court. His overbearing
manner made him numerous enemies, and, after being imprisoned
on the death of Julian, he was put to death by Valens. He
is a representative of the least attractive side of Neoplatonism.
Attaching no value to logical proof and argument, he enlarged
on the wonders and mysteries of nature, and maintained his
position by the working of miracles. In logic he is reported
to have agreed with Eusebius, lamblichus and Porphyry in
asserting the validity of the second and third figures of the
syllogism.
MAXIMUS OF TYRE (CASSIUS MAXIMUS TYRIUS), a Greek
rhetorician and philosopher who flourished in the time of the
Antonines and Commodus (2nd century A.D.). After the manner
of the sophists of his age, he travelled extensively, delivering
lectures on the way. His writings contain many allusions
to the history of Greece, while there is little reference to Rome ;
hence it is inferred that he lived longer in Greece, perhaps
as a professor at Athens. Although nominally a Platonist, he
is really an Eclectic and one of the precursors of Neoplatonism.
There are still extant by him forty-one essays or discourses
(5taXte) on theological, ethical, and other philosophical
commonplaces. With him God is the supreme being, one and
indivisible though called by many names, accessible to reason
alone; but as animals form the intermediate stage between
plants and human beings, so there exist intermediaries between
God and man, viz. daemons, who dwell on the confines of heaven
and earth. The soul in many ways bears a great resemblance
to the divinity; it is partly mortal, partly immortal, and, when
freed from the fetters of the body, becomes a daemon. Life
is the sleep of the soul, from which it awakes at death. The
style of Maximus is superior to that of the ordinary sophistical
rhetorician, but scholars differ widely as to the merits of the
essays themselves.
Maximus of Tyre must be distinguished from the Stoic
Maximus, tutor of Marcus Aurelius.
Editions by J. Davies, revised with valuable notes by T. Markland
(1740); J. J. Keiske (1774); F. Dubner (1840, with Theophrastus,
&c., in the Didot series). Monographs by R. Rohdich (Beuthen,
1879); H. Hobein, De Maximo Tyrio quaesttones philol. (Jena, 1895).
There is an English translation (1804) by Thomas Taylor, the
Platonist.
MAX MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1823-1000), Anglo-German
orientalist and comparative philologist, was born at Dessau
on the 6th of December 1823, being the son of Wilhelm M tiller
(1794-1827), the German poet, celebrated for his phil-Hellenic
lyrics, who was ducal librarian at Dessau. The elder Miiller
had endeared himself to the most intellectual circles in Germany
by his amiable character and his genuine poetic gift; his songs
had been utilized by musical composers, notably Schubert;
and it was his son's good fortune to meet in his youth with a
succession of eminent friends, who, already interested in him
for his father's sake, and charmed by the qualities which they
discovered in the young man himself, powerfully aided him
by advice and patronage. Mendelssohn, who was his godfather,
dissuaded him from indulging his natural bent to the study
of music; Professor Brockhaus of the University of Leipzig,
where Max Miiller matriculated in 1841, induced him to take
up Sanskrit; Bopp, at the University of Berlin (1844), made
the Sanskrit student a scientific comparative philologist;
Schelling at the same university, inspired him with a love for
metaphysical speculation, though failing to attract him to his
own philosophy; Burnouf, at Paris in the following year, by
teaching him Zend, started him on the track of inquiry into
the science of comparative religion, and impelled him to edit
the Rig Veda; and when, in 1846, Max Miiller came to England
upon this errand, Bunsen, in conjunction with Professor H. H.
Wilson, prevailed upon the East India Company to undertake
the expense of publication. Up to this time Max Miiller -had
lived the life of a poor student, supporting himself partly by
copying manuscripts, but Bunsen's introductions to Queen
Victoria and the prince consort, and to Oxford University,
laid the foundation for him of fame and fortune. In 1848
the printing of his Rig Veda at the University Press obliged
him to settle in Oxford, a step which decided his future career.
He arrived at a favourable conjuncture: the Tractarian strife,
which had so long thrust learning into the background, was
just over, and Oxford was becoming accessible to modern ideas.
The young German excited curiosity and interest, and it was
soon discovered that, although a genuine scholar, he was no
mere bookworm. Part of his social success was due to his
readiness to exert his musical talents at private parties. Max
Miiller was speedily subjugated by the genius loci. He was
appointed deputy Taylorian professor of modern languages
in 1850, and the German government failed to tempt him back
to Strassburg. In the following year he was made M.A. and
honorary fellow of Christ Church, and in 1858 he was elected
a fellow of All Souls. In 1854 the Crimean War gave him the
opportunity of utilizing his oriental learning in vocabularies
and schemes of transliteration. In 1857 he successfully essayed
another kind of literature in his beautiful story Deutsche Liebe,
written both in German and English. He had by this time
become an extensive contributor to English periodical literature,
and had written several of the essays subsequently collected
as Chips from a German Workshop. The most important of
them was the fascinating essay on " Comparative Mythology "
in the Oxford Essays for 1856. His valuable History of Ancient
Sanskrit Literature, so far as it illustrates the primitive religion
of the Brahmans (and hence the Vedic period only), was
published in 1859.
Though Max Miiller's reputation was that of a comparative
philologist and orientalist, his professional duties at Oxford
were long confined to lecturing on modern languages, or at
least their medieval forms. In 1860 the death of Horace
Hayman Wilson, professor of Sanskrit, seemed to open a more
congenial sphere to him. His claims to the succession seemed
incontestable, for his opponent, Monier Williams, though well
qualified as a Sanskritist, lacked Max Muller's brilliant versatility,
and although educated at Oxford, had held no University
928
MAXWELL (FAMILY)
office. But Max Mtiller was a Liberal, and the friend of Liberals
in university matters, in politics, and in theology, and this
consideration united with his foreign birth to bring the country
clergy in such hosts to the poll that the voice of resident Oxford
was overborne, and Monier Williams was elected by a large
majority. It was the one great disappointment of Max Miiller's
life, and made a lasting impression upon him. It was,* never-
theless, serviceable to his influence and reputation by permitting
him to enter upon a wider field of subjects than would have been
possible otherwise. Directly, Sanskrit philology received little
more from him, except in connexion with his later undertak-
ing of The Sacred Books of the East; but indirectly he exalted
it more than any predecessor by proclaiming its commanding
position in the history of the human intellect by his Science
of Language, two courses of lectures delivered at the Royal
Institution in 1861 and 1863. Max Miiller ought not to be
described as " the introducer of comparative philology into
England." Prichard had proved the Aryan affinities of the
Celtic languages by the methods of comparative philology
so long before as 1831; Winning's Manual of Comparative
Philology had been published in 1838; the discoveries of Bopp
and Pott and Pictet had been recognized in brilliant articles
in the Quarterly Review, and had guided the researches of Raw-
linson. But Max Miiller undoubtedly did far more to popularize
the subject than had been done, or could have been done,
by any predecessor. He was on less sure ground in another
department of the study of language the problem of its origin.
He wrote upon it as a disciple of Kant, whose Critique of Pure
Reason he translated. His essays on mythology are among the
most delightful of his writings, but their value is somewhat
impaired by a too uncompromising adherence to the seductive
generalization of the solar myth.
Max Miiller's studies in mythology led him to another field
of activity in which his influence was more durable and extensive,
that of the comparative science of religions. Here, so far as
Great Britain is concerned, he does deserve the fame of an
originator, and his Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873:
the same year in which he lectured on the subject, at Dean
Stanley's invitation, in Westminster Abbey, this being the
only occasion on which a layman had given an address there)
marks an epoch. It was followed by other works of importance,
especially the four volumes of Gifford lectures, delivered between
1888 and 1892; but the most tangible result of the impulse
he had given was the publication under his editorship, from
1875 onwards, of The Sacred Books of the East, in fifty-one
volumes, including indexes, all but three of which appeared
under his superintendence during his lifetime. These comprise
translations by the most competent scholars of all the really
important non-Christian scriptures of Oriental nations, which
can now be appreciated without a knowledge of the original
languages. Max Miiller also wrote on Indian philosophy in
his latter years, and his exertions to stimulate search for Oriental
manuscripts and inscriptions were rewarded with important
discoveries of early Buddhist scriptures, in their Indian form,
made in Japan. He was on particularly friendly terms with
native Japanese scholars, and after his death his library was
purchased by the university of T6ky6.
In 1868 Max Miiller had been indemnified for his disappoint-
ment over the Sanskrit professorship by the establishment
of a chair of Comparative Philology to be filled by him. He
retired, however, from the actual duties of the post in 1875,
when entering upon the editorship of The Sacred Books of the
East. The most remarkable external events of his latter years
were his delivery of lectures at the restored university of
Strassburg in 1872, when he devoted his honorarium to the
endowment of a Sanskrit lectureship, and his presidency over
the International Congress of Orientalists in 1892. But his
days, if uneventful, were busy. He participated in every
movement at Oxford of which he could approve, and was
intimate with nearly all its men of light and leading; he was a
curator of the Bodleian Library, and a delegate of the Univer-
sity Press. He was acquainted with most of the crowned heads
of Europe, and was an especial favourite with the English
royal family. His hospitality was ample, especially to visitors
from India, where he was far better known than any other
European Orientalist. His distinctions, conferred by foreign
governments and learned societies, were innumerable, and,
having been naturalized shortly after his arrival in England,
he received the high honour of being made a privy councillor.
In 1898 and 1899 he published autobiographical reminiscences
under the title of Auld Lang Syne. He was writing a more
detailed autobiography when overtaken by death on the 28th
of October 1900. Max Miiller married in 1859 Georgiana
Adelaide Grenfell, sister of the wives of Charles Kingsley and
J. A. Froude. One of his daughters, Mrs Conybeare, distin-
guished herself by a translation of Scherer's History of German
Literature.
Though undoubtedly a great scholar, Max Miiller did not
so much represent scholarship pure and simple as her hybrid
types the scholar-author and the scholar-courtier. In the
former capacity, though manifesting little of the originality of
genius, he rendered vast service by popularizing high truths
among high minds. In his public and social character he
represented Oriental studies with a brilliancy, and conferred
upon them a distinction, which they had not previously enjoyed
in Great Britain. There were drawbacks in both respects:
the author was too prone to build upon insecure foundations,
and the man of the world incurred censure for failings which
may perhaps be best indicated by the remark that he seemed
too much of a diplomatist. But the sum of foibles seems
insignificant in comparison with the life of intense labour dedi-
cated to the service of culture and humanity.
Max Miiller's Collected Works were published in 1903. (R. G.)
MAXWELL, the name of a Scottish family, members of which
have held the titles of earl of Morton, earl of Nithsdale, Lord
Maxwell, and Lord Herries. The name is taken probably
from Maccuswell, or Maxwell, near Kelso, whither the family
migrated from England about noo. Sir Herbert Maxwell
won great fame by defending his castle of Carlaverock against
Edward I. in 1300; another Sir Herbert was made a lord of the
Scottish parliament before 1445; and his great-grandson John,
3rd Lord Maxwell, was killed at Flodden in 1513. John's son
Robert, the 4th lord (d. 1546), was a member of the royal
council under James V.; he was also an extraordinary lord of
session, high admiral, and warden of the west marches, and was
taken prisoner by the English at the rout of Solway Moss in
1542. Robert's grandson John, 7th Lord Maxwell (1553-1593),
was the second son of Robert, the 5th lord (d. 1552), and his
wife Beatrix, daughter of James Douglas, 3rd earl of Morton.
After the execution of the regent Morton, the 4th earl, in 1581
this earldom was bestowed upon Maxwell, but in 1586 the
attainder of the late earl was reversed and he was deprived
of his new title. He had helped in 1585 to drive the royal
favourite James Stewart, earl of Arran, from power, and he
made active preparations to assist the invading Spaniards in
1588. His son John, the 8th lord (c. 1586-1613), was at feud
with the Johnstones, who had killed his father in a skirmish,
and with the Douglases over the earldom of Morton, which he
regarded as his inheritance. After a life of exceptional and
continuous lawlessness he escaped from Scotland and in his
absence was sentenced to death; having returned to his native
country he was seized and was beheaded in Edinburgh. In
1618 John's brother and heir Robert (d. 1646) was restored
to the lordship of Maxwell, and in 1620 was created earl of
Nithsdale, surrendering at this time his claim to the earldom
of Morton. He and his son Robert, afterwards the 2nd earl,
fought under Montrose for Charles I. during the Civil War.
Robert died without sons in October 1667, when a cousin John
Maxwell, 7th Lord Herries (d. 1677), became third earl.
William, 5th earl of Nithsdale (1676-1744), a grandson of
the third earl, was like his ancestor a Roman Catholic and was
attached to the cause of the exiled house of Stuart. In 1715
he joined the Jacobite insurgents, being taken prisoner at the
battle of Preston and sentenced to death. He escaped, however,
MAXWELL, J. C.
from the Tower of London through the courage and devotion
of his wife Winifred (d. 1749), daughter of William Herbert,
ist marquess of Powis. He was attainted in 1716 and his titles
became extinct, but his estates passed to his son William
(d. 1 776) , whose descendant, William Constable-Maxwell, regained
the title of Lord Herries in 1858. The countess of Nithsdale
wrote an account of her husband's escape, which is published
in vol. i. of the Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland.
A few words may be added about other prominent members of
the Maxwell family. John Maxwell (c. 1590-1647), archbishop
of Tuam, was a Scottish ecclesiastic who took a leading part in
helping Archbishop Laud in his futile attempt to restore the liturgy
in Scotland. He was bishop of Ross from 1633 until 1638, when he
was deposed by the General Assembly ; then crossing over to Ireland
he was bishop of Killala and Achonry from 1640 to 1645, and arch-
bishop of Tuam from 1645 until his death. James Maxwell of
Kirkconncll (c. 1708-1762), the Jacobite, wrote the Narrative of
Charles Prince of Wales's Expedition to Scotland in 1745, which was
printed for the Maitland Club in 1841. Robert Maxwell (1695-1765)
was the author of Select Transactions of the Society of Improvers
and was a great benefactor to Scottish agriculture. Sir Murray
Maxwell (1775-1831), a naval officer, gained much fame by his
conduct when his ship the " Alceste " was wrecked in Caspar Strait
in 1817. William Hamilton Maxwell (1792-1850), the Irish novelist,
wrote, in addition to several novels, a Life of the Duke of Wellington
(1839-1841 and again 1883), and a History of the Irish Rebellion in
1798 (1845 and 1891). Sir Herbert Maxwell, 7th bait. (b. 1845),
member of parliament for Wigtownshire from 1880 to 1906, and
president of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, became well
known as a writer, his works including Life and Times of the Right
Hon. W. H. Smith (1893); Life of the Duke of Wellington (1899);
The House of Douglas (1902) ; Robert the Bruce (1897) and A Duke of
Britain (1895).
MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK (1831-1879), British physicist,
was the last representative of a younger branch of the well-
known Scottish family of Clerk of Penicuik, and was born at
Edinburgh on the I3th of November 1831. He was educated
at the Edinburgh Academy (1840-1847) and the university of
Edinburgh (1847-1850). Entering at Cambridge in 1850, hespent
a term or two at Peterhouse, but afterwards migrated to Trinity.
In 1854 he took his degree as second wrangler, and was declared
equal with the senior wrangler of his year (E. J. Routh, q.v.)
in the higher ordeal of the Smith's prize examination. He held
the chair of Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen,
from 1856 till the fusion of the two colleges there in 1860. For
eight years subsequently he held the chair of Physics and
Astronomy in King's College, London, but resigned in 1868 and
rclired to his estate of Glenlair in Kirkcudbrightshire. He was
summoned from his seclusion in 1871 to become the first holder
of the newly founded professorship of Experimental Physics
in Cambridge; and it was under his direction that the plans
of the Cavendish Laboratory were prepared. He superintended
every step of the progress of the building and of the purchase
of the very valuable collection of apparatus with which it was
equipped at the expense of its munificent founder the seventh
duke of Devonshire (chancellor of the university, and one of
its most distinguished alumni). He died at Cambridge on the
5th of November 1879.
For more than half of his brief life he held a prominent
position in the very foremost rank of natural philosophers. His
contributions to scientific societies began in his fifteenth year,
when Professor J. D. Forbes communicated to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh a short paper of his on a mechanical method of
tracing Cartesian ovals. In his eighteenth year, while still
a student in Edinburgh, he contributed two valuable papers
to the Transactions of the same society one of which, " On
the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids," is remarkable, not only
on account of its intrinsic power and the youth of its author,
but also because in it he laid the foundation of one of the most
singular discoveries of his later life, the temporary double
refraction produced in viscous liquids by shearing stress. Im-
mediately after taking his degree, he read to the Cambridge
Philosophical Society a very novel memoir, " On the Trans-
formation of Surfaces by Bending." This is one of the few
purely mathematical papers he published, and it exhibited at
once to experts the full genius of its author. About the same
xvn. 30
929
time appeared his elaborate memoir, " On Faraday's Lines of
Force," in which he gave the first indication of some of those
extraordinary electrical investigations which culminated in
the greatest work of his life. He obtained in 1859 the Adams
prize in Cambridge for a very original and powerful essay, " On
the Stability of Saturn's Rings." From 1855 to 1872 he pub-
lished at intervals a series of valuable investigations connected
with the " Perception of Colour " and " Colour-Blindness,"
for the earlier of which he received the Rumford medal from
the Royal Society in 1860. The instruments which he devised
for these investigations were simple and convenient, but could
not have been thought of for the purpose except by a man
whose knowledge was co-extensive with his ingenuity. One
of his greatest investigations bore on the " Kinetic Theory of
Gases." Originating with D. Bernoulli, this theory was
advanced by the successive labours of John Herapath, J. P.
Joule, and particularly R. Clausius, to such an extent as to put
its general accuracy beyond a doubt; but it received enormous
developments from Maxwell, who in this field appeared as an
experimenter (on the laws of gaseous friction) as well as a
mathematician. He wrote an admirable textbook of the
Tlieor y of Heat (1871), and a very excellent elementary treatise
on Matter and Motion (1876).
But the great work of his life was devoted to electricity.
He began by reading, with the most profound admiration and
attention, the whole of Faraday's extraordinary self-revela-
tions, and proceeded to translate the ideas of that master into
the succinct and expressive notation of the mathematicians.
A considerable part of this translation was accomplished during
his career as an undergraduate in Cambridge. The writer had
the opportunity of perusing the MS. of " On Faraday's Lines
of Force," in a form little different from the final one, a year
before Maxwell took his degree. His great object, as it was
also the great object of Faraday, was to overturn the idea of
action at a distance. The splendid researches of S. D. Poisson
and K. F. Gauss had shown how to reduce all the phenomena
of statical electricity to mere attractions and repulsions exerted
at a distance by particles of an imponderable on one another.
Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson) had, in 1846, shown that a totally
different assumption, based upon other analogies, led (by its own
special mathematical methods) to precisely the same results.
He treated the resultant electric force at any point as analo-
gous to the flux of heal from sources distributed in the same
manner as the supposed electric particles. This paper of
Thomson's, whose ideas Maxwell afterwards developed in an
extraordinary manner, seems to have given the first hint that
there are at least two perfectly distinct methods of arriving
at the known formulae of statical electricity. The step to
magnetic phenomena was comparatively simple; but it was
otherwise as regards electromagnetic phenomena, where current
electricity is essentially involved. An exceedingly ingenious,
but highly artificial, theory had been devised by W. E. Weber,
which was found capable of explaining all the phenomena investi-
gated by Ampere as well as the induction currents of Faraday.
But this was based upon the assumption of a distance-action
between electric particles, the intensity of which depended
on their relative motion as well as on their position. This
was, of course, even more repugnant to Maxwell's mind than
the statical distance-action developed by Poisson. The first
paper of Maxwell's in which an attempt at an admissible physical
theory of electromagnetism was made was communicated to
the Royal Society in 1867. But the theory, in a fully developed
form, first appeared in 1873 in his great treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism. This work was one of the most splendid
monuments ever raised by the genius of a single individual.
Availing himself of the admirable generalized co-ordinate system
of Lagrange, Maxwell showed how to reduce all electric and
magnetic phenomena to stresses and motions of a material
medium, and, as one preliminary, but excessively severe, test
of the truth of his theory, he pointed out that (if the electro-
magnetic medium be that which is required for the explanation
of the phenomena of light) the velocity of light in vacuo should
930
MAXWELLTOWN MAY, W.
be numerically the same as the ratio of the electromagnetic
and electrostatic units. In fact, the means of the best determi-
nations of each of these quantities separately agree with one
another more closely than do the various values of either.
One of Maxwell's last great contributions to science was
the editing (with copious original notes) of the Electrical Re-
searches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish, from which it appeared
that Cavendish, already famous by many other researches (such
as the mean density of the earth, the composition of water,
&c.), must be looked on as, in his day, a man of Maxwell's own
stamp as a theorist and an experimenter of the very first rank.
In private life Clerk Maxwell was one of the most lovable
of men, a sincere and unostentatious Christian. Though
perfectly free from any trace of envy or ill-will, he yet showed
on fit occasion his contempt for that pseudo-science which
seeks for the applause of the ignorant by professing to reduce
the whole system of the universe to a fortuitous sequence of
uncaused events.
His collected works, including the series of articles on the proper-
ties of matter, such as " Atom," " Attraction," " Capillary Action,"
" Diffusion," " Ether," &c., which he contributed to the gth edition
of this encyclopaedia, were issued in two volumes by the Cambridge
University Press in 1890; and an extended biography, by his former
schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor Lewis Campbell, was
published in 1882. (P. G. T.)
MAXWELLTOWN, a burgh of barony and police burgh of
Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 5796. It lies on the
Nith, opposite to Dumfries, with which it is connected by
three bridges, being united with it for parliamentary purposes.
It has a station on the Glasgow & South-Western line from
Dumfries to Kirkcudbright. Its public buildings include a
court-house, the prison for the south-west of Scotland, and an
observatory and museum, housed in a disused windmill. The
chief manufactures are woollens and hosiery, besides dyeworks
and sawmills. It was a hamlet known as Bridgend up till
1 8 10, in which year it was erected into a burgh of barony under
its present name. To the north-west lies the parish of Terregles,
said to be a corruption of Tir-eglwys (terra ecclesia, that is,
" Kirk land "). The parish contains the beautiful ruin of
Lincluden Abbey (see DUMFRIES), and Terregles House, once
the seat of William Maxwell, last earl of Nithsdale. In the
parish of Lochrutton, a few miles south-west of Maxwelltown,
there is a good example of a stone circle, the " Seven Grey
Sisters," and an old peel-tower in the Mains of Hills.
MAY, PHIL (1864-1903), English caricaturist, was born
at Wortley, near Leeds, on the 22nd of April 1864, the son of
an engineer. His father died when the child was nine years
old, and at twelve he had begun to earn his living. Before
he was fifteen he had acted as time-keeper at a foundry, had
tried to become a jockey, and had been on the stage at
Scarborough and Leeds. When he was about seventeen he
went to London with a sovereign in his pocket. He suffered
extreme want, sleeping out in the parks and streets, until he
obtained employment as designer to a theatrical costumier.
He also drew posters and cartoons, and for about two years
worked for the St Stephen's Review, until he was advised to
go to Australia for his health. During the three years he
spent there he was attached to the Sydney Bulletin, for which
many of his best drawings were made. On his return to Europe
he went to Paris by way of Rome, where he worked hard for
some time before he appeared in 1892 in London to resume
his interrupted connexion with the St Stephen's Review. His
studies of the London " guttersnipe " and the coster-girl
rapidly made him famous. His overflowing sense of fun, his
genuine sympathy with his subjects, and his kindly wit were
on a par with his artistic ability. It was often said that the
extraordinary economy of line which was a characteristic
feature of his drawings had been forced upon him by the defici-
encies of the printing machines of the Sydney Bulletin. It
was in fact the result of a laborious process which involved
a number of preliminary sketches, and of a carefully considered
system of elimination. His later work included some excellent
political portraits. He became a regular member of the staff
of Punch in 1896, and in his later years his services were retained
exclusively for Punch and the Graphic. He died on the 5th of
August 1903.
There was an exhibition of his drawings at the Fine Arts Society
in 1895, and another at the Leicester Galleries in 1903. A selection
of his drawings contributed to the periodical press and from Phil
May's Annual and Phil May's Sketch Books, with a portrait and
biography of the artist, entitled The Phil May Folio, appeared in
1903.
MAY, THOMAS (1595-1650), English poet and historian,
son of Sir Thomas May of Mayfield, Sussex, was born in 1595.
He entered Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1609, and took
his B.A. degree three years later. His father having lost his
fortune and sold the family estate, Thomas May, who was
hampered by an impediment in his speech, made literature his
profession. In 1620 he produced The Heir, an ingeniously con-
structed comedy, and, probably about the same time, The Old
Couple, which was not printed until 1658. His other dramatic
works are classical tragedies on the subjects of Antigone, Cleo-
patra, and Agrippina. F. G. Fleay has suggested that the more
famous anonymous tragedy of Nero (printed 1624, reprints in
A. H. Bullen's Old English Plays and the Mermaid Series)
should also be assigned to May. But his most important
work in the department of pure literature was his translation
(1627) into heroic couplets of the Pharsalia of Lucan. Its
success led May to write a continuation of Lucan's narrative
down td the death of Caesar. Charles I. became his patron,
and commanded him to write metrical histories of Henry II.
and Edward III., which were completed in 1635. When the
earl of Pembroke, then lord chamberlain, broke his staff across
May's shoulders at a masque, the king took him under
his protection as " my poet," and Pembroke made him an
apology accompanied with a gift of 50. These marks of the
royal favour seem to have led May to expect the posts of poet-
laureate and city chronologer when they fell vacant on the death
of Ben Jonson in 1637, but he was disappointed, and he forsook
the court and attached himself to the party of the Parliament.
In 1646 he is styled one of the " secretaries " of the Parliament,
and in 1647 he published his best known work, The History
of the Long Parliament. In this official apology for the moderate
or Presbyterian party, he professes to give an impartial state-
ment of facts, unaccompanied by any expression of party o
personal opinion. If he refrained from actual invective, he
accomplished his purpose, according to Guizot, by " omission,
palliation and dissimulation." Accusations of this kind were
foreseen by May, who says in his preface that if he gives more
information about the Parliament men than their opponents
it is that he was more conversant with them and their affairs.
In 1650 he followed this with another work written with a more
definite bias, a Breviary of the History of the Parliament of
England, in Latin and English, in which he defended the position
of the Independents. He stopped short of the catastrophe of
the king's execution, and it seems likely that his subservience
to Cromwell was not quite voluntary. In February 1650 he
was brought to London from Weymouth under a strong guard
for having spread false reports of the Parliament and of Cromwell.
He died on the i3th of November in the same year, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey, but after the Restoration his
remains were exhumed and buried in a pit in the yard i
St Margaret's, Westminster. May's change of side made him
many bitter enemies, and he is the object of scathing condemna-
tion from many of his contemporaries.
There is a long notice of May in the Biographia Britannica. See
also W. J. Courthope, Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol. 3; and Guizot,
Etudes biographiques sur la revolution d'Angleterre (pp. 403-426, ed.
1851).
MAY, or MEY(E), WILLIAM (d. 1560), English divine,
was the brother of John May, bishop of Carlisle. He was
educated at Cambridge, where he was a fellow of Trinity Hall,
and in 1537, president of Queen's College. May heartily
supported the Reformation, signed the Ten Articles in 1536,
and helped in the production of The Institution of a Christian
Man. He had close connexion with the diocese of Ely, being
MAY MAYBOLE
93 1
successively chancellor, vicar-general and prebendary. In 1545
he was made a prebendary of St Paul's, and in the following
year dean. His favourable report on the Cambridge colleges
s.ivcd them from dissolution. He was dispossessed during the
reign of Mary, but restored to the deanery on Elizabeth's acces-
sion. He died on the day of his election to the archbishopric
of York.
MAY, the fifth month of our modern year, the third of the
old Roman calendar. The origin of the name is disputed;
the derivation from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom
the Romans were accustomed to sacrifice on the first day of
this month, is usually accepted. The ancient Romans used
on May Day to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria. From
the 28th of April to the 2nd of May was kept the festival in
honour of Flora, goddess of flowers. By the Romans the month
was regarded as unlucky for marriages, owing to the celebration
on the 9th, nth and I3th of the Lemuria, the festival of the
unhappy dead. This superstition has survived to the present
day.
In medieval and Tudor England, May Day was a great public
holiday. All classes of the people, young and old alike, were
up with the dawn, and went "a-Maying" in the woods. Branches
of trees and flowers were borne back in triumph to the towns
and villages, the centre of the procession being occupied by those
who shouldered the maypole, glorious with ribbons and wreaths.
The maypole was usually of birch, and set up for the day only;
but in London and the larger towns the poles were of durable
wood and permanently erected. They were special eyesores
to the Puritans. John Stubbes in his Anatomy of Abuses (1583)
speaks of them as those " stinckyng idols," about which the
people " leape and daunce, as the heathen did." Maypoles were
forbidden by the parliament in 1644, but came once more into
favour at the Restoration, the last to be erected in London
being that set up in 1661. This pole, which was of cedar,
134 ft. high, was set up by twelve British sailors under the per-
sonal supervision of James II., then duke of York and lord
high admiral, in the Strand on or about the site of the present
church of St Mary's-in-the-Strand. Taken down in 1717, it was
conveyed to Wanstead Park in Essex, where it was fixed by
Sir Isaac Newton as part of the support of a large telescope,
presented to the Royal Society by a French astronomer.
For an account of the May Day survivals in rural England see
P. H. Ditchfield, Old English Customs extant at Present Times (1897).
MAY, ISLE OF, an island belonging to Fifeshire, Scotland,
at the entrance to the Firth of Forth, 5 m. S.E. of Crail and
Anstruther. It has a N.W. to S.E. trend, is more than i m.
long, and measures at its widest about $ m. St Adrian, who
had settled here, was martyred by the Danes about the middle
of the gth century. The ruins of the small chapel dedicated
to him, which was a favourite place of pilgrimage, still exist.
The place where the pilgrims of whom James IV. was often
one landed is yet known as Pilgrims' Haven, and traces may
>;et be seen of the various wells of St Andrew, St John, Our
Lady, and the Pilgrims, though their waters have become
brackish. In 1499 Sir Andrew Wood of Largo, with the "Yellow
Carvel " and " Mayflower," captured the English seaman
Stephen Bull, and three ships, after a fierce fight which took
place between the island and the Bass Rock. In 1636 a coal
beacon was lighted on the May and maintained by Alexander
Cunningham of Barns. The oil light substituted for it in 1816
was replaced in 1888 by an electric light.
MAYA, an important tribe and stock of American Indians,
the dominant race of Yucatan and other states of Mexico and
part of Central America at the time of the Spanish conquest.
They were then divided into many nations, chief among them
being the Maya proper, the Huastecs, the Tzental, the Pokom,
the Mame and the Cakchiquel and Quiche 1 . They were spread
over Yucatan, Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Campeche, and Chiapas
in Mexico, and over the greater part of Guatemala and Salvador.
In civilization the Mayan peoples rivalled the Aztecs. Their
traditions give as their place of origin the extreme north;
thence a migration took place, perhaps at the beginning of the
Christian era. They appear to have reached Yucatan as early
as the sth century. From the evidence of the Quiche chronicles,
which are said to date back to about A.D. 700, Guatemala was
shortly afterwards overrun. Physically the Mayans are a
dark-skinned, round-headed, short and sturdy type. Although
they were already decadent when the Spaniards arrived they
made a fierce resistance. They still form the bulk of the
inhabitants of Yucatan. For their culture, ruined cities, &c.
see CENTRAL AMERICA and MEXICO.
MAYAGUEZ, the third largest city of Porto Rico, a seaport,
and the seat of government of the department of Mayaguez,
on the west coast, at the mouth of Rio Yaguez, about 72 m. W.
by S. of San Juan. Pop. of the city (1899), 15,187, including 1381
negroes and 471 1 of mixed races; (1910), 16, 591 ; of the municipal
district, 35,700 (1899), of whom 2687 were negroes and 9933 were
of mixed races. Mayaguez is connected by the American
railroad of Porto Rico with San Juan and Ponce, and it is served
regularly by steamboats from San Juan, Ponce and New York,
although its harbour is not accessible to vessels drawing more
than 1 6 ft. of water. It is situated at the foot of Las Mesas
mountains and commands picturesque views. The climate is
healthy and good water is obtained from the mountain region.
From the shipping district along the water-front a thoroughfare
leads to the main portion of the city, about i m. distant. There
are four public squares, in one of which is a statue of Columbus.
Prominent among the public buildings are the City Hall (con-
taining a public library), San Antonio Hospital, Roman Catholic
churches, a Presbyterian church, the court-house and a theatre.
The United States has an agricultural experiment station here,
and the Insular Reform School is i m. south of the city. Coffee,
sugar-cane and tropical fruits are grown in the surrounding
country; and the business of the city consists chiefly in their
export and the import of flour. Among the manufactures
are sugar, tobacco and chocolate. Mayaguez was founded
about the middle of the i8th century on the site of a hamlet
which was first settled about 1680. It was incorporated as
a town in 1836, and became a city in 1873. In 1841 it was
nearly all destroyed by fire. .
MAYAVARAM, a town of British India, in the Tanjore district
of Madras, on the Cauvery river; junction on the South Indian
railway, 1 74m. S.W. of Madras. Pop. (1901), 24,276. Itpossesses
a speciality of fine cotton and silk cloth, known as Kornad
from the suburb in which the weavers live. During October
and November the town is the scene of a great pilgrimage to
the holy waters of the Cauvery.
MAYBOLE, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Ayrshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1001), 5892. It is situated 9 m. S. of Ayr and
50^ m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South- Western railway.
It is an ancient place, having received a charter from Duncan II.
in 1193. In 1516 it was made a burgh of regality, but for
generations it remained under the subjection of the Kennedys,
afterwards earls of Cassillis and marquesses of Ailsa, the most
powerful family in Ayrshire. Of old Maybole was the capital
of the district of Carrick, and for long its characteristic feature
was the family mansions of the barons of Carrick. The castle
of the earls of Cassillis still remains. The public buildings include
the town-hall, the Ashgrove and the Lumsden fresh-air fortnightly
homes, and the Maybole combination poorhouse. The leading
manufactures are of boots and shoes and agricultural implements.
Two miles to the south-west are the ruins of Crossraguel (Cross
of St Regulus) Abbey, founded about 1240. KIRKOSWALD,
where Burns spent his seventeenth year, learning land-surveying,
lies a little farther west. In the parish churchyard lie " Tarn
o' Shanter " (Douglas Graham) and " Souter Johnnie " (John
Davidson). Four miles to the west of Maybole on the coast
is Culzean Castle, the chief seat of the marquess of Ailsa, dating
from 1777; it stands on a basaltic cliff, beneath which are the
Coves of Culzean, once the retreat of outlaws and a resort of
the fairies. Farther south are the ruins of Turnberry Castle,
where Robert Bruce is said to have been born. A few miles
to the north of Culzean are the ruins of Dunure Castle, aa
ancient stronghold of the Kennedys.
932
MAYEN MAYENNE
MAYEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
on the northern declivity of the Eifel range, 16 m. W. from
Coblenz, on the railway Andernach-Gerolstein. Pop. (1905),
!3)435- It i s still partly surrounded by medieval walls, and
the ruins of a castle rise above the town. There are some
small industries, embracing textile manufactures, oil mills
and tanneries, and a trade in wine, while near the town are
extensive quarries of basalt. Having been a Roman settlement,
Mayen became a town in 1291. In 1689 it was destroyed by
the French.
MAYENNE, CHARLES OF LORRAINE, DUKE OF (1554-1611),
second son of Francis of Lorraine, second duke of Guise, was
born on the 26th of March 1554. He was absent from France
at the time of the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, but took
part in the siege of La Rochelle in the following year, when
he was created duke and peer of France. He went with Henry
of Valois, duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), on his election
as king of Poland, but soon returned to France to become the
energetic supporter and lieutenant of his brother, the 3rd duke
of Guise. In 1577 he gained conspicuous successes over the
Huguenot forces in Poitou. As governor of Burgundy he
raised his province in the cause of the League in 1585. The
assassination of his brothers at Blois on the 23rd and 24th of
December 1588 left him at the head of the Catholic party. The
Venetian ambassador, Mocenigo, states that Mayenne had warned
Henry III. that there was a plot afoot to seize his person and to
send him by force to Paris. At the time of the murder he was at
Lyons, where he received a letter from the king saying that
he had acted on his warning, and ordering him to retire to his
government. Mayenne professed obedience, but immediately
made preparations for marching on Paris. After a vain attempt
to recover the persons of those of his relatives who had been
arrested at Blois he proceeded to recruit troops in his government
of Burgundy and in Champagne. Paris was devoted to the
house of Guise and had been roused to fury by the news of the
murder. When Mayenne entered the city in February 1589
he found it dominated by representatives of the sixteen quarters
of Paris, all .fanatics of the League. He formed a council
general to direct the affairs of the city and to maintain relations
with the other towns faithful to the League. To this council
each quarter sent four representatives, and Mayenne added repre-
sentatives of the various trades and professions of Paris in order
to counterbalance this revolutionary element. He constituted
himself " lieutenant-general of the state and crown of France,"
taking his oath before the parlement of Paris. In April he
advanced on Tours. Henry III. in his extremity sought an
alliance with Henry of Navarre, and the allied forces drove
the leaguers back, and had laid siege to Paris, when the murder
of Henry III. by a Dominican fanatic changed the face of affairs
and gave new strength to the Catholic party.
Mayenne was urged to claim the crown for himself, but he
was faithful to the official programme of the League and pro-
claimed Charles, cardinal of Bourbon, at that time a prisoner
in the hands of Henry IV., as Charles X. Henry IV. retired
to Dieppe, followed by Mayenne, who joined his forces with
those of his cousin Charles, duke of Aumale, and Charles de
Cosse, comte de Brissac, and engaged the royal forces in a
succession of fights in the neighbourhood of Arques (September
1589). He was defeated and out-marched by Henry IV., who
moved on Paris, but retreated before Mayenne's forces. In
1590 Mayenne received additions to his army from the Spanish
Netherlands, and took the field again, only to suffer complete
defeat at Ivry (March 14, 1590). He then escaped to Mantes,
and in September collected a fresh army at Meaux, and with the
assistance of Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, sent by
Philip II., raised the siege of Paris, which was about to sur-
render to Henry IV. Mayenne feared with reason the
designs of Philip II., and his difficulties were increased by the
death of Charles X., the " king of the league." The extreme
section of the party, represented by the Sixteen, urged him to
proceed to the election of a Catholic king and to accept the
help and the claims of their Spanish allies. But Mayenne,
who had not the popular gifts of his brother, the duke of Guise,
had no sympathy with the demagogues, and himself inclined
to the moderate side of his party, which began to urge reconcilia-
tion with Henry IV. He maintained the ancient forms of the
constitution against the revolutionary policy of the Sixteen,
who during his absence from Paris took the law into their own
hands and in November 1591 executed one of the leaders of the
more moderate party, Barnabe Brisson, president of the parle-
ment. He returned to Paris and executed four of the chief
malcontents. The power of the Sixteen diminished from that
time, but with it the strength of the League. 1
Mayenne entered into negotiations with Henry IV. while he
was still appearing to consider with Philip II. the succession to the
French crown of the Infanta Elizabeth, granddaughter, through
her mother Elizabeth of Valois, of Henry II. He demanded
that Henry IV. should accomplish his conversion to Catholicism
before he was recognized by the leaguers. He also desired
the continuation to himself of the high offices which had accumu-
lated in his family and the reservation of their provinces to
his relatives among the leaguers. In 1593 he summoned the
States General to Paris and placed before them the claims of
the Infanta, but they protested against foreign intervention.
Mayenne signed a truce at La Villette on the 3ist of July 1593.
The internal dissensions of the league continued to increase,
and the principal chiefs submitted. Mayenne finally made
his peace only in October 1595. Henry IV. allowed him the
possession of Chalon-sur-Saone, of Seurre and Soissons for three
years, made him governor of the Isle of France and paid a large
indemnity. Mayenne died at Soissons on the 3rd of October 1 61 1 .
A Histoire de la vie et de la mart du due de Mayenne appeared at
Lyons in 1618. See also J. B. H. Capefigue, Hist, de la Reforme, de
la ligue et du rbgne de Henri IV. (8 vols., 1834-1835) and the literature
dealing with the house of Guise (q.v.).
MAYENNE, a department of north-western France, thre
fourths of which formerly belonged to Lower Maine and th
remainder to Anjou, bounded on the N. by Manche and Orn
E. by Sarthe, S. by Maine-et-Loire and W. by Ille-et-Vilain
Area, 2012 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 305,457. Its ancient geologic
formations connect it with Brittany. The surface is agreeab
undulating; forests are numerous, and the beauty of the cult:
vated portions is enhanced by the hedgerows and lines of tre
by which the farms are divided. The highest point of th
department, and indeed of the whole north-west of France,
is the Mont des Avaloirs (1368 ft.). Hydrographically Mayenne
belongs to the basins of the Loire, the Vilaine and the Selune,
the first mentioned draining by far the larger part of the entire
area. The principal stream is the Mayenne, which passes
successively from north to south through Mayenne, Laval
and Chateau-Gontier; by means of weirs and sluices it is navi-
gable below Mayenne, but traffic is inconsiderable. The chief
affluents are the Jouanne on the left, and on the right the
Colmont, the Ernee and the Oudon. A small area in the
east of the department drains by the Erve into the Sarthe;
the Vilaine rises in the west, and in the north-west two small
rivers flow into the Selune. The climate of Mayenne is generally
healthy except in the neighbourhood of the numerous marshes.
The temperature is lower and the moisture of the atmosphere
greater than in the neighbouring departments; the rainfall
(about 32 in. annually) is above the average for France.
Agriculture and stock-raising are prosperous. A large number
of horned cattle are reared, and in no other French department are
1 The estates of the League in 1593 were the occasion of the
famous Satire Menippee, circulated in MS. in that year, but only
printed at Tours in 1594. It was the work of a circle of men of letters
who belonged to the politiques or party of the centre and ridiculed
the League. The authors were Pierre Le Roy, Jean Passerat,
Florent Chrestien, Nicolas Rapin and Pierre Pithou. It opened
with " La vertu du catholicon," in which a Spanish quack (the
cardinal of Plaisance) vaunts the virtues of his drug " catholicon
compose 1 ," manufactured in the Escurial, while a Lorrainer rival
(the cardinal of Pelleve) tries to sell a rival cure. A mock account
of the estates, with harangues delivered by Mayenne and the other
chiefs of the League, followed. Mayenne's discourse is said to have
been written by the jurist Pithou.
MA YENNE MAYER, J. R.
> many horses found within the same area ; the breed, that of Craon,
i famed for its strength. Craon has also given its name to the most
rized breed of pigs in western France. Ma.yenne produces excellent
butter and poultry and a large quantity of honey. The cultivation
' the vine is very limited, and the most common beverage is cider,
"heat, oats, barley and buckwheat, in the order named, are the
ost important crops, and a large quantity of flax and hemp is
oduced. Game is abundant. The timber grown is chiefly beech,
oak, birch, elm and chestnut. The department produces antimony,
auriferous quartz and coal. Marble, slate and other stone are
quarried. There are several chalybeate springs. The industries
include flour-milling, brick and tile making, brewing, cotton and
wool spinning, and the production of various textile fabrics (especi-
ally ticking) for which Laval and Ch4teau-Gontier are the centres,
agricultural implement making, wood and marble sawing, tanning
and dyeing. 1 he exports include agricultural produce, live-stock,
stone and textiles; the chief imports are coal, brandy, wine, furniture
and clothing. The department is served by the Western railway.
It forms part of the circumscriptions of the IV. army corps, the
acaddmie (educational division) of Rennes, and the court of appeal
of Angers. It comprises three arrondissements (Laval, ChSteau-
Gontier and Mayenne), with 27 cantons and 276 communes. Laval,
the capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Tours. The
other principal towns are Ch&teau-Gontier and Mayenne, which are
treated under separate headings. The following places are also of
interest: Evron, which has a church of the I2th and I3th centuries;
Jublains, with a Roman fort and other Roman remains; Lassay,
with a fine chateau of the I4th and i6th centuries; and Ste Suzanne,
which has remains of medieval ramparts and a fortress with a keep
of the Romanesque period.
MAYENNE, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Mayenne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Laval by rail. Pop., town 7003, commune 10,020. Mayenne
is an old feudal town, irregularly built on hills on both sides
of the river Mayenne. Of the old castle overlooking the river
several towers remain, one of which has retained its conical roof;
the vaulted chambers and chapel are ornamented in the style
of the I3th century; the building is now used as a prison. The
church of Notre-Dame, beside which there is a statue of Joan
of Arc, dates partly from the I2th century; the choir was
rebuilt in the igth century. In the Place de Cheverus is a
statue, by David of Angers, to Cardinal Jean de Cheverus
(1768-1836), who was born in Mayenne. Mayenne has a
subprefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a board of trade-
arbitration. There is a school of agriculture in the vicinity.
The chief industry of the place is the manufacture of tickings,
linen, handkerchiefs and calicoes.
Mayenne had its origin in the castle built here by Juhel,
baron of Mayenne, the son of Geoffrey of Maine, in the beginning
of the nth century. It was taken by the English in 1424,
and several times suffered capture by the opposing parties in
the wars of religion and the Vendee. At the beginning of
the 1 6th century the territory passed to the family of Guise, and
in 1573 was made a duchy in favour of Charles of Mayenne,
leader of the League.
MAYER, JOHANN TOBIAS (1723-1762), German astronomer,
was born at Marbach, in Wurtemberg, on the i7th of February
1723, and brought up at Esslingen in poor circumstances. A
self-taught mathematician, he had already published two
original geometrical works when, in 1746, he entered J. B.
Homann's cartographic establishment at Nuremberg. Here
he introduced many improvements in map-making, and
gained a scientific reputation which led (in 1751) to his election
to the chair of economy and mathematics in the university
of Gottingen. In 1754 he became superintendent of the
observatory, where he laboured with great zeal and success
until his death, on the 2oth of February 1762. His first im-
portant astronomical work was a careful investigation of the
libration of the moon (Kosmographische Nachrichten, Nuremberg,
1750), and his chart of the full moon (published in 1775) was
unsurpassed for half a century. But his fame rests chiefly
on his lunar tables, communicated in 1752, with new solar tables,
to the Royal Society of Gottingen, and published in their
Transactions (vol. ii.). In 1755 he submitted to the English
government an amended body of MS. tables, which James
Bradley compared with the Greenwich observations, and found
to be sufficiently accurate to determine the moon's place to
933
75*, and consequently the longitude at sea to about half a
degree. An improved set was afterwards published in London
(1770), as also the theory (Theoria lunae juxla sy sterna Newton-
ianum, 1767) upon which the tables are based. His widow,
by whom they were sent to England, received in consideration
from the British government a grant of 3000. Appended to the
London edition of the solar and lunar tables are two short
tracts the one on determining longitude by lunar distances,
together with a description of the repeating circle (invented
by Mayer in 1752), the other on a formula for atmospheric
refraction, which applies a remarkably accurate correction
for temperature.
Mayer left behind him a considerable quantity of manuscript,
part of which was collected by G. C. Lichtenberg and published
in one volume (Opera ined.Ua, Gottingen, 1775). It contains
an easy and accurate method for calculating eclipses; an essay
on colour, in which three primary colours are recognized; a
catalogue of 998 zodiacal stars; and a memoir, the earliest of
any real value, on the proper motion of eighty stars, originally
communicated to the Gottingen Royal Society in 1760. The
manuscript residue includes papers on atmospheric refraction
(dated 1755), on the motion of Mars as affected by the perturba-
tions of Jupiter and the Earth (1756), and on terrestrial magnet-
ism (1760 and 1762). In these last Mayer sought to explain
the magnetic action of the earth by a modification of Euler's
hypothesis, and made the first really definite attempt to
establish a mathematical theory of magnetic action (C. Hansteen,
Magnetismus der Erde, i. 283). E. Klinkerfuss published in
1 88 1 photo-lithographic reproductions of Mayer's local charts
and general map of the moon; and his star-catalogue was
re-edited by F. Baily in 1830 (Memoirs Roy. Astr. Soc. iv.
391) and by G. F. J. A. Auvers in 1894.
AUTHORITIES. A. G. Kastner, Elogium Tobiae Mayeri (Gottingen,
1762) ; Connaissance des temps, 1767, p. 187 (J. Lalande) ; Monatliche
Corresponded yiii. 257, ix. 45, 415, 487, xi. 462; Allg. Geographisctie
Ephemeriden iii. 1 1 6, 1799 (portrait); Berliner Astr. Jahrbuch, Suppl.
Bd. iii. 209, 1797 (A. G. Kastner) ; J. B. \. Delambre, Hist, de I' Astr.
au XVlII'.siecle, p. 429; R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astr. pp. 46,
488, 555; A. Berry, Short '.Hist, of Astr. p. 282; J. S. Putter, Geschichte
von der Universttat zu Gottingen, i. 68 ; J. Gehler, Physik. Worterbuch
neu bearbeilet, vi. 746, 1039; Allg. Deutsche Biographic (S. Gvinther).
(A. M. C.)
MAYER, JULIUS ROBERT (1814-1878), German physicist,
was born at Heilbronn on the 25th of November 1814, studied
medicine at Tubingen, Munich and Paris, and after a journey
to Java in 1840 as surgeon of a Dutch vessel obtained a medical
post in his native town. He claims recognition as an indepen-
dent a priori propounder of the " First Law of Thermodynamics,"
but more especially as having early and ably applied that law
to the explanation of many remarkable phenomena, both cos-
mical and terrestrial. His first little paper on the subject,
" Bemerkungen tiber die KrSfte der unbelebten Natur," appeared
in 1842 in Liebig's Annalen, five years after the republication,
in the same journal, of an extract from K. F. Mohr's paper on
the nature of heat, and three years later he published Die organ-
ische Bewegung in ihren Zusammenhange mil dem Stojfwechsel.
It has been repeatedly claimed for Mayer that he calculated the
value of the dynamical equivalent of heat, indirectly, no doubt, but
in a manner altogether free from error, and with a result according
almost exactly with that obtained by J. P. Joule after years of patient
labour in direct experimenting. This claim on Mayer's behalf was
first shown to be baseless by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and P. G.
Tait in an article on " Energy," published in Good Words in 1862,
which gave rise to a long but lively discussion. A calm and judicial
annihilation of the claim is to be found in a brief article by Sir G.
G. Stokes, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1871, p. 54. See also Maxwell's Theory
of Heal, chap. xiii. Mayer entirely ignored the grand fundamental
principle laid down by Sadi Carnot that nothing can be concluded
as to the relation between heat and work from an experiment in
which the working substance is left at the end of an operation in a
different physical state from that in which it was at the commence-
ment. Mayer has also been styled the discoverer of the fact that
heat consists in (the energy of) motion, a matter settled at the very
end of the i8th century by Count Rumford and Sir H. Davy; but in
the teeth of this statement we have Mayer's own words, " We might
much rather assume the contrary that in order to become heat
motion must cease to be motion.
934
MAYFLOWER MAY-FLY
Mayer's real merit consists in the fact that, having for himself
made put, on inadequate and even questionable grounds, the con-
servation of energy, and having obtained (though by inaccurate
reasoning) a numerical result correct so far as his data permitted,
he applied the principle with great power and insight to the explana-
tion of numerous physical phenomena. His papers, which were
republished in a single volume with the title Die Mechanik der
Wdrme (3rd ed., 1893), are of unequal merit. But some, especially
those on Celestial Dynamics and Organic Motion, are admirable
examples of what really valuable work may be effected by a man
of high intellectual powers, in spite of imperfect information and
defective logic.
Different, and it would appear exaggerated, estimates of Mayer
are given in John Tyndall's papers in the Phil. Mag., 1863-1864
(whose avowed object was " to raise a noble and a suffering man to
the position which his labours entitled him to occupy "), and in
E. Duhring's Robert Mayer, der Galilei des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts,
Chemnitz, 1880. Some of the simpler facts of the case are sum-
marized by Tait in the Phil. Mag., 1864, ii. 289.
MAYFLOWER, the vessel which carried from Southampton,
England, to Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Pilgrims who estab-
lished the first permanent colony in New England. It was of
about 180 tons burden, and in company with the " Speedwell "
sailed from Southampton on the sth of August 1620, the two
having on board 120 Pilgrims. After two trials the " Speedwell "
was pronounced unsea worthy, and the " Mayflower " sailed
alone from Plymouth, England, on the 6th of September with
the ico (or 102) passengers, some 41 of whom on the nth of
November (o.s.) signed the famous " Mayflower Compact " in
Provincetown Harbor, and a small party of whom, including
William Bradford, sent to choose a place for settlement, landed
at what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the nth of Decem-
ber (2ist N.S.), an event which is celebrated, as Forefathers'
Day, on the 22nd of December. A " General Society of May-
flower Descendants " was organized in 1894 by lineal descen-
dants of passengers of the " Mayflower " to " preserve their
memory, their records, their history, and all facts relating to
them, their ancestors and their posterity." Every lineal descen-
dant, over eighteen years of age, of any passenger of the " May-
flower " is eligible to membership. Branch societies have since
been organized in several of the states and in the District of
Columbia, and a triennial congress is held in Plymouth.
See Azel Ames, The May-Flower and Her Log (Boston, 1901);
Blanche McManus, The Voyage of the Mayflower (New York, 1897);
The General Society of Mayflower: Meetings, Officers and Members,
arranged in State Societies, Ancestors and their Descendants (New
York, 1901). Also the articles PLYMOUTH, Mass. ; MASSACHUSETTS,
History; PILGRIM; and PROVINCETOWN, Mass.
MAY-FLY. The Mayflies belong to the Ephemeridae, a
remarkable family of winged insects, included by Linnaeus in
his order Neuroptera, which derive their scientific name from
t<t>rintpos, in allusion to their very short lives. In some species
it is possible that they have scarcely more than one day's exis-
tence, but others are far longer lived, though the extreme limit
is probably rarely more than a week. The family has very
sharply defined characters, which separate its members at once
from all other neuropterous (or pseudo-neuropterous) groups.
These insects are universally aquatic in their preparatory
states. The eggs are dropped into the water by the female
in large masses, resembling, in some species, bunches of grapes
in miniature. Probably several months elapse before the young
larvae are excluded. The sub-aquatic condition lasts a consider-
able time: in Cloeon, a genus of small and delicate species, Sir
J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) proved it to extend over more
than six months; but in larger and more robust genera (e.g.
Palingenia) there appears reason to believe that the greater
part of three years is occupied in preparatory conditions.
The larva is elongate and campodeiform. The head is rather
large, and is furnished at first with five simple eyes of nearly equal
size; but as it increases in size the homologues of the facetted eyes
of the imago become larger, whereas those equivalent to the ocelli
remain small. The antennae are long and thread-like, composed at
first of few joints, but the number of these latter apparently in-
creases at each moult. The mouth parts are well developed, consist-
ing of an upper lip, powerful mandibles, maxillae with three-jointed
palpi, and a deeply quadrifid labium or lower lip with three-jointed
labial palpi. Distinct and conspicuous maxillulae are associated
with the tongue or hypopharynx. There are three distinct and large
thoracic segments, whereof the prothorax is narrower than the others;
the legs are much shorter and stouter than in the winged insect!
with monomerous tarsi terminated by a single claw. The abdomen
consists of ten segments, the tenth furnished with long and slender
multi-articulate tails, which appear to be only two in number at
first, but an intermediate one gradually develops itself (though this
latter is often lost in the winged insect). Respiration is effected
by means of external gills placed along both sides of the dorsum of
the abdomen and hinder segments of the thorax. These vary in
form : in some species they are entire plates, in others they are cut
up into numerous divisions, in all cases traversed by numerous
tracheal ramifications. According to the researches of Lubbock
and of E. Joly, the very young larvae have no breathing organs, and
respiration is effected through the skin. Lubbock traced at least
twenty moults in Cloeon ; at about the tenth rudiments of the wing-
cases began to appear. These gradually become larger, and when
so the creature may be said to have entered its " nymph " stage;
but there is no condition analogous to the pupa-stage of insects with
complete metamorphoses.
There may be said to be three or four different modes of life in
these larvae: some are fossorial, and form tubes in the mud or clay
in which they live; others are found on or beneath stones; while
others again swim and crawl freely among water plants. It is
probable that some are carnivorous, either attacking other larvae
or subsisting on more minute forms of animal life; but others
perhaps feed more exclusively on vegetable matters of a low type,
such as diatoms.
The most aberrant type of larva is that of the genus Prosopistoma,
which was originally described as an entomostracous crustacean
on account of the presence of a large carapace overlapping the greater
part of the body. The dorsal skeletal elements of the thorax and
of the anterior six abdominal segments unite with the wing-cases
to form a large respiratory chamber, containing five pairs of tracheal
gills, with lateral slits for the inflow and a posterior orifice for the
outflow of water. Species of this genus occur in Europe, Africa and
Madagascar.
When the aquatic insect has reached its full growth it
emerges from the water or seeks its surface; the thorax splits
down the back and the winged form appears. But this is not
yet perfect, although it has all the form of a perfect insect and
is capable of flight; it is what is variously termed a "pseud-
imago," " sub-imago " or " pro-imago." Contrary to the habits
of all other insects, there yet remains a pellicle that has to be
shed, covering every part of the body. This final moult is
effected soon after the insect's appearance in the winged form;
the creature seeks a temporary resting-place, the pellicle splits
down the back, and the now perfect insect comes forth, often
differing very greatly in colours and markings from the condition
in which it was only a few moments before. If the observer
takes up a suitable position near water, his coat is often seen
to be covered with the cast sub-imaginal skins of these insects,
which had chosen him as a convenient object upon which to
undergo their final change. In some few genera of very low
type it appears probable that, at any rate in the female, this final
change is never effected and that the creature dies a sub-imago.
The winged insect differs considerably in form from its sub-aquatic
condition. The head is smaller, often occupied almost entirely
above in the male by the very large eyes, which in some species are
curiously double in that sex, one portion being pillared, and forming
what is termed a " turban," the mouth parts are aborted, for the
creature is now incapable of taking nutriment either solid or fluid;
the antennae are mere short bristles, consisting of two rather large
basal joints and a multi-articulate thread. The prothorax is much
narrowed, whereas the other segments (especially the mesothorax)
are greatly enlarged; the legs long and slender, the anterior pair
often very much longer in the male than in the female; the tarsi
four- or five-jointed; but in some genera (e.g. Oligoneuria and allies)
the legs are aborted, and the creatures are driven helplessly about
by the wind. The wings are carried erect : the anterior pair large,
with numerous longitudinal nervures, and usually abundant trans-
verse reticulation ; the posterior pair very much smaller, often lance-
olate, and frequently wanting absolutely. The abdomen consists of
ten segments ; at the end are either two or three long multi-articulate
tails; in the male the ninth joint bears .forcipated appendages; in
the female the oviducts terminate at the junction of the seventh
and eighth ventral segments. The independent opening of the,
genital ducts and the absence of an ectodermal vagina and ejacula-
tory duct are remarkable archaic features of these insects, as has been
pointed out by J. A. Palm^n. The sexual act takes place in the air,
and is of very short duration, but is apparently repeated several
times, at any rate in some cases.
Ephemeridae are found all over the world, even up to high
northern latitudes. F. J. Pictet, A. E. Eaton and others havi
i have
MAYHEM MAYMYO
935
given us valuable works or monographs on the family; but the
subject still remains little understood, partly owing to the great
difficulty of preserving such delicate insects; and it appears
probable they can only be satisfactorily investigated as moist
preparations. The number of described species is less than 200,
spread over many genera.
From the earliest times attention has been drawn to the enor-
mous abundance of species of the family in certain localities.
Johann Anton Scopoli, writing in the i8th century, speaks of them
as so abundant in one place in Carniola that in June twenty cart-
loads were carried away for manure! Polymitarcys virgo, which,
though not found in England, occurs in many parts of Europe
(and is common at Paris), emerges from the water soon after
sunset, and continues for several hours in such myriads as to
resemble snow showers, putting out lights, and causing incon-
venience to man, and annoyance to horses by entering their
nostrils. In other parts of the world they have been recorded
in multitudes that obscured passers-by on the other side of the
street. And similar records might be multiplied almost to any
extent. In Britain, although they are often very abundant, we
have scarcely anything analogous.
Fish, as is well known, devour them greedily, and enjoy a
veritable feast during the short period in which any particular
species appears. By anglers the common English species of
Ephemera (vulgata and danica, but more especially the latter,
which is more abundant) is known as the " may-fly," but the
terms " green drake " and " bastard drake " are applied to
conditions of the same species. Useful information on this
point will be found in Ronalds's Fly-Fisher's Entomology, edited
by West wood.
Ephemeridae belong to a very ancient type of insects, and
fossil imprints of allied forms occur even in the Devonian
and Carboniferous formations.
There is much to be said in favour of the view entertained
by some entomologists that the structural and developmental
characteristics of may-flies are sufficiently peculiar to warrant
the formation for them of a special order of insects, for which
the names Agnatha, Plectoptera and Ephemeroptera have been
proposed. (See HEXAPODA, NEUROPTERA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of especial value to students of these insects
are A. E. Eaton's monograph (Trans. Linn. Soc. (2) iii. 1883-1885)
and A. Vayssiere's " Recherches sur 1' organisation des larves " (Ann.
.Vat. Zool. (6) xiii. 1882 (7) ix. 1890). J. A. Palmen's memoirs
Zur Morphologie des Tracheensystems (Leipzig, 1877) and Vber
paarige Ausfuhrungsgdnge der Gescklechtsorgane bei Insekten (Helsing-
lors, 1884), contain important observations on may-flies. See also
L. C. Miall, Nat. Hist. Aquatic Insects (London, 1895); J. G. Need-
ham and others (New York State Museum, Bull. 86, 1905).
(R. M'L. ; G. H. C.)
MAYHEM (for derivation see MAIMING), an old Anglo-French
term of the law signifying an assault whereby the injured person
is deprived of a member proper for his defence in fight, e.g. an
arm, a leg, a fore tooth, &c. The loss of an ear, jaw tooth ,
&c., was not mayhem. The most ancient punishment in
English law was retaliative membrum pro membra, but ulti-
mately at common law fine and imprisonment. Various statutes
were passed aimed at the offence of maiming and disfiguring,
which is now dealt with by section 18 of the Offences against the
Person Act 1861. Mayhem may also be the ground of a civil
action, which had this peculiarity that the court on sight of the
wound might increase the damages awarded by the jury.
MAYHEW, HENRY (1812-1887), English author and jour-
nalist, son of a London solicitor, was born in 1812. He was sent
to Westminster school, but ran away to sea. He sailed to India,
and on his return studied law for a short time under his father.
He began his journalistic career by founding, with Gilbert a
Beckett, in 1831, a weekly paper, Figaro in London. This was
followed in 1832 by a short-lived paper called The Thief; and
he produced one or two successful farces. His brothers Horace
(1816-1872) and Augustus Septimus (1826-1875) wer e also
journalists, and with them Henry occasionally collaborated,
notably with the younger in The Greatest Plague of Life (1847)
and in Acting Charades (1850). In 1841 Henry Mayhew was
one of the leading spirits in the foundation of Punch, of which he
was for the first two years joint-editor with Mark Lemon. He
afterwards wrote on all kinds of subjects, and published a number
of volumes of no permanent reputation humorous stories,
travel and practical handbooks. He is credited with being the
first to " write up " the poverty side of London life from a philan-
thropic point of view; with the collaboration of John Binny and
others he published London Labour and London Poor (1851 ; com-
pleted 1864) and other works on social and economic questions.
He died in London, on the 25th of July 1887. Horace Mayhew
was for some years sub-editor of Punch, and was the author of
several humorous publications and plays. The books of Horace
and Augustus Mayhew owe their survival chiefly to Cruikshank's
illustrations.
MAYHEW, JONATHAN (1720-1766), American clergyman,
was born at Martha's Vineyard on the 8th of October 1720, being
fifth in descent from Thomas Mayhew (1592-1682), an early
settler and the grantee (1641) of Martha's Vineyard. Thomas
Mayhew (c. 1616-1657), the younger, his son John (d. 1689)
and John's son, Experience (1673-1758), were active missionaries
among the Indians of Martha's Vineyard and the vicinity.
Jonathan, the son of Experience, graduated at Harvard in 1744.
So liberal were his theological views that when he was to be or-
dained minister of the West Church in Boston in 1 747 only two
ministers attended the first council called for the ordination,
and it was necessary to summon a second council. Mayhew's
preaching made his church practically the first " Unitarian "
Congregational church in New England, though it was never
officially Unitarian. In 1763 he published Observations on the
Charter and Conduct of the Society for Propagating the Gospel in
Foreign Parts, an attack on the policy of the society in sending
missionaries to New England contrary to its original purpose of
" Maintaining Ministers of the Gospel " in places " wholly des-
titute and unprovided with means for the maintenance of minis-
ters and for the public worship of God; " the Observations
marked him as a leader among those in New England who feared,
as Mayhew said (i 7^2), '" that there is a scheme forming for
sending a bishop into this part of the country, and that our
Governor, 1 a true churchman, is deeply in the plot." To an
American reply to the Observations, entitled A Candid Examina-
tion (1763), Mayhew wrote a Defense; and after the publication
of an Answer, anonymously published in London in 1764 and
written by Thomas Seeker, archbishop of Canterbury, he wrote
a Second Defense. He bitterly opposed the Stamp Act, and urged
the necessity of colonial union (or " communion ") to secure
colonial liberties. He died on the 9th of July 1766. Mayhew was
Dudleian lecturer at Harvard in 1765, and in 1749 had received
the degree of D.D. from the University of Aberdeen.
See Alden Bradford, Memoir of the Life and Writings of Rev.
Jonathan Mayhew (Boston, 1838), and " An Early Pulpit Champion
of Colonial Rights," chapter vi., in vol. i. of M. C. Tyler's Literary
History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).
MAYHEW, THOMAS, English i8th century cabinet-maker.
Mayhew was the less distinguished partner of William Ince (q.v.).
The chief source of information as to his work is supplied by his
own drawings in the volume of designs, The universal system of
household furniture, which he published in collaboration with his
partner. The name of the firm appears to have been Mayhew
and Ince, but on the title page of this book the names are reversed,
perhaps as an indication that Ince was the more extensive con-
tributor. In the main Mayhew's designs are heavy and clumsy,
and often downright extravagant, but he had a certain lightness
of accomplishment in his applications of the bizarre Chinese
style. Of original talent he possessed little, yet it is certain that
much of his Chinese work has been attributed to Chippendale.
It is indeed often only by reference to books of design that the
respective work of the English cabinet-makers of the second half
of the i8th century can be correctly attributed.
MAYMYO, a hill sanatorium in India, in the Mandalay district
of Upper Burma, 3500 ft. above the sea, with a station on the
1 Francis Bernard, whose project for a college at Northampton
seemed to Mayhew and others a move to strengthen Anglicanism.
93^
MAYNARD MAYO
Mandalay-Lashio railway 422 m. from Rangoon. Pop. (1901),
6223. It consists of an undulating plateau, surrounded by hills,
which are covered with thin oak forest and bracken. Though
not entirely free from malaria, it has been chosen for the summer
residence of the lieutenant-governor; and it is also the permanent
headquarters of the lieutenant-general commanding the Burma
division, and of other officials.
MAYNARD, FRANCOIS DE (1582-1646), French poet, was
born at Toulouse in 1582. His father was conseiller in the parle-
ment of the. town, and Francois was also trained for the law,
becoming eventually president of Aurillac. He became secre-
tary to Margaret of Valois, wife of Henry IV., for whom his early
poems are written. He was a disciple of Malherbe, who said
that in the workmanship of his lines he excelled Racan, but
lacked his rival's energy. In 1634 he accompanied the Cardinal
de Noailles to Rome and spent about two years in Italy. On his
return to France he made many unsuccessful efforts to obtain
the favour of Richelieu, but was obliged to retire to Toulouse.
He never ceased to lament his exile from Paris and his inability
to be present at the meetings of the Academy, of which he
was one of the earliest members. The best of his poems is in
imitation of Horace, " Alcippe, reviens dans nos bois." He
died at Toulouse on the 2jrd of December 1646.
His works consist of odes, epigrams, songs and letters, and were
published in 1646 by Marin le Roy de Gomberville.
MAYNE, JASPER (1604-1672), English author, was baptized
at Hatherleigh, Devonshire, on the 23rd of November 1604. He
was educated at Westminster School and at Christ Church,
Oxford, where he had a distinguished career. He was presented
to two college livings in Oxfordshire, and was made D.D. in 1646.
During the Commonwealth he was dispossessed, and became
chaplain to the duke of Devonshire. At the Restoration he was
made canon of Christ Church, archdeacon of Chichester and
chaplain in ordinary to the king. He wrote a farcical domestic
comedy, The City Match (1639), which is reprinted in vol. xiii.
of Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's Old Plays, and a fantastic
tragi-comedy entitled The Amorous War (printed 1648). After
receiving ecclesiastical preferment he gave up poetry as unbe-
fitting his profession. His other works comprise some occasional
gems, a translation of Lucian's Dialogues (printed 1664) and a
number of sermons. He died on the 6th of December 1672 at
Oxford.
MAYNOOTH, a small town of county Kildare, Ireland, on
the Midland Great Western railway and the Royal Canal, 1 5 m.
W. by N. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 948. The Royal Catholic
College of Maynooth, founded by an Act of the Irish parliament
in 1795, is the chief seminary for the education of the Roman
Catholic clergy of Ireland. The building is a fine Gothic struc-
ture by A. W. Pugin, erected by a parliamentary grant obtained
in 1846. The chapel, with fine oak choir-stalls, mosaic pave-
ments, marble altars and stained glass, and with adjoining
cloisters, was dedicated in 1890. The average number of
students is about 500 the number specified under the act of
1845 an d the full course of instruction is eight years. Near the
college stand the ruins of Maynooth Castle, probably built in
1176, but subsequently extended, and formerly the residence
of the Fitzgerald family. It was besieged in the reigns of Henry
VIII. and Edward VI., and during the Cromwellian Wars, when
it was demolished. The beautiful mansion of Carton is about a
mile from the town.
MAYO, RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, 6TH EARL OF
(1822-1872), British statesman, son of Robert Bourke, the sth
earl (1797-1867), was born in Dublin on the 2ist of February,
1822, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. After
travelling in Russia he entered parliament, and sat successively
for Kildare, Coleraine and Cockermouth. He was chief secretary
for Ireland in three administrations, in 1852, 1858 and 1866, and
was appointed viceroy of India in January 1869. He consoli-
dated the frontiers of India and met Shere Ali, amir of Afghanis-
tan, in durbar at Umballa in March 1869. His reorganization
of the finances of the country put India on a paying basis; and
he did much to promote irrigation, railways, forests and other
useful public works. Visiting the convict settlement at Port
Blair in the Andaman Islands, for the purpose of inspection, the
viceroy was assassinated by a convict on the Sth of February
1872. His successor was his son, Dermot Robert Wyndham
Bourke (b. 1851) who became 7th earl of Mayo.
See Sir W. W. Hunter, Life of the Earl of Mayo, (1876), and The
Earl of Mayo in the Rulers of India Series (1891).
MAYO, a western county of Ireland, in the province of
Connaught, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, N.E.
by Sligo, E. by Roscommon, S.E. and S. by Galway. The area
is 1,380,390 acres, or about 2157 sq. m., the county being the
largest in Ireland after Cork and Galway. About two-thirds
of the boundary of Mayo is formed by sea, and the coast is very
much indented, and abounds in picturesque scenery. The
principal inlets are Killary Harbour between Mayo and Galway;
Clew Bay, in which are the harbours of Westport and Newport ;
Blacksod Bay and Broad Haven, which form the peninsula of
the Mullet; and Killala Bay between Mayo and Sligo. The
islands are very numerous, the principal being Inishturk, near
Killary Harbour; Clare Island, at the mouth of Clew Bay, where
there are many islets, all formed of drift; and Achill, the largest
island off Ireland. The coast scenery is not surpassed by that of
Donegal northward and Connemara southward, and there are
several small coast-towns, among which may be named Killala
on the north coast, Belmullet on the isthmus between Blacksod
Bay and Broad Haven, Newport and Westport on Clew Bay,
with the watering-place of Mallaranny. The majestic cliffs of
the north coast, however, which reach an extreme height in
Benwee Head (892 ft.), are difficult of access and rarely visited.
In the eastern half of the county the surface is comparatively
level, with occasional hills; the western half is mountainous.
Mweelrea (2688 ft.) is included in a mountain range lying
between Killary Harbour and Lough Mask. The next highest
summits are Nephin (2646 ft.), to the west of Lough Conn, and
Croagh Patrick (2510 ft.), to the south of Clew Bay. The river
Moy flows northwards, forming part of the boundary of the county
with Sligo, and falls into Killala Bay. The courses of the other
streams are short, and except when swollen by rains their volume
is small. The principal lakes are Lough Mask and Lough Corrib,
on the borders of the county with Galway, and Loughs Conn in
the east, Carrowmore in the north-west, Beltra in the west, and
Carra adjoining Lough Mask. These loughs and the smaller
loughs, with the streams generally, afford admirable sport with
salmon, sea-trout and brown trout, and Ballina is a favourite
centre.
Geology. The wild and barren west of this county, including the
great hills on Achill Island, is formed of " Dalradian " rocks, schists
and quartzites, highly folded and metamorphosed, with intrusions
of granite near Belmullet. At Blacksod Bay the granite has been
quarried as an ornamental stone. Nephin Beg, Nephin and Croagh
Patrick are typical quartzite summits, the last named belonging
possibly to a Silurian horizon but rising from a metamorphosed area
on the south side of Clew Bay. The schists and gneisses of the Ox
Mountain axis also enter the county north of Castlebar. The
Muilrea and Ben Gorm range, bounding the fine fjord of Killary
Harbour, is formed of terraced Silurian rocks, from Bala to Ludlow
age. These beds, with intercalated lavas, form the mountainous
west shore of Lough Mask, the east, like that of Lough Corrib, being
formed of low Carboniferous Limestone ground. Silurian rocks,
with Old Red Sandstone over them, come out at the west end of the
Curlew range at Ballaghaderreen. Clew Bay, with its islets capped
by glacial drift, is a submerged part of a synclinal of Carbo-
niferous strata, and Old Red Sandstone comes out on the north
side of this, from near Achill to Lough Conn. The country from
Lough Conn northward to the sea is a lowland of Carboniferous
Limestone, with L. Carboniferous Sandstone against the Dalradian
on the west.
Industries. There are some very fertile regions in the level
portions of the county, but in the mountainous districts the soil is
poor, the holdings are subdivided beyond the possibility of affording
proper sustenance to their occupiers, and, except where fishing is
combined with agricultural operations, the circumstances of the
peasantry are among the most wretched of any district of Ireland.
The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as I to 3J. Oats
and potatoes are the principal crops. Cattle, sheep, pigs and
poultry are reared. Coarse linen and woollen cloths are manufac-
tured to a small extent. At Foxford woollen-mills are established
at a nunnery, in connexion with a scheme of technical instruction.
Keel, Belmullet and Ballycastle are the headquarters of sea and
MAYOR, J. E. B. MAYOR
coast fishing districts, and Ballina of a salmon-fishing district, and
these fisheries are of some value to the poor inhabitants. A branch
of the Midland Great Western railway enters the county from
Athlone, in the south-east, and runs north to Ballina and Killala
on the coast, branches diverging from Claremorris to Ballinrobc,
and from Manulla to Westport and Achill on the west coast. The
Limerick and Sligo line of the Great Southern and Western passes
from south to north-east by way of Claremorris.
Population and Administration. The population was 218,698
in 1891, and 199,166 in 1901. The decrease of population and
the number of emigrants are slightly below the average of the
Irish counties. Of the total population about 97% are rural,
and about the same percentage are Roman Catholics. The chief
towns are Ballina (pop. 4505), Westport (3892) and Castle-
bar (3585), the county town. Ballaghaderreen, Claremorris
(Clare), Crossmolina and Swineford are lesser market towns;
and Newport and Westport are small seaports on Clew Bay.
The county includes nine baronies. Assizes are held at Castlebar,
and quarter sessions at Ballina, Ballinrobe, Belmullet, Castlebar,
Claremorris, Swineford and Westport. In the Irish parliament
two members were returned for the county, and two for the
borough of Castlebar, but at the union Castlebar was disfran-
chised. The division since 1885 is into north, south, east and
west parliamentary divisions, each returning one member. The
county is in the Protestant diocese of Tuam and the Roman
Catholic dioceses of Taum, Achonry, Galway and Kilmacduagh,
and Killala.
History and Antiquities. Erris in Mayo was the scene of the
landing of the chief colony of the Firbolgs, and the battle which
is said to have resulted in the overthrow and almost annihilation
of this tribe took place also in this county, at Moytura near Cong.
At the close of the i2th century what is now the county of Mayo
was granted, with other lands, by king John to William, brother
of Hubert de Burgh. After the murder of William de Burgh,
3rd earl of Ulster (1333), the Bourkes (de Burghs) of the collateral
male line, rejecting the claim of William's heiress (the wife of
Lionel, son of King Edward III.) to the succession, succeeded
in holding the bulk of the De Burgh possessions, what is now
Mayo falling to the branch known by the name of " MacWilliam
Oughter," who maintained their virtual independence till the
time of Elizabeth. Sir Henry Sydney, during his first viceroy-
alty, after making efforts to improve communications between
Dublin and Connaught in 1566, arranged for the shiring of that
province, and Mayo was made shire ground, taking its name from
the monastery of Maio or Mageo, which was the seat of a bishop.
Even after this period the MacWilliams continued to exercise
very great authority, which was regularized in 1603, when " the
MacWilliam Oughter," Theobald Bourke, surrendered his lands
and received them back, to hold them by English tenure, with
the title of Viscount Mayo (see BURGH, DE) . Large confiscations
of the estates in the county were made in 1586, and on the termi-
nation of the wars of 1641; and in 1666 the restoration of his
estates to the 4th Viscount Mayo involved another confiscation,
at the expense of Cromwell's settlers. Killala was the scene of
the landing of a French squadron in connexion with the rebellion
of 1 708. In 1879 the village of Knock in the south-east acquired
notoriety from a story that the Virgin Mary had appeared in the
church, which became the resort of many pilgrims.
There are round towers at Killala, Turlough, Meelick and
Balla, and an imperfect one at Aughagower. Killala was for-
merly a bishopric. The monasteries were numerous, and many
of them of considerable importance: the principal being those at
Mayo, Ballyhaunis, Cong, Ballinrobe, Ballintober, Burrishoole,
Cross or Holycross in the peninsula of Mullet, Moyne, Roserk or
Rosserick and Templemore or Strade. Of the old castles the
most notable are Carrigahooly near Newport, said to have been
built by the celebrated Grace O'Malley, and Deel Castle near
Ballina, at one time the residence of the earls of Arran.
See Hubert Thomas Knox, History of the County of Mayo (1908).
937
MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825- ), English
classical scholar, was born at Baddegama, Ceylon, on the 28th
of January 1825, and educated in England at Shrewsbury
School and St John's College, Cambridge. From 1863 to 1867 he
was librarian of the university, and in 1872 succeeded H. A. J.
Munro in the professorship of Latin. His best-known work, an
edition of thirteen satires of Juvenal, is marked by an extra-
ordinary wealth of illustrative quotations. His Bibliographical
Clue to Latin Literature (1873), based on E. Hubner's Grundriss
zu Vorlesungen iiber die romische Litteraturgeschichte is a valuable
aid to the student, and his edition of Cicero's Second Philippic
is widely used. He also edited the English works of J. Fisher,
bishop of Rochester, i. (1876); Thomas Baker's History of Si
John's College, Cambridge (1869); Richard of Cirencester's
Speculum historiale de gestis regum Angliae 447-1066 (1863-
1869); Roger Ascham's Schoolmaster (new ed., 1883); the
Latin Heptateuch (1889) ; and the Journal of Philology.
His brother, JOSEPH BICKERSTETH MAYOR (1828- ),
classical scholar and theologian, was educated at Rugby and St
John's College, Cambridge, and from 1870 to 1879 was professor
of classics at King's College, London. His most important
classical works are an edition of Cicero's De nalura deorum (3
vols., 1880-1885) and Guide to the Choice of Classical Books
(3rd ed., 1885, with supplement, 1896). He also devoted atten-
tion to theological literature and edited the epistles of St James
(2nd ed., 1892), St Jude and St Peter (1907), and the Miscellanies
of Clement of Alexandria (with F. J. A. Hort, 1002). From
1887 to 1893 he was editor of the Classical Review. His Chapters
on English Metre (1886) reached a second edition in 1901.
MAYOR (Lat. -major, greater), in modern times the title of a
municipal officer who discharges judicial and administrative
functions. The French form of the word is maire. In Germany
the corresponding title is Burgermeister, in Italy sindico, and in
Spain alcalde. " Mayor " had originally a much wider signifi-
cance. Among the nations which arose on the ruins of the
Roman empire of the West, and which made use of the Latin
spoken by their " Roman " subjects as their official and legal
language, major and the Low Latin feminine majorissa were
found to be very convenient terms to describe important officials
of both sexes who had the superintendence of others. Any
female servant or slave in the houselold of a barbarian, whose
business it was to overlook other female servants or slaves, would
be quite naturally called a majorissa. So the male officer who
governed the king's household would be the major domus. In
the households of the Prankish kings of the Merovingian line,
the major domus, who was also variously known as the gubernalor,
rector, moderator or praefectus palatii, was so great an officer
that he ended by evicting his master. He was the " mayor of
the palace " (q.v.). The fact that his office, became hereditary
in the family of Pippin of Heristal made the fortune of the
Carolingian line. But besides the major domus (the major-domo),
there were other officers who were majores, the major cubiculi,
mayor of the bedchamber, and major equorum, mayor of the
horse. In fact a word which could be applied so easily and with
accuracy in so many circumstances was certain to be widely used
by itself, or in its derivatives. The post-Augustine majorinus,
" one of the larger kind," was the origin of the medieval Spanish
merinus, who in Castillian is the merino, and sometimes the
merino mayor, or chief merino. He was a judicial and administra-
tive officer of the king's . The gregum merinus was the superin-
tendent of the flocks of the corporation of sheep-owners called
the mesta. From him the sheep, and then the wool, have come
to be known as merinos a word identical in origin with the muni-
cipal title of mayor. The latter came directly from the heads
of gilds, and other associations of freemen, who had their banner
and formed a group on the populations of the towns, the majores
baneriae or vcxilli.
In England the major is the modern representative of the lord's
bailiff or reeve (see BOROUGH). We find the chief magistrate
of London bearing the title of portreeve for considerably more
than a century after the Conquest. This official was elected by
popular choice, a privilege secured from king John. By the
beginning of the nth century the title of portreeve 1 gave
way to that of mayor as the designation of the chief officer of
1 If a place was of mercantile importance it was called a port
(from porta, the city gate), and the reeve or bailiff, a " portreeve."
938
MAYOR OF THE PALACE MAYOW
London, 1 and the adoption of the title by other boroughs
. followed at various intervals.
A mayor is now in England and America the official head of a
municipal government. In the United Kingdom the Municipal
Corporations Act, 1882, s. 15, regulates the election of mayors. He
is to be a fit person elected annually on the 9th of November by the
council of the borough from among the aldermen or councillors or
persons qualified to be such. His term of office is one year, but he
is eligible for re-election. He may appoint a deputy to act during
illness or absence, and such deputy must be either an alderman
or councillor. A mayor who is absent from the borough for more
than two months becomes disqualified and vacates his office. A
mayor is ex officio during his year of office and the next year a justice
of the peace for the borough. He receives such remuneration as
the council thinks reasonable. The office of mayor in an English
borough does not entail any important administrative duties. It
is generally regarded as an honour conferred for past services. The
mayor is expected to devote much of his time to ornamental func-
tions and to preside over meetings which have for their object the
advancement of the public welfare. His administrative duties are
merely to act as returning officer at municipal elections, and as
chairman of the meetings of the council.
The position and power of an English mayor contrast very
strongly with those of the similar official in the United States. The
latter is elected directly by the voters within the city, usually for
several years; and he has extensive administrative powers.
The English method of selecting a mayor by the council is followed
for the corresponding functionaries in France (except Paris), the
more important cities of Italy, and in Germany, where, however,
the central government must confirm the choice of the council.
Direct appointment by the central government exists in Belgium,
Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and the smaller towns of Italy
and Spain. As a rule, too, the term of office is longer in other
countries than in the United Kingdom. In France election is for
four years, in Holland for six, in Belgium for an indefinite period,
and in Germany usually for twelve years, but in some cases for life.
In Germany the post may be said to be a professional one, the
burgomaster being the head of the city magistracy, and requiring,
in order to be eligible, a training in administration. German
burgomasters are most frequently elected by promotion from another
city. In France the maire, and a number of experienced members
termed "adjuncts," who assist him as an executive committee, are
elected directly by the municipal council from among their own
number. Most of the administrative work is left in the hands of
the maire and his adjuncts, the full council meeting comparatively
seldom. The maire and the adjuncts receive no salary.
Further information will be found in the sections on local govern-
ment in the articles on the various countries; see also A. Shaw,
Municipal Government in Continental Europe; J. A. Fairlie, Municipal
Administration; S. and B. Webb, English Local Government;
Redlich and Hirst, Local Government in England; A. L. Lowell,
The Government of England.
MAYOR OF THE PALACE. The office of mayor of the
palace was an institution peculiar to the Franks of the Merovin-
gian period. A landowner who did not manage his own estate
placed it in the hands of a steward (major), who superintended
the working of the estate and collected its revenues. If he had
several estates, he appointed a chief steward, who managed the
whole of the estates and was called the major domus. Each great
personage had a major domus the queen had hers, the king his;
and since the royal house was called the palace, this officer took
the name of " mayor of the palace." The mayor of the palace,
however, did not remain restricted to domestic functions; he had
the discipline of the palace and tried persons who resided there.
Soon his functions expanded. If the king were a minor, the
mayor of the palace supervised his education in the capacity of
guardian (nutricius), and often also occupied himself with affairs
of state. When the king came of age, the mayor exerted himself
to keep this power, and succeeded. In the 7th century he be-
came the head of the administration and a veritable prime minis-
ter. He took part in the nomination of the counts and dukes;
in the king's absence he presided over the royal tribunal; and he
often commanded the armies. When the custom of commen-
dation developed, the king charged the mayor of the palace to
protect those who had commended themselves to him and to
l The mayors of certain cities in the United Kingdom (London,
York, Dublin) have acquired by prescription the prefix of " lord."
In the case of London it seems to date from 1540. It has also been
conferred during the closing years of the igth century by' letters
patent on other cities Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester,
Bristol, Sheffield, Leeds, Cardiff, Bradford, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Belfast, Cork. In 1910 it was granted to Norwich. Lord mayors
are entitled to be addressed as " right honourable."
intervene at law on their behalf. The mayor of the palace thus
found himself at the head of the commendati, just as he was at
the head of the functionaries.
It is difficult to trace the names of some of the mayors of the
palace, the post being of almost no significance in jthe time of
Gregory of Tours. When the office increased in importance the
mayors of the palace did not, as has been thought, pursue an
identical policy. Some for instance, Otto, the mayor of the
palace of Austrasia towards 640 were devoted to the Crown.
On the other hand, mayors like Flaochat (in Burgundy) and
Erkinoald (in Neustria) stirred up the great nobles, who claimed
the right to take part in their nomination, against the king.
Others again, sought to exercise the power in their own name
both against the king and against the great nobles such as
Ebroin (in Neustria), and, later, the Carolingians Pippin II.,
Charles Martel, and Pippin III., who, after making use of the
great nobles, kept the authority for themselves. In 751 Pippin
III., fortified by his consultation with Pope Zacharias, could
quite naturally exchange the title of mayor for that of king;
and when he became king, he suppressed the title of mayor of
the palace. It must be observed that from 639 there were
generally separate mayors of Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy,
even when Austrasia and Burgundy formed a single kingdom;
the mayor was a sign of the independence of the region. Each
mayor, however, sought to supplant the others; the Pippins
and Charles Martel succeeded, and their victory was at the same
time the victory of Austrasia over Neustria and Burgundy.
See G. H. Pertz, Geschichte der merowingischen Hausmeier (Han-
over, 1819); H. Bonnell, De dignitate majoris domus (Berlin, 1858);
E. Hermann, Das Hausmeieramt, ein echt germanisches Ami, vol. ix.
of Untersuchungen zur deutschen Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte, ed.
by O. Gierke (Breslau, 1878, seq.); G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungs-
geschichte, 3rd ed., revised by K. Zeumer; and Fustel de Coulanges,
Histoire des institutions politiques de V ancienne France: La monarchic
franque (Paris, 1888). (C. PF.)
MAYORUNA, a tribe of South American Indians of Panoan
stock. Their country is between the Ucayali and Javari rivers,
north-eastern Peru. They are a fine race, roaming the forests
and living by hunting. They cut their hair in a line across the
forehead and let it hang down their backs. Many have fair
skins and beards, a peculiarity sometimes explained by their
alleged descent from Ursua's soldiers, but this theory is impro-
bable. They are famous for the potency of their blow-gun
poison.
MAYO-SMITH, RICHMOND (1854-1901), American econo-
mist, was born in Troy, Ohio, on the 9th of February 1854.
Educated at Amherst, and at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became
assistant professor of economics at Columbia University in
1877. He was an adjunct professor from 1878 to 1883, when
he was appointed professor of political economy and social
science, a post which he held until his death on the nth of
November 1901. He devoted himself especially to the study
of statistics, and was recognized as one of the foremost authori-
ties on the subject. His works include Emigration and Immigra-
tion (1890); Sociology and Statistics (1895), and Statistics and
Economics (1899).
MAYOTTE, one of the Comoro Islands, in the Mozambique
Channel between Madagascar and the African mainland. It has
belonged to France since 1843 (see COMORO ISLANDS).
MAYOW, JOHN (1643-1679), English chemist and physiolo-
gist, was born in London in May 1643. At the age of fifteen he
went up to Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became a
scholar a year later, and in 1660 he was elected to a fellowship at
All Souls. He graduated in law (bachelor, 1665, doctor, 1670),
but made medicine his profession, and " became noted for his
practice therein, especially in the summer time, in the city of
Bath." In 1678, on the proposal of R. Hooke, he was chosen a
fellow of the Royal Society. The following year, after a marriage
which was " not altogether to his content," he died in London in
September 1679. He published at Oxford in 1668 two tracts,
on respiration and rickets, and in 1674 these were reprinted, the
former in an enlarged and corrected form, with three others " De
sal-nitro et spiritu nitro-aereo," " De respiratione foetus in
MAYSVILLE MAZANDARAN
939
utero et ovo," and " De motu muscular! et spiritibus animalibus "
as Tractatus quinque medico-physici. The contents of this work,
which was several times republished and translated into Dutch,
German and French, show him to have been an investigator
much in advance of his time.
Accepting as proved by Boyle's experiments that air is necessary
for combustion, he showed that fire is supported not by the air as
a whole but by a " more active and subtle part of it." This part
he called sfririlus igneo-aereus, or sometimes nitro-aereus; for he
identified ft with one of the constituents of the acid portion of nitre
which he regarded as formed by the union, of fixed alkali with a
spiritus acidus. In combustion the particular nitro-aereae either
pre-existent in the thing consumed or supplied by the air combined
with the material burnt; as he inferred from his observation that
antimony, strongly heated with a burning glass, undergoes an
increase of weight which can be attributed to nothing else but these
particles. In respiration he argued that the same particles are
consumed, because he found that when a small animal and a lighted
candle were placed in a closed vessel full of air the candle first went
ojut and soon afterwards the animal died, but if there was no candle
present it lived twice as long. He concluded that this constituent
of the air is absolutely necessary for life, and supposed that the
lungs separate it from the atmosphere and pass it into the blood.
It is also necessary, he inferred, for all muscular movements, and
he thought there was reason to believe that the sudden contraction
of muscle is produced by its combination with other combustible
(salino-sulphureous) particles in the body; hence the heart, being
a muscle, ceases to beat when respiration is stopped. Animal heat
also is due to the union of nitro-aerial particles, breathed in from
the air, with the combustible particles in the blood, and is further
formed by the combination of these two sets of particles in muscle
during violent exertion. In effect, therefore, Mayow who also
gives a remarkably correct anatomical description of the mechanism
of respiration preceded Priestley and Lavoisier by a century in
recognizing the existence of oxygen, under the guise of his spiritus
nitro-aereus, as a separate entity distinct from the general mass of
the air; he perceived the part it plays in combustion and in increas-
ing the weight of the calces of metals as compared with metals
themselves; and, rejecting the common notions of his time that the
use of breathing is to cool the heart, or assist the passage of the blood
from the right to the left side of the heart, or merely to agitate it,
he saw in inspiration a mechanism for introducing oxygen into the
body, where it is consumed for the production of heat and muscular
activity, and even vaguely conceived of expiration as an excretory
process.
MAYSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Mason county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Cin-
cinnati. Pop. (1890) 5358; (1900) 6423 (1155 negroes); (1910)
6141. It is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the
Chesapeake & Ohio railways, and by steamboats on the Ohio
river. Among its principal buildings are the Mason county
public library (1878), the Federal building and Masonic and
Odd Fellows' temples. The city lies between the river and a
range of hills; at the back of the hills is a fine farming country, of
which tobacco of excellent quality is a leading product. There
is a large plant of the American Tobacco Company at Maysville,
and among the city's manufactures are pulleys, ploughs,
whisky, flour, lumber, furniture, carriages, cigars, foundry and
machine-shop products, bricks and cotton goods. The city is
a distributing point for coal and other products brought to it by
Ohio river boats. Formerly it was one of the principal hemp
markets of the country. The place early became a landing point
for immigrants to Kentucky, and in 1784 a double log cabin and
a blockhouse were erected here. It was then called Limestone,
from the creek which flows into the Ohio here, but several years
later the present name was adopted in honour of John May,
who with Simon Kenton laid out the town in 1787, and who in
1790 was killed by the Indians. Maysville was incorporated as
a town in 1787, was chartered as a city in 1833, and became the
county-seat in 1848.
In 1830, when the question of " internal improvements " by the
National government was an important political issue, Congress
passed a bill directing the government to aid in building a turnpike
road from Maysville to Lexington. President Andrew Jackson
vetoed the bill on the ground that the proposed improvement was
a local rather than a national one; but one-half the capital was then
furnished privately, the other half was furnished through several
state appropriations, and the road was completed in 1835 and marked
the beginning of a system of turnpike roads built with state aid.
MAZAGAN (ElJadtda), a port on the Atlantic coast of Morocco
in 33 1 6' N. 8 26' W. Pop. (1908), about 12,000, of whom a
fourth are Jews and some 400 Europeans. It is the port for
Marrakesh, from which it is no m. nearly due north, and also for
the fertile province of Dukalla. Mazagan presents from the
sea a very un-Moorish appearance; it has massive Portuguese
walls of hewn stone. The exports, which include beans, almonds,
maize, chick-peas, wool, hides, wax, eggs, &c., were valued at
360,000 in 1900, 364,000 in 1904, and 248,000 in 1906. The
imports (cotton goods, sugar, tea, rice, &c.) were valued at
280,000 in 1900, 286,000 in 1904, and 320,000 in 1906. About
46% of the trade is with Great Britain and 34% with France.
Mazagan was built in 1 506 by the Portuguese, who abandoned it
to the Moors in 1769 and established a colony, New Mazagan,
on the shores of Para in Brazil.
See A. H. Dye, " Les ports du Maroc " in Bull. Soc. Geog. Comm.
Paris, xxx. 325-332 (1908), and British consular reports.
MAZAMET, an industrial town of south-western France in
the department of Tarn, 41 m. S.S.E. of Albi by rail. Pop.
(1906), town, 11,370; commune, 14,386. Mazamet is situated
on the northern slope of the Montagnes Noires and on the
Arnette, a small sub-tributary of the Agout. Numerous estab-
lishments are employed in wool-spinning and in the manufacture
of " swan-skins " and flannels, and clothing for troops, and hosiery,
and there are important tanneries and leather-dressing, glove and
dye works. Extensive commerce is carried on in wool and raw
hides from Argentina, Australia and Cape Colony.
MAZANDARAN, a province of northern Persia, lying between
the Caspian Sea and the Elburz range, and bounded E. and W.
by the provinces of Astarabad and Gilan respectively, 220 m. in
length and 60 m. in (mean) breadth, with an area of about 10,000
sq. m. and a population estimated at from 150,000 to 200,000.
Mazandaran comprises two distinct natural regions presenting
the sharpest contrasts in their relief, climate and products. In
the north the Caspian is encircled by the level and swampy
lowlands, varying in breadth from 10 to 30 m., partly under im-
penetrable jungle, partly under rice, cotton, sugar and other crops.
This section is fringed northwards by the sandy beach of the
Caspian, here almost destitute of natural harbours, and rises
somewhat abruptly inland to the second section, comprising the
northern slopes and spurs of the Elburz, which approach at some
points within i or 2 m. of the sea, and are almost everywhere
covered with dense forest. The lowlands, rising but a few feet
above the Caspian, and subject to frequent floodings, are ex-
tremely malarious, while the highlands, culminating with the
magnificent Demavend (19,400 ft.), enjoy a tolerably healthy
climate. But the climate, generally hot and moist in summer,
is everywhere capricious and liable to sudden changes of tempera-
ture, whence the prevalence of rheumatism, dropsy and especially
ophthalmia, noticed by all travellers. Snow falls heavily in the
uplands, where it often lies for weeks on the ground. The direc-
tion of the long sandbanks at the river mouths, which project
with remarkable uniformity from west to east, shows that the
prevailing winds blow from the west and north-west. The
rivers themselves, of which there are as many as fifty, are little
more than mountain torrents, all rising on the northern slopes
of Elburz, flowing mostly in independent channels to the Caspian,
and subject to sudden freshets and inundations along their lower
course. The chief are the Sardab-rud, Chalus, Herhaz (Lar
in its upper course), Babul, Tejen and Nika, and all are well
stocked with trout, salmon (azad-mahi), perch (safid-mahi), carp
(kupur), bream (subulu), sturgeon (sag-mahi) and other fish,
which with rice form the staple food of the inhabitants; the
sturgeon supplies the caviare for the Russian market. Near
their mouths the rivers, running counter to the prevailing winds
and waves of the Caspian, form long sand-hills 20 to 30 ft. high
and about 200 yds. broad, behind which are developed the so-
called mttrd-Ab, or " dead waters," stagnant pools and swamps
characteristic of this coast, and a main cause of its unhealthiness.
The chief products are rice, cotton, sugar, a little silk, and fruits
in great variety, including several kinds of the orange, lemon
and citron. Some of the slopes are covered with extensive
thickets of the pomegranate, and the wild vine climbs to a great
height round the trunks of the forest trees. These woodlands
940
MAZARIN
are haunted by the tiger, panther, bear, wolf and wild boar in
considerable numbers. Of the domestic animals, all remarkable
for their smap size, the chief are the black, humped cattle some-
what resembling the Indian variety, and sheep and goats.
Kinneir, Eraser and other observers speak unfavourably of the
Mazandarani people, whom they describe as very ignorant and
bigoted, arrogant, rudely inquisitive and almost insolent towards
strangers. The peasantry, however, are far from dull, and betray
much shrewdness where their interests are concerned. In the
healthy districts they are stout and well made, and are considered
a warlike race, furnishing some cavalry (800 men) and eight bat-
talions of infantry (5600 men) to government. They speak a marked
Persian dialect, but a Turki idion closely akin to the Turkoman
is still current amongst the tribes, although they have mostly already
passed from the nomad to the settled state. Of these tribes the
most numerous are the Modaunlu, Khojehvand and Abdul Maleki,
originally of Lek or Kurd stock, besides branches of the royal Afshar
and Kajar tribes of Turki descent. All these are exempt from taxes
in consideration of their military service.
The export trade is chiefly with Russia from Meshed-i-Sar, the
principal port of the province, to Baku, where European goods are
taken in exchange for the white and coloured calicoes, caviare, rice,
fruits and raw cotton of Mazandaran. Great quantities of rice are
also exported to the interior of Persia, principally to Teheran and
Kazvin. Owing to the almost impenetrable character of the country
there are scarcely any roads accessible to wheeled carriages, and the
great causeway of Shah Abbas along the coast has in many places
even disappeared under the jungle. Two routes, however, lead to
Teheran, one by Firuz Kuh, 180 m. long, the other by Larijan,
144 m. long, both in tolerably good repair. Except where crossed
by these routes the Elburz forms an almost impassable barrier to
the south.
The administration is in the hands of a governor, who appoints
the sub-governors of the nine districts of Amol, Barfarush, Meshed-
i-Sar, Sari, Ashref, Farah-abad, Tunakabun, Kelarrustak and Kuiur
into which the province is divided. There is fair security for life
and property; and, although otherwise indifferently administered,
the country is quite free from marauders; but local disturbances
have latterly been frequent in the two last-named districts. The
revenue is about 30,000, of which little goes to the state treasury,
most being required for the governors, troops and pensions. The
capital is Sari, the other chief towns being Barfarush, Meshed-i-Sar,
Ashref and Farah-abad. (A. H.-S.)
MAZARIN, JULES (1602-1661), French cardinal and states-
man, elder son of a Sicilian, Pietro Mazarini, the intendant of
the household of Philip Colonna, and of his wife Ortensia
Buffalini, a connexion of the Colonnas, was born at Piscina in
the Abruzzi on the I4th of July 1602. He was educated by the
Jesuits at Rome till his seventeenth year, when he accompanied
Jerome Colonna as chamberlain to the university of Alcala in
Spain. There he distinguished himself more by his love of
gambling and his gallant adventures than by study, but made
himself a thorough master, not only of the Spanish language
and character, but also of that romantic fashion of Spanish
love-making which was to help him greatly in after life, when he
became the servant of a Spanish queen. On his return to Rome,
about 1622, he took his degree as Doctor utriusque juris, and
then became captain of infantry in the regiment of Colonna,
which took part in the war in the Valtelline. During this war
he gave proofs of much diplomatic ability, and Pope Urban VIII.
entrusted him, in 1629, with the difficult task of putting an end
to the war of the Mantuan succession. His success marked him
out for further distinction. He was presented to two canonries
in the churches of St John Lateran and Sta Maria Maggiore,
although he had only taken the minor orders, and had never
been consecrated priest; he negotiated the treaty of Turin be-
tween France and Savoy in 1632, became vice-legate at Avignon
in 1634, and nuncio at the court of France from 1634 to 1636.
But he began to wish for a wider shpere than papal negotiations,
and, seeing that he had no chance of becoming a cardinal except
by the aid of some great power, he accepted Richelieu's offer of
entering the service of the king of France, and in 1639 became a
naturalized Frenchman.
In 1640 Richelieu sent him to Savoy, where the regency of
Christine, the duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII., was
disputed by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas
of Savoy, and he succeeded not only in firmly establishing
Christine but in winning over the princes to France. This great
service was rewarded by his promotion to the rank of cardinal
on the presentation of the king of France in December 1641.
On the 4th of December 1642 Cardinal Richelieu died, and on the
very next day the king sent a circular letter to all officials ordering
them to send in their reports to Cardinal Mazarin, as they had
formerly done to Cardinal Richelieu. Mazarin was thus acknow-
ledged supreme minister, but he still had a difficult part to play.
The king evidently could not live long, and to preserve power he
must make himself necessary to the queen, who would then be
regent, and do this without arousing the suspicions of the king
or the distrust of the queen. His measures were ably taken, and
when the king died, on the I4th of May 1643, to everyone's
surprise her husband's minister remained the queen's. The
king had by a royal edict cumbered the queen-regent with a
council and other restrictions, and it was necessary to get the
parlement of Paris to overrule the edict and make the queen
absolute regent, which was done with the greatest complaisance.
Now that the queen was all-powerful, it was expected she
would at once dismiss Mazarin and summon her own friends
to power. One of them, Potier, bishop of Beauvais, already
gave himself airs as prime minister, but Mazarin had had the
address to touch both the queen's heart by his Spanish gallantry
and her desire for her son's glory by his skilful policy abroad,
and he found himself able easily to overthrow the clique of
Importants, as they were called. That skilful policy was
shown in every arena on which the great Thirty Years' War
was being fought out. Mazarin had inherited the policy of
France during the Thirty Years' War from Richelieu. He had
inherited his desire for the humiliation of the house of Austria
in both its branches, his desire to push the French frontier to
the Rhine and maintain a counterpoise of German states against
Austria, his alliances with the Netherlands and with Sweden,
and his four theatres of war on the Rhine, in Flanders, in Italy
and in Catalonia.
During the last five years of the great war it was Mazarin alone
who directed the French diplomacy of the period. He it was
who made the peace of Bromsebro between the Danes and the
Swedes, and turned the latter once again against the empire; he
it was who sent Lionne to make the peace of Castro, and combine
the princes of North Italy against the Spaniards, and who made
the peace of Ulm between France and Bavaria, thus detaching the
emperor's best ally. He made one fatal mistake he dreamt
of the French frontier being the Rhine and the Scheldt, and that
a Spanish princess might bring the Spanish Netherlands as dowry
to Louis XIV. This roused the jealousy of the United Provinces,
and they made a separate peace with Spain in January 1648;
but the valour of the French generals made the skill of the Spanish
diplomatists of no avail, for Turenne's victory at Zusmars-
hausen, and Conde's at Lens, caused the peace of Westphalia to
be definitely signed in October 1648. This celebrated treaty
belongs rather to the history of Germany than to a life of Mazarin;
but two questions have been often asked, whether Mazarin did
not delay the peace as long as possible in order to more completely
ruin Germany, and whether Richelieu would have made a similar
peace. To the first question Mazarin's letters, published by
M. Cheruel, prove a complete negative, for in them appears the
zeal of Mazarin for the peace. On the second point, Richelieu's
letters in many places indicate that his treatment of the great
question of frontier would have been more thorough, but then he
would not have been hampered in France itself.
At home Mazarin's policy lacked the strength of Richelieu's.
The Frondes were largely due to his own fault. The arrest of
Broussel threw the people on the side of the parlement. His
avarice and unscrupulous plundering of the revenues of the
realm, the enormous fortune which he thus amassed, his supple
ways, his nepotism, and the general lack of public interest in the
great foreign policy of Richelieu, made Mazarin the especial
object of hatred both by bourgeois and nobles. The irritation
of the latter was greatly Mazarin's own fault; he had tried con-
sistently to play off the king's brother Gaston of Orleans against
Conde, and their respective followers against each other, and had
also, as his camels prove, jealously kept any courtier from getting
into the good graces of the queen-regent except by his means, so
MAZAR-I-SHARIF MAZATLAN
941
that it was not unnatural that the nobility should hate him,
while the queen found herself surrounded by his creatures alone.
Events followed each other quickly; the day of the barricades
was followed by the peace of Ruel, the peace of Ruel by the
arrest of the princes, by the battle of Rethel, and Mazarin's exile
to Briihl before the union of the two Frondes. It was while in
exile at Briihl that Mazarin saw the mistake he had made in
isolating himself and the queen, and that his policy of balancing
every party in the state against each other had made every party
distrust him. So by his counsel the queen, while nominally in
league with De Retz and the parliamentary Fronde, laboured to
form a purely royal party, wearied by civil dissensions, who
should act for her and her son's interest alone, under the leader-
ship of Mathieu Mole, the famous premier president of the
parlement of Paris. The new party grew in strength, and in
January 1652, after exactly a year's absence, Mazarin returned
to the court. Turenne had now become the royal general, and
out-manoeuvred Conde, while the royal party at last grew to such
strength in Paris that Conde had to leave the capital and France.
In order to promote a reconciliation with the parlement of Paris
Mazarin had again retired from court, this time to Sedan, in
August 1652, but he returned finally in February 1653. Long
had been the trial, and greatly had Mazarin been to blame in
allowing the Frondes to come into existence, but he had retrieved
his position by founding that great royal party which steadily
grew until Louis XIV. could fairly have said "L'fitat, c'est moi."
As the war had progressed, Mazarin had steadily followed Riche-
lieu's policy of weakening the nobles on their country estates.
Whenever he had an opportunity he destroyed a feudal castle,
and by destroying the towers which commanded nearly every
town in France, he freed such towns as Bourges, for instance,
from their long practical subjection to the neighbouring great
lord.
The Fronde over, Mazarin had to build up afresh the power
of France at home and abroad. It is to his shame that he did so
little at home. Beyond destroying the brick-and-mortar remains
of feudalism, he did nothing for the people. But abroad his
policy was everywhere successful, and opened the way for the
policy of Louis XIV. He at first, by means of an alliance with
Cromwell, recovered the north-western cities of France, though
at the price of yielding Dunkirk to the Protector. On the Baltic,
France guaranteed the Treaty of Oliva between her old allies
Sweden, Poland and Brandenburg, which preserved her influence
in that quarter. In Germany he, through Hugues de Lionne,
formed the league of the Rhine, by which the states along the
Rhine bound themselves under the headship of France to be on
their guard against the house of Austria. By such measures
Spain was induced to sue for peace, which was finally signed in the
Isle of Pheasants on the Bidassoa, and is known as the Treaty
of the Pyrenees. By it Spain recovered Franche Comt6, but
ceded to France Roussillon, and much of French Flanders; and,
what was of greater ultimate importance to Europe, Louis XIV.
was to marry a Spanish princess, who was to renounce her claims
to the Spanish succession if her dowry was paid, which Mazarin
knew could not happen at present from the emptiness of the
Spanish exchequer. He returned to Paris in declining health,
and did not long survive the unhealthy sojourn on the Bidassoa;
after some political instruction to his young master he passed
away at Vincennes on the gth of March 1661, leaving a fortune
estimated at from 18 to 40 million livres behind him, and his
nieces married into the greatest families of France and Italy.
The man who could have had such success, who could have made
the Treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, who could have
weathered the storm of the Fronde, and left France at peace with
itself and with Europe to Louis XIV., must have been a great man
and historians, relying too much on the brilliant memoirs of his
adversaries, like De Retz, are apt to rank him too low. That he
had many a petty fault there can be no doubt ; that he was
avaricious and double-dealing was also undoubted; and his cornets
show to what unworthy means he had recourse to maintain his in-
fluence over the queen. What that influence was will be always
debated, but both his cornets and the Briihl letters show that a real
personal affection, amounting to passion on the queen's part, existed
Whether they were ever married may be doubted ; but that hypo-
thesis is made more possible by M. Chdruel's haying been able to
prove from Mazarin's letters that the cardinal himself had never
taken more than the minor orders, which could always be thrown
off. With regard to France he played a more patriotic part than
Condd or Turenne, for he never treated with the Spaniards, and his
letters show that in the midst of his difficulties he followed with
intense eagerness every movement on the frontiers. It is that
immense mass of letters that prove the real greatness of the states-
man, and disprove De Retz's portrait, which is carefully arranged
to show off his enemy against the might of Richelieu. To concede
that the master was the greater man and the greater statesman does
not imply that Mazarin was but a foil to his predecessor. It is true
that we find none of those deep) plans for the internal prosperity
of France which shine through Richelieu's policy. Mazarin was not
a Frenchman, but a citizen of the world, and always paid most
attention to foreign affairs; in his letters all that could teach a diplo-
matist is to be found, broad general views of policy, minute details
carefully elaborated, keen' insight into men's characters, cunning
directions when to dissimulate or when to be frank. Italian though
he was by birth, education and nature, France owed him a great
debt for his skilful management during the early years of Louis XIV.,
and the king owed him vet more, for he had not only transmitted to
him a nation at peace, but had educated for him his great servants
Le Tellier, Lionne and Colbert. Literary men owed him also much ;
not only did he throw his famous library open to them, but he
pensioned all their leaders, including Descartes, Vincent Voiture
(1598-1648), Jean Louis Guez de Balzac (1597-1654) and Pierre
Corneille. The last-named applied, with an adroit allusion to his
birthplace, in the dedication of his Pompee, the line of Virgil :
" Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento."
(H.M.S.)
AUTHORITIES. All the earlier works on Mazarin, and early ac-
counts of his administration, of which the best were Bazin's Histoire
de France sous Louis XIII. et sous le Cardinal Mazarin, 4 vols.
(1846), and Saint-Aulaire's Histoire de la Fronde, have been super-
seded by P. A. CheYuel's admirable Histoire de France pendant
la minorite de Louis XIV., 4 vols. (1879-1880), which covers from
1643-1651, and its sequel Histoire de France sous le minis&re de
Cardinal Mazarin, 2 vols. (1881-1882), which is the first account
of the period written by one able to sift the statements of De Retz
and the memoir writers, and rest upon such documents as Mazarin's
letters and cornets. Mazarin's Lettres, which must be carefully
studied by any student of the history of France, have appeared
in the Collection des documents inedits, 9 vols. For his cornets
reference must be made to V. Cousin's articles in the Journal des
Savants, and CheVuel in Revue historique (1877), see also CheVuel's
Histoire de France pendant la minorite, &c., app. to vol. iii.; for his
early life to Cousin s Jeunesse de Mazarin (1865), and for the careers
of his nieces to Renee's Les Nieces de Mazarin (1856). For the
Mazarinades or squibs written against him in Paris during the
Fronde, see C. Moreau's Bibliographic des mazarinades (1850),
containing an account of 4082 Mazarinades. See also A. Hassall,
Mazarin (1903).
MAZAR-I-SHARIF, a town of Afghanistan, the capital of the
province of Afghan Turkestan. Owing to the importance of
the military cantonment of Takhtapul, and its religious sanctity,
it has long ago supplanted the more ancient capital of Balkh. It
is situated in a malarious, almost desert plain, 9 m. E. of Balkh,
and 30 m. S. of the Pata Kesar ferry on the Oxus river. In
this neighbourhood is concentrated most of the Afghan army
north of the Hindu Kush mountains, the fortified cantonment
of Dehdadi having been completed by Sirdar Ghulam Ali Khan
and incorporated with Mazar. Mazar-i-Sharif also contains a
celebrated mosque, from which the town takes its name. It is a
huge ornate building with minarets and a lofty cupola faced
with shining blue tiles. It was built by Sultan Ali Mirza about
A.D. 1420, and is held in great veneration by all Mussulmans,
and especially by Shiites, because it is supposed to be the tomb of
Ah', the son-in-law of Mahomet.
MAZARR6N, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Murcia, 19 m. W. of Cartagena. Pop. (1900), 23, 284. There are
soap and flour mills and metallurgic factories in the town, and
iron, copper and lead mines in the neighbouring Sierra de Alme-
nara. A railway 5 m. long unites Mazarr6n to its port on the
Mediterranean, where there is a suburb with 2500 inhabitants
(mostly engaged in fisheries and coasting trade), containing
barracks, a custom-house, and important leadworks. Outside
of the suburb there are saltpans, most of the proceeds of which
are exported to Galicia.
MAZATLAN, a city and port of the state of Sinaloa, Mexico,
120 m. (direct) W.S.W. of the city of Durango, in lat. 23 12' N.,
long. 106 24' W. Pop. (1895), 15,852; (1000), 17,852. It is
942
MAZE MAZZINI
the Pacific coast terminus of the International railway which
crosses northern Mexico from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, and a port of
call for the principal steamship lines on this coast. The harbour
is spacious, but the entrance is obstructed by a bar. The city
is built on a small peninsula. Its public buildings include a
fine town-hall, chamber of commerce, a custom-house and two
hospitals, besides which there is a nautical school and a meteoro-
logical station, one of the first established in Mexico. The
harbour is provided with a sea-wall at Olas Altas. A govern-
ment wireless telegraph service is maintained between Mazatlan
and La Paz, Lower California. Among the manufactures are
saw-mills, foundries, cotton factories and ropeworks, and the
exports are chiefly hides, ixtle, dried and salted fish, gold, silver
and copper (bars and ores), fruit, rubber, tortoise-shell, and gums
and resins.
MAZE, a network of winding paths, a labyrinth (q.v.). The
word means properly a state of confusion or wonder, and is
probably of Scandinavian origin; cf. Norw. mas, exhausting
labour, also chatter, masa, to be busy, also to worry, annoy;
Swed. masa, to lounge, move slowly and lazily, to dream, muse.
Skeat (Etym. Diet.) takes the original sense to be probably " to
be lost in thought," " to dream," and connects with the root
ma-man-, to think, cf. " mind," " man," &c. The word " maze "
represents the addition of an intensive suffix.
MAZEPA-KOLEDINSKY, IVAN STEPANOVICH (1644?-
1709), hetman of the Cossacks, belonging to a noble Orthodox
family, was born possibly at Mazeptsina, either in 1629 or 1644,
the latter being the more probable date. He was educated at the
court of the Polish king, John Casimir, and completed his studies
abroad. An intrigue with a Polish married lady forced him to
fly into the Ukraine. There is a trustworthy tradition that the
infuriated husband tied the naked youth to the back of a wild
horse and sent him forth into the steppe. He was rescued and
cared for by the Dnieperian Cossacks, and speedily became one of
their ablest leaders. In 1687, during a visit to Moscow, he won
the favour of the then all-powerful Vasily Golitsuin, from whom
be virtually purchased the hetmanship of the Cossacks (July 25).
He took a very active part in the Azov campaigns of Peter the
Great and won the entire confidence of the young tsar by his
zeal and energy. He was also very serviceable to Peter at the
beginning of the Great Northern War, especially in 1705 and 1706,
when he took part in the Volhynian campaign and helped to
construct the fortress of Pechersk. The power and influence of
Mazepa were fully recognized by Peter the Great. No other
Cossack hetman had ever been treated with such deference at
Moscow. He ranked with the highest dignitaries in the state; he
sat at the tsar's own table. He had been made one of the first
cavaliers of the newly established order of St Andrew, and
Augustus of Poland had bestowed upon him, at Peter's earnest
solicitation, the universally coveted order of the White Eagle.
Mazepa had no temptations to be anything but loyal, and loyal
he would doubtless have remained had not Charles XII. crossed
the Russian frontier. Then it was that Mazepa, who had had
doubts of the issue of the struggle all along, made up his mind
that Charles, not Peter, was going to win, and that it was high
time he looked after his own interests. Besides, he had his
personal grievances against the tsar. He did not Eke the new ways
because they interfered with his old ones. He was very jealous
of the favourite (Menshikov), whom he suspected of a design to
supplant him. But he proceeded very cautiously. Indeed, he
would have preferred to remain neutral, but he was not strong
enough to stand alone. The crisis came when Peter ordered him
to co-operate actively with the Russian forces in the Ukraine. At
this very time he was in communication with Charles's first
minister, Count Piper, and had agreed to harbour the Swedes in
the Ukraine and close it against the Russians (Oct. 1708). The
last doubt disappeared when Menshikov was sent to supervise
Mazepa. At the approach of his rival the old hetman hastened
to the Swedish outposts at Horki, in Severia. Mazepa's treason
took Peter completely by surprise. He instantly commanded
Menshikov to get a new hetman elected and raze Baturin,
Mazepa's chief stronghold in the Ukraine, to the ground. When
Charles, a week later, passed Baturin by, all that remained of the
Cossack capital was a heap of smouldering mills and ruined
houses. The total destruction of Baturin, almost in sight of the
Swedes, overawed the bulk of the Cossacks into obedience, and
Mazepa's ancient prestige was ruined in a day when the metro-
politan of Kiev solemnly excommunicated him from the high
altar, and his effigy, after being dragged with contumely through
the mud at Kiev, was publicly burnt by the common hangman.
Henceforth Mazepa, perforce, attached himself to Charles.
What part he took at the battle of Poltava is not quite clear.
After the catastrophe he accompanied Charles to Turkey with
some 1500 horsemen (the miserable remnant of his 80,000
warriors). The sultan refused to surrender him to the tsar,
though Peter offered 300,000 ducats for his head. He died at
Bender on the 22nd of August 1709.
See N. I. Kostomarov, Mazepa and the Mazepanites (Russ.) (St
Petersburg), 1885; R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London,
1905); S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Russ.), vol. xv. (St Peters-
burg, 1895). (R. N. B.)
MAZER, the name of a special type of drinking vessel, properly
made of maple-wood, and so-called from the spotted or " birds-
eye " marking on the wood (Ger. Maser, spot, marking,
especially on wood; cf. " measles "). These drinking vessels are
shallow bowls without handles, with a broad flat foot and a knob
or boss in the centre of the inside, known technically as the
" print." They were made from the i3th to the i6th centuries,
and were the most prized of the various wooden cups in use, and
so were ornamented with a rim of precious metal, generally of
silver or silver gilt; the foot and the " print " being also of metal.
The depth of the mazers seems to have decreased in course of
time, those of the i6th century that survive being much shal-
lower than the earlier examples. There are examples with
wooden covers with a metal handle, such as the Flemish and
German mazers in the Franks Bequest in the British Museum.
On the metal rim is usually an inscription, religious or bacchana-
lian, and the "print" was also often decorated. The later mazers
sometimes had metal straps between the rim and the foot.
A very fine mazer with silver gilt ornamentation 3 in. deep and
9J in. in diameter was sold in the Braikenridge collection in 1908
for 2300. It bears the London hall-mark of 1534. This example
is illustrated in the article PLATE: see also DRINKING VESSELS.
MAZURKA (Polish for a woman of the province of Mazovia),
a lively dance, originating in Poland, somewhat resembling the
polka. It is danced in couples, the music being in f or f time.
MAZZARA DEL VALLO, a town of Sicily, in the province of
Trapani, on the south-west coast of the island, 32 m. by rail
S. of Trapani. Pop. (1901), 20,130. It is the seat of a bishop;
the cathedral, founded in 1093, was rebuilt in the i7th century.
The castle, at the south-eastern angle of the town walls, was
erected in 1073. The mouth of the river, which bears the same
name, serves as a port for small ships only. Mazzara was in
origin a colony of Selinus: it was destroyed in 409, but it is
mentioned again as^a Carthaginian fortress in the First Punic
War and as a post station on the Roman coast road, though
whether it had municipal rights is doubtful. 1 A few inscriptions
of the imperial period exist, but no other remains of importance.
On the west bank of the river are grottoes cut in the rock, of
uncertain date: and there are quarries in the neighbourhood
resembling those of Syracuse, but on a smaller scale.
See A. Castiglione, Sulk cose antiche delta citta di Mazzara (Alcamo,
1878).
MAZZINI, GIUSEPPE (1805-1872), Italian patriot, was born
on the 22nd of June 1805 at Genoa, where his father, Giacomo
Mazzini, was a physician in good practice, and a professor in the
university. His mother is described as having been a woman of
great personal beauty, as well as of active intellect and strong
affections. During infancy and childhood his health was
extremely delicate, and it appears that he was nearly six years
of age before he was quite able to walk; but he had already begun
to devour books of all kinds and to show other signs of great
intellectual precocity. He studied Latin with his first tutor,
1 Th. Mommsen in Corpus inscr. lat. (Berlin, 1883), x. 739.
MAZZINI
943
an old priest, but no one directed his extensive course of reading.
He became a student at the university of Genoa at an unusually
early age, and intended to follow his father's profession, but
being unable to conquer his horror of practical anatomy, he
decided to graduate in law (1826). His exceptional abilities,
together with his remarkable generosity, kindness and loftiness
of character, endeared him to his fellow students. As to his
inner life during this period, we have only one brief but signifi-
cant sentence; " for a short time," he says, " my mind was some-
what tainted by the doctrines of the foreign materialistic school;
but the study of history and the intuitions of conscience the
only tests of truth soon led me back to the spiritualism of our
Italian fathers."
The natural bent of his genius was towards literature, and, in
the course of the four years of his nominal connexion with the
legal profession, he wrote a considerable number of essays and
reviews, some of which have been wholly or partially reproduced
in the critical and literary volumes of his Life and Writings.
His first essay, characteristically enough on " Dante's Love of
Country," was sent to the editor of the Antologia fiorentina in
1826, but did not appear until some years afterwards in the
Stibalpino. He was an ardent supporter of romanticism as
against what he called " literary servitude under the name of
classicism "; and in this interest all his critiques (as, for example,
that of Giannoni's " Exile " in the Indicatore Livornese, 1829)
were penned. But in the meantime the " republican instincts "
which he tells us he had inherited from his mother had been
developing, and his sense of the evils under which Italy was groan-
ing had been intensified; and at the same time he became pos-
sessed with the idea that Italians, and he himself in particular,
" could and therefore ought to struggle for liberty of country."
Therefore, he at once put aside his dearest ambition, that of
producing a complete history of religion, developing his scheme
of a new theology uniting the spiritual with the practical life,
and devoted himself to political thought. His literary articles
accordingly became more and more suggestive of advanced
liberalism in politics, and led to the suppression by government
of the Indicatore Genotiese and the Indicatore Livornese succes-
sively. Having joined the Carbonari, he soon rose to one of the
higher grades in their hierarchy, and was entrusted with a special
secret mission into Tuscany; but, as his acquaintance grew, his
dissatisfaction with the organization of the society increased, and
he was already meditating the formation of a new association
stripped of foolish mysterious and theatrical formulae, which
instead of merely combating existing authorities should have a
definite and purely patriotic aim, when shortly after the French
revolution of 1 830 he was betrayed, while initiating a new member,
to the Piedmontese authorities. He was imprisoned in the
fortress of Savona on the western Riviera for about six months,
when, a conviction having been found impracticable through
deficiency of evidence, he was released, but upon conditions
involving so many restrictions of his liberty that he preferred
the alternative of leaving the country. He withdrew accordingly
into France, living chiefly in Marseilles.
While in his lonely cell at Savona, in presence of " those
symbols of the infinite, the sky and the sea," with a greenfinch
for his sole companion, and having access to no books but " a
Tacitus, a Byron, and a Bible," he had finally become aware
of the great mission or " apostolate " (as he himself called it) of
his life; and soon after his release his prison meditations took
shape in the programme of the organization which was destined
soon to become so famous throughout Europe, that of La Giovine
Italia, or Young Italy. Its publicly avowed aims were to be the
liberation of Italy both from foreign and domestic tyranny, and
its unification under a republican form of government; the means
to be used were education, and, where advisable, insurrection by
guerrilla bands; the motto was to be " God and the people," and
the banner was to bear on one side the words " Unity " and
" Independence " and on the other " Liberty," " Equality," and
" Humanity," to describe respectively the national and the
international aims. In April 1831 Charles Albert, " the ex-
Carbonaro conspirator of 1821," succeeded Charles Felix on the
Sardinian throne, and towards the close of that year Mazzini,
making himself, as he afterwards confessed, " the interpreter of a
hope which he did not share," wrote the new king a letter,
published at Marseilles, urging him to take the lead in the
impending struggle for Italian independence. Clandestinely
reprinted, and rapidly circulated all over Italy, its bold and out-
spoken words produced a great sensation, but so deep was the
offence it gave to the Sardinian government that orders were
issued for the immediate arrest and imprisonment of the author
should he attempt to cross the frontier. Towards the end of the
same year appeared the important Young Italy " Manifesto,"
the substance of which is given in the first volume of the Life
and Writings of Mazzini; and this was followed soon afterwards
by the society's Journal, which, smuggled across the Italian
frontier, had great success in the objects for which it was written,
numerous " congregations " being formed at Genoa, Leghorn,
and elsewhere. Representations were consequently made by
the Sardinian to the French government, which issued in an
order for Mazzini's withdrawal from Marseilles (Aug. 1832); he
lingered for a few months in concealment, but ultimately found
it necessary to retire into Switzerland.
From this point it is somewhat difficult to follow the career of
the mysterious and terrible conspirator who for twenty years out
of the next thirty led a life of voluntary imprisonment (as he
himself tells us) " within the four walls of a room," and " kept
no record of dates, made no biographical notes, and preserved
no copies of letters." In 1833, however, he is known to have
been concerned in an abortive revolutionary movement which
took place in the Sardinian army; several executions took place,
and he himself was laid under sentence of death. Before the
close of the same year a similar movement in Genoa had been
planned, but failed through the youth and inexperience of the
leaders. At Geneva, also in 1833, Mazzini set on foot L'Europe
Centrale, a journal of which one of the main objects was the
emancipation of Savoy; but he did not confine himself to a merely
literary agitation for this end. Chiefly through his agency a
considerable body of German, Polish and Italian exiles was
organized, and an armed invasion of the duchy planned. The
frontier was actually crossed on the ist of February 1834, but
the attack ignominiously broke down without a shot having
been fired. Mazzini, who personally accompanied the expedition,
is no doubt correct in attributing the failure to dissensions with
the Carbonari leaders in Paris, and to want of a cordial under-
standing between himself and the Savoyard Ramorino, who had
been chosen as military leader.
In April 1834 the " Young Europe " association " of men
believing in a future of liberty, equality and fraternity for all
mankind, and desirous of consecrating their thoughts and actions
to the realization of that future " was formed also under the
influence of Mazzini's enthusiasm; it was followed soon after-
wards by a " Young Switzerland " society, having for its leading
idea the formation of an Alpine confederation, to include
Switzerland, Tyrol, Savoy and the rest of the Alpine chain as
well. But La Jeune Suisse newspaper was compelled to stop
within a year, and in other respects the affairs of the struggling
patriot became embarrassed. He was permitted to remain at
Grenchen in Solothurn for a while, but at last the Swiss diet,
yielding to strong and persistent pressure from abroad, exiled
him about the end of 1836. In January 1837 he arrived in
London, where for many months he had to carry on a hard fight
with poverty and the sense of spiritual loneliness, so touchingly
described by himself in the first volume of the Life and Writings.
Ultimately, as he gained command of the English language, he
began to earn a livelihood by writing review articles, some of
which have since been reprinted, and are of a high order of
literary merit; they include papers on "Italian Literature since
1830 " and " Paolo Sarpi " in the Westminster Review, articles on
" Lamennais," " George Sand," " Byron and Goethe " in the
Monthly Chronicle, and on " Lamartine," " Carlyle," and" The
Minor Works of Dante " in the British and Foreign Review. In
1839 he entered into relations with the revolutionary committees
sitting in Malta and Paris, and in 1840 he originated a working
944
MAZZINI
men's association, and the weekly journal entitled Apostolato
Popolare, in which the admirable popular treatise " On the
Duties of Man " was commenced. Among the patriotic and
philanthropic labours undertaken by Mazzini during this period
of retirement in London may be mentioned a free evening school
conducted by himself and a few others for some years, at which
several hundreds of Italian children received at least the rudi-
ments of secular and religious education. He also exposed and
combated the infamous traffic carried on in southern Italy,
where scoundrels bought small boys from poverty-stricken
parents and carried them off to England and elsewhere to grind
organs and suffer martyrdom at the hands of cruel taskmasters.
The most memorable episode in his life during the same period
was perhaps that which arose out of the conduct of Sir James
Graham, the home secretary, in systematically, for some months,
opening Mazzini's letters as they passed through the British
post office, and communicating their contents to the Neapolitan
government a proceeding which was believed at the time to
have led to the arrest and execution of the brothers Bandiera,
Austrian subjects, who had been planning an expedition against
Naples, although the recent publication of Sir James Graham's
life seems to exonerate him from the charge. The prolonged
discussions in parliament, and the report of the committee
appointed to inquire into the matter, did not, however, lead to
any practical result, unless indeed the incidental vindication of
Mazzini's character, which had been recklessly assailed in the
course of debate. In this connexion Thomas Carlyle wrote to
The Times: " I have had the honour to know Mr Mazzini for a
series of years, and, whatever I may think of his practical insight
and skill in worldly affairs, I can with great freedom testify that
he, if I have ever seen one such, is a man of genius and virtue,
one of those rare men, numerable unfortunately but as units
in this world, who are worthy to be called martyr souls; who
in silence, piously in their daily life, practise what is meant by
that."
Mazzini did not share the enthusiastic hopes everywhere raised
in the ranks of the Liberal party throughout Europe by the first
acts of Pius IX., in 1846, but at the same time he availed himself,
towards the end of 1847, of the opportunity to publish a letter
addressed to the new pope, indicating the nature of the religious
and national mission which the Liberals expected him to under-
take. The leaders of the revolutionary outbreaks in Milan and
Messina in the beginning of 1848 had long been in secret corre-
spondence with Mazzini; and their action, along with the revolu-
tion in Paris, brought him early in the same year to Italy, where
he took a great and active interest in the events which dragged
Charles Albert into an unprofitable war with Austria; he actually
for a short time bore arms under Garibaldi immediately before
the reoccupation of Milan, but ultimately, after vain attempts to
maintain the insurrection in the mountain districts, found it
necessary to retire to Lugano. In the beginning of the following
year he was nominated a member of the short-lived provisional
government of Tuscany formed after the flight of the grand-duke,
and almost simultaneously, when Rome had, in consequence of
the withdrawal of Pius IX., been proclaimed a republic, he was
declared a member of the constituent assembly there. A month
afterwards, the battle of Novara having again decided against
Charles Albert in the brief struggle with Austria, into which he
had once more been drawn, Mazzini was appointed a member of
the Roman triumvirate, with supreme executive power (March
23, 1849). The opportunity he now had for showing the adminis-
tratite and political ability which he was believed to possess
was more apparent than real, for the approach of the professedly
friendly French troops soon led to hostilities, and resulted in
a siege which terminated, towards the end of June, with the
assembly's resolution to discontinue the defence, and Mazzini's
indignant resignation. That he succeeded, however, for.so long
a time, and in circumstances so adverse, in maintaining a high
degree of order within the turbulent city is a fact that speaks for
itself. His diplomacy, backed as it was by no adequate physical
force, naturally showed at the time to very great disadvantage,
but his official correspondence and proclamations can still be
read with admiration and intellectual pleasure, as well as his
eloquent vindication of the revolution in his published " Letter
to MM. de Tocqueville and de Falloux." The surrender of the
city on the 3oth of June was followed by Mazzini's not too
precipitate flight by way of Marseilles into Switzerland, whence
he once more found his way to London. Here in 1850 he became
president of the National Italian Committee, and at the same
time entered into close relations with Ledru-Rollin and Kossuth.
He had a firm belief in the value of revolutionary attempts,
however hopeless they might seem; he had a hand in the abortive
rising at Mantua in 1852, and again, in February 1853, a consider-
able share in the ill-planned insurrection at Milan on the 6th
of February 1853, the failure of which greatly weakened his
influence; once more, in 1854, he had gone far with preparations
for renewed action when his plans were completely disconcerted
by the withdrawal of professed supporters, and by the action
of the French and English governments in sending ships of war to
Naples.
The year 1857 found him yet once more in Italy, where, for
complicity in short-lived emeutes which took place at Genoa,
Leghorn and Naples, he was again laid under sentence of death.
Undiscouraged in the pursuit of the one great aim of his life by
any such incidents as these, he returned to London, where he
edited his new journal Pensiero ed Azione, in which the constant
burden of his message to the overcautious practical politicians
of Italy was: " I am but a voice crying Action; but the state
of Italy cries for it also. So do the best men and people of her
cities. Do you wish to destroy my influence? Act." The same
tone was at a somewhat later date assumed in the letter he wrote
to Victor Emmanuel, urging him to put himself at the head of the
movement for Italian unity, and promising republican support.
As regards the events of 1859-1860, however, it may be questioned
whether, through his characteristic inability to distinguish
between the ideally perfect and the practically possible, he did
not actually hinder more than he helped the course of events
by which the realization of so much of the great dream of his
life was at last brought about. If Mazzini was the prophet of
Italian unity, and Garibaldi its knight errant, to Cavour alone
belongs the honour of having been the statesman by whom it was
finally accomplished. After the irresistible pressure of the popular
movement had led to the establishment not of an Italian republic
but of an Italian kingdom, Mazzini could honestly enough write,
" I too have striven to realize unity under a monarchical flag,"
but candour compelled him to add, " The Italian people are led
astray by a delusion at the present day, a delusion which has
induced them to substitute material for moral unity and their
own reorganization. Not so I. I bow my head sorrowfully to
the sovereignty of the national will; but monarchy will never
number me amongst its servants or followers." In 1865, by way
of protest against the still uncancelled sentence of death under
which he lay, Mazzini was elected by Messina as delegate to the
Italian parliament, but, feeling himself unable to take the oath
of allegiance to the monarchy, he never took his seat. In the
following year, when a general amnesty was granted after the
cession of Venice to Italy, the sentence of death was at last
removed, but he declined to accept such an " offer of oblivion
and pardon for having loved Italy above all earthly things." In
May 1869 he was again expelled from Switzerland at the instance
of the Italian government for having conspired with Garibaldi;
after a few months spent in England he set out (1870) for Sicily,
but was promptly arrested at sea and carried to Gaeta, where he
was imprisoned for two months. Events soon made it evident
that there was little danger to fear from the contemplated rising,
and the occasion of the birth of a prince was seized for restoring
him to liberty. The remainder of his life, spent partly in London
and partly at Lugano, presents no noteworthy incidents.
For some time his health had been far from satisfactory, but
the immediate cause of his death was an attack of pleurisy with
which he was seized at Pisa, and which terminated fatally on
the loth of March 1872. The Italian parliament by a unanimous
vote expressed the national sorrow with which the tidings of his
death had been received, the president pronouncing an eloquent
MAZZONI, GIACOMO MEADE, G. G.
945
eulogy on the departed patriot as a model of disinterestedness
and self-denial, and one who had dedicated his whole life
ungrudgingly to the cause of his country's freedom. A public
funeral took place at Pisa on the uth of March, and the remains
were afterwards conveyed to Genoa. (J. S. BL.)
The published writings of Mazzini, mostly occasional, are very
voluminous. An edition was begun by himself and continued by
A. Saffi, Scritti editi e inediti di Giuseppe Mazzini, in 18 vols. (Milan
and Rome, 1861-1891); many of the most important are found in
the partially autobiographical Life and Writings of Joseph Mazzini
(1864-1870) and the two most systematic Thoughts upon Democracy
in Europe, a remarkable series of criticisms on Benthamism, St
Simoniamsm, Fourierism, and other economic and socialistic schools
of the day, and the treatise On the Duties of Man, an admirable
primer of ethics, dedicated to the Italian working class will be
found in Joseph Mazzini: a Memoir, by Mrs E. A. Venturi (London,
1875). Mazzini's " first great sacrifice," he tells us, was " the re-
nunciation of the career of literature for the more direct path of
political action," and as late as 1861 we find him still recurring to
the long-cherished hope of being able to leave the stormy arena of
politics and consecrate the last years of his life to the dream of his
youth. He had specially contemplated three considerable literary
undertakings a volume of Thoughts on Religion, a popular History
of Italy, to enable the working classes to apprehend what he con-
ceived to be the " mission " ofltaly in God s providential ordering
of the world, and a comprehensive collection of translations of
ancient and modern classics into Italian. None of these was actually
achieved. No one, however, can read even the briefest and most
occasional writing of Mazzini without gaining some impression of
the simple grandeur of the man, the lofty elevation of his moral
tone, his unwavering faith in the living God, who is ever revealing
Himself in the progressive development of humanity. His last public
utterance is to be found in a highly characteristic article on Kenan's
Reforme Morale et Intellectuelle, finished on the 3rd of March 1872,
and published in the Fortnightly Review for February 1874. Of the
40,000 letters of Mazzini only a small part have been published.
In 1887 two hundred unpublished letters were printed at Turin
(Duecento lettere inedite di Giuseppe Mazzini), in 1895 the Lettres
intimes were published in Paris, and in 1905 Francesco Rosso pub-
lished Lettre inedite di Giuseppe Mazzini (Turin, 1905). A popular
edition of Mazzini's writings has been undertaken by order of the
Italian government.
For Mazzini's biography see Jessie White Mario, Delia vita di
Giuseppe Mazzini (Milan, 1886), a useful if somewhat too enthusiastic
work; Bolton King, Mazzini (London, 1903); Count von Schack,
Joseph Mazzini und die italienische Einheit (Stuttgart, 1891). A.
Luzio's Giuseppe Mazzini (Milan, 1905) contains a great deal of
valuable information, bibliographical and other, and Dora Melegari
in La giovine Italia e Giuseppe Mazzini (Milan, 1906) publishes the
correspondence between Mazzini and Luiei A. Melegari during the
early days of " Young Italy." For the literary side of Mazzini's
life see Peretti, Gli scritti letterarii di Giuseppe Mazzini (Turin,
1904). (L. V.*)
MAZZONI, GIACOMO (1548-1598), Italian philosopher, was
born at Cesena and died at Ferrara. A member of a noble
family and highly educated, he was one of the most eminent
savants of the period. He occupied chairs in the universities
of Pisa and Rome, was one of the founders of the Delia Crusca
Academy, and had the distinction, it is said, of thrice vanquishing
the Admirable Crichton in dialectic. His chief work in philo-
sophy was an attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle, and in
this spirit he published in 1597 a treatise In universam Plalonis
el Aristotelis philosophiam praecludia. He wrote also De triplici
hominum vita, wherein he outlined a theory of the infinite perfec-
tion and development of nature. Apart from philosophy, he
was prominent in literature as the champion of Dante, and
produced two works in the poet's defence: Discorso composlo
in difesa delta comedia di Dante (1572), and Delia difesa della
comedia di Dante (1587, reprinted 1688). He was an authority
on ancient languages and philology, and gave a great impetus
to the scientific study of the Italian language.
MAZZONI, GUIDO (1850- ), Italian poet, was born at
Florence, and educated at Pisa and Bologna. In 1887 he became
professor of Italian at Padua, and in 1894 at Florence. He was
much influenced by Carducci, and became ^prominent both as a
prolific and well-read critic and as a poet of individual distinction.
His chief volumes of verse are Versi (1880), Nuove poesie (1886),
Poesie (1891), Voci della vita (1893).
MEAD, LARKIN GOLDSMITH (1835- ), American
sculptor, was born at Chesterfield, New Hampshire, on the 3rd
of January 1835. He was a pupil (1853-1855) of Henry Kirke
Brown. During the early part of the Civil War he was at the
front for six months, with the army of the Potomac, as an artist
for Harper's Weekly; and in 1862-1865 he was in Italy, being
for part of the time attached to the United States consulate at
Venice, while William D. Howells, his brother-in-law, was
consul. He returned to America in 1865, but subsequently
went back to Italy and lived at Florence. His first important
work was a statue of Ethan Allen, now at the State House,
Montpelier, Vermont. His principal works are : the monument to
President Lincoln, Springfield, Illinois; " Ethan Allen " (1876),
National Hall of Statuary, Capitol, Washington; an heroic
marble statue, " The Father of Waters," New Orleans; and
" Triumph of Ceres," made for the Columbian Exposition,
Chicago.
His brother, WILLIAM RUTHERFORD MEAD (1846- ),
graduated at Amherst College in 1867, and studied architecture
in New York under Russell Sturgis, and also abroad. In 1879
he and J. F. McKim, with whom he had been in partnership for
two years as architects, were joined by Stanford White, and
formed the well-known firm of McKim, Mead & White.
MEAD, RICHARD (1673-1754), English physician, eleventh
child of Matthew Mead (1630-1699), Independent divine, was
born on the nth of August 1673 at Stepney, London. He
studied at Utrecht for three years under J. G. Graevius; having
decided to follow the medical profession, he then went to Leiden
and attended the lectures of Paul Hermann and Archibald
Pitcairne. In 1695 he graduated in philosophy and physic
at Padua, and in 1696 he returned to London, entering at once
on a successful practice. His Mechanical Account of Poisons
appeared in 1702, and in 1703 he was admitted to the Royal
Society, to whose Transactions he contributed in that year a
paper on the parasitic nature of scabies. In the same year he
was elected physician to St Thomas's Hospital, and appointed
to read anatomical lectures at the Surgeons' Hall. On the death
of John Raddiffe in 1714 Mead became the recognized head of
his profession; he attended Queen Anne on her deathbed, and
in 1727 was appointed physician to George II., having previously
served him in that capacity when he was prince of Wales. He
died in London on the i6th of February 1754.
Besides the Mechanical Account of Poisons (and ed., 1708), Mead
published a treatise De imperio solis et lunae in corpora humana et
morbis inde oriundis (1704), A Short Discourse concerning Pestilential
Contagion, and the Method to be used to prevent it (1720), De variolis
et morbillis dissertatio (1747), Medico sacra, sive de morbis insignior-
ibus qui in bibliis memorantur commentarius (1748), On the Scurvy
(1749), and Manila el praecepta medica (1751). A Life of Mead by
Dr Matthew Maty appeared in 1755.
MEAD, (r) A word now only used more or less poetically
for the commoner form " meadow," properly land laid down for
grass and cut for hay, but often extended in meaning to include
pasture-land. " Meadow " represents the oblique case, matdwe,
of O. Eng. maed, which comes from the root seen in " mow "; the
word, therefore, means " mowed land." Cognate words appear
in other Teutonic languages, a familiar instance being Ger. matt,
seen in place-names such as Zermatt, Andermatt, &c. (See
GRASS.) (2) The name of a drink made by the fermentation of
honey mixed with water. Alcoholic drinks made from honey were
common in ancient times, and during the middle ages throughout
Europe. The Greeks and Romans knew of such under the names
of 6p6jueXi and hydromel; mulsum was a form of mead with
the addition of wine. The word is common to Teutonic
languages (cf. Du. mede, Ger. Met or Meth), and is cognate with
Gr. fitdv, wine, and Sansk. mddhu, sweet drink. " Metheglin,"
another word for mead, properly a medicated or spiced form of
the drink, is an adaptation of the Welsh meddyglyn, which
is derived from meddyg, healing (Lat. medicus) and Uyn, liquor.
It therefore means " spiced or medicated drink," and is not
etymologically connected with " mead."
MEADE, GEORGE GORDON (1815-1872), American soldier,
was born of American parentage at Cadiz, Spain, on the 3ist of
December 1815. On graduation at the United States Military
Academy in 1835, he served in Florida with the 3rd Artillery
against the Seminoles. Resigning from the army in 1836, he
94 6
MEADE, W. MEAGHER
became a civil engineer and constructor of railways, and was
engaged under the war department in survey work. In 1842 he
was appointed a second lieutenant in the corps of the topo-
graphical engineers. In the war with Mexico he was on the staffs
successively of Generals Taylor, J. Worth and Robert Patterson,
and was brevetted for gallant conduct at Monterey. Until the
Civil War he was engaged in various engineering works, mainly
in connexion with lighthouses, and later as a captain of
topographical engineers in the survey of the northern lakes. In
1861 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, and had
command of the 2nd brigade of the Pennsylvania Reserves in
the Army of the Potomac under General M'Call. He served
in the Seven Days, receiving a severe wound at the action of
Frazier's Farm. He was absent from his command until the
second battle of Bull Run, after which he obtained the command
of his division. He distinguished himself greatly at the battles
of South Mountain and Antietam. At Fredericksburg he and
his division won great distinction by their attack on the position
held by Jackson's corps, and Meade was promoted major-
general of volunteers, to date from the 29th of November. Soon
afterwards he was placed in command of the V. corps. At
Chancellorsville he displayed great intrepidity and energy, and
on the eve of the battle of Gettysburg was appointed to succeed
Hooker. The choice was unexpected, but Meade justified it by
his conduct of the operations, and in the famous three days'
battle he inflicted a complete defeat on General Lee's army. His
reward was the commission of brigadier-general in the regular
army. In the autumn of 1863 a war of manoeuvre was fought
between the two commanders, on the whole favourably to the
Union arms. Grant, commanding all the armies of the United
States, joined the Army of the Potomac in the spring of 1864,
and remained with it until the end of the war; but he continued
Meade in his command, and successfully urged his appointment
as major-general in the regular army (Aug. 18, 1864),
eulogizing him as the commander who had successfully met and
defeated the best general and the strongest army on the Confede-
rate side. After the war Meade commanded successively the
military division of the Atlantic, the department of the east, the
third military district (Georgia and Alabama) and the department
of the south. He died at Philadelphia on the 6th of November,
1872. The degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by Harvard
University, and his scientific attainments were recognized by the
American Philosophical Society and the Philadelphia Academy
of Natural Sciences. There are statues of General Meade in
Philadelphia and at Gettysburg.
See I. R. Pennypacker, General Meade (" Great Commanders "
series, New York, 1901).
MEADE, WILLIAM (1780-1862), American Protestant
Episcopal bishop, the son of Richard Kidder Meade (1746-1805),
one of General Washington's aides during the War of Independ-
ence, was born on the nth of November 1789, near Millwood,
in that part of Frederick county which is now Clarke county,
Virginia. He graduated as valedictorian in 1808 at the college
of New Jersey (Princeton); studied theology under the Rev.
Walter Addison of Maryland, and in Princeton; was ordained
deacon in 1811 and priest in 1814; and preached both in the
Stone Chapel, Millwood, and in Christ Church, Alexandria, for
some time. He became assistant bishop of Virginia in 1829;
was pastor of Christ Church, Norfolk, in 1834-1836; in 1841
became bishop of Virginia; and in 1842-1862 was president of
the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in Virginia, near
Alexandria, delivering an annual course of lectures on pastoral
theology. In 1819 he had acted as the agent of the American
Colonization Society to purchase slaves, illegally brought into
Georgia, which had become the property of that state and were
sold publicly at Milledgeville. He had been prominent in the
work of the Education Society, which was organized in 1818 to
advance funds to needy students for the ministry of the American
Episcopal Church, and in the establishment of the Theological
Seminary near Alexandria, as he was afterwards in the work of
the American Tract Society, and the Bible Society. He was a
founder and president of the Evangelical Knowledge Society
(1847), which, opposing what it considered the heterodoxy of
many of the books published by the Sunday School Union,
attempted to displace them by issuing works of a more evangelical
type. A low Churchman, he strongly opposed Tractarianism.
He was active in the case against Bishop Henry Ustick Onderdonk
(1780-1858) of Pennsylvania, who because of intemperance
was forced to resign and was suspended from the ministry in 1844;
in that against Bishop Benjamin Tredwell Onderdonk (i 791-1 86 1 )
of New York, who in 1845 was suspended from the ministry on
the charge of intoxication and improper conduct; and in that
against Bishop G. W. Doane of New Jersey. He fought against
the threatening secession of Virginia, but acquiesced in the
decision of the state and became presiding bishop of the Southern
Church. He died in Richmond, Virginia, on the I4th of March
1862.
Among his publications, besides many sermons, were A Brief
Review of the Episcopal Church in Virginia (1845); Wilberforce,
Cranmer, Jewett and the Prayer Book on the Incarnation (1850);
Reasons for Loving the Episcopal Church (1852) ; and Old Churches,
Ministers and Families of Virginia (1857) ; a storehouse of material
on the ecclesiastical history of the state.
See the Life by John Johns (Baltimore, 1867).
MEADVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Crawford county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on French Creek, 36 m. S. of Erie. Pop.
(1900), 10,291, of whom 912 were foreign-born and 173 were
negroes; (1910 census) 12,780. It is served by the Erie, and
the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways. Meadville has three
public parks, two general hospitals and a public library, and; is
the seat of the Pennsylvania College of Music, of a commercial .
college, of the Meadville Theological School (1844, Unitarian),
and of Allegheny College (co-educational), which was opened in
1815, came under the general patronage of the Methodist
Episcopal Church in 1 833, and in 1909)^322 students (200 men
and 122 women). Meadville is the commercial centre of a good
agricultural region, which also abounds in oil and natural gas.
The Erie Railroad has extensive shops here, which in 1905
employed 46-7% of the total number of wage-earners, and there
are various manufactures. The factory product in 1905 was
valued at $2,074,600, being 24-4% more than that of 1900.
Meadville, the oldest settlement in N.W. Pennsylvania, was
founded as a fortified post by David Mead in 1793, laid out as a
town in 1795, incorporated as a borough in 1823 and chartered
as a city in 1866.
MEAGHER, THOMAS FRANCIS (1823-1867), Irish nation-
alist and American soldier, was born in Waterford, Ireland, on
the 3rd of August 1823. He graduated at Stonyhurst College,
Lancashire, in 1843, and in 1844 began the study of law at
Dublin. He became a member of the Young Ireland Party in
1845, and in 1847 was one of the founders of the Irish Confedera-
tion. In March 1848 he made a speech before the Confederation
which led to his arrest for sedition, but at his trial the jury failed
to agree and he was discharged. In the following July the Con-
federation created a " war directory " of five, of which Meagher
was a member, and he and William Smith O'Brien travelled
through Ireland for the purpose of starting a revolution. The
attempt proved abortive; Meagher was arrested in August, and in
October was tried for high treason before a special commission
at Clonmel. He was found guilty and was condemned to death,
but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment in Van
Diemen's Land, whither he was transported in the summer of
1849. Early in 1852 he escaped, and in May reached New York
City. He made a tour of the cities of the United States as a
popular lecturer, and then studied law and was admitted to the
New York bar in 1855. He made two unsuccessful ventures in
journalism, and in 1857 went to Central America, where he
acquired material for another series of lectures. In 1861 he
was captain of a company (which he had raised) in the 6gth
regiment of New York volunteers and fought at the first battle
of Bull Run; he then organized an Irish brigade, of whose first
regiment he was colonel until the 3rd of February 1862, when
he was appointed to the command of this organization with the
rank of brigadier-general. He took part in the siege of York-
town, the battle of Fair Oaks, the seven days' battle before
MEAL MEASLES
947
Richmond, and the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, where
he was wounded, and Chancellorsville, where his brigade was
reduced in numbers to less than a regiment, and General Meagher
resigned his commission. On the 23rd of December 1863 his
resignation was cancelled, and he was assigned to the command
of the military district of Etowah, with headquarters at Chatta
nooga. At the close of the war he was appointed by President
Johnson secretary of Montana Territory, and there, in the
absence of the territorial governor, he acted as governor from
September 1866 until his death from accidental drowning in
the Missouri River near Fort Benton, Montana, on the ist of
July 1867. He published Speeches on the Legislative Independence
of Ireland (1852).
W. F. Lyons, in Brigadier-General Thomas Francis Meagher
(New York, 1870), gives a eulogistic account of his career.
MEAL, (i) (A word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
MM, Du. meel; the ultimate source is the root seen in various
Teutonic words meaning " to grind," and in Eng. " mill,"
Lat. mola, molire, Gr. nv\n), a powder made from the edible
part of any grain or pulse, with the exception of wheat, which
is known as " flour." In America the word is specifically applied
to the meal produced from Indian corn or maize, as in Scotland
and Ireland to that produced from oats, while in South Africa
the ears of the Indian corn itself are called " mealies." (2)
Properly, eating and drinking at regular stated times of the day,
as breakfast, dinner, &c., hence taking of food at any time and
also the food provided. The word was in O.E. mael, which -also
had the meanings (now lost) of time, mark, measure, &c., which
still appear in many forms of the word in Teutonic languages;
thus Ger. mal, time, mark, cf. Denkmal, monument, Mahl, meal,
repast, or Du. maal, Swed. mal, also with both meanings. The
ultimate source is the pre-Teutonic root me- ma-, to measure,
and the word thus stood for a marked-out point of time.
MEALIE, the South African name for Indian corn or maize.
The word as spelled represents the pronunciation of the Cape
Dutch milje, an adaptation of milho (da India), the millet of
India, the Portuguese name for millet, used in South Africa for
maize.
MEAN, an homonymous word, the chief uses of which may be
divided thus, (i) A verb with two principal applications, to
intend, purpose or design, and to signify. This word is in O.E.
maenan, and cognate forms appear in other Teutonic languages,
cf. Du. meenen, Ger. meinen. The ultimate origin is usually
taken to be the root men-, to think, the root of " mind." (2) An
adjective and substantive meaning " that which is in the middle."
This is derived through the O. Fr. men, meien or moien, modern
moyen, from the late Lat. adjective medianus, from medius,
middle. The law French form mesne is still preserved in certain
legal phrases (see MESNE). The adjective " mean " is chiefly
used in the sense of " average," as in mean temperature, mean
birth or death rate, &c.
" Mean " as a substantive has the following principal applica-
tions; it is used of that quality, course of action, condition, state,
&c., which is equally distant from two extremes, as in such
phrases as the " golden (or happy) mean." For the philosophic
application see ARISTOTLE and ETHICS.
In mathematics, the term " mean," in its most general sense,
is given to some function of two or more quantities which (i)
becomes equal to each of the quantities when they themselves
are made equal, and (2) is unaffected in value when the quantities
suffer any transpositions. The three commonest means are the
arithmetical, geometrical, and harmonic; of less importance are
the contraharmonical, arithmetico-geometrical, and quadratic.
From the sense of that which stands between two things,
" mean," or the plural " means," often with a singular construc-
tion, takes the further significance of agency, instrument, &c.,
of which that produces some result, hence resources capable of
producing a result, particularly the pecuniary or other resources
by which a person is enabled to live, and so used either of employ-
ment or of property, wealth, &c. There are many adverbial
phrases, such as " by all means," " by no means," &c., which
are extensions of " means " in the sense of agency.
The word " mean " (like the French moyen) had also the sense
of middling, moderate, and this considerably influenced the
uses of " mean " (3). This, which is now chiefly used in the
sense of inferior, low, ignoble, or of avaricious, penurious,
" stingy," meant originally that which is common to more
persons or things than one. The word in O. E. is gemafne, and
is represented in the modern Ger. gemein, common. It is
cognate with Lat. communis, from which " common " is derived.
The descent in meaning from that which is shared alike by
several to that which is inferior, vulgar or low, is paralleled by
the uses of " common."
In astronomy the " mean sun " is a fictitious sun which moves
uniformly in the celestial equator and has its right ascension
always equal to the sun's mean longitude. The time recorded
by the mean sun is termed mean-solar or clock time; it is regular
as distinct from the non-uniform solar or sun-dial time. The
" mean moon " is a fictitious moon which moves around the
earth with a uniform velocity and in the same time as the real
moon. The " mean longitude " of a planet is the longitude of
the " mean " planet, i.e. a fictitious planet performing uniform
revolutions in the same time as the real planet.
The arithmetical mean of n quantities is the sum of the quantities
divided by their number n. The geometrical mean of n quantities
is the nth root of their product. The harmonic mean of quantities
is the arithmetical mean of their reciprocals. The significance of
the word " mean," i.e., middle, is seen by considering 3 instead of
n quantities ; these will be denoted by a, b, c. The arithmetic mean b,
is seen to be such that the terms a, b, c are in arithmetical progression,
i.e. 6 = i (a-\-c); the geometrical mean b places a, b, c in geometrical
progression, i.e. in the proportion a :b ::b :c or bj = ac\ and the har-
monic mean places the quantities in harmonic proportion, i.e.
a : c ~.'.ab :bc, or b = 2ac/(a-\-c). The contraharmonical mean
is the quantity b given by the proportion a :c ::bc : ab, i.e.
6 = (a 2 +c 2 )/(a-f-c). The arithmetico-geometrical mean of two
quantities is obtained by first forming the geometrical and arith-
metical means, then forming the means of these means, and repeating
the process until the numbers become equal. They were invented
by Gauss to facilitate the computation of elliptic integrals. The
quadratic mean of n quantities is the square root of the arithmetical
mean of their squares.
MEASLES, (Morbilli, Rubeola; the M. E. word is maseles,
properly a diminutive of a word meaning " spot," O.H.G. masa,
cf. " mazer "; the equivalent is Ger. Masern; Fr. Rougeole), an
acute infectious disease occurring mostly in children. It is
mentioned in the writings of Rhazes and others of the Arabian
physicians in the loth century. For long, however, it was held
to be a variety of small-pox. After the non-identity of these two
diseases had been established, measles and scarlet-fever continued
to be confounded with each other; and in the account given by
Thomas Sydenham of epidemics of measles in London in 1670
and 1674 it is evident that even that accurate observer had not
as yet clearly perceived their pathological distinction, although
it would seem to have been made a century earlier by Giovanni
Filippo Ingrassias (1510-1580), a physician of Palermo. The
specific micro-organism responsible for measles has not been
definitely isolated.
Its progress is marked by several stages more or less sharply
defined. After the reception of the contagion into, the system,
there follows a period of incubation or latency during which
scarcely any disturbance of the health is perceptible. This
period generally lasts for from ten to fourteen days, when it is
followed by the invasion of the symptoms specially characteristic
of measles. These consist in the somewhat sudden onset of
acute catarrh of the mucous membranes. At this stage minute
white spots in the buccal mucous membrane frequently occur;
when they do. they are diagnostic of the disease. Sneezing,
accompanied with a watery discharge, sometimes bleeding, from
the nose, redness and watering of the eyes, cough of a short,
frequent, and noisy character, with little or no expectoration,
hoarseness of the voice, and occasionally sickness and diarrhoea,
are the chief local phenomena of this stage. With these there is
well-marked febrile disturbance, the temperature being elevated
(io2-io4 F.), and the pulse rapid, while headache, thirst, and
restlessness are usually present. In some instances, these initial
symptoms are slight, and the child is allowed to associate with
MEASLES
others at a time when, as will be afterwards seen, the contagion
of the disease is most active. In rare cases, especially in young
children, convulsions usher in, or occur in the course of, this
stage of invasion, which lasts as a rule for four or five days, the
febrile symptoms, however, showing some tendency to undergo
abatement after the second day. On the fourth or fifth day
after the invasion, sometimes later, rarely earlier, the character-
istic eruption appears on the skin, being first noticed on the
brow, cheeks, chin, also behind the ears, and on the neck. It
consists of small spots of a dusky red or crimson colour, just like
flea-bites, slightly elevated above the surface, at first isolated,
but tending to become grouped into patches of irregular, occa-
sionally crescentic, outline, with portions of skin free from the
eruption intervening. The face acquires a swollen and bloated
appearance, which, taken with the catarrh of the nostrils and
eyes, is almost characteristic, and renders the diagnosis at this
stage a matter of no difficulty. The eruption spreads downwards
over the body and limbs, which are soon thickly studded with
the red spots or patches. Sometimes these become confluent
over a considerable surface. The rash continues to come out
for two or three days, and then begins to fade in the order in
which it first showed itself, namely from above downwards. By
the end of about a week after its first appearance scarcely any
trace of the eruption remains beyond a faint staining of the skin.
Usually during convalescence slight peeling of the epidermis
takes place, but much less distinctly than is the case in scarlet
fever. At the commencement of the eruptive stage the fever,
catarrh, and other constitutional disturbance, which were
present from the beginning, become aggravated, the temperature
often rising to 105 or more, and there is headache, thirst, furred
tongue, and soreness of the throat, upon which red patches
similar to those on the surface of the body may be observed.
These symptoms usually decline as soon as the rash has attained
its maximum, and often there occurs a sudden and extensive
fall of temperature, indicating that the crisis of the disease has
been reached. In favourable cases convalescence proceeds
rapidly, the patient feeling perfectly well even before the rash
has faded from the skin.
Measles may, however, occur in a very malignant form, in
which the symptoms throughout are of urgent character, the
rash but feebly developed, and of dark purple hue, while there
is great prostration, accompanied with intense catarrh of the
respiratory or gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. Such cases
are rare, occurring mostly in circumstances of bad hygiene, both
as regards the individual and his surroundings. On the other
hand, cases of measles are often of so mild a form through-
out that the patient can scarcely be persuaded to submit to
treatment.
Measles as a disease derives its chief importance from the risk,
by no means slight, of certain complications which are apt to
arise during its course, more especially inflammatory affections
of the respiratory organs. These are most liable to occur in the
colder seasons of the year and in very young and delicate
children. It has been already stated that irritation of the
respiratory passages is one of the symptoms characteristic of
measles, but that this subsides with the decline of the eruption.
Not unfrequently, however, these symptoms, instead of abating,
become aggravated, and bronchitis of the capillary form (see
BRONCHITIS), or pneumonia, generally of the diffuse or lobular
variety (see PNEUMONIA), supervene. - By far the greater propor-
tion of the mortality in measles is due to its complications, of
which those just mentioned are the most common, but which
also include inflammatory affections of the larynx, with attacks
resembling croup, and also diarrhoea assuming a dysenteric
character. Or there may remain as direct results of the disease
chronic ophthalmia, or discharge from the ears with deafness,
and occasionally a form of gangrene affecting the tissues of the
mouth or cheeks and other parts of the body, leading to dis-
figurement and gravely endangering life.
Apart from those immediate risks there appears to be a
tendency in many cases for the disease to leave behind a weakened
and vulnerable condition of the general health, which may render
children, previously robust, delicate and liable to chest com-
plaints, and is in not a few instances the precursor of some of
those tubercular affections to which the period of childhood and
youth is liable. These various effects or sequelae of measles
indicate that although in itself a comparatively mild ailment,
it should not be regarded with indifference. Indeed it is doubtful
whether any other disease of early life demands more careful
watching as to its influence on the health. Happily many of
those attending evils may by proper management be averted.
Measles is a disease of the earlier years of childhood. Like
other infectious maladies, it is admittedly rare, though not
unknown, in nurslings or infants under six months old. It is com-
paratively seldom met with in adults, but this is due to the fact
that most persons have undergone an attack in early life. Where
this has not been the case, the old suffer equally with the young.
All races of men appear liable to this disease, provided that
which constitutes the essential factor in its origin and spread
exists, namely, contagion. Some countries enjoy long immunity
from outbreaks of measles, but it has frequently been found in
such cases that when the contagion has once been introduced
the disease extends with great rapidity and virulence. This
was shown by the epidemic in the Faroe Islands in 1846, where,
within six months after the arrival of a single case of measles,
more than three-fourths of the entire population were attacked
and many perished; and the similarly produced and still more
destructive outbreak in Fiji in 1875, in which it was estimated
that about one-fourth of the inhabitants died from the disease
in about three months. In both these cases the great mortality
was due to the complications of the malady, specially induced
by overcrowding, insanitary surroundings, the absence of proper
nourishment and nursing for the sick, and the utter prostration
and terror of the people, and to the disease being specially
malignant, occurring on what might be termed virgin soil. ' It
may be regarded as an invariable rule that the first epidemic of
any disease in a community is specially virulent, each successive
attack conferring a certain immunity.
In many lands, such as the United Kingdom, measles is rarely
absent, especially from large centres of population, where
sporadic cases are found at all seasons. Every now and then
epidemics arise from the extension of the disease among those
members of a community who have not been in some measure
protected by a previous attack. There are few diseases so con-
tagious as measles, and its rapid spread in epidemic outbreaks
is no doubt due to the well-ascertained fact that contagion is
most potent in the earlier stages, even before its real nature has
been evinced by the characteristic appearances on the skin.
Hence the difficulty of timely isolation, and the readiness with
which the disease , is spread in schools and families. The
contagion is present in the skin and the various secretions.
While the contagion is generally direct, it can also be conveyed
by the particles from the nose and mouth which, after being
expelled, become dry and are conveyed as dust on clothes, toys,
&c. Fortunately the germs of measles do not retain their
virulence long under such conditions, comparing favourably
with those of some other diseases.
Treatment. The treatment embraces the preventive measures
to be adopted by the isolation of the sick at as early a period as
possible. Epidemics have often, especially in limited localities,
been curtailed by such a precaution. In families with little
house accommodation this measure is frequently, for the reason
given regarding the communicable period of the disease, ineffec-
tual; nevertheless where practicable it ought to be tried. The
unaffected children should be kept from school for a time
(probably about three weeks from the outbreak in the family
would suffice if no other case occur in the interval), and all
clothing in contact with the patient or nurses should be dis-
infected. In extensive epidemics it is often desirable to close
the schools for a time. As regards special treatment, in an
ordinary case of measles little is required beyond what is neces-
sary in febrile conditions generally. Confinement to bed in a
somewhat darkened room, into which, however, air is freely
1 Transactions of the Epidemiological Society (London, 1877).
MEAT MEAUX
949
admitted; light, nourishing, liquid diet (soups, milk, &c.), water
almost ad lib. to drink, and mild diaphoretic remedies such as the
acetate of ammonia or ipecacuanha, are all that is necessary in
the febrile stage. When the fever is very severe, sponging the
body generally or the chest and arms affords relief. The serious
chest complications of measles are to be dealt with by those
measures applicable for the relief of the particular symptoms (see
BRONCHITIS; PNEUMONIA). The preparations of ammonia are of
special efficacy. During convalescence the patient must be
guarded from exposure to cold, and for a time after recovery the
state of the health ought to be watched with a view of averting
the evils, both local and constitutional, which too often follow
this disease.
" German measles " (Rotheln, or Epidemic Roseola) is a term
applied to a contagious eruptive disorder having certain points of
resemblance to measles, and also to scarlet fever, but exhibiting its
distinct individuality in the fact that it protects from neither of these
diseases. It occurs most commonly in children, but frequently in
adults also, and is occasionally seen in extensive epidemics. Beyond
confinement to the house in the eruptive stage, which, from the slight
symptoms experienced, is often difficult of accomplishment, no
special treatment is called for. There is little doubt that the disease
is often mistaken for true measles, and many of the alleged second
attacks of the latter malady are probably cases of rotheln. The
chief points of difference are the following: (i) The absence of
distinct premonitory symptoms, the stage of invasion, which in
measles is usually of four days' duration, and accompanied with
well-marked fever and catarrh, being in rotheln either wholly absent
or exceedingly slight, enduring only for one day. (2) The eruption
of rotheln, which, although as regards its locality and manner of
progress similar to measles, differs somewhat in its appearance,
the spots being of smaller size, paler colour, and with less tendency
to grouping in crescentic patches. The rash attains its maximum in
about one day, and quickly disappears. There is not the same
increase of temperature in this stage as in measles. (3) The presence
of white spots on the buccal mucous membrane, in the case of measles.
(4) The milder character of the symptoms of rotheln throughout its
whole course, and the absence of complications and of liability to
subsequent impairment of health such as have been seen to appertain
to measles.
MEAT, a word originally applied to food in general, and so
still used in such phrases as "meat and drink"; but now,
except as an archaism, generally used of the flesh of certain
domestic animals, slaughtered for human food by butchers,
" butcher's meat," as opposed to " game," that of wild animals,
" fish " or " poultry." Cognate forms of the O. Eng. mete are
found in certain Teutonic languages, e.g. Swed. mat, Dan. mad
and O. H. Ger. Maz. The ultimate origin has been disputed; the
New English Dictionary considers probable a connexion with the
root med-, " to be fat," seen in Sansk. meda, Lat. madere, " to be
wet," and Eng. " mast," the fruit of the beech as food for pigs.
See DIETETICS; FOOD PRESERVATION; PUBLIC HEALTH; AGRI-
CULTURE; and the sections dealing with agricultural statistics under
the names of the various countries.
MEATH (pronounced with th soft, as in the), a county of
Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded E. by the Irish
Sea, S.E. by Dublin, S. by Kildare and King's County, W. by
Westmeath, N.W. by Cavan and Monaghan, and N.E. by Louth.
Area 579,320 acres, or about 905 sq. m. In some districts the
surface is varied by hills and swells, which to the west reach a
considerable elevation, although the general features of a fine
champain country are never lost. The coast, low and shelving,
extends about 10 m., but there is no harbour of importance.
Laytown is a small seaside resort, 5 m. S.E. of Drogheda. The
Boyne enters the county at its south-western extremity, and
flowing north-east to Drogheda divides it into two almost equal
parts. At Navan it receives the Blackwater, which flows
south-west from Cavan. Both these rivers are noted for their
trout, and salmon are taken in the Boyne. The Boyne is
navigable for barges as far as Navan whence a canal is carried to
Trim. The Royal Canal passes along the southern boundary
of the county from Dublin.
In the north is a broken country of Silurian rocks with much
igneous material, partly contemporaneous, partly intrusive, near
Slanc. Carboniferous Limestone stretches from the Boyne valley
to the Dublin border, giving rise to a flat plain especially suitable for
grazing. Outliers of higher Carboniferous strata occur on the sur-
face; but the Coal Measures have all been removed by denudation.
The climate is genial and favourable for all kinds of crops, there
being less rain than even in the neighbouring counties. Except
a small portion occupied by the Bog of Allen, the county is verdant and
fertile. The soil is principally a rich deep loam resting on limestone
gravel, but varies from a strong clayey loam to a light sandy gravel.
The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as I to 3}. Oats,
potatoes and turnips are the principal crops, but all decrease. The
numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry, however, are increasing or well
maintained. Agriculture is almost the sole industry, but coarse
linen is woven by hand-looms, and there are a few woollen manu-
factories. The main line of the Midland Great Western railway
skirts the southern boundary, with a branch line north from Clonsilla
to Navan and Kingscourt (county Cavan). From Kilmessan on
this line a branch serves Trim and Athboy. From Drogheda
(county Louth) a branch of the Great Northern railway crosses the
county from east to West by Navan and Kells to Oldcastle.
The population (76,111 in 1891; 67,497 ' n 1901) suffers a large
decrease, considerably above the average of Irish counties, and emi-
gration is heavy. Nearly 93% are Roman Catholics. The chief
towns are Navan (pop. 3839), Kells (2428) and Trim (1513), the
county town. Lesser market towns are Oldcastle and Athboy,
an ancient town which received a charter from Henry IV. The
county includes eighteen baronies. Assizes are held at Trim, and
quarter sessions at Kells, Navan and Trim. The county is in the
Protestant dioceses of Armagh, Kilmore and Meath, and in the
Roman Catholic dioceses of Armagh and Meath. Before the Union
in 1800 it sent fourteen members to parliament, but now only two
members are returned, for the north ^nd south divisions of the
county respectively.
History and Antiquities. A district known as Meath (Midhe),
and including the present county of Meath as well as Westmeath
and Longford, with parts of Cavan, Kildare and King's County,
was formed by Tuathal (c. 130) into a kingdom to serve as
mensal land or personal estate of the Ard Ri or over-king of
Ireland. Kings of Meath reigned until 1173, and the title was
claimed as late as the isth century by their descendants, but
at the date mentioned Hugh de Lacy obtained the lordship of
the country and was confirmed in it by Henry II. Meath thus
came into the English " Pale." But though it was declared
a county in the reign of Edward I. (1296), and though it came
by descent into the possession of the Crown in the person of
Edward IV., it was long before it was fully subdued and its
boundaries clearly defined. In 1543 Westmeath was created a
county apart from that of Meath, but as late as 1598 Meath was
still regarded as a province by some, who included in it the
counties Westmeath, East Meath, Longford and Cavan. In
the early part of the zyth century it was at last established
as a county, and no longer considered as a fifth province of
Ireland.
There are two ancient round towers, the one at Kells and the
other in the churchyard of Donaghmore, near Navan. By the
river Boyne near Slane there is an extensive ancient burial-place
called Brugh. Here are some twenty burial mounds, the
largest of which is that of New Grange, a domed tumulus erected
above a circular chamber, which is entered by a narrow passage
enclosed by great upright blocks of stone, covered with carvings.
The mound is surrounded by remains of a stone circle, and the
whole forms one of the most remarkable extant erections of
its kind. Tara (q.v.) is famous in history, especially as the seat
of a royal palace referred to in the well-known lines of Thomas
Moore. Monastic buildings were very numerous in Meath,
among the more important ruins being those of Duleek, which
is said to have been the first ecclesiastical building in Ireland
of stone and mortar; the extensive remains of Bective Abbey;
and those of Clonard, where also were a cathedral and a
famous college. Of the old fortresses, the castle of Trim still
presents an imposing appearance. There are many fine old
mansions.
MEAUX, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Seine-et-Marne, and chief town of
the agricultural region of Brie, 28 m. E.N.E. of Paris by rail.
Pop. (1906), 11,989. The town proper stands on an eminence
on the right bank of the Marne; on the left bank lies the old
suburb of Le Marche, with which it is united by a bridge of
the i6th century. Two rows of picturesque mills of the same
period are built across the river. The cathedral of St Stephen
dates from the izth to the i6th centuries, and was restored in
950
MECCA
the igth century. Of the two western towers, the completed
one is that to the north of the facade, the other being disfigured
by an unsightly slate roof. The building, which is 275 ft. long
and 105 ft. high, consists of a short nave, with aisles, a fine
transept, a choir and a sanctury. The choir contains the
statue and the tomb of Bossuet, bishop from 1681 to 1704, and
the pulpit of the cathedral has been reconstructed with the
panels of that from which the " eagle of Meaux " used to preach.
The transept terminates at each end in a fine portal surmounted
by a rose-window. The episcopal palace (i7th century) has
several curious old rooms; the buildings of the choir school are
likewise of some archaeological interest. A statue of General
Raoult (1870) stands in one of the squares.
Meaux is the centre of a considerable trade in cereals, wool,
Brie cheeses, and other farm-produce, while its mills provide
much of the flour with which Paris is supplied. Other indus-
tries are saw-milling, metal-founding, distilling, the preparation
of vermicelli and preserved vegetables, and the manufacture
of mustard, hosiery, plaster and machinery. There are nursery-
gardens in the vicinity. The Canal de 1'Ourcq, which surrounds
the town, and the Marne furnish the means of transport. Meaux
is the seat of a bishopric dating from the 4th century, and has
among its public institutions a sub-prefecture, and tribunals
of first instance and of commerce.
In the Roman period Meaux was the capital of the Meldi, a
small Gallic tribe, and in the middle ages of the Brie. It formed
part of the kingdom of Austrasia, and afterwards belonged to
the counts of Vermandois and Champagne, the latter of whom
established important markets on the left bank of the Marne.
Its communal charter, received from them, is dated 1179. A
treaty signed at Meaux in 1229 after the Albigensian War sealed
the submission of Raymond VII., count of Toulouse. The
town suffered much during the Jacquerie, the peasants receiving
a severe check there in 1358; during the Hundred Years' War;
and also during the Reh'gious Wars, in which it was an important
Protestant centre. It was the first town which opened its gates
to Henry IV. in 1594. On the high-road for invaders marching
on Paris from the east of France, Meaux saw its environs ravaged
by the army of Lorraine in 1652, and was laid under heavy
requisitions in 1814, 1815 and 1870. In September 1567 Meaux
was the scene of an attempt made by the Protest-ants to seize
the French king Charles IX., and his mother Catherine de' Medici.
The plot, which is sometimes called the " enterprise of Meaux,"
failed, the king and queen with their courtiers escaping to Paris.
This conduct; however, on the part of the Huguenots had
doubtless some share in influencing Charles to assent to the
massacre of St Bartholomew.
MECCA (Arab. Makkah), 1 the chief town of the Hejaz in
Arabia, and the great holy city of Islam. It is situated two
camel marches (the resting-place being Bahra or Hadda), or
about 45 m. almost due E., from Jidda on the Red Sea. Thus
on a rough estimate Mecca lies in 21 25' N., 39 50' E. It is said
in the Koran (Sur. xiv. 40) that Mecca lies in a sterile valley, and
the old geographers observe that the whole Haram or sacred
territory round the city is almost without cultivation or date
palms, while fruit trees, springs, wells, gardens and green valleys
are found immediately beyond. Mecca in fact lies in the heart
of a mass of rough hills, intersected by a labyrinth of narrow
valleys and passes, and projecting into the Tehama or low
country on the Red Sea, in front of the great mountain wall that
divides the coast-lands from the central plateau, though in turn
they are themselves separated from the sea by a second curtain
of hills forming the western wall of the great Wadi Marr. The
inner mountain wall is pierced by only two great passes, and the
valleys descending from these embrace on both sides the Mecca
hills.
Holding this position commanding two great routes between
the lowlands and inner Arabia, and situated in a narrow and
'A variant of the name Makkah is Bakkah (Sur. lit. 90; Bakri,
'55 seq.). For other names and honorific epithets of the city see
Bakri, ut supra, Azraqi, p. 197, Yaqut iv. 617 seq. The lists are in
part corrupt, and some of the names (Kutha and 'Arsh or 'Ursh,
" the huts ') are not properly names of the town as a whole.
barren valley incapable of supporting an urban population,
Mecca must have been from the first a commercial centre. 2 In
the palmy days of South Arabia it was probably a station on
the great incense route, and thus Ptolemy may have learned the
name, which he writes Makoraba. At all events, long before
Mahomet we find Mecca established in the twofold quality of a
commercial centre and a privileged holy place, surrounded by
an inviolable territory (the Haram), which was not the sanctuary
of a single tribe but a place of pilgrimage, where religious
observances were associated with a series of annual fairs at
different points in the vicinity. Indeed in the unsettled state
of the country commerce was possible only under the sanctions
of religion, and through the provisions of the sacred truce which
prohibited war for four months of the year, three of these being
the month of pilgrimage, with those immediately preceding and
following. The first of the series of fairs in which the Meccans
had an interest was at Okaz on the easier road between Mecca and
Taif, where there was also a sanctuary, and from it the visitors
moved on to points still nearer Mecca (Majanna, and finally
Dhul-Majaz, on the flank of Jebel Kabkab behind Arafa) where
further fairs were held, 3 culminating in the special religious
ceremonies of the great feast at 'Arafa, Quzah (Mozdalifa), and
Mecca itself. The system of intercalation in the lunar calendar
of the heathen Arabs was designed to secure that the feast should
always fall at the time when the hides, fruits and other mer-
chandise were ready for market, 1 and the Meccans, who knew
how to attract the Bedouins by hospitality, bought up these
wares in exchange for imported goods, and so became the leaders
of the international trade of Arabia. Their caravans traversed
the length and breadth of the peninsula. Syria, and especially
Gaza, was their chief goal. The Syrian caravan intercepted,
on its return, at Badr (see MAHOMET) represented capital to
the value of 20,000, an enormous sum for those days. 6
The victory of Mahommedanism made a vast change in the
position of Mecca. The merchant aristocracy became satraps
or pensioners of a great empire; but the seat of dominion was
removed beyond the desert, and though Mecca and the Hejaz
strove for a time to maintain political as well as religious pre-
dominance, the struggle was vain, and terminated on the death
of Ibn Zubair, the Meccan pretendant to the caliphate, when
the city was taken by Hajjaj (A.D. 692). The sanctuary and
feast of Mecca received, however, a new prestige from the
victory of Islam. Purged of elements obviously heathen, the
Ka'ba became the holiest site, and the pilgrimage the most
sacred ritual observance of Mahommedanism, drawing wor-
shippers from so wide a circle that the confluence of the petty
traders of the desert was no longer the main feature of the holy
season. The pilgrimage retained its importance for the com-
mercial well-being of Mecca; to this day the Meccans live by
the Hajj letting rooms, acting as guides and directors in the
sacred ceremonies, as contractors and touts for land and sea
transport, as well as exploiting the many benefactions that
flow to the holy city; while the surrounding Bedouins derive
support from the camel-transport it demands and from the
subsidies by which they are engaged to protect or abstain from
molesting the pilgrim caravans. But the ancient " fairs of
heathenism " were given up, and the traffic of the pilgrim season,
sanctioned by the Prophet in Sur. ii. 194, was concentrated
at M ina and Mecca, where most of the pilgrims still have some-
thing to buy or sell, so that Mina, after the sacrifice of the
feast day, presents the aspect of a huge international fancy
2 Mecca, says one of its citizens, in Waqidi (Kremer's ed., p. 196, or
Muh. in Med, p. 100), is a settlement formed for trade with Syria
in summer and Abyssinia in winter, and cannot continue to exist if
the trade is interrupted.
8 The details are variously related. See BirQni, p. 328 (E. T., p. 324) ;
Asma'i in Yaqut, iii. 705, iv. 416, 421; Azraqi, p. 129 seq.; Bakri,
p. 661. Jebel Kabkab is a great mountain occupying the angle
between W. Naman and the plain of Arafa. The peak is due north
of Sheddad, the hamlet which Burckhardt (i. 115) calls Shedad.
According to Azraqi, p. 80, the last shrine visited was that of the
three trees of Uzza in W. Nakhla.
1 So we are told by Biruni, p. 62 (E. T., 73).
6 Waqidi, ed. Kremer, pp. 20, 21 ; Muh. in Med. p. 39.
MECCA
95 1
fair. 1 In the middle ages this trade was much more important
than it is now. Ibn Jubair (ed. Wright, p. 118 seq.) in the izth
century describes the mart of Mecca in the eight days following
the feast as full of gems, unguents, precious drugs, and all
rare merchandise from India, Irak, Khorasan, and every part
of the Moslem world.
The hills east and west of Mecca, which are partly built over
and rise several hundred feet above the valley, so enclose the
city that the ancient walls only barred the valley at three points,
where three gates led into the town. In the time of Ibn Jubair
the gates still stood though the walls were ruined, but now the
gates have only left their names to quarters of the town. At the
northern or upper end was the Bab el Ma'la, or gate of the upper
quarter, whence the road continues up the valley towards Mina
and Arafa as well as towards Zeima and the Nejd. Beyond the
gate, in a. place called the Hajun, is the chief cemetery, commonly
called el Ma'la, and said to be the resting-place of many of the
companions of Mahomet. Here a cross-road, running over the
hrll to join the main Medina road from the western gate, turns
off to the west by the pass of Kada, the point from which the
troops of the Prophet stormed the city (A.H. 8). 2 Here too the
body of Ibn Zubair was hung on a cross by Hajjaj. The lower
or southern gate, at the Masfala quarter, opened on the Yemen
road, where the rain-water from Mecca flows off into an open
valley. Beyond, there are mountains on both sides; on that to
the east, commanding the town, is the great castle, a fortress
of considerable strength. The third or western gate, Bab el-
Omra (formerly also Bab el-Zahir, from a village of that name),
lay almost opposite the great mosque, and opened on a road
leading westwards round the southern spurs of the Red Moun-
tain. This is the way to Wadi Fatima and Medina, the Jidda
road branching off from it to the left. Considerable suburbs
now lie outside the quarter named after this gate; in the middle
ages a pleasant country road led for some miles through partly
cultivated land with good wells, as far as the boundary of the
sacred territory and gathering place of the pilgrims at Tanlm,
near the mosque of Ayesha. This is the spot on the Medina
road now called the Omra, from a ceremonial connected with it
which will be mentioned below.
The length of the sinuous main axis of the city from the
farthest suburbs on the Medina road to the suburbs in the
extreme north, now frequented by Bedouins, is, according to
Burckhardt, 3500 paces. 3 About the middle of this line the
longitudinal thoroughfares are pushed aside by the vast court-
yard and colonnades composing the great mosque, which, with
its spacious arcades surrounding the Ka'ba and other holy
places, and its seven minarets, forms the only prominent archi-
tectural feature of the city. The mosque is enclosed by houses
with windows opening on the arcades and commanding a view
of the Ka'ba. Immediately beyond these, on the side facing
Jebel Abu Kobais, a broad street runs south-east and north-west
across the valley. This is the Mas'a (sacred course) between the
eminences of Safa and Merwa, and has been from very early
times one of the most lively bazaars and the centre of Meccan
.life. The other chief bazaars are also near the mosque in
smaller streets. The general aspect of the town is picturesque;
the streets are fairly spacious, though ill-kept and filthy; the
houses are all of stone, many of them well-built and four or five
storeys high, with terraced roofs and large projecting windows
as in Jidda a style of building which has not varied materially
since the loth century (Mukaddasi, p. 71), and gains in effect
from the way in which the dwellings run up the sides and spurs
of the mountains. Of public institutions there are baths, ribats,
or hospices, for poor pilgrims from India, Java, &c., a hospital
and a public kitchen for the poor.
1 The older fairs were not entirely deserted till the troubles of the
last days of the Omayyads (Azraqi, p. 131).
2 This is the cross-road traversed by Burckhardt (i. 109), and
described by him as cut through the rocks with much labour.
' Istakhri gives the length of the city proper from north to south
as 2 m., and the greatest breadth from the JiySd quarter east of the
great mosque across the valley and up the western slopes as two-
thirds of the length.
The mosque is at the same time the university hall, where
between two pilgrim seasons lectures are delivered on Mahom-
medan law, doctrine and connected branches of science. A
poorly provided public library is open to the use of students.
The madrassehs or buildings around the mosque, originally
intended as lodgings for students and professors, have long been
let out to rich pilgrims. The minor places of visitation for
pilgrims, such as the birthplaces of the prophet and his chief
followers, are not notable. 4 Both these and the court of the
great mosque lie beneath the general level of the city, the site
having been gradually raised by accumulated rubbish. The
town in fact has little air of antiquity; genuine Arab buildings
do not last long, especially in a valley periodically ravaged by
tremendous floods when the tropical rains burst on the surround-
inghills. Thehistoryof Meccaisfullof therecordof these inunda-
tions, unsuccessfully combated by the great dam drawn across
the valley by the caliph Omar (Kulbeddin, p. 76), and later
works of Mahdi. 5
The fixed population of Mecca in 1878 was estimated by
Assistant-Surgeon "Abd el-Razzaq at 50,000 to 60,000; there
is a large floating population and that not merely at the proper
season of pilgrimage, the pilgrims of one season often beginning
to arrive before those of the former season have all dispersed.
At the height of the season the town is much overcrowded, and
the entire want of a drainage system is severely felt. Fortunately
good water is tolerably plentiful; for, though the wells are mostly
undrinkable, and even the famous Zamzam water only available
for medicinal or religious purposes, the underground conduit
from beyond Arafa, completed by Sultan Selim II. in 1571,
supplies to the public fountains a sweet and light water, con-
taining, according to 'Abd el-Razzaq, a large amount of chlorides.
The water is said to be free to townsmen, but is sold to the
pilgrims at a rather high rate. 6
Medieval writers celebrate the copious supplies, especially
of fine fruits, brought to the city from Taif and other fertile
parts of Arabia. These fruits are still famous; rice and other
foreign products are brought by sea to Jidda; mutton, milk
and butter are plentifully supplied from the desert. 7 The
industries all centre in the pilgrimage, the chief object of every
Meccan from the notables and sheikhs, who use their influence
to gain custom for the Jidda speculators in the pilgrim traffic,
down to the cicerones, pilgrim brokers, lodging-house keepers,
and mendicants at the holy places being to pillage the visitor
in every possible way. The fanaticism of the Meccan is an affair
of the purse; the mongrel population (for the town is by no means
purely Arab) has exchanged the virtues of the Bedouin for the
worst corruptions of Eastern town life, without casting off the
ferocity of the desert, and it is hardly possible to find a worse
certificate of character than the three parallel gashes on each
cheek, called Tashrit, which are the customary mark of birth in
the holy city. The unspeakable vices of Mecca are a scandal to
all Islam, and a constant source of wonder to pious pilgrims.'
The slave trade has connexions with the pilgrimage which
are not thoroughly clear; but under cover of the pilgrimage a
great deal of importation and exportation of slaves goes on.
Since the fall of Ibn Zubair the political position of Mecca
4 For details as to the ancient quarters of Mecca, where the several
families or septs lived apart, see Azraqi, 455 pp. seq., and compare
Ya'qubi, ed. Juynboll, p. 100. The minor sacred places are described
at length by Azraqi and Ibn Jubair. They are either connected
with genuine memories of the Prophet and his times, or have spurious
legends to conceal the fact that they were originally holy stones,
wells, or the like, of heathen sanctity.
6 Baladhuri, in his chapter on the floods of Mecca (pp. 53 seq.),
says that 'Omar built two dams.
The aqueduct is the successor of an older one associated with the
names of Zobaida, wife of Harun al-Rashid, and other benefactors.
But the old aqueduct was frequently out of repair, and seems to have
played but a secondary part in the medieval water supply. Even
the new aqueduct gave no adequate supply in Burckhardt's time.
7 In Ibn Jubair's time large supplies were brought from the Yemen
mountains.
1 The corruption of manners in Mecca is no new thing. See the
letter of the caliph Mahdi on the subject ; Wustenfeld, Cnron. Mek.,
iv. 1 68.
952
MECCA
has always been dependent on the movements of the greater
Mahommedan world. In the splendid times of the caliphs
immense sums were lavished upon the pilgrimage and the holy
city; and conversely the decay of the central authority of Islam
brought with it a long period of faction, wars and misery, in
which the most notable episode was the sack of Mecca by the
Carmathians at the pilgrimage season of A.D. 930. The victors
carried off the " black stone," which was not restored for twenty-
two years, and then only for a great ransom, when it was plain
that even the loss of its palladium could not destroy the sacred
character of the city. Under the Fatimites Egyptian influence
began to be strong in Mecca; it was opposed by the sultans of
Yemen, while native princes claiming descent from the Prophet
the Hashimite amirs of Mecca, and after them the amirs of the
house of Qatada (since 1202) attained to great authority and
aimed at independence; but soon after the final fall of the
Abbasids the Egyptian overlordship was definitely established
by sultan Bibars (A.D. 1269). The Turkish conquest of Egypt
transferred the supremacy to the Ottoman sultans (1517), who
treated Mecca with much favour, and during the i6th century
executed great works in the sanctuary and temple. The
Ottoman power, however, became gradually almost nominal,
and that of the amirs or sherifs increased in proportion, cul-
minating under Ghalib, whose accession dates from 1786. Then
followed the wars of the Wahhabls (see ARABIA and WAHHAB!S)
and the restoration of Turkish rule by the troops of Mehemet
'Ali. By him the dignity of sherif was deprived of much of
its weight, and in 1827 a change of dynasty was effected by the
appointment of Ibn 'Aun. Afterwards Turkish authority again
decayed. Mecca is, however, officially the capital of a Turkish
province, and has a governor-general and a Turkish garrison,
while Mahommedan law is administered by a judge sent from
Constantinople. But the real sovereign of Mecca and the Hejaz
is the sherif, who, as head of a princely family claiming descent
from the Prophet, holds a sort of feudal position. The dignity
of sherif (or grand sherif, as Europeans usually say for the sake
of distinction, since all the kin of the princely houses reckoning
descent from the Prophet are also named sherifs), although by
no means a religious pontificate, is highly respected owing to
its traditional descent in the line of Hasan, son of the fourth
caliph 'Ali. From a political point of view the sherif is the
modern counterpart of the ancient amirs of Mecca, who were
named in the public prayers immediately after the reigning
caliph. When the great Mahommedan sultanates had become
too much occupied in internecine wars to maintain order in
the distant Hejaz, those branches of the Hassanids which from
the beginning of Islam had retained rural property in Arabia
usurped power in the holy cities and the adjacent Bedouin
territories. About A.D. 960 they established a sort of kingdom
with Mecca as capital. The influence of the princes of Mecca
has varied from time to time, according to the strength of the
foreign protectorate in the Hejaz or in consequence of feuds
among the branches of the house; until about 1882 it was for
most purposes much greater than that of the Turks. The
latter were strong enough to hold the garrisoned towns, and
thus the sultan was able within certain limits playing off
one against the other the two rival branches of the aristocracy,
viz. the kin of Ghalib and the house of Ibn'Aun to assert the
right of designating or removing the sherif, to whom in turn
he owed the possibility of maintaining, with the aid of con-
siderable pensions, the semblance of his much-prized lordship
over the holy cities. The grand sherif can muster a considerable
force of freedmen and clients, and his kin, holding wells and
lands in various places through the Hejaz, act as his deputies and
administer the old Arabic customary law to the Bedouin. To
this influence the Hejaz owes what little of law and order it
enjoys. During the last quarter of the igth century Turkish
influence became preponderant in western Arabia, and the
railway from Syria to the Hejaz tended to consolidate the
sultan's supremacy. After the sherifs, the principal family of
Mecca is the house of Shaibah, which holds the hereditary
custodianship of the Ka'ba.
The Great Mosque and the Ka'ba. Long before Mahomet
the chief sanctuary of Mecca was the Ka'ba, a rude stone building
without windows, and having a door 7 ft. from the ground;
and so named from its resemblance to a monstrous astragalus
(die) of about 40 ft. cube, though the shapeless structure is
not really an exact cube nor even exactly rectangular. 1 The
Ka'ba has been rebuilt more than once since Mahomet purged
it of idols and adopted it as the chief sanctuary of Islam, but
the old form has been preserved, except in secondary details; 2
so that the " Ancient House," as it is titled, is still essentially
a heathen temple, adapted to the worship of Islam by the
clumsy fiction that it was built by Abraham and Ishmael
by divine revelation as a temple of pure monotheism, and
that it was only temporarily perverted to idol worship from
the time when 'Amr ibn Lohai introduced the statue of Hobal
from Syria 3 till the victory of Islam. This fiction has involved
the superinduction of a new mythology over the old heathen
ritual, which remains practically unchanged. Thus the chief
object of veneration is the black stone, which is fixed in the
external angle facing Safa. The building is not exactly oriented,
but it may be called the south-east corner. Its technical name
is the black corner, the others being named the Yemen (south-
west), Syrian (north-west), and Irak (north-east) corners,
from the lands to which they approximately point. The
black stone is a small dark mass a span long, with an aspect
suggesting volcanic or meteoric origin, fixed at such a height
that it can be conveniently kissed by a person of middle size.
It was broken by fire in the siege of A.D. 683 (not, as many authors
relate, by the Carmathians), and the pieces are kept together
by a silver setting. The history of this heavenly stone, given
by Gabriel to Abraham, does not conceal the fact that it was
originally a fetish, the most venerated of a multitude of idols
and sacred stones which stood all round the sanctuary in the
time of Mahomet. The Prophet destroyed the idols, but he
left the characteristic form of worship the tawaf, or sevenfold
circuit of the sanctuary, the worshipper kissing or touching
the objects of his veneration and besides the black stone
he recognized the so-called " southern " stone, the same pre-
sumably as that which is still touched in the (awaf at the Yemen
corner (Muh. in Med. pp. 336, 425). The ceremony of the
tawaf and the worship of stone fetishes was common to Mecca
with other ancient Arabian sanctuaries. 4 It was, as it still
is, a frequent religious exercise of the Meccans, and the first
duty of one who returned to the city or arrived there under a
vow of pilgrimage; and thus the outside of the Ka'ba was and
is more important than the inside. Islam did away with the
worship of idols; what was lost in interest by their suppression
1 The exact measurements (which, however, vary according to
different authorities) are stated to be: sides 37 ft. 2 in. and 38 ft.
4 in. ; ends 31 ft. 7 in. and 29 ft. ; height 35 ft.
2 The Ka'ba of Mahomet's time was the successor of an older
building, said to have been destroyed by fire. It was constructed
in the still usual rude style of Arabic masonry, with string courses
of timber between the stones (like Solomon's Temple). The roof
rested on six pillars; the door was raised above the ground and
approached by a stair (probably on account of the floods which often
swept the valley) ; and worshippers left their shoes under the stair
before entering. During the first siege of Mecca (A.D. 683), the build-
ing was burned down, the Ibn Zubair reconstructed it on an enlarged
scale and in better style of solid ashlar-work. After his death his most
glaring innovations (the introduction of two doors on a level with
the ground, and the extension of the building lengthwise to include
the Hijr) were corrected by Hajjaj, under orders from the caliph,
but the building retained its more solid structure. The roof now rested
on three pillars, and the height was raised one-half. The Ka'ba was
again entirely rebuilt after the flood of A.D. 1626, but since tfajjaj
there seem to have been no structural changes.
3 Hobal was set up within the Temple over the pit that contained
the sacred treasures. His chief function was connected with the
sacred lot to which the Meccans were accustomed to betake them-
selves in all matters of difficulty.
4 See Ibn Hisham i. 54, Azrafci p. 80 ('Uzza in Ba$n Marr) ; Yakut
iii. 705 (Otheyda); Bar Hebraeus on Psalm xii. 9. Stones wor-
shipped by circling round them bore the name dawar or duwar
(Krehl, Rel.d.Araber,p.6<)). The later Arabs not unnaturally viewed
such cultus as imitated from that of Mecca (Yaqut iv. 622,
cf. Dozy, Israeiiten te Mekka, p. 125, who draws very perverse
inferences).
MECCA
953
has been supplied by the invention of spots consecrated by
recollections of Abraham, Ishmael and Hagar, or held to
be acceptabk places of prayer. Thus the space of ten spans
between the black stone and the door, which is on the east
side, between the black and Irak corners, and a man's height
from the ground, is called the Multazam, and here prayer should
be offered after the (awaf with outstretched arms and breast
pressed against the house. On the other side of the door,
against the same wall, is a shallow trough, which is said to mark
the original site of the stone on which Abraham stood to build
the Ka'ba. Here the growth of the legend can be traced,
for the place is now called the " kneading-place " (Ma'jan),
where the cement for the Ka'ba was prepared. This name and
story do not appear in the older accounts. Once more, on the
north side of the Ka'ba, there projects a low semicircular wall
of marble, with an opening at each end between it and the walls
of the house. The space within is paved with mosaic, and is
called the Hijr. It is included in the tawaf, and two slabs
of verde anlico within it are called the graves of Ishmael and
Hagar, and are places of acceptable prayer. Even the golden
or gilded mizab (water-spout) that projects into the Hijr marks
a place where prayer is heard, and another such place is the
part of the west wall close to the Yemen corner.
The feeling of religious conservatism which has preserved
the structural rudeness of the Ka'ba did not prohibit costly
surface decoration. In Mahomet's time the outer walls were
covered by a veil (or kiswa) of striped Yemen cloth. The
caliphs substituted a covering of figured brocade, and the
Egyptian government still sends with each pilgrim caravan
from Cairo a new kiswa of black brocade, adorned with a broad
band embroidered with golden inscriptions from the Koran,
as well as a richer curtain for the door. 1 The door of two
leaves, with its posts and lintel, is of silver gilt.
The interior of the Ka'ba is now opened but a few times
every year for the general public, which ascends by the portable
staircase brought forward for the purpose. Foreigners can
obtain admission at any time for a special fee. The modern
descriptions, from observations made under difficulties, are
not very complete. Little change, however, seems to have
been made since the time of Ibn Jubair, who describes the
floor and walls as overlaid with richly variegated marbles,
and the upper half of the walls as plated with silver thickly
gilt, while the roof was veiled with coloured silk. Modern
writers describe the place as windowless, but Ibn Jubair mentions
five windows of rich stained glass from Irak. Between the
three pillars of teak hung thirteen silver lamps. A chest in
the corner to the left of one entering contained Korans, and
at the Irak corner a space was cut off enclosing the stair that
leads to the roof. The door to this stair (called the door of
mercy Bab el-Rahma) was plated with silver by the caliph
Motawakkil. Here, in the time of Ibn Jubair, the Maqam
or standing stone of Abraham was usually placed for better
security, but brought out on great occasions. 1
The nouses of ancient Mecca pressed close upon the Ka'ba,
the noblest families, who traced their descent from Kosai,
the reputed founder of the city, having their dwellings immedi-
ately round the sanctuary. To the north of the Ka'ba was
the Dar el-Nadwa, or place of assembly of the Koreish. The
multiplication of pilgrims after Islam soon made it necessary
to clear away the nearest dwellings and enlarge the place of
prayer around the Ancient House. Omar, Othman and Ibn
Jubair had all a share in this work, but the great founder of
the mosque in its present form, with its spacious area and deep
1 The old kiswa is removed on the 25th day of the month before
the pilgrimage, and fragments of it are bought by the pilgrims as
charms. Till the loth day of the pilgrimage month the Ka'ba is
bare.
1 Before Islam the Ka'ba was opened every Monday and Thursday ;
in the time of Ibn Jubair it was opened with considerable ceremony
every Monday and Friday, and daily in the month Rajab. But,
though prayer within the building is favoured by the example of
the Prophet, it is not compulsory on the Moslem, and even in the
time of Ibn B.Uiita the opportunities of entrance were reduced to
Friday and the birthday of the Prophet.
colonnades, was the caliph Mahdi, who spent enormous sums
in bringing costly pillars from Egypt and Syria. The work
was still incomplete at his death in A.D. 785, and was finished
in less sumptuous style by his successor. Subsequent repairs
and additions, extending down to Turkish times, have left
little of MahdI's work untouched, though a few of the pillars
probably date from his days. There are more than five hundred
pillars in all, of very various style and workmanship, and the
enclosure 250 paces in length and 200 in breadth, according
to Burckhardt's measurement is entered by nineteen archways
irregularly disposed.
After the Ka'ba the principal points of interest in the mosque
are the well Zamzam and the Maqam Ibrahim. The former
is a deep shaft enclosed in a massive vaulted building paved
with marble, and, according to Mahommedan tradition, is
the source (corresponding to the Beer-lahai-roi of Gen. xvi. 14)
from which Hagar drew water for her son Ishmael. The legend
tells that the well was long covered up and rediscovered by
'Abd al-Mottalib, the grandfather of the Prophet. Sacred
wells are familiar features of Semitic sanctuaries, and Islam,
retaining the well, made a quasi-biblical story for it, and
endowed its tepid waters with miraculous curative virtues.
They are eagerly drunk by the pilgrims, or when poured
over the body are held to give a miraculous refreshment after
the fatigues of religious exercise; and the manufacture of bottles
or jars for carrying the water to distant countries is quite a
trade. Ibn Jubair mentions a curious superstition of the
Meccans, who believed that the water rose in the shaft at the
full moon of the month Shaban. On this occasion a great
crowd, especially of young people, thronged round the well
with shouts of religious enthusiasm, while the servants of the
well dashed buckets of water over their heads. The Maqam
of Abraham is also connected with a relic of heathenism, the
ancient holy stone which once stood on the Ma'jan, and is said
to bear the prints of the patriarch's feet. The whole legend
of this stone, which is full of miraculous incidents, seems to
have arisen from a misconception, the Maqam Ibrahim in the
Koran meaning the sanctuary itself; but the stone, which is
a block about 3 spans in height and 2 in breadth, and in shape
" like a potter's furnace " (Ibn Jubair), is certainly very ancient.
No one is now allowed to see it, though the box in which it
lies can be seen or touched through a grating in the little chapel
that surrounds it. In the middle ages it was sometimes shown,
and Ibn Jubair describes the pious enthusiasm with which he
drank Zamzam water poured on the footprints. It was covered
with inscriptions in an unknown character, one of which was
copied by Fakihl in his history of Mecca. To judge by the
facsimile in Dozy's Israelilen te Mekka, the character is probably
essentially one with that of the Syrian Safa inscriptions, which
extended through the Nejd and into the Hejaz. 3
Safa and Merwa. In religious importance these two points or
" hills," connected by the Mas'a, stand second only to the Ka'ba.
Safa is an elevated platform surmounted by a triple arch, and ap-
proached by a flight of steps. 4 It lies south-east of the Ka'ba,
lacing the black corner, and 76 paces from the " Gate of Safa,"
which is architecturally the chief gate of the mosque. Merwa is
a similar platform, formerly covered with a single arch, on the
opposite side of the valley. It stands on a spur of the Red
Mountain called Jebel Kuaykian. The course between these two
sacred points is 493 paces long, and the religious ceremony called
the " sa'y " consists in traversing it seven times, beginning and
ending at Safa. The lowest part of the course, between the so-
called green milestones, is done at a run. This ceremony, which,
as we shall presently see, is part of the omra, is generally said to be
performed in memory of Hagar, who ran to and fro between the
two eminences vainly seeking water for her son. The observance,
however, is certainly of pagan origin; and at one time there were
idols on both the so-called hills (see especially Azraqi, pp. 74, 78).
The Ceremonies and the Pilgrimage. Before Islam the Ka'ba was
the local sanctuary of the Meccans, where they prayed and did
* See De Vogu6, Syrie cenlrale: inscr. sem. ; Lady Anne Blunt
Pilgrimage of Nejd, ii., and W. R. Smith, in the Atiienaeum, March
20, 1880.
4 Ibn Jubair speaks of fourteen steps, Ali Bey of four, Burckhardt
of three. The surrounding ground no doubt has risen so that the
old name " hill of Safa " is now inapplicable.
954
MECCA
sacrifice, where oaths were administered and hard cases submitted
to divine sentence according to the immemorial custom of Semitic
shrines. But, besides this, Mecca was already a place of pilgrimage.
Pilgrimage with the ancient Arabs was the fulfilment of a vow,
which appears to have generally terminated at least on the part
of the well-to-do in a sacrificial feast. A vow of pilgrimage might
be directed to other sanctuaries than Mecca the technical word
for it (Mat) is applied, for example, to the pilgrimage to Manat
(Bakri, p. 519). He who was under such a vow was bound by cere-
monial observances of abstinence from certain acts (e.g. hunting)
and sensual pleasures, and in particular was forbidden to shear or
comb his hair till the fulfilment of the vow. This old Semitic usage
has its close parallel in the vow of the Nazarite. It was not pecu-
liarly connected with Mecca ; at Taif, for example, it was customary
on return to the city after an absence to present oneself at the sanc-
tuary, and there shear the hair (Muh. in Med., p. 381). Pilgrimages
to Mecca were not tied to a single time, but they were naturally
associated with festive occasions, and especially with the great
annual feast and market. The pilgrimage was so intimately
connected with the wellbeing of Mecca, and had already such a hold
on the Arabs round about, that Mahomet could not afford to sacrifice
it to an abstract purity of religion, and thus the old usages were
transplanted into Islam in the double form of the omra or vow of
pilgrimage to Mecca, which can be discharged at any time, and the
hajj or pilgrimage at the great annual feast. The latter closes with
a visit to the Ka'ba, but its essential ceremonies lie outside Mecca,
at the neighbouring shrines where the old Arabs gathered before the
Meccan fair.
The omra begins at some point outside the Haram (or holy territory) ,
generally at Tanim, both for convenience sake and because Ayesha
began the omra there in the year 10 of the Hegira. The pilgrim
enters the Haram in the antique and scanty pilgrimage dress (ibram),
consisting of two cloths wound round his person in a way prescribed
by ritual. His devotion is expressed in shouts of "Labbeyka"
(a word of obscure origin and meaning; he enters the great mosque,
performs the tawaf and the sa'y l and then has his head shaved
and resumes his common dress. This ceremony is now generally
combined with the hajj, or is performed by every stranger or traveller
when he enters Mecca, and the ihram (which involves the acts of
abstinence already referred to) is assumed at a considerable distance
from the city. But it is also proper during one's residence in the
holy city to perform at least one omra from Tanim in connexion
with a visit to the mosque of Ayesha there. The triviality of these
rites is ill concealed by the legends of the sa'y of Hagar and of the
tawaf being first performed by Adam in imitation of the circuit
of the angels about the throne of God; the meaning of their cere-
monies seems to have been almost a blank to the Arabs before Islam,
whose religion had become a mere formal tradition. We do not
even know to what deity the worship expressed in the tawaf was
properly addressed. There is a tradition that the Ka'ba was a
temple of Saturn (Shahrastani, p. 431) ; perhaps the most distinctive
feature of the shrine may be sought in the sacred doves which still
enjoy the protection of the sanctuary. These recall the sacred doves
of Ascalon (Philo vi. 200 of Richter's ed.), and suggests Venus-
worship as at least one element (cf. Herod i. 131, iii. 8; Ephr. Syr.,
Op. Syr. ii. 457).
To the ordinary pilgrim the omra has become so much an episode
of the haji that it is described by some European pilgrims as a mere
visit to the mosque of Ayesha; a better conception of its original
significance is got from the Meccan feast of the seventh month
(Rajab), graphically described by Ibn Jubair from his observations
in A.D. 1 184. Rajab was one of the ancient sacred months, and the
feast, which extended through the whole month and was a joyful
season of hospitality and thanksgiving, no doubt represents the
ancient feasts of Mecca more exactly than the ceremonies of the
haji, in which old usage has been overlaid by traditions and glosses
of Islam. The omra was performed by crowds from day to day,
especially at new and full moon. 2 The new moon celebration was
nocturnal; the road to Tanim, the Mas'a, and the mosque were
brilliantly illuminated ; and the appearing of the moon was greeted
with noisy music. A genuine old Arab market was held, for the
wild Bedouins of the Yemen mountains came in thousands to barter
their cattle and fruits for clothing, and deemed that to absent them-
selves would bring drought and cattle plague in their homes. Though
ignorant of the legal ritual and prayers, they performed the tawaf
with enthusiasm, throwing themselves against the Ka'ba and clinging
to its curtains as a child clings to its mother. They also made a
point of entering the Ka'ba. The 29th of the month was the feast
day of the Meccan women, when they and their little ones had the
Ka'ba to themselves without the presence even of the Sheybas.
The central and essential ceremonies of the hajj or greater pilgrim-
age are those of the day of Arafa, the 9th of the " pilgrimage month "
(Dhu'l Hijja), the last of the Arab year; and every Moslem who is
his own master, and can command the necessary means, is bound to
join in these once in his life, or to have them fulfilled by a substitute
1 The latter perhaps was no part of the ancient omra ; see Snouck-
Hurgronje, Het Mekkaansche Feest (1880) p. 115 sqq.
* The 27th was also a great day, but this day was in commemora-
tion of the rebuilding of the Ka'ba by Ibn Jubair.
on his behalf and at his expense. By them the pilgrim becomes as
pure from sin as when he was born, and gains for the rest of his life
the honourable title of hajj. Neglect of many other parts of the
pilgrim ceremonial may be compensated by offerings, but to miss
the " stand " (woquf) at Arafa is to miss the pilgrimage. Arafa
or Arafat is a space, artificially limited, round a small isolated hill
called the Hill of Mercy, a little way outside the holy territory, on the
road from Mecca to Taif. One leaving Mecca after midday can easily
reach the place on foot the same evening. The road is first north-
wards along the Mecca valley and then turns eastward. It leads
through the straggling village of Mina, occupying a long narrow
valley (Wadi Mina), two to three hours from Mecca, and thence by
the mosque of Mozdalifa over a narrow pass opening out into the
plain of Arafa, which is an expansion of the great Wadi Naman, through
which the Taif road descends from Mount Kara. The lofty and
rugged mountains of the Hodheyl tower over the plain on the north
side and overshadow the little Hill of Mercy, which is one of those
bosses of weathered granite so common in the Hep'az. Arafa lay
quite near Dhul-Majaz, where, according to Arabian tradition, a
great fair was held from the 1st to the 8th of the pilgrimage month;
and the ceremonies from which the hajj was derived were originally
an appendix to this fair. Now, on the contrary, the pilgrim is ex-
pected to follow as closely as may be the movements of the prophet
at his " farewell pilgrimage " in the year 10 of the Hegira (A.D. 632).
He therefore leaves Mecca in pilgrim garb on the 8th of Dhu'l
Hijja, called the day of tarunya (an obscure and pre-Islamic name),
and, strictly speaking, should spend the night at Mina. It is now,
however, customary to go right on and encamp at once at Arafa.
The night should be spent in devotion, but the coffee booths do a
lively trade, and songs are as common as prayers. Next forenoon
the pilgrim is free to move about, and towards midday he may if
he please hear a sermon. In the afternoon the essential ceremony
begins; it consists simply in " standing " on Arafa shouting " Lab-
beyka " and reciting prayers and texts till sunset. After the sun is
down the vast assemblage breaks up, and a rush (technically ifada,
daf,nafr is made in the utmost confusion to Mozdalifa, where the night
prayer is said and the night spent. Before sunrise next morning
(the loth) a second "stand" Jike that on Arafa is made for a short
time by torchlight round the mosque of Mozdalifa, but before the
sun is fairly up all must be in motion in the second ifaifa towards
Mina. The day thus begun is the " day of sacrifice," and has four
ceremonies (l) to pelt with seven stones a cairn (jamrat al 'aqaba)
at the eastern end of W. Mina, (2) to slay a victim at Mina and hold a
sacrificial meal, part of the flesh being also dried and so preserved,
or given to the poor,* (3) to be shaved and so terminate the ihram,
(4) to make the third ifdda, i.e. go to Mecca and perform the tawaf
and sa'y ('omrat al-ffaila), returning thereafter to Mina. The
sacrifice and visit to Mecca may, however, be delayed till the nth,
I2th or I3th. These are the days of Mina, a fair and joyous feast,
with no special ceremony except that each day the pilgrim is expected
to throw seven stones at the jamrat al 'aqaba, and also at each of
two similar cairns in the valley. The stones are thrown in the name
of Allah, and are generally thought to be_ directed at the devil.
This is, however, a custom older than Islam, and a tradition in
Azraqi, p. 412, represents it as an act of worship to idols at Mina.
As the stones are thrown on the days of the fair, it is not unlikely
that they have something to do with the old Arab mode of closing
a sale by the purchaser throwing a stone (Biruni, p. 328). * The pil-
grims leave Mina on the I2th or I3th, and the hajj is then over.
(See further MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION.)
The colourless character of these ceremonies is plainly due to the
fact that they are nothing more than expurgated heathen rites.
In Islam proper they have no raison d'etre; the legends about Adam
and Eye on Arafa, about Abraham's sacrifice of the ram at Thabii
by Mina, imitated in the sacrifices of the pilgrimage, are clumsy
afterthoughts, as appears from their variations and only partial
acceptance. It is not so easy to get at the nature of the original
rites, which Islam was careful to suppress. But we find mention
of practices condemned by the orthodox, or forming no part of the
Moslem ritual, which may be regarded as traces of an older cere-
monial. Such are nocturnal illuminations at Mina (Ibn Batuta
i. 396), Arafa and Mozdalifa (Ibn Jubair, 179), and tawafs performed
by the ignorant at holy spots at Arafa not recognized by law (Snouck-
Hurgronje p. 149 sqq.). We know that the rites at Mozdalifa were
originally connected with a holy hill bearing the name of the god
Quzah (the Edomite Koze) whose bow is the rainbow, and there is
reason to think that the ifadas from Arafa and Quzah, which were
not made as now after sunset and before sunrise, but when the sun
rested on the tops of the mountains, were ceremonies of farewell and
salutation to the sun-god.
The statistics of the pilgrimage cannot be given with certainty
and vary much from year to year. The quarantine office keeps a
record of arrivals by sea at Jidda (66,000 for 1904); but to these
must be added those travelling by land from Cairo, Damascus
3 The sacrifice is not indispensable except for those who can afford
it and are combining the hajj with the omra.
4 On the similar pelting of the supposed graves of Abu Lahab
and his wife (Ibn Jubair, p. 1 10) and of Abu Righal at Mughammas,
see Noldeke's translation of Tabari, p. 208.
THEORETICAL]
MECHANICS
955
and Irak, the pilgrims who reach Medina .from Yanbu and go onto
Mecca, and those from all pans of the peninsula. Burckhardt
in 1814 estimated the crowd at Arafa at 70,000, Burton in 1853
at 50,000, 'Abd el-Razzak in 1858 at 60,000. This great assemblage
is always a dangerous centre of infection, and the days of Mina
especially, spent under circumstances originally adapted only for a
Bedouin fair, with no provisions for proper cleanliness, and with the
air full of the smell of putrefying offal and flesh drying in the sun,
produce much sickness.
LITERATURE. Besides the Arabic geographers and cosmographers,
we have Ibn 'Abd Rabbih's description of the mosque, early in the
loth century ('Ikd Farid, Cairo ed., iii. 362 sqq.), but above all the
admirable record of Ibn jubair (A.D. 1184), by far the best account
extant of Mecca and the pilgrimage. It has been much pillaged
by Ibn Ba^uta. The Arabic historians are largely occupied with
fabulous matter as to Mecca before Islam ; for these legends the reader
may refer to C. de Perceval's Essai. How little confidence can be
placed in the pre-Islamic, history appears very clearly from the
distorted accounts of Abraha's excursion against the Hejaz, which
fell but a few years before the birth of the Prophet, and is the first
<-vent in Meccan history which has confirmation from other sources.
See Noldeke's version of Tabari, p. 204 sqq. For the period of the
Prophet, Ibn Hisham and Wakidi are valuable sources in topography
as well as history. Of the special histories and descriptions of Mecca
published by Wiistenfeld (Chroniken der Stadt Mekka, 3 vols., 1857-
1859, with an abstract in German, 1861), the most valuable is that of
AzraqI It has passed through the hands of several editors, but the
oldest part goes back to the beginning of the gth Christian century.
Kutbeddin's history (vol. iii. of the Chroniken) goes down with the
additions of his nephew to A.D. 1592.
Of European descriptions of Mecca from personal observation
the best is Burckhardt s Travels in Arabia (cited above from the 8vo
ed., 1829). The Travels of Aly Bey (Badia, London, 1816) describe
a visit in 1807 ; Burton's Pilgrimave (3rd ed., 1879) often supplements
Burckhardt; Von Maltzan's Wallfahrt nach Mekka (1865) is lively
but very slight. 'Abd el-Razzaq's report to the government of India
on the pilgrimage of 1858 is specially directed to sanitary questions;
C. Snouck-Hurgronje, Mekka (2 vols., and a collection of photo-
graphs, The Hague, 1888-1889), gives a description of the Meccan
sanctuary and of the public ana private life of the Meccans as
observed by the author during a sojourn in the holy city in 1884-1885
and a political history of Mecca from native sources from the Hegira
till 1884. For the pilgrimage see particularly Snouck-Hurgronje,
Hel Mekkaansche Feest (Leiden, 1880). (W. R. S.)
MECHANICS. The subject of mechanics may be divided
into two parts: (i) theoretical or abstract mechanics, and
(2) applied mechanics.
i. THEORETICAL MECHANICS
Historically theoretical mechanics began with the study of
practical contrivances such as the lever, and the name mechanics
Gr. TO. urixaviKa) , which might more properly be restricted
to the theory of mechanisms, and which was indeed used in
this narrower sense by Newton, has clung to it, although the
subject has long attained a far wider scope. In recent times
it has been proposed to adopt the term dynamics (from Gr.
tiwaius force,) as including the whole science of the action of
force on bodies, whether at rest or in motion. The subject
is usually expounded under the two divisions of statics and
kinetics, the former dealing with the conditions of rest or equili-
brium and the latter with the phenomena of motion as affected
by force. To this latter division the old name of dynamics
(in a restricted sense) is still often applied. The mere geometri-
cal description and analysis of various types of motion, apart
from the consideration of the forces concerned, belongs to
kinematics. This is sometimes discussed as a separate theory,
but for our present purposes it is more convenient to introduce
kinematical motions as they are required. We follow also
the traditional practice of dealing first with statics and then
with kinetics. This is, in the main, the historical order of
development, and for purposes of exposition it has many advan-
tages. The laws of equilibrium are, it is true, necessarily
included as a particular case under those of motion; but there
is no real inconvenience in formulating as the basis of statics
a few provisional postulates which are afterwards seen to be
comprehended in a more general scheme.
The whole subject rests ultimately on the Newtonian laws
of motion and on some natural extensions of them. As these
laws are discussed under a separate heading (MOTION, LAWS OF),
it is here only necessary to indicate the standpoint from which
the present article is written. It is a purely empirical one.
Guided by experience, we are able to frame rules which enable
us to say with more or less accuracy what will be the conse-
quences, or what were the antecedents, of a given state of things.
These rules are sometimes dignified by the name of " laws
of nature," but they have relation to our present state of know-
ledge and to the degree of skill with which we have succeeded
in giving more or less compact expression to it. They are
therefore liable to be modified from time to time, 'or to be
superseded by more convenient or more comprehensive modes
of statement. Again, we do not aim at anything so hopeless,
or indeed so useless, as a complete description of any phe-
nomenon. Some features are naturally more important or
more interesting to us than others; by their relative simplicity
and evident constancy they have the first hold on our attention,
whilst those which are apparently accidental and vary from
one occasion to another are ignored, or postponed for later
examination. It follows that for the purposes of such descrip-
tion as is possible some process of abstraction is inevitable
if our statements are to be simple and definite. Thus in studying
the flight of a stone through the air we replace the body in
imagination by a mathematical point endowed with a mass-
coefficient. The size and shape, the complicated spinning
motion which it is seen to execute, the internal strains and
vibrations which doubtless take place, are all sacrificed in the
mental picture in order that attention may be concentrated
on those features of the phenomenon which are in the first
place most interesting to us. At a later stage in our subject
the conception of the ideal rigid body is introduced; this enables
us to fill in some details which were previously wanting, but
others are still omitted. Again, the conception of a force as
concentrated in a mathematical line is as unreal as that of
a mass concentrated in a point, but it is a convenient fiction
for our purpose, owing to the simplicity which it lends to our
statements.
The laws which are to be imposed on these ideal representa-
tions are in the first instance largely at our choice. Any scheme
of abstract dynamics constructed in this way, provided it be
self-consistent, is mathematically legitimate; but from the
physical point of view we require that it should help us to
picture the sequence of phenomena as they actually occur.
Its success or failure in this respect can only be judged a pos-
teriori by comparison of the, results to which it leads with
the facts. It is to be noticed, moreover, that all available tests
apply only to the scheme as a whole; owing to the complexity
of phenomena we cannot submit any one of its postulates to
verification apart from the rest.
It is from this point of view that the question of relativity
of motion, which is often felt to be a stumbling-block on the
very threshold of the subject, is to be judged. By " motion "
we mean of necessity motion relative to some frame of reference
which is conventionally spoken of as " fixed." In the earlier
stages of our subject this may be any rigid, or apparently
rigid, structure fixed relatively to the earth. If we meet with
phenomena which do not fit easily into this view, we have the
alternatives either to modify our assumed laws of motion,
or to call to our aid adventitious forces, or to examine whether
the discrepancy can be reconciled by the simpler expedient
of a new basis of reference. It is hardly necessary to say that
the latter procedure has hitherto been found to be adequate.
As a first step we adopt a system of rectangular axes whose
origin is fixed in the earth, but whose directions are fixed by
relation to the stars; in the planetary theory the origin is trans-
ferred to the sun, and afterwards to the mass-centre of the
solar system; and so on. At each step there is a gain in accu-
racy and comprehensiveness; and the conviction is cherished
that some system of rectangular axes exists with respect
to which the Newtonian scheme holds with all imaginable
accuracy.
A similar account might be given of the conception of
time as a measurable quantity, but the remarks which it
is necessary to make under this head will find a place
later.
956
MECHANICS
[STATICS
The following synopsis shows the scheme on which the treatment
is based :
Part i. Statics.
1. Statics of a particle.
2. Statics of a system of particles.
3. Plane kinematics of a rigid body.
4. Plane statics.
5. Graphical statics.
6. Theory of frames.
7. Three-dimensional kinematics of a rigid body.
8. Three-dimensional statics.
9. Work.
10. Statics of inextensible chains.
11. Theory of mass-systems.
Part 2. Kinetics.
12. Rectilinear motion.
13. General motion of a particle.
14. Central forces. Hodograph.
15. Kinetics of a system of discrete particles.
16. Kinetics of a rigid body. Fundamental principles.
17. Two-dimensional problems.
1 8. Equations of motion in three dimensions.
19. Free motion of a solid.
20. Motion of a solid of revolution.
21. Moving axes of reference.
22. Equations of motion in generalized co-ordinates.
23. Stability of equilibrium. Theory of vibrations.
PART I. STATICS
i. Statics of a Particle. By a partkle is meant a body
whose position can for the purpose in hand be sufficiently
specified by a mathematical point. It need not be " infinitely
small," or even small compared with ordinary standards;
thus in astronomy such vast bodies as the sun, the earth, and
the other planets can for many purposes be treated merely
as points endowed with mass.
A force is conceived as an effort having a certain direction
and a certain magnitude. It is therefore adequately repre-
sented, for mathematical purposes, by a straight line AB drawn
in the direction in question, of length proportional (on any
convenient scale) to the magnitude of the force. In other
words, a force is mathematically of the nature of a " vector "
(see VECTOR ANALYSIS, QUATERNIONS). In most questions
of pure statics we are concerned only with the ratios of the
various forces which enter into the problem, so that it is indiffer-
ent what unit of force is adopted. For many purposes a gravita-
tional system of measurement is most natural; thus we speak
of a force of so many pounds or so many kilogrammes. The
" absolute " system of measurement will be referred to below
in PART II., KINETICS. It is to be remembered that all " force "
is of the nature of a push or a pull, and that according to the
accepted terminology of modern mechanics such phrases as
" force of inertia," " accelerating force," " moving force,"
once classical, are proscribed. This rigorous limitation of the
meaning of the word is of comparatively recent origin, and it
is perhaps to be regretted that some more technical term has
not been devised, but the convention must now be regarded
as established.
The fundamental postulate of this part of our subject is that
the two forces acting on a particle may be compounded by the
" parallelogram rule." Thus, if the two forces P,Q be represented
by the lines OA, OB, they can be replaced by a single force
FIG. i.
R represented by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram deter-
mined by OA, OB. This is of course a physical assumption
whose propriety is justified solely by experience. We shall
see later that it is implied in Newton's statement of his Second
Law of motion. In modern language, forces are compounded
by " vector-addition "; thus, if we draw in succession vectors
HK, KL to represent P, Q, the force R is represented by the
vector HL which is the " geometric sum " of HK, KL.
By successive applications of the above rule any number
of forces acting on a particle may be replaced by a single force
which is the vector-sum of the given forces; this single force
- -> 7-> -
is called the resultant. Thus if AB. BC, CD . . . , HK be
vectors representing the given forces, the resultant will be given
by AK. It 'will be understood that the figure ABCD . . . K
need not be confined to one plane.
If, in particular, the point K coincides with A, so that the
resultant vanishes, the given system of forces is said to be
FIG. 2.
in equilibrium i.e. the particle could remain permanently at
rest under its action. This is the proposition known as the
polygon of forces. In the particular case of three forces it
reduces to the triangle of forces, viz. " If three forces acting
on a particle are represented as to magnitude and direction
by the sides of a triangle taken in order, they are in equilibrium."
A sort of converse proposition is frequently useful, viz.
if three forces acting on a particle be in equilibrium, and any
triangle be constructed whose sides are respectively parallel
to the forces, the magnitudes of the forces will be to one another
as the corresponding sides of the triangle. This follows from
the fact that all such triangles are necessarily similar.
As a simple example of the geometrical method of treating statical
problems we may consider the equilibrium of a particle on a " rough "
inclined plane. The usual empirical law of sliding friction is that
the mutual action between two plane surfaces in contact, or between
a particle and a curve or surface, cannot make with the normal an
angle exceeding a certain limit X called the angle of friction. If the
conditions of equilibrium require an obliquity greater than this, slid-
ing will take place. The precise value of X will vary with the nature
and condition of the surfaces in contact. In the case of a body
simply resting on an inclined plane, the reaction must of course be
vertical, for equilibrium, and the slope a of the plane must there-
fore not exceed X. For this reason X is also known as the angle of
repose. If a > X, a force P must be applied in order to maintain
equilibrium ; let 6 be the inclination of P to the plane, as shown in
the left-hand diagram. The relations between this force P, the
gravity W of the body, and the reaction S of the plane are then
determined by a triangle of forces HKL. Since the inclination of S
H
\ A
w
FIG. 3.
to the normal cannot exceed X on either side, the value of P must
lie between two limits which are represented by LiH, LjH, in the
right-hand diagram. Denoting these limits by PI, P it we have
p,/W = L,H/HK = sin (a-X)/cos (fl+X),
P 2 /W = L 2 H/HK = sin (a+X)/cos (0-X).
It appears, moreover, that if be varied P will be least when LiH
is at right angles to KLi, in which case Pi = W sin (o X), corre-
sponding to 6= X.
Just as two or more forces can be combined into a single
resultant, so a single force may be resolved into components
STATICS]
MECHANICS
957
acting in assigned directions. Thus a force can be uniquely
resolved into two components acting in two assigned directions
in the same plane with it by an inversion of the parallelogram
construction of fig. i. If, as is usually most convenient, the
two assigned directions are at right angles, the two components
of a force P will be P cos 0, P sin 0, where 6 is the inclination
of P to the direction of the
former component. This leads
to formulae for the analytical
reduction of a system of co-
planar forces acting on a
particle. Adopting rectangular
axes Ox, Oy, in the plane of
the forces, and distinguishing
the various forces of the system
by suffixes, we can replace the
FIG. 4.
system by two forces X, Y, in the direction of co-ordinate axes;
viz.
X = P,cosfli + P 2 cos0j + . . . = 2 (PcosS), \ , s
Y = P, sin 0i + P 2 sin 0i + . . . = 2 (P sin 0). }
These two forces X, Y, may be combined into a single resultant
R making an angle <t> with Ox, provided
X = R cos <t>, Y = R sin <t>, (2)
whence
R J = X + Y 1 , -tan <t> = Y /X. (3)
For equilibrium we must have R = o, which requires X = o,
Y = o; in words, the sum of the components of the system
must be zero for each of two perpendicular directions in the
plane.
A similar procedure applies to a three-dimensional system,
Thus if, O being the origin, OH represent any force P of the
system, the planes drawn through
H parallel to the co-ordinate
planes will enclose with the latter
a parallelepiped, and it is evident
M
FIG. 5.
that OH is the geometric sum of
OA, AN, NH, or OA, OB, OC, in
the figure. Hence P is equivalent
to three forces PI, Pm, Pn acting
along Ox, Oy, Oz, respectively,
where /, m, n, are the " direction-
The whole system can be reduced in this way
ratios " of OH.
to three forces
X = S(P/), Y=2(Pm), Z=S(Pn), (4)
acting along the co-ordinate axes. These can again be combined
into a single resultant R acting in the direction (X, /*, v), provided
X.= RX, Y = R M , Z = R*. (5)
If the axes are rectangular, the direction-ratios become direc-
tion-cosines, so that X 2 + ii? + v 1 = i, whence
R 2 = X' + Y 1 + Z. (6)
The conditions of equilibrium are X = o, Y=o, Z = o.
2. Statics of a System of Particles. We assume that the
mutual forces between the pairs of particles, whatever their
nature, are subject to the " Law of Action and Reaction"
(Newton's Third Law); i.e. the force exerted by a particle A
on a particle B, and the force exerted by B on A, are equal
and opposite in the line AB. The problem of determining the
possible configurations of equilibrium of a system of particles
subject to extraneous forces which are known functions of
the positions of the particles, and to internal forces which are
known functions of the distances of the pairs of particles between
which they act, is in general determinate For if n be the
number of particles, the $n conditions of equilibrium (three
for each particle) are equal in number to the 3n Cartesian (or
other) co-ordinates of the particles, which are to be found. If
the system be subject to frictionless constraints, e.g. if some of
the particles be constrained to lie on smooth surfaces, or if
pairs of particles be connected by inextensible strings, then
for each geometrical relation thus introduced we have an un-
known reaction (e.g. the pressure of the smooth surface, or
the tension of the string), so that the problem is still deter-
minate.
The case of the funicular polygon will be of use to us later. A
number of particles attached at various points of a string are acted
on by given extraneous forces Pi, P, Pi . . . respectively. The
relation between the three forces acting on any particle, viz. the
extraneous force and the tensions in the two adjacent portions of
the string can be exhibited by means of a triangle of forces; and if
the successive triangles be drawn to the same scale they can be fitted
together so as to constitute a single force-diagram, as shown in fig. 6.
This diagram consists of a polygon whose successive sides represent
FIG. 7.
FIG. 6.
the given forces Pi, P 2 , PI . . . , and of a series of lines connecting
the vertices with a point O. These latter lines measure the tensions
in the successive portions of string. As a special, but very important
case, the forces PI, P s , PI ... may be parallel, e.g. they may be the
weights of the several
particles. The polygon
of forces is then made
up of segments of a
vertical line. We note
that the tensions have
now the same horizontal
projection (represented
by the dotted line in
fig. 7). It is further of
interest to note that if
the weights be all equal,
and at equal horizontal
intervals, the vertices of the funicular will lie on a parabola whose
axis is vertical. To prove this statement, let A, B, C, D . . . be
successive vertices, and let H, K ... be the middle points of AC,
BD . . . ; then BH, CK . . . will be vertical by the hypothesis, and
since the geometric sum of
BA, BC is represented by 2BH,
the tension in BA : tension in
BC : weight at B
asBA: BC: 2BH.
The tensions in the successive por-
tions of the string are therefore
proportional to the respective
lengths, and the lines BH.CK . . .
are all equal. Hence AD, BC are
parallel and are bisected by the
same vertical line; and a parabola with vertical axis can therefore
be described through A, B, C, D. The same holds for the four points
B, C, D, E and so on; but since a parabola is uniquely determined
by the direction of its axis and by three points on the curve, the
successive parabolas ABCD, BCDE, CDEF . . . must be coincident.
3. Plane Kinematics of a Rigid Body. The ideal rigid
body is one in which the distance between any two points is
invariable. For the present we confine ourselves to the con-
sideration of displacements in two dimensions, so that the
body is adequately represented by a thin lamina or plate.
The position of a lamina movable in its own plane is deter-
minate when we know the positions of any two points A, B of
it. Since the four co-ordinates (Cartesian or other) of these
two points are connected
by the relation which ex-
presses the invariability of
the length AB, it is plain
that virtually three inde-
pendent elements are re-
quired and suffice to specify
the position of the lamina.
For instance, the lamina FIG. 9.
may in general be fixed by
connecting any three points of it by rigid links to three fixed
points in its plane. The three independent elements may
be chosen in a variety of ways (e.g. they may be the lengths
FIG. 8.
958
MECHANICS
of the three links in the above example). They may be called
(in a generalized sense) the co-ordinates of the lamina. The
lamina when perfectly free to move in its own plane is said
to have three degrees of freedom.
By a theorem due to M. Chasles any displacement whatever
of the lamina in its own plane is equivalent to a rotation about
some finite or infinitely distant point J. For suppose that
in consequence of the displacement a point of the lamina is
brought from A to B, whilst the point of the lamina which was
originally at B is brought to C. Since AB, BC, are two different
positions of the same line in the
lamina they are equal, and it is
evident that the rotation could have
been effected by a rotation about J,
the centre of the circle ABC, through
an angle AJB. As a special case
the three points A, B, C may be in
a straight line; J is then at infinity
and the displacement is equivalent to
a pure translation, since every point
of the lamina is now displaced parallel
FIG. 10,
to AB through a space equal to AB.
Next, consider any continuous motion of the lamina. The
latter may be brought from any one of its positions to a neigh-
bouring one by a rotation about the proper centre. The limiting
position J of this centre, when the two positions are taken
infinitely close to one another, is called the instantaneous centre.
If P, P' be consecutive positions of the same point, and 60
the corresponding angle of rotation, then ultimately PP' is
at right angles to JP and equal to JP . 86. The instantaneous
centre will have a certain locus in space, and a certain locus
in the lamina. These two loci are called pole-curves or centrodes,
and are sometimes distinguished as the space-centrode and
the body-centrode, respectively. In the continuous motion in
question the latter curve rolls without slipping on the former
(M. Chasles). Consider in fact any series of successive positions
i, 2, 3 . . . of the lamina (fig. n); and let Ji 2 , Ja, J M . . .
be the positions in space of the
centres of the rotations by
which the lamina can be
brought from the first position
to the second, from the second
tothe third, andsoon. Further,
in the position i, let Ji 2 , J'zs,
J's4 ... be the points of the
lamina which have become the
successive centres of rotation.
The given series of positions
will be assumed in succession if we imagine the lamina to
rotate first about J 12 until ]'& comes into coincidence with J^,
then about J a until J'M comes into coincidence with JM, and so
on. This is equivalent to imagining the polygon Ji 2 J'23 J'at ,
supposed fixed in the lamina, to roll on the polygon J 12 J a
JM . . . , which is supposed fixed in space. By imagining the
successive positions to be taken infinitely close to one another
we derive the theorem stated. The particular case where both
centrodes are circles is specially important in mechanism.
The theory may be illustrated by the case of " three-bar motion."
Let ABCD 'be any quadrilateral formed of jointed links. If,
AB being held fixed, the
quadrilateral be slightly de-
formed, it is obvious that the
instantaneous centre J will
be at the intersection of the
straight lines AD, BC, since
the displacements of the points
D, C are necessarily at right
angles to AD, BC, respectively.
Hence these displacements are
proportional to JD, JC, and
therefore to DD' CC', where
C'D' is any line drawn
parallel to CD, meeting BC,
FIG. u.
FIG. 12.
AD in C', D', respectively.
The determination of the centrodes in three-bar motion is in
[STATICS
general complicated, but in one case, that of the " crossed
parallelogram " (fig. 13), they assume simple forms. We then
have AB = DC and AD = BC, and c
from the symmetries of the figure
it is plain that
AJ + JB=CJ + JD=AD.
Hence the locus of J relative to
AB, and the locus relative to CD
are equal ellipses of which A, B
and C, D are respectively the
foci. It may be noticed that the
lamina in fig. 9 is not, strictly
speaking, fixed, but admits of
infinitesimal displacement, when-
ever the directions of the
three links are concurrent (or AT
parallel).
The matter may of course be
treated analytically, but we shall only require the formula for
infinitely small displacements. If the origin of rectangular
axes fixed in the lamina be shifted through a space whose
projections on the original directions of the axes are X, /i, and
if the axes are simultaneously turned through an angle e, the. co-
ordinates of a point of the lamina, relative to the original axes,
are changed from x, y to \+x cos e y sin , n+x sin t+y cos e,
or \ + xye, n + xe + y, ultimately. Hence the component
displacements are ultimately
Sx = X yt, Sy = n 4- xi (i)
If we equate these to zero we get the co-ordinates of the instan-
taneous centre.
4. Plane Statics. The statics of a rigid body rests on the
following two assumptions:
(i) A force may be supposed to be applied indifferently at
any point in its line of action. In other words, a force is of
the nature of a " bound " or " localized " vector; it is regarded
as resident in a certain line, but has no special reference to
any particular point of the line.
(ii) Two forces in intersecting lines may be replaced by a
force which is their geometric sum, acting through the inter-
section. The theory of parallel forces is included as a limiting
case. For if O, A, B be any three points, and m, n any scalar
quantities, we have in vectors
m . OA + n . OB = (m + n) OC, (i)
provided
m . CA + n . CB=o. (2)
Hence if forces P, Q act in OA, OB, the resultant R will pass
through C, provided
m = P/OA, n = Q/OB ;
also
R = P . OC/OA + Q . OC/OB, (3)
and
P. AC : Q. CB=OA : OB. (4)
These formulae give a means of constructing the resultant
by means of any transversal AB cutting the lines of action.
If we now imagine the point O to recede to infinity, the forces
P, Q and the resultant R are parallel, and we have
R = P+Q, P.AC=Q.CB. (5)
When P, Q have opposite signs the point C divides AB exter-
nally on the side of the greater
force. The investigation fails
when P+Q = O, since it leads to
an infinitely small resultant acting
in an infinitely distant line. A
combination of two equal, parallel,
but oppositely directed forces
cannot in fact be replaced by x -
anything simpler, and must \
therefore be recognized as an FIG. 14.
independent entity in statics. It
was called by L. Poinsot, who first systematically investigated
its properties, a couple.
We now restrict ourselves for the present to the systems
of forces in one plane. By successive applications of (ii) any
STATICS]
MECHANICS
959
FIG. 15.
such coplanar system can in general be reduced to a single
resultant acting in a definite line. As exceptional cases the
system may reduce to a couple, or it may be in equilibrium.
The moment of a force about a point O is the product of the
force into the perpendicular drawn to its line of action from
O, this perpendicular being reckoned
positive or negative according as O
lies on one side or other of the line
of action. If we mark off a segment
AB along the line of action so as to
represent the force completely, the
moment is represented as to magni-
tude by twice the area of the triangle
OAB, and the usual convention as
to sign is that the area is to be reckoned positive or negative
according as the letters O, A, B, occur in " counter-clockwise "
or " clockwise " order.
The sum of the moments of two forces about any point O
is equal to the moment of their resultant (P. Varignon, ^687).
Let AB, AC (fig. 16) represent the two forces, AD their resultant;
we have to prove that the sum of the triangles OAB, OAC is
c D equal to the triangle OAD,
regard being had to signs. Since
the side OA is common, we have
to prove that the sum of the
perpendiculars from B and C on
OA is equal to the perpendicular
from D on OA, these perpen-
diculars being reckoned positive
or negative according as they lie
to the right or left of AO.
Regarded as a statement concerning the orthogonal projections
of the vectors AB and AC (or BD), and of their sum AD, on a
line perpendicular to AO, this is obvious.
It is now evident that in the process of reduction of a coplanar
system no change is made at any stage either in the sum of the
projections of the forces on any line or in the sum of their
moments about any point. It follows that the single resultant
to which the system in general reduces is uniquely determinate,
i.e. it acts in a definite line and has a definite magnitude and
sense. Again it is necessary and sufficient for equilibrium
that the sum of the projections of the forces on each of two
perpendicular directions should vanish, and (moreover) that
the sum of the moments about some one point should be zero.
The fact that three independent conditions must hold for equili-
brium is important. The conditions may of course be expressed
in different (but equivalent) forms; e.g. the sum of the moments
of the forces about each of the three points which are not col-
linear must be zero.
The particular case of three forces is of interest. If they
are not all parallel they must be concurrent, and their vector-
sum must be zero. Thus three forces acting perpendicular
FIG. 16.
FIG. 17.
to the sides of a triangle at the middle points will be in equi-
librium provided they are proportional to the respective sides,
and act all .inwards or all outwards. This result is easily
extended to the case of a polygon of any number of sides; it
has an important application in hydrostatics.
Again, suppose we have a bar AB resting with its ends on two
smooth inclined planes which face each other. Let G be the centre
of gravity ( u), and let AG=a, GB=ft. Let a, be the inclina-
tions of the planes, and 6 the angle which the bar makes with the
vertical. The position of equilibrium is determined by the considera-
tion that the reactions at A and B, which are by hypothesis normal to
the planes, must meet at a point J on the vertical through G. Hence
JG/a = sin (0-a)/sin a, JG/6
whence
C0t 9= acota -dcotg
a+5
If the bar is uniform we have a = b, and
cot0 = J (cot a cot 0).
(6)
(7)
The problem of a rod suspended by strings attached to two points
of it is virtually identical, the tensions of the strings taking the place
of the reactions of the planes.
FIG. 1 8.
Just as a system of forces is in general equivalent to a single
force, so a given force can conversely be replaced by combi-
nations of other forces, in various ways. For instance, a given
force (and consequently a system of forces) can be replaced
in one and only one way by three forces acting in three assigned
straight lines, provided these lines be not concurrent or parallel.
Thus if the three lines form a triangle ABC, and if the given force
F meet BC in H, then F can be resolved into two components
acting in HA, BC, respectively. And the force in HA can
be resolved into two components acting in BC, CA, respectively.
A simple graphical construction is indicated in fig. 19, where
FIG. 19.
the dotted lines are parallel. As an example, any system of
forces acting on the lamina in fig. 9 is balanced by three
determinate tensions (or thrusts) in the three links, provided
the directions of the latter are not concurrent.
If P, Q, R, be any three forces acting along BC, CA, AB, respec-
tively, the line of action of the resultant is determined by the con-
sideration that the sum of the moments about any point on it must
vanish. Hence in " trilinear " co-ordinates, with ABC as funda-
mental triangle, its equation is Po+Q(3-(-R-)'=o. If P: Q: R =
a : 6 : c, where a,^, c are the lengths of the sides, this becomes the
" line at infinity," and the forces reduce to a couple.
The sum of the moments of the two forces of a couple is the
same about any point in the plane. Thus in the figure the sum
of the moments about O is P . OA P . OB or P . AB, which is
independent of the position of Q
O. This sum is called I he
moment of the couple; it must \
of course have the proper sign
attributed to it. It easily
follows that any two couples
of the same moment are
equivalent, and that any
number of couples can be
replaced by a single couple
whose moment is the sum of their moments. Since a couple
is for our purposes sufficiently represented by its moment,
it has been proposed to substitute the name torque (or twisting
effort), as free from the suggestion of any special pair of
forces.
A system of forces represented completely by the sides of a
plane polygon taken in order is equivalent to a couple whose
FIG. 20.
960
MECHANICS
[STATICS
moment is represented by twice the area of the polygon ; this is
proved by taking moments about any point. If the polygon
intersects itself, care must be taken to attribute to the different
parts of the area their proper signs.
y
Y,
A,
y,
o
'x,
FIG. 21.
Again, any coplanar system of forces can be replaced by a
single force R acting at any assigned point O, together with a
couple G. The force R is the geometric sum of the given forces,
and the moment (G) of the couple is equal to the sum of the
moments of the given forces about O. The value of G will in
general vary with the position of O, and will vanish when O
lies on the line of action of the single resultant.
The formal analytical reduction of a system of coplanar forces
is as follows. Let (x\, yO, (x 2 , y 2 ), . . . be the rectangular co-ordi-
nates of any points AI, A 2 , . . . on the lines of action of the respec-
tive forces. The force at Ai may be replaced by its components
Xi, YI, parallel to the co-
ordinate axes; that at A 2 by
its components X 2 , Y 2 , and
so on. Introducing at O two
equal and opposite forces
=t Xi in 0*, we see that Xi
at Ai may be replaced by an
equal and parallel force at
O together with a couple
y, -yiXi. Similarly the force
FIG. 22. Yi at Ai may be replaced by
a force Yi at O together
with a couple x t Yi. The forces Xi, YI, at O can thus be
transferred to O provided we introduce a couple *iY| yiXi.
Treating the remaining forces in the same way we get a force
X, +X 2 -f- ... or S(X) along Ox, a force Y, -f Y 2 + . . . or
S(Y) along Oy, and a couple (*iY,-y,X,) + (* 2 Y 2 -y 2 X 2 ) + . . .
of 2(o;Y yX). The three conditions of equilibrium are
therefore
S(X) = o, 2(Y) = o, 2(xY-yX) = o. (8)
If O' be a point whose co-ordinates are (, rf), the moment of
the couple when the forces are transferred to O' as a new origin
will be 2|(* ) Y (y rj) X|. This vanishes, i.e. the system
reduces to a single resultant through O', provided
- {.2 (Y) + ,.2 (X) + 2 (xY - yX) = o. (9)
If , 11 be regarded as current co-ordinates, this is the equation
of the line of action of the single resultant to which the system
is in general reducible.
If the forces are all parallel, making say an angle with 0*,
we may write Xi = PI cos 0, YI = P! sin 0, X 2 = P 2 cos 0,
Yj = P 2 sin 0, . . . The equation (9) then becomes
(2(*P)-.2(P)) sin 6 - (S(yP)- ij.2(P)) cos 6=0. (10)
If the forces PI, P 2 , . . . be turned in the same sense through
the same angle about the respective points Ai, A 2 , ... so as to
remain parallel, the value of is alone altered, and the resultant
2(P) passes always through the point
_ Z(*P1 .__ 2(yP)
which is determined solely by the configuration of the points
AI, A 2 , . . . and by the ratios PI: P 2 : . . . of the forces acting at
them respectively. This point is called the centre of the given
system of parallel forces; it is finite and determinate unless
2(P) = o. A geometrical proof of this theorem, which is not
restricted to a two-dimensional system, is given later ( n). It
contains the theory of the centre of gravity as ordinarily under-
stood. For if we have an assemblage of particles whose mutual
distances are small compared with the dimensions of the earth, the
forces of gravity on them constitute a system of sensibly parallel
forces, sensibly proportional to the respective masses. If now
the assemblage be brought into any other position relative to the
earth, without alteration of the mutual distances, this is equiva-
lent to a rotation of the directions of the forces relatively to the
assemblage, the ratios of the forces remaining unaltered. Hence
there is a certain point, fixed relatively to the assemblage,
through which the resultant of gravitational action always
passes; this resultant is moreover equal to the sum of the forces
on the several particles.
The theorem that any coplanar system of forces can be reduced
to a force acting through any assigned point, together with a couple,
has an important illustration in the theory of the distribution of
shearing stress and bending moment in a horizontal beam, or other
structure, subject to vertical extraneous forces. If we consider
any vertical section P, the forces exerted across the section by the
portion of the structure on one side on the portion on the other
P
[F]
FIG. 23.
may be reduced to a vertical force F at P and a couple M. The
force measures the shearing stress, and the couple the bending
moment at P ; we will reckon these quantities positive when the senses
are as indicated in the figure.
If the remaining forces acting on the portion of the structure on
either side of P are known, then resolving vertically we find F,
and taking moments about P we find M. Again if PQ be any seg-
ment of the beam which is free from load, Q lying to the right of P,
we find
Fp = F Q , Mr-M(}=-F.PQ; (12)
hence F is constant between the loads, whilst M decreases as we
travel to the right, with a constant gradient F. If PQ be a short
segment containing an isolated load W, we have
F Q -F P =-W, M Q =M P ; (13)
hence F is discontinuous at a
I concentrated load, diminishing by
* t an amount equal to the load as
we pass the loaded point to the
right, whilst M is continuous. Ac-
cordingly the graph of F for any
system of isolated loads will consist
of a series of horizontal lines, whilst
that of M will be a continuous
polygon.
To pass to the case of continuous
loads, let x be measured horizontally
along the beam to the right. The
load on an element Sx of the beam
may be represented by w&x, where
TII is in general a function of x.
The equations (12) are now replaced
by
FIG. 24. F = - w&x, 8M = - Fix,
whence
The latter relation shows that the bending moment varies as the
area cut off by the ordinate in the graph of F. In the case of uni-
form load we have
F= ZPX+A, M = %wx l Ax+B, (15)
where the arbitrary constants A,B are to be determined by the
conditions of the special problem, _ L
e.g. the conditions at the ends
of the beam. The graph of F is a
straight line ; that of M is a parabola
with vertical axis. In all cases the
graphs due to different distributions
of load may be superposed. The
figure shows the case of a uniform
heavy beam supported at its ends.
5. Graphical Statics. A graph-
ical method of reducing a plane
system of forces was introduced
by C. Culmann (1864). Itinvolves
the construction of two figures,
a force-diagram and a funicular
polygon. The force-diagram is constructed by placing end to
end a series of vectors representing the given forces in
[M]
p IG-
STATICS]
MECHANICS
961
magnitude and direction, and joining the vertices of the polygon
thus formed to an arbitrary pole O. The funicular or link
polygon has its vertices on the lines of action of the given forces,
and its sides respectively parallel to the lines drawn from O in
the force-diagram; in particular, the two sides meeting in any
vertex are respectively parallel to the lines drawn from O to the
ends of that side of the force-polygon which represents the corre-
sponding force. The relations will be understood from the an-
nexed diagram, where corresponding lines in the force-diagram
FIG. 26.
(to the right) and the funicular (to the left) are numbered simi-
larly. The sides of the force-polygon may in the first instance be
arranged in any order; the force-diagram can then be completed
in a doubly infinite number of ways, owing to the arbitrary
position of O; and for each force-diagram a simply infinite num-
ber of funiculars can be drawn. The two diagrams being sup-
posed constructed, it is seen that each of the given systems of
forces can be replaced by two components acting in the sides of
the funicular which meet at the corresponding vertex, and that
the magnitudes of these components will be given by the corre-
sponding triangle of forces in the force-diagram; thus the force
i in the figure is equivalent to two forces represented by Oi and
12. When this process of replacement is complete, each ter-
minated side of the funicular is the seat of two forces which
neutralize one another, and there remain only two uncompen-
sated forces, viz., those resident in the first and last sides of the
funicular. If these sides intersect, the resultant acts through
the intersection, and its magnitude and direction are given by
the line joining the first and last sides of the force-polygon
(see fig. 26, where the resultant of the four given forces is denoted
by R). As a special case it may happen that the force-polygon
is closed, i.e. its first and last points coincide; the first and last
sides of the funicular will then be parallel (unless they coincide),
and the two uncompensated forces form a couple. If, however,
the first and last sides of the funicular coincide, the two outstand-
ing forces neutralize one another, and we have equilibrium.
Hence the necessary and sufficient conditions of equilibrium are
that the force-polygon and the funicular should both be closed.
This is illustrated by fig. 26 if we imagine the force R, reversed,
to be included in the system of given forces.
It is evident that a system of jointed bars having the shape
of the funicular polygon would be in equilibrium under the action
of the given forces, supposed applied to the joints; moreover
any bar in which the stress is of the nature of a tension (as dis-
tinguished from a thrust) might be replaced by a string. This
is the origin of the names " link-polygon " and " funicular "
(cf. 2).
If funiculars he drawn for two positions O,0' of the pole in the
force-diagram, their corresponding sides will intersect on a straight
line parallel to OO'. This is essentially a theorem of projective
geometry, but the following statical proof is interesting. Let AB
(fig. 27) be any side of the force-polygon, and construct the corre-
sponding portions of the two diagrams, first with O and then with
O' as pole. The force corresponding to AB may be replaced by the
two components marked x, y; and a force corresponding to BA
may be represented by the two components marked *', y'. Hence
the forces x, y, x', y' are in equilibrium. Now *, x' have a resultant
through H, represented in magnitude and direction by OO', whilst
y,y' have a resultant through K represented in magnitude and
direction by O'O. Hence HK must ,be parallel to OO'. This
xvil. 31
theorem enables us, when one funicular has been drawn, to construct
any other without further reference to the force-diagram.
The complete figures obtained by drawing first the force-diagrams
of a system of forces in equilibrium with two distinct poles O, O',
and secondly the corresponding funiculars, have various interesting
relations. In the first place, each of these figures may be conceived
as an orthogonal projection of a closed plane-faced polyhedron.
FIG. 27.
As regards the former figure this is evident at once; viz. the poly-
hedron consists of two pyramids with vertices represented by O, O',
and a common base whose perimeter is represented by the force-
polygon (only one of these is shown in fig. 28). As regards the
funicular diagram, let LM be the line on which the pairs of corre-
sponding sides of the two polygons meet, and through it draw any
two planes u, w'. Through the vertices A, B, C, . . . and A', B', C', . .
of the two funiculars draw normals to the plane of the diagram, to
meet <a and ia' respectively. The points thus obtained are evidently
the vertices of a polyhedron with plane faces.
FIG. 28.
To every line in either of the original figures corresponds of course
a parallel line in the other ; moreover, it is seen that concurrent lines
in either figure correspond to lines forming a closed polygon in the
other. Two plane figures so related are called reciprocal, since the
properties of the first figure in relation to,the second are the same as
those of the second with respect to the first. A stiH simpler instance
of reciprocal figures is supplied by the case of concurrent forces in
equilibrium (fig. 29). The theory of these reciprocal figures was
first studied by J. Clerk Maxwell, who showed amongst other things
that a reciprocal can always be drawn to any figure which is the
orthogonal projection of a plane-faced polyhedron. If in fact we
FIG. 29.
take the pole of each face of such a polyhedron with respect to a
paraboloid of revolution, these poles will be the vertices of a second
polyhedron whose edges are the " conjugate lines " of those of the
former. If we project both polyhedra orthogonally on a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the paraboloid, we obtain two figures
which are reciprocal, except that corresponding lines are orthogonal
instead of parallel. Another proof will be indicated later ( 8) in
connexion with the properties of the linear complex. It is
962
MECHANICS
[STATICS
convenient to have a notation which shall put in evidence the recip-
rocal character. For this purpose we may designate the points in one
figure by letters A, B, C, . . . and the corresponding polygons in
the other figure by the same letters; a line joining two points A, B
in one figure will then correspond to the side common to the two
polygons A, B in the other. This notation was employed by R. H.
Bow in connexion with the theory of frames( 6, and see also APPLIED
MECHANICS below) where reciprocal diagrams are frequently of use
(cf. DIAGRAM).
When the given forces are all parallel, the force-polygon consists
of a series of segments of a straight line. This case has important
practical applications; for instance we may use the method to find
the pressures on the supports of a beam loaded in any given manner.
Thus if AB, BC, CD represent the given loads, in the force-diagram,
we construct the sides corresponding to OA, OB, OC, OD in the
funicular; we then draw the closing line of the funicular polygon,
and a parallel OE to it in the force diagram. The segments DE, EA
then represent the upward pressures of the two supports on the
beam, which pressures together with the given loads constitute a
system of forces in equilibrium. The pressures of the beam on the
supports are of course represented by ED, AE. The two diagrams
are portions of reciprocal figures, so that Bow's notation is applicable.
FIG. 30.
A graphical method can also be applied to find the moment of a
force, or of a system of forces, about any assigned point P. Let F
be a force represented by AB in the force-diagram. Draw a parallel
through P to meet the sides of the funicular which correspond to
OA, OB in the points H, K. If R be the intersection of these sides,
M
FIG. 31.
the triangles OAB, RHK are similar, and if the perpendiculars
OM, RN be drawn we have
HK . OM = AB . RN =F . RN,
which is the moment of F about P. If the given forces are all
parallel (say vertical) OM is the same for all, and the moments of the
several forces about P are represented on a certain scale by the
lengths intercepted by the successive pairs of sides on the vertical
through P. Moreover, the moments are compounded by adding
(geometrically) the corresponding lengths HK. Hence if a system
of vertical forces be in equilibrium, so that the funicular polygon is
closed, the length which this polygon intercepts on the vertical
through any point P gives the sum of the moments about P of all
the forces on one side of this vertical. For instance, in the case of
a beam in equilibrium under any given loads and the reactions
at the supports, we get a graphical representation of the distribution
of bending moment over the beam. The construction in fig. 30
can easily be adjusted so that the closing line shall be horizontal;
and the figure then becomes identical with the bending-moment
diagram of 4. If we wish to study the effects of a movable load,
or system of loads, in different positions on the beam, it is only neces-
sary to shift the lines of action of the pressures of the supports
relatively to the funicular, keeping them at the same, distance
apart ; the only change is then in the position of the closing line of
the funicular. It may be remarked that since this line joins homo-
logous points of two " similar " rows it will envelope a parabola.
The " centre " ( 4) of a system of parallel forces of given
magnitudes, acting at given points, is easily determined graphi-
cally. We have only to construct the line of action of the resul-
tant for each of two arbitrary directions of the forces; the inter-
section of the two lines gives the point required. The construc-
tion is neatest if the two arbitrary directions are taken at right
angles to one another.
6. Theory of Frames. A frame is a structure made up of
pieces, or members, each of which has two joints connecting it
with other members. In a two-dimensional frame, each joint
may be conceived as consisting of a small cylindrical pin fitting
accurately and smoothly into holes drilled through the members
which it connects. This supposition is a somewhat ideal one,
and is often only roughly approximated to in practice. We shall
suppose, in the first instance, that extraneous forces act on the
frame at the joints only, i.e. on the pins.
On this assumption, the reactions on any member at its two
joints must be equal and opposite. This combination of equal
and opposite forces is called the stress in the member; it may be a
tension or a thrust. For diagrammatic purposes each member is
sufficiently represented by a straight line terminating at the two
joints; these lines will be referred to as the bars of the frame.
FIG. 32.;.
In structural applications a frame must be stiff, or rigid, i.e.
it must be incapable of deformation without alteration of length
in at least one of its bars. It is said to be just rigid if it ceases
to be rigid when any one of its bars is removed. A frame
which has more bars than are essential for rigidity may be called
over-rigid; such a frame is in general self-stressed, i.e. it is in a
state of stress independently of the action of extraneous forces.
A plane frame of joints which is just rigid (as regards deforma-
tion in its own plane) has 2*1-3 bars, for if one bar be held fixed
the 2(n-2) co-ordinates of the remaining -2 joints must just
be determined by the lengths of the remaining bars. The total
number of bars is therefore 2(71-2) + i. When a plane frame
which is just rigid is subject to a given system of equilibrating
extraneous forces (in its own plane) acting on the joints, the
stresses in the bars are in general uniquely determinate. For
the conditions of equilibrium of the forces on each pin furnish
zn equations, viz. two for each point, which are linear in respect
of the stresses and the extraneous forces. This . system of
equations must involve the three conditions of equilibrium of
the extraneous forces which are already identically satisfied, by
hypothesis; there remain therefore 211 - 3 independent relations
to determine the 2*1-3 unknown stresses. A frame of n joints
and 2H-3 bars may of course fail to be rigid owing to some parts
being over-stiff whilst others are deformable; in such a case it
will be found that the statical equations, apart from the three
identical relations imposed by the equilibrium of the extraneous
forces, are not all independent but are equivalent to less than
2W-3 relations. Another exceptional case, known as the
critical case, will be noticed later (9).
A plane frame which can be built up from a single bar by suc-
cessive steps, at each of which a new joint is introduced by two
STATICS]
MECHANICS
963
new bars meeting there, is called a simple frame; it is obviously
just rigid. The stresses produced by extraneous forces in a
simple frame can be found by considering the equilibrium of the
various joints in a proper succession; and if the graphical method
be employed the various polygons of force can be combined into
a single force-diagram. This procedure was introduced by
W. J. M. Rankine and J. Clerk Maxwell (1864). It may be
noticed that if we take an arbitrary pole in the force-diagram,
and draw a corresponding funicular in the skeleton diagram
which represents the frame together with the lines of action
of the extraneous forces, we obtain two complete reciprocal
figures, in Maxwell's sense. It is accordingly convenient to
use Bo^'s notation ( 5), and to distinguish the several compart-
ments of the frame-diagram by letters. See fig. 33, where the
FIG. 33.
successive triangles in the diagram of forces may be constructed
in the order XYZ, ZXA, AZB. The class of " simple " frames
includes many of the frameworks used in the construction of
roofs, lattice girders and suspension bridges; a number of ex-
amples will be found in the article BRIDGES. By examining the
senses in which the respective forces act at each joint we can ascer-
tain which members are in tension and which are in thrust ; in
fig. 33 this is indicated by the directions of the arrowheads.
When a frame, though just rigid, is not " simple " in the above
sense, the preceding method must be replaced, or supplemented,
by one or other of various artifices. In. some cases the method
of sections is sufficient for the purpose. If an ideal section be
drawn across the frame, the extraneous forces on either side must
be in equilibrium with the forces in the bars cut across; and if
the section can be drawn so
V as to cut only three bars,
the forces in these can be
found, since the problem
reduces to that of resolving
a given force into three
components acting in three
given lines (4). The "criti-
cal case " where the direc-
tions of the three bars are
concurrent is of course
FIG. 34.
eluded. Another method, always available, will be explained
under " Work " ( 9).
When extraneous forces act on the bars themselves the stress in
each bar no longer consists of a simple longitudinal tension or thrust.
To find the reactions at the joints we may proceed as follows.
Each extraneous force W acting on a bar may be replaced (in an
infinite number of ways) by two components P, Q in lines through
the centres of the pins at the extremities. In practice the forces W
are usually vertical, and the components P, Q are then conveniently
taken to be vertical also. We first alter the problem by transferring
the forces P, Q to the pins. The stresses in the bars, in the problem
as thus modified, may be supposed found by the preceding methods;
it remains to infer from the results thus obtained the reactions in the
onginal form of the problem. To find the pressure exerted by a bar
AB on the pin A we compound with the force in AB given by the
diagram a force equal to P. Conversely, to find the pressure of
the pin A on the bar AB we must compound with the force given
by the diagram a force equal and opposite to P. This question
arises in practice in the theory of " three-jointed " structures; for
the purpose in hand such a structure is sufficiently represented by
two bars AB, BC. The right-hand figure represents a portion of the
force-diagram ; in particular ZX represents the pressure of AB on B
in the modified problem where the loads Wi and Wj on the two bars
are replaced by loads Pi, Qi, and Pj, Q t respectively, acting on the
pins. Compounding with this XV, which represents Q t , we get
the actual pressure ZV exerted by AB on B. The directions and
magnitudes of the reactions at A and C are then easily ascertained.
On account of its practical importance several other graphical
solutions of this problem have been devised.
Q.
p.
7. Three-dimensional Kinematics of a Rigid Body. The
position of a rigid body is determined when we know the positions
of three points A, B, C of it which are not collinear, for the posi-
tion of any other point P is then determined by the three dis-
tances PA, PB, PC. The nine co-ordinates (Cartesian or other)
of A, B, C are subject to the three relations which express the
invariability of the distances BC, CA, AB, and are therefore
equivalent to six independent quantities. Hence a rigid body
not constrained in any way is said to have six degrees of freedom.
Conversely, any six geometrical relations restrict the body in
general to one or other of a series of definite positions, none of
which can be departed from without violating the conditions in
question. For instance, the position of a theodolite is fixed by
the fact that its rounded feet rest in contact with six given plane
surfaces. Again, a rigid three-dimensional frame can be rigidly
fixed relatively to the earth by means of six links.
The six independent quantities, or " co-ordinates," which serve
to specify the position of a rigid body in space may of course
be chosen in an endless variety of ways. We may, for instance,
employ the three Cartesian co-ordinates of a particular point O of
the body, and three angular co-ordinates which express the.orienta-
tion of the body with respect to O. Thus in fig. 36, if OA, OB, OC
be three mutually perpendicular lines in the solid, we may denote by
9 the angle which OC makes with a fixed direction OZ, by ^ the
azimuth of the plane ZOC measured from some fixed plane through
OZ, and by the inclination of the plane COA to the plane ZOC.
In fig. 36 these various lines and planes are represented by their
intersections with a unit sphere having O as centre. This very
FIG. 36.
FIG. 37.
useful, although unsymmetrical, system of angular co-ordinates was
introduced by L. Euler. It is exemplified in " Cardan's suspension,"
as used in connexion with a compass-bowl or a gyroscope. Thus
in the gyroscope the " flywheel " (represented by the globe in fig. 37)
can turn about a diameter OC of a ring which is itself free to turn
about a diametral axis OX at right angles to the former; this axis
is carried by a second ring which is free to turn about a fixed diameter
OZ, which is at right angles to OX.
We proceed to sketch the theory of the finite displacements of a
rigid body. It was shown by Euler (1776) that any displacement
9 6 4
MECHANICS
[STATICS
FIG. 10.
in which one point O of the body is fixed is equivalent to a pure
rotation about some axis through O. Imagine two spheres of
equal radius with O as their common centre, one fixed in the body
and moving with it, the other fixed in space. In any displace-
ment about as a fixed point, the former sphere slides over the
latter, as in a " ball-and-socket " joint. Suppose that as the
result of the displacement a point of the moving sphere is brought
from A to B, whilst the point which
was at B is brought to C (cf. fig. 10).
Let J be the pole of the circle ABC
(usually a " small circle " of the fixed
sphere), and join JA, JB, JC, AB, BC
by great-circle arcs. The spherical
isosceles triangles AJB, BJC are con-
gruent, and we see that AB can be
brought into the position BC by a
rotation about the axis OJ through an
angle AJB.
It is convenient to distinguish the two
senses in which rotation may take place about an axis OA by
opposite signs. We shall reckon a rotation as positive when it
is related to the direction from O to A as the direction of
rotation is related to that of translation in a right-handed
screw. Thus a negative rotation about OA may be re-
garded as a positive rotation about OA', the prolongation
of AO. Now suppose that a body receives first a positive
rotation a about OA, and secondly a positive rotation /3
about OB; and let A, B be the intersections of these axes
with a sphere described about
O as centre. If we construct
the spherical triangles ABC,
ABC' (fig. 38), having in each
case the angles at A and B
equal to j<x and 5/8 respective-
ly, it is evident that the first
rotation will bring a point
from C to C' and that the
second will bring it back to C; the result is therefore equiva-
lent to a rotation about OC. We note also that if the given
rotations had been effected in the inverse order, the axis of the
resultant rotation would have been OC', so that finite rotations
do not obey the " commutative law." To find the angle of
the equivalent rotation, in the actual case, suppose that the
second rotation (about OB) brings a point from A to A'. The
spherical triangles ABC, A'BC
(fig. 39) are " symmetrically
equal," and the angle of the
resultant rotation, viz. ACA', is
"C" ~-^ "\ 2JT aC. This is equivalent to
a negative rotation zC about
OC, whence the theorem that
FIG. 39. the effect of three successive
positive rotations 2A, 28, zC
about OA, OB, OC, respectively, is to leave the body in its
original position, provided the circuit ABC is left-handed as
seen from O. This theorem is due to O. Rodrigues (1840).
The composition of finite rotations about parallel axes is a
particular case of the preceding; the radius of the sphere is now
infinite, and the triangles are plane.
In any continuous motion of a solid about a fixed point O,
the limiting position of the axis of the rotation by which the body
can be brought from any one of its positions to a consecutive one
is called the instantaneous axis. This axis traces out a certain
cone in the body, and a certain cone in space, and the continuous
motion in question may be represented as consisting in a rolling
of the former cone on the latter. The proof is similar to that of
the corresponding theorem of plane kinematics ( 3).
It follows from Euler's theorem that the most general displace-
ment of a rigid body may be effected by a pure translation which
brings' any one point of it to its final position O, followed by a
pure rotation about some axis through O. Those planes in the
body which are perpendicular to this axis obviously remain
FIG. 38.
parallel to their original positions. Hence, if er, a' denote the
initial and final positions of any figure in one of these planes,
the displacement could evidently have been effected by (i) a
translation perpendicular to the planes in question, bringing a
into some position <r" in the plane of a', and (2) a rotation about
a normal to the planes, bringing a" into coincidence with a ( 3).
In other words, the most general displacement is equivalent to a
translation parallel to a certain axis combined with a rotation
about that axis; i.e. it may be described as a twist about a certain
screw. In particular cases, of course, the translation, or the rota-
tion, may vanish.
The preceding theorem, which is due to Michel Chasles (1830),
may be proved in various other interesting ways. Thus ir a point
of the body be displaced from A to B, whilst the point which was
at B is displaced to C, and that which was at C to D, the four points
A, B, C, D lie on a helix whose axis is the common perpendicular
to the bisectors of the angles ABC, BCD. This is the axis of the
required screw; the amount of the translation is measured by the
projection of AB or BC or CD on the axis; and the angle of rotation
is given by the inclination of the aforesaid bisectors. This con-
struction was given by M. W. Crofton. Again, H. Wiener and W.
Burnside have employed the half-turn (i.e. a rotation through two
right angles) as the fundamental operation. This has the advantage
that it is completely specified by the axis of the rotation, the sense
being immaterial. Successive half-turns about parallel axes o, b
are equivalent to a translation measured by double the distance
between these axes in the direction from a to b. Successive half-
turns about intersecting axes a, b are equivalent to a rotation
about the common perpendicular to a, b at their intersection, of
amount equal to twice the acute angle between them, in the direction
from a to 6. Successive half-turns about two skew axes a, b are
equivalent to a twist about a screw whose axis is the common
perpendicular to a, b, the translation being double the shortest
distance, and the angle of rotation being twice the acute angle
between a, b, in the direction from a to b. It is easily shown that
any displacement whatever is equivalent to two half-turns and
therefore to a screw.
In mechanics we are specially concerned with the theory of
infinitesimal displacements. This is included in the preceding,
but it is simpler in that the various operations are commutative.
An infinitely small rotation about any axis is conveniently
represented geometrically by a length AB measures along the
axis and proportional to the angle of rotation, with the conven-
tion that the direction from A to B shall be related to the rota-
tion as is the direction of translation to that of rotation in a right-
handed screw. The consequent displacement of any point P
will then be at right angles to the plane PAB, its amount will be
represented by double the area of the triangle PAB, and its sense
wUl depend on the cyclical order of the letters P, A, B. If AB,
AC represent infinitesimal rotations about intersecting axes, the
consequent displacement of any point O in the plane BAC will
be at right angles to this plane, and will be represented by twice
the sum of the areas OAB, OAC, taken with proper signs. It
follows by analogy with the theory of moments ( 4) that the
resultant rotation will be represented by AD, the vector-sum of
AB, AC (see fig. 16). It is easily inferred as a limiting case, or
proved directly, that two infini-
tesimal rotations o, /3 about
parallel axes are equivalent to a
rotation a+/3 about a parallel
axis in the same plane with the
two former, and dividing a com-
mon perpendicular AB in a point
C so that AC/CB=/3/a. If the
rotations are equal and opposite,
so that a+j3 = o, the point C is
at infinity, and the effect is a translation perpendicular to th
plane of the two given axes, of amount a . AB. It thus appears
that an infinitesimal rotation is of the nature of a " localized
vector," and is subject in all respects to the same mathematical
laws as a force, conceived as acting on a rigid body. Moreover,
that an infinitesimal translation is analogous to a couple and
follows the same laws. These results are due to Poinsot.
The analytical treatment of small displacements is as follows.
We first suppose that one point O of the body is fixed, and take
this as the origin of a " right-handed " system of rectangula
STATICS]
MECHANICS
965
co-ordinates; i.e. the positive directions of the axes are assumed
to be so arranged that a positive rotation of 90 about O* would
bring Oy into the position of Oz, and so on. The displacement
will consist of an infinitesimal rotation 6 about some axis through
O, whose direction-cosines are, say, /, m, n. From the equiva-
lence of a small rotation to a localized vector it follows that the
rotation e will be equivalent to rotations J,ij,f about O*, Oy, Oz,
respectively, provided
| = It, * = mt, f = nt, (i)
and we note that
Thus in the case of fig. 36 it may be required to connect the
infinitesimal rotations , TJ, f about OA, OB, OC with the variations
of the angular co-ordinates 0, ^, <t>. The displacement of the point
C of the body is made up of *0 tangential to the meridian ZC and
sin fy perpendicular to the plane of this meridian. Hence, re-
solving along the tangents to the arcs BC, CA, respectively, we
have
= 40 sin $ sin 6
FIG. 40.
cos <f>, 11 = cos $+sin fy sin <t>. (3)
Again, consider the point of the solid which was initially at A' in
the figure. This is displaced relatively to A' through a space
perpendicular to the plane of the
meridian, whilst A' itself is displaced
through a space cos bf in the same
direction. Hence
{ = *+ cosfl 8^. (4)
To find the component displace-
ments of a point P of the body,
whose co-ordinates are x, y, z, we
draw PL normal to the plane yOz,
and LH, LK perpendicular to Oy,
Oz, respectively. The displace-
ment of P parallel to 0* is the same
as that of L, which is made up of
iff and f y. In this way we
obtain the formulae
x = i\z - fy, y. = {* - fc, Sz = y -i*. (5)
The most general case is derived from this by adding the com-
ponent displacements X, /*, v (say) of the point which was at O;
thus
5* = X + ijz - fy, \
y = M+f*- z. V (6)
8z = -t- ly - ij*. J
The displacement is thus expressed in terms of the six inde-
pendent quantities , ij, f, X, n, v. The points whose displace-
ments are in the direction of the resultant axis of rotation are
determined by 5*: 6y: Sz = : 17: f , or
(X + ijz - fy)/{ = GI + fx -)/ii= ( +& - i,*)/f . (7)
These are the equations of a straight line, and the displacement
is in fact equivalent to a twist about a screw having this line as
axis. The translation parallel to this axis is
l&x + mSy + nz = (X| + n + f ) /. (8)
The linear magnitude which measures the ratio of translation
to rotation in a screw is called the pitch. In the present case the
pitch is
.
Since {* + if + 2 , or J , is necessarily an absolute invariant for
all transformations of the (rectangular) co-ordinate axes, we
infer that X| + /; + vf is also an absolute invariant. When
the latter invariant, but not the former, vanishes, the displace-
ment is equivalent to a pure rotation.
If the small displacements of a rigid body be subject to one
constraint, e.g. if a point of the body be restricted to lie on a given
surface, the mathematical expression of this fact leads to a homo-
geneous linear equation between the infinitesimals , >, f , X, ft, v, say
At+Bij+Cf-t-FX+GM+H^o. (10)
The quantities , 17, f, X, p, v are no longer 1 independent, and the
body has now only five degrees of freedom. Every additional
constraint introduces an additional equation of the type (10) and
reduces the number of degrees of freedom by one. In Sir R. S.
Ball's Theory of Screws an analysis is made of the possible displace-
ments of a body which has respectively two, three, four, five degrees
of freedom. We will briefly notice the case of two degrees,
which involves an interesting generalization of the method (already
explained) of compounding rotations about intersecting axes.
We assume that the body receives arbitrary twists about two
given screws, and it is required to determine the character of the
resultant displacement. We examine first the case where the
axes of the two screws are at right angles and intersect. We take
these as axes of x and y; then if , ij be the component rotations
about them, we have
X =M, It =krj, v=o, (u)
where h, k, are the pitches of the two given screws. The equations
(7) of the axis of the resultant screw then reduce to
Hence, whatever the ratio | : >j, the axis of the resultant screw lies
on the conoidal surface
z(**+y)=f3i (13)
where c = }(k h). The co-ordinates of any point on (13) may be
written
* = rcosfl, y = rsin0, z = c sin 26; (14)
hence if we imagine a curve of sines to be traced on a circular cylinder
so that the circumference just includes two complete undulations,
a straight line cutting the axis of the cylinder at right angles and
From Sir Robert S. Ball's Theory of Sana.
FIG. 41.
meeting this "curve will generate the surface. This is called a
cylindroid. Again, the pitch of the resultant screw is
_/> = (Xe+Ml)/(e 1 +ir ? )=Acos ! e-r-sin s 0. (15)
The distribution of pitch among the various screws has therefore
a simple relation to the pitch-conic
hx?+ky i =const; (16)
viz. the pitch of any screw varies inversely as the square of that
diameter of the conic which is parallel to its axis. It is to be noticed
that the parameter c of the cylindroid is unaltered if the two pitches
h, k be increased by equal amounts ; the only change is that all the
pitches are increased by the same amount. It remains to show that
a system of screws of the above type can be constructed so as to
contain any two given screws whatever. In the first place, a
cylindroid can be constructed so as to have its axis coincident
with the common perpendicular to the axes of the two given screws
and to satisfy three other conditions, for the position of the centre,
the parameter, and the orientation about the axis are still at our
disposal. Hence we can adjust these so that the surface shall
contain the axes of the two given screws as generators, and that
the difference of the corresponding pitches shall have the proper
value. _ It follows that when a body has two degrees of freedom it
can twist about any one of a singly infinite system of screws whose
axes lie on a certain cylindroid. In particular cases the cylindroid
may degenerate into a plane, the pitches being then all equal.
8. Three-dimensional Statics. A system of parallel forces
can be combined two and two until they are replaced by a single
resultant equal to their sum, acting in a certain line. As special
cases, the system may reduce to a couple, or it may be in equili-
brium.
In general, however, a three-dimensional system of forces
cannot be replaced by a single resultant force. But it may be
reduced to simpler elements in a variety of ways. For example,
it may be reduced to two forces in perpendicular skew lines.
For consider any plane, and let each force, at its intersection
with the plane, be resolved into two components, one (P) normal
to the plane, the other (Q) in the plane. The assemblage of
parallel forces P can be replaced in general by a single force, and
the coplanar system of forces Q by another single force.
9 66
MECHANICS
[STATICS
If the plane in question be chosen perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the vector-sum of the given forces, the vector-sum of the
components Q is zero, and these components are therefore
equivalent to a couple ( 4). Hence any three-dimensional
system can be reduced to a single force R acting in a certain line,
together with a couple G in a plane perpendicular to the line.
This theorem was first given by L. Poinsot, and the line of action
of R was called by him the central axis of the system. The com-
bination of a force and a couple in a perpendicular plane is termed
by Sir R. S. Ball a wrench. Its type, as distinguished from its
absolute magnitude, may be specified by a screw whose axis is
the line of action of R, and whose pitch is the ratio G/R.
The case of two forces may be specially noticed. Let AB be
the shortest distance between the lines of action, and let AA', BB'
(fig. 42) represent the forces.
Let o, J3 be the angles which
AA', BB' make with the
direction of the vector-sum,
on opposite sides. Divide AB
in O, so that
AA'. cos a. A0 =
BB'. cos 0. OB, (i)
and draw OC parallel to the
vector-sum. Resolving AA',
BB' each into two compon-
P ., " ents parallel and perpendicular
to OC, we see that the former
components have a single resultant in OC, of amount
R = AA'coso+BB'cos/3, (2)
whilst the latter components form a couple of moment
G = AA'. AB. sin o = BB'. AB. sin /3. (3)
Conversely it is seen that any wrench can be replaced in an infinite
number of ways by two forces, and that the line of action of one of
these may be chosen quite arbitrarily. Also, we find from (2) and
(3) that
G.R=AA'. BB'. AB. sin (a+0). (4)
The right-hand expression is six times the volume of the tetrahedron
of which the lines AA', BB' representing the forces are opposite
edges; and we infer that, in whatever way the wrench be resolved
into two forces, the volume of this tetrahedron is invariable.
To define the moment of a force about an axis HK, we project
the force orthogonally on a plane perpendicular to HK and take
the moment of the projection about the intersection of HK with
the plane (see 4). Some convention as to sign is necessary; we
shall reckon the moment to be positive when the tendency of the
force is right-handed as regards the direction from H to K. Since
two- concurrent forces and their resultant obviously project into
two concurrent forces and their resultant, we see that the sum
of the moments of two concurrent forces about any axis HK is
equal to the moment of their resultant. Parallel forces may be
included in this statement as a limiting case. Hence, in whatever
way one system of forces is by successive steps replaced by an-
other, no change is made in the sum of the moments about any
assigned axis. By means of this theorem we can show that the
previous reduction of any system to a wrench is unique.
From the analogy of couples to translations which was pointed
out in 7, we may infer that a couple is sufficiently represented
by a " free " (or non-localized) vector perpendicular to its plane.
The length of the vector must be proportional to the moment of
the couple, and its sense must be such that the sum of the mo-
ments of the two forces of the couple about it is positive. In
particular, we infer that couples of the same moment in parallel
planes are equivalent; and that couples in any two planes may
be compounded by geometrical addition of the corresponding
vectors. Independent statical proofs are of course easily given.
Thus, let the plane of the paper be perpendicular to the planes
of two couples, and therefore perpendicular to the line of inter-
section of these planes. By 4, each couple can be replaced by
two forces P (fig. 43) perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
and so that one force of each couple is in the line of intersection
(B) ; the arms (AB,BC) will then be proportional to the respective
moments. The two forces at B will cancel, and we are left with
a couple of moment P.AC in the plane AC. If we draw three
vectors to represent these three couples, they will be perpendicu-
lar and proportional to the respective sides of the triangle ABC;
hence the third vector is the geometric sum of the other two.
Since, in this proof the magnitude of P is arbitrary, it follows
incidentally that couples of the same moment in parallel planes,
e.g. planes parallel to AC, are equivalent.
Hence a couple of moment G, whose axis has the direction
(/, m, n) relative to a right-handed system of rectangular axes,
(PJ
FIG. 43.
is equivalent to three couples IG, mG, nG in the co-ordinate
planes. The analytical reduction of a three-dimensional system
can now be conducted as follows. Let (* lf y t , z^ be the co-ordi-
nates of a point P t on the
line of action of one of
the forces, whose com-
ponents are (say) X,, Yj,
Zi. Draw PiH normal to
the plane zO*, and HK
perpendicular to Oz. In
KH introduce two equal
and opposite forces XL
The force Xi at PI with
-Xi in KH forms a couple
about Oz, of moment p IG ^
-yiXL Next, introduce
along O* two equal' and opposite forces Xi. The force Xi
in KH with -Xi in Ox forms a couple about Oy, of moment
ZiXi. Hence the force Xi can be transferred from P! to 0,
provided we introduce couples of moments z t Xi about Oy and
-yiXi, about Oz. Dealing in the same way with the forces YI,
Zi at PI, we find that all three components of the force at PI
can be transferred to O, provided we introduce three couples
LI, M 1( NI about Ox, Oy, Oz respectively, viz.
Li=yiZi-z 1 Y 1 , M 1 =z 1 X 1 -xiZ 1 , Ni=xiY,-yiXi. (5)
It is seen that LI, MI, NI are the moments of the original force at
PI about the co-ordinate axes. Summing up for all the forces of
the given system, we obtain a force R at O, whose components are
X=S(X,), Y=2(Y r ), Z = S(Z r ), (6)
and a couple G whose components are
L=2(L r ), M=S(M r ), N=S(N r ), (7)
where r= i, 2, 3. . . Since R 2 =X 2 +Y 2 +Z 2 , G 2 =L 2 +M 2 +N ! ,
it is necessary and sufficient for equilibrium that the six quanti-
ties X, Y, Z, L, M, N, should all vanish. In words: the sum of
the projections of the forces on each of the co-ordinate axes must
vanish; and, the sum of the moments of the forces about each
of these axes must vanish.
If any other point O', whose co-ordinates are x, y, z, be chosen
in place of O, as the point to which the forces are transferred, we
have to write Xix, y\y, Ziz for Xi, y t , Zi, and so on, in
the preceding process. The components of the resultant force
R are unaltered, but the new components of couple are found
to be
,' = L-yZ+zY,
l' = M-zX+x2,
(8)
By properly choosing 0' we can make the plane of the couple
perpendicular to the resultant force. The conditions for this
are L': M': N' = X : Y : Z, or
L-yZ+zY M-zX+xZ _ N-xY+yX , .
~^C ~ Y~~ Z w
STATICS]
MECHANICS
967
These are the equations of the central axis. Since the moment
of the resultant couple is now
X L . + Y M , + | N , m LX+MY + NZ
G ,
the pitch of the equivalent wrench is
(LX + MY + NZ)/(X + Y" + Z*).
It appears that X 2 +Y 2 +Z 2 and LX+MY+NZ are absolute
invariants (cf. 7). When the latter invariant, but not the
former, vanishes, the system reduces to a single force.
The analogy between the mathematical relations of infinitely
small displacements on the one hand and those of force-systems
on the other enables us immediately to convert any theorem in
the one subject into a theorem in the other. For example, we
can assert without further proof that any infinitely small dis-
placement may be resolved into two rotations, and that the axis
of one of these can be chosen arbitrarily. Again, that wrenches
of arbitrary amounts about two given screws compound into a
wrench the locus of whose axis is a cylindroid.
The mathematical properties of a twist or of a wrench have been
the subject of many remarkable investigations, which are, however,
of secondary importance from a physical point of view. In the
" Null-System " of A. F. Mobius (1790-1868), a line such that the
moment of a given wrench about it is zero is called a null-line.
The triply infinite system of null-lines form what is called in line-
geometry a " complex." As regards the configuration of this
complex, consider a line whose shortest distance from the central
axis is r, and whose inclination to the central axis is 6. The moment
of the resultant force R of the wrench about this line is Rr sin 9,
and that of the couple G is G cos 8. Hence the line will be a null-
line provided
tanfl = /fe/r, (n)
where k is the pitch of the wrench. The null-lines which are at
a given distance r from a point O of the central axis will therefore
form one system of generators of a hyperboloid of revolution; and
by varying r we get a series of such hyperboloids with a common
centre and axis. By moving O along the central axis we obtain
the whole complex of null-lines. It appears also from (u) that
the null-lines whose distance from the central axis is r are tangent
lines to a system of helices of slope tan i(r/k) ; and it is to be noticed
that these helices are left-handed if the given wrench is right-
handed, and vice versa.
Since the given wrench can be replaced by a force acting through
any assigned point P, and a couple, the locus of the null-lines
through P is a plane, viz. a plane perpendicular to the vector
which represents the couple. The complex is therefore of the
type called " linear " (in relation to the degree of this locus). The
plane in question is called the null-plane of P. If the null-plane
of P pass through Q, the null-plane of Q will pass through P, since
PQ is a null-line. Again, any plane u is the locus of a system of
null-lines meeting in a point, called the null-point of u. If a plane
revolve about a fixed straight line p in it, its null-point describes
another straight line p', which is called the conjugate line of p.
We have seen that the wrench may be replaced by two forces,
one of which may act in any arbitrary line p. It is now evident
that the second force must act in the conjugate line p', since every
line meeting p, p' is a null-line. Again, since the shortest distance
between any two conjugate lines cuts the central axis at right
angles, the orthogonal projections of two conjugate lines on a plane
perpendicular to the central axis will be parallel (fig. 42). This
property was employed by L. Cremona to prove the existence
under certain conditions 01 " reciprocal figures " in a plane (5)-
If we take any polyhedron with plane faces, the null-planes of its
vertices with respect to a given wrench will form another poly-
hedron, and the edges of the latter will be conjugate (in the above
sense) to those of the former. Projecting orthogonally on a plane
perpendicular to the central axis we obtain two reciprocal figures.
In the analogous theory of infinitely small displacements of a
solid, a " null-line " is a line such that the lengthwise displacement
of any point on it is zero.
Since a wrench is defined by six independent quantities, it can in
general be replaced by any system of forces which involves six
adjustable elements. For instance, it can in general be replaced
by six forces acting in six given lines, e.g. in the six edges of a given
tetrahedron. An exception to the general statement occurs when
the six lines are such that they are possible lines of action of a system
of six forces in equilibrium; they are then said to be in involution.
The theory of forces in involution has been studied by A. Cayley,
J. J. ^Sylvester and others. We have seen that a rigid structure
may in general be rigidly connected with the earth by six links,
and it now appears that any system of forces acting on the structure
can in general be balanced by six determinate forces exerted by the
links. If, however, the links are in involution, these forces become
infinite or indeterminate. There is a corresponding kinematic
peculiarity, in that the connexion is now not strictly rigid, an
infinitely small relative displacement being possible. See 9.
When parallel forces of given magnitudes act at given points,
the resultant acts through a definite point, or centre of parallel
forces, which is independent of the special direction of the forces-
If Pr.be the force at (x,, y r , z r ), acting in the direction (/, m, n), the
formulae (6) and (7) reduce to
X = S(P). /, Y = 2(P). m, Z = Z(P). n, (12)
and
L =
provided
-nx), N
-W, d3)
d4)
These are JLhe same as if we had a single force 2(P) acting at
the point (x, y,~z), which is the same for all directions (/, m, n).
We can hence derive the theory of the centre of gravity, as in 4.
An exceptional case occurs when 2(P)=o.
If_we imagine a rigid body to be acted on at given points by forces
of given magnitudes in directions (not all parallel) which are fixed
in space, then as the body is turned about the resultant wrench
will assume different configurations in the body, and will in certain
positions reduce to a single force. The investigation of such
questions forms the subject of " Asiatics," which has been cultivated
by Mobius, Minding, G. Darboux and others. As it has no physical
bearing it is passed over here.
9. Work. The work done by a force acting on a particle, in
any infinitely small displacement, is defined as the product of
the force into the orthogonal projection of the displacement on
the direction of the force; i.e. it is equal to F. 5 s cos 6, where F is
the force, 6s the displacement, and 6 is the angle between the
directions of F and 5$. In the language of vector analysis (g..)
it is the " scalar product " of the vector representing the force
and the displacement. In the same way, the work done by a
force acting on a rigid body in any infinitely small displacement
of the body is the scalar product of the force into the displace-
ment of any point on the line of action. This product is the
same whatever point on the line of action be taken, since the
lengthwise components of the displacements of any two points
A, B on a line AB are equal, to the first order of small quantities.
To see this, let A', B' be the displaced positions of A, B, and let
</> be the infinitely small angle between AB and A'B'. Then if
FIG. 45.
a, /3 be the orthogonal projections of A', B' on AB, we have
ultimately. Since this is of the second order, the products
F.Ao and F.B/3 are ultimately equal.
The total work done by two concurrent forces acting on a
particle, or on a rigid body, in any infinitely small displacement,
is equal to the work of their resultant. Let AB, AC (fig. 46)
represent the forces, AD their resultant, and let AH be the
direction of the displacement 5s of the point A. The proposi-
FIG. 46. FIG. 47.
tion follows at once from the fact that the sum of orthogonal
projections of AB, AC on AH is equal to the projection of AD.
It is to be noticed that AH need not be in the same plane
with AB, AC.
It follows from the preceding statements that any two systems
9 68
MECHANICS
[STATICS
of forces which are statically equivalent, according to the prin-
ciples of 4, 8, will (to the first order of small quantities) do the
same amount of work in any infinitely small displacement of a
rigid body to which they may be applied. It is also evident that
the total work done in two or more successive infinitely small
displacements is equal to the work done in the resultant dis-
placement.
The work of a couple in any infinitely small rotation of a
rigid body about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
couple is equal to the product of the moment of the couple
into the angle of rotation, proper conventions as to sign being
observed. Let the couple consist of two forces P, P (fig. 47) in
the plane of the paper, and let J be the point where this plane
is met by the axis of rotation. Draw JBA perpendicular to the
lines of action, and let e be the angle of rotation. The work of
the couple is
P. JA. t-P. JB. = P. AB. t=Gf,
if G be the moment of the couple.
The analytical calculation of the work done by a system of
forces in any infinitesimal displacement is as follows. For a
two-dimensional system we have, in the notation of 3, 4,
S(X8x+YS;y) =Z(X(X-y)+Y( M +)}
Again, for a three-dimensional system, in the notation of 7, 8,
Z(X5x+Y&y+Z&z)
= Z(X(X-h,s-r;y)-
= 2(X) .X+S(Y) ,
This expression gives the work done by a given wrench when
the body receives a given infinitely small twist; it must of course
be an absolute invariant for all transformations of rectangular
axes. The first three terms express the work done by the com-
ponents of a force (X, Y, Z) acting at O, and the remaining
three terms express the work of a couple (L, M, N).
The work done by a wrench about a given screw, when the body
twists about a second given screw, may be calculated directly as
follows. In fig. 48 let R, G be the force and couple of the wrench,
t,T the rotation and translation in the twist. Let the axes of the
FIG. 48.
wrench and the twist be inclined at an angle 0, and let h be the
shortest distance between them. The displacement of the point
H in the figure, resolved in the direction of R, is r cos 8 th sin 6.
The work is therefore
R(T cos 8 th sin 0) + G cos 6
= Rl (p+p') cos 6-h sin 6], (3)
if G=/>R, r = p't, i.e. p, p' are the pitches of the two screws. The
factor (p+p') cos 8 h sin is called the virtual coefficient of the two
screws which define the types of the wrench and twist, respectively.
A screw is determined by its axis and its pitch, and therefore
involves five independent elements. These may be, for instance,
the five ratios {:TJ: :X:/t:v of the six quantities which specify an
infinitesimal twist about the screw. If the twist is a pure rotation,
these quantities are subject to the relation
X*+Ml+"r = o. _ (4)
In the analytical investigations of line geometry, these six quantities,
supposed subject to the relation (4), are used to specify a line, and
are called the six "co-ordinates' of the line; they are of course
equivalent to only four independent quantities. If a line is a
null-line with respect to the wrench (X, Y, Z, L, M, N), the work
done in an infinitely small rotation about it is zero, and its co-
ordinates are accordingly subject to the further relation
LH-Mv+Nr+XX+Yjt+Zr-o, (5)
where the coefficients are constant. This is the equation of a
" linear complex" (cf. 8).
Two screws are reciprocal when a wrench about one does no work
on a body which twists about the other. The condition for this is
X|'-rW+>-r'+V|+/*''7+'''r = O, (6)
if the screws be defined by the ratios : TJ : f : X : /* : v and ': ij' : f' : ^' : f' : "'
respectively. The theory of the screw-systems which are reciprocal
to one, two, three, four given screws respectively has been investi-
gated by Sir R. S. Ball.
Considering a rigid body in any given position, we may con-
template the whole group of infinitesimal displacements which
might be given to it. If the extraneous forces are in equilibrium
the total work which they would perform in any such displace-
ment would be zero, since they reduce to a zero force and a zero
couple. This is (in part) the celebrated principle of virtual
velocities, now often described as the principle of virtual work,
enunciated by John Bernoulli (1667-1748). The word "vir-
tual " is used because the displacements in question are not
regarded as actually taking place, the body being in fact at
rest. The " velocities " referred to are the velocities of the
various points of the body in any imagined motion of the body
through the position in question; they obviously bear to one
another the same ratios as the corresponding infinitesimal dis-
placements. Conversely, we can show that if the virtual work
of the extraneous forces be zero for every infinitesimal displace-
ment of the body as rigid, these forces must be in equilibrium.
For by giving the body (in imagination) a displacement of trans-
lation we learn that the sum of the resolved parts of the forces
in any assigned direction is zero, and by giving it a displacement
of pure rotation we learn that the sum of the moments about any
assigned axis is zero. The same thing follows of course from the
analytical expression (2) for the virtual work. If this vanishes
for all values of X, n, v, , y, f we must have X, Y, Z, L, M, N = o,
which are the conditions of equilibrium.
The principle can of course be extended to any system of
particles or rigid bodies, connected together in any way, pro-
vided we take into account the internal stresses, or reactions,
between the various parts. Each such reaction consists of two
equal and opposite forces, both of which may contribute to the
equation of virtual work.
The proper significance of the principle of virtual work, and
of its converse, will appear more clearly when we come to kinetics
( 1 6); for the present it may be regarded merely as a compact
and (for many purposes) highly convenient summary of the laws
of equilibrium. Its special value lies in this, that by a suitable
adjustment of the hypothetical displacements we are often
enabled to eliminate unknown reactions. For example, in the
case of a particle lying on a smooth curve, or on a smooth
surface, if it be displaced along the curve, or on the surface, the
virtual work of the normal component of the pressure may be
ignored, since it is of the second order. Again, if two bodies
are connected by a string or rod, and if the hypothetical displace-
ments be adjusted so that the distance between the points of
attachment is unaltered, the corresponding stress may be ignored.
This is evident from fig. 45; if AB, A'B' represent the two posi-
tions of a string, and T be the tension, the virtual work of the
two forces =*= T at A,B is T(Aa-B|3), which was shown to be
of the second order. Again, the normal pressure between two
surfaces disappears from the equation, provided the displace-
ments be such that one of these surfaces merely slides relatively
to the other. It is evident, in the first place, that in any displace-
ment common to the two surfaces, the work of the two equal
and opposite normal pressures will cancel; moreover if, one of
the surfaces being fixed, an infinitely small displacement shifts
the point of contact from A to B, and if A' be the new position
of that point of the sliding body which was at A, the projection
of AA' on the normal at A is of the second order. It is to be
noticed, in this case, that the tangential reaction (if any) between
the two surfaces is not eliminated. Again, if the displacements
be such that one curved surface rolls without sliding on another,
the reaction, whether normal or tangential, at the point of con-
tact may be ignored. For the virtual work of two equal and
opposite forces will cancel in any displacement which is common
to the two surfaces; whilst, if one surface be fixed, the displace-
ment of that point of the rolling surface which was in contact
with the other is of the second order. We are thus able to
imagine a great variety of mechanical systems to which the
principle of virtual work can be applied without any regard
d to
STATICS]
MECHANICS
969
the internal stresses, provided the hypothetical displacements
be such that none of the connexions of the system are violated.
If the system be subject to gravity, the corresponding part
of the virtual work can be calculated from the displacement of
the centre of gravity. If Wi, Wz, ... be the weights of a
system of particles, whose depths below a fixed horizontal plane
of reference are Zi, Zj, . . . , respectively, the virtual work of
gravity is
' = (W,' + W z +\ )'.'
where z is the depth of the centre of gravity (see 8 (14) and
it (6)). This expression is the same as if the whole mass
were concentrated at the centre of gravity, and displaced with
this point. An important conclusion is that in any displacement
of a system of bodies in equilibrium, such that the virtual
work of all forces except gravity may be ignored, the depth
of the centre of gravity is " stationary."
The question as to stability of equilibrium belongs essentially
to kinetics; but we may state by anticipation that in cases
where gravity is the only force which does work, the equilibrium
of a body or system of bodies is stable only if the depth of the
centre of gravity be a maximum.
Consider, for instance, the case of a bar resting with its ends on
two smooth inclines (fig. 18). If the bar be displaced in a vertical
plane so that its ends slide on the two inclines, the instantaneous
centre is at the point J. The displacement of G is at right angles
to JG; this shows that for equilibrium JG must be vertical. Again,
the locus of G is an arc of an ellipse whose centre is in the intersection
of the planes; since this arc is convex upwards the equilibrium is
unstable. A general criterion for the case of a rigid body movable
in two dimensions, with one degree of freedom, can be obtained as
follows. We have seen ( 3) that the sequence of possible positions
is obtained if we imagine the " body-centrode " to roll on the " space-
centrode." For equilibrium, the altitude of the centre of gravity
G must be stationary; hence G must lie in the same vertical line
with the point of contact J of the two curves. Further, it is known
from the theory of " roulettes " that the locus of G will be concave
or convex upwards according as
cos <t> _ i . i
~h ~P + P" (8)
where p, p' are the radii of curvature of the two curves at J, 4> is the
inclination of the common tangent at J to the horizontal, and h is
the height of G above J. The signs of p, p' are to be taken positive
when the curvatures are as in the
standard case shown in fig. 49. Hence
for stability the upper sign must obtain
in (8). The same criterion may be
arrived at in a more intuitive manner as
follows. If the body be supposed to roll
(say to the right) until the curves touch
at J', and if JJ'=5j, the angle through
which the upper figure rotates is
Ss/p+Ss/p', and the horizontal displace-
ment of G is equal to the product of
this expression into h. If this displace-
ment be less than the horizontal projection
of JJ', viz. Ss cos <f, the vertical through
the new position of G will fall to the left
of J' and gravity will tend to restore the
body to its former position. It is here
assumed that the remaining forces acting
on the body in its displaced position have
zero moment about J'; this is evidently
the case, for instance, in the problem of " rocking stones."
The principle of virtual work is specially convenient in the
theory of frames ( 6), since the reactions at smooth joints and
the stresses in inextensible bars may be left out of account.
In particular, in the case of a frame which is just rigid, the
principle enables us to find the stress in any one bar indepen-
dently of the rest. If we imagine the bar in question to be
removed, equilibrium will still persist if we introduce two
equal and opposite forces S, of suitable magnitude, at the
joints which it connected. In any infinitely small deformation
of the frame as thus modified, the virtual work of the forces
S, together with that of the original extraneous forces, must
vanish; this determines S.
As a simple example, take the case of a light frame, whose bars
form the slides of a rhombus ABCD with the diagonal BD, suspended
from A and carrying a weight W at C ; and let it be required to find
FIG. 49.
the stress in BD. If we remove the bar BD, and apply two equal
and opposite forces S at B and D, the equation is
W. S(2/ cos 9) + 2 S . 6(1 sin 9) = o,
where / is the length of a side of the
rhombus, and 9 its inclination to the
vertical. Hence
S=W tan fl=W . BD/AC. (8)
The method is specially appropriate
when the frame, although just rigid, is
not " simple " in the sense of 6, and
when accordingly the method of reciprocal
figures is not immediately available. To
avoid the intricate trigonometrical calcu-
lations which would often be necessary,
graphical devices have been introduced by
H. Muller-Breslau and others. For this
purpose the infinitesimal displacements of
the various joints are replaced by finite
lengths proportional to them, and there-
fore proportional to the velocities of the
w
Fie. 50.
joints in some imagined motion of the deformable frame through its
actual configuration ; this is really (it may be remarked) a reversion to
the original notion of " virtual velocities. ' Let J be the instantaneous
centre for any bar CD (fig. 12), and let s\, s?, represent the virtual
velocities of C, D. If these lines be turned through a right angle
in the same sense, they take up positions such as CC', DD', where
C', D' are on 1C, JD, respectively, and C'D' is parallel to CD.
Further, if Fi (fig. 51) be any force acting on the joint C, its virtual
work will be equal to the moment of F t about C'; the equation of
virtual work is thus transformed into an equation of moments.
FIG. 12.
FIG. 51.
Consider, for example, a frame whose sides form the six sides of
a hexagon ABCDEF and the three diagonals AD, BE, CF ; and sup-
pose that it is required to find the stress in CF due to a given system
of extraneous forces in equilibrium, acting on the joints. Imagine
the bar CF to be removed, and consider a deformation in which AB
is fixed. The instantaneous centre of CD will be at the intersection
of AD, BC, and if C'D' be drawn parallel to CD, the lines CC', DD'
may be taken to represent the virtual
velocities of C, D turned each through
a right angle. Moreover, if we draw
D'E' parallel to DE, and E'F'
parallel to EF, the lines CC', DD',
EE', FF' will represent on the same
scale the virtual velocities of the
points C, D, E, F, respectively,
turned each through a right angle.
The equation of virtual work is then
formed by taking moments about C',
D', E', F' of the extraneous forces
which act at C, D, E, F, respectively.
FIG. 52.
Amongst these forces we must include the two equal and opposite
forces S which take the place of the stress in the removed bar FC.
The above method lends itself naturally to the investigation of
the critical forms of a frame whose general structure is giv? n. We
have seen that the stresses produced by an equilibrating system ot
extraneous forces in a frame which is just rigid, according to the
criterion of 6, are in general uniquely determinate; in particular,
when there are no extraneous forces the bars are in general free from
stress. It may however happen that owing to some special relation
between the lengths of the bars the frame admits of an infinitesimal
deformation. The simplest case is that of a frame of three bars,
when the three joints A, B, C fall into a straght line; a small dis-
placement of the joint B at right angles to AC would involve changes
in the lengths of AB, BC which are only of the second order of small
quantities. Another example is shown in fig. 53. The graphical
method leads at once to the detection of such cases. Thus in the
hexagonal frame of fig. 52, if an infinitesimal deformation is possible
without removing the bar CF, the instantaneous centre of CF (when
AB is fixed) will be at the intersection of AF and BC, and since CC',
FF' represent the virtual velocities of the points C, F, turned each
through a right angle, C'F' must be parallel to CF. Conversely, if
this condition be satisfied, an infinitesimal deformation is possible.
The result may be generalized into the statement that a frame has
a critical form whenever a frame of the same structure can be designed
970
MECHANICS
[STATICS
with C9rresponding bars parallel, but without complete geometric
similarity. In the case of fig. 52 it may be shown that an equivalent
condition is that the six points A, B, C, D, E, F should lie on a conic
(M. W. Crofton). This is fulfilled when the opposite sides of the
hexagon are parallel, and (as a still more special case) when the
hexagon is regular.
When a frame has a critical form it may be in a state of stress
independently of the action of extraneous forces; moreover, the
stresses due to extraneous forces are
indeterminate, and may be infinite.
For suppose as before that one of the
bars is removed. If there are no extra-
neous forces the equation of virtual work
reduces to S. Ss = o, where Sis the stress
in the removed bar, and fa is the change
in the distance between the joints which
it connected. In a critical form we
have fa = p, and the equation is satisfied
by an arbitrary value of S; a consistent
system of stresses in the remaining bars
FIG. 53.
can then be found by preceding rules. Again, when extraneous
forces P act on the joints, the equation is
where dp is the displacement of any joint in the direction of the
corresponding force P. If S(P.dp)=o, the stresses are merely
indeterminate as before ; but if S (P . Sp) does not vanish, the equation
cannot be satisfied by any finite value of S, since Ss = o. This means
that, if the material of the frame were absolutely unyielding, no
finite stresses in the bars would enable it to withstand the extraneous
forces. With actual materials, the frame would yield elastically,
until its configuration is no longer " critical." The stresses in the
bars would then be comparatively very great, although finite. The
use of frames which approximate to a critical form is of course to
be avoided in practice.
A brief reference must suffice to the theory of three dimensional
frames. This is important from a technical point of view, since all
structures are practically three-dimensional. We may note that
a frame of n joints which is just rigid must have 3n 6 bars; and
that the stresses produced in such a frame by a given system of
extraneous forces in equilibrium are statically determinate, subject
to the exception of " critical forms."
10. Statics of Inexlensible Chains. The theory of bodies
or structures which are deformable in their smallest parts
belongs properly to elasticity (q.v.). The case of inextensible
strings or chains is, however, so simple that it is generally
included in expositions of pure statics.
It is assumed that the form can be sufficiently represented by
a plane curve, that the stress (tension) at any point P of the
curve, between the two portions which meet there, is in the
direction of the tangent at P, and that the forces on any linear
element Ss must satisfy the conditions of equilibrium laid
down in i. It follows that the forces on any finite portion
will satisfy the conditions of equilibrium which apply to the
case of a rigid body (4).
We will suppose in the first instance that the curve is plane.
It is often convenient to resolve the forces on an element PQ
( = Ss) in the directions of the
tangent and normal respectively.
,T+5T If T, T + 5T be the tensions at
P, Q, and 8$ be the angle between
the directions of the curve at
these points, the components
of the tensions along the tangent
at P give (T+3T) cos ^-T,
or 6T, ultimately; whilst for the
component along the normal at
FlG - 54- P we have (T + 5T) sin ty, or
, or T5s/p, where p is the radius of curvature.
Suppose, for example, that we have a light string stretched
over a smooth curve; and let RSs denote the normal pressure
(outwards from the centre of curvature) on 3s. The two resolu-
tions give 6T = o, T5^ = R8s, or
T=const., R=T/ P . (i)
The tension is constant, and the pressure per unit length varies
as the curvature.
Next suppose that the curve is " rough "; and let F5s be
the tangential force of friction on Ss. We have 5T == F5s = o,
TS>I/ = KSs, where the upper or lower sign is to be taken
according to the sense in which F acts. We assume that in
limiting equilibrium we have F = /xR, everywhere, where (j. is
the coefficient of friction. If the string be on the point of
slipping in the direction in which ^ increases, the lower sign
is to be taken; hence 5T = FSs = /*T5^, whence
if To be the tension corresponding to ^-=0. This illustrates
the resistance to dragging of a rope coiled round a post; e.g.
if we put M='3, ^=2ir, we find for the change of tension in
one turn T/T =6-5. In two turns this ratio is squared, and
so on.
Again, take the case of a string under gravity, in contact
with a smooth curve in a vertical plane. Let ^ denote the
inclination to the horizontal, and wSs the weight of an
element 8s. :The tangential and normal components of wSs
are wSs sin if/ and wSs cos \fs. Hence
5T = wSs sin \j/, T5^=wfa cos ^-{-R5s. (3)
If we take rectangular axes Ox, Oy, of which Oy is drawn
vertically upwards, we have 5y = sin ^ 8s, whence 6T = w>5y.
If the string be uniform, w is constant, and
T =wy + const. = w(y y), (4)
say; hence the tension varies as the height above some fixed
level (y ). The pressure is then given by the formula
-<ty
R=Tgj-o>cos^. (5)
In the case of a chain hanging freely under gravity it is usually
convenient to formulate the conditions of equilibrium of a
finite portion PQ. The forces on this reduce to three, viz.
the weight of PQ and the tensions at P,Q. Hence these three
forces will be concurrent, and their ratios will be given by a
triangle of forces. In particular, if we consider a length AP
beginning at the lowest point A, then resolving horizontally
and vertically we have
where T is the tension at A, and W is the weight of PA.
The former equation expresses that the horizontal tension is
constant.
If the chain be uniform we have W=aw, where s is the arc
AP: hence ws=T tan ^. If we write T ='a, so that a is
FIG. 55.
the length of a portion of the chain whose weight would equal
the horizontal tension, this becomes
s = a tan ^. (7)
This is the " intrinsic " equation of the curve. If the axes
of x and y be taken horizontal and vertical (upwards), we derive
x =a log (sec ^+tan ^), y = a sec \t*. (8)
Eliminating ^ we obtain the Cartesian equation
y=a cosh -
(9)
of the common catenary, as it is called (fig. 56). The omission
of the additive arbitrary constants of integration in (8) is
equivalent to a special choice of the origin O of co-ordinates;
viz. O is at a distance a vertically below the lowest point
= o) of the curve. The horizontal line through O is called
the directrix. The relations
s = a sinh-,
o 2 -f-5 2 , T =T sec <
wy,
(10)
STATICS]
MECHANICS
971
which are involved in the preceding formulae are also note-
worthy. It is a classical problem in the calculus of variations
to deduce the equation (9) from
the condition that the depth
of the centre of gravity of a
chain of given length hanging
between fixed points must be
stationary ( 9). The length
a is called the parameter of the
catenary; it determines the
scale of the curve, all cate-
naries being geometrically simi-
lar. If weights be suspended
from various points of a hang-
ing chain, the intervening por-
tions will form arcs of equal
catenaries, since the horizontal
tension (wa) is the same for all.
Again, if a chain pass over a
perfectly smooth peg, the cate-
naries in which it hangs on th\e two sides, though usually of
different parameters, will have the same directrix, since by
(10) y is the same for both at the peg.
As an example of the use of the formulae we may determine the
maximum span for a wire of given material. The condition is that
the tension must not exceed the weight of a certain length X of the
wire. At the ends we shall have y = X, or
X = o cosh -, (u)
a
and the problem is to make x a maximum for variations of o. Differ-
entiating (11) we find that, if <fcc/da=o,
(12)
It is easily seen graphically, or from a table of hyperbolic tangents,
that the equation u tanh = i has only one positive root (u = l -200) ;
the span is therefore
2x = 2au =2\l sinh u =1-326 X,
and the length of wire is
2s = 2\/u =1-667 *
The tangents at the ends meet on the directrix, and their inclination
to the horizontal is 56 30'.
The relation between the sag, the tension, and the span of a wire
(e.e. a telegraph wire) stretched nearly straight between two points
A, B at the same level is determined most simply from first principles.
If T be the tension, W the total weight, k the sag in the middle, and
x , x
-tanh- = i
Since
FIG. 57.
^ the inclination to the horizontal at A or B, we have _.
AB = 2p^, approximately, where p is the radius of curvature.
2fe/> = (JAB) 2 , ultimately, we have
fe = JW.AB/T. (, 3)
The same formula applies if A, B be at different levels, provided k be
the sag, measured vertically, half way between A and B.
In relation to the theory of suspension bridges the case where
the weight of any portion of the chain varies as its horizontal
projection is of interest. The vertical through the centre of
gravity of the arc AP (see fig. 55) will then bisect its horizontal
projection AN; hence if PS be the tangent at P we shall have
AS = SN. This property is characteristic of a parabola whose
axis is vertical. If we take A as origin and AN as axis of x,
the weight of AP may be denoted by vnc, where w is the weight
per unit length at A. Since PNS is a triangle of forces for
the portion AP of the chain, we have wxjTo= PN/NS, or
y-w.xVzTo, (14)
which is the equation of the parabola in question. The result
might of course have been inferred from the theory of the
parabolic funicular in 2.
Finally, we may refer to the catenary of uniform strength, where
the cross-section of the wire (or cable) is supposed to vary as the
tension. Hence w, the weight per foot, vanes as T, and we may
write T = iX, where X is a constant length. Resolving along the
normal the forces on an element Ss, we find TS\l"=wts cos <!/, whence
"=2 = Xsec *- ('5)
From this we derive
= X log sec r
X 1
(16)
where the directions of x and y are horizontal and vertical, and the
origin is taken at the lowest point. The curve (fig. 58) has two
vertical asymptotes x= ixX; this shows that however the thick-
ness of a cable be adjusted there is a limit rX to the horizontal span,
where X depends on the tensile strength of the material. For a
uniform catenary the limit was found above to be I-326X.
y\
FIG. 58.
For investigations relating to the equilibrium of a string in
three dimensions we must refer to the textbooks. In the case
of a string stretched over a smooth surface, but in other respects
free from extraneous force, the tensions at the ends of a small
element Sj must be balanced by the normal reaction of the
surface. It follows that the osculating plane of the curve
formed by the string must contain the normal to the surface,
*. e. the curve must be a " geodesic," and that the normal pressure
per unit length must vary as the principal curvature of the
curve.
ii. Theory of Mass-Systems. This is a purely geometrical
subject. We consider a system of points PI, P 2 . . . , P.,
with which are associated certain co-efficients m t , mi, . . . m,
respectively. In the application to mechanics these coefficients
are the masses of particles situate at the respective points,
and are therefore all positive. We shall make this supposition
in what follows, but it should be remarked that hardly any
difference is made in the theory if some of the coefficients have
a different sign from the rest, except in the special case where
S(m) = o. This has a certain interest in magnetism.
In a given mass-system there exists one and only one point
G such that
For, take any point O, and construct the vector
r 2(m.OP)
) . GO +2(m) .
Then
2(w . G!) = 2|m(G& +OP*) ) = 2(m) . GO +2(m) . OP = o. (3)
Also there cannot be a distinct point G' such that 2(w. G'P) = o,
for we should have, by subtraction,
2|m(GP+PG > ')l=o, or2().GG'=o; (4)
i.e. G' must coincide with G. The point G determined by (i)
is called the mass-centre or centre of inertia of the given system.
It is easily seen that, in the process of determining the mass-
centre, any group of particles may be replaced by a single
particle whose mass is equal to that of the group, situate at the
mass-centre of the group.
If through PI, PI, ... P, we draw any system of parallel
planes meeting a straight line OX in the points MI, M,, . . .
M, the collinear vectors OMi, OM, . . . OM. may be called
the " projections " of OP,, OP,, . . . OP. on OX. Let these
projections be denoted algebraically by x,, *,, . . . *, the
sign being positive or negative according as the direction is
that of OX or the reverse. Since the projection of a vector-
972
MECHANICS
[STATICS
sum is the sum of the projections of the several vectors, the
equation (2) gives
3= Sf' (s)
if * be the projection of OG. Hence if the Cartesian co-ordinates
of PI, Pj, . . . PB relative to any axes, rectangular or oblique
be (xi yi, 21), (x 2 , y 2 , 2 2 ), . . , (x n , y n , z n ), the mass-centre
(x, y, z) is determined by the formulae
X ~ v/*\ ' y vf~\ 9 2 = v/,\. (6)
L\m) J njn) 2*\m)
If we write * = *+, y=~y+rj, 2=3+f, so that , rj, f denote
co-ordinates relative to the mass-centre G, we have from (6)
2(m)=o, 2(mij)=o, 2(mf)=o. (7)
One or two special cases may be noticed. If three masses a, ft, y
be situate at the vertices of a triangle ABC, the mass-centre of /3
and 7 is at a point A' in BC, such that ft. BA'=7. A'C. The mass-
centre (G) of o, ft, y will then divide AA' so that a . AG = (f)+y) GA'.
It is easily proved that
a : ft : 7 = ABGA : AGCA : AGAB ;
also, by giving suitable values (positive or negative) to the ratios
a : /3 : 7 we can make G assume any assigned position in the plane ABC.
We have here the origin of the " barycentric co-ordinates " of Mobius,
now usually known as " areal " co-ordinates. If a+/3+7=O, G is
at infinity; if a ft=y, G is at the intersection of the median lines
of jthe triangle ; if a : ft : 7 = : b : c,G is at the centre of the inscribed
circle. Again, if G be the mass-centre of four particles o, ft, 7, 8
situate at the vertices of a tetrahedron ABCD, we find
a : : y : = tet n GBCD : tefGCDA : tefGDAB : tet" GABC,
and by suitable determination of the ratios on the left hand we can
make G assume any assigned position in space. If a+ft+y+S = O,
G is at infinity; if a = ft=y =S, G bisects the lines joining the middle
points of opposite edges of the tetrahedron ABCD; if a : ft : y : & =
ABCD : ACDA : ADAB : AABC, G is at the centre of the inscribed
sphere.
If we have a continuous distribution of matter, instead of a system
of discrete particles, the summations in (6) are to be replaced by
integrations. Examples will be found in textbooks of the calculus
and of analytical statics. As particular cases: the mass-centre
of a uniform thin triangular plate coincides with that of three
equal particles at the corners; and that of a uniform solid tetra-
hedron coincides with that of four equal particles at the vertices.
Again, the mass-centre of a uniform solid right circular cone divides
the axis in the ratio 3:1; that of a uniform solid hemisphere divides
the axial radius in the ratio 3 : 5.
It is easily seen from (6) that if the configuration of a system of
particles be altered by " homogeneous strain " (see ELASTICITY)
the new position of the mass-centre will be at that point of the
strained figure which corresponds to the original mass-centre.
The formula (2) shows that a system of concurrent forces
represented by m t . OPi, m>. OP 2 , . . . m n .OP n will have a
resultant represented by 2(w).OG. If we imagine O to recede to
infinity in any direction we learn that a system of parallel forces
proportional to mi, m^, . . . m n , acting at PI, P 2 .... P n have
'a resultant proportional to 2(w) which acts always through
a point G fixed relatively to the given mass-system. This
contains the theory of the " centre of gravity " ( 4, 9). We
may note also that if PI, P 2 , . . . P n , and P/, P 2 ', . . . P n '
represent two configurations of the series of particles, then
where G,G' are the two positions of the mass-centre. The
forces Wi.PiPi', W 2 .P 2 P2 / , . . . w n .P n P n ', considered as local-
ized vectors, do not, however, as a rule reduce to a single
resultant.
We proceed to the theory of the plane, axial and polar
quadratic moments of the system. The axial moments have
alone a dynamical significance, but the others are useful as
subsidiary conceptions. If hi, fa, . . . h n be the perpendicular
distances of the particles from any fixed plane, the sum 2(t/z 2 )
is the quadratic moment with respect to the plane. If pi,
fa, . . . p n be the perpendicular distances from any given
axis, the sum 2( 2 ) is the quadratic moment with respect to
the axis; it is also called the moment of inertia about the axis.
If ri, rt, . . . r, be the distances from a fixed point, the sum
2(mrO is the quadratic moment with respect to that point
(or pole). If we divide any of the above quadratic moments
by the total mass 2(n), the result is called the mean square
of the distances of the particles from the respective plane,
axis or pole. In the case of an axial moment, the square root
of the resulting mean square is called the radius of gyration of
the system about the axis in question. If we take rectangular
axes through any point O, the quadratic moments with respect
to the co-ordinate planes are
Ix = 2(* 2 ), I, = 2(y), I,= 2(mz 2 ); (9)
those with respect to the co-ordinate axes are
I^=2|(y+z 2 )!, I=2M2 2 -f-r9!, I ly = 2|m(x 2 +y 2 )); (10)
whilst the polar quadratic moment with respect to is
I,,= Z((*+/-M ! )}. (II)
We note that
I=I + I I=I, + L, l*v=l* + l v , (12)
and
I. = I+I,+I. = MI,.+I + I). (13)
In the case of continuous distributions of matter the summations
in (9), (10), (n) are of course to be replaced by integrations. For
a uniform thin circular plate, we find, taking the origin at its centre,
and the axis of z normal to its plane, ! = JMa 2 , where M is the mass
and a the radius. Since I = Iy, I z =o, we deduce Ii = JMa 2 ,
I*u = |Ma 2 ; hence the value of the squared radius of gyration is for a
diameter Ja 2 , and for the axis of symmetry |a 2 . Again, for a uni-
form solid sphere having its centre at the origin we find I<, = |Ma 2 ,
Ii = Iv = I = iMa 2 , Ij = Iw = Ii = |Ma ! ; i. e. the square of the
radius of gyration with respect to a diameter is o 2 . The method of
homogeneous strain can be applied to deduce the corresponding
results for an ellipsoid of semi-axes a, b, c. If the co-ordinate axes
coincide with the principal axes, we find Ii = JMa 2 , I V = |M6 2 ,
I, = iMc 2 , whence I,,,=iM(6 2 +c 2 ), &c.
If 4>(x, y, 2) be any homogeneous quadratic function of x, y, z,
we have
2|w0(x, y, l)J-Zl*(5+& y+r,, z+?)}
-Z{f*<*,y,i)}+Z(*(f,i,r)l, _ __ (14)
since the terms which are bilinear in respect to x, y, z, and
|, 17, f vanish, in virtue of the relations (7). Thus
(15)
(16)
with similar relations, and
I = lG+Z( OT ).OG 2 . (17)
The formula (16) expresses that the squared radius of gyration
about any axis (Ox) exceeds the squared radius of gyration
about a parallel axis through G by the square of the distance
between the two axes. The formula (i 7) is due to J. L. Lagrange;
it may be written
. OP 2 ) _2(m . GP 2 ) , QG , , &)
and expresses that the mean square of the distances of the
particles from O exceeds the mean square of the distances from
G by OG 2 . The mass-centre is accordingly that point the mean
square of whose distances from the several particles is least.
If in (18) we make O coincide with PI, P 2 , . . . P n in succession,
we obtain
^ 2 +...+. PiP S = 2(m . GP 2 ) +2() . GPj 2 , ~)
mi . PrtPi 2 +m 2 .PnP 2 2 +.!. + o =S(m .'GP 2 ) + 2(m) 1 GP 2 .
If we multiply these equations by Wi, W2, . . . nhi, respectively,
and add, we find
22(w r w, . P r P, 2 ) = Z(m) . 2(w . GP 2 ), (20)
provided the summation 22 on the left hand be understood to
include each pair of particles once only. This theorem, also
due to Lagrange, enables us to express the mean square of the
distances of the particles from the centre of mass in terms of
the masses and mutual distances. For instance, considering
four equal particles at the vertices of a regular tetrahedron,
we can infer that the radius R of the circumscribing sphere is
given by R 2 = f c 2 , if a be the length of an edge.
Another type of quadratic moment is supplied by the deviation-
moments, or products of inertia of a distribution of matter.
Thus the sum 2(w.yz) is called the " product of inertia " with
respect to the planes y=o, 2=0. This may be expressed in
terms of the product of inertia with respect to parallel planes
through G by means of the formula (14); viz.:
2(m . yz ) =Z(w.,f)+S() . y~s (21)
STATICS]
MECHANICS
973
The quadratic moments with respect to different planes
through a fixed point O are related to one another as follows.
The moment with respect to the plane
\x+iiy+vz = o, (22)
where X, /*, v are direction-cosines, is
^, (23)
and therefore varies as the square of the perpendicular drawn
from O to a tangent plane of a certain quadric surface, the tangent
plane in question being parallel to (22). If the co-ordinate axes
coincide with the principal axes of this quadric, we shall have
2(myz)=o, 2(mzs)=p, 2(mxy)=o; (24)
and if we write
where M = S(m), the quadratic moment becomes M(a ! X 4 -f-fi ! /* ! +
cV), or M/> 2 , where p is the distance of the origin from that
tangent plane of the ellipsoid
j*+^+^ = i. (26)
which is parallel to (22). It appears from (24) that through any
assigned point O three rectangular axes can be drawn such that
the product of inertia with respect to each pair of co-ordinate
planes vanishes; these are called the principal axes of inertia at O.
The ellipsoid (26) was first employed by J. Binet (1811), and may
be called " Binet's Ellipsoid " for the point O. Evidently the
quadratic moment for a variable plane through O will have a
" stationary " value when, and only when, the plane coincides
with a- principal plane of (26). It may further be shown that if
Binet's ellipsoid be referred to any system of conjugate diameters
as co-ordinate axes, its equation will be
y'2 y'l 2 '2
provided
also that
2(my'z')=o, S(mz'x')=o, S(mx'y')=O. (28)
Let us now take as co-ordinate axes the principal axes of inertia
at the mass-centre G. If a, b, c be the semi-axes of the Binet's
ellipsoid of G, the quadratic moment with respect to the plane
X* + fty + vz =o will be M(a 2 X 2 + b*fj?+ cV), and that with
respect to a parallel plane
will be M(a 2 X 2 -f-&V+A' 2 -r-/> 2 ), by (15). This will have a
given value M 2 , provided
p* = (fc 2 - o 2 )X 2 + (k- - & 2 )M ! +(* t - eV- (30)
Hence the planes of constant quadratic moment M 2 will en-
velop the quadric
and the quadrics corresponding to different values of K 1 will be
confocal. If we write
t =*
the equation (31) becomes
_9
i: (33)
for different values of 6 this represents a system of quadrics
confocal with the ellipsoid
3+J+^-. (34)
which we shall meet with presently as the " ellipsoid of gyration "
at G. Now consider the tangent plane to at any point P of a
confocal, the tangent plane to' at an adjacent point N', and a
plane to" through P parallel to to'. The distance between the
planes to' and to* will be of the second order of small quantities,
and the quadratic moments with respect to to' and to* will there-
fore be equal, to the first order. Since the quadratic moments
with respect to to and to' are equal, it follows that to is a plane of
stationary quadratic moment at P, and therefore a principal
plane of inertia at P. In other words, the principal axes of
inertia at P are the normals to the three confocals of the system
(33) which pass through P. Moreover iix,y,z be the co-ordinates
f P, (33) is an equation to find the corresponding values of 0;
and if 0\, 0z, 0j be the roots we find
1 "i 2 i~ "8 ~~~ * * P I i VoO/
where r*=*x*+y*+z*. The squares of the radii of gyration
about the principal axes at P may be denoted by ht+ht,
kj + ki*, kp + k-f; hence by (32) and (35) they are r 2 0i,
r 2 02, r'Oi, respectively.
To find the relations between the moments of inertia about
different axes through any assigned point O, we take O as origin.
Since the square of the distance of a point (x, y, z) from the
axis
f-J"; w
2 (\x+ny+vzY, the moment of inertia about
s
this axis is
provided
A = 2|m(/-r-z 2 )),
(37)
B=2[m(z 2 +x 2 )).
F = Z(y), G = S(mzx), H=S(mxy); '\ <3>
i.e. A, B, C are the moments of inertia about the co-ordinate
axes, and F, G, H are the products of inertia with respect to the
pairs of co-ordinate planes. If we construct the quadric
where f is an arbitrary linear magnitude, the intercept r which it
makes on a radius drawn in the direction X, /x, v is found by
putting x, y, z=Xr, pr, vr. Hence, by comparison with (37),
I = M 4 /'*- (40)
The moment of inertia about any radius of the quadric (39) there-
fore varies inversely as the square of the length of this radius.
When referred to its principal axes, the equation of the quadric
takes the form
The directions of these axes are determined by the property (24),
and therefore coincide with those of the principal axes of inertia
at O, as already defined in connexion with the theory of plane
quadratic moments. The new A, B, C are called the principal
moments of inertia at O. Since they are essentially positive the
quadric is an ellipsoid; it k called the momental ellipsoid at O.
Since, by (12), B+OA, &c., the sum of the two lesser principal
moments must exceed the greatest principal moment. A limi-
tation is thus imposed on the possible forms of the momental
ellipsoid; e.g. in the case of symmetry about an axis it appears
that the ratio of the polar to the equatorial diameter of the
ellipsoid cannot be less than i/Vz.
If we write A = Ma l , B = Mj3 s , C = M7 2 , the formula (37),
when referred to the principal axes at O, becomes
if p denotes the perpendicular drawn from in the direction
(X, n, v) to a tangent plane of the ellipsoid
S++-' ( >
This is called the ellipsoid of gyration at 0; it was introduced into
the theory by J. MacCullagh. The ellipsoids (41) and (43) are
reciprocal polars with respect to a sphere having O as centre.
If A = B = C, the momental ellipsoid becomes a sphere; all
axes through O are then principal axes, and the moment of
inertia is the same for each. The mass-system is then said to
possess kinetic symmetry about O.
If all the masses lie in a plane (z = o) we have, in the notation of
(25), c*=o, and therefore A = M6 1 , B = Ma, C = M(a+6 1 ), so that
the equation of the momental ellipsoid takes the form
The section of this by the plane z = o is similar to
which may be called the momental ellipse at O. It possesses the
property that the radius of gyration about any diameter is half the
distance between the two tangents which are parallel to that diameter.
In the case of a uniform triangular plate it may be shown that the
momental ellipse at G is concentric, similar and similarly situated
974
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
to the ellipse which touches the sides of the triangle at their middle
points.
The graphical methods of determining the moment of inertia of
a plane system of particles with respect to any line in its plane may
be briefly noticed. It appears from 5 (fig. 31 ) that the linear moment
of each particle about the line may be found by means of a funicular
polygon. If we replace the mass of each particle by its moment,
as thus found, we can in like manner obtain the quadratic moment
of the system with respect to the line. For if the line in question
be the axis of y, the first process gives us the values of mx, and the
second the value of 2(mx.x) or 2(mx 2 ). The construction of a
second funicular may be dispensed with by the employment of a
planimeter, as follows. In fig. 59 p is the line with respect to
which moments are to be taken, and the masses of the respective
particles are indicated by the
P Z a corresponding segments of a
line in the force-diagram,
drawn parallel to p. The
funicular ZABCD . . . cor-
responding to any pole O is
constructed for a system of
forces acting parallel to p
through the positions of the
particles and proportional to
the respective masses; and its
successive sides are produced
to meet p in the points H, K,
L, M , . . As explained in 5,
the moment of the first par-
ticle is represented on a cer-
tain scale by HK, that of the
second by KL, and so on.
The quadratic moment of the
first particle will then be
represented by twice the area
AHK, that of the second by
twice the area BKL, and so
on. The quadratic moment of the whole system is there-
fore represented by twice the area AHEDCBA. Since a quadratic
moment is essentially positive, the various areas are to taken
positive in all cases. If k be the radius of gyration about p we find
& 2 =2 X area AHEDCBA X ON-^ojS,
where aft Is the line in the force-diagram which represents the sum
of the masses, and ON is the distance of the pole O from this line.
If some of the particles lie on one side of p and some on the other,
the quadratic moment of each set may be found, and the results
added. This is illustrated in fig. 60, where the total quadratic
H
FIG. 59.
moment is represented by the sum of the shaded areas. It is seen
that for a given direction of p this moment is least when p passes
through the intersection X of the first and last sides of the funicular;
i.e. when p goes through the mass-centre of the given system;
cf. equation (15).
PART II. KINETICS
12. Rectilinear Motion. Let x denote the distance OP of a
moving point P at time t from a fixed origin O on the line of
motion, this distance being reckoned positive or negative accord-
ing as it lies to one side or the other of O. At time t+St let the
point be at Q, and let OQ = x+dx. The mean velocity of the
point in the interval St is Sx/dl. The limiting value of this when
Si is infinitely small, viz. dx/dt, is adopted as the definition of the
velocity at the instant /. Again, let u be the velocity at time /,
u+5u that at time t+dt. The mean rate of increase of velocity,
or the mean acceleration, in the interval 8t is then 5u/8l. The
limiting value of this when Si is infinitely small, viz., du/dt, is
adopted as the definition of the acceleration at the instant t.
Since u = dx/dt, the acceleration is also denoted by d*x/dP. It is
often convenient to use the " fluxional " notation for differential
coefficients . with respect to the time; thus the velocity may be
represented by x and the acceleration by u or x. There is another
formula for the acceleration, in which u is regarded as a function
of the position; thus=
The relation between
x and t in any particular case may be illustrated by means of a
curve constructed with t as abscissa and x as ordinate. This is
called the curve of positions or space-time curve; its gradient
represents the velocity. Such curves are often traced mechani-
cally in acoustical and other experiments. A curve with t as
abscissa and u as ordinate is called the curve of velocities or
velocity-time curve. Its gradient represents the acceleration, and
the area (fudt) included between any two ordinates represents
the space described in the interval between the corresponding
instants (see fig. 62).
So far nothing has been said about the measurement of time.
From the purely kinematic point of view, the t of our formulae
may be any continuous independent variable, suggested (it
may be) by some physical process. But from the dynamical
standpoint it is obvious that equations which represent the facts
correctly on one system of time-measurement might become
seriously defective on another. It is found that for almost all
purposes a system of measurement based ultimately on the
earth's rotation is perfectly adequate. It is only when we come
to consider such delicate questions as the influence of tidal
friction that other standards become necessary.
The most important conception in kinetics is that of " inertia."
It is a matter of ordinary observation that different bodies acted
on by the same force, or what is judged to be the same force,
undergo different changes of velocity in equal times. In our
ideal representation of natural phenomena this is allowed for by
endowing each material particle with a suitable mass or inertia-
coefficient m. The product mu of the mass into the velocity is
called the momentum or (in Newton's phrase) the quantity of
motion. On the Newtonian system the motion of a particle
entirely uninfluenced by other bodies, when referred to a suitable
base, would be rectilinear, with constant velocity. If the
velocity changes, this is attributed to the action of force; and if
we agree to measure the force (X) by the rate of change of
momentum which it produces, we have the equation
^ (mu) = X. (i)
From this point of view the equation is a mere truism, its real
importance resting on the fact that by attributing suitable
values to the masses m, and by making simple assumptions as
to the value of X in each case, we are able to frame adequate
representations of whole classes of phenomena as they actually
occur. The question remains, of course, as to how far the
measurement of force here implied is practically consistent with
the gravitational method usually adopted in statics; this will be
referred to presently.
The practical unit or standard of mass must, from the nature
of the case, be the mass of some particular body, e.g. the imperial
pound, or the kilogramme. In the " C.G.S." system a sub-
division of the latter, viz. the gramme, is adopted, and is associ-
ated with the centimetre as the unit of length, and the mean
solar second as the unit of time. The unit of force implied in (i)
is that which produces unit momentum in unit time. On the
C.G.S. system it is that force which acting on one gramme for
one second produces' a velocity of one centimetre per second;
this unit is known as the dyne. Units of this kind are called
absolute on account of their fundamental and invariable character
as contrasted with gravitational units, which (as we shall see
presently) vary somewhat with the locality at which the measure-
ments are supposed to be made.
If we integrate the equation (i) with respect to / between the
limits t, t' we obtain
mu'mti f X<i<. (2)
The time-integral on the right hand is called the impulse of the
force on the interval t'-t. The statement that the increase of
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
975
momentum is equal to the impulse is (it may be remarked) equiva-
lent to Newton's own formulation of his Second Law. The form
(i) is deduced from it by putting t' t=5t, and taking 6t to be
infinitely small. In problems of impact we have to deal with
cases of practically instantaneous impulse, where a very great
and rapidly varying force produces an appreciable change of
momentum in an exceedingly minute interval of time.
In the -case of a constant force, the acceleration it or'* is,
according to (i), constant, and we have
* /,i
(3)
3JJ
,
say, the general solution of which is
x = ia/*+A/-|-B. (4)
The " arbitrary constants " A, B enable us to represent the cir-
cumstances of any particular case; thus if the velocity x and the
position * be given for any one value of t, we have two conditions
to determine A, B. The curve of positions corresponding to (4)
is a parabola, and that of velocities is a straight line. We may
take it as an experimental result, although the best evidence is
indirect, that a particle falling freely under gravity experiences
a constant acceleration which at the same place is the same
for all bodies. This acceleration is denoted by g; its value at
Greenwich is about 981 centimetre-second units, or 32-2 feet per
second. It increases somewhat with the latitude, the extreme
variation from the equator to the pole being about ^%. We infer
that on our reckoning the force of gravity on a mass m is to be
measured by mg, the momentum produced per second when this
force acts alone. Since this is proportional to the mass, the
relative masses to be attributed to various bodies can be deter-
mined practically by means of the balance. We learn also that
on account of the variation of g with the locality a gravitational
system of force-measurement is inapplicable when more than a
moderate degree of accuracy is desired.
We take next the case of a particle attracted towards a fixed
point O in the line of motion with a force varying as the distance
from that point. If n be the acceleration at unit distance, the
equation of motion becomes
~d? ~ ~ ltx ' (5)
the solution of which may be written in either of the forms
x = A cos ff<+B sin at, x=a cos (at+t), (6)
where a VM> ar d the two constants A, B or a, f are arbitrary.
The particle oscillates between the two positions *= a, and
the same point is passed through in the same direction with
the same velocity at equal intervals of time 2ir/ff. The type of
motion represented by (6) is of fundamental importance in
the theory of vibrations ( 23); it is
called a simple-harmonic or (shortly) a
simple vibration. If we imagine a
point Q to describe a circle of radius a
with the angular velocity tr, its
orthogonal projection P on a fixed
diameter AA' will execute a vibration
of this character. The angle at+t (or
AOQ) is called the phase; the arbitrary
elements a, are called the amplitude
and epoch (or initial phase), respec-
tively. In the case of very rapid vibrations it is usual to
specify, not the period (2ir/<r), but its reciprocal the frequency,
i.e. the number of complete vibrations per unit time.
Fig. 62 shows the curves of 'position and velocity; they
both have the form of the " curve of sines." The numbers
correspond to an amplitude of 10 centimetres and a period of
two seconds.
The vertical oscillations of a weight which hangs from a fixed
point by a spiral spring come under this case. If Mbe the mass,
and x the vertical displacement from the position of equilibrium,
the equation of motion is of the form
Mf Kx, (7)
provided the inertia of the spring itself be neglected. This
FIG. 61.
becomes identical with (5) if we put/i = K/M; and the period is
therefore 2TV(M/K), the same for all amplitudes. The period
is increased by an increase of the mass M, and diminished by an
increase in the stiffness (K) of the spring. If c be the statical
increase of length which is produced by the gravity of the mass M,
we have Kc = Mg, and the period is 2 TV(c/g).
The small oscillations of a simple pendulum in a vertical plane
also come under equation (5). According to the principles of
-So.
FIG. 62.
13, the horizontal motion of the bob is affected only by the
horizontal component of the force acting upon it. If the inclin-
ation of the string to the vertical does not exceed a few degrees,
the vertical displacement of the particle is of the second order, so
that the vertical acceleration may be neglected, and the tension
of the string may be equated to the gravity mg of the particle.
Hence if / be the length of the string, and x the horizontal
displacement of the bob from the equilibrium position, the
horizontal component of gravity is mgx/l, whence
The motion is therefore simple-harmonic, of period T= 2rV(//g)-
This indicates an experimental method of determining g with
considerable accuracy, using the formula g = 4T 1 //T 1 .
In the case of a repulsive force varying as the distance from the
origin, the equation of motion is of the type
d*x . .
3JT=M*, (9)
the solution of which is
x=Ae"'+B-",
(10)
where n = V/- Unless the initial conditions be adjusted so as to
make A=o exactly, x will ultimately increase indefinitely with /.
The position x = o is one of equilibrium, but it is unstable. This
applies to the inverted pendulum, with n=g/l, but the equation (9)
is then only approximate, and the solution therefore only serves
to represent the initial stages of a motion in the neighbourhood of
the position of unstable equilibrium.
In acoustics we meet with the case where a body is urged
towards a fixed point by a force varying as the distance, and
is also acted upon by an " extraneous " or " disturbing " force
which is a given function of the time. The most important case
is where this function is simple-harmonic, so that the equation
(5) is replaced by
where ffi is prescribed. A particular solution is
x= _^ gl cos (<ri(+a). (12)
This represents a forced oscillation whose period VK]V\, coincides
with that of the disturbing force; and the phase agrees with that
of the force, or is opposed to it, according as i*<or>/a; i.e.
according as the imposed period is greater or less than the natural
period 2T/V/*- The solution fails when the two periods agree
exactly; the formula (12) is then replaced by
*~J~ sm (*i'+)i (13)
which represents a vibration of continually increasing amplitude.
Since the equation (12) is in practice generally only an approxi-
mation (as in the case of the pendulum), this solution can only
97 6
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
be accepted as a representation of the initial stages of the forcec
oscillation. To obtain the complete solution of (u) we must o
course superpose the free vibration (6) with its arbitrary con-
stants in order to obtain a complete representation of the most
general motion consequent on arbitrary initial conditions.
A simple mechanical illustration is afforded by the pendulum
If the point of suspension have an imposed simple vibration =
a cos at in a horizontal line, the equation of small motion of the
bob is
This is the same as if the point of suspension were fixed, and _
horizontal disturbing force mgt/l were to act on the bob. The
difference of phase of the
forced vibration in the
two cases is illustratec
and explained in the an-
nexed fig. 63, where the
pendulum virtually oscil-
lates about C as a fixed
point of suspension. This
illustration was given by
T. Young in connexion
with the kinetic theory
of the tides, where the
same point arises.
We may notice also the
case of an attractive force
varying inversely as the
square of the distance
from the origin. If n be
FIG. 63.
the acceleration at unit distance, we have
=- (I 5 )
whence M J = +C. (16)
In the case of a particle falling directly towards the earth from rest
at a very great distance we have C=o and, by Newton's Law of
Gravitation, M/i 2 = g, where a is the earth's radius. The deviation
of the earth s figure from sphericity, and the variation of g with
latitude, are here ignored. We find that the velocity with which
the particle would arrive at the earth's surface (x = a)\s V(2ga).
If we take as rough values a = 2l Xio 6 feet, g = 32 foot-second units,
we get a velocity of 36,500 feet, or about seven miles, per second.
If the particles start from rest at a finite distance c, we have in
(16), C= 2/i/c, and therefore
dx / ( 2n(c-x) I , .
Tt =u= -V I ex \< (I? )
the minus sign indicating motion towards the origin. If we put
* = c cos 2 %<t>, we find
-s
sm<t>), (18)
no additive constant being necessary if / be reckoned from the instant
of starting, when <j> = o. The time t of reaching the origin (<t>=ir) is
This may be compared with the period of revolution in a circular
orbit of radius c about the same centre of force, viz. 2ird/VM(i4)-
We learn that if the orbital motion of a planet, or a satellite, were
arrested, the body would fall into the sun, or into its primary, in
the fraction 0-1768 of its actual periodic time. Thus the moon
would reach the earth in about five days. It may be noticed that
if the scales of x and t be properly adjusted, the curve of positions
in the present problem is the portion of a cycloid extending from
a vertex to a cusp.
In any case of rectilinear motion, if we integrate both sides
of the equation
=X C->ot
which is equivalent to (i), with respect to x between the limits
x 0> Xi, we obtain
(21)
f*
J X
We recognize the right-hand member as the work done by
the force X on the particle as the latter moves from the position
x a to the position x t . If we construct a curve with x as abscissa
and X as ordinate, this work is represented, as in J. Watt's
" indicator-diagram," by the area cut off by the ordinates
x=x , X=XL The product 2 is called the kinetic energy
of the particle, and the equation (21) is therefore equivalent
to the statement that the increment of the kinetic energy is
equal to the work done on the particle. If the force X be
always the same in the same position, the particle may be'
regarded as moving in a certain invariable " field of force."
The work which would have to be supplied by other forces,
extraneous to the field, in order to bring the particle from rest
in some standard'position P to rest in any assigned position
P, will depend only on the position of P; it is called the statical
or potential energy of the particle with respect to the field, in
the position P. Denoting this by V, we have 6V XSx=o,
whence
X=-
dV
The equation (21) may now be written
(23)
which asserts that when no extraneous forces act the sum of
the kinetic and potential energies is constant. Thus in the
case of a weight hanging by a spiral spring the work required
to increase the length by * is V=flRxdx = %Kx 2 , whence
|M 2 + jKr ! =const., as is easily verified from preceding
results. It is easily seen that the effect of extraneous forces
will be to increase the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
by an amount equal to the work done by them. If this amount
be negative the sum in question is diminished by a corresponding
amount. It appears then that this sum is a measure of the
total capacity for doing work against extraneous resistances
which the particle possesses in virtue of its motion and its
position; this is in fact the origin of the term " energy." The
product w 2 had been called by G. W. Leibnitz the "vis viva";
the name " energy " was substituted by T. Young; finally
the name " actual energy " was appropriated to the expression
\wf- by W. J. M. Rankine.
The laws which regulate the resistance of a medium such as air
to the motion of bodies through it are only imperfectly known. We
may briefly notice the case of resistance varying as the square of
the velocity, which is mathematically simple. If the positive
direction of x be downwards, the equation of motion of a falling
particle will be of the form
du_ , s
dt ~ K '
this shows that the velocity u will send asymptotically to a certain
limit V (called the terminal velocity) such that feV 2 = . The solution
u=V tanhff, x log cosh f^,
(25)
if the particle start from rest in the position x = o at the instant
/ = o. In the case of a particle projected vertically upwards we
have
T t = -l-< (26)
the positive direction being now upwards. This leads to
where o is the velocity of projection. The particle comes to rest
when
' = tan-'y, x= log^l+yjj . (28)
For small velocities the resistance of the air is more nearly pro-
portional to the first power of the velocity. The effect of forces
>f this type on small vibratory motions may be investigated as
ollows. The equation (5) when modified by the introduction of
a frictional term becomes
(29)
'f & 2 <4M the solution is
<l COS (<rt+e), (30)
where
and the constants a, e are arbitrary. This may be described as a
simple harmonic oscillation whose amplitude diminishes asympto-
ically to zero according to the law e~'/ r . The constant T is called
he modulus of decay of the oscillations ; if it is large compared with
2ir/tr the effect of friction on the period is of the second order of
:mall quantities and may in general be ignored. We have seen that
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
977
a true simple-harmonic vibration may be regarded as the orthogonal
projection of uniform circular motion; it was pointed out by P. G.
Tait that a similar representation of the type (30) is obtained if we
replace the circle by an equiangular spiral described, with a constant
angular velocity about the pole, in the direction of diminishing radius
vector. When k*> 4^, the solution of (29) is, in real form,
* = Oi~'/ Tl +Oi"'' r s, (32)
where I/TI, i/rj = Ji V (i* 1 /") (33)
The body now passes once (at most) through its equilibrium position,
and the vibration is therefore styled aperiodic.
To find the forced oscillation due to a periodic force we have
x+*x-bx=/cos(<7,<+). (34)
The solution is
provided
O If 2\2_l_fc2 211 t fe<Tl (16}
Hence the phase of the vibration lags behind that of the force by
the amount i, which lies between o and JT or between }T and a-,
according as <ri 2 SM- If the friction be comparatively slight the
amplitude is greatest when the imposed period coincides with the
free period, being then equal to //fe<n, and therefore very great
compared with that due to a slowly varying force of the same average
intensity. We have here, in principle, the explanation of the
phenomenon of " resonance " in acoustics. The abnormal amplitude
is greater, and is restricted to a narrower range of frequency, the
smaller the friction. For a complete solution of (34) we must of
course superpose the free vibration (30) ; but owing to the factor e~'l r
the influence of the initial conditions gradually disappears.
For purposes of mathematical treatment a force which
produces a finite change of velocity in a time too short to be
appreciated is regarded as infinitely great, and the time of
action as infinitely short. The whole effect is summed up in
the value of the instantaneous impulse, which is the time-
integral of the force. Thus if an instantaneous impulse
changes the velocity of a mass m from u to u' we have
mu' m=. (37)
The effect of ordinary finite forces during the infinitely short
duration of this impulse is of course ignored.
We may apply this to the theory of impact. If two masses
mi, 2 moving in the same straight line impinge, with the
result that the velocities are changed from u\, MJ, to HI, Ui,
then, since the impulses on the two bodies must be equal and
opposite, the total momentum is unchanged, i.e.
fWitti -f-WJ2M2 = TWiWi-rWJzWj- (3^)
The complete determination of the result of a collision under
given circumstances is not a matter of abstract dynamics alone,
but requires some auxiliary assumption. If we assume that
there is no loss of apparent kinetic energy we have also
Hence, and from (38),
(i.e. the relative velocity of the two bodies is reversed in direction,
but unaltered in magnitude. This appears to be the case
very approximately with steel or glass balls; generally, however,
there is some appreciable loss of apparent energy; this is ac-
counted for by vibrations produced in the balls and imperfect
elasticity of the materials. The usual empirical assumption
is that
ut'-ui'=-e(tit-ui), (41)
where e is a proper fraction which is constant for the same two
bodies. It follows from the formula 15 (10) for the internal
kinetic energy of a system of particles that as a result of the
impact this energy is diminished by the amount
The further theoretical discussion of the subject belongs to
ELASTICITY.
This is perhaps the most suitable place for a few remarks on
the theory of " dimensions." (See also UNITS, DIMENSIONS
OF.) In any absolute system of dynamical measurement
the fundamental units are those of mass, length and time;
we may denote them by the symbols M, L, T, respectively.
They may be chosen quite arbitrarily, e.g. on the C.G.S. system
they are the gramme, centimetre and second. All other units
are derived from these. Thus the unit of velocity is that of a
point describing the unit of length in the unit of time; it may
be denoted by LT" 1 , this symbol indicating that the magnitude
of the unit in question varies directly as the unit of length and
inversely as the unit of time. The unit of acceleration is the
acceleration of a point which gains unit velocity in unit time; it is
accordingly denoted by LT" 2 . The unit of momentum is MLT~' ;
the unit force generates unit momentum in unit time and is there-
fore denoted by MLT" 1 . The unit of work on the same principles
is ML 2 ! 1 " 2 , and it is to be noticed that this is identical with the
unit of kinetic energy. Some of these derivative units have
special names assigned to them; thus on the C.G.S. system
the unit of force is called the dyne, and the unit of work or
energy the erg. The number which expresses a physical quantity
of any particular kind will of course vary inversely as the
magnitude of the corresponding unit. In any general dynami-
cal equation the dimensions of each term in the fundamental
units must be the same, for a change of units would otherwise
alter the various terms in different ratios. This principle is
often useful as a check on the accuracy of an equation.
The theory of dimensions often enables us to forecast, to some
extent, the manner in which the magnitudes involved in any parti-
cular problem will enter into the result. Thus, assuming that the
period of a small oscillation of a given pendulum at a given place
is a definite quantity, we see that it must vary as V wig). For it
can only depend on the mass m of the bob, the length I of the string,
and the value of g at the place in question ; and the above expression
is the only combination of these symbols whose dimensions are those
of a time, simply. Again, the time of falling from a distance a into
a given centre of force varying inversely as the square of the distance
will depend only on a and on the constant it of equation (15). The
dimensions of n/x* are those of an acceleration ; hence the dimensions
of in are L*T~*. Assuming that the time in question varies as a z it',
whose dimensions are L I * 3 T~* 1 ', we must have *+3y=o, 2y = i,
so that the time of falling will vary as o'/V/i, in agreement with (19).
The argument appears in a more demonstrative form in the theory
of " similar " systems, or (more precisely) of the similar motion of
similar systems. Thus, considering the equations
f-x it <P.r' it' ' ,,.
W = ~lf' 3^-T 5 ' (43 >
which refer to two particles falling independently into two distinct
centres of force, it is obvious that it is possible to have x in a constant
ratio to x', and / in a constant ratio to t', provided that
x x' it it' .
?:p5 = ^-pj. (44)
and that there is a suitable correspondence between the initial
conditions. The relation (44) is equivalent to
** x'*
''-*?* U5)
where x, x' are any two corresponding distances; e.g. they may be
the initial distances, both particles being supposed to start from rest.
The consideration of dimensions was introduced by J. B. Fourier
(1822) in connexion with the conduction of heat.
13. General Motion of a Particle. Let P, Q be the positions
of a moving point at times /, t+St respectively. A vector
OU drawn parallel to PQ, of length proportional to PQ/5/
on any convenient scale, will represent the mean velocity in the
interval &t, i.e. a point moving with a constant velocity having
the magnitude and direction indicated by this vector would
FIG. 64.
experience the same resultant displacement PQ in the same
time. As 5l is indefinitely diminished, the vector OU will
-3
tend to a definite limit OV; this is adopted as the definition
97 8
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
of the velocity of the moving point at the instant /. Obviously
OV is parallel to the tangent to the path at P, and its magnitude
is ds/dt, where 5 is the arc. If we project OV on the co-ordinate
axes (rectangular or oblique) in the usual manner, the pro-
jections u, v, in are called the component velocities parallel to
the axes. If x, y, z be the co-ordinates of P it is easily proved
that
dx dy dz , .
" = di' v =dt' w =7f W
The momentum of a particle is the vector obtained by multi-
plying the velocity by the mass m. The impulse of a force
in any infinitely small interval of time St is the product of the
force into dt; it is to be regarded as a vector. The total impulse
in any finite interval of time is the integral of the impulses
corresponding to the infinitesimal elements dt into which the
interval may be subdivided; the summation of which the
integral is the limit is of course to be understood in the vectorial
sense.
Newton's Second Law asserts that change of momentum is
equal to the impulse; this is a statement as to equality of vectors
and so implies identity of direction as well as of magnitude.
If X, Y, Z are the components of force, then considering the
changes in an infinitely short time Si we have, by projection
on the co-ordinate axes, &(mu) =XSl, and so on, or
du v dv ,. dw , .
m Tt=*< m Jt =y ' m Tt =7 " &
For example, the path of a particle projected anyhow under
gravity will obviously be confined to the vertical plane through
the initial direction of motion. Taking this as the plane xy,
with the axis of x drawn horizontally, and that of y vertically
upwards, we have X = o, Y= mg; so that
dfx d*y
3F='d = -g- (3)
The solution is
*=AH-B, y =-lgp+Ct+D. (4)
If the initial values of x, y, x, y are given, we have four conditions
to determine the four arbitrary constants A, B, C, D. Thus if
the particle start at time / = o from the origin, with the com-
ponent velocities MO, o> we have
x=ttot, y=vot-\gP. (5)
Eliminating / we have the equation of the path, viz.
This is a parabola with vertical axis, of latus-rectum 2Utf/g.
The range on a horizontal plane through O is got by putting
y = o, viz. it is 2u v<,lg. If we denote the resultant velocity
at any instant by s we have
s' 1 =&+y*=s<?-2gy. (7)
Another important example is that of a particle subject
to an acceleration which is directed always towards a fixed
point O and is proportional to the distance from O. The motion
will evidently be in one plane, which we take as the plane z=o.
If n be the acceleration at unit distance, the component accelera-
tions parallel to axes of * and y through O as origin will be
-px, -py, whence
d*x (Py , >
dp = - x 'dp = -y-
The solution is
x = Acosni+B sinnl, y = C cos nt+ D sin nt, (9)
where w=V/t- If P be the initial position of the particle, we
may conveniently take OP as axis of x, and draw Oy parallel
to the direction of motion at P. If OP= a, and So be the velocity
at P, we have, initially, x = a, y = o, x=o, y = $i>i whence
x=acosnt, y=bsinnt, (10)
if b = S<>/n. The path is therefore an ellipse of which a, b are
conjugate semi-diameters, and is described in the period 2ir/VM;
moreover, the velocity at any point P is equal to VM ' OD,
where OD is the semi-diameter conjugate to OP. This type of
motion is called elliptic harmonic. If the co-ordinate axes are the
principal axes of the ellipse, the angle nt in (10) is identical
with the " excentric angle." The motion of the bob of a " spher-
ical pendulum," i e. a simple pendulum whose oscillations are
not confined to one vertical plane, is of this character, provided
the extreme inclination of the string to the vertical be small.
The acceleration is towards the vertical through the point of
suspension, and is equal to gr/l, approximately, if r denote
distance from this vertical. Hence the path is approximately
an ellipse, and the period is 2ir
The above problem is identical with that of the oscillation of a
particle in a smooth spherical bowl, in the
neighbourhood of the lowest point. If the
bowl has any other shape, the axes Ox, Oy may
be taken tangential to the lines fof curvature
at the lowest point O; the equations of small
motion then are
f-x
X (Pi
= _.2,
Thus,
where p\, p 2 , are the principal radii of curvature
at O. The motion is therefore the resultant of
two simple vibrations in perpendicular direc-
tions, of periods 2*- V (pi/g), 2irV Wg). The
circumstances are realized in " Blackburn's
pendulum," which consists of a weight P
hanging from a point C of a string ACB whose
ends A, B are fixed. If E be the point in which the line of the
string meets AB, we have pi=CP, p s = EP. Many contrivances
for actually drawing the resulting curves have been devised.
It is sometimes convenient to resolve the accelerations in
directions having a more intrinsic relation to the path,
in a plane path, let P,Q be two con-
secutive positions, corresponding to the
times I, I + St; and let the normals at
P, Q meet in C, making an angle 5\l/.
Let v ( = s) be the velocity at P,
v+5v that at Q. In the time dl
the velocity parallel to the tangent at
P changes from v to v-\-5v, ulti-
mately, and the tangential accelera-
tion at P is therefore dv/dt or S. Again, the velocity parallel
to the normal at P changes from o to vS^, ultimately, so that
the normal acceleration is vd\l//dt. Since
dv_dvds_ dv dty _ d\l* ds_iP .
where p is the radius of curvature of the path at P, the tangential
and normal accelerations are also expressed by v dv/ds and j^/p,
respectively. Take, for example, the case of a particle moving
on a smooth curve in a vertical plane, under the action
of gravity and the pressure R of the curve. If the axes of
x and y be drawn horizontal and vertical (upwards), and if $
be the inclination of the tangent to the horizontal, we have
dv . dy mv*
= mg sin v = mg-fs' = cos^+R. (13)
The former equation gives
v*- = C-2gy, (14)
and the latter then determines R.
In the case cf the pendulum the tension of the string takes the
place of the pressure of the curve. If / be the length of the string,
\l/ its inclination to the downward vertical, we have Ss=lS\f', so that
v = ld<l//dt. The tangential resolution then gives
l jp- ~S sin 'fr-
it we multiply by 2d<l//dl and integrate, we obtain
} =-f cos ^+const., (16)
which is seen to be equivalent to (14). If the pendulum oscillate
between the limits \j/ = * o, we have
and, putting sin J^ = sin Jo. sin <t>, we find for the period (T) of a
complete oscillation .
& Jo V(I-i
-^ - Fi(sin Jo),
(18)
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
979
in the notation of elliptic integrals. The function Fi (sin 0) was
tabulated by A. M. Legendre for values of ft ranging from o to 90.
The following table gives the period, for various amplitudes o, in
terms of that of oscillation in an infinitely small arc [viz. 2irV (//g)
as unit.
/T
T
/T
T
I
2
3
4
5
OO62
0253
0585
1087
1804
6
8
9
I-O
I-28I7
I-4283
I-655I
2-0724
00
The value of T can also be obtained as an infinite series, by expanding
the integrand in (18) by the binomial theorem, and integrating term
by term. Thus
(19)
If a be small, an approximation (usually sufficient) is
FIG. 67.
In the extreme case of a = r, the equation (17) is immediately
integrable ; thus the time from the lowest position is
/-V (//). log tan (IT + !*) (20)
This becomes infinite for ^=ir, showing that the pendulum only
tends asymptotically to the highest position.
The variation of period with amplitude was at one time a hindrance
to the accurate performance of pendulum clocks, since the errors
produced are cumulative. It was therefore sought to replace the
circular pendulum by some other contrivance free from this defect.
The equation of motion of a particle in any smooth path is
2p=-gsmt, (21)
where ^ is the inclination of the tangent to the horizontal. If
sin \l> were accurately and not merely approximately proportional
to the arc s, say
i = *siniA, (22)
the equation (21) would assume the same form as 12 (5). The
motion along the arc would then be accurately simple-harmonic,
and the period 2irV (k/g) would be the same for all amplitudes.
Now equation (22) is the intrinsic equation of a cycloid; viz. the
curve is that traced by a point on
the circumference of a circle of
radius Jfe which rolls on the under
side of a horizontal straight line.
Since the eyolute of a cycloid is an
equal cycloid the object is attained
by means of two metal cheeks,
having the form of the evolute
near the cusp, on which the string
wraps itself alternately as the pen-
dulum swings. The device has
long been abandoned, the difficulty
being met in other ways, but the
problem, originally investigated by C. Huygens, is important in the
history of mathematics.
The component accelerations of a point describing a tortuous
curve, in the directions of the tangent, the principal normal,
and the binormal, respectively, are found as follows. If OV,
OV be vectors representing the velocities at two consecutive
points P, P' of the path, the plane VOV is ultimately parallel
to .the osculating plane of the path at P; the resultant accelera-
tion is therefore in the osculating plane. Also, the projections
of W* on OV and on a perpendicular to OV in the plane VOV
are dv and vSf, where 5e is the angle between the directions
of the tangents at P,P'. Since Se = 5s/p, where 6s=PP'=v5l
and p is the radius of principal curvature at P, the component
accelerations along the tangent and principal normal axedv/dt
and vde/dt, respectively, or vdv/ds and if/p. For example,
if a particle moves on a smooth surface, under no forces except
the reaction of the surface, is constant, and the principal
normal to the path will coincide with the normal to the surface.
Hence the path is a " geodesic " on the surface.
If we resolve along the tangent to the path (whether plane
or tortuous), the equation of motion of a particle may be written
mv j s = C, (23)
where 1 is the tangential component of the force. Integrating
with respect to i we find
(24)
i.e. the increase of kinetic energy between any two positions
is equal to the work done by the forces. The result follows
also from the Cartesian equations (2); viz. we have
m(i* + yy+zz)=X*-)-Yy+Zz, ( 2 5)
whence, on integration with respect to /,
bn(x*+y*+#) =j(Xx+Yy + Zz)dt+const.
=f(Xdx+Ydy+Zdz) +const.
If the axes be rectangular, this has the same interpretation as
(24)-
Suppose now that we have a constant field of force; i.e. the
force acting on the particle is always the same at the same place.
The work which must be done by forces extraneous to the
field in order to bring the particle from rest in some standard
position A to rest in any other position P will not necessarily
be the same for all paths between A and P. If it is different
for different paths, then by bringing the particle from AtoP
by one path, and back again from P to A by another, we might
secure a gain of work, and the process could be repeated indef-
initely. If the work required is the same for all paths between
A and P, and therefore zero for a closed circuit, the field is
said to be conservative. In this case the work required to bring
the particle from rest at A to rest at P is called the potential
energy of the particle in the position P; we denote it by V. If
PP' be a linear element 8s drawn in any direction from P,
and S be the force due to the field, resolved in the direction
PP', we have 5V = - SSs or
In particular, by taking PP' parallel to each of the (rectangular)
co-orclinate axes in succession, we find
X g,Y gf,Z g. (a8)
The equation (24) or (26) now gives
i.e. the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is constant
when no work is done by extraneous forces. For example,
if the field be that due to gravity we have V =fmgdy = mgy-\-
const., if the axis of y be drawn vertically upwards; hence
lm I +mgy=const. (30)
This applies to motion on a smooth curve, as well as to the
free motion of a projectile; cf. (7), (14). Again, in the case
of a force Kr towards O, where r denotes distance from O
we have V=/Kr</r=iKr 2 +const., whence
Jmr 2 + iKf=const. (31)
It has been seen that the orbit is in this case an ellipse; also
that if we put jj = K/m the velocity at any point P is v=
V/i- OD, where OD is the semi-diameter conjugate to OP.
Hence (31) is consistent with the known property of the ellipse
that OP+OD 2 is constant.
The forms assumed by the dynamical equations when the axes of
reference are themselves in motion will be considered in 21. At
present we take only the case where the rectangular axes Ox, Oy
rotate in their own plane, with angular velocity a about Oz, which
is fixed. In the interval it the projections of the line joining the
origin to any point (x, y, z) on the directions of the co-ordinate axes
at time / are changed from x, y, z to (x+Sx) cos ait (y+4y) sin ait,
(x+5x) sin <^t+ (y+Sy) cos aSt, z respectively. Hence the com-
ponent velocities parallel to the instantaneous positions of the
co-ordinate axes at time / are
tt=x wy, v = $-\-uz, u = i. (32)
In the same way we find that the component accelerations are
it an, t+wu, u. (33)
Hence if u be constant the equations of motion take the forms
m(x 2ury u ! x)=X, m(y+2wx u*y) = Y, mz = Z. (34)
These become identical with the equations of motion relative to
fixed axes provided we introduce a fictitious force mufr acting out-
wards from the axis of z, where r = V (x*+y*), and a second fictitious
force 2miM at right angles to the path, where r is the component
of the relative velocity parallel to the plane xy. The former force
is called by French writers the force centrifuge ordinaire, and the
latter the/orce centrifuge composee, or force de Coriolis. As an appli-
cation of (34) we may take the case of a symmetrical Blackburn's
pendulum hanging from a horizontal bar which is made to rotate
980
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
about a vertical axis half-way between the points of attachment of
the upper string. The equations of small motion are then of the
type
x 2ay u*x = p*x,y +2ui w 2 y= (fy. (35)
This is satisfied by
provided
2<ruB =0,\
-S 2 )B=o.J
x = A cos (<r<+), y = B sin (at-\-t), (36)
(37)
Eliminating the ratio A:B we have
(u 2 +u 2 p 2 ) (o- 2 -|-o) 2 g 2 ) 4ff 2 o> 2 =o. (38)
It is easily proved that the roots of this quadratic in <r 2 are always
real, and that they are moreover both positive unless u 2 lies between
p 2 and g 2 . The ratio B/A is determined in each case by either of
the equations (37) ; hence each root of the quadratic gives a solution
of the type (36), with two arbitrary constants A, e. Since the equa-
tions (35) are linear, these two solutions are to be superposed. If
the quadratic (38) has a negative root, the trigonometrical functions
in (36) are to be replaced by real exponentials, and the position
x=o, y=o is unstable. This occurs only when the period (ZTT/U)
of revolution of the arm lies between the two periods (2ir/p, 2ir/q)
of oscillation when the arm is fixed.
14. Central Forces. Hodograph. The motion of a particle
subject to a force which passes always through a fixed point O
is necessarily in a plane orbit. For its investigation we require
two equations; these may be obtained in a variety of forms.
Since the impulse of the force in any element of time St has
zero moment about O, the same will be true of the additional
momentum generated. Hence the moment of the momentum
(considered as a localized vector) about will be constant. In
symbols, if v be the velocity and p the perpendicular from O to
the tangent to the path,
pv h, (i)
where A is a constant. If Ss be an element of the path, pSs is
twice the area enclosed by 5s and the radii drawn to its extremi-
ties from O. Hence if 5A be this area, we have 6A = pSs =
I hSt, or
Hence equal areas are swept over by the radius vector in equal
times.
If P be the acceleration towards O, we have
v 3s=- P J S ' (3)
since dr/ds is the cosine of the angle between the directions of r
and 8s. We will suppose that P is a function of r only; then
integrating (3) we find
i 2 =-JPdr+const., (4)
which is recognized as the equation of energy. Combining this
with (i) we have
which completely determines the path except as to its orienta-
tion with respect to O.
If the law of attraction be that of the inverse square of the
distance, we have P = /j/r 2 , and
$-C+T- )
Now in a conic whose focus is at O we have
= 2 - ( }
where / is half the latus-rectum, a is half the major axis, and the
upper or lower sign is to be taken according as the conic is an
ellipse or hyperbola. In the intermediate case of the parabola
we have a = x and the last term disappears. The equations
(6) and (7) are identified by putting
J=/1 2 /M, = =FM/C. (8)
Since
(9)
it appears that the orbit is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola,
according as B 2 is less than, equal to, or greater than z/t/r. Now
it appears from (6) that 2p/r is the square of the velocity which
would be acquired by a particle falling from rest at infinity to
the distance r. Hence the character of the orbit depends on
whether the velocity at any point is less than, equal to, or
greater than the velocity from infinity, as it is called. In an
elliptic orbit the area irab is swept over in the time
vab 2z?
since h=^=n^ba~^ by (8).
The converse problem, to determine the law of force under which
a given orbit can be described about a given pole, is solved by differ-
entiating (5) with respect to r ; thus
P =pTr- ()
In the case of an ellipse described about the centre as pole we have
o 2 6 2
-j-.rf + J.-,*; (la)
hence P=/ur, if n = h' t la''V. This merely shows that a particular
ellipse may be described under the law of the direct distance provided
the circumstances of projection be suitably adjusted. But since
an ellipse can always be constructed with a given centre so as to
touch a given line at a given point, and to have a given value of
ab( = /Z/VM) we infer that the orbit will be elliptic whatever the initial
circumstances. Also the period is 2vabjh = 2irl-<l n, as previously
found.
Again, in the equiangular spiral we have p = r sin a, and therefore
P=n/r 3 , if /u = A 2 /sin 2 a. But since an equiangular spiral having
a given pole is completely determined by a given point and a given
tangent, this type of orbit is not a general one for the law of the
inverse cube. In order that the spiral may be described it is neces-
sary that the velocity of projection should be adjusted to make
& = VM- sin a. Similarly, in the case of a circle with the pole on the
circumference we have p t = r t /2a, P=^/r 6 , if M = 8A 2 a 2 ; but this
orbit is not a general one for the law of the inverse fifth power.
In astronomical and other investigations relating to central
forces it is often convenient to use polar co-ordinates with
the centre of force as pole.
Let P, Q be the positions of a
moving point at times t, I + St,
and write OP = r, OQ = r+dr,
z.POQ=S0, O being any fixed
origin. If u, v be the com-
ponent velocities at P along
and perpendicular to OP (in
the direction o f 6 increasing),
we have
,. dr dr
v+Sv
FIG. 68.
de
(13)
Again, the velocities parallel and perpendicular to OP change
in the time St from u, v to u vdd, v+uS0, ultimately. The
component accelerations at P in these directions are therefore
d u d6 fr td8\ * 1
= j-r(j7) ,!
(H)
,
1
dv . d$ id
df l + u 3i = r'di
respectively.
In the case of a central force, with O as pole, the transverse
acceleration vanishes, so that
r*dB/dt=h, (15)
where h is constant; this shows (again) that the radius vector
sweeps over equal areas in equal times. The radial resolution
gives
where P, as before, denotes the acceleration towards 0. If in
this we put r= i/u, and eliminate / by means of (15), we obtain
the general differential equation of central orbits, viz.
If, for example, the law be that of the inverse square, we have
P =/itt 2 , and the solution is of the form
<0}, (18)
where e, a are arbitrary constants. This is recognized as the polar
equation of a conic referred to the focus, the half latus-rectum being
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
981
The law of the inverse cube P = / w 3 is interesting by way of
contrast. The orbits may be divided into two classes according as
A ! 5n, i-e. according as the transverse velocity (hu) is greater or
less than the velocity V /* appropriate to a circular orbit at the same
distance. In the former case the equation (17) takes the form
f+mi.-o, (19)
the solution of which is
o = sin m (9 a). (20)
The orbit has therefore two asymptotes, inclined at an angle ir/m.
In the latter case the differential equation is of the form
so that
if = Ae m * + B#""* (22)
If A, B have the same sign, this is equivalent to
o=cosh m8, (23)
if the origin of 9 be suitably adjusted; hence r has a maximum
value a, and the particle ultimately approaches the pole asymptoti-
cally by an infinite number of convolutions. If A, B have opposite
signs the form is
a = sinh mO, (24)
this has an asymptote parallel to = o, but the path near the origin
has the same general form as in the case of (23). If A or B vanish
we have an equiangular spiral, and the velocity at infinity is zero.
In the critical case of A 2 = /i, we have d'u/dff'^o, and
= A0+B; (25)
the orbit is therefore a " reciprocal spiral," except in the special
case of A=o, when it is a circle. It will be seen that unless the
conditions be exactly adjusted for a circular orbit the particle will
either recede to infinity or approach the pole asymptotically. This
problem was investigated by R. Cotes (1682-1716), and the various
curves obtained are known as Cotes' s spirals.
A point on a central orbit where the radial velocity (dr/dt)
vanishes is called an apse, and the corresponding radius is called
an apse-line. If the force is always the same at the same distance
any apse-line will divide the orbit symmetrically, as is seen by
imagining the velocity at the apse to be reversed. It follows
that the angle between successive apse-lines is constant; it is
called the apsidal angle of the orbit.
If in a central orbit the velocity is equal to the velocity from
infinity, we have, from (5),
Pdr;
(26)
this determines the form of the critical orbit, as it is called. If
P=fi/r n , its polar equation is
r m cos m9=a m , (27)
where tn=\(j, ri), except in the case = 3, when the orbit is an
equiangular spiral. The case n=2 gives the parabola as before.
If we eliminate dff/dt between (15) and (16) we obtain
say. We may apply this to the investigation of the stability of a
circular orbit. Assuming that r=a+x, where x is small, we have,
approximately,
Hence if h and a be connected by the relation A* = a*/(a) proper to a
circular orbit, we have
If the coefficient of x be positive the variations of x are simple-
harmonic, and x can remain permanently small; the circular orbit
is then said to be stable. The condition for this may be written
3j|a J /(a))>o, (29)
i.e. the intensity of the force in the region for which r = o, nearly,
must diminish with increasing distance less rapidly than according
to the law of the inverse cube. Again, the half-period of x is
WVl/'(o)+3a-'/(o)), and since the angular velocity in the orbit is
A/a 2 , approximately, the apsidal angle is, ultimately,
( . (30)
or, in the case of /(a) =M/r", /V (3 ) This is in agreement with
the known results for n = 2, n= I.
We have seen that under the law of the inverse square all finite
orbits are elliptical. The question presents itself whether there
hen is any other law of force, giving a finite velocity from infinity,
under which all finite orbits are necessarily closed curves. If this
s the case, the apsidal angle must evidently be commensurable with
r, and since it cannot vary discontinuously the apsidal angle in a
nearly circular orbit must be constant. Equating the expression
^30) to ir/m, we find that f(a) = C/o", where n = 3 m*. The force
must therefore vary as a power of the distance, and n must be less
than 3. Moreover, the case n = 2 is the only one in which the critical
orbit (27) can be regarded as the limiting form of a closed curve.
Hence the only law of force which satisfies the conditions is that of
the inverse square.
At the beginning of 13 the velocity of a moving point P was
represented by a vector OV drawn from a fixed origin O. The
.ocus of the point V is called the hodograph (q.v.); and it appears
that the velocity of the point V along the hodograph represents
in magnitude and in direction the acceleration in the original
orbit. Thus in the case of a plane orbit, if v be the velocity of
P, \(/ the inclination of the direction of motion to some fixed
direction, the polar co-ordinates of V may be taken to be v, \l/;
hence the velocities of V along and perpendicular to OV will be
dv/dt and vd^jdt. These expressions therefore give the tangen-
tial and normal accelerations of P; cf. 13 (12).
In the motion of a projectile under gravity the hodograph is a
vertical line described with constant velocity. In elliptic har-
monic motion the velocity of P is parallel
and proportional to the semi-diameter CD
which is conjugate to the radius CP; the
hodograph is therefore an ellipse similar to
the actual orbit. In the case of a central
orbit described under the law of the inverse
square we have v = h/SY = h. SZ/tf, where
S is the centre of force, SY is the per-
pendicular to the tangent at P, and Z is the
point where YS meets the auxiliary circle
again. Hence the hodograph is similar and
similarly situated to the locus of Z (the
auxiliary circle) turned about S through a
FIG. 69.
right angle. This applies to an elliptic or nyperbolic orbit ; the case of
the parabolic orbit may be examined separately or treated as a limit-
ing case. The annexed fig. 70 exhibits the various cases, with the
hodograph in its proper orientation. The pole O of the hodograph is
inside on or outside the circle, according as the orbit is an ellipse,
parabola or hyperbola. In any case of a central orbit the hodograph
(when turned through a right angle) is similar and similarly situated to
the " reciprocal polar " of the orbit with respect to the centre of force.
Thus for a circular orbit with the centre of force at an excentric
point, the hodograph is a conic with the pole as focus. In the case
of a particle oscillating under gravity on a smooth cycloid from rest
at the cusp the hodograph is a circle through the pole, described
with constant velocity.
15. Kinetics of a System of Discrete Particles. The momenta
of the several particles constitute a system of localized vectors
which, for purposes of resolving and taking moments, may be
reduced like a system of forces in statics ( 8). Thus taking any
point O as base, we have first a linear momentum whose com-
ponents referred to rectangular axes through O are
its representative vector is the same whatever point O be chosen.
Secondly, we have an angular momentum whose components
are
these being the sums of the moments of the momenta of the
several particles about the respective axes. This is subject to
the same relations as a couple in statics; it may be represented
by a vector which will, however, in general vary with the
position of O.
The linear momentum is the same as if the whole mass were
concentrated at the centre of mass G, and endowed with the
velocity of this point. This follows at once from equation (8)
of 1 1 , if we imagine the two configurations of the system there
referred to to be those corresponding to the instants t, t+St.
Thus
Analytically we have
with two similar formulae.
dx
(3)
(4)
982
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
Again, if the instantaneous position of G be taken as base,
the angular momentum of the absolute motion is the same as
the angular momentum of the motion relative to G. For the
velocity of a particle m at P may be replaced by two components
one of which (v) is identical in magnitude and direction with the
velocity of G, whilst the other () is the velocity relative to G.
FIG. 70.
The aggregate of the components mV of momentum is equivalent
to a single localized vector S (m).v in a line through G,and has
therefore zero moment about any axis through G; hence in
taking moments about such an axis we need only regard the
velocities relative to G. In symbols, we have
M)}- (5)
since 2(w) = o, S(t{)=o, and so on, the notation being as in
ii. This expresses that the moment of momentum about any
fixed axis (e.g. Ox) is equal to the moment of momentum of the
motion relative to G about a parallel axis through G, together
with the moment of momentum of the whole mass supposed
concentrated at G and moving with
this point. If in (5) we make O
coincide with the instantaneous posi-
tion of G, we have *, y, z=o, and
the theorem follows.
Finally, the rates of change of the
components of the angular momen-
F IG - 71 turn of the motion relative to G
referred to G as a moving base, are equal to the rates of change
of the corresponding components of angular momentum relative
to a fixed base coincident with the instantaneous position of G.
For let G' be a consecutive position of G. At the instant t+dt
the momenta of the system are equivalent to a linear momentum
represented by a localized vector S(m).(u+5ii) in a line
through G' tangential to the path of G', together with a
certain angular momentum. Now the moment -of this localized
vector with respect to any axis through G is zero, to the
first order of St, since the perpendicular distance of G from the
tangent line at G' is of the order (dt)*. Analytically we have
from (5),
-
If we put X, y, 2 = o, the theorem is proved as regards axes
parallel to Ox.
Next consider the kinetic energy of the system. If from a
fixed point O we draw vectors OVi, OV2 ... to represent the
velocities of the several particles nti, m 2 , . . . , and if we construct
the vector
OK =
S(m.OV)
(7)
this will represent the velocity of the mass-centre, by (3). We
find, exactly as in the proof of Lagrange's First Theorem ( n),
that
JZCw.OV) = iz(w) .OK 2 + jZ(w. KV 2 ) ; (8)
i.e. the total kinetic energy is equal to the kinetic energy of the
whole mass supposed concentrated at G and moving with this
point, together with the kinetic energy of the motion relative to
G. The latter may be called the internal kinetic energy of the
system. Analytically we have
* \
(9)
There is also an analogue to Lagrange's Second Theorem, viz.
jZ(m.KV) = i
do)
which expresses the internal kinetic energy in terms of the rela-
tive velocities of the several pairs of particles. This formula is
due to Mobius.
The preceding theorems are purely kinematical. We have now
to consider the effect of the forces acting on the particles. These
may be divided into two categories; we have first, the extraneous
forces exerted on the various particles from without, and,
secondly, the mutual or internal forces between the various pairs
of particles. It is assumed that these latter are subject to the
law of equality of action and reaction. If the equations of
motion'of each particle be formed separately, each such internal
force will appear twice over, with opposite signs for its compo-
nents, viz. as affecting the motion of each of the two particles
between which it acts. The full working out is in general
difficult, the comparatively simple problem of " three bodies,"
for instance, in gravitational astronomy being still unsolved, but
some general theorems can be formulated.
The first of these may be called the Principle of Linear Momen-
tum. If there are no extraneous forces, the resultant linear
momentum is constant in every respect. For consider any two
particles at P and Q, acting on one another with equal and oppo-
site forces in the line PQ. In the time Si a certain impulse is
given to the first particle in the direction (say) from P to Q,
whilst an equal and opposite impulse is given to the second in
the direction from Q to P. Since these impulses produce equal
and opposite momenta in the two particles, the resultant linear
momentum of the system is unaltered. If extraneous forces act,
it is seen in like manner that the resultant linear momentum of
the system is in any given time modified by the geometric addition
of the total impulse of the extraneous forces. It follows, by
the preceding kinematic theory, that the mass-centre G of the
system will move exactly as if the whole mass were concentrated
there and were acted on by the extraneous forces applied parallel
to their original directions. For example, the mass-centre of a
system free from extraneous force will describe a straight line
with constant velocity. Again, the mass-centre of a chain of
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
983
particles connected by strings, projected anyhow under gravity,
will describe a parabola.
The second general result is the Principle of Angular Momen-
tum. It there are no extraneous forces, the moment of momen-
tum about any fixed axis is constant. For in time 5( the mutual
action between two particles at P and Q produces equal and
opposite momenta in the line PQ, and these will have equal and
opposite moments about the fixed axis. If extraneous forces
act, the total angular momentum about any fixed axis is in time
5t increased by the total extraneous impulse about that axis.
The kinematical relations above explained now lead to the con-
clusion that in calculating the effect of extraneous forces in an
infinitely short time St we may take moments about an axis
passing through the instantaneous position of G exactly as if G
were fixed; moreover, the result will be the same whether in
this process we employ the true velocities of the particles or
merely their velocities relative to G. If there are no extraneous
forces, or if the extraneous forces have zero moment about any
axis through G, the vector which represents the resultant angular
momentum relative to G is constant in every respect. A plane
through G perpendicular to this vector has a fixed direction in
space, and is called the invariable plane; it may sometimes be
conveniently used as a plane of reference.
For example, if we have two particles connected by a string, the
invariable plane passes through the string, and if a be the angular
velocity in this plane, the angular momentum relative to G is
where r\, r$ are the distances of m\, mi from their mass-centre G.
Hence if the extraneous forces (e.g. gravity) have zero moment about
G, u will be constant. Again, the tension R of the string is given by
where o = ri+r 2 . Also by (10) the internal kinetic energy is
i-
The increase of the kinetic energy of the system in any interval
of time will of course be equal to the total work done by all the
forces acting on the particles. In many questions relating to
systems of discrete particles the internal force R M (which we will
reckon positive when attractive) between any two particles
m r , m, is a function only of the distance r pq between them. In
this case the work done by the internal forces will be represented
by
2fR rt dr pt ,
when the summation includes every pair of particles, and each
integral is to be taken between the proper limits. If we write
when Tpy ranges from its value in some standard configuration
A of the system to its value in any other configuration P, it is
plain that V represents the work which would have to be done in
order to bring the system from rest in the configuration A to rest
in the configuration P. Hence V is a definite function of the
configuration P; it is called the internal potential energy. If T
denote the kinetic energy, we may say then that the sum T + V
is in any interval of time increased by an amount equal to the
work done by the extraneous forces. In particular, if there are
no extraneous forces T + V is constant. Again, if some of the
extraneous forces are due to a conservative field of force, the
work which they do may be reckoned as a diminution of the
potential energy relative to the field as in 13.
16. Kinetics of a Rigid Body. Fundamental Principles.
When we pass from the consideration of discrete particles to that
of continuous distributions of matter, we require some physical
postulate over and above what is contained in the Laws of
Motion, in their original formulation. This additional postulate
may be introduced under various forms. One plan is to assume
that any body whatever may be treated as if it were composed
of material particles, i.e. mathematical points endowed with
inertia coefficients, separated by finite intervals, and acting on
one another with forces in the lines joining them subject to the
law of equality of action and reaction. In the case of a rigid
body we must suppose that those forces adjust themselves so
as to preserve the mutual distances of the various particles
unaltered. On this basis we can predicate the principles of linear
and angular momentum, as in 15.
An alternative procedure is to adopt the principle first for-
mally enunciated by J. Le R. d'Alembert and since known by his
name. If *, y, z be the rectangular co-ordinates of a mass-
element m, the expressions mi, my, mz must be equal to the
components of the total force on m, these forces being partly
extraneous and partly forces exerted on m by other mass
elements of the system. Hence (mx, my, mS) is called the actual
or effective force on m. According to d'Alembert's formulation,
the extraneous forces together with the effective forces reversed
fulfil the statical conditions of equilibrium. In other words,
the whole assemblage of effective forces is statically equivalent
to the extraneous forces. This leads, by the principles of 8,
to the equations
Z(m*)=X, 2(mff) = Y, Z(m;0 =Z, I ,..
2{m(yi-zy)\=L, Z[m(Ot-xz)\ = M, Z\m(xj/-yx)\ = N, $ W
where (X, Y, Z) and (L, M, N) are the force and couple con-
stituents of the system of extraneous forces, referred to O as base,
and the summations extend over all the mass-elements of the
system. These equations may be written
, fe(mi) = Z, )
M,^Z|fof-jA)}N, (
and so express that the rate of change of the linear momentum
in any fixed direction (e.g. that of Ox) is equal to the total
extraneous force in that direction, and that the rate of change
of the angular momentum about any fixed axis is equal to the
moment of the extraneous forces about that axis. If we integrate
with respect to t between fixed limits, we obtain the principles
of linear and angular momentum in the form previously given.
Hence, whichever form of postulate we adopt, we are led to
the principles of linear and angular momentum, which form in
fact the basis of all our subsequent work. It is to be noticed
that the preceding statements are not intended to be restricted
to rigid bodies; they are assumed to hold for all material systems
whatever. The peculiar status of rigid bodies is that the prin-
ciples in question are in most cases sufficient for the complete
determination of the motion, the dynamical equations (i or 2)
being equal in number to the degrees of freedom (six) of a rigid
solid, whereas in cases where the freedom is greater we have to
invoke the aid of other supplementary physical hypotheses
(cf. ELASTICITY; HYDROMECHANICS).
The increase of the kinetic energy of a rigid body in any
interval of time is equal to the work done by the extraneous
forces acting on the body. This is an immediate consequence
of the fundamental postulate, in either of the forms above
stated, since the internal forces do on the whole no work.
The statement may be extended to a system of rigid bodies,
provided the mutual reactions consist of the stresses in in-
extensible links, or the pressures between smooth surfaces, or
the reactions at rolling contacts ( 9).
17. Two-dimensional^ Problems. In the case of rotation
about a fixed axis, the principles take a very simple form. The
position of the body is specified by a single co-ordinate, viz.
the angle through which some plane passing through the
axis and fixed in the body has turned from a standard position
in space. Then d$/dt,=u say, is the angular velocity oi \\K
body. The angular momentum of a particle m at a distance
r from the axis is nwr.r, and the total angular momentum is
2(mr 2 ) . w, or Io>, if I denote the moment of inertia ( n) about
the axis. Hence if N be the moment of the extraneous forces
about the axis, we have
aS<i-) = N. (i)
This may be compared with the equation of rectilinear motion
of a particle, viz. d/<W.(Mw)=X; it shows that I measures
the inertia of the body as regards rotation, just as M measures
its inertia as regards translation. If N = o, w is constant.
9 8 4
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
As a first example, suppose we have a flywheel free to rotate about
a horizontal axis, and that a weight m hangs by a vertical string
from the circumferences of an axle of radius b (fig. 72). Neglecting
frictional resistance we have, if R be the tension of the string,
Iw = R6, mu = mg R,
whence
, . mV
6w= rr^ -
This gives the acceleration of m as modified by the inertia of the
wheel.
A " compound pendulum " is a body of any form which is free to
rotate about a fixed horizontal axis, the only extraneous force
(other than the pressures of the axis) being that of gravity. If M
be the total mass, k the radius of gyration ( n) about the axis, we
have
where 6 is the angle which the plane containing the axis and the
centre of gravity G makes with the 1 vertical, and h is the distance of
G from the axis. This coincides with the equation of motion of a
simple pendulum [ 13 (15)] of length /, provided / = k*/h. The plane
of the diagram (fig. 73) is supposed to be a plane through G perpen-
dicular to the axis, which it meets in O. If we produce OG to P,
making OP = J, the point P is called the centre of oscillation; the
bob of a simple pendulum of length OP suspended from O will keep
step with the motion of P, if properly started. If <c be the radius of
gyration about a parallel axis through G, we have k? = ic 2 +A 2 by 1 1
(i 6), and therefore l = h-\-t?lh, whence
GO.GP = 2 . (4)
This shows that if the body were swung from a parallel axis through
P the new centre of oscillation would be at O. For different parallel
axes, the period of a small oscillation varies as V^, or V (GO+OP) ;
this is least, subject to the condition (4), when GO = GP = K. The
reciprocal relation between the centres of suspension and oscillation
is the basis of Kater's method of determining g experimentally.
A pendulum is constructed with two parallel knife-edges as nearly as
possible in the same plane with G, the position of one of them being
adjustable. If it could be arranged that the period of a small oscilla-
tion should be exactly the same about either edge, the two knife-
edges would in general occupy the positions of conjugate centres
of suspension and oscillation ; and the distances between them would
be the length I of the equivalent simple pendulum. For if hi +if/h } =
&j+K 2 /fo, then unless ki=h%, we must have K 2 = /j 1 fe 2 , I = hi+h 2 .
Exact equality of the two observed periods (TJ, n, say) cannot of
course be secured in practice, and a modification is necessary. If
we write /i = hi + icVi, /i = *j + */*, we find, on elimination of K,
whence
g hi+ht ~r hi-ht ( 5)
The distance hi-\-ht, which occurs in the first term on the right hand
can be measured directly. For the second term we require the values
of hi, hi separately, but if n, n are nearly equal whilst hi, hi arc
distinctly unequal this term will be relatively small, so that an
approximate knowledge of hi, h 2 is sufficient.
As a final example we may note the arrangement, often employed
in physical measurements, where a body performs small oscillations
about a vertical axis through its mass-centre G, under the influence
of a couple whose moment varies as the angle of rotation from the
equilibrium position. The equation of motion is of the type
IS=-K6, (6)
and the period is therefore T = 2jrV(I/K). If by the attachment of
another body of known moment of inertia I', the period is altered
from T to ft, we have T' = 2irV((I+I')/K). We are thus enabled
to determine both I and K, viz.
I/I'=T 2 /(T' 2 -T 2 ), K=4irVI/(T' 2 -T 2 ). (7)
The couple may be due to the earth's magnetism, or to the torsion
of a suspending wire, or to a " bifilar " suspension. In the latter
case, the body hangs by two vertical threads of equal length / in a
plane through G. The motion being assumed to be small, the
tensions of the two strings may be taken to have their statical values
Mgb/(a+b), Mga/(a+b), where a, 6 are the distances of G from the
two threads. When the body is twisted through an angle 6 the
threads make angles aO/l, be/I with the vertical, and the moment
of the tensions about the vertical through G is accordingly K0
where K = M gab/I.
For the determination of the motion it has only been necessary
to use one of the dynamical equations. The remaining equations
serve to determine the reactions of the rotating body on its
bearings. Suppose, for example, that there are no extraneous
forces. Take rectangular axes, of which Oz coincides with the
axis of rotation. The angular velocity being constant, the
effective force on a particle m at a distance r from Oz is mu*r
towards this axis, and its components are accordingly u 2 mx,
w 2 my, O. Since the reactions on the bearings must be
statically equivalent to the whole system of effective forces,
they will reduce to a force (X Y Z) at O and a couple (L M N)
given by
X = -(fS(mx) = -*() x, Y =- <fS(my) = -if2(m) y, Z = o
L=w 2 S(m;y3),M = -w 2 S(z*), N=o, (8)
where Tc, y refer to the mass-centre G. The reactions do not there-
fore reduce to a single force at O unless S(myz)=o, 2(mzx)=o,
i.e. unless the axis of rotation be a principal axis of inertia
( n) at O. In order that the force may vanish we must also
have y, y = o, i.e. the mass-centre must lie in the axis of rotation.
These considerations are important in the " balancing " "of
machinery. We note further that if a body be free to turn
about a fixed point O, there are three mutually perpendicular
lines through this point about which it can rotate steadily,
without further constraint. The theory of principal or " per-
manent " axes was first investigated from this point of view
by J. A. Segner (1755). The origin of the name " deviation
moment " sometimes applied to a product of inertia is also
now apparent.
Proceeding to the general motion of a rigid body in two
dimensions we may take as the three co-ordinates of the body the
rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates x, y of the mass-centre G and
the angle 6 through which the body has turned from some
standard position. The components of linear momentum are
then Mi, My, and the angular
momentum relative to G as base
is 10, where M is the mass and I
the moment of inertia about G.
If the extraneous forces be re-
duced to a force (X, Y) at G and
a couple N, we have
MX - X, My = Y, Iff = N. (9)
If the extraneous forces have
zero moment about G the angular
velocity 6 is constant. Thus a
circular disk projected under
gravity in a vertical plane spins
with constant angular velocity,
a parabola.
We may apply the equations (9) to the case of a solid of revolution
rolling with its axis horizontal on a plane of inclination a. If the
axis of x be taken parallel to the slope of the plane, with x increasing;
downwards, we have
M* = Mg sin a-F, o = Mg cos a-R, M 2 ff = Fa, do)
where K is the radius of gyration about the axis of symmetry, a i?
the constant distance of G from the plane, and R, F are the normal
and tangential components of the reaction of the plane, as shown in
fig. 74. We have also the kinematical relation x = a6. Hence
whilst its
FIG. 74.
centre describes
= Mgcosa, F=
Mgsin o.
(11)
The acceleration of G is therefore less than in the case of frirtionless
sliding in the ratio a 2 /(<c 2 +a 2 ). For a homogeneous sphe:e this
ratio is f, for a uniform circular cylinder or disk f , for a circular
hoop or a thin cylindrical shell ,f .
The equation of energy for a rigid body has already been
stated (in effect) as a corollary from fundamental assumptions.
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
985
It may also be deduced from the principles of linear and angular
momentum as embodied in the equations (9). We have
whence, integrating with respect to I,
The left-hand side is the kinetic energy of the whole mass,
supposed concentrated at G and moving with this point,
together with the kinetic energy of the motion relative to G
( 15); and the right-hand member represents the integral work
done by the extraneous forces in the successive infinitesimal
displacements into which the motion may be resolved.
The formula (13) may be easily verified in the case of the compound
pendulum, or of the solid rolling down an incline. As another
example, suppose we have a
circular cylinder whose mass-
centre is at an excentric point,
rolling on a horizontal plane.
This includes the case of a com-
pound pendulum in which the
knife-edge is replaced by a cylin-
drical pin. If a be the radius of
the cylinder, h the distance of G
from its axis (O), K the radius of
gyration about a longitudinal
axis through G, and the inclin-
ation of OG to the vertical,
F IG - 75- the kinetic energy is JMx'tf 2 -)-
JM . CG 1 . 6*, by 3, since the
body is turning about the line of contact (C) as instantaneous axis,
and the potential energy is Mgh cosfl. The equation of energy is
therefore
JMO^+a'-r-A 1 2 ah cos 0) 1 Mgft cos const. (14)
Whenever, as in the preceding examples, a body or a system
of bodies, is subject to constraints which leave it virtually
only one degree of freedom, the equation of energy is sufficient
for the complete determination of the motion. If q be any
variable co-ordinate defining the position or (in the case of a
system of bodies) the configuration, the velocity of each particle
at any instant will be proportional to <f, and the total kinetic
energy may be expressed in the form ^A# 2 , where A is in general
a function of q [cf. equation (14)]. This coefficient A is called
the coefficient of inertia, or the reduced inertia of the system,
referred to the co-ordinate q.
Thus in the case of a railway truck travelling with velocity u the
kinetic energy is $(M+mn i /a i )u'', where M is the total mass, a the
radius and <c the radius of gyration of each wheel, and m is the sum
of the masses of the wheels ; the reduced inertia is therefore M -j-mx'/" 2 -
Again, take the system composed of the flywheel, connecting rod,
and piston of a steam-engine. We have here a limiting case of three-
bar motion ( 3). and the
instantaneous centre J of
the connecting-rod PQ will
have the position shown in
the figure. The velocities
of P and Q will be in the
ratio of JP to JQ, or OR to
OQ; the velocity .of the
piston is therefore y&, where
y = OR. Hence if, for
simplicity, we neglect the
inertia of the connecting-
rod, the kinetic energy will
be iU+My 2 )^, where I is
the moment of inertia of the flywheel, and M is the mass of the
piston. The effect of the mass of the piston is therefore to increase
the apparent moment of inertia of the flywheel by the variable
amount My 1 . If, on the other hand, we take OP ( = x) as our vari-
able, the kinetic energy is MM-t-I/y*)**. We may also say, there-
fore, that the effect of the flywheel is to increase the apparent mass
of the piston by the amount I/j^; this becomes infinite at the " dead-
points " where the crank is in line with the connecting-rod.
If the system be " conservative," we have
iA$'+V=const., (15)
where V is the potential energy. If we differentiate this with
respect to /, and divide out by q, we obtain
A5+J-J-'/ 1 + ;p = o (16)
as the equation of motion of the system with the unknown
reactions (if any) eliminated. For equilibrium this must be
p. _<-
J ' ' '
satisfied by q = Q; this requires that dV/dq-o, i.e. the potential
energy must be " stationary." To examine the effect of a
small disturbance from equilibrium we put V =/(), and write
q = q<,+n, where q a is a root of f'(q ) =o and ij is small. Neglect-
ing terms of the second order in ij we have dVldq=J'(q) =
/"(go)-'?, and the equation (16) reduces to
Ari+/' (30)1=0, (17)
where A may be supposed to be constant and to have the value
corresponding to 9 = 90- Hence if /*(?o) >o, i.e. if V is a
minimum in the configuration of equilibrium, the variation of
ij is simple-harmonic, and the period is 2T V I A//* (90))- This
depends only on the constitution of the system, whereas
the amplitude and epoch will vary with the initial circum-
stances. If /"(<7o)<O, the solution of (17) will involve real
exponentials, and ij will in general increase until the neglect of
the terms of the second order is no longer justified. The
configuration g = ?o, is then unstable.
As an example of the method, we may take the problem to which
equation (14) relates. If we differentiate, and divide by 6, and
retain only the terms of the first order in 6, we obtain
{*'+(A-a)^+gW = o, (18)
as the equation of small oscillations about the position 8=0. The
length of the equivalent simple pendulum is (**+(& o) ! )/A.
The equations which express the change of motion (in two
dimensions) due to an instantaneous impulse are of the forms
M(a' -)={, M(' - v) = ij, !(' - ) = v. (19)
Here ', if are the values of the component velocities of G
just before, and u, v their values just after, the impulse, whilst
', M denote the corresponding angular velocities. Further.
, i\ are the time-integrals of the forces parallel to the co-ordinate
axes, and v is the time-integral of their moment about G.
Suppose, for example, that a rigid lamina
at rest, but free to move, is struck by an
instantaneous impulse F in a given line.
Evidently G will begin to move parallel
to the line of F; let its initial velocity be
u', and let ' be the initial angular
velocity. Then Mw' = F, Iw' = F.GP,
where GP is the perpendicular from G
to the line of F. If PG be produced to
any point C, the initial velocity of the
point C of the lamina will be
'-'. GC = (F/M).(i -GC.CP/K*),
where m? is the radius of gyration about G. The initial centre of
rotation will therefore be at C, provided GC . GP=*. If this
condition be satisfied there would be no impulsive reaction at C
even if this point were fixed. The point P is therefore called
the centre of percussion for the axis at C. It will be noted that
the relation between C and P is the same as that which con-
nects the centres of suspension and oscillation in the compound
pendulum.
18. Equations of Motion in Three Dimensions. It was
proved in 7 that a body moving about a fixed point O can be
brought from its position at time / to its position at time t+St by
an infinitesimal rotation about some axis through O; and the
limiting position of this axis, when St is infinitely small, was called
the " instantaneous axis." The limiting value of the ratio t.St
is called the angular velocity of the body; we denote it by to.
If & 'Ji f are the components of e about rectangular co-ordinate
axes through O, the limiting values of /5<, ijjbt, /dt are
called the component angular velocities; we denote them by p, q, r.
If /, m, n be the direction-cosines of the instantaneous axis we
have
FIG. 77-
If we draw a vector OJ to represent the angular velocity, then
J traces out a certain curve in the body, called the polhode,
and a certain curve in space, called the herpolhode. The cones
generated by the instantaneous axis in the body and hi space
are called the polhode and herpolhode cones, respectively; in
the actual motion the former cone rolls on the latter (7).
9 86
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
The special case where both cones are right circular and w is con-
stant is important in astronomy and also in mechanism (theory of
bevel wheels). The " precession of the equinoxes " is due to the fact
that the earth performs a motion of this kind about its centre,
and the whole class of such motions has therefore been termed
^recessional. In fig. 78, which shows the various cases, OZ is the
FIG. 78.
axis of the fixed and OC that of the rolling cone, and J is the point
of contact of the polhode and herpolhode, which are of course both
circles. If a be the semi-angle of the rolling cone, /3 the constant
inclination of OC to OZ, and ^ the angular velocity with which the
plane ZOC revolves about OZ, then, considering the velocity of a
point in OC at unit distance from O, we have
a sin o= =*=^ sin /S, (3)
where the lower sign belongs to the third case. The earth's pre-
cessional motion is of this latter type, the angles being a = 0087",
(3 = 23 28'.
If m be the mass of a particle at P, and PN the perpendicular
to_the instantaneous axis, the kinetic energy T is given by
2T = Zjm(w. PN) z j=w 2 . 2(m.PN 2 ) = Iw 5 , (4)
where I is the moment of inertia about the instantaneous axis.
With the same notation for moments and products of inertia
as in ii (38), we have
I=A/ 2 +Bw 2 +C ! -2FmK-2Gn/-2H/w,
and therefore by (i),
Again, if x, y, z be the co-ordinates of P, the component velocities
of m are
qz ry, rxpz, pyqx, (6)
by 7 (5) ; hence, if X, p, v be now used to denote the compo-
nent angular momenta about the co-ordinate axes, we have
\=2{m(pyqx)ym(rxpz)z}, with two similar formulae, or
3T 1
X=
(7)
If the co-ordinate axes be taken to coincide with the principal
axes of inertia at O, at the instant under consideration, we have
the simpler formulae
(8)
(9)
It is to be carefully noticed that the axis of resultant angular
momentum about O does not in general coincide with the
instantaneous axis of rotation. The relation between these
axes may be expressed by means of the momenta! ellipsoid at
O. The equation of the latter, referred to its principal axes,
being as in ii (41), the co-ordinates of the point J where it
is met by the instantaneous axis are proportional to p, q, r, and
the direction-cosines of the normal at'J are therefore propor-
tional to Ap, Eq, Cr, or X, p, v. The axis of resultant angular
momentum is therefore normal to the tangent plane at J,
and does not coincide with OJ unless the latter be a principal
axis. Again, if F be the resultant angular momentum, so
that
X 2 +M 2 +^ = r 2 , (i )
the length of the perpendicular OH on the tangent plane at J
is
r\u A* p . Bo q . Cr r 2T p , ,
OH * -p + -f? ' -p+-p- -P = TT -, (H)
A W 1 w 1 w i W
where p = OJ. This relation will be of use to us presently
( 19)-
The motion of a rigid body in the most general case may be
specified by means of the component velocities u, v, w of any
point O of it which is taken as base, and the component angular
velocities p, q, r. The component velocities of any point whose
co-ordinates relative to O are *, y, z are then
tt+gz ry, v+rxpz, w+pyqx (12)
by 7 (6). It is usually convenient to take as our base-point
the mass-centre of the body. In this case the kinetic energy is
given by
2T = Mo(tt 2 +^-H0 2 )-r-A 2 +Bg 2 +Cr 2 -2Fgr-2Gr-2Hg, (13)
where M is the mass, and A, B, C. F, G, H are the moments
and products of inertia with respect to the mass-centre; cf.
15 (9).
The components , i], f of linear momentum are
a'T 1 AT AT
= M u=^,i7=Mot;^, f = Mw=^, (14)
whilst those of the relative angular momentum are given by (7).
The preceding formulae are sufficient for the treatment of
instantaneous impulses. Thus if an impulse (, 17, f, X, /*, v)
change the motion from (u, v, w, p, q, r) to (' ', v', iv', p', q', r')
we have
(w'-)=, M ('-iO=i7, M (w'-w)=f,l
A(p'-p)=\, B(g'- 3 )=M,
where, for simplicity, the co-ordinate axes are supposed to
coincide with the principal axes at the mass-centre. Hence
the change of kinetic energy is
The factors of |, it, f , \ M, " on the right-hand side are propor-
tional to the constituents of a possible infinitesimal displace-
ment of the solid, and the whole expression is proportional
(on the same scale) to the work done by the given system of
impulsive forces in such a displacement. As in 9 this must
be equal to the total work done in such a displacement by the
several forces,, whatever they are, which make up the impulse.
We are thus led to the following statement: the change of
kinetic energy due to any system of impulsive forces is equal
to the sum of the products of the several forces into the semi-
sum of the initial and final velocities of their respective points
of application, resolved in the directions of the forces. Thus
in the problem of fig. 77 the kinetic energy generated is
|M(K 2 +C? 2 )co' 2 , if C be the instantaneous centre; this is seen
to be equal to ^F. w'. CP, where u'. CP represents the initial
velocity of P.
The equations of continuous motion of a solid are obtained
by substituting the values of , rj, f, X, M, " from (14) and (7)
in the general equations
d\
dp
di'-
d
(17)
= N,
Z+R
where (X, Y, Z. L, M, N) denotes the system of extraneous forces
referred (like the momenta) to the mass-centre as base, the
co-ordinate axes being of course
fixed in direction. The resulting
equations are not as a rule easy
of application, owing to the fact
that the moments and products
of inertia A, B, C, F, G, H are not
constants but vary in conse-
quence of the changing orienta-
tion of the body with respect to
the co-ordinate axes.
An exception occurs, however,
in the case of a solid which is
kinetically symmetrical ( Ii) about
the mass-centre, e.g. a uniform
sphere. The equations then take
the forms
Mo=X, Mo = Y, 1
Cp = L, Cg = M,
FIG. 79.
(18)
where C is the constant moment of inertia about any axis through
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
987
the mass-centre. Take, for example, the case of a sphere rolling on
a plane; and let the axes Ox, Oy be drawn through the centre
parallel to the plane, so that the equation of the latter is z=-a.
We will suppose that the extraneous forces consist of a known
force (X, Y, Z) at the centre, and of the reactions (Fi, F 2 , R) at the
point of contact. Hence
M M = X+F,, Mo*=Y+Fj, o=Z+R, ) , .
Cp = F*i, Cq=-F l a, =o. ]
The last equation shows that the angular velocity about the normal
to the plane is constant. Again, since the point of the sphere
which is in contact with the plane is instantaneously at rest, we
have the geometrical relations
u+qa=o, v+pa=o, w=o, (20)
by (12). Eliminating p, q, we get
(Mo+CO*=X, (M.+C-*)* = Y. (21)
The acceleration of the centre is therefore the same as if the plane
were smooth and the mass of the sphere were increased by C/a J .
Thus the centre of a sphere rolling under gravity on a plane of
inclination o describes a parabola with an acceleration
gsina/(l+C/Ma')
parallel to the lines of greatest slope.
Take next the case of a sphere rolling on a fixed spherical surface.
Let a be the radius of the rolling sphere, c that of the spherical
surface which is the locus of its centre, and let x, y, z be the co-ordi-
nates of this centre relative to axes through O, the centre of the
fixed sphere. If the only extraneous forces are the reactions
(P, Q, R) at the point of contact, we have
Mrf! = P, M y = Q, Mo2 = R, 1
C p = -(yR-sQ), Cg=-2( 2 P-*R), O =-"(*Q-yP), f
the standard case being that where the rolling sphere is outside
the fixed surface. The opposite case is obtained by reversing the
sign of a. We have also the geometrical relations
x = (alc)(qz-ry), y = (alc)(rx-pz), z = (a!c)(py-qx). (23)
If we eliminate P, Q, R from (22), the resulting equations are inte-
grable with respect to / ; thus
q = -
(24)
where o, ft, y are arbitrary constants. Substituting in (23) we find
Hence ax+fly+yi
(26)
which shows that the centre of the rolling sphere describes a circle.
If the axis of z be taken normal to the plane of this circle we have
a=o, /3 = o, and
Moa ! \ . a I .oo^ .a
-
The solution of these equations is of the type
x = 6cos (<rt+f), y = bs'm(<rt+t), (28)
where b, are arbitrary, and
(29)
The circle is described with the constant angular velocity a.
When the gravity of the rolling sphere is to be taken into account
the preceding method is not in general convenient, unless the whole
motion of G is small. As an example of this latter type, suppose
that a sphere is placed on the highest point of a fixed sphere and set
spinning about the vertical diameter with the angular velocity n;
it will appear that under a certain condition the motion of G con-
sequent on a slight disturbance will be oscillatory. If Oz be drawn
vertically upwards, then in the beginning of the disturbed motion
the quantities x, y, p, q, P, Q will all be small. Hence, omitting terms
of the second order, we find
Mo* = P, M y=Q, R = M g, , .
Cp=-(M,galc)y+aQ, Cg = (M ga/c)x-oP, O=o. 5
The last equation shows that the component r of the angular velocity
retains (to the first order) the constant value n. The geometrical
relations reduce to
x=aq-(na/c)y, y= -ap+(na[e)x. (31)
Eliminating p, q, P, Q, we obtain the equations
' (C+M a 1 )j-(Ca/c)x-(Mogo l /c)y = o|t ( 32)
which are both contained in
.Cwfl d Mogfl* ) / ,
(x+y)=0. (33)
= o'< < "' l ' <> , where a, are
This has two solutions of the type x+iy-
arbitrary, and (r is a root of the quadratic
(C+M a J )<r J -(Cno/c)<r-l-Moa 2 /c=o. (34)
If
2 >( 4 Mgc/C) (i + M,o 2 /C), (35)
both roots are real, and have the same sign as n. The motion of
G then consists of two superposed circular vibrations of the type
* = acos (<rf+), y = a sin (<r<+). (36)
in each of which the direction of revolution is the same as that of
the initial spin of the sphere. It follows therefore that the original
sition is stable provided the spin n exceed the limit defined by
^5). The case of a sphere spinning about a verticaj axis at the
lowest point of a spherical bowl is obtained by reversing the signs
of a and c. It appears that this position is always stable.
It is to be remarked, however, that in the first form of the problem
the stability above investigated is practically of a limited or tempo-
rary kind. The slightest frictioTial forces such as the resistance
of the air even if they act in lines through the centre of the rolling
sphere, and so do not directly affect its angular momentum, will
cause the centre gradually to descend in an ever-widening spiral
path.
19. Free Motion of a Solid. Before proceeding to further
problems of motion under extraneous forces it is convenient to
investigate the free motion of a solid relative to its mass-centre
O, in the most general case. This is the same as the motion
about a fixed point under the action of extraneous forces which
have zero moment about that point. The question was first
discussed by Euler (1750); the geometrical representation to be
given is due to Poinsot (1851).
The kinetic energy T of the motion relative to O will be con-
stant. Now T = ^Iw 2 , where u is the angular velocity and I is
the moment of inertia about the instantaneous axis. If p be the
radius-vector OJ of the momental ellipsoid
drawn in the direction of the instantaneous axis, we have
I = MVp 2 ( 1 1) ; hence w varies as p. The locus of J may there-
fore be taken as the " polhode " ( 18). Again, the vector which
represents the angular momentum with respect to O will be
constant in every respect. We have seen ( 18) that this vector
coincides in direction with the perpendicular OH to the tangent
plane of the momental ellipsoid at J; also that
OH-?.. (2)
where T is the resultant angular momentum about O. Since
varies as p, it follows that OH is constant, and the tangent plane
at J is therefore fixed in space. The motion of the body relative
to O is therefore completely represented if we imagine the mo-
mental ellipsoid at O to roll without sliding on a plane fixed in
space, with an angular velocity proportional at each instant to
the radius-vector of the point of contact. The fixed plane is
parallel to the invariable plane at O, and the line OH is called the
invariable line. The trace of the point of contact J on the fixed
plane is the " herpolhode."
If p, q, r be the component angular velocities about the principal
axes at O, we have
each side being in fact equal to unity. At a point on the polhode
cone x:y:z = p:q:r, and the equation of this cone is therefore
Since 2AT-P=B (\-B)q t +C(A-C)r t , it appears that if
A>B>C the coefficient of x* in (4) is positive, that of s* is
negative, whilst that of y 2 is positive or negative according as
zBT 5 P. Hence the polhode cone surrounds the axis of
greatest or least moment according as zBT 5 r*- I D tne
critical case of 2BT = F 2 it breaks up into two planes through
the axis of mean moment (Oy). The herpolhode curve in the
fixed plane is obviously confined between two concentric circles
which it alternately touches; it is not in general a re-entrant
curve. It has been shown by De Sparre that, owing to the
limitation imposed on the possible forms of the momental
ellipsoid by the relation B+C>A, the curve has no points of
inflexion. The invariable line OH describes another cone in the
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
body, called the invariable cone. At any point of this we have
x : y :z = A.p. B<? : O, and the equation is therefore
The signs of the coefficients follow the same rule as in the case of
(4). The possible forms of the invariable cone are indicated in
fig. 80 by means of the intersections with a concentric spherical
surface. In the critical case of
2 BT= P the cone degenerates
into two planes. It appears
that if the body be sightly dis-
turbed from a state of rotation
about the principal axis of
greatest or least moment, the
invariable cone will closely sur-
round this axis, which will
therefore never deviate far
from the invariable line. If,
on the other hand, the body be
slightly disturbed from a state
of rotation about the mean axis
a wide deviation will take place.
Hence a rotation about the axis of greatest or least moment is
reckoned as stable, a rotation about the mean axis as unstable.
The question is greatly simplified when two of the principal
moments are equal, say A = B. The polhode and herpolhode
cones are then right circular, and the motion is " precessional "
according to the definition of 18. If a be the inclination of the
instantaneous axis to the axis of symmetry, ft the inclination of
the latter axis to the invariable line, we have
F cos /3 = C cos a, F sin j3 = Au sin a, (6)
whence
FIG. 80.
tan/3 =p tan a.
(7)
Hence j3 < a, and the circumstances are therefore those of the
first or second case in fig. 78, according as A < C. If \j/ be the
JL J
FIG. 81.
rate at which the plane HOJ revolves about OH, we have
> sin a C cos o
^ilR^A-^sT 1 '
by 18 (3)- Also if x be the rate at which J describes the
polhode, we have ^ sin (j3 a) = x sin j3, whence
sin (a-ff)
v= - J - "
sin a
(a)
If the instantaneous axis only deviate slightly from the axis of
symmetry the angles a, /3 are small, and x = (A C) A . w; the
instantaneous axis therefore completes its revolution in the body
in the period
2* A-C
7 s- < IO >
In the case of the earth it is inferred from the independent
phenomenon of luni-solar precession that (C-A)/A = -OO3I3. Hence
if the earth's axis of rotation deviates slightly from the axis of
figure, it should describe a cone about the latter in 320 sidereal
days. This would cause a periodic variation in the latitude of any
place on the earth's surface, as determined by astronomical methods.
There appears to be evidence of a slight periodic variation of latitude,
but the period would seem to be about fourteen months. The
discrepancy is attributed to a defect of rigidity in the earth. The
phenomenon is known as the Eulerian nutation, since it is supposed
to come under the free rotations first discussed by Euler.
20. Motion of a Solid of Revolution. In the case of a solid of
revolution, or (more generally) whenever there is kinetic sym-
metry about an axis through the mass-centre, or through a fixed
point O, a number of interesting problems can be treated almost
directly from first principles. It frequently happens that the
extraneous forces have zero moment about the axis of symmetry,
as e.g. in the case of the flywheel of a gyroscope if we neglect the
friction at the bearings. The angular velocity (r) about this axis
is then constant. For we have seen that r is constant when
there are no extraneous forces; and r is evidently not affected
by an instantaneous impulse which leaves the angular momen-
tum Cr, about the axis of symmetry, unaltered. And a con-
tinuous force may be regarded as the limit of a succession
of infinitesimal instantaneous impulses.
Suppose, for example, that a flywheel is rotating with angular
velocity n about its axis, which is (say) horizontal, and that this
axis is made to rotate with the angular velocity <j/ in the horizontal
plane. The components of angular momentum about the axis of
the flywheel and about the vertical will be Cn and A ^ respectively,
where A is the moment of inertia about any axis through the mass-
centre (or through the fixed point O) perpendicular to that of sym-
metry. If OK be the vector representing the former component
at time t, the vector which represents it at time t-\-5t will be OK',
equal to OK in magnitude and making with it an angle 6^. Hence
KK' ( = C25^) will represent the change in this component due to
the extraneous forces. Hence, so far as this component is con-
cerned, the extraneous forces must supply a couple of moment
Cnj/ in a vertical plane through the
axis of the flywheel. If this couple
be absent, the axis will be tilted out
of the horizontal plane in such a sense
that the direction of the spin n approxi-
mates, to that of the azimuthal rota- ^^^ _* """ K
tion \jf. The remaining constituent of
the extraneous forces is a couple A$ O
about the vertical; this vanishes if 4> PI G _ 2 .
is constant. If the axis of the flywheel
make an angle 8 with the vertical, it is seen in like manner that the
required couple in the vertical plane through the axis is Cn sin /.
This matter can be strikingly illustrated with an ordinary gyroscope,
e.g. by making the larger movable ring in fig. 37 rotate about its
vertical diameter.
If the direction of the axis of kinetic symmetry be specified
by means of the angular co-ordinates d,\j/
of 7, then considering the component
velocities of the point C in fig. 83, which
are and sin 0^ along and perpendicular
to the meridian ZC, we see that the com-
ponent angular velocities about the lines
O A', OB' are -sin \[t and respectively.
Hence if the principal moments of inertia
at O be A, A, C, and if n be the constant
angular velocity about the axis OC, the
kinetic energy is given by
2T = A(0 2 +sin 2 ^)+Cn l .
Again, the components of angular momentum about OC, OA' are
Cw,-A sin 0^, and therefore the angular momentum (ft, say)
about OZ is
M = A sin* <j/-\-Cn cos 9.
We can hence deduce the condition of steady precessional
motion in a top. A solid of revolution is supposed to be free
to turn about a fixed point O on its axis of symmetry, its mass-
centre G being in this axis at a distance h from O. In fig. 83 OZ
is supposed to be vertical, and OC is the axis of the solid drawn
in the direction OG. If is constant the points C, A' will in
time5<come to positions C", A* such that CC" = sin &/-, A'A" =
cos 5^, and the angular momentum about OB' will become
Cn sin 5^- A sin </-. cos 5t^. Equating this to Mg/t sin 5t,
and dividing out by sin 0, we obtain
as the condition in question. For given values of n and we
have two possible values of \j/ provided n exceed a certain limit.
With a very rapid spin, or (more precisely) with Cn large in
comparison with VUAMgA cos 0), one value of ^ is small and
the other large, viz. the two values are Mgh/Cn and Cn/A cos
approximately. The absence of g from the latter expression
indicates that the circumstances of the rapid precession are very
FIG. 83.
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
989
nearly those of a free Eulerian rotation ( 19), gravity playing
only a subordinate part.
Again, take the case of a circular disk rolling in steady motion
on a horizontal plane. The centre O of the disk is supposed to
describe a horizontal circle of
radius c with the constant angular
velocity <ff, whilst its plane pre-
serves a constant inclination 8 to
the horizontal. The components
of the reaction of the horizontal
lane will be Mc^ 2 at right angles
to the tangent line at the point
of contact and Mg vertically up-
wards, and the moment of these
about the horizontal diameter of
the disk, which corresponds to
FIG. 84.
: 7 cot 0,
OB' in fig. 83, is Mc^.a sin 0-Mga cos 9, where a is the radius of
the disk. Equating this to the rate of increase of the angular
momentum about OB', investigated as above, we find
(4)
where use has been made of the obvious relation na, c$. If c and
be given this formula determines the value of ^ for which the
motion will be steady.
In the case of the top, the equation of energy and the con-
dition of constant angular momentum (jtt) about the vertical
OZ are sufficient to determine the motion of the axis. Thus,
we have
-J-A^+sin 2 6 fc) + Cn 2 + Mgh cos 8 = const., (5)
A sin 2 8 <l> + v cos 9 = n, (6)
where v is written for CM. From these ^ may be eliminated, and
on differentiating the resulting equation with respect to t we
obtain
If we put 6 = we get the condition of steady precessional
motion in a form equivalent to (3). To find the small oscillation
about a state of steady precession in which the axis makes a
constant angle a with the vertical, we write 6 = a+x, and
neglect terms of the second order in \. The result is of the form
X+*X = 0, (8)
where
a 1 = |(/i v cos a) 2 + 2(ji v cos a)(ju cos a v) cos a +
(n cos a v) 2 !/A 2 sin 4 a. (9)
When v is large we have, for the " slow " precession <r=v/A, and
for the "rapid" precession <r = A/v cos a=^, approximately.
Further, on examining the small variation in ^, it appears that
in a slightly disturbed slow precession the motion of any point
of the axis consists of a rapid circular vibration superposed on
the steady precession, so that the resultant path has a trochoidal
character. This is a type of motion commonly observed in a top
spun in the ordinary way, although the successive undulations
of the trochoid may be too small to be easily observed. In a
slightly disturbed rapid precession the superposed vibration is
elliptic-harmonic, with a period equal to that of the precession
itself. The ratio of the axes of the ellipse is sec o, the longer
axis being in the plane of d. The result is that the axis of the top
describes a circular cone about a fixed line making a small angle
with the vertical. This is, in fact, the " invariable line " of the
free Eulerian rotation with which (as already remarked) we are
here virtually concerned. For the more general discussion of
the motion of a top see GYROSCOPE.
21. Moving Axes of Reference. For the more general treat-
ment of the kinetics of a rigid body it is usually convenient to
adopt a system of moving axes. In order that the moments and
products of inertia with respect to these axes may be constant,
it is in general necessary to suppose them fixed in the solid.
We will assume for the present that the origin O is fixed. The
moving axes O.r, Oy, Oz form a rigid frame of reference whose
motion at time t may be specified by the three component
angular velocities p, q, r. The components of angular momentum
about Ox, Oy, Oz will be denoted as usual by X, n, v. Now con-
sider a system of fixed axes O*', Oy', Oz' chosen so as to coincide
at the instant I with the moving system Ox, Oy, Oz. At the
instant t+St, Ox, Oy, Oz will no longer coincide with Ox', Oy', Oz';
in particular they will make with Ox 1 angles whose cosines are,
to the first order, i,-rdt, q5t, respectively. Hence the altered
angular momentum about Ox' wUl be \+d\+(ti+5p)(-rdt) +
(v+Sv)qS(. If L, M, N be the moments of the extraneous forces
about O*, Oy, 62 this must be equal to \+L6t. Hence, and
b" symmetry, we obtain
d\ . '
T, rp + qv = L,
N.
(O
These equations are applicable to any dynamical system what-
ever. If we now apply them to the case of a rigid body moving
about a fixed point O, and make O*, Oy, Oz coincide with the
principal axes of inertia at O, we have X, n, v = Ap, Eq, Cr,
whence
N.J
If we multiply these by p, q, r and add, we get
d
which is (virtually) the equation of energy.
As a first application of the equations (2) take the case of a
solid constrained to rotate with constant angular velocity w about
a fixed axis (/, m, if). Since p, q, r are then constant, the requisite
constraining couple is
L = (C-B)wn 2 , M=(A-C)nlaf, N = (B-A)/mu*. (4)
If we reverse the signs, we get the " centrifugal couple " exerted
by the solid on its bearings. This couple vanishes when the axis
of rotation is a principal axis at 0, and in no other case
(cf. 17).
If in (2) we put, L, M, N = O we get the case of free rotation;
thus
(5)
.
These equations are due to Euler, with whom the conception of
moving axes, and the application to the problem of free rotation,
originated. If we multiply them by p, q, r, respectively, or again
by A.p, Bg, Cr respectively, and add, we verify that the expressions
A/> 2 + Bq* + Cr 1 and A 2 /* 2 + By + CV are both constant.
The former is, in fact, equal to aT, and the latter to F 1 , where
T is the kinetic energy and F the resultant angular momentum.
To complete the solution of (2) a third integral is required; this
involves in general the use of elliptic functions. The problem has
been the subject of numerous memoirs; we will here notice only
the form of solution given by Rueb (1834), and at a later period
by G. Kirchhoff (1875). If we write
we have, in the notation of elliptic functions, <t> = am . If we
assume
p = po<x>sa.m (<+), g=gosinam (<r/+), r = roA am (/-(-), (7)
we find
. fffo ffQo , K 0To ^
h = nf q = j?~rpi r = -~ "T pq.
Hence (5) will be satisfied, provided
B C <K7o C A If art _ A B
rofr
(9)
qoro A
These equations, together with the arbitrary initial values of *, q, r,
determine the six constants which we have denoted by po, go, r, A*, or, e.
We will suppose that A > B > C. From the form of the polhode
curves referred to in 19 it appears that the angular velocity q
about the axis of mean moment must vanish periodically. If we
adopt one of these epochs as the origin of t, we have e = o, and
p,,, r a will become identical with the initial values of p, r. The
conditions (9) then lead to
990
MECHANICS
For a real solution we must have 2 < i, which is equivalent
2BT > r 2 . If the initial conditions are such as to make 2BT < r 2
we must interchange the forms of p and r in (7). In the presen
case the instantaneous axis returns to its initial position in the
body whenever <t> increases by 2ir, i.e. whenever / increases by
4K/<r, when K is the " complete " elliptic integral of the first kinc
with respect to the modulus k.
The elliptic functions degenerate into simpler forms when & 2 = _
or If = I. The former case arises when two of the principal moments
are equal; this has been sufficiently dealt with in 19. If 2 = i
we must have 2BT = P. We have seen that the alternative 2BT r !
determines whether the polhode cone surrounds the principal axis
of least or greatest moment. The case of 2BT = r 2 , exactly, is
therefore a critical case; it may be shown that the instantaneous
axis either coincides permanently with the axis of mean moment
or approaches it asymptotically.
When the origin of the moving axes is also in motion with a
velocity whose components are u, v, w, the dynamical equations
are
jt- j jt.
Z, (ii)
To prove these, we may take fixed axes 0V, O'y', O'z' co-
incident with the moving axes at time /, and compare the linear
and angular momenta +6, ri+5ri, f+3f, X+5X, p+d/j., v+Sv
relative to the new position of the axes, Ox, Oy, Oz at time l+St
with the original momenta , r\, f , X, ju, v relative to O'x', O'y',
O'z' at time t. As in the case of (2), the equations are applicable
to any dynamical system whatever. If the moving origin coin-
cide always with the mass-centre, we have , 77, f = M , M i',
M w, where M is the total mass, and the equations simplify.
When, in any problem, the values of u, v, w, p, q, r have been
determined as functions of t, it still remains to connect the
moving axes with some fixed frame of reference. It will be
sufficient to take the case of motion about a fixed point O; the
angular co-ordinates 6, <t>, $ of Euler may then be used for the
purpose. Referring to fig. 36 we see that the angular velocities
p, q, r of the moving lines, OA, OB, OC about their instantaneous
positions are
p=6 sin < sin 9 cos<^, q = 6 cos </>+ sin0sin</, )
by 7 (3), (4)- If OA, OB, OC be principal axes of inertia of a
solid, and if A, B, C denote the corresponding moments of inertia,
the kinetic energy is given by
2T = A(9" sin <*>-sin cos <^) 2 +B (9 cos
+C (<+cos 6 vf)*.
If A = B this reduces to
2T=A(#+sin 2 ^)+C(+cos 6 *)'; (15)
cf. 20 (i).
22. Equations of Motion in Generalized Co-ordinates. Sup-
pose we have a dynamical system composed of a finite number
of material particles or rigid bodies, whether free or constrained
in any way, which are subject to mutual forces and also to the
action of any given extraneous forces. The configuration of
such a system can be completely specified by means of a certain
number (n) of independent quantities, called the generalized co-
ordinates of the system. These co-ordinates may be chosen in an
endless variety of ways, but their number is determinate, and
expresses the number of degrees of freedom of the system. We
denote these co-ordinates by q\,qt, . . .qn. It is implied in the above
description of the system that the Cartesian co-ordinates x, y, z of
any particle of the system are known functions of the q's, varying
in form (of course) from particle to particle. Hence the kinet'c
energy T is given by
where
(!)'+( '+'!]
dx dx . dy dy . dz dz
- --
(l)
(2)
Thus T is expressed as a homogeneous quadratic function of
the quantities qi, fa, . . . q n , which are called the generalized
[KINETICS
components of velocity. The coefficients a rr , a,, are called the co-
efficients of inertia; they are not in general constants, being
functions of the q's and so variable with the configuration.
Again, if (X, Y, Z) be the force on m, the work done in an infini-
tesimal change of configuration is
2(X&x+'&y+ZSs) = Qi&qi+Qt&g 2 + . . . +Q5g, (3)
where
The quantities Q r are called the generalized components of
force.
The equations of motion of m being
w# = X, wV = Y, wS = Z. (&}
i ^'
we have
Now
whence
Also
Hence
dx . . dx .
-
(6)
(7)
(8)
/?/ \7i / ~/i 7i ^"f"^ ^ 22~i~ . . ~\~ji ^ ?r s~". (9)
-v ft / Av \ J /Jl \ J / ai. \ aA
f- (I )
By these and the similar transformations relating to y and z the
equation (6) takes the form
d fdJ\ dT .
dx .
dx _dx
dq r dq r '
- j i + "-
dqidqS 2 ' ~dq n i
.d [dx\ d /.dx\
If we put r=i, 2, . . . n in succession, we get the n independent
equations of motion of the system. These equations are due to
Lagrange, with whom indeed the first conception, as well as the
establishment, of a general dynamical method applicable to all
systems whatever appears to have originated. The above proof
was given by Sir W. R. Hamilton (1835). Lagrange's own proof
will be found under DYNAMICS, Analytical. In a conservative
system free from extraneous force we have
Z(X6x+Y&y+ZSz) = -SV, (12)
where V is the potential energy. Hence
and <L/5?J\ _s!l = _?Y
dt \dq r ) dq r dq r '
If we imagine any given state of motion (#1,92, . . . qn) through
the configuration (qi, qi, . . . q n ) to be generated instantaneously
From rest by the action of suitable impulsive forces, we find on
integrating (i i) with respect to t over the infinitely short duration
of the impulse
where Q/ is the time integral of Q r and so represents a general-
ized component of impulse. By an obvious analogy, the ex-
pressions dT/dq, may be called the generalized components of
momentum; they are usually denoted by p,, thus
Since T is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities
ji, qi, . . . q, we have
rlence
(18)
,aT.. , ar_
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
991
This equation expresses that the kinetic energy is increasing at a
rate equal to that at which work is being done by the forces. In
the case of a conservative system free from extraneous force it
becomes the equation of energy
(T + V) - o, or T + V = const.,
(20)
in virtue of (13).
As a first application of Lagrange's formula (n) we may form
the equations pi motion of a particle in spherical polar co-ordinates.
Let r be the distance of a point P from a fixed origin O, 6 the angle
which OP makes with a fixed direction OZ, <(> the azimuth of the
plane ZOP relative to some fixed plane through OZ. The dis-
placements of P due to small variations of these co-ordinates are
Sr along OP, rS0 perpendicular to OP in the plane ZOP, and r sin 9 &4>
perpendicular to this plane. The component velocities in these
direct ions are therefore?, r6, r sin 9^, and if m be the mass of a moving
particle at P we have
2T = m(f* + r* + r 2 sin" B p). (21)
(22)
R,
Hence the formula (n) gives
m(f r r sin 2 9 <[f)
TT (mr*9) mr 2 sin 9 cos $ fr = e
^ (mr 2 sin 2 ) = *.
The quantities R, e, * are the coefficients in the expression
R8r+e50+*i^ for the work done in an infinitely small dis-
placement ; viz. R is the radial component of force, e is the moment
about a line through O perpendicular to the plane ZOP, and + is
the moment about OZ. In the case of the spherical pendulum
we have r = l, e= mgl sin 6, *=o, if OZ be drawn vertically
downwards, and therefore
9 sin 8 cos 6^ =
os0^* = f sin 0, 1
s '-;
(23)
-A 2 cos 2 fl/sinty = -ysin 6.
where A is a constant. The latter equation expresses that the
angular momentum mP sin 2 0/ about the vertical OZ is constant.
By elimination of <b we obtain
(24)
If the particle describes a horizontal circle of angular radius a
with constant angular velocity Q, we have = o, h = ff sin o, and
therefore
tf = fcosa. (25)
as is otherwise evident from the elementary theory of uniform
circular motion. To investigate the small oscillations about this
state of steady motion we write = o+x in (24) and neglect terms
of the second order in x- We find, after some reductions,
X + (l+3cos 2 a) S2 2 x = O; (26)
this shows that the variation of x ' s simple-harmonic, with the
period
2T/V(i+3cos 2 a).S2
As regards the most general motion of a spherical pendulum, it
is obvious that a particle moving under gravity on a smooth sphere
cannot pass through the highest or lowest point unless it describes
a vertical circle. In all other cases there must be an upper and a
lower limit to the altitude. Again, a vertical plane passing through
O and a point where the motion is horizontal is evidently a plane of
symmetry as regards the path. Hence the path will be confined
between two horizontal circles which it touches alternately, and the
direction of motion is never horizontal except at these circles. In
the case of disturbed steady motion, just considered, these circles
are nearly coincident. When both are near the lowest point the
horizontal projection of the path is approximately an ellipse, as
shown in 13; a closer investigation shows that the ellipse is to be
regarded as revolving about its centre with the angular velocity
fain// 2 , where o, 6 are the semi-axes.
To apply the equations (n) to the case of the top we start with
the expression (15) of 21 for the kinetic energy, the simplified
form (l) of 20 being for the present purpose inadmissible, since
it is essential that the generalized co-ordinates employed should be
competent to specify the position of every particle. If X, M, be
the components of momentum, we have
3T
cos 9,
(27)
The meaning of these quantities is easily recognized ; thus X is the
angular momentum about a horizontal axis normal to the plane
of 9, n is the angular momentum about the vertical OZ, and is
the angular momentum about the axis of symmetry. If M be the
totaj mass, the potential energy is V = MgA cos 0, if OZ be drawn
vertically upwards. Hence the equations (n) become
AS A sine cosfl^+C^-fcose^)^ sin = Mgfc sin 0,~|
d/dt. |A sin 2 fl^+C(^+costf/) cos0| =o, [ (28)
of which the last two express the constancy of the momenta p, v.
Hence
AS Asin0cose^ 2 +>'sin0^ = M/tsine, ) , .
Asitfty+y cos0=/i. J
If we eliminate <l> we obtain the equation (7) of 20. The theory'
of disturbed precessional motion there outlined does not give a
convenient view of the oscillations of the axis about the vertical
position. If 6 be small the equations (29) may be written
e 1 u= const.,
where = tf 5^- (3 1 )
Since 9, o> are the polar co-ordinates (in a horizontal plane) of a point
on the axis of symmetry, relative to an initial line which revolves
with constant angular velocity /2A, we see by comparison with
14 (15) (16) that the motion of such a point will be elliptic-har-
monic superposed on a uniform rotation vJ2\, provided > 2 >4AMfA.
This gives (in essentials) the theory of the " gyroscopic pendulum."
23. Stability of Equilibrium. Theory of Vibrations. If, in a
conservative system, the configuration (q\, qi, . . . q n ) be one of
equilibrium, the equations (14) of 22 must be satisfied by
q t , qi, . . . tf = o, whence
dVldq r =o. (i)
A necessary and sufficient condition of equilibrium is therefore
that the value of the potential energy should be stationary for
infinitesimal variations of the co-ordinates. If, further, V be a
minimum, the equilibrium is necessarily stable, as was shown by
P. G. L. Dirichlet (1846). In the motion consequent on any
slight disturbance the total energy T+V is constant, and since
T is essentially positive it follows that V can never exceed its
equilibrium value by more than a slight amount, depending
on the energy of the disturbance. This implies, on the present
hypothesis, that there is an upper limit to the deviation of each
co-ordinate from its equilibrium value; moreover, this limit
diminishes indefinitely with the energy of the original disturb-
ance. No such simple proof is available to show without quali-
fication that the above condition is necessary. If, however, we
recognize the existence of dissipative forces called into play by
any motion whatever of the system, the conclusion can be drawn
as follows. However slight these forces may be, the total energy
T+V must continually diminish so long as the velocities
q\,qi, . . . q n differ from zero. Hence if the system be started
from rest in a configuration for which V is less than in the
equilibrium configuration considered, this quantity must still
.further decrease (since T canpot be negative), and it is evident
that either the system will finally come to rest in some other
equilibrium configuration, or V will in the long run diminish
indefinitely. This argument is due to Lord Kelvin and P. G.
Tail (1879).
In discussing the small oscillations of a system about a con-
figuration of stable equilibrium it is convenient so to choose the
generalized co-ordinates <?i, qi, . . .q, that they shall vanish in the
configuration in question. The potential energy is then given
with sufficient approximation by an expression of the form
2V = ciig I ! +Cngi l + . . . +2cuMi+ .... (2)
a constant term being irrelevant, and the terms of the first order
being absent since the equilibrium value of V is stationary. The
coefficients c m c r , are called coefficients of stability. We may
further treat the coefficients of inertia a^, On of f 22 (i) as
constants. The Lagrangian equations of motion are then of the
type
ai r $fi+Oi'Sj+ . . . +a~qn+ci4i+c*&+ +c*tf. = Q r , (3)
where Q, now stands for a component of extraneous force. In a
free oscillation we have Qi, Qj, . . . Q n = o, and if we assume
9r=A,'<r', ( 4 )
we obtain n equations of the type
j+ . . . +(er -*<.,) A.=o. (5)
992
MECHANICS
[KINETICS
Eliminating the n i ratios AirAj: . .
determinantal equation
A(<r 2 )=0,
where
di <r 2 an, C2i <7 2 Oji, . . ,
I 0- 2 ai2, C22 0~
:A n we obtain the
(6)
i <r 2 a n i
(7)
The quadratic expression for T is essentially positive, and the
same holds with regard to V in virtue of the assumed stability.
It may be shown algebraically that under these conditions the
n roots of the above equation in ff 2 are all real and positive. For
any particular root, the equations (5) determine the ratios of
the quantities At, A 2 , . . . A n , the absolute values being alone
arbitrary; these quantities are in fact proportional to the minors
of any one row in the determinate A(<r 2 ). By combining the
solutions corresponding to a pair of equal and opposite values
of ff we obtain a solution hi real form :
where Oi, a 2 . . . a r are a determinate series of quantites having
to one another the above-mentioned ratios, whilst the constants
C, e are arbitrary. This solution, taken by itself, represents a
motion in which each particle of the system (since
its displacements parallel to Cartesian co-ordinate
axes are linear functions of the q's) executes a simple
vibration of period 2ir/ff. The amplitudes of oscilla-
tion of the various particles have definite ratios
to one another, and the phases are in agreement,
the absolute amplitude (depending on C) and the
phase-constant (e) being alone arbitrary. A
vibration of this character is called a normal mode
of vibration of the system; the number of such
modes is equal to that of the degrees of freedom
possessed by the system. These statements require
some modification when two or more of the roots
of the equation (6) are equal. In the case of a
multiple root the minors of A(er 2 ) all vanish, and
the basis for the determination of the quantities a r
disappears. Two or more normal modes then
become to some extent indeterminate, and
elliptic vibrations of the individual particles are possible. An
example is furnished by the spherical pendulum ( 13).
As an example of the method of determination of the normal modes
we may take the " double pendulum." A mass M hangs from a
fixed point by a string of length o, and a second mass m hangs from
M by a_string of length 6. For simplicity we will suppose that the
motion is confined to one vertical plane. If 0, < be the inclinations
of the two strings to the vertical, we have, approximately,
2V*=MgaP+mg(ag>+b4 t ).} -fc)
The equations (3) take the forms
(10)
FIG. 85.
where n=m/(M.+m). Hence
=o, )
=oJ
The frequency equation is therefore
(12)
The roots of this quadratic in <r ! are easily seen to be real and
positive. If M be large compared with m, n is small, and the roots
are g/o and gib, approximately. In the normal mode corresponding
to the former root, M swings almost like the bob of a simple pendulum
of length o, being comparatively uninfluenced by the presence of m,
whilst m executes a " forced " vibration (12) of the corresponding
period. In the second mode, M is nearly at rest [as appears from the
second of equations (ll)J, whilst m swings almost like the bob of a
simple pendulum of length b. Whatever the ratio M/m, the two
values of <r 2 can never be exactly equal, but they are approximately
equal if a, b are nearly equal and M is very small. A curious pheno-
menon is then to be observed; the motion of each particle, being
made up (in general) of two superposed simple vibrations of nearly
equal period, is seen to fluctuate greatly in extent, and if the ampli-
tudes be equal we have periods of approximate rest, as in the case of
" beats " in acoustics. The vibration then appears to be transferred
alternately from m to M at regular intervals. If, on the other hand,
M is small compared with m, it is nearly equal to unity, and the roots
of (12) are o 2 = g/(a-)-6) and <r 2 = mg/M.(o+6)/o6, approximately.
The former root makes 9 = <j>, nearly; in the corresponding normal
mode m oscillates like the bob of a simple pendulum of length a +6.
In the second mode a6-{-b<t>=o, nearly, so that m is approximately
at rest. The oscillation of M then resembles that of a particle at a
distance o from one end of a string of length a+6 fixed at the ends
and subject to a tension mg.
The motion of the system consequent on arbitrary initial
conditions may be obtained by superposition of the n normal
modes with suitable amplitudes and phases. We have then
q, = aj + ar'8' + ar"e"+ . . ., (13)
where
e=c cos(<rf-H), e'=c'cos(<7'/+), e"=C' cos(a't+f), . . . (14)
provided a 3 , a"*, ff" 2 ,. . . are the n roots of (6). The coefficients
of 0, 6' , 6", ... in (13) satisfy the conjugate or orthogonal
relations
=O, (15)
=O, (16)
provided the symbols a,, a/ correspond to two distinct roots
a 2 , ff' 2 of (6). To prove these relations, we replace the symbols
Ai, A 2 , . . . .A B in (5) by di, a*, ... a* respectively, 'multiply
the resulting equations by a/, a' 2 , . . . a' n , in order, and add.
The result, owing to its symmetry, must still hold if we
interchange accented and unaccented Greek letters, and by
comparison we deduce (15) and (16), provided <r 2 and (T 72 are
unequal. The actual determination of C, C', C*, . . . and
, t', e", ... in terms of the initial conditions is as follows. If
we write
Ccose=H,-Csin = K, (17)
we must have
o r H+o/H'+ r "H'+ . . . =[ 3 ,]o,) ,_
-&EJ
These equations
. by
where the zero suffix indicates initial values.
can be at once solved for H,H',H", . . . and K, K',K",
means of the orthogonal relations (15).
By a suitable choice of the generalized co-ordinates it is possible
to reduce T and V simultaneously to sums of squares. The
transformation is in fact effected by the assumption (13), in virtue
of the relations (15) (16), and we may write
The new co-ordinates 6, B', 9" . . . are called the normal co-ordi-
nates of the system ; in a normal mode of vibration one of these
varies alone. The physical characteristics of a normal mode are
that an impulse of a particular normal type generates an initial
velocity of that type only, and that a constant extraneous force
of a particular normal type maintains a displacement of that type
only. The normal modes are further distinguished by an impor-
tant " stationary " property, as regards the frequency. If we
imagine the system reduced by frictionless constraints to one
degree of freedom, so that the co-ordinates 6, 6', 0", ... have
prescribed ratios to one another, we have, from (19),
, (20)
This shows that the value of <r 2 for the constrained mode is inter-
mediate to the greatest and least of the values c/a,c'/a',c"/a", . ..
proper to the several normal modes. Also that if the constrained
mode differs little from a normal mode of free vibration (e.g. if
8', 6", . . . are small compared with 0),the change in the frequency
is of the second order. This property can often be utilized to
estimate the frequency of the gravest normal mode of a system,
by means of an assumed approximate type, when the exact deter-
mination would be difficult. It also appears that an estimate
thus obtained is necessarily too high.
From another point of view it is easily recognized that the
equations (5) are exactly those to which we are led in the ordinary
process of finding the stationary values of the function
V (<7i. <72, ... q) |
T (?i,.22, ... q,)'
where the denominator stands for the same homogeneous
quadratic function of the q's that T is for the q's. It is easy to
construct in this connexion a proof that the n values of ff* are
all real and positive.
KINETICS]
MECHANICS
993
The case of three degrees of freedom is instructive on account ol
the geometrical analogies. With a view to these we may write
"'" fail
_^ _ _ vw 4-2Hx;y. v-* 1 /
It is obvious that the ratio
V (*.y.z)
T (x,y,z)
must have a least value, which is moreover positive, since the
numerator and denominator are both essentially positive. Denoting
this value by a?, we have
(22)
(23)
provided x\: yi:z\ be the corresponding values of the ratios x:y:z
Again, the expression (22) will also have a least value when the ratios
x: y: z are subject to the condition
ay , ay av
anil if this be denoted by a? we have a second system of equa-
tions similar to (23). The remaining value af is the value of (22)
when x: y: z are chosen so as to satisfy (24) and
av av av_
The problem is identical with that of finding the common conjugate
diameters of the ellipsoids T(x, y, z) = const., V(x, y, z)= const.
If in (21) we imagine that x, y, z denote infinitesimal rotations of a
solid free to turn about a fixed point in a given field of force, it ap-
pears that the three normal modes consist each of a rotation about
one of the three diameters aforesaid, and that the values of a are
proportional to the ratios of the lengths of corresponding diameters
of the two quadrics.
We proceed to the forced vibrations of the system. The typical
case is where the extraneous forces are of the simple-harmonic
type cos (at+t) ; the most general law of variation with time can
be derived from this by superposition, in virtue of Fourier's
theorem. Analytically, it is convenient to put Q, equal to e i<rt
multiplied by a complex coefficient; owing to the linearity of the
equations the factor e i<rt will run through them all, and need not
always be exhibited. For a system of one degree of freedom we
have
aq+cq = Q, (26)
and therefore on the present supposition as to the nature of Q
1~ c (r'a ' 2 7)
This solution has been discussed to some extent in 12, in con-
nexion with the forced oscillations of a pendulum. We may note
further that when a is small the displacement q has the " equi-
librium value " Q/c, the same as would be produced by a steady
force equal to the instantaneous value of the actual force, the
inertia of the system being inoperative. On the other hand,
when a"- is great q tends to the value -Q/<r 2 a, the same as if
the potential energy were ignored. When there are n degrees
of freedom we have from (3)
and therefore
A (a 1 ) . q r = oirQ, + os-Qj + . . . + a^Q B , (29)
where 01,, a^ r , ... On, are the minors of the rth row of the
determinant (7). Every particle of the system executes in
general a simple vibration of the imposed period 27r/<r, and all
the particles pass simultaneously through their equilibrium
positions. The amplitude becomes very great when er 2 approxi-
mates to a root of (6), i.e. when the imposed period nearly coin-
cides with one of the free periods. Since a r . = o. r , the coefficient
of Q. in the expression for q, is identical with that of Q r in the
expression for q,. Various important " reciprocal theorems "
formulated by H. Helmholtz and Lord Rayleigh are founded
on this relation. Free vibrations must of course be superposed
on the forced vibrations given by (29) in order to obtain the
complete solution of the dynamical equations.
In practice the vibrations of a system are more or less affected
by dissipative forces. In order to obtain at all events a quali-
tative representation of these it is usual to introduce into the
equations frictional terms proportional to the velocities. Thus
in the case of one degree of freedom we have, in place of (26),
aq+bq+cq=Q. (30)
XVII. 32
where a, b, c are positive. The solution of this has been suffici-
ently discussed in 12. In the case of multiple freedom, the
equations of small motion when modified by the introduction
of terms proportional to the velocities are of the type
i=Q~ (3D
If we put
&r, = 6. = i(B,.+B w ), /3,.= -/S w = J(B r .-B,), (32)
this may be written
*++*-*+**+ +"*.+5-Qr. (33)
provided
2F-&,,g,+&B2j*+ . . . + 2b l2 q&+ ... (34)
The terms due to Fin (33) are such as would arise from frictional
resistances proportional to the absolute velocities of the particles,
or to mutual forces of resistance proportional to the relative
velocities; they are therefore classed as friclional or dissipative
forces. The terms affected with the coefficients /3 r , on the other
hand are such as occur in " cyclic " systems with latent motion
(DYNAMICS, Analytical); they are called the gyrostatic terms.
If we multiply (33) by q, and sum with respect to r from i to n,
we obtain, in virtue of the relations /3 r ,= 0.,, /3 rr = o,
Jt (T + V) = 2F + Q,<fc + Q& + . . . + Q,q n . (35)
This shows that mechanical energy is lost at the rate 2 F per unit
time. The function F is therefore called by Lord Rayleigh the
dissipation function.
If we omit the gyrostatic terms, and write q r = C^', we find,
for a free vibration,
+ 6 W X + C w ) C. = o. (36)
This leads to a determinantal equation in X whose 2n roots are
either real and negative, or complex with negative real parts, on
the present hypothesis that the functions T, V, F are all essen-
tially positive. If we combine the solutions corresponding to a
pair of conjugate complex roots, we obtain, in real form,
q r = Care-" r cos (,1+t-t,), (37)
where <r, T, o,, t r are determined by the constitution of the sys-
tem, whilst C, e are arbitrary, and independent of r. The
formulae of this type represent a normal mode of free vibration;
the individual particles revolve as a rule in elliptic orbits which
gradually contract according to the law indicated by the expon-
ential factor. If the friction be relatively small, all the normal
modes are of this character, and unless two or more values of a
are nearly equal the elliptic orbits are very elongated. The
effect of friction on the period is moreover of the second order.
In a forced vibration of e"" the variation of each co-ordinate
is simple-harmonic, with the prescribed period, but there is a
retardation of phase as compared with the force. If the friction
be small the amplitude becomes relatively very great if the
imposed period approximate to a free period. The validity of
the "reciprocal theorems " of Helmholtz and Lord Rayleigh,
already referred to, is not affected by frictional forces of the kind
here considered.
The most important applications of the theory of vibrations are
to the case of continuous systems such as strings, bars, membranes,
plates, columns of air, where the number of degrees of freedom is
infinite. The series of equations of the type (3) is then replaced by
a single linear partial differential equation, or by a set of two or three
such equations, according to the number of dependent variables.
These variables represent the whole assemblage of generalized
co-ordinates qr; they are continuous functions of the independent
variables x, y, z whose range of variation corresponds to that of the
index r, and of /. For example, in a one-dimensional system such
as a string or a bar, we have one dependent variable, and two in-
dependent variables * and /. To determine the free oscillations
we assume a time factor e**'; the equations then become linear
differential equations between the dependent variables of the problem
and the independent variables x, or x, y, or x, y, z as the case may be.
If the range of the independent variable or variables is unlimited,
the value o/ a is at our disposal, and the solution gives us the laws
of wave-propagation (see WAVE). If, on the other hand, the body
s finite, certain terminal conditions have to be satisfied. These
imit the admissible values of <r, which are in general determined
994
MECHANICS
[APPLIED
by a transcendental equation corresponding to the determinantal
equation (6).
Numerous examples of this procedure, and of the corresponding
treatment of forced oscillations, present themselves in theoretical
acoustics. It must suffice here to consider the small oscillations of a
chain hanging vertically from a fixed extremity. If x be measured
upwards from the lower end, the horizontal component of the tension
s P at any point will be Pdy/dx, approximately, if y denote the lateral
displacement. Hence, forming the equation of motion of a mass-
element, pSx, we have
Neglecting the vertical acceleration we have P=gpx, whence
S>-y d_ I dy\ ,
dP ~% dx \ X dx) ' '39)
Assuming that y varies as e"" we have
o. (40)
*rrv \ wnr/
provided k = o 2 /g. The solution of (40) which is finite for x = o
is readily obtained in the form of a series, thus
i-r+T-...=CJ,(), (41)
in the notation of Bessel's functions, if z* = ^kx. Since y must vanish
at the upper end (x=l), the admissible values of a are determined by
o 3 =gz 1 /^l, Jo(z)=o. (42)
The function J (z) has been tabulated ; its lower roots are given by
*/= 7655. I-757I, 27546, -,
approximately, where the numbers tend to the form s \. The
frequency of the gravest mode is to that of a uniform bar in the ratio
9815. That this ratio should be less than unity agrees with the
theory of " constrained types " already given. In the higher normal
modes there are nodes or points of rest (y=o); thus in the second
mode there is a node at a distance 190^ from the lower end.
AUTHORITIES. For indications as to the earlier history of the
subject see W. W. R. Ball, Short Account of the History of Mathematics ;
M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik (Leipzig, 1880 . . .); J. Cox,
Mechanics (Cambridge, 1904) ; E. Mach, Die Mechanik in ihrer
Entwickelunq (4th ed., Leipzig, 1901 ; Eng. trans.). Of the classical
treatises which have had a notable influence on the development
of the subject, and which may still be consulted with advantage,
we may note particularly, Sir I. Newton, Philosophiae naturalis
Principia Mathematica (ist ed., London, 1687); J. L. Lagrange,
Mecanique analytique (2nd ed., Paris, 1811-1815); P. S. Laplace,
Mecanique celeste (Paris, 1799-1825); A. F. Mobius, Lehrbuch der
Statik (Leipzig, 1837), and Mechanik des Himmels; L. Poinspt,
Elements de statique (Paris, 1804), and Thtorie nouvelle de la rotation
des corps (Paris, 1834).
Of the more recent general treatises we may mention Sir W.
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait, Natural Philosophy (2nd ed.,
Cambridge, 1879-1883); E. J. Routh, Analytical Statics (2nd. ed.,
Cambridge, 1896), Dynamics of a Particle (Cambridge, 1898), Rigid
Dynamics (6th ed., Cambridge 1905); G. Minchin, Statics (4th ed.,
Oxford, 1888); A. E. H. Love, Theoretical Mechanics (2nd ed., Cam-
bridge, 1909); A. G. Webster, Dynamics of Particles, &c. (1904);
E. T. Whittaker, Analytical Dynamics (Cambridge, 1904); L. Arnal,
Traite de mecanique (1888-1898); P. Appell, Mecanique rationelle
(Paris, vols. i. and ii., 2nd ed., 1902 and 1904; vol. iii., Ist ed., 1896) ;
G. Kirchhoff, Vorlesungen uber Mechanik (Leipzig, 1896) ; H. Helm-
holtz, Vorlesungen uber theoretische Physik, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1898) ;
J. Somoff, Theoretische Mechanik (Leipzig, 1878-1879).
The literature of graphical statics and its technical applications
is very extensive. We may mention K. Culmann, Graphische
Statik (2nd ed., Zurich, 1895); A. Foppl, Technische Mechanik, vol. ii.
(Leipzig, 1900) ; L. Henneberg, Statik des starren Systems (Darmstadt,
1886); M. Levy, La statique graphique (2nd ed., Paris, 1886-1888);
H. Muller-Breslau, Graphische Statik (3rd ed., Berlin, 1901). Sir
R. S. Ball's highly original investigations in kinematics and dynamics
were published in collected form under the title Theory of Screws
(Cambridge, 1900).
Detailed accounts of the developments of the various branches
of the subject from the beginning of the igth century to the
present time, with full bibliographical references, are given in the
fourth volume (edited by Professor F. Klein) of the Encyclopddie der
mathematischen Wissenschaften (Leipzig). There is a French transla-
tion of this work. (See also DYNAMICS.) (H. LB.)
II. APPLIED MECHANICS 1
i. The practical application of mechanics may be divided
into two classes, according as the assemblages of material
1 In view of the great authority of the author, the late Professor
Macquorn Rankine, it has been thought desirable to retain the greater
part of this article as it appeared in the gth edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica. Considerable additions, however, have been
introduced in order to indicate subsequent developments of the
subject; the new sections are numbered continuously with the old,
objects to which they relate are intended to remain fixed or
to move relatively to each other the former class being com-
prehended under the term " Theory of Structures " and the
latter under the term " Theory of Machines."
PART L OUTLINE OF THE THEORY OF STRUCTURES
2. Support of Structures. Every structure, as a whole, is main-
tained in equilibrium by the joint action of its own weight, of the
external load or pressure applied to it from without and tending to
displace it, and of the resistance of the material which supports it.
A structure is supported either by resting on the solid crust of the
earth, as buildings do, or by floating in a fluid, as ships do in water
and balloons in air. The principles of the support of a floating
structure form an important part of Hydromechanics (q.v.). The
principles of the support, as a whole, of a structure resting on the
land, are so far identical with those which regulate the equilibrium
and stability of the several parts of that structure that the only
principle which seems to require special mention here is one which
comprehends in one statement the power both of liquids and of
loose earth to support structures. This was first demonstrated in
a paper " On the Stability of Loose Earth," read to the Royal
Society on the igth of June 1856 (Phil. Trans. 1856), as follows:
Let E represent the weight of the portion of a horizontal stratum
of earth which is displaced by the foundation of a structure, S the
utmost weight of that structure consistently with the power of the
earth to resist displacement, <f> the angle of repose of the earth ; then
S = /i +sin <t>\ 2
E~ Vi sin <t>) '
To apply this to liquids <p must be made zero, and then S/E = i,
as is well known. For a proof of this expression see Rankine's
Applied Mechanics, I7th ed., p. 219.
$ 3. Composition of a Structure, and Connexion of its Pieces.
A structure is composed of pieces, such as the stones of a building
in masonry, the beams of a timber frame-work, the bars, plates
and bolts of an iron bridge. Those pieces are connected at their
joints or surfaces of mutual contact, either by simple pressure and
friction (as in masonry with moist mortar or without mortar), by
pressure and adhesion (as in masonry with cement or with hardened
mortar, and timber with glue), or by the resistance of fastenings
of different kinds, whether made by means of the form of the joint
(as dovetails, notches, mortices and tenons) or by separate fastening
pieces (as trenails, pins, spikes, nails, holdfasts, screws, bolts, rivets,
hoops, straps and sockets.
4. Stability, Stiffness and Strength. A structure may be damaged
or destroyed in three ways: first, by displacement of its pieces
from their proper positions relatively to each other or to the
earth; secondly by disfigurement of one or more of those pieces,
owing to their being unable to preserve their proper shapes under
the pressures to which they are subjected; thirdly, by breaking
of one or more of those pieces. The power of resisting displacement
constitutes stability, the power of each piece to resist disfigurement
is its stiffness; and its power to resist breaking, its strength.
5. Conditions of Stability. The principles of the stability of
structure can be to a certain extent investigated independently e
the stiffness and strength, by assuming, in the first instance, that
each piece has strength sufficient to be safe against being broken,
and stiffness sufficient to prevent its being disfigured to an extent
inconsistent with the purposes of the structure, by the greatest force
which are to be applied to it. The condition that each piece of th
structure is to be maintained in equilibrium by having its gross load,
consisting of its own weight and of the external pressure applied to
it, balanced by the resistances or pressures exerted between it and
the contiguous pieces, furnishes the means of determining the magni-
tude, position and direction of the resistances required at each joint
in order to produce equilibrium; and the conditions of stability are,
first, that the position, and, secondly, that the direction, of the resist-
ance required at each joint shall, under all the variations to which
the load is subject, be such as the joint is capable of exerting
conditions which are fulfilled by suitably adjusting the figures and
positions of the joints, and the ratios of the gross loads of, the pieces.
As for the magnitude of the resistance, it is limited by condition
not of stability, but of strength and stiffness.
6. Principle of Least Resistance. Where more than one systeri
of resistances are alike capable of balancing the same system of loa '
applied to a given structure, the smallest of those alternative systen
as was demonstrated by the Rev. Henry Moseley in his Mechanics i
Engineering and Architecture, is that which will actually be exerted-
but are distinguished by an asterisk. Also, two short chapters
which concluded the original article have been omitted ch. iii.,
" On Purposes and Effects of Machines," which was really a classifi-
cation of machines, because the classification of Franz Reuleaux
is now usually followed, and ch. iv., " Applied Energetics, or Theory
of Prime Movers," because its subject matter is now treated in
various special articles, e.g. HYDRAULICS, STEAM ENGINE, GAS
ENGINE, OIL ENGINE, and fully developed in Rankine's The Steam
Engine and Other Prime Movers (London, 1902). (En. E.B.)
THEORY OF STRUCTURES]
MECHANICS
995
because the resistances to displacement are the effect of a strained
state of the pieces, which strained state is the effect of the load,
and when the load is applied the strained state and the resistances
produced by it increase until the resistances acquire just those mag-
nitudes which are sufficient to balance the load, after which they
increase no further.
This principle of least resistance renders determinate many
problems in the statics of structures which were formerly considered
indeterminate.
7. Relations between Polygons of Loads and of Resistances. In a
structure in which each piece is supported at_two joints only, the
well-known laws of statics show that the directions of the gross load
on each piece and of the two resistances by which it is supported
must lie in one plane, must either be parallel or meet in one point,
and must bear to each other, if not parallel, the proportions of the
sides of a triangle respectively parallel to their directions, and, if
parallel, such proportions that each of the three forces shall be
proportional to the distance between the other two, all the three
distances being measured along one direction.
Considering, in the first pjace, the case in which the load and the
two resistances by which each piece is balanced meet in one point,
which may be called the centre of load, there will be as many such
points of intersection, or centres of load, as there are pieces in the
structure ; and the directions and positions of the resistances or mutual
pressures exerted between the pieces will be represented by the sides
of a polygon joining
those points, as in fig.
86 where PI, P 2 , P s ,
P 4 represent the cen-
tres of load in a struc-
ture of four pieces,
and the sides of the
polygon of resistances
Pi P 8 Pj P4 represent
respectively the direc-
FIG. 86.
" ** tions and positions
of the resistances ex-
erted at the joints.
Further, at any one of the centres of load let PL represent the
magnitude and direction of the gross load, and Pa, P6 the two resist-
ances by which the piece to which that load is applied is supported ;
then will those three lines be respectively the diagonal and sides of
a parallelogram; or, what is the same thing, they will be equal to
the three sides of a triangle; and they must be in the same plane,
although the sides of the polygon of resistances may be in different
planes.
According to a well-known principle of statics, because the loads
or external pressures PiLi, &c., balance each other, they must be
proportional to the sides of a closed polygon
drawn respectively parallel to their directions.
In fig. 87 construct such a polygon of loads by
drawing the lines Li, &c., parallel and propor-
tional to, and joined end to end in the order
of, the gross loads on the pieces of the structure.
Then from the proportionality and parallelism
of the load and the two resistances applied
to each piece of the structure to the three
sides of a triangle, there results the following
theorem (originally due to Rankine) :
If front the angles of the polygon of loads there
be drawn lines (Ri, Rj, &c.), each of which is
parallel to the resistance (as PiPj, &c.) exerted
at the joint between the pieces to which the two
loads represented by the contiguous sides of the
L4
FIG. 87.
polygon of loads (such as L lt Lj, &c.) are applied; then will all those
lines meet in one point (O), and their lengths, measured from that point
to the angles of the polygon, will represent the magnitudes of the resis-
tances to which they are respectively parallel.
When the load on one of the pieces is parallel to the resistances
which balance it, the polygon of resistances ceases to be closed, two
of the sides becoming parallel to each other and to the load in
question, and extending indefinitely. In the polygon of loads the
direction of a load sustained by parallel resistances traverses the
point O. 1
1 Since the relation discussed in 7 was enunciated by Rankine,
an enormous development has taken place in the subject of Graphic
Statics, the first comprehensive textbook on the subject being
Die Graphische Statik by K. Culmann, published at Zurich in 1866.
Many of the graphical methods therein given have now passed into
the textbooks usually studied by engineers. One of the most
beautiful graphical constructions regularly used by engineers and
known as " the method of reciprocal figures " is that for finding
the loads supported by the several members of a braced structure,
having given a system of external loads. The method was discovered
by Clerk Maxwell, and the complete theory is discussed and exempli-
fied in a paper " On Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of
Forces," Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., vol. xxvi. (1870). Professor M. W.
Crofton read a paper on " Stress- Diagrams in Warren and Lattice
Girders " at the meeting of the Mathematical Society (April 13,
8. How the Earth's Resistance is to be treated . . .When the pressure
exerted by a structure on the earth (to which the earth's resistance
is equal and opposite) consists either of one pressure, which is neces-
sarily the resultant of the weight of the structure and of all the other
forces applied to it, or of two or more parallel vertical forces, whose
amount can be determined at the outset of the investigation, the
resistance of the earth can be treated as one or more upward loads
applied to the structure. But in other cases the earth is to be treated
as one of the pieces of the structure, loaded with a force equal and
opposite in direction and position to the resultant of the weight of
the structure and of the other pressures applied to it.
9. Partial Polygons of Resistance. In a structure in which there
are pieces supported at more than two joints, let a polygon be con-
structed of lines connecting the centres of load of any continuous
series of pieces. This may oe called a partial polygon of resistances.
In considering its properties, the load at each centre of load is to be
held to include the resistances of those joints which are not compre-
hended in the partial polygon of resistances, to which the theorem
of 7 will then apply in every respect. By constructing several
partial polygons, and computing the relations between the loads
and resistances which are determined by the application of that
theorem to each of them, with the aid, if necessary, of Moseley's
principle of the least resistance, the whole of the relations amongst
the loads and resistances mav be found.
10. Line of Pressures Centres and Line of Resistance. The line
of pressures is a line to which the directions of all the resistances in
one polygon are tangents. The centre of resistance at any joint is
the point where the line representing the total resistance exerted at
that joint intersects the joint. The line of resistance is a line tra-
versing all the centres of resistance of a series of joints, its form, in
the positions intermediate between the actual joints of the structure,
being determined by supposing the pieces and their loads to be
subdivided by the introduction of intermediate joints ad infinitum,
and finding the continuous line, curved or straight, in which the
intermediate centres of resistance are all situated, however great
their number. The difference between the line of resistance and the
line of pressures was first pointed out by Moseley.
n. The principles of the two preceding sections may be illus-
trated by the consideration of a particular case of a buttress of blocks
forming a continuous series
of pieces (fig. 88), where aa,
bb, cc, dd represent plane
joints. Let the centre of
pressure C at the first joint
aa be known, and also the
pressure P acting at C in
direction and magnitude.
Find RI the resultant of this
pressure, the weight of the
block aabb acting through its
centre of gravity, and any
other external force which
may be acting on the block,
and produce its line of action
to cut the joint bb in Ci. Ci
is then the centre of pressure
for the joint bb, and RI is the
total force acting there. Re-
peating this process for each
block in succession there will
be found the centres of pres-
sure C, C s , &c., and also the
resultant pressures R, Ri,
&c., acting at these respec-
tive centres. The centres of pressure at the joints are also called
centres of resistance, and the curve passing through these points is
called a line of resistance. Let all the resultants acting at the several
centres of resistance be produced until they cut one another in a
series of points so as to form an unclosed polygon. This polygon
is the partial polygon of resistance. A curve tangential to all the
sides of the polygon is the line of pressures.
12. Stability of Position, and Stability of Friction. The resist-
ances at the several joints having been determined by the principles
set forth in 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, not only under the ordinary load of
the structure, but under all the variations to which the load is subject
as to amount and distribution, the joints are now to be placed and
shaped so that the pieces shall not suffer relative displacement
under any of those loads. The relative displacement of the two
pieces which abut against each other at a joint may take place either
FIG. 88.
1871), and Professor O. Henrici illustrated the subject by a simple
and ingenious notation. The application of the method of reciprocal
figures was facilitated by a system of notation published in Economics
of Construction in relation to framed Structures, by Robert H. Bow
(London, 1873). A notable work on the general subject is that
of Luigi Cremona, translated from the Italian by Professor T. H.
Beare (Oxford, 1890), and a discussion of the subject of reciprocal
figures from the special point of view of the engineering student
is given in Vectors and Rotors by Henrici and Turner (London, 1903)
See also above under " Theoretical Mechanics," Part I. 5.
99 6
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF STRUCTURES
by turning or by sliding. Safety against displacement by turning
is called stability of position ; safety against displacement by sliding,
stability of friction.
13. Condition of Stability of Position. If the materials of a struc-
ture were infinitely stiff and strong, stability of position at any joint
would be insured simply by making the centre of resistance fall
within the joint under all possible variations of load. In order to
allow for the finite stiffness and strength of materials, the least
distance of the centre of resistance inward from the nearest edge of
the joint is made to bear a definite proportion to* the depth of the
joint measured in the same direction, which proportion is fixed,
sometimes empirically, sometimes by theoretical deduction from the
laws of the strength of materials. That least distance is called by
Moseley the modulus of stability. The following are some of the
ratios of the modulus of stability to the depth of the joint which occur
in practice:
Retaining walls, as designed by British engineers
Retaining walls, as designed by French engineers
Rectangular piers of bridges and other buildings, and
arch-stones
Rectangular foundations, firm ground . ...
Rectangular foundations, very soft ground
Rectangular foundations, intermediate kinds of ground I
Thin, hollow towers (such as furnace chimneys exposed
to high winds), square
Thin, hollow towers, circular
Frames of timber or metal, under their ordinary or
average distribution of load . . . .
Frames of timber or metal, under the greatest irregularities
of load
In the case of the towers, the depth of the joint is to be understood
to mean the diameter of the tower.
14. Condition of Stability of Friction. If the resistance to be
exerted at a joint is always perpendicular
to the surfaces which abut at and form
that joint, there is no tendency of the
pieces to be displaced by sliding. If the
resistance be oblique, let JK (fig. 89) be
the joint, C its centre of resistance, CR a
line representing the resistance, CN a
perpendicular to the joint at the centre of
resistance. The angle NCR is the obliquity
of the resistance. From R draw RP
parallel and RQ perpendicular to the
joint; then, by the principles of statics,
the component of the resistance normal
3 to
FIG. 89.
to the joint is
CP = CR.cosPCR;
and the component tangential to the joint is
CQ = CR.sin PCR = CP.tan PCR.
If the joint be provided either with projections and recesses, such as
mortises and tenons, or with fastenings, such as pins or bolts, so as
to resist displacement by sliding, the question of the utmost amount
of the tangential resistance CQ -which it is capable of exerting
depends on the strength of such projections, recesses, or fastenings;
and belongs to the subject of strength, and not to that of stability.
In other cases the safety of the joint against displacement by sliding
depends on its power of exerting friction, and that power depends
on the law, known by experiment, that the friction between two
surfaces bears a constant ratio, depending on the nature of the
surfaces, to the force by which they are pressed together. In order
that the surfaces which abut at the joint JK may be pressed together,
the resistance required by the conditions of equilibrium CR, must be
a thrust and not a pull; and in that case the force by which the sur-
faces are pressed together is equal and opposite to the normal com-
ponent CP of the resistance. The condition of stability of friction
is that the tangential component CQ of the resistance required shall
not exceed the friction due to the normal component ; that is, that
CQ>/.CP,
where / denotes the coefficient of friction for the surfaces in question.
The angle whose tangent is the coefficient of friction is called the
angle of repose, and is expressed symbolically by
= tan-'/.
NowCQ = CP.tanPCR;
consequently the condition of stability of friction is fulfilled if the
angle PCR is not greater than <f>; that is to say, if the obliquity of
the resistance required at the joint does not exceed the angle of repose ;
and this condition ought to be fulfilled under all possible variations
of the load.
It is chiefly in masonry and earthwork that stability of friction is
relied on.
15. Stability of Friction in Earth. The grains of a mass of loose
earth are to be regarded as so many separate pieces abutting against
each other at joints in all possible positions, and depending for their
stability on friction. To determine whether a mass of earth is
stable at a given point, conceive that point to be traversed by planes
in all possible positions, and determine which position gives the
greatest obliquity to the total pressure exerted between the portions
of the mass which abut against, each other at the plane. The
condition of stability is that this obliquity shall not exceed the
angle of repose of the earth. The consequences of this principle are
developed in a paper, " On the Stability of Loose Earth," already
cited in 2.
16. Parallel Projections of Figures. If any figure be referred to a
system of co-ordinates, rectangular or oblique, and if a second figure
be constructed by means of a second system of co-ordinates, rect-
angular or oblique, and either agreeing with or differing from the first
system in rectangularity or obliquity, but so related to the co-ordin-
ates of the first figure that for each point in the first figure there
shall be a corresponding point in the second figure, the lengths
of whose co-ordinates shall bear respectively to the three correspond-
ing co-ordinates of the corresponding point in the first figure three
ratios which are the same for every pair of corresponding points in
the two figures, these corresponding figures are called parallel
projections of each other. The properties of parallel projections
of most importance to the subject of the present article are the
following:
(1) A parallel projection of a straight line is a straight line.
(2) A parallel projection of a plane is a plane.
(3) A parallel projection of a straight line or a plane surface
divided in a given ratio is a straight line or a plane surface divided
in the same ratio.
(4) A parallel projection of a pair of equal and parallel straight
lines, or plain surfaces, is a pair of equal and parallel straight lines,
or plane surfaces; whence it follows
(5) That a parallel projection of a parallelogram is a parallelo-
gram, and
(6) That a parallel projection of a parallelepiped is a parallel-
epiped.
(7) A parallel projection of a pair of solids having a given ratio
is a pair of solids having the same ratio.
Though not essential for the purposes of the present article, the
following consequence will serve to illustrate the principle of parallel
projections :
(8) A parallel projection of a curve, or of a surface of a given
algebraical order, is a curve or a surface of the same order.
For example, all ellipsoids referred to co-ordinates parallel to any
three conjugate diameters are parallel projections of each other and
of a sphere referred to rectangular co-ordinates.
17. Parallel Projections of Systems of Forces. If a balanced
system of forces be represented by a system of lines, then will every
parallel projection of tnat system of lines represent a balanced system
of forces.
For the condition of equilibrium of forces not parallel is that
they shall be represented in direction and magnitude by the sides
and diagonals of certain parallelograms, and of parallel forces
that they shall divide certain straight lines in certain ratios; and the
parallel projection of a parallelogram is a parallelogram, and that
of a straight line divided in a given ratio is a straight line divided in
the same ratio.
The resultant of a parallel projection of any system of forces is
the projection of their resultant; and the centre of gravity of a
parallel projection of a solid is the projection of the centre of gravity
of the first solid.
1 8. Principle of the Transformation of Structures. Here we have
the following theorem : If a structure of a given figure have stability
of position under a system of forces represented by a given system of
lines, then will any structure whose figure is a parallel projection
of that of the first structure have stability of position under a system
of forces represented by the corresponding projection of the first
system of lines.
For in the second structure the weights, external pressures, and
resistances will balance each other as in the first structure; the
weights of the pieces and all other parallel systems of forces will
have the same ratios as in the first structure; and the several
centres of resistance will divide the depths of the joints in the same
proportions as in the first structure.
If the first structure have stability of friction, the second struc-
ture will have stability of friction also, so long as the effect of the
projection is not to increase the obliquity of the resistance at any
joint beyond the angle of repose.
The lines representing the forces in the second figure show their
relative directions and magnitudes. To find their absolute directions
and magnitudes, a vertical line is to be drawn in the first figure, of
such a length as to represent the weight of a particular portion of
the structure. Then will the projection of that line in the projected
figure indicate the vertical direction, and represent the weight of the
part of the second structure corresponding to the before-mentioned
portion of the first structure.
The foregoing " principle of the transformation of structures "
was first announced, though in a somewhat less comprehensive
form, to the Royal Society on the 6th of March 1856. It is useful
in practice, by enabling the engineer easily to deduce the conditions
of equilibrium and stability of structures of complex and unsym-
metncal figures from those of structures of simple and symmetrical
figures. By its aid, for example, the whole of the properties of
THEORY OF MACHINES]
MECHANICS
997
elliptical arches, whether square or skew, whether level or sloping
in their span, are at once deduced by projection from those of sym-
metrical circular arches, and the properties of ellipsoidal and elliptic-
conoidal domes from those of hemispherical and circular-conoidal
domes; and the figures of arches fitted to resist the thrust of earth,
which is less horizontally than vertically in a certain given ratio,
can be deduced by a projection from those of arches fitted to resist
the thrust of a liquid, which is of equal intensity, horizontally and
vertically.
19. Conditions of Stiffness and Strength. After the arrangement
of the pieces of a structure and the size and figure of their joints or
surfaces of contact have been determined so as to fulfil the conditions
of stability, conditions which depend mainly on the position and
direction of the resultant or total load on each piece, and the relative
magnitude of the loads on the different pieces the dimensions of
each piece singly have to be adjusted so as to fulfil the conditions
of stiffness and strength conditions which depend not only on the
absolute magnitude of the load on each piece, and of the resistances
by which it is balanced, but also on the mode of distribution of the
load over the piece, and of the resistances over the joints.
The effect of the pressures applied to a piece, consisting of the
load and the supporting resistances, is to force the piece into a state
of strain or disfigurement, which increases until the elasticity, or
resistance to strain, of the material causes it to exert a stress, or
effort to recover its figure, equal and opposite to the system of
applied pressures. The condition of stiffness is that the strain or
disfigurement shall not be greater than is consistent with the pur-
poses of the structure; and the condition of strength is that the stress
shall be within the limits of that which the material can bear with
safety against breaking. The ratio in which the utmost stress
before breaking exceeds the safe working stress is called the factor
of safety, and is determined empirically. It varies from three to
twelve for various materials and structures. (See STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS.)
PART II. THEORY OF MACHINES
20. Parts of a Machine: Frame and Mechanism. The parts of
a machine may be distinguished into two principal divisions, the
frame, or fixed parts, and the mechanism, or moving parts. The
frame is a structure which supports the pieces of the mechanism,
and to a certain extent determines the nature of their motions.
The form and arrangement of the pieces of the frame depend upon
the arrangement and the motions of the mechanism ; the dimensions
of the pieces of the frame required in order to give it stability and
strength are determined from the pressures applied to it by means
of the mechanism. It appears therefore that in general the mechan-
ism is to be designed first and the frame afterwards, and that the
designing of the frame is regulated by the principles of the stability
of structures and of the strength and stiffness of materials, care
being taken to adapt the frame to the most severe load which can
be thrown upon it at any period of the action of the mechanism.
Each independent piece of the mechanism also is a structure, and
its dimensions are to be adapted, according to the principles of the
strength and stiffness of materials, to the most severe load to which
it can be subjected during the action of the machine.
21. Definition and Division of the Theory of Machines. From
what has been said in the last section it appears that the depart-
ment of the art of designing machines which has reference to the
stability of the frame and to the stiffness and strength of the frame
and mechanism is a branch of the art of construction. It is therefore
to be separated from the theory of machines, properly speaking,
which has reference to the action of machines considered as moving.
In the action of a machine the following three things take place:
Firstly, Some natural source of energy communicates motion and
force to a piece or pieces of the mechanism, called the receiver of
power or prime mover.
Secondly, The motion and force are transmitted from the prime
mover through the train of mechanism to the working piece or pieces,
and during that transmission the motion and force are modified
in amount and direction, so as to be rendered suitable for the
purpose to which they are to be applied.
Thirdly, The working piece or pieces by their motion, or by their
motion and force combined, produce some useful effect.
Such are the phenomena of the action of a machine, arranged in
the order of causation. But in studying or treating of the theory
of machines, the order of simplicity is the best ; and in this order the
first branch of the subject is the modification of motion and force
by the train of mechanism ; the next is the effect or purpose of the
machine; and the last, or most complex, is the action of the prime
mover.
The modification of motion and the modification of force take
place together, and are connected by certain laws; but in the study
of the theory of machines, as well as in that of pure mechanics,
much advantage has been gained in point of clearness and simplicity
by first considering alone the principles of the modification of motion,
which are founded upon what is now known as Kinematics, and after-
wards considering the principles of the combined modification of
motion and force, which are founded both on geometry and on the
|aws of dynamics. The separation of kinematics from dynamics
is due mainly to G. Monge, Ampere and R. Willis.
The theory ol machines in the present article will be considered
under the following heads:
I. PURE MECHANISM, or APPLIED KINEMATICS; being the theory
of machines considered simply as modifying motion.
II. APPLIED DYNAMICS; being the theory of machines considered
as modifying both motion and force.
CHAP. I. ON PURE MECHANISM
22. Division of the Subject. Proceeding in the order of simplicity,
the subject of Pure Mechanism, or Applied Kinematics, may be thus
divided :
Division I. Motion of a point.
Division 2. Motion of the surface of a fluid.
Division 3. Motion of a rigid solid.
Division 4. Motions of a pair of connected pieces, or of an
" elementary combination " in mechanism.
Division 5. Motions of trains of pieces of mechanism.
Division 6. Motions of sets of more than two connected pieces,
or of " aggregate combinations."
A point is the boundary of a line, which is the boundary of
a surface, which is the boundary of a volume. Points, lines and
surfaces have no independent existence, and consequently those
divisions of this chapter which relate to their motions are only
preliminary to the subsequent divisions, which relate to the motions
of bodies.
Division i . Motion of a Point.
23. Comparative Motion. The comparative motion of two points
is the relation which exists between their motions, without having
regard to their absolute amounts. It consists of two elements,
the velocity ratio, which is the ratio of any two magnitudes bearing
to each other the proportions of the respective velocities of the
two points at a given instant, and the directional relation, which
is the relation borne to each other by the respective directions of the
motions of the two points at the same given instant.
It is obvious that the motions of a pair of points may be varied
in any manner, whether by direct or by lateral deviation, and yet
that their comparative motion may remain constant, in consequence
of the deviations taking place in the same proportions, in the same
directions and at the same instants for both points.
Robert Willis (1800-1875) has the merit of having been the first
to simplify considerably the theory of puie mechanism, by pointing
out that that branch of mechanics relates wholly to comparative
motions.
The comparative motion of two points at a given instant is capable
of being completely expressed by one of Sir William Hamilton's
Quaternions, the " tensor " expressing the velocity ratio, and the
" versor " the directional relation.
Graphical methods of analysis founded on this way of representing
velocity and acceleration were developed by R. H. Smith in a paper
communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1885, and
illustrations of the method will be found below.
Division 2. Motion of the Surface of a Fluid Mass.
24. General Principle. A mass of fluid is used in mechanism
to transmit motion and force between two or more movable portions
(called pistons or plungers) of the solid envelope or vessel in which
the fluid is contained; and, when such transmission is the sole
action, or the only appreciable action of the fluid mass, its volume
is either absolutely constant, by reason of its temperature and
pressure being maintained constant, or not sensibly varied.
Let a represent the area of the section of a piston made by a plane
perpendicular to its direction of motion, and v its velocity, which
is to be considered as positive when outward, and negative when
inward. Then the variation of the cubic contents of the v< >>(!
in a unit of time by reason of the motion of one piston is va. The
condition that the volume of the fluid mass shall remain unchanged
requires that there shall be more than one piston, and that the
velocities and areas of the pistons shall be connected by the
equation
X.va=o. (i)
25. Comparative Motion of Two Pistons. If there be but two
pistons, whose areas are 01 and at, and their velocities PI and r } ,
their comparative motion is expressed by the equation
pj/Pi=-Oia/i; (2)
that is to say, their velocities are opposite as to inwardness and
outwardness and inversely proportional to their areas.
26. Applications: Hydraulic Pres:: Pneumatic Power-Trans-
mitter. In the hydraulic press the vessel consists of two cylinders,
viz. the pump-barrel and the press-barrel, each having its piston,
and of a passage connecting them having a valve opening towards
the press-barrel. The action of the enclosed water in transmitting
motion takes place during the inward stroke of the pump-plunger,
when the above-mentioned valve is open; and at that time the press-
plunger moves outwards with a velocity which is less than the
inward velocity of the pump-plunger, in the same ratio that the
area of the pump-plunger is less than the area of the press-plunger.
(See HYDRAULICS.)
In the pneumatic power-transmitter the motion of one piston is
998
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF MACHINES
transmitted to another at a distance by means of a mass of air con-
tained in two cylinders and an intervening tube. When the pressure
and temperature of the air can be maintained constant, this
machine fulfils equation (2), like the hydraulic press. The amount
and effect of the variations of pressure and temperature undergone
by the air depend on the principles of the mechanical action of
heat, or THERMODYNAMICS (?..), and are foreign to the subject of
pure mechanism.
Division 3. Motion of a Rigid Solid.
27. Motions Classed. In problems of mechanism, each solid
piece of the machine is supposed to be so stiff and strong as not to
undergo any sensible change of figure or dimensions by the forces
applied to it a supposition which is realized in practice if the
machine is skilfully designed.
This being the case, the various possible motions of a rigid solid
body may all be classed under the following heads: (i) Shifting
or Translation; (2) Turning or Rotation; (3) Motions compounded
of Shifting and Turning.
The most common forms for the paths of the points of a piece of
mechanism, whose motion is simple shifting, are the straight line
and the circle.
Shifting in a straight line is regulated either by straight fixed
guides, in contact with which the moving piece slides, or by combina-
tions of link-work, called parallel motions, which will be described
in the sequel. Shifting in a straight line is usually reciprocating;
that is to say, the piece, after shifting through a certain distance,
returns to its original position by reversing its motion.
Circular shifting is regulated by attaching two or more points
of the shifting piece to ends of equal and parallel rotating cranks,
or by combinations of wheel-work to be afterwards described. As
an example of circular shifting may be cited the motion of the coup-
ling rod, by which the parallel and equal cranks upon two or more
axles of a locomotive engine are connected and made to rotate
simultaneously. The coupling rod remains always parallel to itself,
and all its points describe equal and similar circles relatively to the
frame of the engine, and move in parallel directions with equal
velocities at the same instant.
28. Rotation about a Fixed Axis: Lever, Wheel and Axle. The
fixed axis of a turning body is a line fixed relatively to the body
and relatively to the fixed space in which the body turns. In
mechanism it is usually the central line either of a rotating shaft
or axle having journals, gudgeons, or pivots turning in fixed bear-
ings, or of a fixed spindle or dead centre round which a rotating
bush turns; but it may sometimes be entirely beyond the limits of
the turning body. For example, if a sliding piece moves in circular
fixed guides, that piece rotates about an ideal fixed axis traversing
the centre of those guides.
Let the angular velocity of the rotation be denoted by a = dO/dt,
then the linear velocity of any point A at the distance r from the
axis is or; and the path of that point is a circle of the radius r
described about the axis.
This is the principle of the modification of motion by the lever,
which consists of a rigid body turning about a fixed axis called a
fulcrum, and having two points at the same or different distances
from that axis, and in the same or different directions, one of which
receives motion and the other transmits motion, modified in direction
and velocity according to the above law.
In the wheel and axle, motion is received and transmitted by
two cylindrical surfaces of different radii described about their
common fixed axis of turning, their velocity-ratio being that of
their radii.
29. Velocity Ratio of Components of Motion. As the distance
between any two points in a rigid body is invariable, the projections
of their velocities upon the line joining
them must be equal. Hence it follows
that, if A in fig. 90 be a point in a rigid
body CD, rotating round the fixed axis
F, the component of the velocity of A
in any direction AP parallel to the
plane of rotation is equal to the total
velocity of the point m, found by
letting fall Fm perpendicular to AP;
that is to say, is equal to
o.Ff.
FIG. 90.
Hence also the ratio of the com-
ponents of the velocities of two, points
A and B in the directions AP and BW respectively, both in the
plane of rotation, is equal to the ratio of the perpendiculars Fm
and Fn.
30. Instantaneous Axis of a Cylinder rolling on a Cylinder. Let
a cylinder bbb, whose axis of figure is B and angular velocity y, roll
on a fixed cylinder aaa, whose axis of figure is A, either outside (as
in fig. 91), when the rolling will be towards the same hand as the
rotation, or inside (as in fig. 92), when the rolling will be towards
the opposite hand; and at a given instant let T be the line of con-
tact of the two cylindrical surfaces, which is at their common
intersection with the plane AB traversing the two axes of figure.
The line T on the surface bbb has for the instant no velocity in
a direction perpendicular to AB; because for the instant it touches,
without sliding, the line T on the fixed surface aaa.
The line T on the surface bbb has also for the instant no velocity
in the plane AB; for it has just ceased to move towards the fixed
surface aaa, and is just about to begin to move away from that
surface.
The line of contact T, therefore, on the surface of the cylinder
bbb, is for the instant at rest, and is the " instantaneous axis "
FIG. 91. FIG. 92.
about which the cylinder bbb turns, together with any body rigidly
attached to that cylinder.
To find, then, the direction and velocity at the given instant of
any point P, either in or rigidly attached to the rolling cylinder T,
draw the plane PT; the direction of motion of P will be perpendi-
cular to that plane, and towards the right or left hand according
to the direction of the rotation of bbb ; and the velocity of P will be
Vf=y.PT, (3)
PT denoting the perpendicular distance of P from T. The path
of P is a curve of the kind called epitrochoids. If P is in the
circumference of bbb, that path becomes an epicycloid.
The velocity of any point in the axis of figure B is
B=7.TB; (4)
and the path of such a point is a circle described about A with the
radius AB, being for outside rolling the sum, and for inside rolling
the difference, of the radii of the cylinders.
Let a denote the angular velocity with which the plane of axes
AB rotates about the fixed axis A; Then it is evident that
=a.AB, (5)
and consequently that o=-y . TB/AB (6)
For internal rolling, as in fig. 92, AB is to be treated as negative,
which will give a negative value to o, indicating that in this case
the rotation of AB round A is contrary to that of the cylinder bbb.
The angular velocity of the rolling cylinder, relatively to the
plane of axes AB, is obviously given by the equation
/3 = 7-a>
whence /3 = y . TA/AB ] ' (7)
care being taken to attend to the sign of a, so that when that is
negative the arithmetical values of y and o are to be added in order
to give that of /3.
The whole of the foregoing reasonings are applicable, not merely
when aaa and bbb are actual cylinders, but also when they are the
osculating cylinders of a pair of cylindroidal surfaces of varying
curvature, A and B being the axes of curvature of the parts of those
surfaces which are in contact for the instant under consideration.
31. Instantaneous Axis of a Cone rolling on a Cone. Let Oaa
(fig. 93) be a fixed cone, OA its axis, Obb a cone rolling on it, OB
FIG. 93.
the axis of the rolling cone, OT the line of contact of the two cones
at the instant under consideration. By reasoning similar to that
of 30, it appears that OT is the instantaneous axis of rotation of
the rolling cone.
Let y denote the total angular velocity of the rotation of the
cone B about the instantaneous axis, its angular velocity about
the axis OB relatively to the plane AOB, and o the angular velocity
with which the plane AOB turns round the axis OA. It is required
to find the ratios of those angular velocities.
Solution. In OT take any point E, from which draw EC parallel
to OA, and ED parallel to OB, so as to construct the parallelogram
OCED. Then
OD : OC : OE : : a : : y. (8)
Or because of the proportionality of the sides of triangles to the
sines of the opposite angles,
sin TOB : sin TOA : sin AOB : : o : ft : y, (8 A)
THEORY OF MACHINES]
MECHANICS
999
that is to say, the angular velocity about each axis is proportional
to the sine of the angle between the other two.
Demonstration. From C draw CF perpendicular to OA, and CG
perpendicular to OE
ThenCF = 2X areaEC
andCG
, area ECO
.-. CG :CF ::CE = OD:OE.
Let v, denote the linear velocity of the point C. Then
r c =o. CF= 7 . CG
.-. y.a:: CF : CG :: OE : OD,
which is one part of the solution above stated. From E draw EH
perpendicular to OB, and EK to OA. Then it can be shown as
before that
EK :EH ::OC : OD.
Let B be the linear velocity of the point E fixed in the plane of
axes AOB. Then
t% = a . EK.
Now, as the line of contact OT is for the instant at rest on the rolling
cone as well as on the fixed cone, the linear velocity of the point E
fixed to the plane AOB relatively to the rolling cone is the same
with its velocity relatively to the fixed cone. That is to say,
0.EH= E = a.EK;
therefore a : :: EH : EK :: OD : OC,
which is the remainder of the solution.
The path of a point P in or attached to the rolling cone is a
spherical epitrochoid traced on the surface of a sphere of the radius
OP. From P draw PQ perpendicular to the instantaneous axis.
Then the motion of P is perpendicular to the plane OPQ, and its
velocity is
f P =7-PQ. (9)
The whole of the foregoing reasonings are applicable, not merely
when A and B -are actual regular cones, but also when they are the
osculating regular cones of a pair of irregular conical surfaces,
having a common apex at O.
32. Screw-like or Helical Motion. Since any displacement in
a plane can be represented in general by a rotation, it follows that
the only combination of translation and rotation, in which a complex
movement which is not a mere rotation is produced, occurs when
there is a translation perpendicular to the plane and parallel to the
axis of rotation.
Such a complex motion is called screw-like or helical motion; for
each point in the body describes a helix or screw round the axis of
rotation, fixed or instantaneous as the case may
be. To cause a body to move in this manner it
is usually made of a helical or screw-like figure,
and moves in a guide of a corresponding figure.
Helical motion and screws adapted to it are said
to be right- or left-handed according to the
appearance presented by the rotation to an ob-
server looking towards the direction of the
translation. Thus the screw G in fig. 94 is right-
handed.
The translation of a body in helical motion is
called its advance. Let v, denote the velocity of
advance at a given instant, which of course is common to all the
particles of the body; o the angular velocity of the rotation at
the same instant; 2* = 6-2832 nearly, the circumference of a circle
of the radius unity. Then
T=2T/a (10)
is the time of one turn at the rate a; and
p = v,T= 2,/o (11)
is the pitch or advance per turn a length which expresses the
comparative motion of the translation and the rotation.
The pitch of a screw is the distance, measured parallel to its axis,
between two successive turns of the same thread or helical projection.
Let r denote the perpendicular distance of a point in a body
moving helically from the axis. Then
p,= or (12)
is the component of the velocity of that point in a plane perpendi-
cular to the axis, and its total velocity is
-V (f**+tv'|. (13)
The ratio of the two components of that velocity is
P/tV = Pl2*r = tan 6. (14)
where 9 denotes the angle made by the helical path of the point
with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
Division 4. Elementary Combinations in Mechanism
33. Definitions. An elementary combination in mechanism con-
sists of two pieces whose kinds of motion are determined by their
connexion with the frame, and their comparative motion by their
connexion with each other that connexion being effected either
FIG. 94.
by direct contact of the pieces, or by a connecting piece, which is
not connected with the frame, and whose motion depends entirely
on the motions of the pieces which it connects.
The piece whose motion is the cause is called the driver; the
piece whose motion is the effect, the follower.
The connexion of each of those two pieces with the frame is in
general such as to determine the path of every point in it. In the
investigation, therefore, of the comparative motion of the driver
and follower, in an elementary combination, it is unnecessary to
consider relations of angular direction, which are already fixed by
the connexion of each piece with the frame; so that the inquiry is
confined to the determination of the velocity ratio, and of the
directional relation, so far only as it expresses the connexion between
forward and backward movements of the driver and follower. When
a continuous motion of the driver produces a continuous motion
of the follower, forward or backward, and a reciprocating motion
a motion reciprocating at the same instant, the directional relation
is said to be constant. When a continuous motion produces a
reciprocating motion, or vice versa, or when a reciprocating motion
produces a motion not reciprocating at the same instant, the
directional relation is said to be variable.
The line of action or of connexion of the driver and follower is a
line traversing a pair of points in the driver and follower respectively,
which are so connected that the component of their velocity re-
latively to each other, resolved along the line of connexion, is null.
There may be several or an indefinite number of lines of connexion,
or there may be but one; and a line of connexion may connect
either the same pair of points or a succession of different pairs.
34. General Principle. From the definition of a line of connexion
it follows that the components of the velocities of a pair of connected
points along their line of connexion are equal. Ana from this, and
from the property of a rigid body, already stated in 29, it follows,
that the components along a line of connexion of all the points traversed
by that line, whether in the driver or in the follower, are equal and
consequently, that the velocities of any pair of points traversed by
a line of connexion are to each other inversely as the cosines, or directly
as the secants, of the angles made by the paths of those points with the
line of connexion.
The general principle stated above in different forms serves to
solve every problem in which the mode of connexion of a pair of
pieces being given it is required to find their comparative motion
at a given instant, or vice versa.
35- Application to a Pair of Shifting Pieces. In fig. 95, let
PiPi be the line of connexion of a pair of pieces, each of which has
a motion of translation or shifting.
Through any point T in that line
draw TVi, TVj, respectively paral-
lei to the simultaneous direction of
motion of the pieces; through any
other point A in the line of con-
nexion draw a plane perpendicular
to that line, cutting TVi, TV in
Vi, V; then, velocity of piece i:
velocity of piece 2 : : TVi : TV.
Also TA represents the equal com-
ponents of the velocities of the FIG. 95.
pieces parallel to their line of con-
nexion, and the line ViVi represents their velocity relatively to each
other.
36. Application to a Pair of Turning Pieces. Let 01, o- be the
angular velocities of a pair of turning pieces; 9\, the angles
which their line of connexion makes with their respective planes of
rotation; n, r the common perpendiculars let fall from the line
of connexion upon the respective axes of rotation of the pieces.
Then the equal components, along the line of connexion, of the
velocities of the points where those perpendiculars meet that line
are
ajri cos 0i = ajfj cos 6t \
consequently, the comparative motion of the pieces is given by the
equation
an _ fi cos 8, , *
7, ~ r, cos fe'
37. Application to a Shifting Piece and a Turning Piece. Let a
shifting piece be connected with a turning piece, and at a given
instant let 01 be the angular velocity of the turning piece, r t the
common perpendicular of its axis of rotation and the line of con-
nexion, 0i the angle made by the line of connexion with the plane
of rotation, 0i the angle made by the line of connexion with the
direction of motion of the shifting piece, r, the linear velocity of
that piece. Then
oiri cos 0i = ri cos 0j; (16)
which equation expresses the comparative motion of the two pieces.
38. Classification of Elementary Combinations in Mechanism.
The first systematic classification of elementary combinations in
mechanism was that founded by Monge, and fully developed by
Lanz and Betancourt, which has been generally received, and has
been adopted in most treatises on applied mechanics. But that
classification is founded on the absolute instead of the comparative
1000
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF MACHINES
motions of the pieces, and is, for that reason, defective, as Willis
pointed out in his admirable treatise On the Principles of Mechanism.
Willis's classification is founded, in the first place, on comparative
motion, as expressed by velocity ratio and directional relation, and
in the second place, on the mode of connexion of the driver and
follower. He divides the elementary combinations in mechanism
into three classes, of which the characters are as follows :
Class A: Directional relation constant; velocity ratio constant.
Class B : Directional relation constant ; velocity ratio varying.
Class C: Directional relation changing periodically; velocity
ratio constant or varying.
Each of those classes is subdivided by Willis into five divisions,
of which the characters are as follows:
Division A: Connexion by rolling contact.
,, B: ,, ,, sliding contact.
C: ,, ,, wrapping connectors.
,, D: ,, link-work.
E: reduplication.
In the Reuleaux system of analysis of mechanisms the principle
of comparative motion is generalized, and mechanisms apparently
very diverse in character are shown to be founded on the same
sequence of elementary combinations forming a kinematic chain.
A short description of this system is given in 80, but in the present
article the principle of Willis's classification is followed mainly.
The arrangement is, however, modified by taking the mode of
connexion as the basis of the primary classification, and by removing
the subject of connexion by reduplication to the section of aggregate
combinations. This modified arrangement is adopted as being
better suited than the original arrangement to the limits of an
article in an encyclopaedia; but it is not disputed that the original
arrangement may be the best for a separate treatise.
39. Rolling Contact: Smooth Wheels and Racks. In order that
two pieces may move in rolling contact, it is necessary that each
pair of points in the two pieces which touch each other should at
the instant of contact be moving in the same direction with the
same velocity. In the case of two shifting pieces this would involve
equal and parallel velocities for all the points of each piece, so that
there could be no rolling, and, in fact, the two pieces would move
like one; hence, in the case of rolling contact, either one or both
of the pieces must rotate.
The direction of motion of a point in a turning piece being per-
pendicular to a plane passing through its axis, the condition that
each pair of points in contact with each other must move in the
same direction leads to the following consequences:
I. That, when both pieces rotate, their axes, and all their points
of contact, lie in the same plane.
II. That, when one piece rotates, and the other shifts, the axis of
the rotating piece, and all the points of contact, lie in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the shifting piece.
The condition that the velocity of 'each pair of points of contact
must be equal leads to the following consequences:
III. That the angular velocities of a pair of turning pieces in
rolling contact must be inversely as the perpendicular distances of
any pair of points of contact from the respective axes.
IV. That the linear velocity of a shifting piece in rolling contact
with a turning piece is equal to the product of the angular velocity
of the turning piece by the perpendicular distance from its axis to
a pair of points of contact.
The line of contact is that line in which the points of contact are
all situated. Respecting this line, the above Principles III. and
IV. lead to the following conclusions:
V. That for a pair of turning pieces with parallel axes, and for
a turning piece and a shifting piece, the line of contact is straight,
and parallel to the axes or axis ; and hence that the rolling surfaces
are either plane or cylindrical (the term " cylindrical " including
all surfaces generated by the motion of a straight line 'parallel to
itself).
VI. That for a pair of turning pieces with intersecting axes the
line of contact is also straight, and traverses the point of inter-
section of the axes; and hence that the rolling surfaces are conical,
with a common apex (the term " conical " including all surfaces
generated by the motion of a straight line which traverses a fixed
point).
Turning pieces in rolling contact are called smooth or toothless
wheels. Shifting pieces in rolling contact with turning pieces may
be called smooth or toothless racks.
VII. In a pair of pieces in rolling contact every straight line
traversing the line of contact is a line of connexion.
40. Cylindrical Wheels and Smooth Racks. In designing cylin-
drical wheels and smooth racks, and determining their comparative
motion, it is sufficient to consider a section of the pair of pieces
made by a plane perpendicular to the axis or axes.
The points where axes intersect the plane of section are called
centres; the point where the line of contact intersects it, the point
of contact, or pitch-point; and the wheels are described as circular,
elliptical, &c., according to the forms of their sections made by that
plane.
When the point of contact of two wheels lies between their
centres, they are said to be in outside gearing; when beyond their
centres, in inside gearing, because the rolling surface of the larger
wheel must in this case be turned inward or towards its centre.
From Principle III. of 39 it appears that the angular velocity-
ratio of a pair of wheels is the inverse ratio of the distances of the
point of contact from the centres respectively.
For outside gearing that ratio is negative,
because the wheels turn contrary ways; for in-
side gearing it is positive, because they turn the
same way.
If the velocity ratio is to be constant, as in
Willis's Class A, the wheels must be circular;
and this is the most common form for wheels.
If the velocity ratio is to be variable, as in
Willis's Class B, the figures of the wheels are a
pair of rolling curves, subject to the condition
that the distance between their poles (which are
the centres of rotation) shall be constant.
The following is the geometrical relation
which must exist between such a pair of
curves :
Let Ci, C 2 (fig. 96) be the poles of a pair of
rolling curves; Ti, T 2 any pair of points of con-
tact; Ui, U2 any other pair of points of contact.
Then, for every possible pair of points of contact, the two following
equations must be simultaneously fulfilled :
Sum of radii, CiUi+C 2 U 2 = CiTi+C 2 T 2 = constant;
arc, T 2 U 2 = T,U,. (17)
A condition equivalent to the above, and necessarily connected
with it, is, that at each pair of points of contact the inclinations of
the curves to their radii-vectores shall be equal and contrary; or,
denoting by n, r 2 the radii-vectores at any given pair of points of
contact, and s the length of the equal arcs measured from a certain
fixed pair of points of contact
dri/ds = dri/ds ; ( 18)
which is the differential equation of a pair of rolling curves whose
poles are at a constant distance apart.
For full details as to rolling curves, see Willis's work, already
mentioned, and Clerk Maxwell's paper on Rolling Curves, Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edin., 1849.
A rack, to work with a circular wheel, must be straight. To work
with a wheel of any other figure, its section must be a rolling curve,
subject to the condition that the perpendicular distance from the
pole or centre of the wheel to a straight line parallel to the direction
of the motion of the rack shall be constant. Let r\ be the radius-
vector of a point of contact on the wheel, * 2 the ordinate from the
straight line before mentioned to the corresponding point of contact
on the rack. Then
dxi/ds = dri/ds (19)
is the differential equation of the pair of rolling curves.
To illustrate this subject, it may be mentioned that an ellipse
rotating about one focus rolls completely round in outside gearing
with an equal and similar ellipse also rotating about one focus, the
distance between the axes of rotation being equal to the major axis
of the ellipses, and the velocity ratio varying from - 1-!-^
I eccentricity
I eccentricity
to r . . ; an hyperbola rotating about its further focus
rolls in inside gearing, through a limited arc, with an equal and
similar hyperbola rotating about its nearer focus, the distance
between the axes of rotation being equal to the axis of the hyper-
bolas, and the velocity ratio varying between . . and
eccentricity I
unity; and a parabola rotating about its focus rolls with an equal
and similar parabola, shifting parallel to its directrix.
41. Conical or Bevel and Disk Wheels. From Principles III.
and VI. of 39 it appears that the angular velocities of a pair of
wheels whose axes meet in a point are to each other inversely as
the sines of the angles which the axes of the wheels make with the
line of contact. Hence we have the following construction (figs. 97
and 98). Let O be the apex or point of intersection of the two axes
OCi, OC 2 . The angular velocity ratio
being given, it is required to find the
line of contact. On OCi, OC 2 take
lengths OAi, OA 2 , respectively pro-
portional to the angular velocities of
the pieces on whose axes they are
taken. Complete the parallelogram
OA,EA 2 ; the diagonal OET will be the
line of contact required.
When the velocity ratio is variable,
the line of contact will shift its position
in the plane CiOC 2 , and the wheels will
be cones, with eccentric or irregular
bases. In every case which occurs in "
practice, however, the velocity ratio is F IG - 97-
constant ; the line of contact is constant in position, and the rolling
surfaces of the wheels are regular circular cones (when they are
called bevel wheels) ; or one of a pair of wheels may have a flat disk
THEORY OF MACHINES]
MECHANICS
1001
for its rolling surface, as W in fig. 98, in which case it is a disk
wheel. The rolling surfaces of actual wheels consist of frusta or
zones of the complete cones or disks, as shown by Wi, Wi in
figs. 97 and 98.
42. Sliding Contact (lateral): Skew-Bevel Wheels. An hyperboloid
of revolution is a surface resembling a sheaf or a dice box, generated
by the rotation of a straight
line round an axis from which
it is at a constant distance,
and to which it is inclined at
a constant angle. If two such
hyperboloids E, F, equal or
unequal, be placed in the
closest possible contact, as in
fig' 99' they will touch each
other along one of the gener-
FIG. 98. ating straight lines of each,
which will form their line of
contact, and will be inclined to the axes AG, BH in opposite
directions. The axes will not be parallel, nor will they intersect
each other.
The motion of two such hyperboloids, turning in contact with
each other, has hitherto been classed amongst cases of rolling
contact; but that classification is not
strictly correct, for, although the com-
ponent velocities of a pair of points of
contact in a direction at right angles
to the line of contact are equal, still,
as the axes are parallel neither to each
other nor to the line of contact, the
velocities of a pair of points of contact
have components along the line of
contact which are unequal, and their
difference constitutes a lateral sliding.
The directions and positions of the axes being given, and the
required angular velocity ratio, the following construction serves
to determine the line of contact, by whose rotation round the two
axes respectively the hyperboloids are generated :
In fig. too, let BiCi, BjCa be the two axes; BiBj their common
perpendicular. Through any point O in this common perpendicular
draw OAi parallel to BiCi and OAj
\v parallel to BjCi ; make those lines pro-
portional to the angular velocities
about the axes to which they are
respectively parallel; complete the
parallelogram OAi EAj, and draw the
diagonal OE; divide BiB 2 in D into
two parts, inversely proportional to
the angular velocities about the axes
which they respectively adjoin;
through D parallel to OE draw DT.
This will be the line of contact.
A pair of thin frusta of a pair of
hyperboloids are used in practice to
communicate motion between a pair
of axes neither parallel nor intersect-
ing, and are called skew-bevel wheels.
In skew-bevel wheels the properties
FIG. 99.
FIG. 100.
of a line of connexion are not possessed by every line traversing
the line of contact, but only by every line traversing the line of
contact at right angles.
If the velocity ratio to be communicated were variable, the point
D would alter its position, and the line DT its direction, at different
periods of the motion, and the wheels would be hyperboloids of an
eccentric or irregular cross-section; but forms of this kind are not
used in practice.
43. Sliding Contact (circular): Grooved Wheels. As the adhesion
or friction between a pair of smooth wheels is seldom sufficient to
prevent their slipping on each other, contrivances are used to
increase their mutual hold. One of those consists in forming the
rim of each wheel into a series of alternate ridges and grooves
parallel to the plane of rotation ; it is applicable to cylindrical and
bevel wheels, but not to skew-bevel wheels. The comparative
motion of a_ pair of wheels so ridged and grooved is the same as
that of a pair of smooth wheels in rolling contact, whose cylindrical
or conical surfaces lie midway between the tops of the ndges and
bottoms of the grooves, and those ideal smooth surfaces are called
the pitch surfaces of the wheels.
The relative motion of the faces of contact of the ridges and
grooves is a rotatory sliding or grinding motion, about the line of
contact of the pitch-surfaces as an instantaneous axis.
Grooved wheels have hitherto been but little used.
44. Sliding Contact (direct): Teeth of Wheels, their Number and
Pitch. The ordinary method of connecting a pair of wheels, or a
wheel and a rack, and the only method which ensures the exact
maintenance of a given numerical velocity ratio, is by means of a
series of alternate ridges and hollows parallel or nearly parallel to
the successive lines of contact of the ideal smooth wheels whose
velocity ratio would be the same with that of the toothed wheels.
The ridges are called teeth; the hollows, spaces. The teeth of the
driver push those of the follower before them, and in so doing
sliding takes place between them in a direction across their lines
of contact.
The pitch-surfaces of a pair of toothed wheels are the ideal smooth
surfaces which would have the same comparative motion by rolling
contact that the actual wheels have by the sliding contact of their
teeth. The pitch-circles of a pair of circular toothed wheels are
sections of their pitch-surfaces, made for spur-wheels (that is, for
wheels whose axes are parallel) by a plane at right angles to the
axes, and for bevel wheels by a sphere described about the common
apex. For a pair of skew-bevel wheels the pitch-circles are a pair
of contiguous rectangular sections of the pitch-surfaces. The
pitch-point is the point of contact of the pitch-circles.
The pitch-surface of a wheel lies intermediate between the points
of the teeth and the bottoms of the hollows between them. That
part of the acting surface of a tooth which projects beyond the
pitch-surface is called the face; that part which lies within the
pitch-surface, the flank.
Teeth, when not otherwise specified, are understood to be made
in one piece with the wheel, the material being generally cast-iron,
brass or bronze. Separate teeth, fixed into mortises in the rim of
the wheel, are called cogs. A pinion is a small toothed wheel; a
trundle is a pinion with cylindrical staves for teeth.
The radius of the pitch-circle of a wheel is called the geometrical
radius ; a circle touching the ends of the teeth is called the addendum
circle, and its radius the real radius; the difference between these
radii, being the projection of the teeth beyond the pitch-surface,
is called the addendum.
The distance, measured along the pitch-circle, from the face of
one tooth to the face of the next, is called the pitch. The pitch
and the number of teeth in wheels are regulated by the following
principles :
I. In wheels which rotate continuously for one revolution or
more, it is obviously necessary that the pitch should be an aliquot
part of the circumference.
In wheels which reciprocate without performing a complete
revolution this condition is not necessary. Such wheels are called
sectors.
II. In order that a pair of wheels, or a wheel and a rack, may
work correctly together, it is in all cases essential that the pitch
should be the same in each.
III. Hence, in any rjair of circular wheels which work together,
the numbers of teeth in a complete circumference are directly as
the radii and inversely as the angular velocities.
IV. Hence also, in any pair of circular wheels which rotate con-
tinuously for one revolution or more, the ratio of the numbers of
teeth and its reciprocal the angular velocity ratio must be ex-
pressible in whole numbers.
From this principle arise problems of a kind which will be referred
to in treating of Trains of Mechanism.
V. Let n, N be the respective numbers of teeth in a pair of
wheels, N being the greater. Let /, T be a pair of teeth in the
smaller and larger wheel respectively, which at a particular instant
work together. It is required to find, first, how many pairs of
teeth must pass the line of contact of the pitch-surfaces before /
and T work together again (let this number be called o) ; and,
secondly, with how many different teeth of the larger wheel the
tooth t will work at different times (let this number be called b) ;
thirdly, with how many different teeth of the smaller wheel the
tooth T will work at different times (let this be called c)
CASE i. If n is a divisor of N,
a = N;6 = N/;c=i. (20)
CASE 2. If the greatest common divisor of N and n be d, a number
less than n, so that n=md, N = M<f; then
o = mN = Mn = Mm</; 6 = M; c = m. (21)
CASE 3. If N and n be prime to each other,
o = N;i = N;c = . (22)
It is considered desirable by millwrights, with a view to the
preservation of the uniformity of shape of the teeth of a pair of
wheels, that each given tooth in one wheel should work with as
many different teeth in the other wheel as possible. They there-
fore study that the numbers of teeth in each pair of wheels which
work together shall either be prime to each other, or shall have
their greatest common divisor as small as is consistent with a
velocity ratio suited for the purposes of the machine.
45. Sliding Contact: Forms of the Teeth of Spur-wheels and
Racks. A line of connexion of two pieces in sliding contact is a
line perpendicular to their surfaces at a point where they touch.
Bearing this in mind, the principle of the comparative motion of a
pair of teeth belonging to a pair of spur-wheels, or to a spur-wheel
and a rack, is found by applying the principles stated generally in
36 and 37 to the case of parallel axes for a pair of spur-wheels, and
to the case of an axis perpendicular to the direction of shifting for a
wheel and a rack.
In fig. 101, let Ci, C be the centres of a pair of spur-wheels;
BiIBi', BjIBj' portions of their pitch-circles, touching at I. the
pitch-point. Let the wheel I be the driver, and the wheel 2 the
follower.
1002
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF MACHINES
FIG. 101.
Let DiTBiAi, D 2 TB 2 A 2 be the positions, at a given instant, of
the acting surfaces of a pair of teeth in the driver and follower
respectively, touching each other
at T; the line of connexion of
those teeth is PiP 2 , perpendicu-
lar to their surfaces at T. Let
CiPi, C 2 P 2 be perpendiculars let
fall from the centres of the
wheels on the line of contact.
Then, by 36, the angular
velocity-ratio is
The following principles regu-
late the forms of the teeth and
their relative motions:
I. The angular velocity ratio
due to the sliding contact of
the teeth will be the same with
that due to the rolling contact
of the pitch-circles, if the line of
connexion of the teeth cuts the
line of centres at the pitch-
point.
For, let PiP 2 cut the line of
centres at I; then, by similar
triangles,
ai : a 2 : : C 2 P 2 : CiP, : : IC 2 : : Id; (24)
which is also the angular velocity ratio due to the rolling contact
of the circles Bi I Bi', B 2 IB,'.
This principle determines the forms of all teeth of spur-wheels.
It also determines the forms of the teeth of straight racks, if one
of the centres be removed, and a straight line EIE', parallel to the
direction of motion of the rack, and perpendicular to CiIC 2 , be
substituted for a pitch-circle.
II. The component of the velocity of the point of contact of
the teeth T along the line of connexion is
III. The relative velocity perpendicular to PiP 2 of the'teeth at
their point of contact that is, their velocity of sliding on each
other is found by supposing one of the wheels, such as I, to be
'fixed, the line of centres Cidi to rotate backwards round Ci with
the angular velocity ai, and the wheel 2 to rotate round C 2 as before,
with the angular velocity o 2 relatively to the line of centres CiC 2 ,
so as to have the same motion as if its pitch-circle rolled on the
pitch-circle of the first wheel. Thus the relative motion of the
wheels is unchanged; but I is considered as fixed, and 2 has the
total motion, that is, a rotation about the instantaneous axis I,
with the angular velocity oi+o 2 . Hence the velocity of sliding is
that due to this rotation about I, with the radius IT; that is to
say, its value is
(oi+o 2 ).IT; (26)
so that it is greater the farther the point of contact is from the line
of centres; and at the instant when that point passes the line of
centres, and coincides with the pitch-point, the velocity of sliding
is null, and the action of the teeth is, for the instant, that of rolling
contact.
IV. The path of contact is the line traversing the various positions
of the point T. If the line of connexion preserves always the same
position, the path of contact coincides with it, and is straight; in
other cases the path of contact is curved.
It is divided by the pitch-point I into two parts the arc or line
of approach described by T in approaching the line of centres, and
the arc or line of recess described by T after having passed the line
of centres.
During the approach, the flank DiBi of the driving tooth drives
the face D 2 B 2 of the following tooth, and the teeth are sliding
towards each other. During the recess (in which the position of
the teeth is exemplified in the figure by curves marked with accented
letters), the face B/A/ of the driving tooth drives the flank B 2 'A 2 '
,'of the following tooth, and the teeth are sliding from each other.
The path of contact is bounded where the approach commences
by the addendum-circle of the follower,, and where the recess termin-
ates by the addendum-circle of the driver. The length of the path
of contact should be such that there shall always be at least one
pair of teeth in contact; and it is better still to make it so long that
there shall always be at least two pairs of teeth in contact.
V. The obliquity of the action of the teeth is the angle EIT =
IC,P, = IC 2 P 2 .
In practice it is found desirable that the mean value of the
obliquity of action during the contact of teeth should not exceed
15, nor the maximum value 30.
It is unnecessary to give separate figures and demonstrations for
inside gearing. The only modification required in the formulae is,
that in equation (26) the difference of the angular velocities should
be substituted for their sum.
46. Involute Teeth. The simplest form of tooth which fulfils
the conditions of 45 is obtained in the following manner -(see fig.
102). Let Ci, C 2 be the centres of two wheels, BiIBi', B 2 IB 2 ' their
pitch-circles, I the pitch-point; let the obliquity of action of the
CI
Bl
Bl
teeth be constant, so that the same straight line PJP 2 shaft represent
at once the constant line of connexion of teeth and the path of
contact. Draw CiPi, C 2 P 2 perpendicular to PiIP 2 , and with those
lines as radii describe about the centres of the wheels the circles
DiD/, D 2 D 2 ', called base-circles. It is evident that the radii of the
base-circles bear to each other the same proportions as the radii
of the pitch-circles, and also that
Ci PI = ICi. cos obliquity ) (27)
C 2 P 2 = IC 2 .cos obliquity )
(The obliquity which is found to answer best in practice is about
143-; its cosine is about ii, and its sine about J. These values
though not absolutely exact, are
near enough to the truth for
practical purposes.)
Suppose the base-circles to be a
pair of circular pulleys connected
by means of a cord whose course
from pulley to pulley is PiIP 2 .
As the line of connexion of those
pulleys is the same as that of the
proposed teeth, they will rotate
with the required velocity ratio.
Now, suppose a tracing point T
to be fixed to the cord, so as to
be carried along the path of con-
tact PiIP 2 , that point will trace
on a plane rotating along with the
wheel i part of the involute of the
base-circle DiDi', and on a plane
rotating along with the wheel 2
part of the involute of the base-
circle D 2 D 2 '; and the two curves p JG _ IO2 .
so traced will always touch each
other in the required point of contact T, and will therefore fulfil
the condition required by Principle I. of 45.
Consequently, one of the forms suitable for the teeth of wheels is
the involute of a circle; and the obliquity of the action of such
teeth is the angle whose cosine is the ratio of the radius of their
base-circle to that of the pitch-circle of the wheel.
All involute teeth of the same pitch work smoothly together.
To find the length of the path of contact on either side of the
pitch-point I, it is to be observed that the distance between the
fronts of two successive teeth, as measured along PiIP 2 , is less than
the pitch in the ratio of cos obliquity : I ; and consequently that,
if distances equal to the pitch be marked off either way from I
towards Pi and P 2 respectively, as the extremities of the path of
contact, and if, according to Principle IV. of 45, the addendum-
circles be described through the points so found, there will always
be at least two pairs of teeth in action at once. In practice it
is usual to make the path of contact somewhat longer, viz. about
2-4 times the pitch; and with this length of path, and the obliquity
already mentioned of 14$, the addendum is about 3-1 of the pitch.
The teeth of a rack, to work correctly with wheels having involute
teeth, should have plane surfaces perpendicular to the line of con-
nexion, and consequently making with the direction of motion of
the rack angles equal to the complement of the obliquity of action.
47. Teeth for a given Path of Contact: Sang's Method. In the
preceding section the form of the teeth is found by assuming a
figure for the path of contact, viz. the straight line. Any other
convenient figure may be assumed for the path of contact, and the
corresponding forms of the teeth found by determining what curves
a point T, moving along the assumed path of contact, will trace on
two disks rotating round the centres of the wheels with angular
velocities bearing that relation to the component velocity of T
along TI, which is given by Principle II. of 45, and'by equation (25).
This method of finding the forms of the teeth of wheels forms the
subject of an elaborate and most interesting treatise by Edward
Sang.
All wheels having teeth of the same pitch, traced from the same
path of contact, work correctly together, and are said to belong to
the same set.
48. Teeth traced by Rolling Curves. If any curve R (fig. 103)
be rolled on the inside of the pitch-circle BB of a wheel, it appears,
from 30, that the instan-
taneous axis of the rolling
curve at any instant will
be at the point I, where it
touches the pitch-circle for
the moment, and that
consequently the line AT,
traced by a tracing-point
T, fixed to the rolling
curve upon the plane of
the wheel, will be every-
where perpendicular to
the straight line TI; so
that the traced curve AT
FIG. 103.
will be suitable for the flank of a tooth, in which T is the point of
contact corresponding to the position I of the pitch-point. If the
THEORY OF MACHINES]
MECHANICS
1003
same rolling curve R, with the same tracing-point T, be rolled on
the outside of any other pitch-circle, it will have the face of a tooth
suitable to work with the flank AT.
In like manner, if either the same or any other rolling curve R'
be rolled the opposite way, on the outside of the pitch-circle BB, so
that the tracing point T' shall start from A, it will trace the face
AT' of a tooth suitable to work with a flank traced by rolling the
same curve R' with the same tracing-point T' inside any other
pitch-circle.
The figure of the path of contact is that traced on a fixed plane by
the tracing-point, when the rolling curve is rotated in such a manner
as always to touch a fixed straight line E1E (or E'I'E', as the case
may be) at a fixed point I (or 10-
If the same rolling curve and tracing-point be used to trace both
the faces and the flanks of the teeth of a number of wheels of different
sizes but of the same pitch, all those wheels will work correctly
together, and will form a set. The teeth of a rack, of the same set,
are traced by rolling the rolling curve on both sides of a straight
line.
The teeth of wheels of any figure, as well as of circular wheels,
may be traced by rolling curves on their pitch-surfaces; and all
teeth of the same pitch, traced by the same rolling curve with the
same tracing-point, will work together correctly if their pitch-
surfaces are in rolling contact.
4.9. Epicycloidal Teeth. The most convenient rolling curve is
the circle. The path of contact which it traces is identical with
itself; and the flanks of the teeth
are internal and their faces ex-
ternal epicycloids for wheels, and
both flanks and faces are cycloids
for a rack.
For a pitch-circle of twice the
radius of the rolling or describing
circle (as it is called) the internal
epicycloid is a straight line, being,
in fact, a diameter of the pitch-
circle, so that the flanks of the
teeth for such a pitch-circle are
planes radiating from the axis.
For a smaller pitch-circle the
flanks would be convex and in-
curved or under-cut, which would
be inconvenient; therefore the
smallest wheel of a set should
have its pitch-circle of twice the
radius of the describing circle, so
FIG. 104.
that the flanks may be either straight or concave.
In fig. 104 let BB' be part of the pitch-circle of a wheel with
epicycloidal teeth; CIC' the line of centres; I the pitch-point; EIE'
a straight tangent to the pitch-circle at that point; R the internal
and R/ the equal external describing circles, so placed as to touch
the pitch-circle and each other at I. Let DID' be the path of con-
tact, consisting of the arc of approach DI and the arc of recess ID'.
In order that there may always be at least two pairs of teeth in
action, each of those arcs should be equal to the pitch.
The obliquity of the action in passing the line of centres is nothing ;
the maximum obliquity is the angle EID=E'ID; and the mean
obliquity is one-half of that angle.
It appears from experience that the mean obliquity should not
exceed 15; therefore the maximum obliquity should be about 30;
therefore the equal arcs DI and ID' should each be one-sixth of a
circumference; therefore the circumference of the describing circle
should be six times the pitch.
It follows that the smallest pinion of a set in which pinion the
flanks are straight should have twelve teeth.
50. Nearly Epicycloidal Teeth: Willis's Method. To facilitate
the drawing of epicycloidal teeth in practice, Willis showed how to
approximate to their figure by means of two circular arcs one
concave, for the flank, and the other convex, for the face and
each haying for its radius the mean radius of curvature of the
epicycloidal arc. Willis's formulae are founded on the following
properties of epicycloids :
_ Let R be the radius of the pitch-circle ; r that of the describing
circle; 6 the angle made by the normal TI to the epicycloid at a
given point T, with a tangent to the circle at I that is, the obliquity
of the action at T.
Then the radius of curvature of the epicycloid at T is
.R-r-1
r=z7
sin 9
For an internal epicycloid, ,
For an external epicycloid, p' = 4rsinflh J; I
(28)
Also, to find the position of the centres of curvature relatively to the
pitch-circle, we have, denoting the chord of the describing circle TI
by c, c = 2r sin 6; and therefore
For the flank, p-c = 2r sin 9 b R 1
R f fc>>
For the face, p'c=2r sin 8 ft i 2f J
FIG. 105.
For the proportions approved of by VVillis, sin = } nearly; r=p
(the pitch) nearly; c = \p nearly; and, if N be the number of teeth
in the wheel, r/R = 6/N nearly; therefore, approximately,
(30)
Hence the following construction (fig. 105). Let BB be part of
the pitch-circle, and a the point where a tooth is to cross it. Set
off ab = ac = \p. Draw radii bd,
ce ; draw fb, eg, making angles of
with those radii. Make
_=p'c, cg=pc. From /,
with the radius /a, draw the circular
arc ah; from g, with the radius go,
draw the circular arc ak. Then
ah is the face and ak the flank of
the tooth required.
To facilitate the application of
this rule, Willis published tables of
p c and p'c, and invented an in-
strument called the"odontograph."
51. Trundles and Pin- Wheels. If a wheel or trundle have
cylindrical pins or staves for teeth, the faces of the teeth of a wheel
suitable for driving it are described by first tracing external epi-
cycloids, by rolling the pitch-circle of the pin-wheel or trundle on
the pitch-circle of the driving-wheel, with the centre of a stave for
a tracing-point, and then drawing curves parallel to, and within
the epicycloids, at a distance from them equal to the radius of a
stave. Trundles having only six staves will work with large
wheels.
_ 52. Backs of Teeth and Spaces. Toothed wheels being in general
intended to rotate either way, the backs of the teeth are made
similar to the fronts. The space between two teeth, measured on
the pitch-circle, is made about fcth part wider than the thickness of
the tooth on the pitch-circle that is to say,
Thickness of tooth = -ft- pitch;
Width of space =^- pitch.
The difference of ^ of the pitch is called the back-lash. The
clearance allowed between the points of teeth and the bottoms of
the spaces between the teeth of the other wheel is about one-tenth
of the pitch.
53- Stepped and Helical Teeth. R. J. Hooke invented the mak-
ing of the fronts of teeth in a series of steps with a view to increase
the smoothness of action. A wheel thus formed resembles in shape
a series of equal and similar toothed disks placed side by side, with
the teeth of each a little behind those of the preceding disk. He
also invented, with the same object, teeth whose fronts, instead of
being parallel to the line of contact of the pitch-circles, cross it
obliquely, so as to be of a screw-like or helical form. In wheel-
work of this kind the contact of each pair of teeth commences at the
foremost end of the helical front, and terminates at the aftermost
end; and the helix is of such a pitch that the contact of one pair
of teeth shall not terminate until that of the next pair has
commenced.
Stepped and helical teeth have the desired effect of increasing the
smoothness of motion, but they require more difficult and expensive
workmanship than common teeth; and helical teeth are, besides,
open to the objection that they exert a laterally oblique pressure,
which tends to increase resistance, and unduly strain the machinery.
54. Teeth of Bevel-Wheels. The acting surfaces of the teeth of
bevel-wheels are of the conical kind, generated by the motion of a
line passing through the common apex of the pitch-cones, while its
extremity is carried round the outlines of the cross section of the
teeth made by a sphere described about that apex.
The operations of describing the exact figures of the teeth of bevel-
wheels, whether by involutes or by rolling curves, are in every
respect analogous to those for describing the figures of the teeth of
spur-wheels, except that in the case of bevel-wheels all those opera-
tions are to be performed on the surface of a sphere described about the
apex instead of on a plane, sub-
stituting poles for centres, and
great circles for straight lines.
In consideration of the prac-
tical diiiculty, especially in the
case of large wheels, of obtain-
ing an accurate spherical sur-
face, and of drawing upon it
when obtained, the following
approximate method, proposed
originally by T red gold, is
jenerally used :
Let O(fig.io6) be the common
apex of a pair of bevel-wheels;
OBJ, OBjI their pitch cones;
OCi, OC, their axes; OI their
ine of contact. Perpendicular to OI draw AJAj, cutting the axes
n Ai, AI; make the outer rims of the patterns and of the wheels
Dl
FIG. 1 06.
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF MACHINES
portions of the cones AiBiI, AiBiI, of which the narrow zones
occupied by the teeth will be sufficiently near to a spherical surface
described about O for practical purposes. To find the figures of the
teeth, draw on a flat surface circular arcs IDi, ID, with the radii
AJ, Ail; those arcs will be the developments of arcs of the pitch-
circles Bil, B 2 I, when the conical surfaces AiBiI, A 2 B 2 I are spread
out flat. Describe the figures of teeth for the developed arcs as for
a pair of spur-wheels; then wrap the developed arcs on the cones.
so as to make them coincide with the pitch-circles, and trace
the teeth on the conical surfaces.
55. Teeth of Skew-Bevel Wheels. The crests of the teeth of a
skew-bevel wheel are parallel to the generating straight line of the
hyperboloidal pitch-surface ; and the transverse sections of the teeth
at a given pitch-circle are similar to those of the teeth of a bevel-
wheel whose pitch surface is a cone touching the hyperboloidal
surface at the given circle.
56. Cams. A cam .is a single tooth, either rotating continuously
or oscillating, and driving a sliding or turning piece either constantly
or at intervals. All the principles which have been stated in 45 as
being applicable to teeth are applicable to cams; but in designing
cams it is not usual to determine or take into consideration the form
of the ideal pitch-surface, which would give the same comparative
motion by rolling contact that the cam gives by sliding contact.
57- Screws. The figure of a screw is that of a convex or concave
cylinder, with one or more helical projections, called threads, winding
round it. Convex and concave screws are distinguished technically
by the respective names of male and female ; a short concave screw
is called a nut; and when a screw is spoken of without qualification
a convex screw is usually understood.
The relation between the advance and the rotation, which compose
the motion of a screw working in contact with a fixed screw or helical
guide, has already been demonstrated in 32; and the same relation
exists between the magnitudes of the rotation of a screw about a
fixed axis and the advance of a shifting nut in which it rotates.
The advance of the nut takes place in the opposite direction to that
of the advance of the screw in the case in which the nut is fixed.
The pitch or axial pitch of a screw has the meaning assigned to it in
that section, viz. the distance, measured parallel to the axis, between
the corresponding points in two successive turns of the same thread.
If, therefore, the screw has several equidistant threads, the true
pitch is equal to the divided axial pitch, as measured between two
adjacent threads, multiplied by the number of threads.
If a helix be described round the screw, crossing each turn of the
thread at right angles, the distance between two corresponding
points on two successive turns of the same thread, measured along
this normal helix, may be called the normal pitch; and when the
screw has more than one thread the normal pitch from thread to
thread may be called the normal divided pitch.
The distance from thread to thread, measured on a circle described
about the axis of the screw, called the pitch-circle, may be called
the circumferential pitch; for a screw of one thread it is one circum-
, , , t. one circumference
ference; for a screw of re threads,
n
Let r denote the radius of the pitch circle ; ,
n the number of threads;
6 the obliquity of the threads to the pitch circle, and of the
normal helix to the axis ;
P.] fpitch,
Pa \- the axial -
n P J [divided pitch;
Pl fpitch,
the normal -|
[divided pitch;
P. the circumferential pitch ;
then
p e =
, cot "9 = p, cos B = .
/> = p a sec e = p e tan 9 =
/> = pc sin 6 = p a cos 9 =
2irr sin 8
n
(31)
If a screw rotates, the number of threads which pass a fixed point
in one revolution is the number of threads in the screw.
A pair of convex screws, each rotating about its axis, dre used
as an elementary combination to transmit motion by the sliding
contact of their threads. Such screws are commonly called endless
screws. At the point of contact of the screws their threads must
be parallel; and their line of connexion is the common perpendi-
cular to the acting surfaces of the threads at their point of contact.
Hence the following principles:
I. If the screws are both right-handed or both left-handed, the
angle between the directions of their axes is the sum of their obli-
quities; if one is right-handed and the other left-handed, that angle
is the difference of their obliquities.
II. The normal pitch for a screw of one thread, and the normal
divided pitch for a screw of more than one thread, must be the
same in each screw.
Ei
FIG. 107.
a bar sliding in a
III. The angular velocities of the screws are inversely as their
numbers of threads.
Hooke's wheels with oblique or helical teeth are in fact screws
of many threads, and of large diameters as compared with their
lengths.
The ordinary position of a pair of endless screws is with their axes
at right angles to each other. When one is of considerably greater
diameter than the other, the larger is commonly called in practice
a wheel, the name screw being applied to the smaller only ; but they
are nevertheless both screws in fact.
To make the teeth of a pair of endless screws fit correctly and
work smoothly, a hardened steel screw is made of the figure of the
smaller screw, with its thread or threads notched so as to form a
cutting tool; the larger screw, or "wheel," is cast approximately
of the required figure; the larger screw and the steel screw are fitteo!
up in their proper relative position, and made to rotate in contact
with each other by turning the steel screw, which cuts the threads
of the larger screw to their true figure.
58. Coupling of Parallel AxesOldham's Coupling. A coupling
is a mode of connecting a pair of shafts so that they shall rotate in
the same direction with the same mean
angular velocity. If the axes of the
shafts are in the same straight line, the
coupling consists in so connecting their
contiguous ends that they shall rotate
as one piece; but if the axes are not in
the same straight line combinations of
mechanism are required. A coupling
for parallel shafts which acts by sliding
contact was invented by Oldham, and
is represented in fig. 107. Ci, Cz are
the axes of the two parallel shafts;
DI, DI two disks facing each other,
fixed on the ends of the two shafts
respectively; EiEi a bar sliding in
a diametral groove in the face of D
diametral groove in the face of D 2 : those bars are fixed together
at A, so as to form a rigid cross. The angular velocities of the
two disks and of the cross are all equal at every instant; the
middle point of the cross, at A, revolves in the dotted circle de-
scribed upon the line of centres C;Cj as a diameter twice for each
turn of the disks and cross; the instantaneous axis of rotation of
the cross at any instant is at I, the point in the circle CiCi
diametrically opposite to A.
Oldham's coupling may be used with advantage where the axes
of the shafts are intended to be as nearly in the same straight line
as is possible, but where there is some doubt as to the practibility
or permanency of their exact continuity.
59- Wrapping Connectors Belts, Cords and Chains. Flat belts
of leather or of gutta percha, round cords of catgut, hemp or other
material, and metal chains are used as wrapping connectors to
transmit rotatory motion between pairs of pulleys and drums.
Belts (the most frequently used of all wrapping connectors)
require nearly cylindrical pulleys. A belt tends to move towards
that part of a pulley whose radius is greatest; pulleys for belts,
therefore, are slightly swelled in the middle, in order that the belt
may remain on the pulley, unless forcibly shifted. A belt when in
motion is shifted off a pulley, or from one pulley on to another of
equal size alongside of it, by pressing against that part of the belt
which is moving towards the pulley.
Cords require either cylindrical drums with ledges or grooved
pulleys.
Chains require pulleys or drums, grooved, notched and toothed,
so as to fit the links of the chain.
Wrapping connectors for communicating continuous motion are
endless.
Wrapping connectors for communicating reciprocating motion
have usually their ends made fast to the pulleys or drums which
they connect, and which in this case may be sectors.
The line of connexion of two pieces connected by a wrapping
connector is the centre line of the
belt, cord or chain; and the com-
parative motions of the pieces are
determined by the 'principles of
36 if both pieces turn, and of 37
if one turns and the other shifts,
in which latter case the motion
must be reciprocating.
The pitch-line of a pulley or drum
is a curve to which the line of con-
nexion is always a tangent that : s
to say, it is a curve parallel to the
acting surface of the -pulley or
drum, and distant from it by half
the thickness of the wrapping con-
nector.
Pulleys and drums for communi-
cating a constant velocity ratio are circular.
FIG. 108.
The effective radius,
or radius of the pitch-circle of a circular pulley or drum, is equal to
the real radius added to half the thickness of the connector. The
THEORY OF MACHINES]
MECHANICS
1005
angular velocities of a pair of connected circular pulleys or drums
are inversely as the effective radii.
A crossed belt, as in fig. 108, A, reverses the direction of the
rotation communicated; an uncrossed belt, as in fig. 108, B,
preserves that direction.
The length L of an endless belt connecting a pair of pulleys whose
effective radii are r\, r^, with parallel axes whose distance apart
is c, is given by the following formulae, in each of which the first
term, containing the radical, expresses the length of the straight
parts of the belt, and the remainder of the formula the length of the
curved parts.
For a crossed belt :
L = 2 Vc 2 -(r,+r 2 ) + (r, + r,) (T - 2 sin' 1 ?^) (32 A)
and for an uncrossed belt :
L = 2 V !c s - (ri - r,)'} + * (r, + r, + 2 (r, - r,) sin ~ 1 ^^; (32 B)
in which r t is the greater radius, and r t the less.
When the ax.es of a pair of pulleys are not parallel, the pulleys
should be so placed that the part of the belt which is approaching
each pulley shall be in the plane of the pulley.
60. Speed-Cones. A pair of speed-cones (fig. 109) is a contrivance
for varying and adjusting the velocity ratio communicated between
a pair of parallel shafts by means of a belt. The speed-cones are
either continuous cones or conoids, as A, B, whose velocity ratio can
be varied gradually while they are in motion by shifting the belt,
or sets of pulleys whose radii vary by steps, as C, D, in which case
the velocity ratio can be changed by shifting the belt from one pair
of pulleys to another.
In order that the belt may fit accurately in every possible position
on a pair of speed-cones, the quantity L must be constant, in equa-
tions (32 A) or (32 B), accord-
ing as the belt is crossed or
uncrossed.
For a crossed belt, as in A
and C, fig. 109, L depends
solely on c and on r\ + ft.
Now c is constant because the
axes are parallel ; therefore the
sum of the radii of the pitch-
circles connected in every
position of the belt is to be
constant. That condition is
fulfilled by a pair of con-
tinuous cones generated by
the revolution of two straight
lines inclined opposite ways to
their respective axes at equal
angles.
FIG. 109. For an uncrossed belt, the
quantity L in equation (32 B)
is to be made constant. The exact fulfilment of this condition requires
the solution of a transcendental equation ; but it may be fulfilled with
accuracy sufficient for practical purposes by using, instead of (32 B)
the following approximate equation:
L nearly = 2c+ir(ri+r2) +(ri-r 2 ) 2 /c.
(33)
The following is the most convenient practical rule for the applica-
tion of this equation :
Let the speed-cones be equal and similar conoids, as in B, fig.
109, but with their large and small ends turned opposite ways. Let
fi be the radius of the large end of each, r that of the small end,
r a that of the middle ; and let v be the sagitta, measured perpendicular
to the axes, of the arc by whose revolution each of the conoids is
generated, or, in other words, the bulging of the conoids in the middle
of their length. Then
= ro - (r, +ri)/2 = (ri -rj)'/2irc.
(34)
2x = 6-2832; but 6 may be used in most practical cases without
sensible error.
The radii at the middle and end being thus determined, make the
generating curve an arc either of a circle or of a parabola.
61. Linkwork in General. The pieces which are connected by
linkwork, if they rotate or oscillate, are usually called cranks, beams
and levers. The link by which they are connected is a rigid rod or
bar, which may be straight or of any other figure; the straight figure
being the most favourable to strength, is always used when there
is no special reason to the contrary. The link is known by various
names in various circumstances, such as coupling-rod, connecting-
rod, crank-rod, eccentric-rod, &c. It is attached to the pieces which
it connects by two pins, about which it is free to turn. The effect
of the link is to maintain the distance between the axes of those
pins invariable; hence the common perpendicular of the axes of the
pins is the line of connexion, and its extremities may be called the
connected points. In a turning piece, the perpendicular let fall
from its connected point upon its axis of rotation is the arm or
crank-arm.
The axes of rotation of a pair of turning pieces connected by a link
are almost always parallel, and perpendicular to the line of connexion
in which case the angular velocity ratio at any instant is the recip-
rocal of the ratio of the common perpendiculars let fall from the
line of connexion upon the respective axes of rotation.
If at any instant the direction of one of the crank-arms coincides
with the line of connexion, the common perpendicular of the line
of connexion and the axis of that crank-arm vanishes, and the
directional relation of the motions becomes indeterminate. The
position of the connected point of the crank-arm in question at
such an instant is called a dead-point. The velocity of the other
connected point at such an instant is null, unless it also reaches a
dead-point at the same instant, so that the line of connexion is in
the plane of the two axes of rotation, in which case the velocity
ratio is indeterminate. Examples of dead-points, and of the means
of preventing the inconvenience which they tend to occasion, will
appear in the sequel..
62. Coupling of Parallel Axes. Two or more parallel shafts
(such as those of a locomotive engine, with two or more pairs of
driving wheels) are made to rotate with constantly equal angular
velocities by having equal cranks, which are maintained parallel by
a coupling-rod of such a length that the line of connexion is equal
to the distance between the axes. The cranks pass their dead-
points simultaneously. To obviate the unsteadiness of motion which
this tends to cause, the shafts are provided with a second set of
cranks at right angles to the first, connected by means of a similar
coupling-rod, so that one set of cranks pass their dead points at the
instant when the other set are farthest from theirs.
63. Comparative Motion of Connected Points. As the link is a
rigid body, it is obvious that its action in communicating motion
may be determined by finding the comparative motion of the
connected points, and this is often the most convenient method of
proceeding.
If a connected point belongs to a turning piece, the direction of
its motion at a given instant is perpendicular to the plane containing
the axis and crank-arm of the piece. If a connected point belongs
to a shifting piece, the direction of its motion at any instant is given,
and a plane can be drawn perpendicular to that direction.
The line of intersection of the planes perpendicular to the paths
of the two connected points at a given instant is the instantaneous
axis of the link at that instant; and the velocities of the connected
points are directly as their distances from that axis.
In drawing on a plane surface, the two planes perpendicular to
the paths of the connected points are represented by two lines (being
their sections by a plane normal
to them), and the instantaneous
axis by a point (fig. no); and,
should the length of the two
lines render it impracticable to
produce them until they actually
intersect, the velocity ratio of the
connected points may be found
by the principle that it is equal
to the ratio of the segments
which a line parallel to the line
of connexion cuts off from any
two lines drawn from a gjven
point, perpendicular respectively
to the paths of the connected
Points. Fie. 1 10.
To illustrate this by one
example. Let Ci be the axis, and TI the connected point of the
beam of a steam-engine; TiTj the connecting or crank-rod; Tj the
other connected point, and the centre of the crank-pin; Ci
the axis of the crank and its shaft. Let PI denote the velocity of
Ti at any given instant ; ti that of T 5 . To find the ratio of these
velocities, produce CiTi, CiTi till they intersect in K; K is the
instantaneous axis of the connecting rod, and the velocity ratio is
p, : p, : : KT, : KT,. (35)
Should K be inconveniently far off, draw any triangle with its sides
respectively parallel to C,Ti, CTi and TiT,; the ratio of the two
sides first mentioned will be the velocity ratio required. For
example, draw CiA parallel to CiTi, cutting TiTi in A; then
PI : p, : : CA : C,T,. (36)
64. Eccentric. An eccentric circular disk fixed on a shaft, and
used to give a reciprocating motion to a rod, is in effect a crank-pin
of sufficiently large diameter to surround the shaft, and so to avoid
the weakening of the shaft which would arise from bending it so as
to form an ordinary crank. The centre of the eccentric is its
connected point; and its eccentricity, or the distance from that
centre to the axis of the shaft, is its crank-arm.
An eccentric may be made capable of having its eccentricity
altered by means of an adjusting screw, so as to vary the extent of
the reciprocating motion which it communicates.
65. Reciprocating Pieces Stroke Dead-Points. The distance
between the extremities of the path of the connected point in a
reciprocating piece (such as the piston of a steam-engine) is called
the stroke or length of stroke of that piece. When it is connected with
a continuously turning piece (such as the crank of a steam-engine)
the ends of the stroke of the reciprocating piece correspond to the
ioo6
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF MACHINES
dead-points of the path of the connected point of the turning piece,
where the line of connexion is continuous with or coincides with the
crank-arm.
Let S be the length of stroke of the reciprocating piece, L the
length of the line of connexion, and R the crank-arm of the con-
tinuously turning piece. Then, if the two ends of the stroke be in
one straight line with the axis of the crank,
S = 2R; (37)
and if these ends be not in one straight line with that axis, then
S, L R, and L+R, are the three sides of a triangle, having the
angle opposite S at that axis; so that, if 9 be the supplement of the
arc between the dead-points,
S 2 = 2(L 2 +R 2 )-2(L 2 -R S ) cos9,
2 L 2 + 2R 2 - S 2 [ (38)
cos e =
2(L 2 -R 2 )
66. Coupling of Intersecting AxesHooke's Universal Joint.
Intersecting axes are coupled by a contrivance of Hooke's, known as
the " universal joint," which belongs to the class of linkwork (see
fig. in). Let be the point of intersection of the axes OCi, OC 2 ,
and 9 their angle of inclination
to each other. The pair of
shafts Ci, C 2 terminate in a pair
of forks Fi, Fj in bearings at
the extremities of which turn
the gudgeons at the ends of the
arms of_ a rectangular cross,
having its centre at O. This
cross is the link; the connected
points are the centres of the
bearings Fi, Fj. At each in-
stant each of those points
FIG. in. moves at right angles to the
central plane of its shaft and
fork, therefore the line of intersection of the central planes of the
two forks at any instant is the instantaneous axis of the cross,
and the velocity ratio of the points FI, F 2 (which, as the forks are
equal, is also the angular velocity ratio of the shafts) is equal to
the ratio of the distances of those points from that instantaneous
axis. The mean value of that velocity ratio is that of equality,
for each successive quarter-turn is made by both shafts in the
same time; but its actual value fluctuates between the limits:
= - when Fi is the plane of OCiC 2
ttj COS 8
and = cos 6 when F 2 is in that plane.
(39)
Its value at intermediate instants is given by the following equa-
tions: let <t>i, fa be the angles respectively made by the central
planes of the forks and shafts with the plane OCiC 2 at a given instant ;
then cos 9 = tan fa tan fa, )
o 2 dfa _tan fa -|~ cot fa m > (40)
01 d<t>i tan fa + cot fa )
67. Intermittent Linkwork Click and Ratchet. A click acting
upon a ratchet-wheel or rack, which it pushes or pulls through a
certain arc at each forward stroke and leaves at rest at each back-
ward stroke, is an example of intermittent linkwork. During the
forward stroke the action of the click is governed by the principles
of linkwork; during the backward stroke that action ceases. A
catch or pall, turning on a fixed axis, prevents the ratchet-wheel or
rack from reversing its motion.
Division 5. Trains of Mechanism.
68. General Principles. A train of mechanism consists of a series
of pieces each of which is follower to that which drives it and driver
to that which follows it.
The comparative motion of the first driver and last follower is
obtained by combining the proportions expressing by their terms
the velocity ratios and by their signs the directional relations of
the several elementary combinations of which the train consists.
69. Trains of Wheelwork. Let Ai, A* A, &c., Am_i, A m denote
a series of axes, and 01, o 2 , 03, &c., om_i, o their angular velocities.
Let the axis Ai carry a wheel of Ni teeth, driving a wheel of n 2 teeth
on the axis A 2 , which carries also a wheel of N 2 teeth, driving a
wheel of n, teeth on the axis A 3 , and so on ; the numbers of teeth
in drivers being denoted by N's, and in followers by n's, and the axes
to which the wheels are fixed being denoted by numbers. Then
the resulting velocity ratio is denoted by
a o 2 o, o m Ni . N 2 . . &c N m _, . , ,
= . . &c. . . *- = JET ; (4 1 )
Oi Oi 02 O m _i 7 2 . n 3 . . <SC. . . . Urn
that is to say, the velocity ratio of the last and first axes is the ratio
of the product of the numbers of teeth in the drivers to the product
of the numbers of teeth in the followers.
Supposing all the wheels to be in outside gearing, then, as each
elementary combination reverses the direction of rotation, and as
the number of elementary combinations m i is one less than the
number of axes m, it is evident that if m is odd the direction of
rotation is preserved, and if even reversed.
It is often a question of importance to determine the number of
teeth in a train of wheels best suited for giving a determinate velocity
ratio to two axes. It was shown by Young that, to do this with
the least total number of teeth, the velocity ratio of each elementary
combination should approximate as nearly as possible to 3-59. This
would in many cases give too many axes ; and, as a useful practical
rule, it may be laid down that from 3 to 6 ought to be the limit of
the velocity ratio of an elementary combination in wheelwork.
The smallest number of teetlyn a pinion for epicycloidal teeth ought
to be twelve (see 49) but it is better, for smoothness of motion,
not to go below fifteen ; and for involute teeth the smallest number
is about twenty-four.
Let B/C be the velocity ratio required, reduced to its least terms,
and let B be greater than C. If B/C is not greater than 6, and C lies
between the prescribed minimum number of teeth (which may be
called and its double 2t, then one pair of wheels will answer the
purpose, and B and C will themselves be the numbers required.
Should B and C be inconveniently large, they are, if possible, to be
resolved into factors, and those factors (or if they are too small,
multiples of them) used for the number of teeth. Should B or C,
or both, be at once inconveniently large and prime, then, instead
of the exact ratio B/C some ratio approximating to that ratio, and
capable of resolution into convenient factors, is to be found by the
method of continued fractions.
Should B/C be greater than 6, the best number of elementary
combinations m I will lie between
log B-log C . log B-logC
log 6 and " logs
Then, if possible, B and C themselves are to be resolved each into
m l factors (counting I as a factor), which factors, or multiples
of them, shall be not less than t nor greater than 6t ; or if B and C
contain inconveniently large prime factors, an approximate velocity
ratio, found by the method of continued fractions, is to be substi-
tuted for B/C as before.
So far as the resultant velocity ratio is concerned, the order of
the drivers N and of the followers n is immaterial: but to secure
equable wear of the teeth, as explained in 44, the wheels ought to-
be so arranged that, for each elementary combination, the greatest
common divisor of N and n shall be either I , or as small as possible.
70. Double Hooke's Coupling. It has been shown in 66 that
the velocity ratio of a pair of shafts coupled by a universal joint
fluctuates between the limits cos B and I /cos 6. Hence one or both
of the shafts must have a vibratory and unsteady motion, injurious
to the mechanism and framework. To obviate this evil a short
intermediate shaft is introduced, making equal angles with the first
and last shaft, coupled with each of them by a Hooke's joint, and
having its own two forks in the same plane. Let 01, o 2 , 03 be the
angular velocities of the first, intermediate, and last shaft in this.
train of two Hooke's couplings. Then, from the principles of 60 it
is evident that at each instant o 2 /ai = a 2 /a 3 , and consequently that
03 = 01 ; so that the fluctuations of angular velocity ratio caused by
the first coupling are exactly neutralized by the second, and the
first and last shafts have equal angular velocities at each instant.
71. Converging and Diverging Trains of Mechanism. Two or
more trains of mechanism may converge into one as when the two
pistons of a pair of steam-engines, each through its own connecting-
rod, act upon one crank-shaft. One train of mechanism may diverge
into two or more as when a single shaft, driven by a prime mover,
carries several pulleys, each of which drives a different machine.
The principles of comparative motion in such converging and diverg-
ing trains are the same as in simple trains.
Division 6. Aggregate Combinations.
72. General Principles. Willis designated as " aggregate
combinations " those assemblages of pieces of mechanism in which
the motion of one follower is the resultant of component motions
impressed on it by more than one driver. Two classes of aggregate
combinations may be distinguished which, _ though not different in
their actual nature, differ in the data which they present to the
designer, and in the method of solution to be followed in questions
respecting them.
Class I. comprises those cases in which a piece A is not carried
directly by the frame C, but by another piece B. relatively to which
the motion of A is given the motion of the piece B relatively to
the frame C being also given. Then the motion of A relatively to
the frame C is the resultant of the motion of A relatively to B and
of B relatively to C ; and that resultant is to be found by the principles
already explained in Division 3 of this Chapter 27-32.
Class II. comprises those cases in which the motions of three points
in one follower are determined by their connexions with two or with
three different drivers.
This classification is founded on the kinds of problems arising
from the combinations. Willis adopts another classification
founded on the objects of the combinations, which objects he divides
into two classes, viz. (i) to produce aggregate velocity, or a velocity
which is the resultant of two or more components in the same path,
and (2) to produce an aggregate path that is, to make a given point
THEORY OF MACHINES]
MECHANICS
1007
in a rigid body move in an assigned path by communicating certain
motions to other points in that body.
It is seldcm that one of these effects is produced without at the
same time producing the other; but the classification of Willis
depends upon which of those two effects, even supposing them to
occur together, is the practical object of the mechanism.
73- Differential Windlass. The axis C (fig. 112) carries a larger
barrel AE and a smaller barrel DB, rotating as one
piece with the angular velocity 01 in the direction
AE. The pulley or sheave FG has a weight W
hung to its centre. A cord has one end made fast
to and wrapped round the barrel AE; it passes
from A under the sheave FG, and has the other
end wrapped round and made fast to the barrel
BD. Required the relation between the velocity of
translation t>j of W and the angular velocity 01 of
the differential barrel.
In this case vt is an aggregate velocity, produced
by the joint action of the two drivers AE and BD,
transmitted by wrapping connectors to FG, and
combined by that sheave so as to act on the fol-
lower W, whose motion is the same with that of
the centre of FG.
The velocity of the point F is 01 . AC, upward
motion being considered positive. The velocity
of the point G is 01 . CB, downward motion being negative.
Hence the instantaneous axis of the sheave FG is in the diameter
FG, at the distance
FG AC-BC
2 ' AC+BC
from the centre towards G ; the angular velocity of the sheave is
AC + BC
02 -"' FG :
and, consequently, the velocity of its centre is
FIG. 112.
or the mean between the velocities of the two vertical parts of the cord.
If the cord be fixed to the framework at the point B, instead of
being wound on a barrel, the velocity of W is half that of AF.
A case containing several sheaves is called a block. A fall-block
is attached to a fixed point ; a running-block is movable to and from
a fall-block, with which it is connected by two or more plies of a
rope. The whole combination constitutes a tackle or purchase. (See
PULLEYS for practical applications of these principles.)
74. Differential Screw. On the same axis let there be two screws
of the respective pitches pi and pi, made in one piece, and rotating
with the angular velocity a. Let this piece be called B. Let the
first screw turn in a fixed nut C, and the second in a sliding nut A.
The velocity of advance of B relatively to C is (according to 32)
apt, and of A relatively to B (according to 57) a.pi; hence the
velocity of A relatively to C is
*(pi-pt), (46)
being the same with the velocity of advance of a screw of the pitch
pi pi. This combination, called Hunter's or the differential screw,
combines the strength of a large thread with the slowness of motion
due to a small one.
75. Epicyclic Trains. The term epicyclic train is used by Willis
to denote a train of wheels carried by an arm, and having certain
rotations relatively to that arm, which itself rotates. The arm may
either be driven by the wheels or assist in driving them. The com-
parative motions of the wheels and of the arm, and the aggregate
paths traced by points in the wheels, are determined by the pnnciples
of the composition of rotations, and of the description of rolling
curves, explained in 30, 31.
76. Link Motion. A slide valve operated by a link motion
receives an aggregate motion from the mechanism driving it. (See
STEAM-ENGINE for a description of this and other types of mechanism
of this class.)
77. Parallel Motions. A parallel motion is a combination of
turning pieces in mechanism designed to guide the motion of a
reciprocating piece either exactly
or anproximately in a straight line,
so as to avoid the friction which
arises from the use of straight guides
for that purpose.
Fig. 113 represents an exact
parallel motion, first proposed, it is
believed, by Scott Russell. The
arm CD turns on the axis C, and
is jointed at D to the middle of the
bar ADB, whose length is double
of that of CD, and one of whose
ends B is jointed to a slider, sliding
in straight guides along the line
CB. Draw BE perpendicular to
CB, cutting CD produced in E, then
E is the instantaneous axis of the bar ADB; and the direction of
motion of A is at every instant perpendicular to EA that is, along
the straight line ACa. While the stroke of A is ACa, extending to
equal distances on either side of C, and equal to twice the chord
of the arc Dd, the stroke of B is only equal to twice the sagitta; and
thus A is guided through a comparatively long stroke by the sliding
of B through a comparatively short stroke, and by rotatory motions
at the joints C, D, B.
78.* An example of an approximate straight-line motion com-
posed of three bars fixed to a frame is shown in fig. 114. It is due
FIG. 114.
FIG. 115.
to P. L. Tchebichev of St Petersburg. The links AB and CD are
equal in length and are centred respectively at A and C. The
ends D and B are joined by a link DB. If the respective lengths
are made in the proportions AC:CD:DB = i : 1-3:0-4 the middle
point P of DB will describe an approximately straight line parallel
to AC within limits of length about equal to AC. C. N. Peaucellier,
a French engineer officer, was the first, in 1864, to invent a linkwork
with which an exact straight line could be drawn. The linkwork
is shown in fig. 115, from which it will be seen that it consists of a
rhombus of four equal bars ABCD, jointed at opposite corners with
two equal bars BE and DE. The seventh link AF is equal in length
to halt the distance EA when the mechanism is in its central position.
The points E and F are fixed. It can be proved that the point C
always moves in a straight line at right angles to the line EF. The
more general property of the mechanism corresponding to propor-
tions between the lengths FA and EF other than that of equality
is that the curve described by the point C is the inverse of the curve
described by A. There are other arrangements of bars giving
straight-line motions, and these arrangements together with the
general properties of mechanisms of this kind are discussed in How
to Draw a Straight Line by A. B. Kempe (London, 1877). '
79.* The Pantograph. If a parallelogram of links (fig. 116), be
fixed at any one point a in any one of the links produced in either
direction, and if any straight
line be drawn from this point
to cut the links in the points
b and c, then the points o, b, c
will be in a straight line for
all positions of the mechanism,
and if the point b be guided
in any curve whatever, the
point c will trace a similar FIG. 116.
curve to a scale enlarged
in the ratio 06 : ac. This property of the parallelogram
is utilized in the construction of the pantograph, an instrument
used for obtaining a copy of a map or drawing on a different scale.
Professor J. J[. Sylvester discovered that this property of the
parallelogram is not confined to points lying in one line with the
fixed point. Thus if 6 (fig. 117) DC c
any point on the link CD, and if a
point c be taken on the link DE such
that the triangles CfcD and DcE are
similar and similarly situated with
regard to their respective links, then
the ratio of the distances ab and
ac is constant, and the angle hoc E
is constant for all positions of the p IG> ,,-
mechanism ; so that, if b is guided in
any curve, the point c will describe a similar curve turned through
an angle bac, the scales of the curves being in the ratio ab to ac.
Sylvester called an instrument based on this property a plagiograph
or a skew pantograph.
The combination of the parallelogram with a straight-line motion,
for guiding one of the points in a straight line, is illustrated in Watt's
parallel motion for steam-engines. (See STEAM-ENGINE.)
80.* The Reuleaux System of Analysis. If two pieces, A and B,
(fig. 1 18) are jointed together by a pin, the pin being fixed, say, to A,
the only relative motion possible between the pieces is one of turning
about the axis of the pin. Whatever motion the pair of pieces may
have as a whole each separate piece shares in common, and this
common motion in no way affects the relative motion of A and B.
The motion of one piece is said to be completely constrained relatively
to the other piece. Again, the pieces A and B (fig. no,) are paired
together as a slide, and the only relative motion possible between
them now is that of sliding, and therefore the motion of one relatively
to the other is completely constrained. The pieces may be paired
ioo8
MECHANICS
[THEORY OF MACHINES
together as a screw and nut, in which case the relative motion is
compounded of turning with sliding.
These combinations of pieces are known individually as kinematic
pairs of elements, or briefly kinematic pairs. The three pairs men-
tioned above have each the peculiarity that contact between the two
pieces forming the pair is distributed over a surface. Kinematic
FIG. 118.
FIG. 119.
pairs which have surface contact are classified as lower pairs. Kine-
matic pairs in which contact takes place along a line only are classified
as higher pairs. A pair of spur wheels in gear is an example of a
higher pair, because the wheels have contact between their teeth
along lines only.
A kinematic link of the simplest form is t made by joining up the
halves of two kinematic pairs by means of a rigid link. Thus if
AjBi represent a turning pair, and AzB 2 a second turning pair, the
rigid link formed by joining Bi to B 2 is a kinematic link. Four
links of this kind are shown in fig. 120 joined up to form a closed
kinematic chain.
In order that a kinematic chain may be made the basis of a
mechanism, every point in any link of it must be completely con-
strained with regard to every other link. Thus in fig. 120 the motion
of a point a in the link
AiAj is completely con-
strained with regard to the
link BiB 4 by the turning
pair AiBi, and it can be
proved that the motion
of o relatively to the
non-adjacent link AsA 4 is
completely constrained,
and therefore the four-
FIG. 120. bar chain, as it is called,
can be and is used as the
basis of many mechanisms. Another way of considering the question
of constraint is to imagine any one link of the chain fixed; then,
however the chain be moved, the path of a point, as a, will always
remain the same. In a five-bar chain, if a is a point in a link non-
adjacent to a fixed link, its path is indeterminate. Still another
way of stating the matter is to say that, if any one link in the chain
be fixed, any point in the chain must have only one degree of
freedom. In a five-bar chain a point, as a, in a link non-adjacent to
the fixed link has two degrees of freedom and the chain cannot
therefore be used for a mechanism. These principles may be
applied to examine any possible combination of links forming a
kinematic chain in order to test its suitability for use as a
mechanism. Compound chains are formed by the super-position
of two or more simple chains, and in these more complex chains
links will be found carrying three, or even more, halves of kine-
matic pairs. The Joy valve gear mechanism is a good example of
a compound kinematic chain.
A chain built up of three turning pairs and one sliding pair, and
known as the slider crank chain, is shown in fig. 121. It win be seen
that the piece Ai can
only slide relatively
to the piece BI, and
these two pieces
therefore form the
sliding pair. The
piece AI carries the
pin 84, which is one
half of the turning
pair A 4 B 4 . The
piece Ai together
with the pin B 4 therefore form a kinematic link AiB 4 . The other
links of the chain are, BiAz, 8263, A 3 A 4 . In order to convert a
chain into a mechanism it is necessary to fix one link in it. Any
one of the links may be fixed. It follows therefore that there are
as many possible mechanisms as there are links in the chain. For
example, there is a well-known mechanism corresponding to the
fixing of three of the four links of the slider crank chain (fig. 121).
If the link d is fixed the chain at once becomes the mechanism of the
ordinary steam engine ; if the link e is fixed the mechanism obtained
is that of the oscillating cylinder steam engine; if the link c is fixed
the mechanism becomes either the Whitworth quick-return motion
or the slot-bar motion, depending upon the proportion between the
lengths of the links c and e. These different mechanisms are called
FIG. 121.
inversions of the slider crank chain. What was the fixed frame-
work of the mechanism in one case becomes a moving link in an
inversion.
The Reuleaux system, therefore, consists essentially of the analysis
of every mechanism into a kinematic chain, and since each link
of the chain may be the fixed frame of a mechanism quite diverse
mechanisms are found to be merely inversions of the same kinematic
chain. Franz Reuleaux's Kinematics of Machinery, translated by
Sir A. B. W. Kennedy (London, 1876), is the book in which the sys-
tem is set forth in all its completeness. In Mechanics of Machinery,
by Sir A. B. W. Kennedy (London, 1886), the system was used
for the first time in an English textbook, and now it has found
its way into most modern textbooks relating to the subject of
mechanism.
8 1.* Centrodes, Instantaneous Centres, Velocity Image, Velocity
Diagram. Problems concerning the relative motion of the several
parts of a kinematic chain may be considered in two ways, in addition
to the way hitherto used in this article and based on the principle
of 34. The first is by the method of instantaneous centres, already
exemplified in 63, and rolling centroids, developed by Reuleaux
in connexion with his method of analysis. The second is by means
of Professor R. H. Smith's method already referred to in 23.
Method I. By reference to 30 it will be seen that the motion
of a cylinder rolling on a fixed cylinder is one of rotation about an
instantaneous axis T, and that the velocity both as regards direction
and magnitude is the same as if the rolling piece B were for the
instant turning about a fixed axis coincident with the instantaneous
axis. If the rolling cylinder B and its path A now be assumed to
receive a common plane motion, what was before the velocity of
the point P becomes the velocity of P relatively to the cylinder A,
since the motion of B relatively to A still takes place about the
instantaneous axis T. If B stops rolling, then the two cylinders
continue to move as though they were parts of a rigid body. Notice
that the shape of either rolling curve (fig. 91 or 92) may be found by
considering each fixed in turn and then tracing out the locus of the
instantaneous axis. These rolling cylinders are sometimes called
axodes, and a section of an axode in a plane parallel to the plane of
motion is called a centrode. The axode is hence the locus of the
instantaneous axis, whilst the centrode is the locus of the instan-
taneous centre in any plane parallel to the plane of motion. There
is no restriction on the shape of these rolling axodes; they may have
any shape consistent with rolling (that is, no slipping is permitted),
and the relative velocity of a point P is still found by considering
it with regard to the instantaneous centre.
Reuleaux has shown that the relative motion of any pair of non-
adjacent links of a kinematic chain is determined by the rolling
together of two ideal cylindrical surfaces (cylindrical being used here
in the general sense), each of which may be assumed to be formed
by the extension of the material of the link to which it corresponds.
These surfaces have contact at the instantaneous axis, which is
now called the instantaneous axis of the two links concerned. To
find the form of these surfaces corresponding to a particular pair
of non-adjacent links, consider each link of the pair fixed in turn,
then the locus of the instantaneous axis is the axode corresponding
to the fixed link, or, considering a plane of motion only, the locus
of the instantaneous centre is the centrode corresponding to the fixed
link.
To find the instantaneous centre for a particular link corresponding
to any given configuration of the kinematic chain, it is only necessary
to know the direction of motion of any two points in the link, since
lines through these points respectively at right angles to their direc-
tions of motion intersect in the instantaneous centre.
To illustrate this principle, consider the four-bar chain shown in
fig. 122 made up of the four links, a, 6, c, d. Let a be the fixed link,
and consider the link
c. Its extremities are
moving respectively in
directions at right
angles to the links b
and d; hence produce
the links 6 and d to
meet in the point O ac .
This point is the in-
stantaneous centre of
the motion of the link
c relatively to the fixed
link a, a fact indicated
by the suffix ac placed
after the letter O. The
process being repeated
for different values of
the angle 6 the curve through the several points O ac is the
centroid which may be imagined as formed by an extension
of the material of the link a. To find the corresponding centroid
for the link c, fix c and repeat the process. Again, imagine
d fixed, then the instantaneous centre OM of b with regard to
d is found by producing the links c and a to intersect in OM,
and the shapes of the centroids belonging respectively to the
links b and d can be found as before. The axis about which a pair
of adjacent links turn is a permanent axis, and is of course the axis
FlG. 122.'
APPLIED DYNAMICS]
MECHANICS
1009
of the pin which forms the point. Adding the centres corresponding
to these several axes to the figure, it will be seen that there arc six
centres in connexion with the four-bar chain of which four arc per-
manent and two are instantaneous or virtual centres; and, further,
that whatever be the configuration of the chain these centres group
themselves into three sets of three, each set lying on a straight line.
This peculiarity is not an accident or a special property of the four-
bar chain, but is an illustration of a general law regarding the subject
discovered by Aronhold and Sir A. B. W. Kennedy independently,
which may be thus stated: If any three bodies, a, 6, c, have
plane motion their three virtual centres, Ooj,, O& c , Ooc, are three
points on one straight line. A proof of this will be found in The
Mechanics of Machinery quoted above. Having obtained the set
of instantaneous centres for a chain, suppose o is the fixed link of
the chain and c any other link ; then O is the instantaneous centre
of the two links and may be considered for the instant as the trace
of an axis fixed tft an extension of the link a about which c is turning,
and thus problems of instantaneous velocity concerning the link c
are solved as though the link c were merely rotating for the instant
about a fixed axis coincident with the instantaneous axis.
Method 2. The second method is based upon the vector repre-
sentation of velocity, and may be illustrated by applying it to the
four-bar chain. Let AD (fig. '123) be the fixed link. Consider the
link BC, and let it be required to find the velocity of the point B
having given the velocity of the point C. The principle upon which
FIG. 123. FIG. 124.
the solution is based is that the only motion which B can have rela-
tively to an axis through C fixed to the link CD is one of turning about
C. Choose any pole O (fig. 124). From this pole set out Oc to repre-
sent the velocity of the point C. The direction of this must be at
right angles to the line CD, because this is the only direction possible
to the point C. If the link BC moves without turning, Oc will also
represent the velocity of the point B ; but, if the link is turning, B
can only move about the axis C, and its direction of motion is there-
fore at right angles to the line CB. Hence set out the possible
direction of B's motion in the velocity diagram, namely cbi, at right
angles to CB. But the point B must also move at right angles to
AB in the case under consideration. Hence draw a line through
O in the velocity diagram at right angles to AB to cut cbi in b. Then
Ob is the velocity of the point 6 in magnitude and direction, and cb
is the tangential velocity of B relatively to C. Moreover, whatever
be the actual magnitudes of the velocities, the instantaneous velocity
ratio of the points C and B is given by the ratio Oc/Ob.
A most important property of the diagram (figs. 123 and 124)
is the following : If points X and x are taken dividing the link BC
and the tangential velocity cb, so that ex: *6 = CX:XB, then Ox
represents the velocity of the point X in magnitude and direction.
The line cb has been called the velocity image of the rod, since it may
be looked upon as a scale drawing of the rod turned through 90
from the actual rod. Or, put in another way, if the link CB is drawn
to scale on the new length cb in the velocity diagram (fig. 124), then
a vector drawn from Q to any point on the new drawing of the rod
will represent the velocity of that point of the actual rod in magnitude
and direction. It will be understood that there is a new velocity
diagram for every new configuration of the mechanism, and that
in each new diagram the image of the rod will be different in scale.
Following the method indicated above for a kinematic chain in
general, there will be obtained a velocity diagram similar to that of
fig. 124 for each configuration of the mechanism, a diagram in which
the velocity of the several points in the chain utilized for drawing
the diagram will appear to the same scale, all radiating from the pole
O. The lines joining the ends of these several velocities are the
several tangential velocities, each being the velocity image of a link
in the chain. These several images are not to the same scale, so
that although the images may be considered to form collectively
an image of the chain itself, the several members of this chain-image
are to different scales in any one velocity diagram, and thus the chain-
image is distorted from the actual proportions of the mechanism
which it represents.
82.* Acceleration Diagram. Acceleration Image. Although it is
possible to obtain the acceleration of points in a kinematic chain
with one link fixed by methods which utilize the instantaneous
centres of the chain, the vector method more readily lends itself
to this purpose. It should be understood that the instantaneous
centre considered in the preceding paragraphs is available only for
estimating relative velocities; it cannot be used in a similar manner
FIG.
for questions regarding acceleration. That is to say, although the
instantaneous centre is a centre of no velocity for the instant, it
is not a centre of no acceleration, and in fact the centre of no accelera-
tion is in general a quite different point. The general principle on
which the method of drawing an acceleration diagram depends is
that if a link CB (fig. 125) have plane motion and the acceleration
of any point C be given in magnitude
and direction, the acceleration of any
other point B is the vector sum of
the acceleration of C, the radial
acceleration of B about C and the
tangential acceleration of B about C.
Let A be any origin, and let Ac
represent the acceleration of the
point C, ct the radial acceleration of
B about C which must be in a direc-
tion parallel to BC, and tb the tan-
gential acceleration of B about C,
which must of course be at right
angles to ct; then the vector sum of
these three magnitudes is Afr, and this vectoi represents the
acceleration of the point B. The directions ot the radial and
tangential accelerations of the point B are always known when the
position of the link is assigned, since these are to be drawn
respectively parallel to and at right angles to the link itself. The
magnitude of the radial acceleration is given by the expression
flVBC, v being the velocity of the point B about the point C. This
velocity can always be found from the velocity diagram of the chain
of which the link forms a part. If da/dt is the angular acceleration
of the link, du/dt X CB is the tangential acceleration of the point
B about the point C. Generally this tangential acceleration is
unknown in magnitude, and it becomes part of the problem to find
it. An important property of the diagram is that if points X and *
are taken dividing the link CB and the whole acceleration of B about
C, namely, cb in the same ratio, then Ax represents the acceleration
of the point X in magnitude and direction ; cb is called the accelera-
tion image of the rod! In applying this principle to the drawing of
an acceleration diagram for a mechanism, the velocity diagram
of the mechanism must be first drawn in order to afford the means
of calculating the several radial accelerations of the links. Then
assuming that the acceleration of one point of a particuar link of
the mechanism is known together with the corresponding configura-
tion of the mechanism, the two vectors Ac and ct can be drawn.
The direction of tb, the third vector in the diagram, is also known, so
that the problem is reduced to the condition that b is somewhere
on the line tb. Then other conditions consequent upon the fact that
the link forms part of a kinematic chain operate to enable b to be
fixed. These methods are set forth and exemplified in Graphics,
by R. H. Smith (London, 1889). Examples, completely worked out,
of velocity and acceleration diagrams for the slider crank chain,
the four-bar chain, and the mechanism of the Joy valve gear will
be found in ch. ix. of Valves and Valve Gear Mechanism, by W. E.
Dalby (London, 1906).
CHAPTER II. ON APPLIED DYNAMICS
83. Laws of Motion. The action of a machine in transmitting
force and motion simultaneously, or performing work, is governed,
in common with the phenomena of moving bodies in general, by two
" laws of motion."
Division I. Balanced Forces in Machines of Uniform Velocity.
84. Application of Force to Mechanism. Forces are applied in
units of weight; and the unit most commonly employed in Britain
is the pound avoirdupois. The action of a force applied to a body
is always in reality distributed over some definite space, either a
volume of three dimensions or a surface of two. An example of a
force distributed throughout a volume is the weight of the body
itself, which acts on every particle, however small. The pressure
exerted between two bodies at their surface of contact, or between
the two parts of one body on either side of an ideal surface of separa-
tion, is an example of a force distributed over a surface. The mode
of distribution of a force applied to a solid body requires to be con-
sidered when its stiffness and strength are treated of; but, in ques-
tions respecting the action of a force upon a rigid body considered
as a whole, the resultant of the distributed force, determined accord-
ing to the principles of statics, and considered as acting in a single
line and applied at a single point, may, for the occasion, be substi-
tuted for the force as really distributed. Thus, the weight of each
separate piece in a machine is treated as acting wholly at its centre
of gravity, and each pressure applied to it as acting at a point called
the centre of pressure of the surface to which the pressure is really
applied.
| 85. Forces applied to Mechanism Classed. If 9 be the obliquity
of a force F applied to a piece of a machine^ that is, the angle made
by the direction of the force with the direction of motion of its point
of application then by the principles of statics, F may be resolved
into two rectangular components, viz. :
Along the direction of motion, P = F cos 6 )
Across the direction of motion, Q = F sin 6 >
(49)
IOIO
MECHANICS
[APPLIED DYNAMICS
If the component along the direction of motion acts with the
motion, it is called an effort; if against the motion, a resistance.
The component across the direction of motion is a lateral pressure;
the unbalanced lateral pressure on any piece, or part of a piece, is
deflecting force. A lateral pressure may increase resistance by caus-
ing friction; the friction so caused acts against the motion, and
is a resistance, but the lateral pressure causing it is not a resistance.
Resistances are distinguished into useful and prejudicial, according
as they arise from the useful effect produced by the machine or from
other causes.
86. Work. Work consists in moving against resistance. The
work is said to be performed, and the resistance overcome. Work is
measured by the product of the resistance into the distance through
which its point of application is moved. The unit of work commonly
used in Britain is a resistance of one pound overcome through a
distance of one foot, and is called a foot-pound.
Work is distinguished into useful work and prejudicial or lost
work, according as it is performed in producing the useful effect of
the machine, or in overcoming prejudicial resistance.
87. Energy : Potential Energy. Energy means capacity for per-
forming work. The energy of an effort, or potential energy, is measured
by the product of the effort into the distance through which its point
of application is capable of being moved. The unit of energy is the
same with the unit of work.
When the point of application of an effort has been moved through
a given distance, energy is said to have been exerted to an amount
expressed by the product of the effort into the distance through
which its point of application has been moved.
88. Variable Effort and Resistance. If an effort has different
magnitudes during different portions of the motion of its point of
application through a given distance, let each different magnitude
ef the effort P be multiplied by the length Ax of the corresponding
portion of the path of the point of application ; the sum
2 . PA* (50)
is the whole energy exerted. If the effort varies by insensible
gradations, the energy exerted is the integral or limit towards
which that sum approaches continually as the divisions of the path
are made smaller and more numerous, and is expressed by
frds. (50
Similar processes are applicable to the finding of the work per-
formed in overcoming a varying resistance.
The work done by a machine can be actually measured by means
of a dynamometer (q.v.).
89. Principle of the Equality of Energy and Work. From the
first law of motion it follows that in a machine whose pieces move
with uniform velocities the efforts and resistances must balance each
other. Now from the laws of statics it is known that, in order that
a system of forces applied to a system of connected points may be
in equilibrium, it is necessary that the sum formed by putting together
the products of the forces by the respective distances through which
their points of application are capable of moving simultaneously,
each along the direction of the force applied to it, shall be zero,
products being considered positive or negative according as the
direction of the forces and the possible motions of their points of
application are the same or opposite.
In other words, the sum 01 the negative products is equal to the
sum of the positive products. This principle, applied to a machine
whose parts move with uniform velocities, is equivalent to saying
that in any given interval of time the energy exerted is equal to the work
performed.
The symbolical expression of this Jaw is as follows: let efforts be
applied to one or any number of points of a machine; let any one
of these efforts be represented by P, and the distance traversed by
its point of application in a given interval of time by ds; let resist-
ances be overcome at one or any number of points of the same
machine; let any one of these resistances be denoted by R, and the
distance traversed by its point of application in the given interval
of time by ds' ; then
S.P(fc = S.R<fc'. (52)
The lengths ds, ds' are proportional to the velocities of the points
to whose paths they belong, and the proportions of those velocities
to each other are deducible from the construction of the machine
by the principles of pure mechanism explained in Chapter I.
90. Static Equilibrium of Mechanisms. The principle stated in
the preceding section, namely, that the energy exerted is equal to
the work performed, enables the ratio of the components of the
forces acting in the respective directions of motion at two points of
a mechanism, one being the point of application of the effort, and the
other the point of application of the resistance, to be readily found.
Removing the summation signs in equation (52) in order to restrict
its application to two points and dividing by the common time
interval during which the respective small displacements ds and ds'
were made, it becomes Pds/dt = Rds'/dt, that is, Pf = Ri>', which shows
that the force ratio is the inverse of the velocity ratio. It follows
at once that any method which may be available for the determina-
tion of the velocity ratio is equally available for the determination
of the force ratio, it being clearly understood that the forces involved
are the components of the actual forces resolved in the direction
FIG. 126.
of motion of the points. The relation between the effort and the
resistance may be found by means of this principle for all kinds of
mechanisms, when the friction produced by the components of the
forces across the direction of motion of the two points is neglected.
Consider the following example :
A four-bar chain having the configuration shown in fig. 126
supports a load P at the point #. What load is required at the point y
to maintain the con- ,
figuration shown, both
loads being supposed to
act vertically? Find
the instantaneous cen-
tre OM, and resolve each \l T \
load in the respective /^* I **! /
directions of motion of *
the points x and y;
thus there are obtained
the components P cos
and R cos <t>. Let
the mechanism have a
small motion; then, for
the instant, the link b
is turning about its
instantaneous centre
Otd, and, if u> is its
instantaneous angular
velocity, the velocity
of the point x is o>r,
and the velocity of the
point y is us. Hence,
by the principle just
stated, P cos 0Xwr =
R cos <t> X ws. But, p
and g being respectively
the perpendiculars to
the lines of action of
the forces, this equation
reduces to Pp = Rq,
which shows that the
ratio of the two forces may be found by taking moments about the
instantaneous centre of the link on which they act.
The forces P and R may, however, act on different links. The
general problem may then be thus stated: Given a mechanism of
which r is the fixed link, and s and t any other two links, given also a
force /, acting on the link s, to find the force ft acting in a given
direction on the link /, which will keep the mechanism in static
equilibrium. The graphic solution of this problem may be effected
thus:
(1) Find the three virtual centres O r , On, O,i, which must be
three points in a line.
(2) Resolve /, into two components, one of which, namely, /
passes through O r , and may be neglected, and the other/,
passes through O.
(3) Find the point M, where f p joins the given direction of/,, and
resolve f p into two components, of which one is in the direc-
tion MOri and may be neglected because it passes through
On, and the other is in the given direction of / ( and is there-
fore the force required.
This statement of the problem and the solution is due to Sir A. B.
W. Kennedy, and is given in ch. 8 of his Mechanics of Machinery.
Another general solution of
the problem is given in the
Proc. Land. Math. Soc. (1878-
1879), by the same author.
An example of the method of
solution stated above, and
taken from the Mechanics of
Machinery, is illustrated by
the mechanism fig. 127, which
is an epicyclic train of three
wheels with the first wheel r
fixed. Let it be required to
find the vertical force which
must act at the pitch radius
of the last wheel t to balance
exactly a force /, acting ver-
tically downwards on the arm
at the point in'dicated in the
figure. The two links con-
cerned are the last wheel t
and the arm s, the wheel r being the fixed link of the mechanism.
The virtual centres O, e , Oat are at the respective axes of the wheels
r and /, and the centre O r t divides the line through these two points
externally in the ratio of the train of wheels. The figure sufficiently
indicates the various steps of the solution.
The relation between the effort and the resistance in a machine
to include the effect of friction at the joints has been investigated in
a paper by Professor Fleeming Jenkin, " On the application of graphic
methods to the determination of the efficiency of machinery "
FIG. 127.
APPLIED DYNAMICS]
MECHANICS
101 1
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., vol. 28). It is shown that a machine may
at any instant be represented by a frame of links the stresses in
which are identical with the pressures at the joints of the mechanism.
This self-strained frame is called the dynamic, frame of the machine.
The driving and resisting efforts are represented by elastic links
in the dynamic frame, and when the frame with its elastic links is
drawn the stresses in the several members of it may be determined
by means of reciprocal figures. Incidentally the method gives the
pressures at every joint of the mechanism.
91. Efficiency. The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the
useful work to the total work that is, to the energy exerted and
is represented by
S . R^5'_ Z R u ds' Z . Ru^'_U
S . Rds' ~Z . R^s'+S . Rp<fr'~ 2 . Pds ~E'
R tt being taken to represent useful and R ? prejudicial resistances.
The more nearly the efficiency of a machine approaches to unity
the better is the machine.
92. Power and Effect. The power of a machine is the energy
exerted, and the effect the useful work performed, in some interval
of time of definite length, such as a second, an hour, or a day.
The unit of power, called conventionally a horse-power, is 550
foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or
1,980,000 foot-pounds per hour.
J 93. Modulus of a Machine. In the investigation of the proper-
ties of a machine, the useful resistances to be overcome and the useful
work to be performed are usually given. The prejudicial resistances
are generally functions of the useful resistances of the weights of
the pieces of the mechanism, and of their form and arrangement;
and, having been determined, they serve for the computation of
the lost work, which, being added to the useful work, gives the
expenditure of energy required. The result of this investigation,
expressed in the form of an equation between this energy and the
useful work, is called by Moseley the modulus of the machine. The
general form of the modulus may be expressed thus
E = U+*(U, A)+*(A), (54)
where A denotes some quantity or set of quantities depending on the
form, arrangement, weight and other properties of the mechanism.
Moseley, however, has pointed out that in most cases this equation
takes the much more simple form of
E = (i+A)U+B, (55)
where A and B are constants, depending on the form, arrangement
and weight of the mechanism. The efficiency corresponding to the
last equation is U I
~E~i+A+B/U'
(56)
94. Trains of Mechanism. In applying the preceding principles
to a train of mechanism, it may either be treated as a whole, or
it may be considered in sections consisting of single pieces, or of
any convenient portion of the train ^each section being treated as
a machine, driven by the effort applied to it and energy exerted
upon it through its line of connexion with the preceding section,
performing useful work by driving the following section, and losing
work by overcoming its own prejudicial resistances. It is evident
that the efficiency of the whole train is the product of the efficiencies of
its sections.
95. Rotating Pieces: Couples of Forces. It is often convenient
to express the energy exerted upon and the work performed by a
turning piece in a machine in terms of the moment of the couples
of forces acting on it, and of the angular velocity. The ordinary
British unit of moment is afoot-pound; but it is to be remembered
that this is a foot-pound of a different sort from the unit of energy
and work.
If a force be applied to a turning piece in a line not passing
through its axis, the axis will press against its bearings with an
equal and parallel force, and the equal and opposite reaction of the
bearings will constitute, together with the first-mentioned force, a
couple whose arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the
line of action of the first force.
A couple is said to be right or left handed with reference to the
observer, according to the direction in which it tends to turn the
body, and is a driving couple or a resisting couple according as its
tendency is with or against that of the actual rotation.
Let dt be an interval of time, a the angular velocity of the piece ;
then adt is the angle through which it turns in the interval dt, and ds
= vdt = radt is the distance through which the point of application
of the force moves. Let P represent an effort, so that Pr is a driving
couple, then
Pds = Pvdt = Prodi = Madt (57)
is the energy exerted by the couple M in the interval dt; and a
similar equation gives the work performed in overcoming a resisting
couple. When several couples act on one piece, the resultant
of their moments is to be multiplied by the common Angular velocity
of the whole piece.
96. Reduction of Forces to a given Point, and of Couples to the
Axis of a given Piece. In computations respecting machines it is
often convenient to substitute for a force applied to a given point,
or a couple applied to a g_iven piece, the equivalent force or couple
applied to some other point or piece; that is to say, the force or
couple, which, if applied to the other point or piece, would exert
equal energy or employ equal work. The principles of this reduction
are that the ratio of the given to the equivalent force is the reciprocal
of the ratio of the velocities of their points of application, and the
ratio of the given to the equivalent couple is the reciprocal of the
ratio of the angular velocities of the pieces to which they are applied.
These velocity ratios are known by the construction of the
mechanism, and are independent of the absolute speed.
97. Balanced Lateral Pressure of Guides and Bearings. The
most important part of the lateral pressure on a piece of mechanism
is the reaction of its guides, if it is a sliding piece, or of the bearings
of its axis, if it is a turning piece; and the balanced portion of this
reaction is equal and opposite to the resultant of all the other forces
applied to the piece, its own weight included. There may be or
may not be an unbalanced component in this pressure, due to the
deviated motion. Its laws will be considered in the sequel.
98. Friction. Unguents. The most important kind of resistance
in machines is the friction or rubbing resistance of surfaces which
slide over each other. The direction of the resistance of friction is
opposite to that in which the sliding takes place. Its magnitude
is the product of the normal pressure or force which presses the
rubbing surfaces together in a direction perpendicular to themselves
into a specific constant already mentioned in 14, as the coefficient
of friction, which depends on the nature and condition of the sur-
faces of the unguent, if any, with which they are covered. The total
pressure exerted between the rubbing surfaces is the resultant of
the normal pressure and of the friction, and its obliquity, or inclina-
tion to the common perpendicular of the surfaces, is the angle of
repose formerly mentioned in 14, whose tangent is the coefficient
of friction. Thus, let N be the normal pressure, R the friction, T
the total pressure, / the coefficient of friction, and <f the angle of
repose; then
/= tan <t> > ,_ fi ,
R=/N = N tan<fr = Tsin.M
Experiments on friction have been made by Coulomb, Samuel
Vince, John Rennie, James Wood, D. Rankine and others. The
most complete and elaborate experiments are those of Morin, pub-
lished in his Notions fondamentales de mecanique, and republished
in Britain in the works of Moseley and Gordon.
The experiments of Beauchamp Tower (" Report of Friction
Experiments," Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1883) showed that when oil
is supplied to a journal by means of an oil bath the coefficient
of friction varies nearly inversely as the load on the bearing, thus
making the product of the load on the bearing and the coefficient
of friction a constant. Mr Tower's experiments were carried out
at nearly constant temperature. The more recent experiments of
Lasche (Zeitsch, Verein Deutsche Ingen., 1902, 46, 1881) show that
the product of the coefficient of friction, the load on the bearing, and
the temperature is approximately constant. For further information
on this point and on Osborne Reynolds's theory of lubrication see
BEARINGS and LUBRICATION.
99. Work of Friction. Moment of Friction. The work performed
in a unit of time in overcoming the friction of a pair of surfaces is
the product of the friction by the velocity of sliding of the surfaces
over each other, if that is the same throughout the whole extent of
the rubbing surfaces. If that velocity is different for different por-
tions of the rubbing surfaces, the velocity of each portion is to be
multiplied by the friction of that portion, and the results summed
or integrated.
When the relative motion of the rubbing surfaces is one of rota-
tion, the work of friction in a unit of time, fora portion of the rubbing
surfaces at a given distance from the axis of rotation, may be found
by multiplying together the friction of that portion, its distance
from the axis, and the angular velocity. The product of the force
of friction by the distance at which it acts from the axis of rotation
is called the moment of friction. The total moment of friction of a
pair of rotating rubbing surfaces is the sum or integral of the moments
of friction of their several portions.
To express this symbolically, let du represent the area of a portion
of a pair of rubbing surfaces at a distance r from the axis of their
relative rotation; p the intensity of the normal pressure at du per
unit of area ; and / the coefficient of friction. Then the moment of
friction of du is fprdu ; .
the total moment of friction is / / pr. du ;
and the work performed in a unit of time in overcoming f
friction, when the angular velocity is o, is a/ ( pr. du. )
It is evident that the moment of friction, and the work lost by
being performed in overcoming friction, are less in a rotating piece
as the bearings are of smaller radius. But a limit is put to the
diminution of the radii of journals and pivots by the conditions of
durability and of proper lubrication, and also by conditions of
strength and stiffness.
100. Total Pressure between Journal and Bearing. A single
piece rotating with a uniform velocity has four mutually balanced
forces applied to it: (i) the effort exerted on it by the piece
which drives it ; (2) the resistance of the piece which follows it
which may be considered for the purposes of the present question
as useful resistance; (3) its weight; and (4) the reaction of its own
cylindrical bearings. There are given the following data:
IOI2
MECHANICS
[APPLIED DYNAMICS
FIG. 128.
The directjon of the effort.
The direction of the useful resistance.
The weight of the piece and the direction in which it acts.
The magnitude of the useful resistance.
The radius of the bearing r.
The angle of repose <t>, corresponding to the friction of the journal
on the bearing.
And there are required the following :
The direction of the reaction of the bearing.
The magnitude of that reaction.
The magnitude of the effort.
Let the useful resistance and the weight of the piece be com-
pounded by the principles of statics into one force, and let this
be called the given force.
The directions of the effort and of the given force are either
parallel or meet in a point. If they are parallel, the direction of
the reaction of the bearing is also parallel to them; if they meet
in a point, the direction of the reaction traverses the same point.
Also, let AAA, fig. 128, be a section of the bearing, and C its axis;
then the direction of the reaction, at the point where it intersects
the circle AAA, must make the angle <t>
with the radius of that circle; that is to say,
it must be a line such as PT touching the
smaller circle BB, whose radius is r. sin <t>.
The side on which it touches that circle
is determined by the fact that the obliquity
of the reaction is such as to oppose the
rotation.
Thus is determined the direction of the
reaction of the bearing; and the magnitude
of that reaction and of the effort are then
found by the principles of the equilibrium
of three forces already stated in 7.
The work lost in overcoming the friction of the bearing is the same
as that which would be performed in overcoming at the circumference
of the small circle BB a resistance equal to the whole pressure between
the journal and bearing.
In order to diminish that pressure to the smallest possible amount,
the effort, and the resultant of the useful resistance, and the weight
of the piece (called above the " given force ") ought to be opposed
to each other as directly as is practicable consistently with the
purposes of the machine.
An investigation of the forces acting on a bearing and journal
lubricated by an oil bath will be found in a paper by Osborne
Reynolds in the Phil. Trans., pt. i. (1886). (See also BEARINGS.)
101. Friction of Pivots and Collars. When a shaft is acted upon
by a force tending to'shift it lengthways, that force must be balanced
by the reaction of a bearing against a pivot at the end of the shaft ;
or, if that be impossible, against one or more collars, or rings projecting
from the body of the shaft. The bearing of the pivot is called a step
or footstep. Pivots require great hardness, and are usually made of
steel. The flat pivot is a cylinder of steel having a plane circular
end as a rubbing surface. Let N be the total pressure sustained by
a flat pivot of the radius r; if that pressure be uniformly distributed,
which is the case when the rubbing surfaces of the pivot and its step
are both true planes, the intensity of the pressure is
= N/rr>; (60)
and, introducing this value into equation 59, the moment of friction
of the flat pivot is found to be
!/Nr (61)
or two-thirds of that of a cylindrical journal of the same radius under
the same normal pressure.
The friction of a conical pivot exceeds that of a flat pivot of the
same radius, and under the same pressure, in the proportion of the
side of the cone to the radius of its base.
The moment of friction of a collar is given by the formula
where r is the external and r' the internal radius.
In the cup and ball pivot the end of the shaft
and the step present two recesses facing each
other, into which are fitted two shallow cups
of steel or hard bronze. Between the concave
spherical surfaces of those cups is placed a steel
ball, being either a complete sphere or a lens
having convex surfaces of a somewhat less radius
than the concave surfaces of the cups. The
moment of friction of this pivot is at first almost
inappreciable from the extreme smallness of the
radius of the circles of contact of the ball and
cups, but, as they wear, that radius and the
moment of friction increase.
It appears that the rapidity with which a
rubbing surface wears away is proportional to
the friction and to the velocity jointly, or nearly
so. Hence the pivots already mentioned wear
FIG. 129.
unequally at different points, and tend to alter their figures. Schiele
has invented a pivot which preserves its original figure by wearing
equally at all points in a direction parallel to its axis. The following
are the principles on which this equality of wear depends :
The rapidity of wear of a surface measured in an oblique direction
is to the rapidity of wear measured normally as the secant of the
obliquity is to unity. Let OX (fig. 129) be the axis of a pivot, and
let RPC be a portion of a curve such that at any point P the secant
of the obliquity to the normal of the curve of a line parallel to the
axis is inversely proportional to the ordinate PY, to which the
velocity of P is proportional. The rotation of that curve round OX
will generate the form of pivot required. Now let PT be a tangent to
the curve at P, cutting OX in T; PT = PYXsecant obliquity, and
this is to be a constant quantity ; hence the curve is that known as
the tractory of the straight line OX, in which PT = OR = constant.
This curve is described by having a fixed straight edge parallel to
OX, along which slides a slider carrying a pin whose centre is T. On
that pin turns an arm, carrying at a point P a tracing-point, pencil
or pen. Should the pen have a nib of two jaws, like those of an
ordinary drawing-pen, the plane of the jaws must pass through PT.
Then, while T is slid along the axis from O towards X, P will be drawn
after it from R towards C along the tractory. This curve, being an
asymptote to its axis, is capable of being indefinitely prolonged
towards X; but in designing pivots it should stop before the angle
PTY becomes less than the angle of repose of the rubbing surfaces,
otherwise the pivot will be liable to stick in its bearing. The moment
of friction of " Schiele's anti-friction pivot," as it is called, is equal
to that of a cylindrical journal of the radius OR = PT the constant
tangent, under the same pressure.
Records of experiments on the friction of a pivot bearing will be
found in the Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1891), and on the friction of a
collar bearing ib. May 1888.
102. Friction of Teeth. Let N be the normal pressure exerted
between a pair of teeth of a pair of wheels; s the total distance
through which they slide upon each other; n the number of pairs
of teeth which pass the plane of axis in a unit of time ; then
n/Nf (63)
is the work lost in unity of time by tne friction of the teeth. The
sliding i is composed of two parts, which take place during the
approach and recess respectively. Let those be denoted by Si and
Si, so that S = SI+SL In 45 the velocity of sliding at any instant
has been given, viz. u=c (oi+a 2 ), where is that velocity, c the
distance TI at any instant from the point of contact of the teeth to
the pitch-point, and ai, 02 the respective angular velocities of the
wheels.
Let v be the common velocity of the two pitch-circles, r\, r t , their
radii ; then the above equation becomes
(4+4)-
To apply this to involute teeth, let c\ be the length of the approach,
C 2 that of the recess, u\, the mean volocity of sliding during the
approach, % that during the recess; then
also, let 6 be the obliquity of the action; then the times occupied
by the approach and recess are respectively
Ci Ci
COS0' DCOS0'
giving, finally, for the length of sliding between each pair of teeth,
s= - Si+S2= Srl(7 l +^) < 6 4)
which, substituted in equation (63), gives the work lost in a unit of
time by the friction of involute teeth. This result, which is exact
for involute teeth, is approximately true for teeth of any figure.
For inside gearing, if r\ be the less radius and r 2 the greater,
- is to be substituted for | .
103. Friction of Cords and Belts. A flexible band, such as a
cord, rope, belt or strap, may be used either to exert an effort or a
resistance upon a pulley round which it wraps. In either case the
tangential force, whether effort or resistance, exerted between the
band and the pulley is their mutual friction, caused by and propor-
tional to the normal pressure between them.
Let Ti be the tension of the free part of the band at that side
towards which it tends to draw the pulley, or from which the pulley
tends to draw it; T 2 the tension of the free part at the other side;
T the tension of the band at any intermediate point of its arc of
contact with the pulley ; 8 the ratio of the length of that arc to the
radius of the pulley; d8 the ratio of an indefinitely small element
of that arc to the radius; F=Ti T 2 the total friction between the
band and the pulley; dF the elementary portion of that friction
due to the elementary arc dO ; f the coefficient of friction between
the materials of the band and pulley.
Then, according to a well-known principle in statics, the normal
pressure at the elementary arc dd is TdO, T being the mean tension
of the band at that elementary arc; consequently the friction on
that arc is dF=fTd9. Now that friction is also the difference
APPLIED DYNAMICS]
MECHANICS
1013
between the tensions of the band at the two ends of the elementary
arc, ordT=dF=fYd6; which equation, being integrated throughout
the entire arc of contact, gives the following formulae:
T
hyp log. =r=/0
-</
F - T, - T, = T. (i --/) = T,(ef - l)J
When a belt connecting a pair of pulleys has the tensions of its
two sides originally equal, the pulleys being at rest, and when the
pulleys are next set in motion, so that one of them drives the other
by means of the belt, it is found that the advancing side of the
belt is exactly as much tightened as the returning s>ide is slackened,
so that the mean tension remains unchanged. Its value is given by
this formula
which is useful in determining the original tension required to enable
a belt to transmit a given force between two pulleys.
The equations 65 and 66 arc applicable to a kind of brake called
a friction-strap, used to stop or moderate the velocity of machines
by being tightened round a pulley. The strap is usually of iron,
and the pulley of hard wood.
Let o denote the arc of contact expressed in turns and fractions
of a turn ; then
6 = 6-28320 \
tf = number whose common logarithm is 2-7288/a J
See also DYNAMOMETER for illustrations of the use of what are
essentially friction-straps of different forms for the measurement of
the brake horse-power of an engine or motor. _
10,1. Stiffness of Ropes. Ropes offer a resistance to being bent,
and, when bent, to being straightened again, which arises from the
mutual friction of their fibres. It increases with the sectional area
of the rope, and is inversely proportional to the radius of the curve
into which it is bent.
The work lost in pulling a given length of rope over a pulley is
found by multiplying the length of the rope in feet by its stiffness
in pounds, that stiffness being the excess of the tension at the
leading side of the rope above that at the following side, which is
necessary to bend it into a curve fitting the pulley, and then to
straighten it again.
The following empirical formulae for the stiffness of hempen ropes
have been deduced by Mprin from the experiments of Coulomb:
Let F be the stiffness in pounds avoirdupois; d the diameter of
(67)
the rope in inches, n =48*? for white ropes and 35<P for tarred ropes;
r the effective radius of the pulley in inches; T the tension in pounds.
Then
For white ropes, F =- (o-ooi2+o-ooiO2on+o-ooi2T 1
For tarred ropes, F=- (o-oo6+o-ooi392n+o-ooi68T I
(68)
105. Friction-Couplings. Friction is useful as a means of com-
municating motion where sudden changes either of force or velocity
take place, because, being limited in amount, it may be so adjusted
as to limit the forces which strain the pieces of the mechanism
within the bounds of safety. Amongst contrivances for effecting
this object are friction-cones. A rotating shaft carries upon a cylin-
drical portion of its figure a wheel or pulley turning loosely on it,
and consequently capable of remaining at rest when the shaft is
in motion. This pulley has fixed to one side, and concentric with
it, a short frustum of a hollow cone. At a small distance from the
pulley the shaft carries a short frustum of a solid cone accurately
turnea to fit the hollow cone. This frustum is made always to turn
along with the shaft by being fitted on a square portion of it, or by
means of a rib and groove, or otherwise, but is capable of a slight
longitudinal motion, so as to be pressed into, or withdrawn from,
the hollow cone by means of a lever. When the cones are pressed
together or engaged, their friction causes the pulley to rotate along
with the shaft; when they are disengaged, the pulley is free to stand
still. The angle made by the sides of the cones with the axis should
not be less than the angle of repose. In the friction-clutch, a pulley
loose on a shaft has a hoop or gland made to embrace it more or less
tightly by means of a screw; this hoop has short projecting arms or
ears. A fork or clutch rotates along with the shaft, and is capable
of being moved longitudinally by a handle. When the clutch is
moved towards the hoop, its arms catch those of the hoop, and
cause the hoop to rotate and to communicate its rotation to the pulley
by friction. There are many other contrivances of the same class,
but the two just mentioned may serve for examples.
1 06. Heat of Friction : Unguents. The work lost in friction is
employed in producing heat. This fact is very obvious, and has
been known from a remote period; but the exact determination of
the proportion of the work lost to the heat produced, and the experi-
mental proof that that proportion is the same under all circumstances
and with all materials, solid, liquid and gaseous, are comparatively
recent achievements of J. P. Joule. The quantity of work which
produces a British unit of heat (or so much heat as elevates the
temperature of one pound of pure water, at or near ordinary atmo-
spheric temperatures, by i F.) is 772 foot-pounds. This constant,
now designated as " Joule's equivalent," is the principal experi-
mental datum of the science of thermodynamics.
A more recent determination (Phil. Trans., 1897), by Osborne
Reynolds and W. M. Moorby, gives 778 as the mean value of Joule's
equivalent through the range of 32 to 212 F. See also the papers
of Rowland in the Proc. Amer. Acad. (1879), and Griffiths, Phil.
Trans. (1893).
The heat produced by friction, when moderate in amount, is useful
in softening and liquefying thick unguents; but when excessive it is
prejudicial, by decomposing the unguents, and sometimes even by
softening the metal of the bearings, and raising their temperature
so high as to set fire to neighbouring combustible matters.
Excessive heating is prevented by a constant and copious supply
of a good unguent. The elevation of temperature produced by the
friction of a journal is sometimes used as an experimental test of
the quality of unguents. For modern methods of forced lubrication
see BEARINGS.
107. Rolling Resistance. By the rolling of two surfaces over
each other without sliding a resistance is caused which is called
sometimes " rolling friction," but more correctly rolling resistance.
It is of the nature of a couple, resisting rotation. Its moment is
found by multiplying the normal pressure between the rolling sur-
faces by an arm, whose length depends on the nature of the rolling
surfaces, and the work lost in a unit of time in overcoming it is the
product of its moment by the angular velocity of the rolling surfaces
relatively to each other. The following are approximate values of
the arm in decimals of a foot:
Oak upon oak .
Lignum vitae on oak
Cast iron on cast iron
0-006 (Coulomb).
0-004
0-002 (Tredgold).
108. Reciprocating Forces: Stored and Restored Energy. When
a force acts on a machine alternately as an effort and as a resistance,
it may be called a reciprocating force. Of this kind is the weight of
any piece in the mechanism whose centre of gravity alternately
rises and falls; for during the rise of the centre of gravity that weight
acts as a resistance, and energy is employed in lifting it to an amount
expressed by the product of the weight into the vertical height of
its rise; and: during the fall of the centre of gravity the weight acts
as an effort, and exerts in assisting to perform the work of the
machine an amount of energy exactly equal to that which had
previously been employed in lifting it. Thus that amount of energy
is not lost, but has its operation deferred ; and it is said to be stored
when the weight is lifted, and restored when it falls.
In a machine of which each piece is to move with a uniform
velocity, if the effort and the resistance be constant, the weight of
each piece must be balanced on its axis, so that it may produce
lateral pressure only, and not act as a reciprocating force. But if
the effort and the resistance be alternately in excess, the uniformity
of speed may still be preserved by so adjusting some moving weight
in the mechanism that when the effort is in excess it may be lifted,
and so balance and employ the excess of effort, and that when the
resistance is in excess it may fall, and so balance and overcome the
excess of resistance thus storing the periodical excess of energy and
restoring that energy to perform the periodical excess of work.
Other forces besides gravity may be used as reciprocating forces
for storing and restoring energy for example, the elasticity of a
spring or of a mass of air.
In most of the delusive machines commonly called " perpetual
motions," of which so many are patented in each year, and which
are expected by their inventors to perform work without receiving
energy, the fundamental fallacy consists in an expectation that
some reciprocating force shall restore more energy than it has been
the means of storing.
Division 2. Deflecting Forces.
109. Deflecting Force for Translation in a Curved Path. In
machinery, deflecting force is supplied by the tenacity of some
piece, such as a crank, which guides the deflected body in its curved
path, and is unbalanced, being employed in producing deflexion,
and not in balancing another force.
no. Centrifugal Force of a Rotating Body. The centrifugal
force exerted by a rotating body on its axis of rotation is the same in
magnitude as if the mass of the body were concentrated at its centre of
gravity, and acts in a plane passing through the axis of rotation and the
centre of gravity of the body.
The particles of a rotating body exert centrifugal forces on each
other, which strain the body, and tend to tear it asunder, but these
forces balance each other, and do not affect the resultant centrifugal
force exerted on the axis of rotation. 1
// the axis of rotation traverses the centre of gravity of the body,
the centrifugal force exerted on that axis is nothing.
Hence, unless there be some reason to the contrary, each piece of
a machine should be balanced on its axis of rotation ; otherwise the
1 This is a particular case of a more general principle, that the
motion of the centre of gravity of a body is not affected by the mutual
actions of its parts.
MECHANICS
[APPLIED DYNAMICS
d.)'
P
<IG. 130.
centrifugal force will cause strains, vibration and increased friction,
and a tendency of the shafts to jump out of their bearings.
III. Centrifugal Couples of a Rotating Body. Besides the tend-
ency (if any) of the combined centrifugal forces of the particles of
a rotating body to shift the axis of rotation, they may also tend to
turn it out of its original direction. The latter tendency is called
a centrifugal couple, and vanishes for rotation about a principal axis.
It is essential to the steady motion of every rapidly rotating
piece in a machine that its axis of rotation should not merely traverse
its centre of gravity, but should be a permanent axis; for otherwise
the centrifugal couples will increase friction, produce oscillation of
the shaft and tend to make it leave its bearings.
The principles of this and the preceding section are those which
regulate the adjustment of the weight and position of the counter-
poises which are placed between the spokes of the driving-wheels of
locomotive engines.
112.* Method of computing the position and magnitudes of
balance weights which must be added to a given system of arbitrarily
chosen rotating masses in order to make the common axis of rotation
a permanent axis. The method here briefly explained is taken
from a paper by W. E. Dalby, " The Balancing of Engines with
special reference to Marine Work," Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch. (1899).
Let the weight (fig. 13), attached to a truly turned disk, be
rotated by the shaft OX, and conceive that the shaft is held
in a bearing at one point, O. The
force required to constrain the weight
to move in a circle, that is the de-
viating force, produces an equal and
opposite reaction on the shaft, whose
amount F is equal to the centrifugal
force Wo 2 r/g Ib, where r is the radius
of the mass centre of the weight, and
a is its angular velocity in radians per
second. Transferring this force to
Engine^ by the po ; nt Q ; t is equivalent to, (i)
a force at O equal and parallel to
F, and, (2) a centrifugal couple of Fa
foot-pounds. In order that OX may
be a . permanent axis it is necessary that there should be a
sufficient number of weights attached to the shaft and so distributed
that when each is referred to the point O
(1) SF =o) ,
(2) ZFa =o \
The plane through O to which the shaft is perpendicular is called
the reference plane, because all the transferred forces act in that plane
at the point O. The plane through the radius of the weight contain-
ing the axis OX is called the axial plane because it contains the forces
forming the couple due to the transference of F to the reference plane.
Substituting the values of F in (a) the two conditions become
(1) (W 1 r 1 +W 2 r 2 +W 3 r,+ ...)j = o
(2) (WiOiri -f W 2 a 2 r 2 +...) o
In order that these conditions may obtain, the quantities in the
brackets must be zero, since the factor a 2 /g is not zero. Hence finally
the conditions which must be satisfied by the system of weights in
order that the axis of rotation may be a permanent axis is
(1) (W,n+W,r 2 +W,r,)=o (A
(2) (W,a 1 r 1 +W 2 a 2 r 2 +)=o
It must be remembered that these are all directed quantities, and
that their respective sums are to be taken by drawing vector poly-
gons. In drawing these polygons the magnitude of the vector of
the type Wr is the product Wr, and the direction of the vector
is from the shaft outwards towards the weight W, parallel to the
radius r. For the vector representing a couple of the type War,
if the masses are all on the same side of the reference plane, the
direction of drawing is from the axis outwards; if the masses are
some on one side of the reference plane and some on the other side,
the direction of drawing is from the axis outwards towards the
weight for all masses on the one side, and from the mass inwards
towards the axis for all weights on the other side, drawing always
parallel to the direction denned by the radius r. The magnitude
of the vector is the product War. The conditions (c) may thus be
expressed : first, that the sum of the vectors Wr must form a closed
polygon, and, second, that the sum of the vectors War must form a
closed polygon. The general problem in practice is, given a system
of weights attached to a shaft, to find the respective weights and
positions of two balance weights or counterpoises which must be
added to the system in order to make the shaft a permanent axis,
the planes in which the balance weights are to revolve also being
given. To solve this the reference plane must be chosen so that it
coincides with the plane of revolution of one of the as yet unknown
balance weights. The balance weight in this plane has therefore
no couple corresponding to it. Hence by drawing a couple polygon
for the given weights the vector which is required to close the polygon
is at once found and from it the magnitude and position of the balance
weight which must be added to the system to balance the couples
follow at once. Then, transferring the product Wr corresponding
with this balance weight to the reference plane, proceed to draw
the force polygon. The vector required to close it will determine the
second balance weight, the work may be checked by taking the
reference plane to coincide with the plane of revolution of the second
balance weight and then re-determining them, or by taking a refer-
ence plane anywhere and including the two balance weights trying
if condition (c) is satisfied.
When a weight is reciprocated, the equal and opposite force re-
quired for its acceleration at any instant appears as an unbalanced
force on the frame of the machine to which the weight belongs. In
the particular case where the motion is of the kind known as " simple
harmonic " the disturbing force on the frame due to the reciproca-
tion of the weight is equal to the component of the centrifugal
force in the line of stroke due to a weight equal to the reciprocated
weight supposed concentrated at the crank pin. Using this principle
the method of finding the balance weights to be added to a given
system of reciprocating weights in order to produce a system of
forces on the frame continuously in equilibrium is exactly the same
as that just explained for a system of revolving weights, because for
the purpose of finding the balance weights each reciprocating
weight may be supposed attached to the crank pin which operates
it, thus forming an equivalent revolving system. The balance
weights found as part of the equivalent revolving system when
reciprocated by their respective crank pins form the balance weights
for the given reciprocating system. These conditions may be exactly
realized by a system of weights reciprocated by slotted bars, the
crank shaft driving the slotted bars rotating uniformly. In practice
reciprocation is usually effected through a connecting rod, as in the
case of steam engines. In balancing the mechanism of a steam
engine it is often sufficiently accurate to consider the motion of the
pistons as simple harmonic, and the effect on the framework of the
acceleration of the connecting rod may be approximately allowed for
by distributing the weight of the rod between the crank pin and the
piston inversely as the centre of gravity of the rod divides the distance
between the centre of the cross head pin and the centre of the crank
pin. The moving parts of the engine are then divided into two
complete and independent systems, namely, one system of revolving
weights consisting of crank pins, crank arms, &c., attached to and
revolving with the crank shaft, and a second system of reciprocating
weights consisting of the pistons, cross-heads, &c., supposed to be
moving each in its line of stroke with simple harmonic motion. The
balance weights are to be separately calculated for each system, the
one set being added to the crank shaft as revolving weights, and the
second set being included with the reciprocating weights and operated
by a properly placed crank on the crank shaft. Balance weights
added in this way to a set of reciprocating weights are sometimes
called bob-weights. In the case of locomotives the balance weights
required to balance the pistons are added as revolving weights to the
crank shaft system, and in fact are generally combined with the
weights required to balance the revolving system so as to form one
weight, the counterpoise referred to in the preceding section, which
is seen between the spokes of the wheels of a locomotive. Although
this method balances the pistons in the horizontal plane, and thus
allows the pull of the engine on the train to be exerted without
the variation due to the reciprocation of the pistons, yet the force
balanced horizontally is introduced vertically and appears as a
variation of pressure on the rail. In practice about two-thirds of.
the reciprocating weight is balanced in order to keep this variation
of rail pressure within safe limits. The assumption that the pistons
of an engine move with simple harmonic motion is increasingly
erroneous as the ratio of the length of the crank r, to the length of
the connecting rod I increases. A more accurate though still approxi-
mate expression for the force on the frame due to the acceleration
of the piston whose weight is W is given by
w 2 r | cos 6 + j cos 29 f
The conditions regulating the balancing of a system of weights
reciprocating under the action of accelerating forces given by the
above expression are investigated in a paper by Otto Schlick,
" On Balancing of Steam Engines," Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch. (1900),
ancj in a paper by W. E. Dalby, " On the Balancing of the Recipro-
cating Parts of Engines, including the Effect of the Connecting Rod "
(ibid., 1901). A still more accurate expression than the above is
obtained by expansion in a Fourier series, regarding which and its
bearing on balancing engines see a paper by J. H. Macalpine, " A
Solution of the Vibration Problem " (ibid., 1901). The whole subject
is dealt with in a treatise, The Balancing of Engines, by W. E. Dalby
(London, 1906). Most of the original papers on this subject of engine
balancing are to be found in the Transactions of the Institution of
Naval Architects.
113.* Centrifugal Whirling of Shafts. When a system of revolv-
ing masses is balanced so that the conditions of the preceding section
are fulfilled, the centre of gravity of the system lies on the axis of
revolution. If there is the slightest displacement of the centre of
gravity of the system from the axis of revolution a force acts on the
shaft tending to deflect it, and varies as the deflexion and as the
square of the speed. If the shaft is therefore to revolve stably,
this force must be balanced at any instant by the elastic resistance
of the shaft to deflexion. To take a simple case, suppose a shaft.
APPLIED DYNAMICS]
MECHANICS
1015
supported on two bearings to carry a disk of weight W at its centre,
and let the centre of gravity of the disk be at a distance e from the
axis of rotation, this small distance being due to imperfections ol
material or faulty construction. Neglecting the mass of the shafl
itself, when the shaft rotates with an angular velocity a, the centri-
fugal force VVaV/g will act upon the shaft and cause its axis to deflect
from the axis of rotation a distance, y say. The elastic resistance
evoked by this deflexion is proportional to the deflexion, so that il
c is a constant depending upon the form, material and method ol
support of the shaft, the following equality must hold if the shaft
is to rotate stably at the stated speed
from which y = Wo 2 e/(gc-Wa 2 ).
This expression shows that as a increases y increases until when
Wa 2 = ge, y becomes infinitely large. The corresponding value of
a, namely Vgc/ w , is called the critical velocity of the shaft, and is the
speed at which the shaft ceases to rotate stably and at which centri-
fugal whirling begins. The general problem is to find the value of
o corresponding to all kinds of loadings on shafts supported in any
manner. The question was investigated by Rankine in an article
in the Engineer (April 9, 1869). Professor A. G. Greenhill treated
the problem of the centrifugal whirling of an unloaded shaft with
different supporting conditions in a paper " On the Strength of
Shafting exposed both to torsion and to end thrust," Proc. Inst.
Mecli. Eng. (1883). Professor S. Dunkerley ("On the Whirling
and Vibration of Shafts," Phil. Trans., 1894) investigated the ques-
tion for the cases of loaded and unloaded shafts, and, owing to the
complication arising from the application of the general theory to
the cases of loaded shafts, devised empirical formulae for the critical
speeds of shafts loaded with heavy pulleys, based generally upon the
following assumption, which is stated for the case of a shaft carrying
one pulley: If Ni, N 2 be the separate speeds of whirl of the shaft
and pulley on the assumption that the effect of one is neglected
when that of the other is under consideration, then the resulting
speed of whirl due to both causes combined may be taken to be of
the form NiN2V(N 2 t -r-N 2 2 ) where N means revolutions per minute.
This form is extended to include the cases of several pulleys on the
same shaft. The interesting and important part of the investigation
is that a number of experiments were made on small shafts arranged
in different ways and loaded in different ways, and the speed at
which whirling actually occurred was compared with the speed
calculated from formulae of the general type indicated above.
The agreement between the observed and calculated values of the
critical speeds was in most cases quite remarkable. In a paper by
Dr C. Chree, " The Whirling and Transverse Vibrations of Rotating
Shafts," Proc. Phys. Soc. Lon., vol. 19 (1904); also Phil. Mag., vol. 7
(1904), the question is investigated from a new mathematical point of
view, and expressions for the whirling of loaded shafts are obtained
without the necessity of any assumption of the kind stated above.
An elementary presentation of the problem from a practical point of
view will be found in Steam Turbines, by Dr A. Stodola (London,
1905).
114. Revolving Pendulum. Governors. In fig. 131 AO represents
an upright axis or spindle; B a weight called a bob, suspended by rod
OB from a horizontal axis at O, carried
by the vertical axis. When the spindle
is at rest the bob hangs close to it; when
the spindle rotates, the bob, being made
to revolve round it, diverges until the
resultant of the centrifugal force and the
weight of the bob is a force acting at O in
the direction OB, and then it revolves
steadily in a circle. This combination is
called a revolving, centrifugal, or conical
pendulum. Revolving pendulums are
usually constructed with pairs of rods
4 and bobs, as OB, Ob, hung at opposite
sides of the spindle, that the centrifugal
forces exerted at the point O may balance
each other.
In finding the position in which the
bob will revolve with a given angular
FIG. 131.
velocity, a, for most practical cases connected with machinery the
mass of the rod may be considered as insensible compared with that
of the bob. Let the bob be a sphere, and from the centre of that
sphere draw BH=y perpendicular to OA. Let OH=z; let W
be the weight of the bob, F its centrifugal force. Then the con-
d T i0 B> Its , s , tead V revolution is W:F::s:y; that is to say,
y/z = F/\V = ya t /g; consequently
* = /a' (69)
Or, if n = a 2^ = 0/6-2832 be the number of turns or fractions of a
turn in a second,
o-
^ 0-8165 ft. _9'797"i in. )
4=r-- 2 n 2 )
s is called the altitude of the pendulum.
(70)
O Qi
If the rod of a revolving pendulum be jointed, as in fig. 132, not
to a point in the vertical axis, but to the end
of a projecting arm C, the position in which
the bob will revolve will be the same as if the
rod were jointed to the point O, where its
prolongation cuts the vertical axis.
A revolving pendulum is an essential part
of most of the contrivances called governors,
for regulating the speed of prime movers,
for further particulars of which see STEAM
ENGINE. Fie. 132.
Division 3. Working of Machines of Varying Velocity.
115. General Principles. In order that the velocity of every
piece of a machine may be uniform, it is necessary that the forces
acting on each piece should be always exactly balanced. Also, in
order that the forces acting on each piece of a machine may be always
exactly balanced, it is necessary that the velocity of that piece should
be uniform.
An excess of the effort exerted on any piece, above that which is
necessary to balance the resistance, is accompanied with accelera-
tion ; a deficiency of the effort, with retardation.
When a machine is being started from a state of rest, and brought
by degrees up to its proper speed, the effort must be in excess; when
it is being retarded for the purpose of stopping it, the resistance
must be in excess.
An excess of effort above resistance involves an excess of energy
exerted above work performed ; that excess of energy is employed in
producing acceleration.
An excess of resistance above effort involves an excess of work
performed above energy expended ; that excess of work is performed
by means of the retardation of the machinery.
When a machine undergoes alternate acceleration and retardation,
so that at certain instantsof time, occurring at the end of intervals
called periods or cycles, it returns to its original speed, then in each of
those periods or cycles the alternate excesses of energy and of work
neutralize each other; and at the end of each cycle the principle of
the equality of energy and work stated in 87, with all its con-
sequences, is verified exactly as in the case of machines of uniform
speed.
At intermediate instants, however, other principles have also to
be taken into account, which are deduced from the second law of
motion, as applied to direct deviation, or acceleration and retardation.
1 1 6. Energy of Acceleration and Work of Retardation for a
Shifting Body. Let w be the weight of a body which has a motion
of translation in any path, and in the course of the interval of time
A/ let its velocity be increased at a uniform rate of acceleration
from PI to p. The rate of acceleration will be
dv/dt = const. = ( t>i) A< ;
and to produce this acceleration a uniform effort will be required,
expressed by
P = l(P2 fi)gA/ (71)
(The product wv/g of the mass of a body by its velocity is called
its momentum; so that the effort required is found by dividing
the increase of momentum by the time in which it is produced.)
To find the energy which has to be exerted to produce the accelera-
tion from PI to v,, it is to be observed that the distance through
which the effort P acts during the acceleration is
consequently, the energy of acceleration is
w(v l t -ti*')2g, (72)
being proportional to the increase in the square of the velocity, and
independent of the time.
In order to produce a retardation from the greater velocity ri to
:he less velocity PI, it is necessary to apply to the body a resistance
:onnected with the retardation and the time by an equation identical
n every respect with equation (71), except by the substitution of a
resistance for an effort; and in overcoming that resistance the body
Performs work to an amount determined by equation (72), putting
R.ds for Pas.
1 17. Energy Stored and Restored by Deviations of Velocity. Thus
i body alternately accelerated and retarded, so as to be brought
jack to its original speed, performs work during its retardation
exactly etjual in amount to the energy exerted upon it during its
acceleration ; _so that that energy may be considered as stored during
the acceleration, and restored during the retardation, in a manner
analogous to the operation of a reciprocating force ( 108).
Let there be given the mean velocity V = J (Di+t>i) of a body
whose weight is w, and let it be required to determine the fluctuation
of velocity , t>i, and the extreme velocities ti, PJ, which that body
must have, in order alternately to store and restore an amount of
nergy E. By equation (72) we have
which, being divided by V = J(rj+Pi), gives
and consequently PJ pj = gE/Vio
(73)
roi6
MECHANICS
[APPLIED DYNAMICS
The ratio of this fluctuation to the mean velocity, sometimes called
the unsteadiness of the motion of the body, is
( 2 -Pi)V=gE/V 2 ty. (74)
1 18. Actual Energy of a Shifting Body. The energy which must
be exerted on a body of the weight w, to accelerate it from a state of
rest up to a given velocity of translation v, and the equal amount of
work which that body is capable of performing by overcoming resis-
tance while being retarded from the same velocity of translation v to
a state of rest, is
vrv*/2g. (75)
This is called the actual energy of the motion of the body, and is
half the quantity which in some treatises is called vis viva.
The energy stored or restored, as the case may be, by the deviations
of velocity of a body or a system of bodies, is the amount by which
the actual energy is increased or diminished.
119. Principle of the Conservation of Energy in Machines. The
following principle, expressing the general law of the action of
machines with a velocity uniform or varying, includes the law of
the equality of energy and work stated in 89 for machines of
uniform speed.
In any given interval during the working of a machine, the energy
exerted added to the energy restored is equal to the energy stored added
to the work performed.
J 20. A dual Energy of Circular Translation Moment of Inertia.
Let a small body of the weight w undergo translation in a circular
path of the radius p, with the angular velocity of deflexion a, so that
the common linear velocity of all its particles is v = ap. Then the
actual energy of that body is
unffrf. = o/aV/22. (76)
By comparing this with the expression for the centrifugal force
(wafplg), it appears that the actual energy of a revolving body is
equal to the potential energy Fp/2 due to the action of the deflecting
force along one-half of the radius of curvature of the path of the
body.
The product wp 2 /g, by which the half-square of the angular
velocity is multiplied, is called the moment of inertia of the revolving
body.
121. Flywheels. A flywheel is a rotating piece in a machine,
generally shaped like a wheel (that is to say, consisting of a rim
with spokes), and suited to store and restore energy by the periodical
variations in its angular velocity.
The principles according to which variations of angular velocity
store and restore energy are the same as those of 1 17, only substitu-
ting moment of inertia for mass, and angular for linear velocity.
Let W be the weight of a flywheel, R its radius of gyration, 02
its maximum, ai its minimum, and A = J(ei2-|-ai) its mean angular
velocity. Let
I/S = (02-0 2 )/A
denote the unsteadiness of the motion of the flywheel; the denom-
inator S of this fraction is called the steadiness. Let e denote the
quantity by which the energy exerted in each cycle of the working
of the machine alternately exceeds and falls short of the work per-
formed, and which has consequently to be alternately stored by
acceleration and restored by retardation of the flywheel. The
value of this periodical excess is
e = RnV(a 2 2 -a l 2 ),2g, (77)
from which, dividing both sides by A 2 , we obtain the following
equations:
The latter of these equations may be thus expressed in words:
The actual energy due to the rotation of the fly, with its mean angular
velocity, is equal to one-half of the periodical excess of energy multiplied
by the steadiness.
In ordinary machinery S = about 32; in machinery for fine
purposes S = from 50 to 60; and when great steadiness is required
S = from 100 to 150.
The periodical excess e may arise either from variations in the
effort exerted by the prime mover, or from variations in the resis-
tance of the work, or from both these causes combined. When
but one flywheel is used, it should be placed in as direct connexion
as possible with that part of the mechanism where the greatest
amount of the periodical excess originates; but when it originates
at two or more points, it is best to have a flywheel in connexion
with each of these points. For example, in a machine-work, the
steam-engine, which is the prime mover of the various tools, has a
flywheel on the crank-shaft to store and restore the periodical
excess of energy arising from the variations in the effort exerted by
the connecting-rod upon the crank ; and each of the slotting machines,
punching machines, riveting machines, and other tools has a
flywheel of its own to store and restore energy, so as to enable the
very different resistances opposed to those tools at different times
to be overcome without too great unsteadiness of motion. For
tools performing useful work at intervals, and haying only their own
friction to overcome during the intermediate intervals, e should
be assumed equal to the whole work performed at each separate
operation.
122. Brakes. A brake is an apparatus for stopping and diminish-
ing the velocity of a machine by friction, such as the friction-strap
already referred to in 103. To find the distance s through which a
brake, exerting the friction F, must rub in order to stop a machine
having the total actual energy E at the moment when the brake
begins to act, reduce, by the principles of 96, the various efforts
and other resistances of the machine which act at the same time
with the friction of the brake to the rubbing surface of the brake,
and let R be their resultant positive if resistance, negative if effort
preponderates. Then
* = E/(F+R). (79)
123. Energy distributed between two Bodies: Projection and
Propulsion. Hitherto the effort by which a machine is moved
has been treated as a force exerted between a movable body and a
fixed body, so that the whole energy exerted by it is employed upon
the movable body, and none upon the fixed body. This conception
is sensibly realized in practice when one of the two bodies between
which the effort acts is either so heavy as compared with the other,
or has so great a resistance opposed to its motion, that it may,
without sensible error, be treated as fixed. But there are cases in
which the motions of both bodies are appreciable, and must be taken
into account such as the projection of projectiles, where the velo-
city of the recoil or backward motion of the gun bears an appreciable
proportion to the forward motion of the projectile; and such as the
propulsion of vessels, where the velocity of the water thrown back-
ward by the paddle, screw or other propeller bears a very consider-
able proportion to the velocity of the water moved forwards and side-
ways by the ship. In cases of this kind the energy exerted by the
effort is distributed between the two bodies between which the
effort is exerted in shares proportional to the velocities of the two
bodies during the action of the effort; and those velocities are to
each other directly as the portions of the effort unbalanced by resis-
tance on the respective bodies, and inversely as the weights of the
bodies.
To express this symbolically, let Wi, W2 be the weights of the
bodies; P the effort exerted between them; S the distance through
which it acts; RI, R s the resistances opposed to the effort overcome
by Wi, W2 respectively; Ei, E 2 the shares of the whole energy E
exerted upon Wi, W 2 respectively. Then
E : Ei : E,
. .W 2 (P - R.) + W,(P - R a ) . P - Ri . P - R 2 . (80)
If Ri = R 2 , which is the case when the resistance, as well as the
effort, arises from the mutual actions of the two bodies, the above
becomes,
E : Ei :
that is to say, the energy is exerted on the bodies in shares inversely
proportional to their weights; and they receive accelerations in-
versely proportional to their weights, according to the principle of
dynamics, already quoted in a note to no, that the mutual actions
of a system of bodies do not affect the motion of their common centre
of gravity.
For example, if the weight of a gun be 160 times that of its ball
fH f the energy exerted by the powder in exploding will be
employed in propelling the ball, and ^J-j in producing the recoil of
the gun, provided the gun up to the instant of the ball's quitting
the muzzle meets with no resistance to its recoil except the friction
of the ball.
124. Centre of Percussion. It is obviously desirable that the
deviations or changes of motion of oscillating pieces in machinery
should, as far as possible, be effected by forces applied at their centres
of percussion.
If the deviation be a translation that is, an equal change of
motion of all the particles of the body the centre of percussion is
obviously the centre of gravity itself; and, according to the second
law of motion, if dv be the deviation of velocity to.be produced in
the interval dt, and W the weight of the body, then
p =7"37 ()
is the unbalanced effort required.
If the deviation be a rotation about an axis traversing the centre
of gravity, there is no centre of percussion; for such a deviation
can only be produced by a couple of forces, and not by any single
force. Let da be the deviation of angular velocity to be produced
in the interval dt, and I the moment of the inertia of the body
about an axis through its centre of gravity; then %ld(a?) = lada is
the variation of the body's actual energy. Let M be the moment
of the unbalanced couple required to produce the deviation; then
by equation 57, 104, the energy exerted by this couple in the
interval dt is Mo^/, which, being equated to the variation of energy,
gives
... ,da R 2 W da
M = I ^= 'IF < 8 3J
R is called the radius of gyration of the body with regard to an axis
through its centre of gravity.
Now (fig. 133) let the required deviation be a rotation of the body
BB about an axis O, not traversing the centre of gravity G, da
APPLIED DYNAMICS]
MECHANICS
1017
being, as before, the deviation of angular velocity to be produced
in the interval dt. A rotation with the angular velocity a about
an axis O may be considered as compounded
of a rotation with the same angular velocity
about an axis drawn through G parallel to O
and a translation with the velocity a. OG,
OG being the perpendicular distance between
the two axes. Hence the required deviation
may be regarded as compounded of a
deviation of translation dv = OG. da, to
produce which there would be required,
according to equation (82), a force applied
at G perpendicular to the plane OG
P =2L .
(84)
da.
g ' dt
and a deviation da. of rotation about an
FIG. 133. axis drawn through G parallel to O, to
produce which there would be required a
couple of the moment M given by equation (83). According to
the principles of statics, the resultant of the force P, applied
at G perpendicular to the plane OG, and the couple M is a
force equal and parallel to P, but applied at a distance GC
from G, in the prolongation of the perpendicular OG, whose
value is
GC = M/P = R 2 /OG. (85)
Thus is determined the position of the centre of percussion C,
corresponding to the axis of rotation O. It is obvious from this
equation that, for an axis of rotation parallel to O traversing C, the
centre of percussion is at the point where the perpendicular OG
meets O.
125.* To find the moment of inertia of a body about an axis through
its centre of gravity experimentally. Suspend the body from any
conveniently selected axis O (fig. 48) and hang near it a small plumb
bob. Adjust the length of the plumb-line until it and the body oscil-
late together in unison. The length of the plumb-line, measured
from its point of suspension to the centre of the bob, is for all prac-
tical purposes equal to the length OC, C being therefore the centre
of percussion corresponding to the selected axis O. From equation
(85)
R 2 = CGXOG = (OC-OG)OG.
The position of G can be found experimentally ; hence OG is known,
and the quantity R 2 can be calculated, from which and the ascertained
weight W of the body the moment of inertia about an axis through
G, namely, W/gXR 2 , can be computed.
126.* To find the force competent to produce the instantaneous
acceleration of any link of a mechanism. In many practical problems
it is necessary to know the magnitude and position of the forces
acting to produce the accelerations of the several links of a mechan-
ism. For a given link, this force is the resultant of all the accelerating
forces distributed through the substance of the material of the link
required to produce the requisite acceleration of each particle, and
the determination of this force depends upon the principles of the
two preceding sections. The investigation of the distribution of
the forces through the material and the stress consequently pro-
duced belongs to the subject of the STRENGTH OF MATERIALS (q. .).
Let BK (fig. 134) be any link moving in any manner in a plane, and
let G be its centre of gravity.
Then its motion may be an-
alysed into (i) a translation of
its centre of gravity; and (2) a
rotation about an axis through
its centre of gravity perpen-
dicular to its plane of motion.
Let a TJC the acceleration of
the centre of gravity and let A
be the angular acceleration
about the axis through the
centre of gravity; then the
force required to produce the
translation of the centre of
gravity is F = Wa/g, and the
couple required to produce the
angular acceleration about the
centre of gravity is M = lA/g,
W and I being respectively the
of inertia of the link about the
_ of gravity. The couple M may
be produced by shifting the force F parallel to itself through
a distance x, such that Fx = M. When the link forms part of a
mechanism the respective accelerations of two points in the link
can be determined by means of the velocity and acceleration dia-
grams described in 82, it being understood that the motion of one
link in the mechanism is prescribed, for instance, in the steam-engine's
mechanism that the crank shall revolve uniformly. Let the accelera-
tion of the two points B and K therefore be supposed known. The
problem is now to find the acceleration a and A. Take any pole O
(fig- 49). and set out Oft equal to the acceleration of B and Ok equal
to the acceleration of K. Join bk and take the point g so that KG :
FIG. 134.
weight and the moment
axis through the centre
GB = 4g:g6. Og is then the acceleration of the centre of gravity
and the force F can therefore be immediately calculated. To find
the angular acceleration A, draw kt, bt respectively parallel to and at
right angles to the link KB. Then tb represents the angular accelera-
tion of the point B relatively to the point K and hence tb/KB is the
value of A, the angular acceleration of the link. Its moment
of inertia about G can be found experimentally by the method
explained in 125, and then the value of the couple M can be
computed. The value of * is found immediately from the
quotient M/F. Hence the magnitude F and the position of F
relatively to the centre of gravity of the link, necessary to give rise
to the couple M, are known, and this force is therefore the resultant
force required.
127.* Alternative construction for finding the position of F rela-
tively to the centre of gravity of the link. Let B and K be any two
points in the link which for greater
generality are taken in fig. 135, so that the
centre of gravity G is not in the line join-
ing them. First find the value of R ex-
perimentally. Then produce the given
directions of acceleration of B and K to
meet in O ; draw a circle through the three
points B, K and O; produce the line join-
ing O and G to cut the circle in Y; and
take a point Z on the line OY so that
\GXGZ = R 2 . Then Z is a point in the
line of action of the force F. This useful
theorem is due to G. T. Bennett, of
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. A proof
of it and three corollaries are given in appendix 4 of the second
edition of Dalby's Balancing of Engines (London, 1906). It is to
be noticed that only the directions of the accelerations of two points
are required to find the point Z.
For an example of the application of the principles of the two
preceding sections to a practical problem see Valve and Valve Gear
Mechanisms, by W. E. Dalby (London, 1906), where the inertia
stresses brought upon the several links of a Joy valve gear, belonging
to an express passenger engine of the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railway, are investigated for an engine-speed of 68 m. an hour.
128.* The Connecting Rod Problem. A particular problem of
practical importance is the determination of the force producing
the motion of the connecting rod of a steam-engine mechanism oi
the usual type. The methods of the two preceding sections may be
used when the acceleration of two points in the rod are known.
In this problem it is usually assumed that the crank pin K (fig. 136)
FIG. 136.
moves with uniform velocity, so that if a is its angular velocity
and r its radius, the acceleration is cfr in a direction along the crank
arm from the crank pin to the centre of the shaft. Thus the accelera-
tion of one point K is known completely. The acceleration of a
second point, usually taken at the centre of the crosshead pin,
can be found by the principles of 82, but several special geometrical
constructions have been devised for this purpose, notably the con-
struction of Klein, 1 discovered also independently by Kirsch.' But
probably the most convenient is the construction due to G. T.
Bennett* which is as follows: Let OK be the crank and KB the con-
necting rod. On the connecting rod take a point L such that
KLXKB = KO S . Then, the crank standing at any angle with the
line of stroke, draw LP at right angles to the connecting rod,
PN at right angles to the line of stroke OB and NA at right
angles to the connecting rod; then AO is the acceleration of the
point B to the scale on which KO represents the acceleration of
the point K. The proof of this construction is given in The
Balancing of Engines.
The finding of F may be continued thus: join AK, then AK is
the acceleration image of the rod, OKA being the acceleration dia-
gram. Through G, the centre of gravity of the rod, draw Gg parallel
to the line of stroke, thus dividing the image at g in the proportion
that the connecting rod is divided by G. Hence Or represents the
acceleration of the centre of gravity and, the weight of the connecting
1 J. F. Klein, " New Constructions of the Force of Inertia of
Connecting Rods and Couplers and Constructions of the Pressures
on their Pins," Journ. Franklin Insl., vol. 132 (Sept. and Oct., 1891).
1 Prof. Kirsch, " ffber die graphische Bestimmung der Kolben-
beschleunigung," Zeitsch. Veretn deutsche Ingen. (1890), p. 1320.
1 Dalby, The Balancing of Engines (London, 1906), app. I.
ioi8
MECHANICVILLE MECKLENBURG
rod being ascertained, F can be immediately calculated. To find
a point in its line of action, take a point Q on the rod such that
KG X GQ = R 2 , R having been determined experimentally by the
method of I2S; join G with O and through Q draw a line parallel
to BO to cut GO in Z. Z is a point in the line of action of the result-
ant force F ; hence through Z draw a line parallel to Og. The force
F acts in this line, and thus the problem is completely solved. The
above construction for Z is a corollary of the general theorem given
in 127.
120. Impact, Impact or collision is a pressure of short duration
exerted between two bodies.
The effects of impact are sometimes an alteration of the distribu-
tion of actual energy between the two bodies, and always a loss of
a portion of that energy, depending on the imperfection of the
elasticity of the bodies, in permanently altering their figures, and
producing heat. The determination of the distribution of the
actual energy after collision and of the loss of energy is effected
by means of the following principles :
I. The motion of the common centre of gravity of the two bodies
is unchanged by the collision.
II. The loss of energy consists of a certain proportion of that
part of the actual energy of the bodies which is due to their motion
relatively to their common centre of gravity.
Unless there is some special reason for using impact in machines,
it ought to be avoided, on account not only of the wasteof energy
which it causes, but from the damage which it occasions to the frame
and mechanism. (W. J. M. R. ; W. E. D.)
MECHANICVILLE, a village of Saratoga county, New York,
U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson River, about 20 m. N.
of Albany; on the Delaware & Hudson and Boston & Maine
railways. Pop. (1900), 4695 (702 foreign-born); (1905, state
census), 5877; (1910) 6,634. It lies partly within Stillwater
and partly within Half-Moon townships, in the bottom-lands
at the mouth of the Anthony Kill, about 15 m. S. of the
mouth of the Hoosick River. On the north and south are hills
reaching a maximum height of 200 ft. There is ample water
power, and there are manufactures of paper, sash and blinds,
fibre, &c. From a dam here power is derived for the General
Electric Company at Schenectady. The first settlement in
this vicinity was made in what is now Half-Moon township
about 1680. Mechanicville (originally called Burrow) was
chartered by the county court in 1859, and incorporated as
a village in 1870. It was the birthplace of Colonel Ephraim
Elmer Ellsworth (1837-1861), the first Federal officer to lose
his life in the Civil War.
MECHITHARISTS, a congregation of Armenian monks in
communion with the Church of Rome. The founder, Mechithar,
was born at Sebaste in Armenia, 1676. He entered a monastery,
but under the influence of Western missionaries he became
possessed with the idea of propagating Western ideas and
culture in Armenia, and of converting the Armenian Church
from its monophysitism and uniting it to the Latin Church.
Mechithar set out for Rome in 1695 to make his ecclesiastical
studies there, but he was compeUed by illness to abandon the
journey and return to Armenia. In 1696 he was ordained
priest and for four years worked among his people. In 1700
he went to Constantinople and began to gather disciples around
him. Mechithar formally joined the Latin Church, and in
1701, with sixteen companions, he formed a definitely religious
institute of which he became the superior. Their Uniat pro-
paganda encountered the opposition of the Armenians and they
were compelled to move to the Morea, at that time Venetian
territory, and there built a monastery, 1706. On the outbreak
of hostilities between the Turks and Venetians they migrated
to Venice, and the island of St Lazzaro was bestowed on them,
1717. This has since been the headquarters of the congregation,
and here Mechithar died in 1749, leaving his institute firmly
established. The rule followed at first was that attributed to
St Anthony; but when they settled in the West modifications
from the Benedictine rule were introduced, and the Mechithar-
ists are- numbered among the lesser orders affiliated to the
Benedictines. They have ever been faithful to their founder's
programme. Their work has been fourfold: (i) they have
brought out editions of important patristic works, some Arme-
nian, others translated into Armenian from Greek and Syriac
originals no longer extant; (2) they print and circulate Armenian
literature among the Armenians, and thereby exercise a powerful
educational influence; (3) they carry on schools both in Europe
and Asia, in which Uniat Armenian boys re'ceive a good secondary
education; (4) they work as Uniat missioners in Armenia. The
congregation is divided into two branches, the head houses
being at St Lazzaro and Vienna. They have fifteen establish-
ments in various places in Asia Minor and Europe. There
are some 150 monks, all Armenians; they use the Armenian
language and rite in the liturgy.
See Vita del servo di Dio Mechitar (Venice, 1901); E. Bore,
Saint-Lazare (1835) ; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen
(1907) I. 37; and the articles in Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon
(ed. 2) and Herzog, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3), also articles by Sargisean,
a Mechitharist, in Rivista storica benedettina (1906), " La Congrega-
zione Mechitarista." (E. C. B.)
MECKLENBURG, a territory in northern Germany, on the
Baltic Sea, extending from 53 4' to 54 22' N. and from 10 35'
to 13 57' E., unequally divided into the two grand duchies
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelhz.
MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN is bounded N. by the Baltic Sea,
W. by the principality of Ratzeburg and Schleswig-Holstein,
S. by Brandenburg and Hanover, and E. by Pomerania and
Mecklenburg-Strelitz. It embraces the duchies of Schwerin
and Giistrow, the district of Rostock, the principality of
Schwerin, and the barony of Wismar, besides several small en-
claves (Ahrensberg, Rosson, Tretzeband, &c.) in the adjacent
territories. Its area is 5080 sq. m. Pop. (1905), 625,045.
MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ consists of two detached parts,
the duchy of Strelitz on the E. of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
and the principality of Ratzeburg on the W. The first is
bounded by Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Pomerania and Branden-
burg, the second by Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Lauenburg, and the
territory of the free town of Liibeck. Their joint area is 1130
sq. m. Pop. (1905), 103,451.
Mecklenburg lies wholly within the great North-European plain,
and its flat surface is interrupted only by one range of low hills,
intersecting the country from south-east to north-west, and forming
the watershed between the Baltic Sea and the Elbe. Its highest
point, the Helpter Berg, is 587 ft. above sea-level. The coast-line
runs for 65 m. along the Baltic (without including indentations),
for the most part in flat sandy stretches covered with dunes. The
chief inlets are Wismar Bay, the Salzhaff, and the roads of Warne-
munde. The rivers are numerous though small ; most of them are
affluents of the Elbe, which traverses a small portion of Mecklenburg.
Several are navigable, and the facilities for inland water traffic are
increased by canals. Lakes are numerous; about four hundred,
covering an area of 500 sq. m., are reckoned in the two duchies.
The largest is Lake Miiritz, 52 sq. m. in extent. The climate
resembles that of Great Britain, but the winters are generally more
severe; the mean annual temperature is 48 F., and the annual
rainfall is about 28 in. Although there are long stretches of marshy
moorland along the coast, the soil is on the whole productive.
About 57% of the total area of Mecklenburg-Schwerin consists of
cultivated land, 18% of forest, and 13% of heath and pasture. In
Mecklenburg-Strelitz the corresponding figures are 47, 21 and 10%.
Agriculture is by far the most important industry in both duchies.
The chief crops are rye, pats, wheat, potatoes and hay. Smaller
areas are devoted to maize, buckwheat, pease, rape, hemp, flax,
hops and tobacco. The extensive pastures support large herds of
sheep and cattle, including a noteworthy breed of merino sheep.
The horses of Mecklenburg are of a fine sturdy quality and highly
esteemed. Red deer, wild swine and various other game are found
in the forests. The industrial establishments include a few iron-
foundries, wool-spinning mills, carriage and machine factories, dye-
works, tanneries, brick-fields, soap-works, breweries, distilleries,
numerous limekilns and tar-boiling works, tobacco and cigar factories,
and numerous mills of various kinds. Mining is insignificant, though
a fair variety of minerals is represented in the district. Amber is
found on and near the Baltic coast. Rostock, Warnemiinde and
Wismar are the principal commercial centres. The chief exports
are grain and other agricultural produce, live stock, spirits, wood
and wool; the chief imports are colonial produce, iron, coal, salt,
wine, beer and tobacco. The horse and wool markets of Mecklenburg
are largely attended by buyers from various parts of Germany.
Fishing is carried on extensively in the numerous inland lakes.
In 1907 the grand dukes of both duchies promised a constitution
to their subjects. The duchies had always been under a government
of feudal character, the grand dukes having the executive entirely
in their hands (though acting through ministers), while the duchies
shared a diet (Landtag), meeting for a short session each year, and at
other times represented by a committee, and consisting of the
proprietors of knights' estates (Rittergiiter), known as the Ritter-
schaft, and the Landschaft or burgomasters of certain towns.
MECKLENBURG
1019
Mecklenburg-Schwerin returns six members to the Reichstag and
Mecklenburg-Strelitz one member.
In Mecklenburg-Schwerin the chief towns are Rostock (with a
university), Schwerin, and Wismar the capital. The capital of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz is Neu-Strelitz. The peasantry of Mecklenburg
retain traces of their Slavonic origin, especially in speech, but their
peculiarities have been much modified by amalgamation with German
colonists. The townspeople and nobility are almost wholly of
Saxon strain. The slowness of the increase in population is chiefly
accounted for by emigration.
History. The Teutonic peoples, who in the time of Tacitus
occupied the region now known as Mecklenburg, were succeeded
in the 6th century by some Salvonic tribes, one of these being
the Obotrites, whose chief fortress was Michilenburg, the modern
Mecklenburg, near Wismar; hence the name of the country.
Though partly subdued by Charlemagne towards the close
of the 8th century, they soon regained their independence,
and until the loth century no serious effort was made by their
Christian neighbours to subject them. Then the German
king, Henry the Fowler, reduced the Slavs of Mecklenburg to
obedience and introduced Christianity among them. During
the period of weakness through which the German kingdom
passed under the later Ottos, however, they wrenched themselves
free from this bondage; the nth and the early part of the i2th
century saw the ebb and flow of the tide of conquest, and then
came the effective subjugation of Mecklenburg by Henry the
Lion, duke of Saxony. The Obotrite prince Niklot was killed
in battle in 1160 whilst resisting the Saxons, but his son
Pribislaus (d. 1178) submitted to Henry the Lion, married his
daughter to the son of the duke, embraced Christianity, and was
permitted to retain his office. His descendants and successors,
the present grand dukes of Mecklenburg, are the only ruling
princes of Slavonic origin in Germany. Henry the Lion intro-
duced German settlers and restored the bishoprics of Ratzeburg
and S.chwerin; in 1170 the emperor Frederick I. made Pribislaus
a prince of the empire. From 1214 to 1227 Mecklenburg was
under the supremacy of Denmark; then, in 1229, after it had
been regained by the Germans, there took place the first of the
many divisions of territory which with subsequent reunions con-
stitute much of its complicated history. At this time the country
was divided between four princes, grandsons of duke Henry
Borwin, who had died two years previously. But in less than
a century the families of two of these princes became extinct,
and after dividing into three branches a third family suffered
the same fate in 1436. There then remained only the line
ruling in Mecklenburg proper, and the princes of this family, in
addition to inheriting the lands of their dead kinsmen, made
many additions to their territory, including the counties of
Schwerin and of Strelitz. In 1352 the two princes of this
family made a division of their lands, Stargard being separated
from the rest of the country to form a principality for John
(d. 1393), but on the extinction of his line in 1471 the whole
of Mecklenburg was again united under a single ruler. One
member of this family, Albert (c. 1338-1412), was king of
Sweden from 1364 to 1389. In 1348 the emperor Charles IV.
had raised Mecklenburg to the rank of a duchy, and in 1418 the
university of Rostock was founded.
The troubles which arose from the rivalry and jealousy of
two or more joint rulers incited the prelates, the nobles and the
burghers to form a union among themselves, and the results
of this are still visible in the existence of the Landesunion for
the whole country which was established in 1 523. About the same
time the teaching of Luther and the reformers was welcomed
in Mecklenburg, although Duke Albert (d. 1547) soon reverted
to the Catholic faith; in 1549 Lutheranism was recognized as
the state religion; a little later the churches and schools were
reformed and most of the monasteries were suppressed. A
division of the land which took place in 1555 was of short
duration, but a more important one was effected in 1611,
although Duke John Albert I. (d. 1576) had introduced the
principle of primogeniture and had forbidden all further divi-
sions of territory. By this partition John Albert's grandson
Adolphus Frederick I. (d. 1658) received Schwerin, and another
grandson John Albert II. (d. 1636) received GUstrow. The
town of Rostock " with its university and high court of justice "
was declared to be common property, while the Diet or Landtag
also retained its joint character, its meetings being held alter-
nately at Sternberg and at Malchin.
During the early part of the Thirty Years' War the dukes
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Gustrow were on
the Protestant side, but about 1627 they submitted to the
emperor Ferdinand II. This did not prevent Ferdinand from
promising their land to Wallenstein, who, having driven out
the dukes, was invested with the duchies in 1629 and ruled them
until 1631. In this year the former rulers were restored by
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, and in 1635 they came to terms
with the emperor and signed the peace of Prague, but their
land continued to be ravaged by both sides until the conclusion
of the war. In 1648 by the Treaty of Westphalia, Wismar
and some other parts of Mecklenburg were surrendered to
Sweden, the recompense assigned to the duchies including
the secularized bishoprics of Schwerin and of Ratzeburg. The
sufferings of the peasants in Mecklenburg during the Thirty
Years' War were not exceeded by those of their class in any
other part of Germany; most of them were reduced to a state
of serfdom and in some cases whole villages vanished. Christian
Louis who ruled Mecklenburg-Schwerin from 1658 until his
death in 1692 was, like his father Adolphus Frederick, frequently
at variance with the estates of the land and with members of
his family. He was a Roman Catholic and a supporter of
Louis XIV., and his country suffered severely during the wars
waged by France and her allies in Germany.
In June 1692 when Christian Louis died in exile and without
sons, a dispute arose about the succession to his duchy between
his brother Adolphus Frederick and his nephew Frederick
William. The emperor and the rulers of Sweden and of Branden-
burg took part in this struggle which was intensified when,
three years later, on the death of Duke Gustavus Adolphus,
the family ruling over Mecklenburg-Gustrow became extinct.
At length the partition Treaty of Hamburg was signed on the
8th of March 1701, and a new division of the country was made.
Mecklenburg was divided between the two claimants, the
shares given to each being represented by the existing duchies of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the part which fell to Frederick William,
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the share of Adolphus Frederick.
At the same time the principle of primogeniture was again
asserted, and the right of summoning the joint Landtag was
reserved to the ruler of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin began its existence by a series of con-
stitutional struggles between the duke and the nobles. The
heavy debt incurred by Duke Charles Leopold (d. 1747), who
had joined Russia in a war against Sweden, brought matters
to a crisis; the emperor Charles VI. interfered and in 1728 the
imperial court of justice declared the duke incapable of governing
and his brother Christian Louis was appointed administrator
of the duchy. Under this prince, who became ruler de jure
in 1747, there was signed in April 1755 the convention of Rostock
by which a new constitution was framed for the duchy. By
this instrument all power was in the hands of the duke, the
nobles and the upper classes generally, the lower classes being
entirely unrepresented. During the Seven Years' War Duke
Frederick (d. 1785) took up a hostile attitude towards Frederick
the Great, and in consequence Mecklenburg was occupied by
Prussian troops, but in other ways his rule was beneficial to
the country. In the early years of the French revolutionary
wars Duke Frederick Francis I. (1756-1837) remained neutral,
and in 1803 he regained Wismar from Sweden, but in 1806
his land was overrun by the French and in 1808 he joined the
Confederation of the Rhine. He was the first member of the
confederation to abandon Napoleon, to whose armies he had
sent a contingent, and in 1813-1814 he fought against France.
In 1815 he joined the Germanic Confederation (Bund) and took
the title of grand duke. In 1819 serfdom was abolished in his
dominions. During the movement of 1848 the duchy witnessed
a considerable agitation in favour of a more liberal constitution,
but in the subsequent reaction all the concessions which had been
I02O
MECKLENBURG
made to the democracy were withdrawn and further restrictive
measures were introduced in 1851 and 1852.
Mecklenburg-Strelitz adopted the constitution of the sister
duchy by an act of September 1755. In 1806 it was spared
the infliction of a French occupation through the good offices
of the king of Bavaria; in 1808 its duke, Charles (d. 1816),
joined the confederation of the Rhine, but in 1813 he withdrew
therefrom. Having been a member of the alliance against
Napoleon he joined the Germanic confederation in 1815 and
assumed the title of grand duke.
In 1866 both the grand dukes of Mecklenburg joined the
North German confederation and the Zollverein, and began
to pass more and more under the influence of Prussia, who in
the war with Austria had been aided by the soldiers of Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin. In the Franco-German War also Prussia
received valuable assistance from Mecklenburg, Duke Frederick
Francis II. (1823-1883), an ardent advocate of German unity,
holding a high command in her armies. In 1871 the two grand
duchies became states of the German Empire. There was now
a renewal of the agitation for a more democratic constitution,
and the German Reichstag gave some countenance to this
movement. In 1897 Frederick Francis IV. (b. 1882) succeeded
his father Frederick Francis III. (1851-1897) as grand duke of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and in 1904 Adolphus Frederick (b. 1848)
a son of the grand duke Frederick William (1819-1904) and
his wife Augusta Carolina, daughter of Adolphus Frederick,
duke of Cambridge, became grand duke of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. The grand dukes still style themselves princes of
the Wends.
See F. A. Rudloff, Pragmatisclies Handbuch der meckltnburgischen
Geschichte (Schwerin, 1780-1822) ; C. C. F. von Lutzow, Versuch einrr
pragmatischen Geschichte von Mecklenburg (Berlin, 1827-1835);
Mecklenburgische Geschichte in Einzeldarstettungen, edited by R.
Beltz, C. Beyer, W. P. Graff and others; C. Hegel, Geschichte der
mecklenburgischen Landstdnde bis 1555 (Rostock, 1856); A. Mayer,
Geschichte des Grossherzogtums Mecklenburg-Strelitz i8i6-i8f>o
Strelitz, 1890); Tolzien, Die Grossherzoge von Mecklenburg-Schwerin
(Wismar, 1904); Lehsten, Der Adel Mecklenburgs seit dem landes-
grundgesetzlichen Erbvergleich (Rostock, 1864) ; the Mecklenburgisches
Urkundenbuch in 21 vols. (Schwerin, 1873-1903); the Jahrbficher
des Vereins ftir mecklenburgische Geschichte und Alterlumskunde
(Schwerin, 1836 fol.); and W. Raabe, Mecklenburgische Vaterlands-
kunde (Wismar, 1894-1896); von Hirschfeld, Friedrich Franz II.,
Grossherzog von Mecklenburg-Schwerin und seine Vorganger (Leipzig,
1891); Volz, Friedrich Franz II. (Wismar, 1893); C. Schroder,
Friedrich Franz III. (Schwerin, 1898); Bartold, Friedrich WUhelm,
Grossherzog von Mecklenburg-Strelitz und Augusta Carolina (New
Strelitz, 1893); and H. Sachsse, Mecklenburgische Urkunden und
Daten (Rostock, 1900).
END OF SEVENTEENTH VOLUME
mix
REFERENCE
LIBRARY
ST. PAUL
Printed by R. R. DONNELLEY AND SONS COMPANY, Chicago
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